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Chapter-IV

Part-I WETLANDS DISTRIBUTION IN INDIA

-A study with special focus on Karnataka 4.1 Introduction

Wetlands are the vital link between land and water. They are the corridors through

which life evolved, prospered, came ashore and conquered the terrestrial areas.

Human lives are invariably intertwined with the wetland ecosystems and also in the

evolution of their civilizations1. An estimate 6 percent of the land surface of the world

is wetland (Bazilevich, Rodin and Rozov1971). They are distributed in all climatic

zones of the earth except Antarctica. Wetlands vary in size from micro-wetlands,

possibly housing rare endemic species, to the vast ecosystem of Lake Victoria and the

Nile, which has an estimated catchments area of 2.9 million square KM, one tenth of

the area of Africa. They are dynamic systems, continually undergoing natural change

due to flooding, subsidence, drought, and sea-level rise or infilling with sediment or

organic material. Many wetlands are only temporary features of the landscape and

will change and eventually disappear, whilst new wetlands are naturally created

elsewhere.2

4.2 Global Scenario of Wetlands

The earth, two-thirds of which is covered by water, looks like a blue planet-the planet

of water-from space (Clarke, 1994). The world's lakes and rivers are probably the

planet's most important freshwater resources. However, the amount of fresh water

covers only 2.53% of the earth's water. On the earth's surface, fresh water is the

habitat of a large number of species. These aquatic organisms and the ecosystem in

which they live represent a substantial sector of the earth's biological diversity. It is

interesting to know that there are nearly 14 x 108 cubic km of water on the planet, of

1 Jyoti Parikh and Hemant Datye, ‘Sustainable Management of Wetlands: bio-diversity and beyond.’ Sage publication, New Delhi, Edi-2003, p-40

2 Shine, C., & de Klemm, C. (1999) “Wetlands, water, and the law: Using law to advance wetland conservation and wise use” (IUCN environmental policy and law paper no. 38). Gland, Switzerland: IUCN.p.4

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which more than 97.5% is in the oceans, which covers 71% of the earth's surface.

Wetlands are estimated to occupy nearly 6.4% of the earth's surface. Of those

wetlands, nearly 30% is made up of bogs, 26% fens, 20% swamps, and 15% flood

plains. Of the earth's fresh water, 69.6% is locked up in the continental ice, 30.1% in

underground aquifers, and 0.26% in rivers and lakes. In particular, lakes are found to

occupy less than 0.007% of world's fresh water (Clarke, 1994).The total number of

animal species, reported from, is 89,461; out of which17,853 belong to wetlands

comprising 19.9% of the total number. About 50,000 ha area of wetlands is degraded

every year in Asia. It results in soil acidification, soil erosion, loss of soil nutrients,

change in hydrology, loss of flora and fauna and disruption of delicate ecosystem.

As defined by the Ramsar Convention, wetlands include a wide variety of habitats

such as marshes, peat lands, floodplains, rivers and lakes, and coastal areas such as

salt marshes, mangroves, and sea grass beds. It has coral reefs and other marine areas

no deeper than six meters at low tide, as well as human-made wetlands such as

wastewater treatment ponds and reservoirs. The Convention on Wetlands (Ramsar,

Iran, 1971) is an intergovernmental treaty whose mission is “the conservation and

wise use of all wetlands through local, regional and national actions and international

cooperation, as a contribution towards achieving sustainable development throughout

the world”.

As of December 2009, 159 nations have joined the Convention as Contracting

Parties, and more than 1880 (sites) wetlands around the world, covering over

184,969,024 hectares surface area,3 have been designated for inclusion in the Ramsar

List of Wetlands of International Importance. The Convention on Wetlands has

adopted the following vision for the List of Wetlands of International Importance.4

“To develop and maintain an international network of wetlands which are important

for the conservation of global biological diversity and for sustaining human life

through the maintenance of their ecosystem components, process and

benefits/services.”

3 Refer: Ramsar Convention today, available at www.ramsar.org visited on 18-12-2009 4 Refer; Handbooks Manuels Manuales, No.14, 3rd edition,2007,page.3-8,Ramsar Secretariat, Gland, Switzerland

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In order to realize the vision for the Ramsar List described above, the Contracting

Parties, the Convention’s International Organization Partners, local stakeholders, and

the Ramsar Secretariat will work cooperatively towards accomplishing the following

four objectives;

(i)To establish national networks of Ramsar sites in each Contracting Party which

fully represent the diversity of wetlands and their key ecological and hydrological

functions.

(ii) To contribute to maintaining global biological diversity through the designation

and management of appropriate wetland sites.

(iii)To foster cooperation among Contracting Parties, the Convention’s International

Organization Partners, and local stakeholders in the selection, designation, and

management of Ramsar sites.

(iv) To use the Ramsar site network as a tool to promote national, supranational/

regional, and international cooperation in relation to complementary environment

treaties.

The Convention stresses the importance of wetlands as rich centers of biological diversity

and productivity and as life support systems for human populations, and the Parties are

concerned at the continuing loss and degradation of wetlands in many parts of the world.

In response to this concern, the Parties have set the following short-term target i.e. to

ensure that the List of Wetlands of International Importance contains at least 2,500 sites

covering 250 million hectares by 2010. Under the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, the

two concepts of wise use and site designation are fully compatible and mutually

reinforcing. The Contracting Parties are expected to designate sites for the List of

Wetlands of International Importance “on account of their international significance in

terms of ecology, botany, zoology, limnology or hydrology” (Article 2.2). And to

“formulate and implement their planning so as to promote the conservation of the

wetlands included in the List, and as far as possible the wise use of wetlands in their

territory” (Article 3.1).

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Wetlands have been identified as one of the key life support systems on this planet in

concert with agricultural lands and forests. This has been a key theme in the evolving

global support and political commitment for sustainable development and environmental

conservation as articulated in the Ramsar Convention’s Strategic Plan 1997-2002, the

World Conservation Strategy, Caring for the Earth, the report of the Brundtland

Commission, and Agenda 21. The role of wetlands has emerged as a key element in the

delivery of inland freshwater and coastal ecosystem conservation through the Convention

on Biological Diversity. The importance of our wetlands goes beyond their status as the

habitat of many endangered plant and animal species. They are a vital element of national

and global ecosystems and economies. The seriousness of the continuing loss of wetlands

demands a new approach to wetland management. A major portion of the wetland area in

settled areas has been converted from its natural state to support alternative land uses

including agriculture, urbanization, industry, and recreational pursuits.

Wetlands have also been degraded by land use practices that have resulted in vegetation

destruction, nutrient and toxin loading, sedimentation, turbidity, and altered flow regimes.

Dredging, intensive aquaculture, logging and acid rain have also affected the natural

balance of wetlands. The disruption of wetland functions has a high cost — economically,

socially and ecologically. The disturbance of their natural balance can destroy critical

gene pools required for medical and agricultural purposes, it can affect their ability to

naturally improve water quality and it can ruin their use for educational and recreational

purposes. The disruption of valuable wetlands must cease, the diversity of remaining

wetlands must be retained, and where possible rehabilitation, restoration and re-creation

of wetlands must be attempted. The obstacles and possible solutions to this issue of

quantitative and qualitative loss of wetlands are outlined below. It is thus critical that the

importance of wetlands and their conservation be demonstrated to be essential to the well

being of the citizens of a nation. Wetland conservation is vital to achieving the objectives

of biodiversity conservation described in international treaties and their related

international obligations. Wetlands play a significant role in delivery of these objectives

as can be exemplified in the case of the elements of the World Conservation Strategy:5

5 Refer; Handbooks Manuels Manuales, Hand book no.2, National Wetland Policies, 3rd edition- 2007,page.7-9,Ramsar Secretariat, Gland, Switzerland.

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• Maintenance of essential ecological processes and life-support systems:

Wetlands perform these functions in various ways; some maintain and improve water

quality, some regulate flows to reduce flooding and may augment late summer stream

flows, and some recharge groundwater supply. Wetlands are important as

reproduction and staging areas for migratory birds, as spawning and nursery grounds

for fish, and as habitat for a great many invertebrates, reptiles, amphibians and plants.

• Preservation of genetic diversity: Wetlands play an essential role in maintaining

wildlife populations, providing key habitat for a diverse fauna and flora. Wetlands are

home to about one third of the wildlife species that have been identified as

endangered, threatened or rare.

• Sustainable utilization of species and ecosystems: Many local and provincial

(state)/territorial economies rely directly on wetland resources such as fish and

wildlife, plant products and wood. Renewable resources associated with wetlands are

central to the traditional subsistence lifestyle of a nation’s aboriginal and indigenous

peoples. Wetlands also support substantial tourism and recreational opportunities,

such as hunting, fishing, bird watching and nature photography.

Meeting the challenge of conserving wetlands of international and national

significance requires comprehensive national policies to provide a basis for domestic

action and a framework for international and national cooperation. Such policy for

wetlands can be valuable as countries seek to address the management and habitat

requirements for wildlife and other biological resources as well as for human needs

for the current and future generations.6

Status of Wetlands in Asia: It is estimated that there are about 120 million hectares

of permanent rice paddies in the region covered by the Directory of Asian

wetlands.80% of this total occurs in just seven countries: Indonesia, China, Guinea,

Bangladesh, Myanmar (Burma) and Vietnam. The directory has information on 947

of the most important wetlands; 216 in South Asia, 373 in Southeast Asia (including

Myanmar, the Philippines and Guinea) and 358 in Asia (China to Japan and Korea).

6 Ibid.P.9-10

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The total area wetlands are approximately 73.4million hectares.7 The Asian Wetland

Directory reveals that the majority of natural wetlands ecosystems in southern and

eastern Asia are under threat. Although comprising only about 14% of the world’s

land surface area. Asia currently supports about 56% of the world’s human

population, and thus has population density about eight times that of the rest of the

world. Further more, population is increasing at the rate of about 55 million per

annum. Most of the wetlands in Asia are a direct consequence of the need to feed and

house this ever-increasing number of human beings. In many countries, deforestation,

overgrazing and slash-burn farming have led to severe soil erosion. As the major

rivers, become choked with silt, the chance of continuous flooding increases. The

shrinkage of floodplain lakes due to siltation has lowered their capacity to store

floodwaters, further increasing the rate of flooding downstream. Many of the dams

and barrages constructed for irrigation have caused the loss of many natural wetlands

downstream. Coastal wetlands are under extreme pressure from drainage for

agriculture for agricultural and disease control. Large areas of mangroves have been

destroyed to make room for aquaculture ponds, and in some countries, vast areas of

mangroves and swamp forests have been cleared for agriculture or degraded by non-

sustainable timber exploitation. Pollution from domestic sewage and agricultural

chemicals and eroded soil is a serious in many areas. Industrial pollution is becoming

a major problem as nations become more developed.8 The mitigation of these threats

can only be achieved through a general improvement in the management of water

resources at regional level. This would require an important in the protection and

management of watersheds, strict controls on all forms of water pollution and better

land-use planning. The issue of resource tenure, affecting access to and control of

wetlands complicate wetlands management. Except for stable artificial wetlands

converted to agricultural or aquaculture by private individuals, most wetlands are

common property resources and communities have some form of legislations for their

management. In many cases, a land allocation program has been implemented; but in

other cases, enterprises have signed contracts with households to exploit resources

subject to conditions. Case studies from communities reveal a trend that some

common property has been privatized, reflecting influences of the market economy. 7 Refer; the Directory of Asian Wetlands, 1989 8 Ramachandra.T.V., Kiran.R, and Ahalya.N. “Status, Conservation and Management of Wetlands”, Allied publishers(p)Ltd.,2002,New Delhi .Edition-2002,p138-139

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This creates a challenge for the institutions, which are used to a common property

regime. The process has affected poor communities’ access and control of resources,

leading to social problems. With the weakening of a common-property management

regime, resources become open -access resources, threatening the suitability of the

system. The “tragedy of the commons” described by Hardin has emerged and

conflicts among resource users have increased. This suggests that developing a

framework for wetland resource management begins with an analysis of the problems

confronted by the users.9Institutional issues of wetland management need to be

analyzed in different ways and include all stakeholders. Local communities consider

wetlands a source of livelihood while government agencies consider wetlands

management in terms of a legal framework for protection and sustainable

development.

4.3 Distribution and Status of Wetlands in India

India is a nation of extraordinary diversity, the second largest in Asia and the seventh

largest and second most populous country on Earth. It is the giant of the Indian

subcontinent, which comprises fully one third of Asia. India supports one seventh of

humanity and this population is continuing to increase at an astonishing rate. The

demands of these 800 million people, the vast majority of whom, being

agriculturalists, are concentrated in the same areas as India's principal wetlands, place

incredible pressure on the nation's natural resources; the survival of the sites described

in this inventory depends upon the attitudes and awareness of these people.10 In India,

a survey conducted by the Ministry of Environment and Forest (MoEF) in 1990

showed that wetlands occupied an estimated 4.1 million hectares. According to the

Directory of Asian Wetlands (1995), wetlands occupy 58.2 million hectares or 18.4%

of the country areas (excluding rivers), of which 40.90 million hectares (70%) are

under paddy cultivation. India accounts for 16% of the world’s population in 2.42%

of the earth’s surface. About 74% of human population is rural (HDR1999) and

subject wetlands to stress from various anthropocentric activities. Human

9 Dr.Trinh Truong Giang, Hoangy Huu Cai and Le Quang Thong, Article on “Wetlands Study: Lessons Learned and Future Challenges”-University of Agricultural and Forestry, HCMC, Thu Duc District, Ho Chi Minh City,Vietnam,p.71-73 10 James A, Woistencroft, S.A. Hussain and C.K.Varshney INDIA, Introduction. Pub: Wetlands International PDF article.page.1

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communities in India are closely associated with wetlands since the Indus valley

civilization, which flourished along the banks of river Indus. The water bodies and

their resources have been an integral part of the social and cultural ethos of human

societies. Currently about 170 million people constituting 17% of India’s total

population in more than3, 800 coastal villages are scattering along 7,500Km coastline.

The communities living close to wetlands follow the natural cycle of floods. They

have to adjust to the seasonal movements of the fish and harvest them based on

changing water levels.11 India has totally 67,429 wetlands, covering an area of about

4.1 million hectares (MOEF, 1990).Out of these, 2175 is natural and 65,254, man-

made. Wetlands in India (excluding rivers), account for 18.4% of the country’s

geographic area, of which 70% is under paddy cultivation. Out of 4.1million

hectares of wetlands, 1.5 million hectares were natural and 2.6 million hectares are

man-made (excluding paddy fields, rivers and streams) and mangroves occupying an

estimated 0.45 million hectares. According to the Directory of Asian Wetlands (1989)

wetlands occupy 58.2 million hectares or 18.45 of the country’s area (excluding

rivers), of which 40.90 million hectares (70%0 are under paddy cultivation. (Refer

Table.1.1) The Directory of Indian Wetlands published by WWF and Asian Wetland

Bureau in 1995 records 147 sites as important of which 68 are protected under

National Protected Area Network by the Wildlife protection Act 1972.

Table: Areas of wetlands in India as given below;

Area of Wetlands in India Million hectares -------------------------------------------------------------

Area under wet paddy -cultivation. 40.9 Area suitable for fish culture 3.6 Area under capture fisheries 2.9 Mangroves 0.4 Estuaries 3.9 Backwaters 3.5 Impoundments 3.0 Total Area 58.2

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Source: Extent of wetlands in India (Parikh and Parikh, 1999)

11 Ramachandra.T.V., Kiran.R, and Ahalya.N. Status,Conservation and Management of Wetlands, Allied publishers(p)Ltd.,2002,New Delhi .Edi-2002.Page.10-11

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Table: Wetland Classification System

Category of Wetlands

Inland Wetlands 1.Natural 1.1 Lakes/ponds

1.2 Ox-bow lakes/cut-off meanders

1.3 waterlogged (seasonal)

1.4 Playas

1.1 Swamp/marsh

2.Man-made 2.2 Reservoirs

2.3 Waterlogged

2.4 Abandoned quarries

2.5 Ash pond/ cooling pond

Coastal wetlands 1.Natural 3.1 Estuary

3.2 lagoon

3.3 Creek

3.4 Backwater(kayal)

3.5 Bay

3.6 Tidal flat/mudflat

3.7 Sand/beach/spit/bar

3.8 Coal reef

3.9 Rocky coast

3.10 Mangrove forest

3.11 Salt marsh/marsh vegetation

3.12 Other vegetation

2. Man-made 4.1 Salt pans

4.2 Aquaculture ponds

Source: Anon, 1994.

India, with its annual rainfal1 of over 130 cm, varied topography and climatic

regimes, supports and sustains diverse and unique wetland habitats. Natural wetlands

in India consists of the high-altitude Himalayan lakes, followed by wetlands situated

in the flood plains of the major river systems, saline and temporary wetlands of the

arid and semi-arid regions, coastal wetlands such as lagoons, backwaters and

estuaries, mangrove swamps, coral reefs and marine wetlands, and so on. In fact, with

the exception of bogs, fens and typical salt marshes, Indian wetlands cover the whole

range of the ecosystem types found. In addition to the various types of natural

wetlands, a large number of man-made wetlands also contribute to the faunal and

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floral diversity. These man-made wetlands, which have resulted from the needs of

irrigation, water supply, electricity, fisheries and flood control, are substantial in

number. The various reservoirs, shallow ponds and numerous tanks support wetland

biodiversity and add to the country's wetland wealth. It is estimated that freshwater

wetlands alone support 20 per cent of the known range of biodiversity in India (Deepa

and Ramachandra, 1999). Water is important equally to life and non-life on earth. At

the global level, inland waters amount merely 0.01 percent of the total water available

in the world (excluding the ice caps at the poles). What is more astonishing is that this

minute fraction of water is home to an extraordinarily high level of biodiversity and

providing a vital range of goods and services essential for sustaining human well-

being. Freshwater ecosystems are key component in food web and play an important

role in nutrient recycling. Many communities depend on the freshwater ecosystems

for food and livelihood source. Inland water systems are spatial-temporally dynamic

ecosystems that include very large lakes and rivers, floodplains, peat lands, marshes

and swamps, to small streams, ponds, springs, cave waters, and even very small pools

of water in tree holes and other cavities in plants and soil. They are also associated

with an array of physical, temporal, chemical and biological characteristics.

Temporally, inland water bodies can be perennial or ephemeral and can be running

systems (i.e., rivers or lotic systems) and standing systems such as lakes and ponds

(i.e., lentic systems) (Revenga and Kura 2003). Nearly 99 percent of the inland waters

are freshwaters; hence, freshwater and inland waters are used interchangeably in this

document. At global level, the area of fresh water wetland amounts to 1236.5 million

ha, wherein the contribution from Asia accounts for 16.8 percent. India stands third

among the renewable water resource countries in Asia, and the withdrawal of water

from these sources are mainly utilized for the agriculture purposes.12

12 Dr.D.V.Gururaja and N.A.Aravind, “Inland waters bio-diversity” Energy and Wetland Research Group, Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 99

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Fig V.1: Gersoppa (Jog) Falls, Karnataka – India’s highest falls at 830 ft. 1 Energy and Wetland Research Group, Centre for Ecological Sciences, IISc, Bangalore 99

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Map is not to scale.

Ninety four identified wetlands under National wetland conservation and

management programme

Source: Wetlands of India: A profile (MoEF,Govt.of India)13

13 Also refer: http://envfor.nic.in/divisions/csurv/wwd_booklet.pdf p.4 .visited on:09-01-2009

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Selected photos of Wetlands in India:

Tsomoriri a Ramsar Site, district Leh, Jammu and Kashmir

Dal Lake14, Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir

14 commons.wikimedia.org visited on 25th March 2010

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Wular lake – an oxbow lake, district Baramulla, Jammu & Kashmir

Pong Lake15 – haven for resident and migratory birds,

District Nurpur, Himachala Pradesh

15 http://www.taj-travel-india-miniguide.com/images/pongbirds.jpg visited on 23rd March 2010

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Astamudi16 – an estuarine wetland, district Quillon, Kerala

Chilika Lake-Orissa17

16http://www.google.co.in/images?hl=en&gbv=2&tbs=isch%3A1&sa=1&q=astamudhi+lake&btnG=Se Arch Source: Wetlands of India: A profile (MoEF,Govt.of India)16 17 travelindiaonline.org visited on March 25th 2010

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4.4 State-wise distribution of Wetlands in India

Wetlands in India are distributed in different geographical regions, ranging from the

Himalaya to the Deccan plateau. The variability in climatic conditions and topography

is responsible for significant diversity. Based on their origin, vegetation, nutrient

status and thermal characteristics, they are classified into following different types:18

Glaciatic Wetlands (e.g., Tsomoriri in Jammu and Kashmir, Chandertal in

Himachal Pradesh)

Tectonic Wetlands (e.g., Nilnag in Jammu and Kashmir, Khajjiar in

Himachal Pradesh, and Nainital and Bhimtal in Uttaranchal)

Oxbow Wetlands (e.g., Dal Lake, Wular Lake in Jammu and Kashmir and

Loktak Lake in Manipur and some of the wetlands in the river plains of

Brahmaputra and Indo- Gangetic region. Deepor Beel in Assam, Kabar in

Bihar,Surahtal in Uttar Pradesh)

Lagoons (e.g., Chilika in Orissa)

Crater Wetlands (Lonar lake in Maharashtra)

Salt Water Wetlands (e.g., Pangong Tso in Jammu and Kashmir and

Sambhar in Rajasthan)

Urban Wetlands (e.g., Dal Lake in Jammu and Kashmir, Nainital in

Uttaranchal and Bhoj in Madhya Pradesh)

Ponds/Tanks, Man-made Wetlands (e.g., Harike in Punjab and Pong Dam in

Himachal Pradesh)

Reservoirs (e.g., Idukki, Hirakud dam, Bhakra-Nangal dam)

Mangroves (e.g., Bhitarkanika in Orissa)

Coral reefs (e.g., Lakshadweep)

Others - Creeks (Thane Creek in Maharashtra), seagrasses, estuaries, thermal

springs are some other types of wetlands in the country.

Indian wetlands are mostly associated with river systems distributed from the cold,

arid zone of Ladakh, and the warm, arid zone of Gujarat-Rajasthan to the tropical

18 Refer: State of Environment Report-2009, page.53-54, Published by the, MoEF, Govt.of India,New Delhi. Also available at the website;http://www.moef.gov.in, http://envfor.nic.in visited on 25.10.2008.

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monsoon of central India and the wet, humid zone of the southern peninsula. Of an

estimated 4.1 million hectares (excluding irrigated agricultural lands, rivers, and

streams) of wetlands, 1.5 million hectares are natural and 2.6 are man-made, while the

coastal wetlands occupy an estimated 6,750 sq km, largely dominated by mangroves.

Wetlands in southern peninsular India are mostly man-made. Known as tanks, they

are constructed in every village and provide water for human needs and nesting sites

for a variety of avifauna. It is a well-established fact that development of water

resources is the backbone of any economic activity. The results of wetland loss lead to

environmental and ecological problems, depreciating the socio-economic benefits.

Apart from fishing, wetlands support agriculture, transhumance herding of domestic

livestock, and hunting of wild herbivores migrating in response to flooding pattern.

State wise distribution of Wetlands under National Wetlands Conservation and Management Programme STATE NUMBER OF WETLANDS AREA(Ha)

Andhra Pradesh 1 90100

Assam 2 4504

Bihar 3 11490

Chandigarh 1 148

Gujarat 8 1270875

Himachal Pradesh 5 15736

Harayana 2 288

Jammu &Kashmir 7 117325

Jharkhand 2 98965

Karnataka 7 4250

Kerala 5 213229

Madhya Pradesh 12 359814

Maharashtra 3 40298

Manipur 1 26600

Mizoram 2 285

Orissa 4 122580

Punjab 3 5648

Rajasthan 1 24000

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Sikkim 6 164

Tamilnadu 3 46283

Tripura 1 240

Uttar Pradesh 9 12083

Uttaranchal 1 800

West Bengal 5 553090

Keoladeo National Park19 – an important water fowl refuge,

district Bharathpur, Rajastan

19 tripinnes.alainh.be/photos_files/Keoladeo_Nat... visited on 22nd March 2010

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Lonar Lake20 – the only Creator lake in India formed by Meteoritic impact,

District Buldhana, Maharashtra Source: Wetlands of India: A profile (MoEF, Govt.of India)21

In the recent past, commercially sensitive and economically exploitative attitudes of

society have subjected these ecosystems to stress, in some cases leading to alteration

and hampering of their functions and their ultimate destruction.22 India is blessed with

numerous rivers and streams. By virtue of its geography, varied terrain, and climate, it

supports a rich diversity of inland and coastal wetland habitats. The association of

man and wetlands is ancient. It is not surprising that the first sign of civilization is

traced to wetland areas. The flood plains of the Indus, the Nile delta, and the Fertile

Crescent of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers provided man with all his necessities.

Water may be required for various purposes like drinking and personal hygiene,

fisheries, agriculture, navigation, industrial production, hydropower generation, and

recreational activities. The wide variety of wetlands, like marshes, swamps, bogs, peat

land, open water bodies like lakes and rivers, mangroves, tidal marshes, and so forth.

Humans for various needs and for environmental amelioration can profitably use it.

Ever-increasing population and the consequent urbanization and industrialization have

20 www.fas.org/.../Sect18/lonar_crater_-_india.jpg visited on 22nd March 2010 21 Ibid.4 p.6-7 22T.V.Ramachandra ‘’Restoration and Management of Wetlands in developing countries” IISC,Bangalore p.1-7. Issue 15 December 2001, ISSN: 1076-7975. Also available at, http://wgbis.ces.iisc.ernet.in/wetlandnews/mysore visited on: 6/2/2007.

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mounted serious environmental pressures on these ecosystems and have affected them

to such an extent that their benefits have declined significantly.

Major river systems in the north are Ganga, Yamuna, and Brahmaputra (perennial

rivers from the Himalayas) and in the south, Krishna, Godavari, and Cauvery (not

perennial, as they are mainly rain-fed). The central part of India has the Narmada and

the Tapti. The Indo-Gangetic floodplain is the largest wetland regime of India. Most

of the natural wetlands of India are connected with the river systems of the North and

the South. The lofty Himalayan mountain ranges in northern India accommodate

several well-known lakes, especially the palaearctic lakes of Ladakh and the Vale of

Kashmir, which are sources of major rivers. In the northeastern and eastern parts of

the country are located the massive floodplains of Ganga and Brahmaputra along with

the productive system of swamps, marshes, and oxbow lakes. Apart from this, there

exist a number of man-made wetlands for various multipurpose projects. Examples

are Harike Barrage at the confluence of the Beas and the Sutlej in Punjab, Bhakra

Nagal Dam in Punjab and Himachal Pradesh, and the Cosi Barrage in Bihar-Nepal

Border. India's climate ranges from the cold, arid Ladakh to the warm, arid Rajasthan,

and India has over 7,500 km of coastline, major river systems, and mountains. There

are 67,429 wetlands in India, covering about 4.1 million hectares. Out of these, 2,175

wetlands are natural, covering about 1.5 million hectares, and 65,254 wetlands are

man-made, occupying about 2.6 million hectares. According to Forest Survey of

India, mangroves cover an additional 6,740 sq km. Their major concentrations are

Sunderbans, Andaman, and Nicobar Islands, which hold 80% of the country's

mangroves. The rest are in Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Tamilnadu, Karnataka,

Maharashtra, Gujarat and Goa.

Wetlands have been drained and transformed due to anthropogenic activities that

include unplanned urban, agricultural development, industries, road construction and

impoundments. Further, the resource extraction and dredge disposal, causing

substantial economic and ecological losses in the long term. They occupy about 58.2

million hectares, of which 40.9 million hectares are under paddy cultivation. About

3.6 million hectares are suitable for fish culture. Approximately 2.9 million hectares

are under capture fisheries (brackish and freshwater). Mangroves, estuaries, and

backwaters occupy 0.4, 3.9, and 3.5 million hectares respectively. Man-made

impoundments constitute 3 million hectares. Nearly 28,000 km are under rivers,

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including main tributaries and canals. Canal and irrigation channels constitute another

113,000 km. Though accurate results on wetland loss in India are not available, the

Wildlife Institute of India's survey reveals that 70-80% of individual fresh water

marshes and lakes in the Gangetic flood plains have been lost in the last five decades.

Indian mangrove areas have decreased by half from 700,000 ha in 1987 to 453,000 ha

in 1995.23

Sunderbans lake24

23 Ibid.4. p.29 24 http://7wondersofindia.ndtv.com/images/Nominees/vote/Sunderbans.jpg visited on 23rd March

2010.

127

Table: 1.2 Distributions of Wetlands in India: Identified Ramsar Sites.

Map is not to scale

Identified Ramsar sites in India

Source: Wetlands of India: A profile (MoEF,Govt.of India)

128

Nalsarovar Wetland – one of the identified wetlands under

National wetland conservation and management programme

Source : Wetlands International

129

Ramsar Wetland sites in India

Wetlands of International Importance under Ramsar Convention: (Source: MoEF Govt. of India) 25

The current loss rates in India can lead to serious consequences, where 74% of the

human population is rural (World Development Report, 1994) and many of these

people are resource dependent. Healthy wetlands are essential in India for sustainable

food production and potable water availability for humans and livestock. They are

also necessary for the continued existence of India's diverse populations of wildlife

and plant species; a large number of endemic species are wetland dependent. Most

problems pertaining to India's wetlands are related to human population. India

contains 16% of the world’s population, and yet constitutes only 2.42% of the earth's

25 Refer: www.wetlandsofindia.org. visited on 2-01-2009.

No. Name of Wetland State 1 Ashtamudi Wetland Kerala 2 Bhitarkanika Mangroves Orissa 3 Bhoj Wetland Madhya Pradesh 4 Chandertal Wetland Himachal Pradesh 5 Chilika Lake Orissa 6 Deepor Beel Assam 7 East Calcutta Wetlands West Bengal 8 Harike Lake Punjab 9 Hokera Wetland Jammu and Kashmir 10 Kanjli Punjab 11 Keoladeo National Park MR Rajasthan 12 Kolleru Lake Andhra Pradesh 13 Loktak Lake MR Manipur 14 Point Calimere Tamil Nadu 15 Pong Dam Lake Himachal Pradesh 16 Renuka Wetland Himachal Pradesh 17 Ropar Punjab 18 Rudrasagar Lake Tripura 19 Sambhar Lake Rajasthan 20 Sasthamkotta Lake Kerala 21 Surinsar-Mansar Lakes Jammu and Kashmir 22 Tsomoriri Jammu and Kashmir 23 Vembanad-Kol Wetland Kerala 24 Wular Lake Jammu and Kashmir 25 Upper Ganga River

(Brijghat to Narora Stretch) Uttar Pradesh

MR-sites under Montreaux Record.

130

surface. Indian landscape has contained fewer and fewer natural wetlands over time.

Restoration of these converted wetlands is quite difficult once these sites are occupied

for non-wetland uses. Hence, the demand for wetland products (e.g., water, fish,

wood, fibre, medicinal plants etc.) will increase with increase in population. Wetland

loss refers to physical loss in the spatial extent or loss in the wetland function. The

loss of one km2 of wetlands in India will have much greater impact than the loss of

one km2 of wetlands in low population areas of abundant wetlands (Foote et al,

1996). The wetland loss in India can be divided into two broad group’s namely acute

and chronic losses. The filling up of wet areas with soil constitutes acute loss whereas

the gradual elimination of forest cover with subsequent erosion and sedimentation of

the wetlands over many decades is termed as chronic loss.

4.5 Distribution of Wetlands in Karnataka

Karnataka State is located between 11°31’ and 18° 45’ north latitudes and 74° 12’

and 78° 40’east longitudes. It extends from north to south for about 750km and from

east to west for about 400km. It is bound on the west by Arabian Sea, northeast by

Goa, north by Maharastra, east by Andhra Pradesh, south and southeast by Tamilnadu

and southwest by Kerala. The Karnataka State covers an area of 1,92,204 sq.km,

which covers 5.35% of the total geographical area of the country.(Karnataka

Gazetteer (Part-1). Karnataka is divided into four regions namely; Coastal plain,

Malnad, Southern maidan and northern maidan.It has a coastal line of 320km. The

Malnad overlaps into the ghats. It is rugged with a number of hills that receive large

amount of rainfall and is densely forested. The deep gorges, waterfalls, rivers and

watersheds interlaced with dense evergreen and semi-evergreen forests constitute the

core of the Malnad. The Southern maidan is marked by undulating landscape,

relatively flat surface with broad-based valleys. The Southern upland consists of

serious of rolling granite hills and high degree of slopes. Karnataka is blessed with

abundant stretching north-south give rise to West flowing and East flowing rivers.26

26 Ramachandra, T.V. and Ahalya,N. “DEF-Research Monograph No.1 Wetlands Ecosystems in India: Conservation and Management (with reference to Karnataka wetlands),” Indian Institute of Science, (IISC) Bangalore. India.p.26

131

Source: Karnataka Irrigation Department 27

The rivers of the coastal belt are west flowing, important among them being

Nethravathi, Sharavathi, Aghanashini, Gangavali and the Kali. They have their source

in the Western Ghats and flow into the Arabian Sea. The Krishna and its tributaries

namely, Ghatprabha, Malaprabha, Bhima and Tungabhadra drain the Northern

maidan. The Cauvery and its tributaries like Harangi, Hemavathi, Yagachi, Kabini or

Kapila, Suvarnavathi, North Pennar and South Pennar. All these rivers flow eastwards

and drain into the Bay of Bengal drain the Southern maidan.

27 Refer: Karnataka river basins map: http://waterresources.kar.nic.in/river_systems.htm Visited on 12-01-

2009(Also see: Limnology of West flowing rivers of Karnataka,-a study by

:Dr.M.N.Madthyastha,Adjunct Professor,NITK,Surathkal.)

132

Table: Area Under inland and coastal wetlands of Karnataka (Category wise spatial spread wetlands) Wetlands Area (ha) % Area Number Inland Natural 581.25 0.21 7 Man-made 253433.75 93.22 615 Total 254014.00 93.43 622 Coastal Natural 16643.75 6.3 56 Man-made 1181.75 0.44 4 Total 17825.50 6.57 60 ___________________________________________________________________________________ Total Wetlands <56.2 278310.50 100.00 682 >56.2 171 ___________________________________________________________________________________ (* Source: DEF-Research Monograph No.1)28

Of the total geographical area wetlands cover 2.72 Million hectare (Mha), out of

which the inland wetlands cover 2.54Mha and coastal wetlands 0.18Mha...The 682

Wetlands in the State come under inland (7), inland man-made (615), Coastal-natural

(56) and coastal man-made(4)(Rege Etal.,1996). Category wise distribution of

wetlands indicates that, inland Wetlands dominate in Karnataka, which account for

93.44% while Coastal wetlands account for 6.56%.Out of these 682 wetlands, 622 are

inland while 60 are coastal wetlands. According to the Spatial extent of various

wetlands in Karnataka, 561 tanks account for79087.50 ha followed by reservoirs (53)

covering an area of 174290.00 ha. There are 5 naturally formed lakes (437.50 ha) and

was observed at 7 individual patches.

Various categories of inland wetlands in Karnataka _________________________________________________________ Inland wetland Area (sq. Km) No. of Wetlands ___________________________________________________________________ Lake/pond 4.37 5 Oxbow lake 0.56 1 Swamp/marsh 0.87 1 Reservoirs 1,672.68 53 Tank 609.12 561 Water logged 0.56 1 ________________________________________________________________ Total 2,288.16 622 _________________________________________________________________ ↑ Source: SAC(1998)

28 ibid.4

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4.6 Inland Waters bio-diversity

In Karnataka, during recent years both natural and anthropogenic activities have

degraded the quality of the water bodies rendering them unusable for a variety of

purposes. There are many reasons for the over-use, misuse and destruction of

wetlands, namely the high dependence on wetlands by an ever-growing human

population for water, food, fodder, fuel, fiber, shelter or transportation. The

progressive intensification of resource exploitation, aggravated by technology,

commercial interests, and often promoted by prevailing policies or the lack of any;

inadequate institutional mechanisms for management; and ignorance about the need

for conservation. The quality of the water is influenced by various physico-chemical

parameters. Hence, it becomes imperative to assess the physico-chemical and

biological quality of the aquatic system in order to determine the end-use (Rege et al,

1996).

In the Indian subcontinent due to rice culture, there has been a loss in the spatial

extent of wetlands. Rice farming is a wetland dependent activity and is developed in

riparian zones, river deltas and savannah areas. Due to captured precipitation for

fishpond aquaculture in the catchments areas and rice-farms occupying areas that are

not wetlands, water is deprived to the downstream natural wetlands. Around 1.6

million hectares of freshwater are covered by freshwater fishponds in India. Rice-

fields and fishponds come under wetlands, but they rarely function like natural

wetlands. Of the estimated 58.2 million hectares of wetlands in India, 40.9 million

hectares are under rice cultivation (Anon, 1993). The Gangetic plains support intense

cultivation of rice but they lack many of the other wetland functions such as flood-

buffering capacities, water-quality enhancement, sediment trapping, sewage filtration,

wildlife habitat etc. Coastal wetlands such as mangroves have been converted to salt

evaporation ponds in the coastal regions of Karnataka, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu. Salt

ponds greatly alter the natural biota, the losses being reduced tidal energy and export

of detritus to ocean near-shore areas. In natural systems, the flow of detritus and

soluble soil nutrients initiates a food chain where microscopic organisms thrive,

shrimps and crabs feed on detritus and microorganisms, fish forage on the shellfish

and birds, and wild mammals and humans feed on the fish and shellfish. The blocking

of such a flow in the food chain affects the ecology of the estuary (Savenije and

Pages, 1992).

134

↓Source:SACON-2004.29

Presently, there are more than 1550 large reservoirs covering more than 1.45 million

ha and more than 100000 small and medium reservoirs covering 1.1 million ha in

29 Also refer: www.wetlandsofindia.org (Djvu viewer- -Mysore district wetland Maps-Sacon.djvu) visited on:5-01-2009.

135

India (Gopal, 1994); by impounding the water, the hydrology of an area is

significantly altered and allows for harnessing moving water as a source of energy.

While the benefits of energy are well recognized, it also alters the ecosystem. For e.g.

the Narmada basin development involves planned construction of 150 large dams and

over 3000 small tributary dams over the next 40 years, it is the largest comprehensive

water project in the world and most controversial. However, the riparian wetlands and

substantial amounts of forest and agricultural land would be inundated and lost for

productive use thereby affecting the wetland flora and wildlife.

In recent years, the rapid urbanization has contributed to the degradation of the

wetlands beyond repair. The city of Bangalore is the sixth largest metropolis in the

country and supports a population of five million as compared to 0.4 million in 1941

(1991 census). The number of tanks has reduced from 262 in 1960 to around 81 at

present. The spatial and temporal changes in the number of water bodies were done

with the help of GIS and remote sensing data (Deepa et al, 1997). The spatial

mapping of the water bodies in Bangalore district (Figure 34) revealed that the

number of waterbodies has decreased from 379 (138 in North and 241 in south) in

1973 to 246 (96-north and 150-south) in 1996. An overall decrease of 35.09% was

attributed to urbanization and industrialization. The tanks were reclaimed for various

purposes such as residential layouts, commercial establishments, sport complexes, etc.

For e.g. Darmombudi tank has been converted into the current city bus stand, Millers

tank into a residential layout, Sampangi tank into the Kanteerva stadium, Chelgatta

into a golf course, Shuleh tank into a football stadium and Koramangala tank into a

sports complex. This has changed the climate of the city and affected its ground water

level.30

As the construction of reservoirs and dams can affect the physico-chemical, biological

and cultural as well as biodiversity of the ecosystem, it is imperative for assessment of

the resultant impacts. In this regard Sharavathi river basin, in Shimoga district of

Karnataka is assessed for changes in water and soil due to the construction of the

Linganamakki dam (Rajinikanth et. al., 2001). Representative water and soil samples

30 Dr.T.V.Ramachandra and Ahalya.N “The Conservation and Management of wetlands ecosystems in Karnataka”Pub: Centre for Ecological sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore.

136

were subjected to physico-chemical analysis. Sample analyses of water and soil

revealed that most of the parameters analyzed were within the limits provided by

WHO, APHA and NEERI Institutions. Only at two sampling stations, the turbidity

and colour did not conform to the standard values. The reason for this variation is the

inflow of agricultural-runoff at those points. Fluorosis is caused due to excess fluorine

in the water manifested in the form of dental/skeletal fluorosis and non-skeletal

manifestations. In India 25 million people in 15 states suffer from fluorosis at various

stages and another 25 million are reported to be susceptible to it. Twelve districts of

Karnataka (Ramaraju H.K., 1995) are found to be endemic with fluorosis including

Kolar district. It was found that fluoride in ground water is heterogeneously

distributed. The fluoride concentrations in the ground waters ranged from 0.3 to 1.5

mg/L. Epidemiological survey indicates that 25,670 people suffer from dental and

skeletal fluorosis in Kolar district and another 39,000 are susceptible to it. A detailed

study of the physico-chemical and bio-chemical parameters in Kukkarahalli and

Dalvoi lakes of Mysore district in Karnataka (Hosmani S.P., and Vasanth Kumar L.,

2000) indicates high percentage of chemicals in Kukkarahalli Lake (27.90%), which

has low percentage of total plankton (43%). The activity of chemicals leads to the

liberation of extra cellular products, increasing their quantity (53.19%). The death and

decay of plankton may increase the bacterial activity in the lake, which in turn results

in increase in bacterial colonies (57.5%). In Dalvoi lake, the percentage of chemicals

is very high (72.09%) and plankton is also relatively high (56.80%). The percentage

of biochemical parameters is correspondingly low (46.80%).Various physico-

chemical parameters in selected lakes of Mysore district, Karnataka were analyzed

(Yamuna and Balasubramanian, 2000). The lakes are found to be under the influence

of major parameters like nitrate, pH, chloride, total dissolved solids (TDS), calcium

and magnesium. In many samples, two or more parameters have been reported above

the permissible limit of drinking water. The lake water is mainly utilized for

agricultural activity. The major crops around these lakes are paddy, ragi, groundnut,

sugarcane etc. The lakes of Mysore district are saturated with COD, which may be

due to excess usage of fertilizers and chemicals for increasing yield of the crop. The

presence of abnormal COD calls for an immediate action to prevent the inputs of

agrochemicals into the lakes. Mahadeshwara et al, (2000), carried out a study on the

ground water quality in Yelandur taluk, Chamarajnagar district, Karnataka, India.

Thirty-one ground water samples collected from the taluk were subjected to water

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quality analysis. Using a specially designed computer programme HYCH in BASIC

several water quality parameters and their ratios were classified into three general

categories namely desirable, permissible and not permissible. The study reveals that

urbanization has affected the quality of water in Yelandur taluk.31 Of all the water

quality issues facing lakes everywhere, eutrophication is of great concern.

Eutrophication is a term used to describe the ageing of lake, resulting due to

accumulation of nutrients, sediments, silt and organic matter in the lake from the

surrounding watershed. Hence, an efficient monitoring program for the lake water

quality is felt necessary. This would chiefly aim at charactering the wastewater

entering the lake and suggesting suitable measures of controlling it. The program

should be able to suggest the amount of aquatic plants to be removed if found in

excess. Further, the restoration of these lakes can improve the ground water table and

improve the aquatic life in the lake.

31 Ibid 22 at page.

138

Source: PARISARA, ENVIS.32

Distribution of Wetlands of Karnataka: Of the total geographical area, wetlands

cover 2.72 Million hectares, out of which the inland wetlands cover 2.54 Million

hectares and coastal wetlands 0.18. The 682 wetlands in the State come under inland-

32 Refer: “Parisara, Envis Newsletter” State Environment related issue (MoEF), inaugural issue,

April2003. http://parisara.kar.nic.in/pdf/waterresources.pdf. visited on 12-01-2009

139

natural (7), inland man-made (615), Million hectares, coastal-natural (56) and coastal

man-made (4) (Rege etal., 1996).

I. Category wise distribution of Wetlands: Inland wetlands dominate in Karnataka,

which account for 93.44% while coastal wetlands account for 6.56%. Out of the 682

wetlands, 622 are inland while 60 are coastal wetlands. Category wise spatial spread

of wetlands is listed in table given below.

Table: Area under Inland and Coastal Wetlands of Karnataka

Wetlands Area (ha) % Area

Number

Inland Natural 581.25 0.21 7 Man-made 253433.75 93.22 615 Total 254014.00 93.43 622 Coastal Natural 16643.75 6.13 56 Man-made 1181.75 0.44 4 Total 17825.50 6.57 60 Total wetlands < 56.2 ha 278310.50 100.00 682 > 56.2 ha. 171

According to the spatial extent of various wetlands in Karnataka, 561 tanks account

for 79087.50 ha followed by reservoirs (53) covering an area of 174290.00 ha. There

are 5 naturally formed lakes (437.50 ha) and 9 mudflats (1506.25 ha). The area under

mangroves comprises of 550.00 ha and was observed at 7 individual patches.

Subcategory wise spatial spread is listed in table given below.

Table: Area under different subcategories of Wetlands in Karnataka

Wetland Category Area in ha No. of wetlands Natural Inland 437.50 5 Lake/pond 56.25 1 Ox-bow lake 87.50 1 Swamp/ Marsh 174290.00 53 Tank 79087.50 561 Waterlogged 56.25 1 Coastal

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Estuary 1306.25 11

Creek 6556.25 5

Kayal 925.00 4 Tidal/Mudflat 1506.25 9 Sand/Beach/Spit 2512.50 9 Mangroves 550.00 7 Salt marsh/ Marsh vegetation

3287.50 11

Salt pans 1181.75 4 Total 271840.00 682

II. District Wise area under Wetlands:

The distribution of District wise Wetlands are as follows; the oxbow lake in Bidar

has an areal extent of 56.25 ha. Similarly, the swamp in Gulbarga covers an area of

87.50 ha. Major natural lakes are distributed as follows - two in Mandya (143.75 ha),

and one each in Mysore (106.25 ha), Raichur (93.75 ha) and South Canara (93.75 ha).

There are 53 reservoirs in the state distributed in all the districts except Kolar,

Mandya, Mangalore and south Canara, covering a total area of 174290.00 ha. There

are many tanks in Kolar district, which are shallow with high turbidity. Shimoga has

the largest area (42363.00 ha) covered by reservoirs (11) followed by Bellary

(30687.50 ha) and Bijapur (10475.00). There are 561 tanks covering an area of

79087.50 ha. Tumkur ranks the first in number (121) and also in area (15268.75 ha)

followed by Kolar where 58 tanks have a spatial extent of 10294.00 ha. The coastal

wetlands are seen in Uttara and Dakshina Kannada districts. They have 11 estuaries

covering an area of 1306.25 ha. There are 4 in Uttara Kannada (668.75 ha) followed

by 5 in Dakshina Kannada (637.50 ha). There are 5 distinct patches of mangroves

present in Dakshina Kannada (381.25 ha) and two in Uttara Kannada (168.75 ha). Out

of 6 salt marsh/marsh vegetation, 5 are in Uttara Kannada (2593.75 ha) and one in

Dakshina Kannada (168.75 ha). All the four salt pans are in Uttara Kannada covering

an area of 1181.25 ha. Details of the Prioritized wetlands, important Bird Areas,

Biodiversity conservation prioritization project sites, Wildlife sanctuaries, National

Parks and Ramsar sites in Karnataka, are given in the appendix-III

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4.7 Conclusion

Wetland ecosystems account for about 6% of the global land area and are among the

most threatened of all the environmental resources. Wetlands have a long suffered

significant loss and continue to face an on-going conversion threat from industrial,

agricultural, residential developments and pollution-related effects. The extensive

tropical wetland resources in developing economies are also undergoing increasing

change as a result of improving access to wetland zones, the pressures of population

growth and economic development. Many wetlands have and are being degraded

because of unsustainable levels of grazing and fishing activities. The continuing

losses and enhanced appreciation of the values and functions of wetlands during the

last 20 years, has led to wetland loss becoming a worldwide concern leading to

international agreements like the RAMSAR convention in 1971 (IUCN, 1990).

Wetlands are more valuable economic resources when it is retained in their natural

or semi-natural state. Development projects have often stimulated wetland conversion

largely because of lack of information and ignorance of planners about wetland

functions and their role in sustainable development. Conversion or degradation of

such natural capital assets will therefore not represent an increase in resource-use

efficiency. Social inefficiency in wetland use is connected to the fact that wetlands are

multifunctional resources and are under heavy utilization pressure. The inefficiency is

not a consequence of multiple-use conflict itself, but the fact that not all wetland uses

are properly evaluated and accounted. In India, an annual average rainfall of over 130

cm, the different climatic regimes, variations in topography contribute to a diverse

and wealthy wetland habitat. This is evident from the high-altitude lakes of the

Himalayas; floodplain wetlands of major river systems and their extensive network of

tributaries draining from the Indian landmass in all directions. The saline and

temporary wetlands of the arid and semi-arid expanses; inland coastal systems such as

lagoons, backwaters and estuaries; mangrove swamps; marine wetlands; coral reefs

associated with the island arcs, and so on enrich the wetlands of India. In fact, natural

wetlands in India include the entire range of ecosystem types with the exception of

bogs, fens and typical salt marshes. In addition, there are man-made wetlands, which

number more than the natural ones. The diversity of rainfall regimes in the country

has necessitated the construction of numerous large, medium and small reservoirs for

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irrigation, domestic water supply, electricity, fisheries, and flood control. The littoral

zones of these reservoirs along with shallow ponds and numerous tanks have further

added to the country's wetland wealth. It is estimated that freshwater wetlands alone

account for about 20 per cent of the known range of biodiversity in India

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Chapter-IV Part-II WETLANDS OF MYSORE –A CASE STUDY

4.8 Introduction

The history of Mysore has been closely linked with the history of the Kingdom of

Mysore. References from the times of Mahabharata and Asoka refer to Mahisha Nadu

or Mahisha Mandala. References can also be found in Tamil literature about Ezimahi

Nadu. The earliest documented evidence of the town is in the form of stone carvings

(Shasanas) found in villages around Mysore, inscribed around 1021 AD. From 1499,

the name Mahisūru has been recorded in inscriptions. Till the year 1610, when

Srirangapatnam was acquired, Mysore was the centre of administration. It became the

capital of the Kingdom of Mysore after the death of Tippu Sultan in 1799.The

administrative centre was shifted to Bangalore in 1831, as the British moved their

garrison from Srirangapatnam to Bangalore, thereby establishing the Bangalore

Cantonment. Mysore once again became the capital of the kingdom in 1881 with the

rendition of power by the British to the Wodeyars. Most present day historical

landmarks,and organisation of the city of Mysore were inspirations of the Wodeyar

kings and their Dewans. Plans for organized development of the city exist as far back

as 1904. Several structures were built around late 1800's and early 1900's. Mysore is a

city in the Indian state of Karnataka, and the administrative seat of Mysore District,

one of the largest districts in Karnataka. Mysore was the former capital of the

Kingdom of Mysore. Mysore is located at 770 m above sea level at 12.18° N 76.42°

E and is 135 km from Bangalore, the state capital. The city is known for its palaces

and proximity to several attractions. Mysore is also well known for its ten-day Dasara

festival, a hallmark of the old Kingdom of Mysore, which usually occurs annually in

early September-October. Mysore is an educational, commercial and administrative

centre and also an important tourist and heritage centre. It is well connected to the

adjoining States of Kerala (Wynad, Calicut) and Tamil Nadu (Ooty, Coimbatore)

through roads.33

33 Refer: City Development Plan for Mysore, Prepared for the JNNURM Scheme Published in the web: http://jnnurm.nic.in/nurmudweb/toolkit/MysoreCdp/MysoreCDP.pdf p.1-4 visited on 19-12-2009.

144

Mysore, the cultural capital of the State, was the home for many great musicians,

music composers, dancers and Sanskrit scholars. Mysore University and many other

academic and scientific institutions are situated here. This obviously led to the city

boasting of great scholars, writers, and, in general, intellectuals. Post independence,

Bangalore became the State capital and later the economic hub of the State, and

country. Mysore has however retained its heritage and charm. However, the economic

growth of Bangalore, and the ‘push-effect’ of its high-technology industrialization are

going to have a significant demographic and economic impact. The challenge for

Mysore is to absorb and encourage growth, without compromising on its heritage,

culture, and pleasant life-style. The state government has accorded Mysore the status

of ‘Heritage City’ and has constituted the Mysore Area Heritage Task Force

(MAHTF) two years ago (2004) to focus on conservation efforts in Mysore and

surrounding regions and appointed a Heritage Commissioner to head the task force.

There are 180 parks in Mysore covering approximately 9 sq. kms of the ULB.

Another 8 sq. kms is covered by urban forestry Adequate area is covered by parks and

gardens, and trees have been planted on the roadside on the important roads of all the

wards. However, parks are in need of improved upkeep and maintenance, and only

about a half of the available ones are used by the citizens. With the increasing

urbanization, there is also a strong need to develop and maintain more green spaces,

parks & water-bodies, on a priority. It is mooted to develop a master plan for an area

of about 500 acres around Chamundi Hills on the lines of Lal Bagh and Cubbon Park

in Bangalore to preserve the environment and heritage of the city. Mysore urban

region lying between Kaveri and Kabini rivers is one of the most attractive tourist

places in the country. In the past, under the patronage of then Mysore Maharaja, over

1400 tanks and lakes were created to meet the domestic and agricultural water

requirements of the area. With passage of time, these lakes & water bodies got silted

and found entry of polluted domestic wastewater. In addition, the encroachment

around some of the water bodies started eating the foreshore area. To protect further

degradation, the most affected lakes - Kukrahalli and Karanji, were taken up for

rehabilitation and improvement studies. In the Karanji Lake, various components have

been executed; prominent ones are – Butter Flies Park, Bird Aviary, Bird Watch

Tower and Boating Facilities. Presently Karanji Lake has become an important and

attractive place for tourists and a good source of income for Zoo Authority, who owns

this lake. In case of Kukrahalli Lake, a bund has been created along the periphery of

145

the lake, which has become the morning walkers’ tracks. University of Mysore, owner

of this lake, is contemplating to charge the users to meet the maintenance cost of the

lake.34

A Government Order created the Karnataka Lake Development Authority in July

2002, as a registered society under the Karnataka Societies Registration Act, 1959. It

is a nonprofit, autonomous, regulatory, planning, and policy body for protection,

conservation, reclamation, restoration, regeneration and integrated development of

lakes, whether natural or man-made, in Karnataka.The history of water supply to

Mysore dates back to the time of Deewan Poornaiah. He had planned for a contour

canal from Krishnarajasagar to Mysore through gravity to convey the Kaveri water to

fulfil the water supply to Mysore. However, the scheme did not achieve the objective,

as the people during that period were dependent on tanks and wells. Later an

arrangement was made to supply water from the Karanji tank. Subsequently,

Kukkarahalli tank was constructed from which water was supplied through iron

mains.35

34 Ibid, page 76 35 Ibid.page.49

146

Maps showing important hot spots of Wetlands of Mysore District in Karnataka

Source: SACON36 (* this wetland map comprising of the erstwhile Mysore District

i.e., it also covers the wetland areas of the present Chamarajanagar District.)

36 refer: www.wetlandsofindia.org Djvu viewer—H:\ Mysore District Wetland Maps.Sacon.djvu; visited on; 05-01-2009.

147

4.9 An overview of Wetlands of Mysore District

Karnataka State is in the southwestern part of India. It is mainly a tableland and an

extension of Deccan plateau. It is rhomboid in shape. The state extends to 805 km

from north to south and to about 283 km from east to west. The total area of the state

is 192,493 sq. km. Mysore district lies in the Southern Maidan (Southern Plateau) and

it is in the southernmost part of Karnataka State. Physiographically, the region in

which the district is found may be classified as partly maidan and partly semi-malnad

(malnad hilly lands). The district forms the southern part of the Deccan peninsula with

Tamil Nadu to its southeast, the Kodagu district to its west, Mandya district to its

north, Hassan district to its northwest and Bangalore district to its northeast. Mysore

district forms a distinct land unit, besides being a cultural entity lying between 11°30'

N to 12°50' N latitudes and 75°45' E to 77°45' E longitudes. It covers an area of 6854

sq. km. that is, 3.57 per cent of the state’s total geographical area. It holds the sixth

place in the state in terms of the area with a population of 2.641 million in

2001.Physiographically, it lies between maiden and semi-malnad range at an altitude

of 610 meters from the mean sea level. The district covers a total geographical area of

6,76,382 hectares of which 62,851 hectares constitutes the forest land. The net

cultivable land is 4,86,410 hectares and of this 1,14,010 hectares of land is irrigated.

The prominent river of the district is the Cauvery. Mysore district is considered as one

of the prosperous district of the state based on the development and utilization of

irrigation facilities, abundance of forest wealth and sericulture products.37

The climatic conditions of the district are favourable to crops like paddy, jowar, ragi,

pulses, sugarcane and tobacco. The district can be divided into two major agro-

climatic zones: the Southern Dry Zone comprising of 4 Taluks namely, Nanjangud, T.

Narasipur, Mysore and K.R.Nagar and the Southern Transition Zone consisting of H.

D. Kote, Hunsur, and Periyapatna taluks. Soil is red sandy loam in most of the areas

of the district. The annual rainfall ranges from 670 mm to 888.6 mm in dry zones and

from about 612 mm to 1054 mm in the transition zone. The average annual rainfall of

the district is 782 mm. The temperature ranges from 11°C to 38°C. Thus, the climate

of Mysore district is temperate with moderate variations in temperature in different

seasons. 37 ‘Mysore District Geography-Karnataka.’ P.1-2 http://www.mysore.nic.in/district_profile.htm visited on; 13/01-2009.

148

Mysore district is an undulating tableland with granite rocks protruding at odd

intervals. The general elevation of the district ranges between 700 and 900 meters

above the mean sea level. The mountain ranges in the district originate from the

Nilgiris along its southern borders and runs in a northwest and northeast direction.

There are the Ghats and in between them lies the Mysore plateau, which is peneplaine

with an average elevation of 700 meters. Except in the north, the district is surrounded

by the Western Ghats, which at places are an elevation of more than 1200 meters

above the mean sea level. Only along the southeast, the mountain ring is broken,

where the river Cauvery takes its course towards the Ghats and plunges into the

famous Gaganachukki and Barachukki falls at Shivansamudram.38 Mysore was the

capital of the Wodeyar dynasty, feudatories of the Vijayanagar Empire, who declared

their independence in the 16th century and ruled in Mysore until independence,

barring three decades when Haider Ali and his son Tipu Sultan wrested power from

them. Mysore today, is a pleasant city with an old world charm, contributed by its

broad shady avenues, well laid out gardens, fine buildings and a salubrious

climate. The city is known as a tourist and heritage centre. The economic growth of

Bangalore and its Push effect have a significant demographic and economic impact on

Mysore. Housed amidst the Mysore University campus is Kukkarahalli Lake with

1.20 acres water spread having 4.5 sq. km catchment area. This lake is found at the

western edge of Mysore. Deewan Poornaiah built the lake in 1864. Water was being

supplied around this time, to the neighboring areas through iron mains, which were

installed then. It may be sufficient water to Mysore city, then a small town, before the

Vanivilasa Water Supply Project was taken up over several years ago, during the

reign of the Mysore Maharajas.39As a resource base, they have provided sustenance to

millions down the ages; and as a landscape, they have spawned cultural links and

traditions. The landscape in question providing economic and cultural links are the

lakes and other forms of water bodies. These very heritage values and cultural links

that are on the verge of being snapped while the resource base supported by them is

increasingly coming under strain in Mysore, Chamarajanagar, Mandya districts, as

38 Ibid.14. 39 Dr. H.R.Suma “Economic evaluation of Kukkarahalli lake-a need for conservation,” http://www.ces.iisc.ernet.in/biodiversity/sahyadri_enews/newsletter/issue25/article9.htm visited on 30th December2008

149

also in other parts of the State. What is more, the importance of wetlands and their

relevance had been lost on the urban population where it had been grossly

mismanaged and reduced to bodies that receive industrial waste and domestic sewage.

In rural areas, wetlands are languishing because of importance accorded to canal

irrigation system.40 Environmentalists here point out that destruction of wetlands does

not mean a mere loss of traditional occupation including fishing, harnessing of natural

resources, and cultural links. However, they break the natural cycle entailing

groundwater recharge, flood control, recycling of nutrients, pollution control, and

housing endangered species. Economic utilities apart, lakes and rivers as landscapes

have inspired poets and writers and continue to mesmerize people. These lakes

inspired poet laureate Kuvempu while the Lingambudhi Lake was close to the heart of

A.N. Murthy Rao. In Mysore, the Kukkarahalli Lake was in the news for all wrong

reasons recently, a series of disasters have struck the water bodies in Mysore, which

led to death of birds in Lingambudhi Lake, fish, kill in Yennehole and Kukarahalli.

After a protracted battle with the authorities, a group of environmentalists and citizens

convinced the Mysore District administration to constitute the Mysore Lake

Protection Society, which has a great challenge of striking a balance between

conservation and development.41

4.10 Lakes of Mysore District and their restoration

Lakes in any urban region are ecological security zones and true indicators of sustainable urban development. In India, both in urban and rural area tanks and lakes

were a very important aspect of water supply for drinking, irrigation over the year the

tanks and wetlands have been neglected and systematically encroached. In Mysore

urban, Kukkarahalli, Karanji, Lingambudi, Dalvoy, Devnoor are the 5 man made

lakes.

40 Refer: Preserve Mysore lakes –tough task; reported in The Hindu (Network) published on 2nd February,2002. Also visit to http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karanji_Lake" 41 Ibid.30 Also available at the website: http://wgbis.ces.iisc.ernet.in/wetlandnews/mysore.htm visited on 22nd March 2009.

150

Sl. No.

Parameter Karanji Kukkarahalli Lingambudi Dalvoy Devanoor

1 Geographic Location

Latitude 12o18 o N 12 o 18 o N 12 o 17 o N 12 o 15 o N 12 o 19’45 o N Longitude 76o40’ 30” E 76 o 38’ E 75 o 27’ E 76 o 39’ E 76 o 40’30” E 3 Owned/

monitored by

Forest Dept/ Zoo

University of Mysore

Minor Irrigation Dept.

Minor Irrigation Dept.

Minor Irrigation Dept

4 Aquatic weeds growth

Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

5 Fishery Yes Yes Yes Yes Nil 6 Public

entry Yes (Restricted)

Yes Yes (Controlled)

Yes Yes

Table: Furnishes the details about status report of the Lakes of Mysore urban area, its geographic

location, physical features and the Monitoring authority. (Data shown above, as on: 30-12-2006)

Source:42

These lakes were constructed during Maharaja’s rule during 19th century to fulfill the

needs of water like, water supply for drinking, irrigation, industries and other related

works. The source for those lakes was mainly rainwater and urban runoff. In 1910,

with the introduction of electrical services, the supply of drinking water by pumping

water from river cauvery reduced drinking water dependency on these lakes. These

lakes also enhanced the ground water table and aesthetics of the city. The legacy of

decentralized water sources under the patronage of Mysore Maharaja’s had over 1400

tanks designed to meet various requirements, among which the above mentioned 5

lakes are included. Karanji Lake is located at the bottom of the Chamundi hills and is

close to the center of the city. This lake is spread over 90 acres and is home to more

than 90 species of resident and migratory birds. The lake also has India's largest

walkthrough aviary. The lake has boating facilities that are available on all days

except Tuesday. On the banks of the Karanji lake is the Regional Museum of Natural

History. With the Chamundi hills as a backdrop makes the lake look picture perfect.

The lake and its surroundings allow you to appreciate nature and the Regional

Museum that is adjacent to the lake, will help you increase you knowledge about the 42 Refer: Lakes-Conservation, restoration management, preservation of Mysore urban water bodies. Paper presented by; Sahana.J & Jagannatha.V at the Lake-2006:symposium- Education & Ecosystem conservation, held on 28th -30th December2006 at Indian Institute of Science (IISC),Bangalore .p.1-3

151

natural environment in South India and will help you under stand the importance of

Conservation of nature. Kukkarahalli Lake is in the middle of Manasagangothri, the

Mysore University campus. This beautiful and placid lake is visited by a variety of

migratory birds during winter. During winter, this lake attracts many bird watchers.

The lake provides boating facilities at nominal rates and the Lingambudi Lake is in

Sriramapura and is about 8km from the center of the city. This picturesque lake also

attracts numerous types of migratory birds. The lake has a beautiful lush green park

beside it and the entire sight that is presented is one that sooths the mind and soul.

There are a number of buses to this lake from the city bus stand. This place is a

favorite haunt of nature lovers of the city.43

After the Asian Development Bank (ADB) assistance and restoration of only two of

the five lakes, the remaining three urban lakes are being taken up under Jawaharlal

Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNURM). The Mysore city corporation has

proposed to take up restoration of Devnoor tank an estimated cost of Rs. 26.26 lakhs.

The Mysore City Corporation Council at its meeting on March 31, 2006 took this

decision. The restoration project covers de-silting, fencing, strengthening of the lake

bunds and creation of a park at environment and beauty of the place. This is one of the

five lakes in and around the city to be restored under a comprehensive plan of the

Karnataka Urban Infrastructure Development and Finance Corporation of the

Karnataka Government. The Corporation has entrusted the development and

restoration of the famous Kukkarahalli Lake to the Mysore University, the Karanji

and Lingambudi lakes to the Mysore ZOO Authority and the Dalvoy tank to the

Mysore Urban Development Authority. These famous five lakes, which were

attracting migratory birds from far off destinations, are facing a slow death with

growing urbanization and conversion of the rain feeding lands into these tanks on

account of chocking of the feeder canals from Chamundi Hills and other upper

regions of the city, the lake areas have shrunk in size. They are becoming dumping

yards of urban waste. Instead of good rainwater, dirty water from these residential and

commercial areas is flowing into these lakes. There is an urgent need to clear the

encroachment to allow rainwater to naturally flow into these tanks, restore and

develop these water bodies and ban any sort op pollution of the tank waters and the

area around it. Realizing the urgent need to restore these lakes, the Additional Chief

43 Ibid 33 at p.3

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Secretary of the meeting of the concerned authorities in February last and directed

them to restore and maintain the five lakes without further delay. Ecological

succession of lakes in urban region gets enhanced for reasons of organic and

inorganic pollution loads. Simple biological indicators are available for continuous

monitoring of the water bodies. This technique in conjunction with remote sensing

techniques is very useful. Legal samples on regular intervals are collected from

Karnataka State Pollution Control Board as per statutory requirements.

* A view of Kukkarahally Lake,Mysore.

A view of Karanji Lake, Mysore Source:44

44 H:\Hallucinations! Lakes of Mysore - photographs.htm

153

Source & Courtesy: Karnataka State Remote Sensing Application Centre, (KSRSAC) MYSORE

154

Source& Courtesy: Karnataka State Remote Sensing Application Centre, (KSRSAC) Mysore

155

The table given below furnishes details of the five lakes Distribution pattern of plank

tonic forms in the lake of Mysore for the decade ending 2001. Chlorococcales,

Desmids, Diatoms, Blue-greens and Euglenoids are used as the biological indicators

of water bodies. The numbers indicate the microorganisms present in the sample per

litre.45

Distribution pattern of plank tonic forms in the lake of Mysore and surrounding areas for the

period from 1981 to 2001:

Note: Number is represented as organisms / Litre (Source: E.T. Puttaiah, et.al 2000)

The study conducted by Dr. E.T. Puttaiah and etal, on the above said, four lakes

of Mysore city reveal the concentration level of plankton forms. The Chlorococcalles

and Desmids forms are steadily increasing in these ponds, which indicate higher level

of pollution, further diatoms forms of Algae (indictors of pollution free water) are

decreasing every year, which indicates the pollution of the water bodies. Many

biologists and Scientist from different discipline have done sufficient the field

research and analysis of water bodies of Mysore district. A study on water quality

variations (Kukkanahally Lake) of Mysore district, Karnataka by, S.M.Yamuna and

A. Balusubramanian 46 shows that, the increasing pollutants alters the physico-

chemical properties of water bodies. The lakes of Mysore district are saturated with

COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand), their values in all lakes are high, due to excess

usages of fertilizers and chemicals for increasing yield of the crop. Therefore,

immediate action is urged, to prevent the inputs of agrochemicals into the lakes of

45 Ibid.17 p 2-5 46 Department of studies in Geology, Manasagangotri ,Mysore. refer; Article “ Water quality variations of Mysore district, Karnataka’ published in Restoration of Lakes and Wetlands- edited by T.V. Ramachandra &etal. Allied Publishers(p) Ltd., New Delhi .p181-186.

156

these areas. Another study, conducted by H.S. Sudhira and V.S. Kumar47 on the water

quality of lakes in Mysore city, specially on Kukkanahally lake shows that, the lake

seems to be accumulating nutrients coming through waste water, which promotes the

growth of algae and other aquatic plants results in eutrophication, gradually losing its

storage capacity on account of siltation which accelerated the growth of water

hyacinth and other weeds. The concentration of heavy metals is increasing day by

day; therefore, the young plants could not sustain the heavy metals concentration

compare to mature plants. For this reason, the study suggests to retain the possible use

of water hyacinth for removal of heavy metals from wastewater. Hence, an efficient

monitoring program for the lake water quality is felt necessary. Further, a detail study

conducted by Dr.S.P.Hosamani and L.Vasantha kumar48 on ‘Biochemical aspects of

water pollution in lakes of Mysore city’ reveals that the physico-chemical and bio-

chemical parameters in Kukkarahalli and dalvoi lakes indicates high percentage of

chemicals in kukkarahalli lake(27.90%),but low percentage of total plankton (43%).

The activity of chemicals leads to the liberation of extra cellular products, increasing

their quantity (53.19%).The death and decay of plankton may increase the bacterial

activity in the lake, which in turn results in increase in bacterial colonies. Dalvoi lake,

the percentage of chemicals is very high (72.09%) and the plankton is also relatively

high(56.80%).Both lakes appear to be highly productive, one for bio-chemical

products (Kukkarahalli lake) and other for plankton productivity(Dalvoi lake).decay

of algal blooms common in both water bodies. Both water bodies have high

electrolytes, low dissolved oxygen, relatively high phosphates, nitrogen, and show a

quantitative abundance of plankton with variable quantities and occasional occurrence

of blooms. All these features indicate that the two water bodies are highly eutrophic

and harbour a large number of plankton that liberate useful extra cellular products and

hence a ‘Phyco-technological’ approach to these waters seems appropriate.

47 Researchers, Department of Environmental Engineering, SJCE, Mysore, refer text; Restoration of Lakes and Wetlands- edited by, T.V.Ramachandra & etal ,pub; Allied publishers ,New Delhi p. 189- 191 48 Professor, Department of Botany, University of Mysore. refer; Article on ‘ Biochemical aspects of water pollution in two lakes of Mysore city’ published in Restoration of Lakes and Wetlands- edited by, T.V.Ramachandra and etal. pub; Allied publishers ,New Delhi p. 171-180

157

Eight major perennial wetlands from Mysore district were studied by the Mathew

Thomas & etal49. This study was conducted to evaluate the role of physico-chemical

parameters on the plankton growth, abundance and distribution in the lakes of Doora

lake and Kudure gundihallakere (Nanjangud), Devambudi and Yennehole

Lakes(Mysore), Karigala doddakere and Paduvakote lakes(H.D.Kote),and Santhekere

and Karimuddanahally Lakes(Hunsur).Water from these water bodies is mainly used

for irrigation, fish farming and domestic purposes. Increased silt landing is causing

shrinkage, release of domestic sewage and agricultural residue flowing into them is

causing pollution, addition of artificial fish feeds and manure is causing

eutrophication, sometimes becoming the cause for mass mortality of fish. Such

undesirable anthropogenic activities are fast changing the organic structure of these

wetlands leading to environmental degradation. Again in the year 2005 and 2006, the

scientific investigation conducted on the above said lakes by the Mathews and etal 50

shows that, the concentration of calcium, magnesium and chlorides were high in all

lakes and hence the total hardness and alkalinity. Total dissolved solids comprising

mostly of inorganic matter were high in all lakes and it can be considered as a

favourable parameter that signifies higher productivity of these wetlands. Increased

ionic concentration in the water of these lakes during summer is reflected in higher

electrical conductivity and it can be considered as a parameter that signifies the

mineralization in the wetland ecosystem. Abundance of Chlorococcales, Desmidaceae

and Bacillariophyceae is due to higher levels of total dissolved solids and also

influenced by total hardness and total alkalinity. The higher values of BOD

(Biological Oxygen Demand) and COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand) were observed

and can be attributed to higher inorganic salts and accumulation of oxidisable organic

matter in these Lakes.Low level of nitrites salts and higher levels of ammonia –

nitrogen as soon as it is formed or due to the action of denitrifying bacteria.51

49 Mathew Thomas,A.G. Deviprasad and S.P.Hosamani “ Evaluating the role of physico-chemical parameters on plankton population by application of cluster evaluation” research article published in Nature Environmental and pollution Technology, techno publications,(2006) vol.5 no.2.pp219-223 50 Mathew Thomas,A.G. Deviprasad and S.P.Hosamani “Physico-Chemical status and plankton of wetlands of Mysore District’’article published in the journal J.Ecobiol.21(2):121(2007) Palini Parmount Publications,(2007) India,pp.121-127 51Ibid at p.123

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Devi Prasad.A.G & et al52 carried out a study on ‘Fish diversity and its conservation

in major wetlands of Mysore’. It reveals that, Mysore district has undulating river like

Cauvery on the northern side and its major tributary Kabini on the south-west

side.Lakshmanathirtha, Shimla, Lokapavani and Suvarnavathi are the other tributaries

that flow through the district and it is seen that the drainage of the district is towards

the east. The flow of river Cauvery and its tributaries form large number of small and

large reservoirs, which are the sources of water for cultivation of different crops like

sugarcane, paddy, ragi and jowar. Encroachment of the lakes, pollution of air,

agricultural and sewage disposal into the lakes and rapid urbanization has apparently

caused undesirable change in the climate and lake structure. It was observed that more

intense activities in the catchments zones have been a dominant factor causing

deterioration of the lake structure and posing a threat to its biodiversity. The lakes of

Mysore are shallow with varied dimensions. No systematic study has been made to

know the fish diversity in these lakes keeping in view of fish productivity. The study

on the fish diversity in the selected lakes of Mysore district area shows that,

Kuduregundihalla and Karigaladodda lakes are rain filled perennial tanks. Nelumbo,

Karimuddanahally Lake receives water from the Lakshmanatheertha tributary of

Cauvery and irrigates about 2500 acres of land in its vicinity. Paduvakote Lake

sometimes tends to retain less water when the annual rainfall is moderate or less.

Karigaladodda Lake is a perennial lake. Doora Lake is a semi-dry tank continuously

receives water from Cauvery river basin. Yennehole Lake is one of the biggest lakes

of Mysore taluk. Devibudhi tank also known as Varuna Lake receives sewage

occasionally. Yennehole and Devibudhi lakes are polluted largely than the rest of the

lakes. More than 40 species of fish endemic to this region and Cauvery river basin

were identified. Out of them, seven were identified as endangered fishes which were

in danger of extinction and whose survival is unlikely, if the causal factors namely

degradation of the habitats and over utilization of the fish resources continue to

operate and happen to negatively influence them. However, there were 40 species of

fish endemic to this region, their number decreased with introduction of more exotic

species. Conservation of endemic fishes, propagation of endangered and threatened

fishes should be therefore, undertaken to preserve and protect fish diversity in the

52 Deviprasad .A.G. & etal ‘‘Fish diversity and its conservation in major wetlands of Mysore’ published in Journal of Environmental Biology ,Triveni Enterprises, Lucknow (India), September 2009, 30(5) 713-718 (2009). Also refer : www:jeb.co.in, visited on 29-12-2009

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wetlands of Mysore district. Further, the abiotic and biotic factors have an important

role in supporting fish diversity and fish culture in lake ecosystems. The relationship

between abiotic factors and living organisms in fish culture ponds is far from being

unidirectional because fish population will dramatically affect the trophic status of

other organisms and alter the water conditions in various ways. Physico-chemical

parameters like pH, temperature, dissolved oxygen; ammonia-nitrogen, phosphorus

and chlorides have a greater influence on survivability of the fishes. Changes in

physico-chemical conditions of water can also cause mass mortalities of fish eggs and

larvae apart from causing various abnormalities in the fish stocks.

Recently, the research study undertaken by Basavraju,53 on Hadhinaru Lake, Kalale

lake, Shetty kere Lake and Yennehole Lake of Mysore District for analysis of the

physico-chemical properties of these water bodies, the result indicates that the

Hadhinaru lake and Kalale lake are Oligotrophic having almost Clean Water with

less algae. Where as, Yennehole lake is mesotrophic and moderately clean and the

Shettykere lake is predominant blue green algae blooms. Therefore, there is a need of

taking necessary steps to prevent further deterioration of the water bodies.

According to Venkatakaramaiah, Jagannatha,54 in his research on ‘Environmental

Sound Technologies (ESTs) for conservation and management of Lakes-a case study

of Mysore region’ suggested that, a definite vision and agenda for conservation and

management of lakes is necessary and also a specific activity schedule requires

appropriate techno-management tools in position. Environmental Sound Technologies

(ESTs) that encompass technologies that have the potential for significantly improved

environmental performance relative to other technologies (UNEP-IETC) are essential.

Further, ESTs are not just “individual technologies, but total systems, which include

know-how procedures, Goods and services and equipment as well as organizational

procedures’’(Agenda21,chapter 34,1992). In the absence of protective management

such as interception of nutrients, minimization of hydrological changes and protection

53 Research Scholar, Department of Environmental Studies, Manasa Gangotri University of Mysore, Mysore. 54 Environmental Engineer/Training Manager/Auditor, Mysore. .Refer: his paper on “Environmental Sound Technologies (ESTs) for conservation and management of Lakes-a case study of Mysore region.’ paper presented by him and published in Restoration of Lakes and Wetlands- edited by, T.V.Ramachandra and C. RajashekaraMurthy & Ahalya.N. pub; Allied publishers ,New Delhi p. 308-316

160

of species, tropical lakes will decline in their utility for water supply, production of

commercially useful species, and other multiple end uses. Mysore region, it is a part

of southern plateau in Karnataka accounts for 60 percent of the 36,509 big and small

lakes (CSE, Dying Wisdom, 1992).Due to a host of reasons, including lack of

ecological planning and poor dependent partnership, there is further deterioration of

the lakes. Hence, application of ESTs technology application is more appropriate. He

suggests an action plans for lakes that could be taken up for the Mysore region in

particular to Mysore urban area covering an area of 150 square kilometers are as

follows;

(i)Use of ground water sources effectively (Existing surface water from by Cauvery

river at 16 km from the city be linked to the ground water)

(ii) Maintain the purity of existing water bodies (A vision and action plan to restore

the drinking water quality (potable ness) in all remaining water bodies of in 120sq.km

of urban Mysore must be initiated as in the past).

(iii) Promote rainwater harvesting as an urban need ( Incorporate rainwater harvesting

technologies in all developmental works by MCC,MUDA,KIDAB etc., and incentive

for rainwater harvesting in both individual and collective level be given).

(iv) Promote recycling/reuse/reduction of water use.

(v)Develop Water tariff for all users and

(vi) Seek time targets for recycling, reuse and reduction of water use. (The CII and Chamber of Commerce need to sustain pro-active role to evolve a time bound action plan that reduces water demands in all industries at Mysore).55 A preventive strategy with community centered management approach is required. In

this regard, the role of the urban and the rural local bodies are entrusted with

sufficient powers to take suitable action for the conservation of lakes and tanks. The

73rd and 74th amendments to the Constitution of India (Panchayat Raj and Nagara

Palikas) provide specific action at various levels. They could be fairly integrated, and

essential action required at planning and implementation levels are; provide

communities and individuals secures access to resources and an equitable share in

managing them, improve exchange of information, skills and technologies, enhance

participation in conservation and development, develop more effective local

governments, care for the local environment in every community, and provide

55 Ibid. at page.309

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financial and technological support to community environmental action. Therefore, a

holistic method is expected to reach the desired outcome in the management and

conservation lakes.

The National Symposium on ‘Restoration of Lakes and Restoration of wetlands’’-lakes-2000 held at Bangalore and organized by the Centre for Ecological Sciences (Energy and Wetlands research Group) IISC, Bangalore, has come out with the following suggestions; A number of scientific papers had been presented by scientists from India and abroad on different aspects of wetlands, including energetic, nutrient cycling, biodiversity, disease and health of the biota (particularly the fishes),sustainable utilization, management and conservation of the wetlands and their biota, reclamation & restoration of the wetlands & their modeling. The Symposium recommends integration of different Government Agencies for effective implementation of activities related to restoration of wetlands, their sustainable utilization & conservation. It is recommended that a National Committee for Lakes and Wetlands reclamation, restoration and development be formed to formulate a National Policy to evolve strategies for their sustainable utilization and conservation. Funds are made available from National & International sources to the Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, to go ahead with the restoration of the Lakes in collaboration with National & International Organizations in view of the importance of Lakes and Wetlands in rural development. A Comprehensive Plan is to be prepared to study selective, representative Wetlands in a phased manner to create database with regard to their present status, sustainable use, management and conservation and to formulate strategies or their long term management. Regular monitoring of ecosystems through the involvement of Schools, Colleges & Universities. Mass awareness programme be chalked out and implemented through Governmental and Non-Governmental Organizations(NGO)for popularization of the importance of the lakes, wetlands and rivers, and their role in the aquatic biodiversity and sustenance of human civilization. Lakes & Ponds in each Zilla Panchayath area be identified and their streams recharged through peoples participation. People should be made aware of their significance so that reclamation and conservation of these water bodies be taken up effectively. Public education and outreach should be components of aquatic ecosystem restorations. Lake Associations and citizen monitoring groups have proved helpful in educating the general public, and effort should be made to ensure that such groups have accurate information about the causes of lake degradation and various restoration methods. Research and development are needed

162

in several areas of applied limnology, and this programme should take an experimental approach which emphasizes manipulation of whole ecosystems.56 4.11 Conclusion

The field study and data collected in order to know the state lakes of Mysore District

in general and lakes of Mysore City in particular reveal that there is a need of timely

action for restoration of the lakes. The lakes of these areas do not merely reflect the

ecological and economical values aspects but also indicate the real cultural and

aesthetic values. The preventive measures taken by the District administration is

appears to be satisfactory. However, there is a necessity to have regularly monitoring

body, to keep the lakes in potable form and for its sustainable development. The

action by the NGO’s and activists groups of Mysore City is appreciable. It is right

time to impose preventive and penal action on those persons who are involving in

contaminating these water bodies. In this regard, the Lake Conservation Authority has

to take timely action and keep a vigil on those persons who are responsible in creating

a nuisance and water pollution. A holistic approach is needed to conserve these water

bodies. The preliminary steps that has to be implemented in restoring lake for their

long-term sustenance includes; waste water, solid and semi-solid wastes entering into

the lakes from external sources must be stopped before any restoration work is

implemented. Water hyacinth and other nuisance vegetation present in the lake must

be removed manually or mechanically, which is the cause for eutrophication. The

water present in the lake must be cleaned or drained completely. The restoration

programs with an ecosystem approach through Best Management Practices (BMPs)

helps in correcting point and non-point sources of pollution. This along with

regulations and planning for wild life habitat and fishes helps in arresting the

declining water quality and rate in loss of wetlands. These restoration goals require

profound planning, authority and funding along with the financial resources and

active involvement from all levels of organization. Network of educational

institutions, researchers, NGO’s and the local people are suggested to help restore our

fast perishing wetland ecosystem and conserve those at the verge of extinction by

formulating viable plans, policies and management strategies.

56Refer: Recommendations of lake-2000, symposium organized by the, CSE, IISC, Bangalore .Source: “Restoration of Lakes and Wetlands”- edited by, T.V.Ramachandra and C. RajashekaraMurthy & Ahalya.N. pub; Allied publishers ,New Delhi.