Chapter NineChapter Nine

The Linguistic Approach: The Linguistic Approach: Language and Cognitive ScienceLanguage and Cognitive Science

LinguisticsLinguistics

• The study of language.The study of language.• A variety of theoretical approaches and A variety of theoretical approaches and

methodologies.methodologies.• Topics include grammatical rules, animal Topics include grammatical rules, animal

language, development, and computer language, development, and computer speech recognition.speech recognition.

Language propertiesLanguage properties

1.1. CommunicativeCommunicative. Production, transmission, . Production, transmission, and comprehension of information.and comprehension of information.

2.2. Arbitrary.Arbitrary. Use of symbols.Use of symbols.

3.3. StructuredStructured. A grammar specifies rules of . A grammar specifies rules of symbol combination.symbol combination.

4.4. GenerativeGenerative. Large number of possible . Large number of possible meanings.meanings.

5.5. DynamicDynamic. Changes over time.. Changes over time.

Language propertiesLanguage properties

• PhonemesPhonemes. Smallest unit of speech sound. . Smallest unit of speech sound. Without meaning, but distinguish words. Without meaning, but distinguish words. Example: “ah” in “father”, vs. “feather.”Example: “ah” in “father”, vs. “feather.”

• MorphemesMorphemes. Smallest unit of speech with . Smallest unit of speech with meaning. Words or word parts. Example: “s” meaning. Words or word parts. Example: “s” in “apples” makes plural.in “apples” makes plural.

Grammatical rulesGrammatical rules

1.1. PhonologyPhonology. Rules governing sounds.. Rules governing sounds.

2.2. MorphologyMorphology. Rules governing word . Rules governing word structure.structure.

3.3. SyntaxSyntax. Rules for arranging words in . Rules for arranging words in sentences.sentences.

4.4. SemanticsSemantics. Rules for understanding . Rules for understanding meaning.meaning.

Language is governed by a number of rules. Collectively, these rules are called its grammar:

Primate language usePrimate language use

• Animals communicate, but do they have Animals communicate, but do they have language?language?

• Washoe the chimp and Koko the gorilla Washoe the chimp and Koko the gorilla were both taught to use ASL.were both taught to use ASL.

• Sarah the chimp was taught to use plastic Sarah the chimp was taught to use plastic tokens.tokens.

• Kanzi the chimp was instructed in word-Kanzi the chimp was instructed in word-lexigrams.lexigrams.

Evaluating primate language useEvaluating primate language use

• Primates demonstrate some arbitrariness Primates demonstrate some arbitrariness and displacement.and displacement.

• They fail to show complex syntactical They fail to show complex syntactical abilities.abilities.

• They have limited generative capability.They have limited generative capability.• They don’t teach language to other They don’t teach language to other

members of their own species.members of their own species.

Language acquisitionLanguage acquisition

Humans pass through several stages while Humans pass through several stages while learning language:learning language:1.1. Cooing stageCooing stage. Begin to utter a wide range of . Begin to utter a wide range of

sounds.sounds.2.2. Babbling stageBabbling stage. Utter a smaller set of . Utter a smaller set of

phonemic sounds.phonemic sounds.3.3. One-word stageOne-word stage. Speak out words and . Speak out words and

morphemes.morphemes.4.4. Two-word stageTwo-word stage. Production of two-word . Production of two-word

sentences.sentences.

Language deprivationLanguage deprivation

• Is experience necessary to develop language?Is experience necessary to develop language?• Humans and other animals have a Humans and other animals have a critical periodcritical period, ,

a time in development during which language or a time in development during which language or some other cognitive skill is normally acquired.some other cognitive skill is normally acquired.

• If linguistic experience is missing in the critical If linguistic experience is missing in the critical period, language ability is impaired.period, language ability is impaired.

• Case studies: Victor the “wild child” and Genie.Case studies: Victor the “wild child” and Genie.

The linguistic relativity hypothesisThe linguistic relativity hypothesis

• Strong version: Thought and language are so Strong version: Thought and language are so similar it may be impossible to express the similar it may be impossible to express the thoughts of one language in another.thoughts of one language in another.

• Weak version: Language influences the way a Weak version: Language influences the way a person thinks.person thinks.

• Evidence fails to provide strong evidence one way Evidence fails to provide strong evidence one way or the other.or the other.

• We can conclude that language influences but We can conclude that language influences but does not necessarily determine how we think.does not necessarily determine how we think.

GrammarGrammar The hierarchical relationships between parts of a The hierarchical relationships between parts of a

sentence are known as its sentence are known as its phrase structurephrase structure..

Transformational grammarTransformational grammar

A sentence can be rearranged to express A sentence can be rearranged to express new meanings (Chomsky, 1957). Example:new meanings (Chomsky, 1957). Example:

The rules that allow us to do this are known The rules that allow us to do this are known as a as a transformational grammartransformational grammar..

“Jessie drank a cup of coffee”

“Did Jessie drink a cup of coffee?”

AphasiasAphasias

• Language deficits are known as Language deficits are known as aphasiasaphasias..• In In Broca’s aphasiaBroca’s aphasia patients have problems patients have problems

producing speech. They have damage to producing speech. They have damage to Broca’s areaBroca’s area on the lower left frontal lobe. on the lower left frontal lobe.

• In In Wernicke’s aphasiaWernicke’s aphasia patients have patients have problems comprehending speech. They problems comprehending speech. They have damage to have damage to Wernicke’s areaWernicke’s area on the on the posterior portion of the left hemisphere.posterior portion of the left hemisphere.

Natural language processingNatural language processing

Natural languagesNatural languages have evolved in and are have evolved in and are used by humans.used by humans.

Four stages of natural language Four stages of natural language processing (Cawsey, 1998):processing (Cawsey, 1998):

1.1. Speech recognition.Speech recognition.

2.2. Syntactic analysis.Syntactic analysis.

3.3. Semantic analysis.Semantic analysis.

4.4. Pragmatic analysis.Pragmatic analysis.

Speech recognitionSpeech recognition

Steps in an automated speech recognition Steps in an automated speech recognition process:process:

1.1. Recorded spoken language is converted to a Recorded spoken language is converted to a speech spectrogramspeech spectrogram showing frequency showing frequency changes over time.changes over time.

2.2. Phonemes are extracted from the speech Phonemes are extracted from the speech stream.stream.

3.3. The phonemes are assembled to form words.The phonemes are assembled to form words.

Syntactic analysisSyntactic analysis

• Individual words in the order they occurred Individual words in the order they occurred serve as input.serve as input.

• These are submitted to a phrase-structure These are submitted to a phrase-structure analysis to understand how the words are analysis to understand how the words are grammatically related.grammatically related.

• The result is the recovery of sentence The result is the recovery of sentence structure.structure.

Semantic analysisSemantic analysis

• Prior phonemic analysis can produce the Prior phonemic analysis can produce the meaning of some words.meaning of some words.

• Knowing the type of word (noun, verb, Knowing the type of word (noun, verb, adjective) from syntactic analysis further adjective) from syntactic analysis further disambiguates and helps to recover word disambiguates and helps to recover word meanings.meanings.

• So does the overall meaning of the So does the overall meaning of the sentence.sentence.

Pragmatic analysisPragmatic analysis

PragmaticsPragmatics are the social rules of are the social rules of language use.language use.

The five types of speech (Searle, 1979):The five types of speech (Searle, 1979):1.1. AssertivesAssertives. Assertion of a belief.. Assertion of a belief.

2.2. DirectivesDirectives. Instructions.. Instructions.

3.3. CommissivesCommissives. Commit speaker to an action.. Commit speaker to an action.

4.4. ExpressivesExpressives. Describe psychological states.. Describe psychological states.

5.5. DeclarativesDeclaratives. The utterance is an action.. The utterance is an action.

The logogen modelThe logogen model