chapter six foundation concepts of motivation. copyright © 2007 by nelson, a division of thomson...

Chapter SixChapter Six

Foundation Concepts of Foundation Concepts of MotivationMotivation

Copyright © 2007 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada LimitedCopyright © 2007 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited 22

ObjectivesObjectives

After reading and studying this chapter, you should be able to:After reading and studying this chapter, you should be able to:

1.1. Describe several need theories of Describe several need theories of motivation, including the needs motivation, including the needs hierarchy, the two-factor theory, and hierarchy, the two-factor theory, and the achievement-power-affiliation triad.the achievement-power-affiliation triad.

2.2. Summarize the key propositions of goal Summarize the key propositions of goal theory and reinforcement theory.theory and reinforcement theory.

3.3. Explain the expectancy theory of Explain the expectancy theory of motivation.motivation.


Objectives Objectives (cont.)(cont.)

4.4. Explain how equity and social Explain how equity and social comparison contribute to comparison contribute to motivation.motivation.

5.5. Use social learning theory to Use social learning theory to motivate yourself.motivate yourself.

6.6. Recognize the importance of both Recognize the importance of both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.

7.7. Explain how personality factors Explain how personality factors are related to motivation.are related to motivation.


MotivationMotivation

The process by which behaviour is The process by which behaviour is mobilized and sustained in the mobilized and sustained in the interest of achieving organizational interest of achieving organizational goalsgoals


Need Theories of MotivationNeed Theories of Motivation

All believe driving force in motivation All believe driving force in motivation is desire to satisfy important unmet is desire to satisfy important unmet needsneeds

Include:Include: Maslow’s Hierarchy of NeedsMaslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Herzberg’s Two-Factor TheoryHerzberg’s Two-Factor Theory McClelland’s Achievement-Power-McClelland’s Achievement-Power-

Affiliation TriadAffiliation Triad


Maslow’s Hierarchy of Maslow’s Hierarchy of NeedsNeeds


Maslow’s Hierarchy of Maslow’s Hierarchy of NeedsNeeds

Pyramid model outlines basic needs in order of Pyramid model outlines basic needs in order of importanceimportance

Physiological:Physiological: water, air, food, sleep water, air, food, sleep Safety:Safety: security, freedom from threat security, freedom from threat Social and love:Social and love: affiliation, sex, belonging to affiliation, sex, belonging to

groupgroup Esteem:Esteem: self-respect, recognition, appreciation… self-respect, recognition, appreciation… Self-actualization:Self-actualization: self-fulfillment, personal self-fulfillment, personal

developmentdevelopment Lowest level of unfulfilled needs are most Lowest level of unfulfilled needs are most

compelling; as needs are satisfied, they lose their compelling; as needs are satisfied, they lose their strength and the next level up is activatedstrength and the next level up is activated


Herzberg’s Two-Factor TheoryHerzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

Two sets of factors critical:Two sets of factors critical: MotivatorsMotivators (intrinsic factors)(intrinsic factors)

Job content factors like responsibility, achievement, Job content factors like responsibility, achievement, the job itself, growth opportunitiesthe job itself, growth opportunities

Motivational because make a job excitingMotivational because make a job exciting Hygiene factorsHygiene factors (extrinsic) (extrinsic)

Job context factors like working conditions, quality of Job context factors like working conditions, quality of supervision, benefits, security, coworkerssupervision, benefits, security, coworkers

Important as they prevent dissatisfactionImportant as they prevent dissatisfaction Not motivational Not motivational


Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory (cont.) (cont.)

Focuses interest on job design as Focuses interest on job design as influence on motivationinfluence on motivation

Helps recognition that pay is not Helps recognition that pay is not always primary motivatoralways primary motivator

But de-emphasizes individual But de-emphasizes individual differences and underestimates differences and underestimates importance of hygiene factors in importance of hygiene factors in attracting and retaining workersattracting and retaining workers


McClelland’s Achievement-McClelland’s Achievement-Power-Affiliation TriadPower-Affiliation Triad

Focused on three needs acquired Focused on three needs acquired from one’s culture:from one’s culture: Need for achievementNeed for achievement Need for powerNeed for power Need for affiliationNeed for affiliation

Measured through Thematic Measured through Thematic Apperception TestApperception Test


Need for AchievementNeed for Achievement

Desire to accomplish something Desire to accomplish something difficult for its own sakedifficult for its own sake

People high in this need:People high in this need: Seek responsibilitySeek responsibility Set realistic but moderately difficult Set realistic but moderately difficult

goalsgoals Take calculated risksTake calculated risks Desire feedbackDesire feedback


Need for PowerNeed for Power

Desire to control other people, Desire to control other people, influence their behaviour, be influence their behaviour, be responsible for themresponsible for them

People high on this need:People high on this need: Spend time thinking about influencing Spend time thinking about influencing

othersothers Wish to gain a position of status and Wish to gain a position of status and

authorityauthority Want to have a positive impactWant to have a positive impact


Need for AffiliationNeed for Affiliation

Desire to establish and maintain Desire to establish and maintain friendly and warm relationships with friendly and warm relationships with othersothers

People high in this need:People high in this need: Care about restoring disrupted Care about restoring disrupted

relationships and soothing hurt feelingsrelationships and soothing hurt feelings Want to engage in work that permits Want to engage in work that permits

close companionshipclose companionship


McClelland’s Needs: McClelland’s Needs: Research ResultsResearch Results

Need profile of successful managers :Need profile of successful managers : Primary motivator is need for powerPrimary motivator is need for power Low need for affiliationLow need for affiliation

Entrepreneurs have high need for Entrepreneurs have high need for achievementachievement


Goal TheoryGoal Theory

Individuals provided with specific Individuals provided with specific hard goals perform better than those hard goals perform better than those given easy, nonspecific, or “do your given easy, nonspecific, or “do your best” goals, or no goals.best” goals, or no goals.

Supported by research.Supported by research. Success also dependent on sufficient Success also dependent on sufficient

ability, acceptance of goals, and ability, acceptance of goals, and receiving relevant feedbackreceiving relevant feedback


Goal-setting TheoryGoal-setting Theory


Locke & Latham’s Findings Locke & Latham’s Findings regarding Goal Settingregarding Goal Setting

1.1. Specific Specific goals lead to higher performance than do goals lead to higher performance than do generalized goals.generalized goals.

2.2. Performance generally increases in direct Performance generally increases in direct proportion to proportion to goal difficultygoal difficulty..

3.3. For goals to improve performance, workers must For goals to improve performance, workers must accept accept themthem

4.4. Goals are more effective when they are used to Goals are more effective when they are used to evaluateevaluate performance. performance.

5.5. Goals should be Goals should be linked to feedbacklinked to feedback and rewards. and rewards.6.6. A A learning goallearning goal orientation improves performance orientation improves performance

more than a performance goal orientation.more than a performance goal orientation.7.7. GroupGroup goal setting is as important as individual goal goal setting is as important as individual goal

setting.setting.


Reinforcement TheoryReinforcement Theory(based on operant (based on operant

conditioning)conditioning) Behaviour is determined by its Behaviour is determined by its

consequences.consequences. Increase frequency of performance using:Increase frequency of performance using:

Positive reinforcementPositive reinforcement Negative reinforcementNegative reinforcement

Decrease frequency of performance Decrease frequency of performance using:using: PunishmentPunishment Extinction Extinction


Techniques in Operant Techniques in Operant ConditioningConditioning

Positive reinforcementPositive reinforcement Provide pleasurable or valued consequence after Provide pleasurable or valued consequence after

desired responsedesired response Negative reinforcementNegative reinforcement (avoidance (avoidance

motivation)motivation) Remove or withhold unpleasant consequence Remove or withhold unpleasant consequence

after desired responseafter desired response PunishmentPunishment

Provide unpleasant consequenceProvide unpleasant consequence Extinction Extinction

Absence of reward that had been sustaining Absence of reward that had been sustaining behaviour (e.g., attention)behaviour (e.g., attention)


Expectancy Theory of Expectancy Theory of MotivationMotivation

Motivation results from deliberate Motivation results from deliberate choices to engage in activities in choices to engage in activities in order to achieve worthwhile order to achieve worthwhile outcomes.outcomes.

People will be motivated if they People will be motivated if they believe strong effort will lead to good believe strong effort will lead to good performance and good performance performance and good performance will lead to good outcomes.will lead to good outcomes.


Expectancy Theory – Key Expectancy Theory – Key ConceptsConcepts

Effort-to-Performance (EEffort-to-Performance (EP) P) ExpectancyExpectancy A subjective estimate of the probability that A subjective estimate of the probability that

increased effort will lead to the desired increased effort will lead to the desired performance.performance.

InstrumentalityInstrumentality (P (PO) O) An individual’s estimate of the probability that An individual’s estimate of the probability that

increased performance will lead to desired increased performance will lead to desired outcomes.outcomes.

ValenceValence The value a person places on a particular outcome.The value a person places on a particular outcome.


A Basic Version of Expectancy A Basic Version of Expectancy TheoryTheory


Expectancy Theory: Expectancy Theory: The Calculation of MotivationThe Calculation of Motivation

M = (E M = (E P) x (P P) x (P O) x V O) x V

Example (from textbook):Example (from textbook):

ValenceValence == 100100 (scale: -100 to (scale: -100 to +100)+100) E EPP = x= x .85.85 (scale: 0 to 1.00)(scale: 0 to 1.00)

P POO = = xx .90.90 (scale: 0 to 1.00)(scale: 0 to 1.00)

MotivationMotivation == 76.5076.50 (scale: -100 to (scale: -100 to +100)+100)


Using Expectancy TheoryUsing Expectancy Theory

To create a situation of high motivation, To create a situation of high motivation, manager should take steps to:manager should take steps to: elevate expectancies (e.g., ensure training)elevate expectancies (e.g., ensure training) elevate instrumentalities (e.g., recognize good elevate instrumentalities (e.g., recognize good

performance)performance) elevate valences (e.g., choose rewards elevate valences (e.g., choose rewards

meaningful to individual)meaningful to individual)


Expectancy TheoryExpectancy Theory

Research shows positive affect Research shows positive affect increases expectancies, increases expectancies, instrumentalities and valences (so instrumentalities and valences (so good mood helps)good mood helps)

Cross-cultural application complicated Cross-cultural application complicated – cultures differ in belief in control – cultures differ in belief in control over outcomes of their efforts and over outcomes of their efforts and faith in leaders to deliver rewardsfaith in leaders to deliver rewards


Equity Theory and Social Equity Theory and Social ComparisonComparison

Employee satisfaction and motivation Employee satisfaction and motivation depend on how fairly employees believe they depend on how fairly employees believe they are being treated in comparison to peersare being treated in comparison to peers

Outcomes (me)Outcomes (me) compared tocompared to Outcomes (other) Outcomes (other) Input (me) Input (other)Input (me) Input (other)

Where inputs include skills, experience, Where inputs include skills, experience, effort… and outcomes include pay, status, effort… and outcomes include pay, status, recognition…recognition…


Employee Ways of Dealing with Employee Ways of Dealing with Perceived InequityPerceived Inequity

Alter the outcome (ask for more money).Alter the outcome (ask for more money).

Alter the inputs (decrease efforts).Alter the inputs (decrease efforts).

Distort the perception (engage in self-Distort the perception (engage in self-justification and seek to discredit others).justification and seek to discredit others).

Change the reference source (find another Change the reference source (find another person with a similar outcome/input ratio).person with a similar outcome/input ratio).

Leave the situation (quit to pursue a more Leave the situation (quit to pursue a more equitable position).equitable position).


Social Learning TheorySocial Learning Theory Social learning is the process of observing Social learning is the process of observing

others’ behaviours, recognizing others’ behaviours, recognizing consequences, and altering behaviour as a consequences, and altering behaviour as a result. This motivated imitation is more likely result. This motivated imitation is more likely if: if:

Learner has high expectancies & instrumentalitiesLearner has high expectancies & instrumentalities Learner can self-administer rewards (finds the task Learner can self-administer rewards (finds the task

intrinsically satisfying)intrinsically satisfying) The behaviour to be learned is tangible/observableThe behaviour to be learned is tangible/observable Learner has the needed physical & mental abilitiesLearner has the needed physical & mental abilities


Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Intrinsic versus Extrinsic MotivationMotivation

Intrinsic motivation means Intrinsic motivation means motivating people through motivating people through interesting workinteresting work

Challenge, autonomy are Challenge, autonomy are characteristics likely to satisfy needs characteristics likely to satisfy needs for competence & self-determinationfor competence & self-determination

Intrinsic motivation also influenced Intrinsic motivation also influenced by perception of why performing task by perception of why performing task (for self rather than external reward)(for self rather than external reward)



Intrinsic motivation theory emphasizes Intrinsic motivation theory emphasizes problems with extrinsic rewards:problems with extrinsic rewards: Can lower performance and demotivate when Can lower performance and demotivate when

creative task involvedcreative task involved Can focus too narrowly on a taskCan focus too narrowly on a task Can rush through task to get rewardCan rush through task to get reward Can cause task to be seen as drudgery Can cause task to be seen as drudgery

suffered for rewardsuffered for reward Can see selves as less free and self-Can see selves as less free and self-

determiningdetermining



Need to balance intrinsic and Need to balance intrinsic and extrinsic rewardsextrinsic rewards

Even those who love their work Even those who love their work expect fair pay and recognitionexpect fair pay and recognition


Influence of Personality on Influence of Personality on MotivationMotivation

Personality traits that predispose persons to Personality traits that predispose persons to motivation:motivation: ConscientiousnessConscientiousness

A conscientious person will strive to get the job done.A conscientious person will strive to get the job done. Achievement needAchievement need

AA need that usually functions like a personality trait need that usually functions like a personality trait——the achievement-driven person welcomes the achievement-driven person welcomes accomplishing tasks.accomplishing tasks.

Employees with low conscientiousness scores, Employees with low conscientiousness scores, and weak achievement needs are difficult to and weak achievement needs are difficult to motivate.motivate.


Influence of Personality – Influence of Personality – research with telemarketersresearch with telemarketers

Communion strivingCommunion striving Actions directed toward being accepted in personal Actions directed toward being accepted in personal

relationships and getting along with coworkers. relationships and getting along with coworkers. Status strivingStatus striving

Actions directed toward obtaining power and Actions directed toward obtaining power and dominance within a status hierarchy, such as a dominance within a status hierarchy, such as a business firm.business firm.

Accomplishment striving Accomplishment striving Reflects an individual’s intention to accomplish tasks, Reflects an individual’s intention to accomplish tasks,

as included in most definitions of work motivationas included in most definitions of work motivation

Research showed latter two correlated with sales Research showed latter two correlated with sales performance, as did conscientiousness and extraversion.performance, as did conscientiousness and extraversion.

chapter six foundation concepts of motivation. copyright © 2007 by nelson, a division of thomson...

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