CHAPTER - III

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION – AN OVERVIEW

This chapter presents an overview of some of the environmental problems that demonstrate how

the present generation is currently reaching, and perhaps has already exceeded, the sustainable

limits of human activity through environmental contamination by hazardous chemicals and

wastes, air pollution, water pollution, noise pollution, soil pollution, marine pollution and

thermal pollution.

Although pollution had been known to exist for a very long time at least since people started

using fire thousands of years ago, it had seen the growth of truly global proportions only since

the onset of the industrial revolution during the 19th century. The industrial revolution brought

with it technological progress such as discovery of oil and its virtually universal use throughout

different industries. Technological progress facilitated by super efficiency of capitalist business

practices like division of labour – cheaper production costs – overproduction – overconsumption

– over pollution which have probably become one of the main causes of serious deterioration of

natural resources. At the same time, of course, development of natural sciences led to the better

understanding of negative effects produced by pollution on the environment. Environmental

pollution is a problem both in developed and developing countries. Factors such as population

growth and urbanization invariably place greater demands on the planet and stretch the use of

natural resources to the maximum. It has been argued that the carrying capacity of Earth is

significantly smaller than the demands placed on it by large numbers of human populations. And

overuse of natural resources often results in nature’s degradation.

Meaning of Environmental Pollution

One of the greatest problems that the world is facing today is that of environmental pollution,

increasing with every passing year and causing grave and irreparable damage to the earth.

Environmental pollution consists of five basic types of pollution, namely, air, water, soil, noise

and light.1 “Environmental pollution” means imbalance in environment. The materials or

1 Environmental Pollution and Its Effects, http://www.uccee.org/Environmental_Pollution.html

substances when after mixing in air, water or land alters their properties in such manner, that the

very use of all or any of the air water and land by man and any other living organism becomes

lethal and dangerous for health.2

Environmental pollution can be simply, if somewhat generally, defined as ‘the presence in the

environment of an agent which is potentially damaging to either the environment or human

health’.3 According to the Environment (Protection Act), 19864 Section 2 (c) “environment

pollution” means the presence in the environment of any environmental pollutant.

The Environment (Protection Act), 1986 Section 2 (b) defines “environment pollutant” to mean

any solid, liquid or gaseous substance present in such concentration as may be, or tend to be

injurious to environment. Section 2 (e) of EPA further defines “hazardous substance” as any

substance or preparation which by reason of chemical or physic-chemical properties or

handling, is liable to cause harm to human beings, other living creature plants and micro-

organism, property. As such, pollutants take many forms. They include not only chemicals, but

also organisms and biological materials, as well as energy in its various forms including noise,

radiation, heat etc.5 The number of potential pollutants is therefore essentially countless. There

are, for example, some 30,000 chemicals in common use today, any one of which may be

released into the environment during processing or use. Less than 1% of these have been subject

to a detailed assessment in terms of their toxicity and health risks.6 The number of biological

pollutants is truly unquantifiable. They include not only living and viable organisms, such as

2 Partha Das Sharma , Keeping the Environment Safer and Greener,

https://saferenvironment.wordpress.com/2010/04/01/the-environment-protection-act-1986-in-india/ 3 David Briggs, Environmental pollution and the global burden of disease, Oxford Journals Medicine & Health,

British Medical Bulletin, Volume 68, Issue 1, Pp. 1-24. Available at http://bmb.oxfordjournals.org/content/68/1/1.full accessed on 13-8-2015.

4 Act No. 29 of 1986. In the wake of the Bhopal Tragedy, the Government of India enacted the Environment

Protection Act of 1986 under Article 253 of the Constitution. Passed in March 1986, it came into force on 19th

November 1986. The purpose of the Act is to implement the decisions of the United Nations Conference on

the Human Environments they relate to the protection and improvement of the human environment and the prevention of hazards to human beings, other living creatures, plants and property. The Act is an “umbrella” legislation designed to provide a framework for central government coordination of the activities of various central and state authorities established under previous laws, such as the Water Act and the Air Act. Available at http://envfor.nic.in/legis/env/env1.html

5 David Briggs, supra note 3.

6 Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution. Chemicals in products: safeguarding the environment and human

health. 24th Report of the Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution. London: Royal Commission on

Environmental Pollution, 2003

bacteria, but also the vast array of endotoxins that can be released from the protoplasm of

organisms after death. There is, therefore, no shortage of potential environmental risks to health.

What is lacking, for the most part, is an understanding of the nature and mechanisms of these

risks.7

As a result of over-population, rapid industrializations, and other human activities like

agriculture and deforestation etc., earth became loaded with diverse pollutants that were released

as by-products. Pollutants are generally grouped under two classes:8

(a) Biodegradable pollutants – Biodegradable pollutants are broken down by the

activity of micro-organisms and enter into the biogeochemical cycles. Examples of such

pollutants are domestic waste products, urine and faucal matter, sewage, agricultural

residue, paper, wood and cloth etc.9

(b) Non- Biodegradable pollutants – Non-biodegradable pollutants are stronger

chemical bondage, do not break down into simpler and harmless products. These include

various insecticides and other pesticides, mercury, lead, arsenic, aluminum, plastics,

radioactive waste etc.10

Sources of Pollution

There are two broad categories of sources of pollution namely, natural sources of pollution and

human or manmade sources of pollution. Natural sources include, sulphur, nitrogen and acid

emissions and depositions. Human activities directly or indirectly affect the environment

adversely. A stone crusher adds a lot of suspended particulate matter and noise into the

atmosphere. Automobiles emit from their tail pipes oxides of nitrogen, sulphur dioxide, carbon

dioxide, carbon monoxide and a complex mixture of un burnt hydrocarbons and black soot

which pollute the atmosphere. Domestic sewage and run off from agricultural fields, laden with

pesticides and fertilizers, pollute water bodies. Effluents from tanneries contain many harmful

7 David Briggs, supra note 3.

8 Partha Das Sharma, Environmental pollution, problems and control measures – Overview, 2009.

https://saferenvironment.wordpress.com/2009/09/01/environmental-pollution-problems-and-control-

measures-%E2%80%93-overview/ 9 Id.

10 Id.

chemicals and emit foul smell. These are only a few examples which show how human activities

pollute the environment.

Human pollution, through the burning of fossil fuels, has contributed to acid deposition.

Rainwater is naturally acidic as a result of carbon dioxide in the air dissolving in the water.

Sulphur Oxides

In addition, natural sources of sulphur and nitrogen emissions can contribute further to the

acidity of rainwater. Natural sources of sulphur dioxide include release from volcanoes,

biological decay and forest fires.11 Actual amounts released from natural sources in the world are

difficult to quantify; in 1983 the United Nations Environment Programme estimated a figure of

between 80 million and 288 million tonnes of sulphur oxides per year (compared to around 69

million tonnes from human sources world-wide). Natural sources of nitrogen oxides include

volcanoes, oceans, biological decay and lightning strikes. Estimates range between 20 million

and 90 million tonnes per year nitrogen oxides released from natural sources (compared to

around 24 million tonnes from human sources worldwide).12

Nitrogen oxides

Nitrogen oxides (also known as oxides of nitrogen, and abbreviated as NOx) is a collective term

used to refer to two species of oxides of nitrogen: nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2).

Nitric oxide is a colorless, flammable gas with a slight odour. Although somewhat toxic, its

odour is insufficient to provide warning. Nitrogen dioxide is a reddish brown, nonflammable, gas

with a detectable smell. In significant concentrations it is highly toxic, causing serious lung

damage with a delayed effect. Nitrogen dioxide is a strong oxidizing agent that reacts in the air to

form corrosive nitric acid, as well as toxic organic nitrates. It also plays a major role in the

atmospheric reactions that produce ground-level ozone or smog.13

11

Natural sources, Enviropedia, available at http://www.enviropedia.org.uk/Acid_Rain/Natural_Sources.php accessed on 13-8-2015.

12 Id.

13 Nitrogen Oxides, Enviropedia. Available at http://www.enviropedia.org.uk/Acid_Rain/Nitrogen_Oxides.php

accessed on 13-8-2015.

Globally, quantities of nitrogen oxides produced naturally by bacterial and volcanic action, and

lightning, outweigh man-made emissions. Man-made emissions are mainly due to fossil fuel

combustion from both stationary sources, such as power generation (24%), and mobile sources,

such as transport (49%). Other atmospheric contributions come from non-combustion processes,

for example nitric acid manufacture, welding processes and the use of explosives.14

In the atmosphere, nitrogen oxides mix with water vapour producing nitric acid. This acidic

pollution can be transported by win over many hundreds of miles, and deposited as acid rain.

Acidic Emissions

Rain water is naturally acidic as a result of carbon dioxide dissolved in water and from volcanic

emissions of sulphur. However, it is the chemical conversion of sulphur and nitrogen emissions

from power stations, factories, vehicles and homes, where fossil fuels are burnt, that we call acid

rain. These waste gases are carried by the wind, sometimes over long distances, and can in time

be converted into sulphuric and nitric acids.15

Acid Deposition

Acid rain is a general name for many phenomena including acid fog, acid sleet, and acid snow.

Although we associate the acid threat with rainy days, acid deposition occurs all the time, even

on sunny days.16

Acid Deposition is the scientific term used to describe "Acid Rain". When atmospheric

pollutants such as sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides mix with water vapour in the air, they are

converted to sulphuric and nitric acids. These acids make the rain acidic, hence the term "acid

rain". Rain returns the sulphur and nitrogen acids to Earth, and in high concentrations, can cause

damage to natural environments including forests and freshwater lakes. This form of acid

deposition is known as wet deposition. A second method of acid deposition is known as dry

deposition. Whilst wet deposition involves the precipitation of acids, dry deposition occurs when

14

Id. 15

Acidic Emissions, Enviropedia. Available at Accessed on 13-8-2015. http://www.enviropedia.org.uk/Acid_Rain/Acidic_Emissions.php

16 Acid Deposition, Enviropedia. http://www.enviropedia.org.uk/Acid_Rain/Acid_Deposition.php

the acids are first transformed chemically into gases and salts, before falling under the influence

of gravity back to Earth. Sulphur dioxide, for example, is deposited as a gas and as a salt.17

The gases present in acid deposition are found to occur naturally in the environment. They are

given off from a number of sources including volcanic eruptions and the rotting of vegetation.

They become a problem when humans produce the gases in large amounts, and at high

concentrations by the burning of fossil fuels.18

The distances that pollutant gases travel means that acid deposition is an international or trans-

boundary problem. This means that acid pollutants are not necessarily deposited in the same

country where they were produced.19

Man Made Pollution

This is human impact on the environment or anthropogenic impact on the environment through

different activities of human beings. The term anthropogenic designates an effect or object

resulting from human activity. The term is sometimes used in the context of pollution emissions

that are produced as a result of human activities but applies broadly to all major human impacts

on the environment.20

Technology

Environmental impacts caused by the application of technology are often perceived as

unavoidable for several reasons. First, given that the purpose of many technologies is to exploit,

control, or otherwise “improve” upon nature for the perceived benefit of humanity while at the

same time the myriad of processes in nature have been optimized and are continually adjusted by

evolution, any disturbance of these natural processes by technology is likely to result in negative

environmental consequences.21 Second, the conservation of mass principle and the first law of

thermodynamics (i.e., conservation of energy) dictate that whenever material resources or energy

are moved around or manipulated by technology, environmental consequences are inescapable.

17 Id. 18 Id. 19 Id. 20

Scott, Michon (2014). "Glossary". NASA Earth Observatory. Accessed on 2008-11-03. 21

Commoner, B. (1971). The closing cycle – Nature, man, and technology, Alfred A. Knopf.

Third, according to the second law of thermodynamics, order can be increased within a system

(such as the human economy) only by increasing disorder or entropy outside the system (i.e., the

environment). Thus, technologies can create “order” in the human economy (i.e., order as

manifested in buildings, factories, transportation networks, communication systems, etc.) only at

the expense of increasing “disorder” in the environment. According to a number of studies,

increased entropy is likely to be correlated to negative environmental impacts.22

Agriculture

The environmental impact of agriculture varies based on the wide variety of agricultural

practices employed around the world. Ultimately, the environmental impact depends on the

production practices of the system used by farmers. The connection between emissions into the

environment and the farming system is indirect, as it also depends on other climate variables

such as rainfall and temperature. There are two types of indicators of environmental impact:

"means-based", which is based on the farmer's production methods, and "effect-based", which is

the impact that farming methods have on the farming system or on emissions to the environment.

An example of a means-based indicator would be the quality of groundwater that is affected by

the amount of nitrogen applied to the soil. An indicator reflecting the loss of nitrate to

groundwater would be effect-based.23

The environmental impact of agriculture involves a variety of factors from the soil, to water, the

air, animal and soil diversity, people, plants, and the food itself. Some of the largest issues that

arise with agriculture is climate change, deforestation, genetic engineering, irrigation problems,

pollutants, soil degradation, and waste.

Fishing

22

Faber, M., Niemes, N. and Stephan, G. (2012). Entropy, environment, and resources, Spinger Verlag, Berlin,

Germany, ISBN 3642970494; Kümmel, R. (1989). "Energy as a factor of production and entropy as a

pollution indicator in macroeconomic modeling". Ecological Economics 1 (2): 161–180. doi:10.1016/0921-

8009(89)90003-7; Ruth, M. (1993). Integrating economics, ecology, and thermodynamics, Kluwer Academic

Publishers, ISBN 0792323777.; Huesemann, M.H., and J.A. Huesemann (2011). Technofix: Why Technology

Won’t Save Us or the Environment, Chapter 1, “The inherent unpredictability and unavoidability of unintended consequences“, New Society Publishers, ISBN 0865717044

23 van der Warf, Hayo; Petit, Jean (December 2002). "Evaluation of the environmental impact of agriculture at

the farm level: a comparison and analysis of 12 indicator-based methods". Agriculture, Ecosystems and

Environment 93(1-3): 131–145. doi:10.1016/S0167-8809(01)00354-1. Accessed on 21 April 2015.

The environmental impact of fishing can be divided into issues that involve the availability of

fish to be caught, such as overfishing, sustainable fisheries, and fisheries management; and issues

that involve the impact of fishing on other elements of the environment, such as by-catch. There

is a growing gap between how many fish are available to be caught and humanity’s desire to

catch them, a problem that gets worse as the world population grows. Similar to

other environmental issues, there can be conflict between the fishermen who depend on fishing

for their livelihoods and fishery scientists who realize that if future fish populations are to

be sustainable then some fisheries must reduce or even close.24

The journal Science published a four-year study in November 2006, which predicted that, at

prevailing trends, the world would run out of wild-caught seafood in 2048. The scientists stated

that the decline was a result of overfishing, pollution and other environmental factors that were

reducing the population of fisheries at the same time as their ecosystems were being degraded.

Yet again the analysis has met criticism as being fundamentally flawed, and many fishery

management officials, industry representatives and scientists challenge the findings, although the

debate continues. Many countries, such as Tonga, the United States, Australia and New Zealand,

and international management bodies have taken steps to appropriately manage marine

resources.25

Irrigation

The environmental impact of irrigation includes the changes in quantity and quality

of soil and water as a result of irrigation and the ensuing effects on natural and social conditions

at the tail-end and downstream of the irrigation scheme.

The impacts stem from the changed hydrological conditions owing to the installation and

operation of the scheme. An irrigation scheme often draws water from the river and distributes it

over the irrigated area. As a hydrological result it is found that:

24

Myers, R. A.; Worm, B. (2003). "Rapid worldwide depletion of predatory fish communities". Nature 423 (6937):

280–283. doi:10.1038/nature01610. PMID 12748640 25

Worm, Boris; Barbier, E. B.; Beaumont, N.; Duffy, J. E.; Folke, C.; Halpern, B. S.; Jackson, J. B. C.; Lotze, H.

K. et al. (2006-11-03). "Impacts of Biodiversity Loss on Ocean Ecosystem Services". Science 314 (5800): 787–

790.doi:10.1126/science.1132294. PMID 17082450; Juliet Eilperin (2009-11-02). "Seafood Population

Depleted by 2048, Study Finds". The Washington Post.

• the downstream river discharge is reduced

• the evaporation in the scheme is increased

• the groundwater recharge in the scheme is increased

• the level of the water table rises

• the drainage flow is increased.

These may be called direct effects. Effects on soil and water quality are indirect and complex,

and subsequent impacts on natural, ecological and socio-economic conditions are intricate. In

some, but not all instances, water logging and soil salinization can result. However, irrigation can

also be used, together with soil drainage, to overcome soil salinization by leaching excess salts

from the vicinity of the root zone.26

Irrigation can also be done extracting groundwater by (tube) wells. As a hydrological result it is

found that the level of the water descends. The effects may be water mining,

land/soil subsidence, and, along the coast, saltwater intrusion.

Irrigation projects can have large benefits, but the negative side effects are often

overlooked.27 Agricultural irrigation technologies such as high powered water pumps, dams, and

pipelines are responsible for the large-scale depletion of fresh water resources such as aquifers,

lakes, and rivers. As a result of this massive diversion of freshwater, lakes, rivers, and creeks are

running dry, severely altering or stressing surrounding ecosystems, and contributing to the

extinction of many aquatic species.28

26

FAO. Management of irrigation-induced salt-affected

soils. ftp://ftp.fao.org/agl/agll/docs/salinity_brochure_eng.pdf; van Hoorn, J. W. and J.G. van Alphen. 2006. Salinity control. In: H.P. Ritzema (ed.), Drainage Principles and Applications. Publication 16, International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement (ILRI), Wageningen, The Netherlands. pp. 533-600.

27 Effectiveness and Social/Environmental Impacts of Irrigation Projects: a Review. In: Annual Report 1988,

International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement (ILRI), Wageningen, The Netherlands, pp. 18–

34 . Download from [1] , under nr. 6, or directly as PDF;Thakkar, Himanshu (8 November 1999). Assessment

of Irrigation in India. World Commission on Dams. 28

Pearce, R. (2006). When the rivers run dry: Water – the defining crisis of the twenty-first century, Beacon

Press, ISBN 0807085731.

Meat Production

Environmental impacts associated with meat production include use of fossil energy, water and

land resources, greenhouse gas emissions, and in some instances, rainforest clearing, water

pollution and species endangerment, among other adverse effects.29 Steinfeld et al. of the FAO

estimated that 18 percent of global anthropogenic GHG (greenhouse gas) emissions (estimated as

100-year carbon dioxide equivalents) are associated in some way with livestock production.30

Further, livestock production, including feed production and grazing, uses about 30 percent of

the earth’s ice-free terrestrial surface: about 26 percent for grazing and about 4 percent for other

feed production.31 The intensity and duration of grazing use vary greatly32 and these, together

with terrain, vegetation and climate, influence the nature and importance of grazing’s

environmental impact, which can range from severe to negligible, and in some cases (as noted

below) beneficial. Excessive use of vegetation by grazing can be especially conducive to land

degradation in dry areas.33

Considerable water use is associated with meat production, mostly because of water used in

production of vegetation that provides feed. There are several published estimates of water use

associated with livestock and meat production, but the amount of water use assignable to such

production is seldom estimated. For example, “green water” use is evapotranspirational use of

soil water that has been provided directly by precipitation; and “green water” has been estimated

to account for 94 percent of global beef cattle production’s “water footprint”,34]and on

rangeland, as much as 99.5 percent of the water use associated with beef production is “green

water”. However, it would be misleading simply to assign that associated rangeland green water

use to beef production, partly because that evapotranspirational use occurs even in the absence of

cattle.

29

Steinfeld, H. et al. 2006. Livestock's Long Shadow: Environmental Issues and Options. Livestock,

Environment and Development, FAO, Rome. 391 pp. 30

Id. 31

Id. 32

Holechek, J. L., R. D. Pieper and C. H. Herbel. 1995. Range management: principles and practices. 2nd Ed. Prentice-Hall.

33 Dregne, H. , E., & Chou, N. T. 1992. Global desertification dimensions and costs. In: Dregne, H. E. (ed.)

Degradation and restoration of arid lands. Texas Technical University. pp. 73-92. 34

Mekonnen, M. M. and A. Y. Hoekstra. 2010. The green, blue and grey water footprint of farm animals and animal products. Volume 2: appendices. Value of Water Research Report Series No. 48. UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education. 50 pp.

Energy Industry

The environmental impact of energy harvesting and consumption is diverse. In recent years there

has been a trend towards the increased commercialization of various renewable energy sources.

In the real world of consumption of fossil fuel resources which lead to global warming and

climate change. However, little change is being made in many parts of the world. If the pea

oil theory proves true, more explorations of viable alternative energy sources could be friendlier

to the environment.

Rapidly advancing technologies can achieve a transition of energy generation, water and waste

management, and food production towards better environmental and energy usage practices

using methods of systems ecology and industrial ecology.35

Electricity Generation

The environmental impact of electricity generation is significant because modern society uses

large amounts of electrical power. This power is normally generated at power plants that convert

some other kind of energy into electricity. Each such system has advantages and disadvantages,

but many of them pose environmental concerns.

Nuclear Power

The environmental impact of nuclear power results from the nuclear fuel cycle processes

including mining, processing, transporting and storing fuel and radioactive fuel waste.

Released radioisotopes pose a health danger to human populations, animals and plants as

radioactive particles enter organisms through various transmission routes.

Radiation is a carcinogen and causes numerous effects on living organisms and systems. The

environmental impacts of nuclear power plant releases such as the Chernobyl disaster,

the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster and the Three Mile Island accident, among others, persist

35 Kay, J. (2002). "On Complexity Theory, Exergy and Industrial Ecology: Some Implications for Construction

Ecology", pp. 72–107 in: Kibert C., Sendzimir J., Guy, B. (eds.) Construction Ecology: Nature as the Basis for

Green Buildings, London: Spon Press, ISBN 0203166140; Baksh, B. and Fiksel J. (2003). "The Quest for

Sustainability: Challenges for Process Systems Engineering" (PDF). AIChE Journal 49 (6):

1350. doi:10.1002/aic.690490602.

indefinitely. The radioactive decay rate of particles varies greatly, dependent upon the atomic

properties of a particular isotope. Radioactive Plutonium-244 has a half-life of 80.8 million

years, which indicates the time duration required for half of a given sample to decay.36

Mining

The environmental impact of mining includes erosion, formation of sinkholes, loss

of biodiversity, and contamination of soil, groundwater and surface water by chemicals from

mining processes. In some cases, additional forest logging is done in the vicinity of mines to

increase the available room for the storage of the created debris and soil.37 Besides creating

environmental damage, the contamination resulting from leakage of chemicals also affect the

health of the local population.38 Mining companies in some countries are required to follow

environmental and rehabilitation codes, ensuring the area mined is returned to close to its

original state. Some mining methods may have significant environmental and public health

effects. The environmental impact of coal mining and burning is diverse.39

Artificial Light pollution

Artificial light at night is one of the most obvious physical changes that humans have made to

the biosphere, and is the easiest form of pollution to observe from space.40 The main

environmental impacts of artificial light are due to light's use as an information source (rather

than an energy source). The hunting efficiency of visual predators generally increases under

artificial light, changing predator prey interactions. Artificial light also

affects dispersal, orientation, migration, and hormone levels, resulting in disrupted circadian

rhythms.41

36 Smith, G. (2012). Nuclear roulette: The truth about the most dangerous energy source on earth, Chelsea

Green Publishing, ISBN 160358434X. 37

Logging of forests and debris dumping. Ngm.nationalgeographic.com (2002-10-17). Retrieved on 2012-05-11.

38 Poisoning by mines. Ngm.nationalgeographic.com (2002-10-17). Retrieved on 2012-05-11.

39 Environmental impacts of coal power: air pollution. Union of Concerned Scientists

40 Kyba, Christopher; Garz, Stefanie; Kuechly, Helga; de Miguel, Alejandro; Zamorano, Jaime; Fischer, Jürgen;

Hölker, Franz (23 December 2014). "High-Resolution Imagery of Earth at Night: New Sources, Opportunities

and Challenges".Remote Sensing 7 (1): 1–23. doi:10.3390/rs70100001 41

Hölker, Franz; Wolter, Christian; Perkin, Elizabeth K.; Tockner, Klement (December 2010). "Light pollution

as a biodiversity threat". Trends in Ecology & Evolution 25 (12): 681–682. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2010.09.007

Pesticides

The environmental impact of pesticides is often greater than what is intended by those who use

them. Over 98% of sprayed insecticides and 95% of herbicides reach a destination other than

their target species, including non target species, air, water, bottom sediments, and

food.42 Pesticide contaminates land and water when it escapes from production sites and storage

tanks, when it runs off from fields, when it is discarded, when it is sprayed aerially, and when it

is sprayed into water to kill algae.43

The amount of pesticide that migrates from the intended application area is influenced by the

particular chemical's properties: its propensity for binding to soil, its vapor pressure, its

water solubility, and its resistance to being broken down over time.44 Factors in the soil, such as

its texture, its ability to retain water, and the amount of organic matter contained in it, also affect

the amount of pesticide that will leave the area.45 Some pesticides contribute to global

warming and the depletion of the ozone layer.46

Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products

The environmental impact of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) is largely

speculative. PPCPs are substances used by individuals for personal health or cosmetic reasons

and the products used by agribusiness to boost growth or health of livestock. PPCPs have been

detected in water bodies throughout the world. The effects of these chemicals on humans and the

42

Miller GT (2004), Sustaining the Earth, 6th edition. Thompson Learning, Inc. Pacific Grove, California.

Chapter 9, pp. 211–216, ISBN 0534400876. 43 Part 1. Conditions and provisions for developing a national strategy for biodiversity conservation. Biodiversity

Conservation National Strategy and Action Plan of Republic of Uzbekistan. Prepared by the National

Biodiversity Strategy Project Steering Committee with the Financial Assistance of The Global Environmental

Facility (GEF) and Technical Assistance of United Nations Development Programme (UNDP, 1998). Retrieved on September 17, 2007.

44 Kellogg RL, Nehring R, Grube A, Goss DW, and Plotkin S (February 2000), Environmental indicators of

pesticide leaching and runoff from farm fields. United States Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service. Retrieved on 2007-10-03.

45 Id.

46 Reynolds, JD (1997), International pesticide trade: Is there any hope for the effective regulation of controlled

substances? Florida State University Journal of Land Use & Environmental Law, Volume 131. Retrieved on 2007-10-16.

environment are not yet known, but to date there is no scientific evidence that they have an

impact on human health.47

Road Transport

The environmental impact of transport is significant because it is a major user of energy, and

burns most of the world's petroleum. This creates air pollution, including nitrous

oxides and particulates, and is a significant contributor to global warming through emission

of carbon dioxide,48 for which transport is the fastest-growing emission sector.49 By subsector,

road transport is the largest contributor to global warming.50

Environmental regulations in developed countries have reduced the individual vehicles emission;

however, this has been offset by an increase in the number of vehicles, and more use of each

vehicle.51 Some pathways to reduced the carbon emissions of road vehicles considerably have

been studied.52 Energy use and emissions vary largely between modes,

causing environmentalists to call for a transition from air and road to rail and human-powered

transport, and increase transport electrification and energy efficiency.

Other environmental impacts of transport systems include traffic congestion and automobile-

oriented urban sprawl, which can consume natural habitat and agricultural lands. By reducing

transportation emissions globally, it is predicted that there will be significant positive effects on

Earth's air quality, acid rain, smog and climate change.53

The environmental impact of roads includes the local effects of highways (public roads) such as

on noise, light pollution, water pollution, habitat destruction/disturbance and local air quality;

and the wider effects including climate change from vehicle emissions. The design, construction

47

U.S. EPA. Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products. Accessed 16 March 2009. 48

Fuglestvedt, J.; Berntsen, T.; Myhre, G.; Rypdal, K.; Skeie, R. B. (2008). "Climate forcing from the transport

sectors". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 105 (2): 454. doi:10.1073/pnas.0702958104 49

Worldwatch Institute (16 January 2008). "Analysis: Nano Hypocrisy? 50 Fuglestvedt , 2008, supra note 48. 51 Id. 52 Carbon Pathways Analysis – Informing Development of a Carbon Reduction Strategy for the Transport Sector

Claverton Group. Claverton-energy.com (2009-02-17). Retrieved on 2012-05-11. 53 Environment Canada. "Transportation". Retrieved 30 July 2008.

and management of roads, parking and other related facilities as well as the design and regulation

of vehicles can change the impacts to varying degrees.

The health impact of transport emissions is also of concern. A recent survey of the studies on the

effect of traffic emissions on pregnancy outcomes has linked exposure to emissions to adverse

effects on gestational duration and possibly also intrauterine growth.54

Aviation

The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit noise, particulates,

and gases which contribute to climate change55 and global dimming.56 Despite emission

reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less

polluting turbofan and turboprop engines, the rapid growth of air travel in recent years

contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation. There is an ongoing debate

about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme,

with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account.57

Shipping

The environmental impact of shipping includes greenhouse gas emissions and oil

pollution. Carbon dioxide emissions from shipping is currently estimated at 4 to 5% of the global

total, and estimated by the International Maritime Organisation (IMO) to rise by up to 72% by

2020 if no action is taken.58 There is also a potential for introducing invasive species into new

areas through shipping, usually by attaching themselves to the ship's hull.

54 Pereira, G. et al. (2010). "Residential exposure to traffic emissions and adverse pregnancy

outcomes". S.a.p.i.en.s.3 (1) 55 International Civil Aviation Organization, Air Transport Bureau (ATB). "Aircraft Engine Emissions".

Retrieved2008-03-19; "What is the impact of flying?". Enviro.aero. Retrieved 2008-03-19. 56

Carleton, Andrew M. & Lauritsen, Ryan G (2002). "Contrails reduce daily temperature

range" (PDF). Nature 418(6898): 601. doi:10.1038/418601a. PMID 12167846 57 Including Aviation into the EU ETS: Impact on EU allowance prices. ICF Consulting for DEFRA, February

2006. 58 Vidal, John (3 March 2007) CO2 output from shipping twice as much as airlines. The Guardian. Retrieved on

2012-05-11.

The First Inter sessional Meeting of the IMO Working Group on Greenhouse Gas

Emissions59 from Ships took place in Oslo, Norway on 23–27 June 2008. It was tasked with

developing the technical basis for the reduction mechanisms that may form part of a future IMO

regime to control greenhouse gas emissions from international shipping, and a draft of the actual

reduction mechanisms themselves, for further consideration by IMO’s Marine Environment

Protection Committee (MEPC).60

War

As well as the cost to human life and society, there is a significant environmental impact of

war. Scorched earth methods during, or after war have been in use for much of recorded history

but with modern technology war can cause a far greater devastation on the environment.

Unexploded ordnance can render land unusable for further use or make access across it

dangerous or fatal. The physical destruction due to the blast or by the biospheric damage due

to ionizing radiation or radiotoxicity directly effect ecosystems within the blast radius.61 Also,

the atmospheric or geospheric disturbances caused by the weapons can lead to weather and

climate changes.62

Different Types of Environmental Pollution

Environmental pollution may be of the different types such as air pollution, noise pollution,

water pollution, soil pollution, thermal pollution, marine pollution, radiation pollution etc. These

are discussed briefly below.

Water Pollution

Water is essential to life. Without healthy water for drinking, cooking, fishing, and farming, the

human race would perish. Clean water is also necessary for recreational interests such as

swimming, boating, and water skiing. Water gets polluted by the contamination, of water bodies

59 Greenhouse gas emissions. Imo.org. Retrieved on 2012-05-11. 60

Sustainable Shipping: (S) News – IMO targets greenhouse gas emissions (17 Jun 2008) – The forum dedicated

to marine transportation and the environment. 61

Robinson, J.P (1979). The Effects of Weapons on Ecosystems. Pergamon Press. 62

Id.

such as lakes, rivers, oceans, and groundwater, caused by human activities, which can be harmful

to organisms and plants which live in these water bodies.

Causes of Water Pollution

Water pollution refers to ‘substances, bacteria or viruses present in such concentrations or

numbers as to impair the quality of the water rendering it less suitable or unsuitable for its

intended use and presenting a hazard to humans or to their environment’.63 Pollution may be

caused by:

1. Bacteria, viruses and other organisms that can cause disease, for example,

cholera, typhoid fever and dysentery.

2. Inorganic salts that cannot be removed by any simple conventional treatment

process, making the water less suitable for drinking, for irrigation and for many

industries.

3. Plant nutrients such as potato, phosphates and nitrates which, while largely

inorganic salt, have the added effect of increasing weed growth, promoting algal

blooms and producing, by photosynthesis, organic matter which may settle to

the bottom of a lake.

4. Oily materials that may be inimical to fish life, cause unsightliness, screen the

river surface from the air thus reducing re-oxygenation, accumulate in

troublesome quantities, or have a high oxygen demand.

5. Specific toxic agents, ranging from metal salts to complex synthetic chemicals.

6. Waste heat that may render the river less suitable for certain purposes.

7. Silt that may enter a river in large quantities causing changes in the character of

the river bed.

8. Radioactive substances.

63

Alan Gilpin, Dictionary of Environmental Law, pp 351-356. Edward Elgar Publishing Limited, UK, 2000.

Therefore, it can be said that there are three primary sources of water pollution: industry,

agriculture, and municipalities that have been regularly discharging harmful materials into water

supplies throughout the country over a number of years.

Types of Water Pollution

Water pollution can come from a number of different sources. If the pollution comes from a

single source, such as an oil spill, it is called point-source pollution. If the pollution comes from

many sources, it is called nonpoint-source pollution.64

Most types of pollution affect the immediate area surrounding the source. Sometimes the

pollution may affect the environment hundreds of miles away from the source, such as nuclear

waste, this is called trans-boundary pollution.65

Sources of Water Pollution

These different types of water pollution come from varied sources: surface water, groundwater,

microbiological, oxygen depletion, nutrient, suspended matter, and chemical.

Surface Water Pollution

Surface water pollution is the most visible form of pollution and we can see it floating on our

waters in lakes, streams, and oceans. Trash from human consumption, such as water bottles,

plastics and other waste products, is most often evident on water surfaces. This type of pollution

also comes from oil spills and gasoline waste, which float on the surface and affect the water and

its inhabitants.

Groundwater Pollution

This type of pollution is becoming more and more relevant because it affects our drinking water

and the aquifers below the soil. Groundwater pollution is usually caused by highly toxic

64

Water Pollution Guide, http://www.water-pollution.org.uk/types.html 65

Id.

chemicals and pesticides from farming that leak through the ground to contaminate the wells and

aquifers below the surface.

Microbial Pollution

Microbiological pollution is the natural form of water pollution that is caused by microorganisms

in uncured water. Most of these organisms are harmless but some bacteria, viruses, and protozoa

can cause serious diseases such as cholera and typhoid. This is a significant problem for people

in third world countries who have no clean drinking water and/or facilities to cure the water.

Oxygen Depletion Pollution

Microorganisms that thrive in water feed on biodegradable substances. When there is an influx

of biodegradable material from such things as waste or erosion from farming, the numbers of

these microorganisms increase and utilize the obtainable oxygen. When these oxygen levels are

depleted, harmless aerobic microorganisms die and anaerobic microorganisms thrive. Some of

these organisms produce damaging toxins like sulfide and ammonia.

Nutrient Pollution

Nutrients are usually found in wastewater and fertilizers. These can cause excess vegetation in

the water such as algae and weeds, using up the oxygen in the water and hurting the surrounding

marine life and other organisms in the water.

Suspended Matter Pollution

This type of pollution occurs when pollutants enter the water and do not mix in with the water

molecules. These suspended particles form fine silt on the waterbed, harming the marine life by

taking away the nutrients and disturbing their habitat.

Chemical Pollution

Due to the nature of industry these days and the mass production in industrial plants and farms,

we have a lot of chemical run-off that flows into the nearby rivers and water sources. Metals and

solvents flow out of factories and into the water, polluting the water and harming the wildlife.

Pesticides from farms are like poison to the wildlife in the water and kill and endanger the

aquatic life.

If birds or humans eat these infected fish, the toxins are transferred to us and we swallow these

dangerous pesticides and toxins, affecting our health.

Petroleum is a different type of chemical pollutant that dramatically affects the aquatic life. This

oil kills the fish and marine life and sticks to the feathers of birds, causing them to lose their

ability to fly.

Thermal pollution

Thermal pollution results from the release of heated water into lakes and streams. Most thermal

pollution is generated by power plant cooling systems. Power plants use water to cool their

reactors and turbines, and discharge it into lakes and tributaries after it has become heated.

Higher water temperatures accelerate biological and chemical processes in rivers and streams,

reducing the water's ability to retain dissolved oxygen. This can hasten the growth of algae and

disrupt the reproduction of fish. Toxic chemicals and other hazardous materials present the most

imminent threat to water quality.

Harmful Consequences of Water Pollution

The effects of water pollution on a vast array of life from humans to plants are

immense. Ecosystems around the world are being destroyed and species are rapidly going

extinct. The following are just eight significant related effects, even though there are numerous

other issues.

Waterborne Infectious Diseases

Human infectious diseases are among the most serious effects of water pollution, especially in

developing countries where the sanitation is usually inadequate or non-existent. Developed

countries are not immune to the problem of infectious water borne diseases either. Every year

tens and thousands of people are sickened by contaminated water, and this is only one of the

effects of water pollution.

Excess Algae Due to Nutrient Pollution

Nutrient pollution was called the most widespread, chronic environmental problem in the coastal

ocean by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. The discharge of nitrogen, phosphorus and

other nutrients coming from various man-made sources stimulates the algae growth in these run-

offs and coastal zones to dangerous levels. This excess in algae is harmful to the local habitat

and uses all the oxygen, killing off the native aquatic life. Nutrient pollution can also cause

unusual outbreaks in fish diseases.

Effects of Oil and Petroleum Chemicals on Aquatic Life

Exposure to oil or its chemicals can alter the ecology of aquatic habitats and the physiology of

marine organisms. Evidence strongly suggests that components of crude oil persist in the marine

environment for years and are extremely toxic to the aquatic life. Chronic exposure to a

chemical, PAH, in the oil affects the development of marine organisms, jeopardizing normal

reproductive cycles in many marine species.

Harmful Effects of Pesticides

Pesticides are carried into water systems by rain water runoff and are sometimes even sprayed

directly into waterways as part of pest-control. Pesticides are poison to small animals and insects,

killing them and protecting the farmer’s crops. When enough of these pesticides get carried into

the water, they can have serious effects on our health as well.

Another most common herbicide Atrazine has been linked to a number of human cancers,

including prostate cancer and lymphoma. It can also affect human reproductive and

developmental processes by disrupting human hormone activity. Pesticides can affect and

damage the nervous system, cause liver or DNA damage, cause a variety of cancers, and cause

reproductive and endocrine damage.

Serious Health Risks Associated with High Levels of Mercury

Mercury is a pollutant usually coming from factories and often spreads as an air-borne pollutant,

but it can get in the water through runoff and storm activity. Mercury is incredibly damaging to

young children and babies still in the womb. Young children are most at risk while their brains

and bodies are still developing. Exposure to mercury in the womb can cause neurological

problems, including slower reflexes, learning deficits, delayed mental development, autism, and

brain damage. Mercury has also been linked to Parkinson’s disease, multiple sclerosis,

Alzheimers disease, heart disease, and brain damage.

Effects of Water Pollution from Mining

Dangerous chemicals used in mining processes are carried into rivers and lakes and have

devastating effects on the water. When rain or surface water flows over exposed rock and soil, it

can combine with naturally occurring sulfur to create sulfuric acid. This acidified rain water

eventually makes its way into the water system where it pollutes these systems and impacts the

local aquatic life. Some of these streams can become so acidic--worse than battery acid--they kill

off all the aquatic life in the stream or lake. When there is a leak or a spill in a mine, it can also

have disastrous consequences on the local environment.

Trash in the Ocean Kills Aquatic Life

Marine debris is basically trash in the ocean. Fish and aquatic life will swallow the trash items

(possibly mistaking them for prey) and choke and die on the plastic. After years of degradation,

this plastic will break up into very small pieces and be ingested by critters low on the food chain,

which in turn will be eaten by fish and others higher up.

Thermal Pollution

Industry machinery is cooled by water from lakes and rivers. This water then returns to the water

sources in a heated state. Fish and other organisms that have adapted to a particular temperature

can be killed from thermal shock, and the extra heat can disrupt the spawning. Warmer water

temperatures also reduce the oxygen content in the water, which increases the organism’s

susceptibility to disease, parasites, and the effects of toxic chemicals.

Air Pollution

Air pollution is a mixture of natural and man-made substances in the air we breathe.66 Air

pollution is by far the most harmful form of pollution in our environment. It has long been

recognised that the quality of the air we breathe is an essential element in the protection and

promotion of human health. The link between poor air and poor health has been recognised since

at least the early 19th century.67

Air pollution is cause by the injurious smoke emitted by cars, buses, trucks, trains, and factories,

namely sulphur dioxide, carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides. Even smoke from burning leaves

and cigarettes are harmful to the environment causing a lot of damage to man and the

atmosphere. Evidence of increasing air pollution is seen in lung cancer, asthma, allergies, and

various breathing problems along with severe and irreparable damage to flora and fauna. Even

the most natural phenomenon of migratory birds has been hampered, with severe air pollution

preventing them from reaching their seasonal metropolitan destinations of centuries.68

The Yale Environmental Performance Index ranked India 174th out of 178 countries on air

pollution. According to India’s Central Pollution Control Board, in 2010, particulate matter in

the air of 180 Indian cities was six times higher than World Health Organization standards. More

people die of asthma in India than anywhere else in the world. Indoor air pollution, mostly from

cooking fires, and outdoor air pollution are the third and fifth leading causes of death in India.69

Automobile sales in India have boomed, and diesel is the fuel of choice. Many industries pollute

with impunity, defying existing environmental laws and regulations. Pollution monitoring in

India is a haphazard affair. Industries know that even if they are caught polluting, criminal

prosecution will take years to go through India’s overburdened courts.

66

Air Pollution, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, available at http://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/air-pollution/ accessed on 13-8-2015.

67 See in particular Sir Edwin Chadwick’s 1842 Report on the Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Population

of Great Britain, ed. MW Flinn, 1965, Edinburgh UP. 68

Environmental Pollution and Its Effects, supra note 1. 69

India’s Air Pollution Emergency , The new York Times, FEB. 13, 2014. Available at http://www.nytimes.com/2014/02/14/opinion/indias-air-pollution-emergency.html accessed on 13-8-2015.

The best hope for reining in air pollution lies with India’s Supreme Court. It has handed down a

series of landmark environmental decisions, including mandating the use of compressed natural

gas in public-service vehicles in Delhi in 1985. Air quality in India’s capital improved, but the

gains have since evaporated. The court asked the governments of Delhi and the Indian states of

Uttar Pradesh, Haryana and Rajasthan to respond to a report from India’s Environmental

Pollution Control Authority that said air pollution has reached such severe levels that it is the

cause of 3,000 child deaths a year in Delhi alone.70 The report recommends a series of measures,

including a 30 percent tax on the sale of diesel vehicles, higher automobile registration and

parking fees, and getting more buses on Delhi’s roads. The Supreme Court should use its

authority to order compliance with these recommendations. And India’s national air-quality

standards must be made legally binding.71

The World Bank says that environmental degradation is costing India $80 billion annually and

accounts for 23 percent of the nation’s child mortality. The bank estimated that reducing

particulate emissions by 30 percent by 2030 would save India $105 billion in health-related

costs. So far, pollution has not been an issue ahead of general elections in May. The Supreme

Court could help make it one.

Types of Air Pollution

It is typically divided into two categories: outdoor air pollution and indoor air pollution.72

Outdoor Air Pollution

Outdoor air pollution involves exposures that take place outside of the built environment.

Examples include:73

• Fine particles produced by the burning of fossil fuels (i.e. the coal and petroleum used in

traffic and energy production)

• Noxious gases (sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, chemical vapors, etc.)

70

Id. 71

Id. 72

National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, supra note 66. 73

Id.

• Ground-level ozone (a reactive form of oxygen and a primary component of urban smog)

• Tobacco smoke

Indoor Air Pollution

Indoor air pollution involves exposures to particulates, carbon oxides, and other pollutants

carried by indoor air or dust. Examples include:74

• Gases (carbon monoxide, radon, etc.)

• Household products and chemicals

• Building materials (asbestos, formaldehyde, lead, etc.)

• Outdoor indoor allergens (cockroach and mouse dropping, etc.)

• Tobacco smoke

• Mold and pollen

In some instances, outdoor air pollution can make its way indoors by way of open windows,

doors, ventilation, etc.

Health Effects of Air Pollution

Over the past 30 years, researchers have unearthed a wide array of health effects which are

believed to be associated with air pollution exposure. Among them are respiratory diseases

(including asthma and changes in lung function), cardiovascular diseases, adverse pregnancy

outcomes (such as preterm birth), and even death.75

In 2013, the World Health Organization concluded that outdoor air pollution is carcinogenic to

humans. Indoor air pollution can be reduced by making sure that a building is well-ventilated and

cleaned regularly to prevent the buildup of agents like dust and mold. Occupants would also be

wise to remove any known pollutants and or irritants (aerosols, stringent cleaning supplies, etc.)

whenever possible. Outdoor air pollution exposures can be reduced by checking one’s Air

74

Id. 75

Id.

Quality Index (AQI), avoiding heavy traffic when possible, and avoiding secondhand tobacco

smoke.76

Air Pollution and Climate change

While climate change is a global process, it has very local impacts that can profoundly affect

communities, not the least of which is air pollution.77Increasing temperatures are directly linked

to poor air quality which, in turn, can affect the heart and exacerbate cardiovascular disease.

Examples of this may include a rise in pollen, due to increased plant growth, or a rise in molds,

due to severe storms — both of which can worsen allergies and other lung diseases, such as

asthma. Scientists say an increasing rise in ozone levels are also a concern.78

Air pollution does not respect national boundaries and it is for this reason that strategies to

improve air quality have to approach the problem on an international and regional basis, as well

as at national and local levels.79 The following extract from the government’s consultation paper

on the United Kingdom’s 1996 National Air Quality Strategy (DoE, 1996) emphasises the

international character of the problem:80

“In general, the long-range movement of air masses across the Earth’s surface

means that pollution emitted in one country is, to a significant extent, shared with

its neighbours. For some pollutants, such as sulphur dioxide (SO2) or nitrogen

oxides (NOx), emissions can travel much further than a country’s immediate

neighbours. The winter pattern for Northern Europe is for air masses to travel

eastwards from the Atlantic, over the British Isles towards France, Germany,

Benelux and Scandinavia. The UK therefore ‘exports’ a significant proportion of

some of the pollutants emitted in this country. Recent estimates suggest that more

than 75% of the UK’s SO2 emissions and as much as 90% of our NOx emissions

are trans-boundary, leading to deposition either in other countries or in the sea ...”

76

NIH, supra note 66. 77

Id. 78

Id. 79

Maurice Sunkin, David M Ong and Robert Wight, Sourcebook On Environmental Law, Second Edition p93. Great Britain 2002 by Cavendish Publishing Limited, The Glass House, Wharton Street, London WC1X 9PX, United Kingdom.

80 Id. p8, citations omitted.

“There are flows in other directions ... Around 40% of the deposition ... of

oxidised nitrogen in the UK originates from sources outside the UK, and up to

one half of ambient ozone (O3) levels in Southern Britain are of continental

origin.”

“The consequence ... is that ... there must be a sufficient degree of international co-

operation... For a strategic approach to controlling long-range trans boundary pollution,

such as acid rain or ozone, international co-operation is the only option.”

The most fundamental implications of atmospheric pollution are those concerned with global

climate change. This is recognised as one of the greatest environmental threats facing the world

today.81 Broad consensus now exists amongst the world’s foremost climate scientists on the

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) that human activities are having a

discernible effect on the climate.82

Climate Change and Greenhouse Gases

Certain gases, naturally present in the atmosphere, keep the Earth at a temperature suitable for

life by trapping outgoing terrestrial radiation from the earth’s surface. Levels of some of these

so-called ‘greenhouse gases’ are increasing as a result of human activity and this, scientists

believe, is leading to a gradual increase in the temperature of the atmosphere. Climate models

predict that the global temperature will rise by between 1.5oC and 3.5oC by 2100. This will

exceed any climate change experienced since the last Ice Age 10,000 years ago. These

predictions have been reiterated in successive IPCC reports at recent conferences of parties to the

Framework Convention on Climate Change 1992.83

Noise Pollution

81

Maurice Sunkin, et al, 2002 supra note 79. 82

Id. 83

Id. Also see at p122.

Sound, which pleases the listeners, is music and that which causes pain and annoyance is noise.

At times, what is music for some can be noise for others.84 Noise can be described as sound

without agreeable musical quality or as an unwanted or undesired sound. Thus noise can be taken

as a group of laud, non harmonious sounds or vibrations that are unpleasant and irritating to

ear.85 Section 2 (a) of the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 includes noise in

the definition of ‘air pollutant’. Within the meaning of Section 2(a) air pollution is any solid,

liquid or gaseous substance including noise present in the atmosphere such concentration as may

be or tent to injurious to human beings or other living creatures or plants or property or

environment.

According to Encyclopedia Britannica, in acoustic noise is defined as any undesired sound.86 In

chambers 21st Century Dictionary the definition of noise has undergone a change. Noise

pollution stands carved out as phrase separately from noise. The two are defined as under:

Noise is a sound; a harsh disagreeable sound, or such sound; noise Pollution is an excessive or

annoying degree of noise in a particular area, e.g. from traffic or aero plane engines.

High level noise is a disturbance to the human environment. Because of urbanization, noise in all

areas in a city has increased considerably. One of the most pervasive sources of noise in our

environment today is those associated with transportation. People reside adjacent to highways,

are subjected to high level of noise produced by trucks and vehicles pass on the highways.

Prolonged exposure to high level of noise is very much harmful to the health of mankind.87

In industry and in mines the main sources of noise pollution are blasting, movement of heavy

earth moving machines, drilling, crusher and coal handling plants etc. The critical value for the

development of hearing problems is at 80 decibels. Chronic exposure to noise may cause noise-

induced hearing loss. High noise levels can contribute to cardiovascular effects. Moreover, noise

can be a causal factor in workplace accidents.88

84

Parivesh News Letter: Central Pollution Control Board, December, 1996. 85

Deepak Miglani Noise Pollution: Sources, Effects and Control, Legal Services India, 2015. Available at http://www.legalserviceindia.com/articles/noip.htm accessed on 13-8-2015.

86 Vol. 16 , 1968, p. 558

87 Partha Das, 2009. supra note 8.

88 Id.

Noise pollution, soil pollution and light pollution too are the damaging the environment at an

alarming rate. Noise pollution include aircraft noise, noise of cars, buses, and trucks, vehicle

horns, loudspeakers, and industry noise, as well as high-intensity sonar effects which are

extremely harmful for the environment.89 Maximum noise pollution occurs due to one of modern

science’s best discoveries – the motor vehicle, which is responsible for about ninety percent of

all unwanted noise worldwide.90

Sources of Noise Pollution

Noise pollution like other pollutants is also a by- product of industrialization, urbanizations and

modern civilization. Broadly speaking, the noise pollution has two sources, i.e. industrial and

non- industrial. The industrial source includes the noise from various industries and big machines

working at a very high speed and high noise intensity. Non- industrial source of noise includes

the noise created by transport/vehicular traffic and the neighborhood noise generated by various

noise pollution can also be divided in the categories, namely, natural and manmade. Most

leading noise sources will fall into the following categories: roads traffic, aircraft, railroads,

construction, industry, noise in buildings, and consumer products.91

Road Traffic Noise

In the city, the main sources of traffic noise are the motors and exhaust system of autos, smaller

trucks, buses, and motorcycles. This type of noise can be augmented by narrow streets and tall

buildings, which produce a canyon in which traffic noise reverberates.

Air Craft Noise

Now-a-days , the problem of low flying military aircraft has added a new dimension to

community annoyance, as the nation seeks to improve its nap-of the- earth aircraft operations

over national parks, wilderness areas , and other areas previously unaffected by aircraft noise has

claimed national attention over recent years.

89

Environmental Pollution and Its Effects, supra note 1. 90

Environmental Pollution and Its Effects, supra note 1. 91

Deepak Miglani, 2015, supra note 85.

Noise from Railroads

The noise from locomotive engines, horns and whistles, and switching and shunting operation in

rail yards can impact neighboring communities and railroad workers. For example, rail car

retarders can produce a high frequency, high level screech that can reach peak levels of 120 dB

at a distance of 100 feet, which translates to levels as high as 138, or 140 dB at the railroad

worker’s ear.

Construction Noise

The noise from the construction of highways, city streets, and buildings is a major contributor to

the urban scene. Construction noise sources include pneumatic hammers, air compressors,

bulldozers, loaders, dump trucks (and their back-up signals), and pavement breakers.

Noise in Industry

Although industrial noise is one of the less prevalent community noise problems, neighbors of

noisy manufacturing plants can be disturbed by sources such as fans, motors, and compressors

mounted on the outside of buildings Interior noise can also be transmitted to the community

through open windows and doors, and even through building walls. These interior noise sources

have significant impacts on industrial workers, among whom noise- induced hearing loss is

unfortunately common.

Noise in building

Apartment dwellers are often annoyed by noise in their homes, especially when the building is

not well designed and constructed. In this case, internal building noise from plumbing, boilers,

generators, air conditioners, and fans, can be audible and annoying. Improperly insulated walls

and ceilings can reveal the soundof-amplified music, voices, footfalls and noisy activities from

neighboring units. External noise from emergency vehicles, traffic, refuse collection, and other

city noises can be a problem for urban residents, especially when windows are open or

insufficiently glazed.

Noise from Consumer Products

Certain household equipment, such as vacuum cleaners and some kitchen appliances have been

and continue to be noisemakers, although their contribution to the daily noise dose is usually not

very large.

Harmful Effects of Noise Pollution92

Noise has always been with the human civilization but it was never so obvious, so intense, so

varied and as pervasive as it is seen in the last of this century. Noise pollution makes men

irritable. The effect of noise pollution is multifaceted and inter related. The effects of Noise

Pollution on Human Being, Animal and property are as follows:

Decreases the human efficiency: Regarding the impact of noise on human efficiency there are

number of experiments which print out the fact that human efficiency increases with noise

reduction. A study by Sinha & Sinha in India suggested that reducing industrial booths could

improve the quality of their work. Thus human efficiency is related with noise.

Lack of concentration: For better quality of work there should be concentration. Noise causes

lack of concentration. In big cities, mostly all the offices are on main road. The noise of traffic or

the loud speakers of different types of horns divert the attention of the people working in offices.

1. Fatigue: Because of Noise Pollution, people cannot concentrate on their work. Thus they

have to give their more time for completing the work and they feel tiring.

2. Abortion is caused: There should be cool and calm atmosphere during the pregnancy.

Unpleasant sounds make a pregnant woman irritated. Sudden Noise causes abortion in

females.

3. Causes Blood Pressure: Noise Pollution causes certain diseases in human. It attacks on

the person’s peace of mind. The noises are recognized as major contributing factors in

accelerating the already existing tensions of modern living. These tensions result in

certain disease like blood pressure or mental illness etc.

4. Temporary or Permanent Deafness:- The effect of nose on audition is well recognized.

Mechanics, locomotive drivers, telephone operators etc. All have their hearing.

92

Noise pollution in India, Grounding our Future, 2011- A Step towards Future 2012. http://www.groundingourfuture.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=33:noise-pollution-in-india&catid=34:articles&Itemid=34

Impairment as a result of noise at the place of work. Psychiatrists, physicians and

psychologists are of the view that continued exposure to noise level above. 80 to 100 db

is unsafe, loud noise causes temporary or permanent deafness.

5. Effect on Vegetation Poor quality of Crops: Now is well known to all that plants are

similar to human being. They are also as sensitive as man. There should be cool &

peaceful environment for their better growth. Noise pollution causes poor quality of crops

in a pleasant atmosphere.

6. Effect on Animals: Noise pollution damage the nervous system of animal. Animal

looses the control of its mind. They become dangerous.

7. Effect on Property: Loud noise is very dangerous to buildings, bridges and monuments.

It creates waves which struck the walls and put the building in danger condition. It

weakens the edifice of buildings.

Noise Pollution in Urban India

The urban areas of India have become highly populated in past few decades. In the last decade, it

rose by 31.8%. This has led to certain environmental and health issues that also include

environmental pollution. Some causes are unavoidable and are required to be followed for the

developmental activities. So, it is not possible to completely avoid them. But, some preventive

measures sure can be taken to control and minimize the extent of it. As per the Prevention and

Control of Pollution Act implemented in 1981, the noise is termed as an ‘air-pollutant’. It is that

unpleasant, distracting and unnecessary sound that ought to be avoided due to its sleep depriving

and concentration-lowering impact. The person gets annoyed due to the persistent uneasiness

caused by them. According to the WHO guidelines, for a sound sleep, the noise in that room

should not be more than 30dBA. For maintaining concentration in any classroom, it should not

exceed 35dBA. The noise levels more than these limits on a continuous basis, may harm mental

as well as physical health on a short term and long term basis. Sadly enough, this issue is not

taken that seriously in front of other forms of pollution – air pollution and water pollution.93

93

Noise Pollution in India, India Online, http://www.indiaonline.in/about/Profile/Geography/EnvironmentalConcerns/Noise-Pollution.html

Measurement of Noise Pollution

To measure noise, the average pressure level of the sound is measured for a particular amount of

time by a weighting scale. It also finds out the response of the auditory system. The noise is

measured as decibels. The gadgets used to measure noise are noise level meter, noise dosimeter

and impulse-sound level meter. Noise dosimeter can be worn by the person and works better than

noise level meter. 94

In March 2011, the Central Pollution Control Board established the first part of noise pollution

monitoring network in 35 major cities in India including all the metros like Delhi, Kolkata,

Mumbai, Hyderabad, Bengaluru, Lucknow and Chennai. The system is a part of the National

Environmental Policy adopted in 2006. It is expected that by the establishment of second and

third parts, the number of locations to be monitored will be increased160 cities covering various

parts of Indian states.

Under the Environmental Protection Act, the Central Government came up with Noise Pollution

(Regulation and Control) Rules 2000 which were to be implemented once they got published in

the official gazette. These rules are meant for the following:

• Implementation of noise standards in different zones or areas.

• Restrict the use of loud-speakers.

• Restrict the over-usage of horns, sound creating equipments for construction and fire-

crackers.

• Allotting responsibility to State Pollution Control Boards or Committees and the Central

Pollution Control Board, for collecting, processing and providing the statistical data

about the noise pollution, so that adequate measures may be taken to prevent and control

it.

On violation of these rules, the person shall be liable for penalty as per the Act.95

94

Id. 95

envforc.nic.in

Soil Pollution

Soil pollution, which can also be called soil contamination, is a result of acid rain, polluted

water, fertilizers, deforestation, dumping of solid wastes etc., which leads to bad crops. Soil

contamination occurs when chemicals are released by spill or underground storage tank leakage

which releases heavy contaminants into the soil. These may include hydrocarbons, heavy metals,

MTBE, herbicides, pesticides and chlorinated hydrocarbons.96

Deforestation increases soil erosion; thus valuable agricultural land is lost. Solid wastes from

household and industries also pollute land and enhance land degradation. Solid wastes include

things from household waste and of industrial wastes. They include ash, glass, peelings of fruit

and vegetables, paper, clothes, plastics, rubber, leather, brick, sand, metal, waste from cattle

shed, night soil and cow dung.97 Chemicals discharged into air, such as compounds of sulfur and

lead, eventually come to soil and pollute it. The heaps of solid waste destroy the natural beauty

and surroundings become dirty. Pigs, dogs, rats, flies, mosquitoes visit the dumped waste and

foul smell comes from the waste. The waste may block the flow of water in the drain, which then

becomes the breeding place for mosquitoes. Mosquitoes are carriers of parasites of malaria and

dengue. Consumption of polluted water causes many diseases, such as cholera, diarrhea and

dysentery. 98

In March 2009, the issue of Uranium poisoning in Punjab attracted press coverage. It was alleged

to be caused by fly ash ponds of thermal power stations, which reportedly lead to severe birth

defects in children in the Faridkotand Bhatinda districts of Punjab. The news reports claimed the

uranium levels were more than 60 times the maximum safe limit.99 In 2012, the Government of

India confirmed100 that the ground water in Malwa belt of Punjab has uranium metal that is 50%

above the trace limits set by the United Nations' World Health Organization. Scientific studies,

based on over 1000 samples from various sampling points, could not trace the source to fly ash

and any sources from thermal power plants or industry as originally alleged. The study also

96

Environmental Pollution and Its Effects, supra note 1. 97

Partha Das, 2009. supra note 8. 98

Id. 99

Yadav, Priya (2 April 2009). "Uranium deforms kids in Faridkot". The Times of India.; Jolly, Asit (2 April

2009). "Punjab disability 'uranium link'". BBC News. 100 Uranium in Ground Water Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation, Government of India (2012)

revealed that the uranium concentration in ground water of Malwa district is not 60 times the

WHO limits, but only 50% above the WHO limit in 3 locations. This highest concentration

found in samples was less than those found naturally in ground waters currently used for human

purposes elsewhere, such as Finland.101 Research is underway to identify natural or other

sources for the uranium.

Causes of Soil Pollution102

1. Industrial Activity: Industrial activity has been the biggest contributor to the problem in the

last century, especially since the amount of mining and manufacturing has increased. Most

industries are dependent on extracting minerals from the Earth. Whether it is iron ore or coal, the

by products are contaminated and they are not disposed off in a manner that can be considered

safe. As a result, the industrial waste lingers in the soil surface for a long time and makes it

unsuitable for use.

2. Agricultural Activities: Chemical utilization has gone up tremendously since technology

provided us with modern pesticides and fertilizers. They are full of chemicals that are not

produced in nature and cannot be broken down by it. As a result, they seep into the ground after

they mix with water and slowly reduce the fertility of the soil. Other chemicals damage the

composition of the soil and make it easier to erode by water and air. Plants absorb many of these

pesticides and when they decompose, they cause soil pollution since they become a part of the

land.

3. Waste Disposal: Finally, a growing cause for concern is how we dispose of our waste. While

industrial waste is sure to cause contamination, there is another way in which we are adding to

the pollution. Every human produces a certain amount of personal waste products by way or

urine and feces.

While much of it moves into the sewer the system, there is also a large amount that is dumped

directly into landfills in the form of diapers. Even the sewer system ends at the landfill, where

101 Atomic Energy Report - Malwa Punjab Uranium Q&A Lok Sabha, Government of India (2012) 102 What Is soil Pollution? Conserve Energy for Future http://www.conserve-energy-future.com/causes-and-

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the biological waste pollutes the soil and water. This is because our bodies are full of toxins and

chemicals which are now seeping into the land and causing pollution of soil.

4. Accidental Oil Spills: Oil leaks can happen during storage and transport of chemicals. This

can be seen at most of the fuel stations. The chemicals present in the fuel deteriorate the quality

of soil and make them unsuitable for cultivation. These chemicals can enter into the groundwater

through soil and make the water undrinkable.

5. Acid Rain: Acid rain is caused when pollutants present in the air mixes up with the rain and

fall back on the ground. The polluted water could dissolve away some of the important nutrients

found in soil and change the structure of the soil.

Effects of Soil Pollution103

1. Effect on Health of Humans: Considering how soil is the reason we are able to sustain

ourselves, the contamination of it has major consequences on our health. Crops and plants grown

on polluted soil absorb much of the pollution and then pass these on to us. This could explain the

sudden surge in small and terminal illnesses.

Long term exposure to such soil can affect the genetic make-up of the body, causing congenital

illnesses and chronic health problems that cannot be cured easily. In fact, it can sicken the

livestock to a considerable extent and cause food poisoning over a long period of time. The soil

pollution can even lead to widespread famines if the plants are unable to grow in it.

2. Effect on Growth of Plants: The ecological balance of any system gets affected due to the

widespread contamination of the soil. Most plants are unable to adapt when the chemistry of the

soil changes so radically in a short period of time. Fungi and bacteria found in the soil that bind it

together begin to decline, which creates an additional problem of soil erosion.

The fertility slowly diminishes, making land unsuitable for agriculture and any local vegetation

to survive. The soil pollution causes large tracts of land to become hazardous to health. Unlike

deserts, which are suitable for its native vegetation, such land cannot support most forms of life.

103 Id.

3. Decreased Soil Fertility: The toxic chemicals present in the soil can decrease soil fertility and

therefore decrease in the soil yield. The contaminated soil is then used to produce fruits and

vegetables which lacks quality nutrients and may contain some poisonous substance to cause

serious health problems in people consuming them.

4. Toxic Dust: The emission of toxic and foul gases from landfills pollutes the environment and

causes serious effects on health of some people. The unpleasant smell causes inconvenience to

other people.

5. Changes in Soil Structure: The death of many soil organisms (e.g. earthworms) in the soil

can lead to alteration in soil structure. Apart from that, it could also force other predators to

move to other places in search of food.

A number of ways have been suggested to curb the current rate of pollution. Such attempts at

cleaning up the environment require plenty of time and resources to be pitched in. Industries

have been given regulations for the disposal of hazardous waste, which aims at minimizing the

area that becomes polluted. Organic methods of farming are being supported, which do not use

chemical laden pesticides and fertilizers. Use of plants that can remove the pollutants from the

soil is being encouraged. However, the road ahead is quite long and the prevention of soil

pollution will take many more years.

Marine Pollution

Marine pollution, also known as ocean pollution, is the spreading of harmful substances such as

oil, plastic, industrial and agricultural waste and chemical particles into the ocean. Since oceans

provide home to wide variety of marine animals and plants, it is responsibility of every citizen to

play his or her part in making these oceans clean so that marine species can thrive for long period

of time.104

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Mining for materials such as copper and gold is a major source of contamination in the ocean.

For example, copper is a major source of pollutant in the ocean and can interfere with the life

cycles of numerous marine organisms and life.105

Causes of Marine Pollution106

There are various ways for how pollution enters the ocean:

1. Sewage: Pollution can enter the ocean directly. Sewage or polluting substances flow through

sewage, rivers, or drainages directly into the ocean. This is often how minerals and substances

from mining camps find their way into the ocean. The release of other chemical nutrients into the

ocean’s ecosystem leads to reductions in oxygen levels, the decay of plant life, a severe decline

in the quality of the sea water itself. As a result, all levels of oceanic life, plants and animals, are

highly affected.

2. Toxic Chemicals From Industries: Industrial and agricultural waste are another most

common form of wastes that are directly discharged into the oceans, resulting in ocean pollution.

The dumping of toxic liquids in the ocean directly affects the marine life as they are considered

hazardous and secondly, they raise the temperature of the ocean, known as thermal pollution, as

the temperature of these liquids is quite high. Animals and plants that cannot survive at higher

temperatures eventually perish.

3. Land Runoff: Land runoff is another source of pollution in the ocean. This occurs when water

infiltrates the soil to its maximum extent and the excess water from rain, flooding or melting

flows over the land and into the ocean. Often times, this water picks up man-made, harmful

contaminants that pollute the ocean, including fertilizers, petroleum, pesticides and other forms

of soil contaminants. Fertilizers and waste from land animals and humans can be a huge

detriment to the ocean by creating dead zones.

4. Large Scale Oil Spills: Ship pollution is a huge source of ocean pollution, the most

devastating effect of which is oil spills. Crude oil lasts for years in the sea and is extremely toxic

to marine life, often suffocating marine animals to death once it entraps them. Crude oil is also

105 Id. 106 Id.

extremely difficult to clean up, unfortunately meaning that when it is split; it is usually there to

stay.

In addition, many ships lose thousands of crates each year due to storms, emergencies, and

accidents. This causes noise pollution (excessive, unexpected noise that interrupts the balance of

life, most often caused by modes of transportation), excessive algae, and ballast water. Often

times, other species can also invade an ecosystem and do harm to it by interrupting the life cycles

of other organisms, causing a clash of nature that has already been damaged by the overflow of

pollution.

5. Ocean Mining: Ocean mining in the deep sea is yet another source of ocean pollution. Ocean

mining sites drilling for silver, gold, copper, cobalt and zinc create sulfide deposits up to three

and a half thousand meters down in to the ocean. While we have yet the gathering of scientific

evidence to fully explain the harsh environmental impacts of deep sea mining, we do have a

general idea that deep sea mining causes damage to the lowest levels of the ocean and increase

the toxicity of the region. This permanent damage dealt also causes leaking, corrosion and oil

spills that only drastically further hinder the ecosystem of the region.

6. Littering: Pollution from the atmosphere is, believe it or not, a huge source of ocean

pollution. This occurs when objects that are far inland are blown by the wind over long distances

and end up in the ocean. These objects can be anything from natural things like dust and sand, to

man-made objects such as debris and trash. Most debris, especially plastic debris, cannot

decompose and remains suspended in the oceans current for years. Animals can become snagged

on the plastic or mistake it for food, slowly killing them over a long period of time. Animals who

are most often the victims of plastic debris include turtles, dolphins, fish, sharks, crabs, sea birds,

and crocodiles.

In addition, the temperature of the ocean is highly affected by carbon dioxide and climate

changes, which impacts primarily the ecosystems and fish communities that live in the ocean. In

particular, the rising levels of Co2 acidify the ocean in the form of acid rain. Even though the

ocean can absorb carbon dioxide that originates from the atmosphere, the carbon dioxide levels

are steadily increasing and the ocean’s absorbing mechanisms, due to the rising of the ocean’s

temperatures, are unable to keep up with the pace.

Effects of Marine Pollution107

1. Effect of Toxic Wastes on Marine Animals: Oil spill is dangerous to marine life in several

ways. The oil spilled in the ocean could get on to the gills and feathers of marine animals, which

makes it difficult for them to move or fly properly or feed their children. The long term effect on

marine life can include cancer, failure in the reproductive system, behavioral changes, and even

death.

2. Disruption to the Cycle of Coral Reefs: Oil spill floats on the surface of water and prevents

sunlight from reaching to marine plants and affects in the process of photosynthesis. Skin

irritation, eye irritation, lung and liver problems can impact marine life over long period of time.

3. Depletes Oxygen Content in Water: Most of the debris in the ocean does not decompose and

remain in the ocean for years. It uses oxygen as it degrades. As a result of this, oxygen levels go

down. When oxygen levels go down, the chances of survival of marine animals like whales,

turtles, sharks, dolphins, penguins for long time also go down.

4. Failure in the Reproductive System of Sea Animals: Industrial and agricultural wastes

include various poisonous chemicals that are considered hazardous for marine life. Chemicals

from pesticides can accumulate in the fatty tissue of animals, leading to failure in their

reproductive system.

5. Effect on Food Chain: Chemicals used in industries and agriculture get washed into the rivers

and from there are carried into the oceans. These chemicals do not get dissolved and sink at the

bottom of the ocean. Small animals ingest these chemicals and are later eaten by large animals,

which then affect the whole food chain.

6. Affects Human Health: Animals from impacted food chain are then eaten by humans which

affects their health as toxins from these contaminated animals gets deposited in the tissues of

people and can lead to cancer, birth defects or long term health problems.

Thermal Pollution

107 Id.

Thermal pollution is defined as sudden increase or decrease in temperature of a natural body of

water which may be ocean, lake, river or pond by human influence. This normally occurs when a

plant or facility takes in water from a natural resource and puts it back with an altered

temperature. Usually, these facilities use it as a cooling method for their machinery or to help

better produce their products.108

In layman’s terms, thermal pollution is when an industry or other human-made organization

takes in water from a natural source and either cools it down or heats it up. They then eject that

water back into the natural resource, which changes the oxygen levels and can have disastrous

effects on local ecosystems and communities.

Plants that produce different products or waste water facilities are often the culprits of this

massive exodus of thermal pollution. In order to properly control and maintain thermal pollution,

humans and governments have been taking many steps to effectively manage how plants are able

to use the water. However, the effects are still lasting today.

Causes of Thermal Pollution

1. Water as Cooling Agent in Power, Manufacturing and Industrial plants: Production and

Manufacturing plants are biggest source of thermal pollution. These plants draw water from

nearby source to keep machines cool and then release back to the source with higher

temperature. When heated water returns to the river or ocean, the water temperature rises

sharply. When oxygen levels are altered in the water, this can also degrade the quality and

longevity of life in wildlife that lives underwater. This process can also wipe away streamside

vegetation, which constantly depends on constant levels of oxygen and temperature. By altering

these natural environments, industries are essentially helping decrease the quality of life for these

marines based life forms and can ultimately destroy habitats if they are not controlled and careful

about their practices.

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2. Soil Erosion: Soil erosion is another major factor that causes thermal pollution. Consistent

soil erosion causes water bodies to rise, making them more exposed to sunlight. The high

temperature could prove fatal for aquatic biomes as it may give rise to anaerobic conditions.

3. Deforestation: Trees and plants prevent sunlight from falling directly on lakes, ponds or

rivers. When deforestation takes place, these water bodies are directly exposed to sunlight, thus

absorbing more heat and raising its temperature. Deforestation is also a main cause of the higher

concentrations of greenhouse gases i.e. global warming in the atmosphere.

4. Runoff from Paved Surfaces: Urban runoff discharged to surface waters from paved surfaces

like roads and parking lots can make water warmer. During summer seasons, the pavement gets

quite hot, which creates warm runoff that gets into the sewer systems and water bodies.

5. Natural Causes: Natural causes like volcanoes and geothermal activity under the oceans and

seas can trigger warm lava to raise the temperature of water bodies. Lightening can also

introduce massive amount of heat into the oceans. This means that the overall temperature of the

water source will rise, having significant impacts on the environment.

Effects of Thermal Pollution

Among recognized scientists and scholars, there are generally two schools of thought when it

comes to the effects of thermal pollution. Some lean on the side of the negatives of this pollution

on marine ecosystems and how it is detrimental to positive environmental practices. However,

some lean towards the side that without these industries operating the way they do, then some of

the most basic parts of human life would be completely obsolete. Waste water would not be able

to be properly maintained, we would have no industries that could produce the goods we need,

and so on. The effects of thermal pollution on ecosystems, however, greatly outweigh the

benefits that industries have by participating in the act.

1. Decrease in DO (Dissolved Oxygen) Levels: The warm temperature reduces the levels of DO

(Dissolved Oxygen) in water. The warm water holds relatively less oxygen than cold water. The

decrease in DO can create suffocation for plants and animals such as fish, amphibians and

copepods, which may give rise to anaerobic conditions. Warmer water allows algae to flourish

on surface of water and over the long term growing algae can decrease oxygen levels in the

water.

2. Increase in Toxins: With the constant flow of high temperature discharge from industries,

there is a huge increase in toxins that are being regurgitated into the natural body of water. These

toxins may contain chemicals or radiation that may have harsh impact on the local ecology and

make them susceptible to various diseases.

3. Loss of Biodiversity: A dent in the biological activity in the water may cause significant loss

of biodiversity. Changes in the environment may cause certain species of organisms to shift their

base to some other place while their could be significant number of species that may shift in

because of warmer waters. Organisms that can adapt easily may have an advantage over

organisms that are not used to the warmer temperatures.

4. Ecological Impact: A sudden thermal shock can result in mass killings of fish, insects, plants

or amphibians. Hotter water may prove favorable for some species while it could be lethal for

other species. Small water temperature increases the level of activity while higher temperature

decreases the level of activity. Many aquatic species are sensitive to small temperature changes

such as one degree Celsius that can cause significant changes in organism metabolism and other

adverse cellular biology effects.

5. Affects Reproductive Systems: A significant halt in the reproduction of marine wildlife

(although this may be true, reproduction can still occur between fish – but the likelihood of

defects in newborns is significantly higher) can happen due to increasing temperatures as

reproduction can happen within certain range of temperature. Excessive temperature can cause

the release of immature eggs or can prevent normal development of certain eggs.

6. Increases Metabolic Rate: Thermal pollution increases the metabolic rate of organisms as

increasing enzyme activity occurs that causes organisms to consume more food than what is

normally required, if their environment were not changed. It disrupts the stability of food chain

and alter the balance of species composition.

7. Migration: The warm water can also cause particular species of organisms to migrate to

suitable environment that would cater to its requirements for survival. This can result in loss for

those species that depend on them for their daily food as their food chain is interrupted.

Above all else, the most important thing to consider is that the effects of thermal pollution

greatly outweigh the human need for it to be done. Plants and industries have been able to find

successful ways around thermal pollution, but many of them are not practicing it because it’s

simply easier to work from the traditional model. If we want to promote the thriving environment

that surrounds marine biology, then the attitude around thermal pollution needs to take a drastic

turn. By being aware of the causes and effects, you can have a significant impact on how these

plants choose to operate and you can opt to make change.

Radiation Pollution

Radiation pollution may be defined as the increase in the natural radiation levels due to human

activities. It is estimated that about 20% of radiation is due to human activities.109 While nuclear

explosions and bombs are serious sources of high levels radiation (of high energy), there are

many other sources much more common, practically ubiquitous, that generate low levels of

radiation and which basically remain unnoticed. For example of cellular phones are sources of

radiation. And yet, the cell phones, cell phone towers, cordless phones, as well as TVs,

computers, microwave ovens, broadcast antennas, military and aviation radars, satellites, and

wireless internet are all sources of radiation. And so are the common medical X-Rays…

Considering this, the radiation pollution picture significantly expands. From some explosions

and nuclear accidents happening relatively rarely in faraway places, the picture of radiation

pollution expands as a complex matrix covering all the Earth and thus involving all people

everywhere.

The human activities that may release radiation involve activities with radioactive materials such

as mining, handling and processing of radioactive materials, handling and storage of radioactive

109

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waste, as well as the use of radioactive reactions to generate energy (nuclear power plants), along

the use of radiation in medicine (e.g. X-Rays) and research.

Radiation is essentially energy that travels and spreads out as it goes. This is referred to as

electromagnetic radiation. Examples include: visible light, radio waves, microwaves, infrared

and ultraviolet lights, X-rays, and gamma-rays. The differences between these various types of

radiation consist in some physical properties such as energy, frequency, and wavelength. Thus,

there are a variety of electromagnetic radiations. This means that any and all these types of

radiation can generate radiation pollution if they are added by human activities. However, the

magnitude of the generated pollution varies, with higher-risk pollution generated by radiation of

higher energy such as gamma-rays regardless of exposure time. This radiation is generated

through detonation of nuclear weapons or in power plants. Therefore, the meaning of radiation

pollution is that while there are ubiquitous sources of radiation, mostly the high-energy

radiations cause radiation pollution with a serious health risk (such as cancer or death). This is

why we will focus on sources for high-health risk radiation when discussing the radiation

pollution causes and effects. However, the other types of radiation (in low doses over longer

time) may still cause health problems including neurological, reproductive, and cardiac.

Causes of Radiation Pollution110

The radiation pollution causes are various human activities, that add to natural radiation

background (radiation produced everywhere in the Universe in absence of human activities).

Sources of Radiation Pollution

The sources of radiation pollution involve any process that emanates radiation in the

environment. While there are many causes of radiation pollution (including research and medical

procedures and wastes, nuclear power plants, TVs, computers, radio waves, cell-phones, etc.),

the most common ones that can pose moderate to serious health risks include:

110 Guide to Understanding and Recognising Pollution Issues, Environment Pollution Centers,

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1. Nuclear explosions and detonations of nuclear weapons – probably the highest amounts of

human-induced radiation pollution have been generated in the mid twenty century through

various experimental or combat nuclear detonations (that ended the Second World War).

2. Defense weapon production – may also release radioactivity from the handled radioactive

materials (usually of high health risks). However, unless accident occurs, the current standards

will not allow the release of any significant amount of radiation.

3. Nuclear waste handling and disposal – may generate low to medium radiation over long

period of times. The radioactivity may contaminate and propagate through air, water, and soil as

well. Thus, their effects may not be easily distinguishable and are hard to predict. Additional,

some nuclear waste location may not be identified. The main issue with the radiation waste is the

fact that it cannot be degraded or treated chemically or biologically. Thus, the only options are to

contain the waste by storing it in tightly closed containers shielded with radiation-protective

materials (such as Pb) or, if containing is not possible, to dilute it. The waste may also be

contained by storage in remote areas with little or no life (such as remote caves or abandoned salt

mines). However, in time, the shields (natural or artificial) may be damaged. Additionally, the

past waste disposal practices may not have used appropriate measures to isolate the radiation.

Thus, such areas need to be carefully identified and access restrictions promptly imposed.

4. Mining of radioactive ores (such as uranium ores) – involve the crushing and processing of

radioactive ores and generate radioactive by-products. Mining of other ores may also generate

radioactive wastes (such as mining of phosphate ores).

5. Nuclear accidents – an already classic example of such accident is the nuclear explosion at a

former Soviet nuclear power plant from Chernobyl that occurred in the mid 1986. Its effects are

still seen today. Another example is the 1979 explosion at Three Mile Island nuclear-power

generating plant near Harrisburg, PA. The general problems at nuclear weapons reactors are

other examples of this type of sources of radiation pollution. Even accidents from handling

medical nuclear materials/wastes could have radiation health effects on workers.

Effects of Radiation Pollution111

The radiation pollution effects vary depending on the amount of radiation to which we are

exposed and on the sensitivity of each exposed individual. Thus, while exposure to high amounts

of radiation almost always generate serious diseases (cancer is the most common radiation-

induced disease) or immediate death, serious life-threatening diseases may develop even from

exposure to small amounts of radiation but, in general, over long periods of time, especially in

sensitive individuals (the genetic inheritance plays an important role in how sensitive an

individual may be to radiation pollution). This is why there is no safe exposure limit

to radiation pollution. Here are some general facts related to radiation exposure effects:

1. Exposure to High Amounts of Radiation - Radiation Pollution and Cancer

Any amount of radiation may cause cancer, especially in sensitive individuals. Thus, it is

always safer to minimize as much as possible the exposure to radiation. Cancer due

to radiation exposure at lower doses usually develops years after the actual exposure. While the

risk of developing cancer increases with the dose of radiation, the risk may vary largely between

individuals.

Cancer generation is the most typical health effect of radiation exposure, especially when high

or moderate amounts of radiation are involved (in general regardless of the exposure

period). Lung cancer is a typical example of the effect of exposure to radon, which is the second

leading cause of lung cancer in the U.S. (please note that the risk of developing lung cancer

increases with smoking).

Thyroid tumors / cancer may also develop due to the effect of radioactive iodine that

accumulates in the thyroid. This is why, when radiation accident occurs, the intake of non-

radioactive dose of iodine is taken as precaution in order to leave no space for the radioactive

iodine to bind and accumulate.

Skin cancer may also develop as a result to prolonged UV exposure at tanning saloons and/or

beaches, especially since the ozone layer gets weaker in protecting us.

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The many years of monitoring of radiation effects from detonation of nuclear bombs in Japan

in 1940’s, showed that cancers may develop immediately following the exposure to radiation or

after shorter or longer periods (up to 30 years from the exposure) of time since the exposure

occurred.

2. Exposure to Low Amounts of Radiation over Long Periods of Time

The health effects of exposure to low amounts of radiation over longer times are not well-known,

but the genetic material may be threatened through mutations with unpredictable overall effects.

Thus, genetic birth defects and retardation are possible due to parent exposures. Also

other health problems may develop affecting the neurological, reproductive or cardiac

systems. These may or may not be followed by cancer. Other factors may influence the

development of diseases due to radiation.

Hypothyroidism may also be a radiation cause due to the destruction of thyroid gland by

radioactive accumulated iodine.

Consequences/Impact of Environmental Pollution

Pollution disturbs our ecosystem and the balance in the environment. With modernization and

development in our lives pollution has reached its peak; giving rise to global warming and

human illness. The following are the important consequences of environmental pollution.112

Environment Degradation

Environment is the first casualty for increase in pollution weather in air or water. The increase in

the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere leads to smog which can restrict sunlight from reaching the

earth. Thus, preventing plants in the process of photosynthesis. Gases like Sulfur dioxide and

nitrogen oxide can cause acid rain. Water pollution in terms of Oil spill may lead to death of

several wildlife species.

Impact on Human Health

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The decrease in quality of air leads to several respiratory problems including asthma or lung

cancer. Chest pain, congestion, throat inflammation, cardiovascular disease, respiratory disease

are some of diseases that can be causes by air pollution. Water pollution occurs due to

contamination of water and may pose skin related problems including skin irritations and rashes.

Similarly, Noise pollution leads to hearing loss, stress and sleep disturbance.

Global Warming

The emission of greenhouse gases particularly CO2 is leading to global warming. Every other

day new industries are being set up, new vehicles come on roads and trees are cut to make way

for new homes. All of them, in direct or indirect way lead to increase in CO2 in the environment.

The increase in CO2 leads to melting of polar ice caps which increases the sea level and pose

danger for the people living near coastal areas.

Ozone Layer Depletion

Ozone layer is the thin shield high up in the sky that stops ultra violet rays from reaching the

earth. As a result of human activities, chemicals, such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), were

released into the atmosphere which contributed to the depletion of ozone layer.

Infertile Land

Due to constant use of insecticides and pesticides, the soil may become infertile. Plants may not

be able to grow properly. Various forms of chemicals produced from industrial waste is released

into the flowing water which also affects the quality of soil. Presence of dangerous unnatural

ingredients causing imbalance in the ecosystems and health hazards to human beings and

animals is called pollution. Pollution is mainly found in air, water, soil, food and sound. Major

human activities like industries, agriculture, and health care, transport, dwelling and energy

generation are the causes of pollution. Many industries like textile, paper, steel, sugar, petroleum,

food, chemical and cement industries cause air pollution, water pollution and soil pollution.

Modern agriculture - encouraging the large scale of fertilizers and pesticides - is primary cause

of drinking water pollution. Transport has been the main reason for air pollution in most cities.

Vehicular traffic releasing carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide has caused large

scale air pollution in cities.

Pollution of air is the major cause human health problems such as respiratory problems, lung /

throat, cancer etc. Pollution of water is also the main cause of health problems like gastero -

enteritis formation of ulcers, tumors. Health problems due to pollution range form simple

vomiting and skin irritations to intestinal cancer, brain tumors, from simple fever to fatal

hepatitis, from throat irritation to deadly heart diseases.

Foods that we eat are polluted because of use of pesticides, use of polluted water or microbial

activities. Many persistent pesticides enter food chains and accumulate in bodies at larger

concentrations. Soil pollution by various solids and liquids has created imbalances in soil

ecosystems besides creating number of ecological hazards in cities and villages. Control of

pollution has been a formidable challenge to human civilization. As the pollution grows with the

civilization and growing population, the control of pollution is more challenging. Several

measures have been adopted, suggested imposed in industries, in agriculture and urban dwellings

to control the pollution. However, fast growing population and high capital requirement are the

major problems being faced to implement the scientific methods of pollution control.