CHAPTER- V

AGRO-PASTORAL PRACTICES AND THEIR ECOLOGICAL CONSEQUENCES

5.1 INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT

In the twentieth century, there have been two major changes that have been

brought about by the institutional and technological aspects and have had a growing

impact on the semi-arid lands environment. Firstly, there is the rapid rise in

population growth especially since 1950. This has created tremendous pressure on

arable semi-arid land environment, at times resulting in the breakdown of a fragile

ecosystem and growing desertification. Secondly, there is the impact of new

agrarian technology. With the internal combustion engine man can now command

tremendous amounts of energy which are capable of reshaping parts of the natural

environment. Equally important has been the development of reinforced concrete

in the late nineteenth century. Thus, through construction, canals can be controlled

and rapid access communications networks built into the remotest parts of the semi­

arid belt. Inspite of this, with a variety of environments, semi-arid lands have often

been considered as somewhat marginal ones, with little economic value. As a result

investment in them is restricted and development has been slow even today. Apart

from this, the low biomass per unit area of semi-arid vegetation has meant that

humans have been able to change greatly the vegetation pattern over the years,

often unintentionally. By grazing in the more semi-arid parts and by removal of

forest in the welter areas, the vegetation has been so modified that it is doubtful

whether any truly natural vegetation exists today. In the more favourable

environments, from the point of view of soils and slopes, the natural vegetation has

been replaced by cultivated fields. In the semi-arid region where precipitation

exceeds 250 m.m., rain-fed agriculture predominates, while below this figure

irrigation takes over.

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Agro-pastoral practices are undoubtedly a measure of economic utilisation

of the semi-arid lands, viz., grasslands and forest grazing grounds and also their

ecological destruction. Impacts of livestock grazing on the grazing land ecosystems

have become a natural resource management issue of note in recent years. Grazing

animals exert an influence upon the productive grazing land system by the.

defoliation of plants through eating and physical damage, by their digestive

processes and by their movements. Grazing also effects the decomposers and the

soil. The influences on structural and functional attributes of grazing land

ecosystems depend on vegetation type, rainfall and period and intensity of grazing.

In general, mild grazing keeps the herbaceous layer more diverse and productive,

compared to overgrazed and ungrazed situations. Further, the vegetation resilience

is maximum with light grazing. Overgrazing induces secondary succession and

ultimate desertification. An overview of studies conducted on grazing land

productivity revealed that 4. 73 per cent of the organic matter is lost due to grazing

(Malkania and Singh, 1988).

Heavy uncontrolled grazing by livestock over a long period of time results

in either temporary or permanent damage to the ecosystem involved. Overgrazing

is first manifested by a loss of palatable plants, followed by a loss of vegetative

cover. Once the vegetative cover is stripped away, permanent damage occurs

because soil unprotected by vegetation erodes quickly. Although livestock grazing

has been singled out as a prime cause of grassland deterioration, it must be

remembered that other land uses, such as wildlife grazing and recreation, mining

and agricultural practice, have also been destructive when not controlled. Bagar

tract of Bhiwani district is the best example of desertification caused by grazing in

hot semi-arid climates (Ehrlich and Rougharden, 1987).

Cattle are viewed as a source of wealth by village people. From an

ecological point of view, however, they are a source of poverty in hot semi-arid

climates. Cattle, parading back and forth in grazing land have been a major engine

of desertification in the semi-arid region. Sheep and goats damage grazing land

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through browsing and trampling. Because of the injury inflicted by sheep and goats

it was emphasised that this class of stock should be excluded from areas where

reproduction is desired (Prasad and Bhatnagar, 1988). However, the National Forest

Policy, 1952 laid dmvn some usef .. II guidelines for the ecological management of

grassland because firstly, continuous grazing on some areas by large herds is

destructive; secondly, free and indiscriminate forest grazing leads to the vicious

spiral of reckless increase in the number of cattle, regardless of quality and

uneconomic cattle wealth must be combatted; thirdly, to institute a reasonable fee

for the privilege of grazing; fourthly, grazing must not be allowed in regeneration

areas and young plantations; fifthly, grazing incidence should be kept at a

minimum in protected forests, i.e. those forests which must be preserved or created

for physical and climatic conditions. Also, the National Forest Policy highlighted

that the damage to young plants caused by the browsing of sheep and goats is often

irreparable and their admission into forests is incompatible with the aims and

objectives of forest management and suggested the imposition of restrictions on

sheep grazing in forests, and the total intrusion of goats therefrom.

The present chapter examines the implications of agro-pastoral practices

intensification on environmental degradation in the three villages namely, the Obra,

Amirwas and Phartia Bhima which are located in the fragile semi-arid region

spreading over the Loharu tahsil of the Bhiwani district. The district occupies a

transitional position between the fairly flat and featureless Indo-Gangetic Divide

and the adjoining region plains on the one hand and the Rajasthan desert and the

Aravalli hills on the other. A major portion of this transitional tract is a sandy,

undulating plain dotted with sand-dunes of varying shapes and dimensions

occurring in different directional dispositions. The monotony of the sandy plain is

broken in parts by the hills which once were a part of the Aravalli mountain

system, one of the geologically oldest. In several parts it has the characteristics of

desert topography and semi-arid landscapes. This also conforms to the term 'Bagar'

which in terms of climate indicates semi-arid conditions. The main objectives in

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this chapter is to examine the agro-pastoral practices from an ecological point of

view and to find out solutions to such problems as, firstly, implications of the new

agrarian technology on the one hand and the livestock grazing impact on grazing

land ecosystem on the other hand; secondly, the likely practice of multiple use of

these natural resources considering the change in time and human values; thirdly,

better utilisation and management of terrestrial natural resources. By so doing, it

is intended to demonstrate that there is no single or indeed optimal method or

model for semi-arid land management or development. There are two of the most

crucial factors having bearing on land management or development and they are

(1) objectives of the decision makers carrying out the management or development

policy and (2) the technology levels accessible to them. Equally significant is the

political importance of the decision makers and the energy source to which they

have access.

5.2 POPULATION

In Bhiwani district as per the 1991 Census there were 11 ,39, 718 persons as

against the 4, 18,268 persons in 1951 which shows an increase of 7,21 ,450 persons

over the 40 years in the district as a whole. In other words, there was 172.48 per

cent increase in the district population over the 40 years period in the entire

district. Population figures for the district as such are not available from 1901 to

1941 Censuses. There was an increase of population at the rate of 28.78 per cent

during the 1951-61 decade. Later on, the population increased at a little faster rate

of 30.55 per cent during 1961-71 in comparison to the previous decade. The

population increase may be attributed to the extension in agriculture, irrigation and

industrialisation, particularly during the second-half of the decade. During the

period 1981-91, the growth rate of population recorded a decline to 23.87 per cent

which is comparatively lower than that of the previous decade. Besides this, the

density of population was 179 persons per sq. kms. in 1981 which increased to 222

persons per sq. kms. in 1991 for the district as a whole.

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5.2.1 PHYSIOLOGICAL DENSITY

The pressure of population in the ecologically fragile Bagar belt on an average was

2 persons per hectare on the cultivated land for the sample villages as a whole. This ratio

was found, by and large, the same among the villages of Obra, Amirwas and Phartia

Bhima with the ratio of 2 persons per hectare as shown by Table 5.1. The physiological

density of population at the different size of landholding groups was found to vary on an

average. For example, the average density of population for the marginal and small

farmers landholding groups was 4 and 3 persons per hectare respectively which were

comparatively higher than that of the other size landholding groups and even higher than

the average population density ratio. Whereas the remaining categories of the farmers

landholding groups density ratio was found to be almost equal to the average. Besides this,

the spatial pattern of physiological density of population for the individual sample villages

by the different size of landholding groups presents a distinct scenario as revealed by

Table 5.1. For instance, in the Obra village, the marginal as well as small farmers

landholding groups showed the high density ratio of 5 and 3 persons per hectare

respectively on the arable land in comparison to that of the other farmers categories and

even higher than the average. And the remaining farmers landholding groups showed the

density ratio almost equal to the average. On the other hand, in the Arpirwas village, the

physiological density ratio was found to be much the same, among different size of

landholding groups with the exception of the small farmers landholding groups with a

ratio of 3 persons per hectare which was comparatively higher than the average. In the

case of the Phartia Bhima village, the marginal farmers landholding group which recorded

the highest density of ratio of 5 persons per hectare was even higher than the average. The

remaining categories of farmers landholding groups population density was almost equal

to the average with the exception of the semi-medium farmer landholding group with a

ratio of 2 persons per hectare which was far below the average. However, the

physiological density of population seems to be largely influenced by the economic base

at the different levels of the categories of farmers landholding groups as well as the spatial

location of the villages in the semi-arid hagar belt.

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Table 5.1: Pressure of Population on the Cultivated Land by the size of Landholding in the Sample Villages of Loham Tahsil.

Obra Amirwas Phartia Bhima Total (Average) Categories of Fanners Size of Number of Area (in Density of Number of Area (in Density of Number of Area (in Density of Number Area Density

Landholding landholding percent) Population landholding percent) Population/ landhold in percent) Population/ of land- (in of (in hectares) (in Percent) !Hectare (in Percent) Hectare g (in Hectare holding percent) Populat

Percent) (in ion!Hcc Percent) tare

Landless Landless 6.00 - - 8.00 - - 4.00 - - 6.00 - -Marginal Less than I 4.00 2.91 4.60 4.00 3.68 1.83 12.00 5.80 5.00 6.67 4.02 3.89

Small I -2 16.00 9.30 3.00 14.00 8.59 2.71 28.00 20.29 2.86 19.33 12.26 2.86

Semi- 2- 4 26.00 22.67 1.82 28.00 25.77 1.86 26.00 28.26 1.79 26.67 25.37 1.82 Medium

Medium 4- 8 28.00 32.56 1.37 32.00 39.26 1.62 24.00 34.78 2.08 28.00 35.52 1.67

Semi- 8 - 12 8.00 11.63 1.20 1000 15.34 1.08 6.00 10.87 2.60 8.00 12.68 1.58

Large

Large Above- 12 12.00 20.93 1.47 4.00 7.36 0.75 - - - 5.33 10.15 1.29

Total 100 00 100.00 1.77 100.00 100.00 1.75 10(1.00 100.00 2.38 100.00 100.00 1.95

Source: Above table computed and compiled from the primary data collected from the Field Survey 1993, Loham Tahsil, Bhiwani District, Haryana

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5.3 AGRICULTURE

Bhiwani is primarily an agricultural district and the vast majority of its

population lives in villages. Agriculture provides sustenance to about 68.98 per cent

of its inhabitants, either through direct cultivation or through allied occupations.

There is an extensive mechanisation here and there, yet traditional methods of

farming are still being followed. The result is a low yield per hectare. Many efforts

have been in vain for agricultural development by way of propagating the need of

modem implements, better seed and chemical inputs, and the impact has not been

perceptible or significant. Irrigation farming has been unknown to the farmers

except in small pockets. The implementation of the multi-stage canal lift irrigation

schemes is however, expected to lead to far-reaching changes in the cropping

patterns and these semi-arid lands may well blossom into a miniature granary. The

result of whatever little water has reached the thirsty lands, is a harbinger of

prosperity. The agriculture sector as yet is handicapped because of lack of resources

and traditional orthodoxy. For some more time to come bullocks and camels will

continue to play a key role in farming. The area being almost desert, its rural

economy depends on the primary sector activities.

5.3.1 OPERATIONAL LANDHOLDINGS

Table 5.1 presents the data pertaining to 150 effective landholdings selected

from the three sample villages of Obra, Amirwas and Phartia Bhima of the Bagar

belt spread over Loharu tahsil of Bhiwani district. To facilitate inter-village

comparison and to make the study more useful, the data have been computed in

relation to seven different categories of farmers based on the size of cultivated

land. So, the details regarding number of landholdings, operational area, average

size of farm landholdings and pressure of population for all the three villages are

given in Table 5.1. The total operated area for all the 150 effective landholdings

was 473 hectares with an average size of holdings_of 3.15 hectares. The average

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size of the largest landholdings was 3.44 hectares in the Obra village and the

smallest was 2.76 hectares in the Phartia Bhima village. While in the case of

Amirwas, the average size of landholdings was 3.26 hectares. It may, however, be

pointed out that the average size of landholdings represents the average size of

cultivated land as the selection of farm landholdings was purposive in nature.

It would be observed from Table 5.1 that the maximum concentration of

landholdings of 28.00 per cent was in the category of the medium farmers with the

size of landholdings group of 4- 8 hectares and the minimum of 5.33 per cent was

in the category of the large farmers with the size of landholdings group of 12

hectares and above on an average. A majority of landholdings of 46.00 per cent

was in the categories of the small and semi-medium farmers in the size of

landholdings group of 1 to 4 hectares. Whereas the semi-large farmers in the size

of landholdings group of 8 - 12 hectares accounted for 8.00 per cent of all the

landholdings. A small proportion of landholdings constituting 6.67 per cent

belonged to the marginal farmers which falls in the size of landholdings group of

less than 1 hectare. Moreover, almost a similar proportion of 6.00 per cent was in

the case of a landless farmers on an average. However, a similar pattern of the

concentration of the farmers in different size landholding groups by and large

found to exist in the villages of Obra and Amirwas with the exception of the

Phartia Bhima village in which case it was 4.00 per cent as is clearly shown by

Table 5.1. For instance, the small farmers with the size of landholdings ranging

between 1 to 2 hectares comprised the large proportion of 28.00 per cent in the

Phartia Bhima village. Whereas the majority of the farmers belonged to the semi­

medium and medium categories which together constitutes a proportion of about

50.00 per cent in the size group of landholdings ranging between 2 to 8 hectares.

The semi-large farmers in the size of landholdings of 8 - 12 hectares constitute a

small proportion of 6.00 per cent. The marginal farmers with the size of

landholdings of less than 1 hectare accounted for 12.00 per cent. And the remaining

4.00 per cent was the marginal landholdings.

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5.3.2 CROPPING ROTATION

Area under both foodgrains crops of bajra (Pearl Millet) and jowar

(Sorghum) was together constituted the largest proportion of 68.07 per cent during

the kharif season in the semi-arid bagar belt for the sample villages as a wiwle.

Among the pulses crops, both the moong (Green Gram) and guwar (Broad Bean)

accounted for 28.90 per cent of the arable land. And the remaining area of3.03 per

cent was under the commercial crops of cotton etc. of the total arable land on an

average as is shown by Table 5.2. So, a similar pattern of cropping rotation

practice on arable area was also observed by and large among the individual sample

villages of the Obra, Amirwas and Phartia Bhima during the kharif season. Apart

from this, during the rabi season, the largest area was under the pulses crop of

gram which accounted for 45.39 per cent of the arable land on an average. Among

the foodgrains crops, both the wheat and barley accounted for 30.05 per cent. The

area under oilseeds crops of both mustard and mathi (Fenugreek) was together

recorded a percentage of 24.46. So, almost a similar pattern of cropping rotation

practice which is primarily concerned with the arable area under different crops

was also observed among the sample villages individually as is shown by Table

5.2. However, the cropping rotation practice was found to have had changed with

the seasons as observed during both the kharif and rabi seasons. But the areal

patterns in terms of cropping rotation practice by and large were found to be the

same among the villages located in the semi-arid Bagar belt of the Loharu tahsil.

The main crops grown in the semi-arid hagar belt are mostly the rainfed crops.

Whenever irrigation facilities were available, the per hectare yield of wheat, barley,

maize and cotton had been higher (Malhotra, et. al., 1972). However, the cropping

rotation is largely dependent on rain and the choice for crop rotation is limited.

About 39.82 per cent of the net area sown is irrigated where farmers do select

crops for rotation. However, through proper management of land and water

resources, the average area under foodgrains crops may double leading to

achievement of the required target of production by small and marginal farmers in

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the production process. Moreover, the low-cost technologies for the utilisation of

rural energy resources as well as bio-fertilisers may ultimately accelerate the

production of foodgrains.

Table 5.2:

Season

Kharif

Rabi

Source:

5.3.3

Percentage of area under major crops by seasons in the sample villages of Loharu Tahsil.

Crops Area (in per cent)

Obra Amirwas Phartia Total Bhima (Average)

Bajra 68.43 62.46 72.82 67.53

Jowar 1.29 - - 0.54

Moong 10.52 20.58 15.22 15.04

Guwar 19.76 10.70 8.15 13.86

Cotton - 6.26 3.81 3.03

Others - - - -Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00

Wheat 38.60 24.40 22.77 29.81

Barley - 0.30 0.55 0.24

Gram 37.78 52.56 48.04 45.39

Mathi 0.08 - - O.o3

Mustard 23.54 22.74 28.24 24.43

Others - - 0.40 0.10

Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00

Above table computed and compiled from the primary data collected from the Field Survey, 1993, Loharu Tahsil, Bhiwani District, Haryana.

CROPPING PATTERN

In a number of cases of agricultural studies, the nature of cropping pattern

of an area is studied and by relating it with the cropping pattern of other areas. A

simple and convenient method of finding out the "crop combination" (Weaver,

19 54) having significant share in the total cropped area has been used. According

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to the Weaver's method, the significant crops during the kharif season were

identified as a three crops combination of the Bajra (Pearl Miilet), Moong (Green

Gram) and Guwar (Broad Bean). Among the villages, Obra was identified as a two

crop combination region of Bajra (Pearl Millet) and Guwar (Broad Bean). In

Amirwas village, the three crops combination of the Bajra (Pearl Millet), Moong

(Green Gram) and Guwar (Broad Bean) was identified. Whereas the village Phartia

Bhima was identified as a mono-cropping region having Bajra (Peral Millet) as the

most dominating crop. Apart from this, during the rabi season, the cropping pattern

for the villages as a whole, was, therefore, identified as a three crops combination

having the gram as the most dominating crop followed by wheat and Mustard.

Besides this, it is significant to note that all the three villages individually were

identified with the three crops combination as all these crops remained the same

with the exception of their order of dominating priority which was areally different.

For instance, the village Obra was having the wheat as the most dominating crop

followed by Gram and Mustard. Similarly, the Amirwas and Phartia Bhima villages

were also having the Gram as the most dominating crop followed by the wheat and

Mustard and the Mustard and wheat. However, the cropping pattern during the

agricultural year for the villages as a whole was identified as four crops

combination region, having Bajra (Pearl Millet) as the most dominating crop

followed by Gram, Wheat and Mustard sequentially.

However, at the individual village level, both the Obra and Amirwas were

identified as a five crops combination region. In Obra village, the crop combination

in the order of their dominance was as the Bajra (Pearl Millet), Wheat, Gram,

Mustard and Guwar (Broad Bean). In the case of Amirwas village, the crop

combination remained the same with the exception of change in the order of the

dominance of crops of Bajra (Pearl Millet), Gram, Wheat, Mustard and Moong

individually. The village Phartia Bhima was identified as four crops combination

region having Bajra (Pearl Millet) as the most dominating crop followed by Gram,

Mustard and wheat individually. However, the change in area under various crops

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m the sample villages was examined in the context of the imbalances in the

cropping pattern arising from the new agrarian technology (Sidhu and Sankhyam,

1973 ). Imbalances in the cropping pattern of various crops in the sample villages

may impede rural development if proper checks are not applied.

5.3.4 INTENSITY OF IRRIGATION

The extent of irrigation as well as the irrigation intensity per hectare by the

size of landholding groups is presented in Appendix-VII. It would be observed

from the Appendix-VII that a proportion of 62.04 per cent of the arable area of the

selected landholdings was irrigated on an average. The average intensity of

irrigation was about 1-time per hectare. At the individual village level, the

irrigation disparity was found to exist, as about three-fourth or 73.02 per cent of

the arable area was irrigated in the Obra village in comparison to the Phartia

Bhima village where it was almost equal to the average of 62.04 per cent. For that

matter, the lowest area under irrigation of about one-half or 46.50 per cent of the

arable land was in the Amirwas village. But in terms of the irrigation intensity, the

ratio was found to be almost equal to the average for all the villages. Besides this,

among the different size of landholding groups, the medium and semi-large farmers

recorded the high proportion of area under irrigation of 85.35 and 63.33 per cent

respectively. The lowest incidence of irrigation of 45.15 per cent was among the

marginal farmers; but they recorded the highest irrigation intensity of 3-times per

hectare. In the case of the small farmers, about fifty per cent of the arable land was

under irrigation while the irrigation intensity was equal to the average. So, the

extent of irrigation as well as intensity by the landholding groups for the each

individual sample village have by and large shown a similar pattern as seen from

Appendix-VII.

Apart from this, it is noteworthy that the area under irrigation as well as the

intensity of irrigation vary from season to season. For instance, during the kharif

season, the irrigated area accounted for 63.55 per cent while its proportion

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marginally declined to 60.51 per cent during the rabi season. But in terms of

irrigation intensity, the condition was found to be almost reverse as the highest

intensity was 2-times during the rabi season whereas the lowest intensity was 1-

time during the kharif season. Such seasonal irrigation differences could be due to

seasonal variability in temperature and rainfall on the one hand and the type of

crops grown during the different seasons on the other hand. For instance, the bajra

(Pearl Millet) is one of the predominant cereal among the crops grown in the

Kharif season which hardly requires any irrigation. On the contrary, the wheat was

the main cereal crop grown in rabi season which require high irrigation intensity

per hectare. However, a similar seasonal pattern of irrigation and its intensity per

hectare was found to exist among the villages of Obra, Amirwas and Phartia Bhima

as is also evidenced by Appendix-VII.

5.3.5.1 TYPE OF FERTILISERS

Among the different types of chemical fertilisers, both the urea and the die

ammonia phosphate (D.A.P.) have largely been used in agriculture among the

sample villages in the semi-arid hagar belt extending over the Loharu tahsil as is

evidenced by Table 5.3. For instance, among the chemical fertilisers, the urea

consumption accounted for the largest proportion of 64.08 per cent followed by the

die ammonia phosphate (D.A.P.) with a proportion of35.92 per cent by the farmers

in the sample villages as a whole. A similar pattern of chemical fertilisers

consumption was also noticed at the individual village level, namely, at the Obra,

Amirwas and Phartia Bhima as is clearly witnessed by Table 5.3. Besides this,

taking into consideration all the villages together in tenns of the chemical fertilisers

consumption, their descending order was sequentially as Obra, Amirwas and Phartia

Bhima with proportions of 53.11 per cent, 26.72 per cent and 20.17 per cent

respectively on an average. Apart from this, in tenns of the seasonal level of

fertilisers consumption, the urea consumption was comparatively higher during the

kharif season on an average and individually among the villages as shown by Table

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Table 5.3

Season

KHARIF

RABI

Percentage of Fertilisers Consumption by their Types and Seasons in the Sample Villages of Loharu Tahsil.

Type Obra Amirwas Phartia Total Bhima (Average)

Die Amonia 31.06 11.40 - 20.29 Phosphate

Urea 68.94 88.60 100.00 79.71

Super Phosphate - - - -

Zinc Sulphate - - - -

Any Other - - - -

Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00

Total (Average) 58.13 19.60 22.27 100.00

Die Amonia 45.88 38.93 37.39 42.18 Phosphate

Urea 54.12 61.07 62.61 57.82

Super Phosphate - - - -

Zinc Sulphate - - - -

Any Other - - - -

Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00

Total (Average) 51.09 29.58 19.33 100.00

AGRICULTURAL Die Amonia 41.24 33.15 25.58 35.92 YEAR

Source:

Phosphate

Urea 58.76 66.85 74.42 64.08

Super Phosphate - - - -

Zinc Sulphate - - - -

Any Other - - - -

Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00

Total (Average) 53.11 26.72 20.17 100.00

Above table computed and compiled from the primary data collected from the Field Survey, 1993, Loharu Tahsil, Bhiwani District, Haryana

5.3. So, urea is one of the largest consumed fertiliser during both the seasons of

kharif and rabi with 79.71 per cent and 57.82 per cent respectively on an average.

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The urea consumption was found more or less around the average figure during

rabi season while it was comparatively higher during the kharif season at the

individual village level and on an average. Thus, the comparative scenario of

fertilisers consumption for the sample villages during different seasons is as

represented in Table 5.3.

5.3.5.2 CONSUMPTION OF CHEMICAL FERTILISERS

The use of chemical fertilisers has recently gained attention with increasing

irrigation infrastructures. Looking to this, the fertilisers are made available to the

farmers at convenient places. The supply of fertilisers to distribution points is

regulated by the Deputy Director of Agriculture by coordinating the programme

between extension agency and supply agency, i.e. HAFED and marketing societies.

It is a fact that the use of chemical fertilisers was varied considerably among the

sample villages and even among different size of landholding groups per hectare

of the arable land as is clearly evidenced by Appendix-VIII. The consumption of

chemical fertilisers largely depends upon the type of soils and the extent of

irrigation facilities availabie. Appendix-VIII also reveals the facts regarding the

extent to which the cultivators have taken to the use of chemical fertilisers which

is one of the major as well as important inputs generally resorted to for increasing

production. The average consumption of chemical fertilisers was 107.45 kgs. per

hectare. At the individual village level, Obra recorded the highest quantity of

fertilisers consumption of 135.55 kgs. per hectare and the lowest consumption of

77.43 kgs. per hectare was in the case of Phartia Bhima village. The average

fertilisers consumption in Amirwas village was 95.94 kgs. per hectare.

Among the different sizes landholding groups, the large, semi-large and

medium farmers showed the high dosages of chemical fertilisers, the quantity

ratio's for which were 222.92 kgs., 202.50 kgs. and 119.95 kgs. per hectare of the

arable land respectively on an average. On the other side, the average intensity of

fertilisers use among such landholding groups was as low as 0.23, 0.24 and 0.29

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per hectare respectively. On the contrary, in the case of the marginal, small and

medium farmers, the average consumption of chemical fertilisers proportion

accounted for the lower average of 42.76 kgs., 76.15 kgs. and 96.18 kgs. per

hectare respectively. Yet the intensity of chemical fertilisers use was found as high

as shown by the ratio's of 0.69, 0.62 and 0.40 per hectare for the respective

categories of farmers. However, almost a similar pattern of chemical fertilisers

consumption and its uses intensity was found to exist by and large among all the

three villages. It is significant to note that in the Amirwas village the semi-medium

and medium farmers recorded a higher consumption of fertilisers of 104.39 kgs.

and 118.05 kgs. per hectare respectively than its average consumption of figure of

95.94 kgs. per hectare. Therefore, it is noteworthy that the low quantity of

chemical fertilisers was judiciously used by the marginal, small and semi-medium

farmers in comparison to the other categories of the farmers as is clearly

manifested by Appendix-VIII. However, the agriculture extension agency IS

constantly educating the farmer community regarding the judicious use of fertilisers

vis-a-vis their increased cost. Nevertheless, there are a number of negative

implications of the chemical fertilisers use on the semi-arid ecological system.

5.3.6.1 TYPE OF PESTICIDES

Broad categories of a number of pesticides such as the insecticides,

fungicides, herbicides and plant growth regulants, fumigants, weedicides,

rodenticides and antibiotics are mainly used in agriculture to fight against the pests

and crop diseases. The use of such types of pesticides with their broad

classification is presented in Table 5.4.1 for the sample villages of the Obra,

Amirwas and Phartia Bhima which are located in the semi-arid hagar belt and for

the Loharu tahsil as a whole. The consumption pattern of pesticides in the sample

villages is quite different in terms of their types. So, out of the total pesticides

consumption, the share of insecticides as a whole is the largest which is 99.51 per

cent. The weedicides ranked the second with the proportion of merely 0.32 per cent

158

Table 5.4.1: Broad Categories of Pesticides and their Uses in the Sample Villages of Loharu Tahsil.

Categories Obra Amirwas Phartia Shima Total (Average)

Antibiotics - - - -

Fumigants - - - -

Fungicides 0.42 - - 0.17

Herbicides - - - -

Insecticides 99.58 99.38 100.00 99.51

Rodenticides - - - -

Weedicides - 0.62 - 0.32

Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00

Total (Average) 48.85 51.45 7.70 100.00

Source:

Table 5.4.2:

Type

Aldrin

B.H.C.

Endosu1fan

Hinosan

Malathion

2,4-D

Thimet

Total

Source:

Above table computed and compiled from the primary data collected from the Field Survey, 1993, Loharu Tahsil, Bhiwani District, Haryana

Pesticides Consumption by their Types in the Sample Villages of the Loharu Tahsil.

Category Obra Amirwas Phartia Total Shima (Average)

Insecticide 4.42 3.38 17.94 4.92

Insecticide 95.16 92.80 72.65 92.22

Insecticide - 0.17 0.45 0.12

Fungicide 0.42 - - 0.17

Insecticide - 3.03 6.72 2.07

Weedicide - 0.62 - 0.32

Insecticide - - 2.24 0.18

100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00

Above table computed and compiled from the primary data collected from the Field Survey, 1993, Loharu Tahsil, Bhiwani District, Haryana

159

followed by fungicides with 0.17 per cent (Table 5.4.1 ). Among the insecticides,

the B.H.C. formed the largest proportion of 92.22 per cent followed by the Aldrin,

Malathion, Thimat and Endosulfan with the proportion of 4.92 per cent, 2.07 per

cent 0.18, per cent and 0.12 per cent respectively on an average. And the remaining

marginal proportions of 0.17 per cent and 0.32 per cent were constituted by the

Hinosan, which is a fungicide and 2,4-D a weedicide respectively as is manifested

by Table 5.4.2. While the villages taken together, the Amirwas village was the

largest user of pesticides with a proportion of 51.45 per cent followed by the Obra

and Phartia Bhima with the proportions of 48.85 per cent and 7. 70 per cent

respectively on an average. However, the consumption of different types of

pesticides was found to vary among the villages as is evidenced by Table 5.4.1.

5.3.6.2 CONSUMPTION OF PESTICIDES

An analysis of Appendix-IX reveals many facts regarding the consumption

of chemical pesticides alongwith their use intensity ratio's which have been found

to vary but marginally at the individual village level and among different size of

landholding groups per hectare of the arable land because the consumption of

chemical pesticides mainly depends upon the kind of crop more susceptible to the

pests and the extent and nature of the pest prevailing during a particular season

with a specified area. So, the average consumption of chemical pesticides was 2.32

kgs. with a use intensity ratio of 0.38 per hectare of arable land for the sample

villages as a whole. Among the villages, the Amirwas and Obra recorded the

consumption of higher quantity of pesticides of 2.82 Kgs. and 2.75 Kgs. per

hectare respectively, whereas the lowest quantity of 0.76 Kgs. per hectare was

consumed in the case of the Phartia Bhima village. Besides this, among the

different sizes of landholding groups, the semi-medium farmers (2-4 hectares)

recorded the highest dosages of chemical pesticides of 3.82 Kgs. with the use

intensity ratio of 0.36 over per hectare of arable land on average. On the other

hand, the large (>-12) hectares) and small (<-1 hectare) farmers were recorded the

160

lowest consumption of pesticides proportion of 0.28 kgs. and 0.50 kgs. over per

hectare of arable land respectively on an average. However, the consumption

proportion of chemical pesticides for the other categories of farmers individually

was more or less equal to the average. Still almost a similar pattern of pesticides

consumption as well as its uses intensity ratio was found to exist, by and large, at

the individual sample village level except at the Phartia Bhima village where its

consumption was comparatively lower than the average as is manifested by

Appendix-IX. It is also noteworthy from the use frequency that the low quantity

of chemical pesticides was judiciously utilised by the marginal and small farmers

as is also manifested by Appendix-IX. Thus, with this background, there is an

urgent need to reduce the growing use of the chemical fertilisers in preference for

the available bio-fertilisers for use in agriculture. For instance, the cow dung should

not be extensively used as fuel in preference to its use as farmyard manure. Efforts

should be made to popularise gobar gas plants which will go a long way in

minimising the use of cow dung as fuel. Extensive education for compost making

has also been intensified for proper use of dung and farm wastes. Regular

campaigns need to be carried on organised to push up this programme.

5.3.7 AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS

The traditional agricultural implements are still commonly used by the

farmers in the cultivation process as the wooden plough, cattles, spade, flat board

and cart are some of them. Any improvement in agriculture is inconceivable

without a corresponding improvements in the agricultural implements. The new

agrarian technological machineries and allied equipments are being gradually

adopted by the farmers in accordance with their utility and scope for use since the

adoption of new agrarian technological inputs requires a high capital investment in

different agricultural machineries and equipments. The new technological

implements in common use are the tractor, cultivator, roller, trolley, thresher and

the allied equipments. However, the various types of agricultural implements and

161

equipments used by the farmers in the selected landholdings in the sample villages

are shown in Tables 5.5.

Table 5.5: Inputs of New Agrarian Technological implements in the sample villages of the Loharu Tahsil.

Implements Obra Aminvas Phartia Total Bhima

Tractor 8 3 6 17

Tubewell (Diesel) 0 1 0 1

Tub ewell (Electric) 7 12 39 58

Tubewell (Total) 7 13 39 59

Plough Wooden 14 2 8 24

Plough Improved 15 25 22 62

Seed Driller 26 26 16 68

Caff-Cullter 42 33 28 103

Sugarcane Crusher 1 0 1 2

Threasher 4 2 6 12

Field Wheat Harvest 0 0 1 1 Troller

Trolly/Trailor 5 3 5 13

Cart 18 6 12 36

Gur-Boiling Pan 2 1 0 3

Roller 1 2 0 3

Bar Harrow 12 4 4 20

Cultivator 0 0 0 0

Sughaga 1 0 0 1

Meander Maker 1 0 0 1

Any Other 181 157 170 508

Source: Above table computed and compiled from the primary data collected from the Field Survey, 1993, Loharu Tahsil, Bhiwani District, Haryana

162

5.4 LIVESTOCK

Livestock population exceeds human population leading to acute imbalance

m the landuse pattern. Land predominantly constitutes degenerated forms like

barren, culturable waste and fallow lands. Increasing pressure of animals and

human population has resulted in low level of production from crop and livestock

enterprises presenting a disquieting increased instability in agricultural production.

The concentration of livestock population by the kind of animals in the sample

villages of Obra, Amirwas and Phartia Bhima of the Loharu tahsil is presented in

Table 5.6.1. The livestock population in the Bagar belt comprises buffaloes with

a proportion of 27.00 per cent; cows 4.14 per cent; sheep 13.57 per cent and goats

of 3.43 per cent, while camels constitute a comparatively significant proportion of

13.00 per cent. A large proportion of 38.72 per cent constituted by the other

animals including mostly the animal calves etc. among the sample villages as a

whole. However, almost a similar pattern of animals distribution was found to exist

in the Obra village. But, in the case of the Amirwas and Phartia Bhima villages,

the goat, sheep and farm cattle formed a negligible proportion; and the animals

distribution pattern otherwise remained the same. So, the rapidly increasing human

and livestock populations are both competing for limited land resource exploitation.

It will lead to polarisation in grassland and fodder field resources in semi-arid land

ecosystem (Whyte, 1970).

The overall livestock population exceeds human population and the

physiological density of livestock on the cultivated lands, on permanent pastures

and grazing lands and per unit of human population is comparatively higher in the

semi-arid Bagar belt (Malhotra, et. al., 1972). The pressure of livestock population

over an hectare of land in the sample villages by the different sizes of landholdings

groups is shown in Table 5.6.2. The average density of livestock population per

hectare was 2 animals which is almost equal to the human density of population.

Livestock animals form the economic base of the marginal and small farmers

because of the small size of their landholdings. The high density of livestock

163

Table 5.6.1: Percentage Distribution of Livestock Population in the Sample Villages of Loharu Tahsil.

I

Animals Obra Amirwas Phartia Bhima Total (average)

Cows 3.50 3.27 6.25 4.14

Buffaloes 17.25 41.83 34.66 27.00

Goats 6.47 0.00 0.00 3.43

Sheeps 25.61 0.00 0.00 13.57

Farm Cattles 0.00 0.00 0.57 0.14

Camels 15.36 8.49 11.93 13.00

Any Others 31.81 46.41 46.59 38.72

TOTAL 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00

Total (Average) 53.00 21.86 25.14 100.00

Source:

Table 5.6.2:

Above table computed and compiled from the primary data collected from the Field Survey, 1993, Loharu Tahsil, Bhiwani District, Haryana

Pressure of Livestock Population on the Land in the Sample Villages of Loharu Tashil.

Density of Amimals/Hectare Size of Landholding

Obra Phartia Bhima Total (in hectare)

Less than I

I - 2

2- 4

4 - 8

8 - 12

Above- 12

TOTAL

Source:

Aminvas (average)

8.00 1.33 2.00 3.37

7.37 1.21 1.32 2.96

1.36 0.98 1.08 1.13

1.04 0.98 1.33 1.10

2.90 0.56 1.13 1.48

1.19 0.67 - 1.06

2.16 0.94 1.27 1.48

Above table computed and compiled from the primary data collected from the Field Survey, 1993, Loharu Tahsil, Bhiwani District, Haryana

164

population of 3 animals per hectare was recorded by the marginal and small

landholding categories of farmers respectively. On the other hand, the other sizes

landholding groups recorded a livestock density almost equal to and even lower

than the average. Such a density pattern was also found to exist in the case of the

Obra and even the Pharia Bhima villages as well. In the case of Amirwas village,

the situation was almost the same with comparatively low density proportions as

is evidenced by Table 5.6.2. So, the over-exploitation of the natural resources such

as the natural vegetation by way of overgrazing and removal of tree species for

fuel, fodder and cultivation of marginal lands like sand-dunes etc., leads to a series

of ecological changes in the semi-arid Bagar desertic belt which becomes

susceptible to erosion hazards, thus, finally leading to desertification (Saxena,

1977).

5.5 AGRONOMIC-ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

The major agronomic problems faced by the cultivators such as the land

severely affected by the soil erosion on the one hand and the sand deposition on

the other hand are prevalent all over the arable land in all the sample villages

located in the Bagar belt of the Loharu tahsil. Both these agronomic and allied

problems all together have affected about 14.99 per cent of the cultivable land on

an average. In comparison to the other villages, Phartia Bhima village was the

worst affected by such agronomic problems accounting for 27.05 per cent of the

cultivated land. The Obra village was also heavily affected by such agronomic

problems as is manifested by the proportion of 17.53 per cent in this case. The

proportion of the degraded land of both these villages was individually higher than

the average even individually. The village Amirwas cultivated land was not so

severely affected as is evidenced by the proportion of 2.11 per cent. Besides this,

among the different size landholding groups, the medium and large farmers land

was badly affected by the agronomic problems as demonstrated by their proportions

of 22.65 per cent and 21.08 per cent respectively on an average. On the other hand,

165

the marginal farmers were also affected at large by such problems accounting for

10.63 per cent of their cultivated land on an average. However, the cultivated land

degradation by the size of landholding groups differs among all the sample villages

as is evidenced by Table 5.7.1. In the case of the Obra viilage, with the exception

of the small farmers, were all the other landholdings were affected at large by such

problems. In the case of Phartia Bhima village the medium farmers were worst

affected on the one hand and the marginal and semi-medium farmers at large on

the other. So, the agronomic problems in the different villages located in the Bagar

belt seem associated by and large with the landscape physiography. The main

agronomic problems are the shifting sand dunes, severe wind erosion, degraded

pastures and scarcity of water (Roy, et. al., 1970).

Table 5.7.1 Land Affected by the Agronomic Problems in the Samples Villages of Loharu Tahsil.

Proportion (%) of Affected area Size of Landholding (in to total land hectares)

Obra Amirwas Phartia Bhima Total (Average)

Less than I 4.00 - 22.75 10.63

I -2 - 5.79 10.46 6.45

2- 4 11.41 0.48 18.16 9.77

4- 8 22.41 - 53.12 22.65

8- 12 14.15 9.72 - 8.77

Above- 12 28.11 - - 21.08

TOTAL 17.53 2.11 27.05 14.99

Source: Above table computed and compiled from the primary data collected from the Field Survey, 1993, Loharu Tahsil, Bhiwani District, Haryana

5.5.1 IMPLICATIONS OF NEW AGRARIAN TECHNOLOGICAL IMPLEMENTS

With the increased mechanisation of agriculture over the last few decades,

the impact of tillage upon the soil has risen considerably. In several cases, it has

been shown that the damaging effects of tillage are detrimental to the

physiography, soil structure and fertility and crop growth. It has also been shown

166

that structural damage by tillage implements may be persistent and difficult to

ameliorate (Greenland, 1977). It is apparent that these detrimental effects of tillage

arise mainly when the soil is cultivated in an unusual state, and, as a result,

structural damage is most acute in heavy and poorly drained soils. It is, therefore,

in these soils that greatest care is required during tillage. However, in view of the

problems of conventional tillage practices, increasing attention has recently been

given to alternative techniques such as minimal tillage and direct drilling. The

direct drilling involves no seedbed preparation at all, and crops are sown into the

untilled soil by a machine that cuts a narrow seed-slot. Crop residues are normally

allowed to decompose in situ, herbicides are used to control weeds and pests, and

rooting and drainage conditions are maintained by encouraging earthworm activity.

This system is known as 'direct drilling' in Britain, or as 'zero tillage' in the

United States (Briggs and Courtry, 1985). At the same time, it has become clear

that direct drilling is no panacea for the problems of tillage practices. It can only

be used on soils which are already in good structural condition. It is mainly

suitable for light, well-drained soils and consequently cannot easily be applied to

those soils that give greatest problems during conventional tillage (i.e. heavy clay

soils). Moreover, like conventional tillage, direct drilling needs to be employed

with care. If adverse effects upon the soil are to be avoided it is, therefore,

essential that the interactions between tillage and soil conditions are clearly

understood.

5.5.2 SOIL EROSION

The Soils of the Bagar belt are largely sandy in character. The Bagar belt

faces a serious problems of soil erosion. Erosion is still severe and is contributing

to the cultivable land soil degradation. So, the soil erosion is common throughout

the Bagar belt which needs proper and adequate measures not only to check erosion

on steeper slopes but also to protect the lower slopes and undulating sand dunes

region against deposition and spreading of unwanted coarse sand. Wind is a serious

167

agent of soil erosion in the dry Bagar belt. In this context, Table 5. 7.2 presents the

figures for the land affected by the major agronomic problem of soil erosion in the

sample villages of the Obra, Amirwas and Phartia Bhima. Nearly 9.49 per cent of

the land was severely affected by the soil erosion of the cultivated land on an

average. Among the sample villages, the Phartia Bhima and Obra were worst

affected by soil erosion problem as is evidenced by their proportions of 18.91 per

cent and 10.70 per cent respectively and the proportion was even much higher than

the average in the case of the former village. In the case of the Amirwas village,

the land degradation condition did not seem to be much serious. So, a green forest

belt should be established across the direction of wind to check the wind erosion

action and also to prevent the sand-spread over the arable land.

Table 5.7.2: Land Affected by Soil erosion problem m the Samples Villages of Loharu Tahsil.

Size of Land- % of Area affected to total land holding (in

Obra Amirwas Phartia Total hectare) Bhima (Average)

Less than 1 4.00 - 22.75 10.63

1 - 2 - 2.86 6.50 3.83

2- 4 3.11 - 16.08 6.23

4- 8 9.39 - 33.73 12.77

8 - 12 14.15 - - 4.72

Above- 12 24.75 - - 18.56

TOTAL 10.70 0.24 18.91 9.49

Source: Above table computed and compiled from the primary data collected from the Field Survey, 1993, Loharu Tahsil, Bhiwani District, Haryana.

168

Besides this, an analysis of Table 5.7.2 reveals the fact that among the

different sizes of landholding groups. the large and medium farmers were largely

affected by the soil erosion problem. The proportion of the affected land of both

these categories of farmers accounted for 18.56 per cent and 12.77 per cent

respectively. In addition to this, the marginal farmers were also affected by such

an agronomic problem which accounted for 10.63 per cent of the cultivable land

on an average. The small and semi-large farmers were also severely affected by the

soil erosion problem. However, as mentioned earlier, the sample villages were not

equally affected by the soil erosion at the different size of landholding groups. In

the case of the Obra village, the large and semi-large farmers were heavily affected

by the soil erosion problem on their agricultural land. Besides, in the case of

Phartia Bhima village, the medium, semi-medium and marginal farmers were

affected at large scale by soil erosion problem. In the Amirwas village, only the

small farmers were affected by soil erosion but not on a large scale. However,

intensive pressure on land and absence of subsidiary occupations compel the people

there to cultivate the dune and the marginal lands. This causes the loosening of

sand particles which become susceptible to being be carried off by the winds.

These wind-born sand particles fall on the adjacent fertile lands and ultimately

deteriorate them. So, the cultivation of the sand-dunes and marginal lands has

caused the shifting of the sand and formation of new sandy hummocks or low

dunes tracts causing deterioration of the fertile lands.

5.5.3 SAND DEPOSITION

There is yet another a serious threat to cultivation such as by sand deposition

among the sample villages of the Obra, Amirwas and Phartia Bhima located in the

semi-arid Bagar belt as is evidenced by Appendix-X. The agriculture unless where

levelling, terracing etc. have been done is unsatisfactory. Sand deposition is

common throughout the Bagar belt which needs proper and adequate measures not

only to check sand deposition on cultivable sand dune slopes but also to protect the

169

level fertile agricultural land against deposition and spreading of unwanted coarse

sand. Wind is a serious agent of sand deposition in the dry Bagar belt. Because of

this problem, nearly 4.4 7 per cent of the land was severely affected by the sand

deposition on the cultivated land on an average. Among the sample villages, the

Phartia Bhima and Obra villages were the worst affected with this problems as is

evidenced by their proportions of 6.3 8 per cent and 5.41 per cent respectively and

the proportion was even much higher than the average in the case of the former

village. In the case of Amirwas village, the land degradation by sand deposition did

not seem to be much serious. So, a green forest belt should be established across

the direction of wind to check the sand deposition action and also to prevent the

sand-spread over new areas.

Besides this, an analysis of Appendix-X reveals the fact that among the

different sizes of landholding groups, the medium and semi-large farmers were

largely affected by the sand deposition problem. The proportion of the affected

land of both these categories of farmers was 9.88 per cent and 4.05 per cent

respectively on an average. In addition to this, the semi-medium farmers were also

affected by this problem accounting for 3.54 per cent of the cultivable land. The

small and the large farmers were not so severely affected by the sand deposition

problem. However, as mentioned earlier, the sample villages were not equally

affected by the sand deposition at the different size of landholding groups. In the

case of the Obra village, the medium and semi-medium farmers were heavily

affected by the sand deposition problem on their agricultural land. Besides, in case

of the Phartia Bhima village, the medium and small farmers were largely affected

by the soil deposition problem. In the Amirwas village, only the semi-large farmers

were affected by soil deposition problem on a large scale. However, intensive

pressure of human population and livestock animals on the semi-arid arable land

on the one hand and absence of subsidiary occupations on the other, compel the

people there to cultivate the sand dunes and the marginal lands. This causes the

loosening of sand particles which become susceptible to erosion and then being

170

carried off by the winds. These wind-born sand particles deposit on the adjacent

fertile arable lands and ultimately deteriorate them. So, the cultivation of the sand­

dunes and marginal lands has caused the shifting of sand and formation of new

sandy hummocks or low dunes tracts causing widespread deterioration of the fertile

arable land.

5.5.4 SOIL SAMPLE ANALYSIS

As with agricultural drainage, irrigation leads to significant changes in soil

conditions, some of which are long-lasting, and not all of which may be beneficial

in agricultural terms. A more serious effect upon the soil relates to erosion.

Chemical and organic changes in soil conditions might also be anticipated under

irrigation. In semi-arid areas or where water quality is poor, accumulation of salts

and trace elements may present a serious problem. Bicarbonate, chloride, sulphate,

sodium and boron may all reach toxic levels, and careful control of application

rates, moisture conditions and water quality is essential to remove these by

leaching. However, on the basis of theoretical considerations, it might be

anticipated that irrigation would lead to greater water movement through the soil,

more intense leaching and increased pollution of ground-waters. As with the effects

of drainage, however, definitive data are lacking and the impact upon water quality

remains largely conjectural.

The soil sample of the three villages- the Obra, Amirwas and Phartia Bhima

- located in the semi-arid Bagar belt in the Loharu tahsil irrigated by tubewells and

rainfall have been examined to see the physical and chemical properties of the soils

on the one hand; and the pH (soil reaction) value, electrical conductance (EC) or

Total Soluble Salt (ISS), organic carbon percentage, available phosphorus (kg.

P/ha.), available potash (kg. K/ha.), calcium carbonate, soil texture, nature of soil

problems and gypsum requirement on the other hand. Appendix-XI presents a

comprehensive soil test report for the sample villages of the Loharu tahsil. The

analysis of Appendix-XI reveals that the physical characteristics of the soil have

171

sandy texture based on the size of the soil grain size. So, the desertic sand soil is

found in the sample villages. This soil belong to the seironozem soil group. The

main problems are shifting sand dunes, severe wind erosion, degraded pastures and

scarcity of water (Roy, et. al., 1970). The fertility of soil is of the no~al type. The

soil has poor type of drainage. Appendix-XI presents the figures for the chemical

properties in respect of all the six soil sample relating to the semi-arid Bagar belt

in form of the major nutrients and other soil properties. The soil test report analysis

reveals that the soils are highly alkaline in nature in the case of the both the soil

samples for the Obra village. The pH value ranges between 8.1 - 8.2. The EC or

total soluble salt (TSS) ranges between 0.10- 0.01 mmhos/cm in the case of the

Obra village. The soil test report analysis also reveals that the soils are alkaline in

nature in respect of soil sample number - I and II for the Amirwas village. The pH

value of the soil is ranges between 8.3 - 9.1. The total soluble salt (TSS) ranges

between 0.08 - 0.50 mmhos/cm in the case of Amirwas village. Besides, the soils

are alkaline in nature in respect of the soil sample number - I and II with a pH

value of 8.4 for the Phartia Bhima village. The total soluble salt (TSS) ranges

between 2.4 - 1.9 mmhos/cm in the case of Phartia Bhima village.

Normally, there are three types of salts such as the sulphate, chloride and

bicarbonate and sodium which generally form the main mass of these saline

efflorescence. Calcium sulphate may also be present in very small quantities and

at some places calcium chloride and magnesium sulphate have also been found.

Usually, the direct source of salt is surface and ground-water. Apart from this, the

average value for available nutrients of organic carbon are 0.23 per cent and 0.21

per cent in the case of the soil sample number - I for the Amirwas and Phartia

Bhima villages respectively as is evidenced by Appendix-XI. This indicates that the

available organic carbon nutrient of available soil nitrogen is low in content in the

sandy soil. The soil has also deficiency of calcium carbonate in a number of cases.

The findings of a study reveals that the Zinc was also deficient in 91.00 per cent

and Zn application was a must for optimum crop yields in the semi-arid belt (Singh

172

and Banerjee, 1984 ). So, the different types of crops vary in their sensitiveness to

the presence of alkaline salts in these soil. Potatoes constitute the most sensitive

crop. Barley, wheat, legum in general, can tolerate salts to a still larger extent.

Cotton and a number of other crops can tolerate salts to a still larger extent. So,

Appendix-XI presents the results of soil test conducted by the author at the Indian

Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), New Delhi for the sample village of the

Loharu tahsil on the basis of which IARI has made specific recommendations are

for growing the high yield varieties of wheat, maize and legume. It has also

recommended that the alkaline soil may be treated with gypsum @ two tons/acre

followed by leaching with good quality irrigation water in case of the Amirwas

village. It has also recommended that in the case of Phartia Bhima village, the

alkaline soils may be leached with good quality water before fertiliser/manure

application.

5.5.5 OVERGRAZING

In order to understand the ecological perspective of overgrazing, it is

essential to know the energetics of the grazing land ecosystem. As a natural system

of energy flow, grazing is the culmination of a process of transfer and

transformation of energy from primary producers to secondary producers. Grazing

lands, called as the net primary production (NPP) in ecological terminology, allow

very little accumulation of biomass. The forest ecosystems on the other hand

accumulate and store energy and function as a delayed consumption systems.

Characteristic of an ecosystem, the grazing lands are capable of self development

that may include growth, repair, replacement of part and other structural and

functional attributes that counter the natural tendency of any or all systems to

deteriorate with time. There are regulatory mechanisms known as "Homeostatic

Mechanisms" which operate as checks and balance in the ecosystem against

f1 uctuati ons.

173

The selective grazing habit of the animals causes severe deterioration of

grazing lands. Apart from overgrazing of herbaceous layer, the maltreatment of

ligneous elements of grassland and forests for firewood, fodder and minor forest

produces reduces seed output and ultimately results in poor regeneration. Further,

coppicing of thorny and weedy species are relatively more successful under heavy

grazing. Because of forage preference differences among different kinds of

livestock, grasses may increase on a sheep or goat grazing land at the expense of

forbs and bush. Conversely, on cattle grazing lands, grass may disappear. As the

plant communities evolved under the grazing pressures of large herbivores, the

grazing habit and food preferences of the bovines present in a particular grazing

land depend on the type of plants and their density. In areas representing

degenerated grasslands, the animals also feed on weedy non-pala annuals.

5.6 IMPLICATIONS OF DEVELOPMENT TO AGRO-ENVIRONMENT

DEGRADATION: A Statistical Test of Hypotheses

In the recent past, the rapid agricultural development took place due to the

adoption of new agrarian technological inputs which could by and large be

responsible for the fragile semi-arid ecosystem degradation into many ways. In

view of this, a number of sample villages such as the Obra, Amirwas and Phartia

Bhima have been taken into consideration from the semi-arid Bagar belt in order

to examine the developmental consequences on the agro-environment degradation.

In this context, the multiple coefficient of correlation matrix has been worked out

among the aspects of land use, new agrarian technological and chemical inputs and

its negative implications in the form of agronomic problems as is presented in

Appendix-XII.

The multiple correlation matrix has been worked out for the sample villages

of Obra, Amirwas and Phartia Bhima as a whole as is shown in Appendix-XII. An

analysis of it reveals important facts about the sample villages which are located

in the semi-arid Bagar belt. For instance, the agricultural productivity in terms of

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yield per hectare (Y) shows a strong relationship with the fertilisers consumption

(x8) as is evidenced by such coefficient of r = +0.681 0 which shows merely casual

relationship. Besides this, the landholding (xi) indicator shows a high degree of

relationship with the irrigation intensity (x6), pesticides consumption (xi 0) and

sand deposition (xl3) with such the coefficients as r = +0.6724, +0.7687 and

+0.5306 respectively. All these values are statistically insignificant. In addition to

this, the agronomic problem indicators are highly correlated with the landholding

(xi) indicator as is evidenced by Appendix-XU. However increasing landholdings

caused the increase in agronomic problems which are found to be responsible for

the sand erosion vis-a-vis sand deposition in the arable field. This could be due to

the fragmentation of arable land into small pieces as well as the agricultural

intensification which could probably be responsible for the arable land being more

susceptible to soil erosion vis-a-vis deposition by the wind action in the semi-arid

Bagar belt. It is noteworthy that the population density (x2) is probably causing

agronomic problems as is evidenced by the positive coefficient of r = +0.5519.

Because the livestock population pressure is one of the important biological engine

of desertification and indiscriminate exploiter of the natural ecological system in

one way or the other in the fragile semi-arid Bagar belt. The livestock density (x3)

is found to be positively correlate with the irrigation intensity (x7), fertilisers

intensity (x9) and pesticides intensity (xll) as is shown by such coefficients as r

= +0.8859, +0.9490 and +0.8355 respectively in which the former two values are

significant at I per cent level of significance.

Besides this, the new technological inputs such as the tractors (x5) have

shown highly positive correlation with the fertilisers consumption (x8) as is shown

by such coefficient as r = +0.8839 which is significant at 1 per cent level of

significance. On the other hand, the tractors (x5) indicator shows a strongly inverse

correlation with the new agrarian technological inputs as is evidenced by Appendix­

XI!. So, the tractor as the multipurpose machine, has not been extensively used

only for field irrigation purpose because of the availability of alternative means e.g.

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the electric pump-sets etc. Besides this, the irrigation (x6) indicator is positively but

casually related with the pesticides consumption (xlO) and sand deposition (xl3)

as is evidenced by such correlation coefficients as +0.6423 and +0.6064

respectively. The irrigation in the arable fields in the semi-arid Bagar b\!lt is

possible only by way of the sprinkle irrigation system through which soil erosion

susceptibility is very rare. The irrigation intensity (x7) indicator is strongly

correlated with the fertilisers intensity and pesticides intensity (xl1) as is shown

by such coefficients as r = +0.8970 and +0.6938 respectively in which the former

value is significant at I per cent level of significance.

5.7 ECOLOGICAL RESTORATION MEASURES

The sample villages which fall in the semi-arid Bagar belt have extremes of

temperatures. The south and south-western parts are an extension of the Rajasthan

desert. Sand blowing caused by high velocity wind poses serious problems. The

fertile soil particles, as a result of siltation, are transported and scattered over long

distances thus impairing soil fertility. In other situation coarse and sterile sand

particles are carried away with the high velocity wind and dust storms and are

deposited over fertile soil creating unproductivity. Thus, the greater part of the

semi-arid Bagar belt is exposed to serious sand-blows which threaten the entire

agricultural economy. Hence, to stop the soil erosion and shifting of sand dunes,

to provide greenery, shade near settlements, to provide shelter for agricultural crops

and growing animals against the adversities in the semi-arid land ecosystem are the

major aims of afforestation (Karschon, 1964 ). All programmes aimed at agricultural

development like the use of fertilisers, compost, improved seeds, pest control etc.

are likely to be rendered ineffective if the shifting sands are not stabilised.

Research has conclusively established that a permanent vegetal cover brings about

substantial reduction in wind velocity and forms the foundation of entire

programmes of agricultural development. The measures to be taken to arrest the

marching desert are described in detail as follows:

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5.7.1 FIXATION OF SAND-DUNES

Sand-Dunes formation is a common phenomena all along the Rajasthan

border adjacent to Loharu Tahsil of the Bhiwani district. These sand-dunes which

are of a shifting nature, are advancing into the interior of the semi-arid hagar belt

with strong south-westerly winds rendering the cultivated land infertile by

accumulation of sand. The total area affected by sand-dunes is about 30,000

hectares. Biological barriers in the form of trees and shrubs play a vital role in

different operations of desert control. They are the cheapest method of reducing

wind velocity to control the movement of sand.

5.7.2 RAISING OF SHELTER BELTS

The forestry schemes aim at afforestation of waste strips along rail, road and

canal. These improve the situation, as they serve as shelter belts against prevailing

winds especially wherever these belts exist perpendicularly to the wind direction.

A dense belt of trees against the strong sand-bearing winds check their velocity and

thus the sand is accumulated towards the windward side instead of encroaching

upon the cultivated lands on the leeward side. Moreover, the shelter belts protect

the crops from the evil desiccating effects of hot winds. Plants are to be raised on

the periphery of the fields of the farmers to create wind breaks so that crops are

protected from desiccating winds. Afforestation and regeneration are essential part

of the forestry. It becomes particularly urgent and important in areas of the Loharu

tahsil. The forests must be planted and maintained constantly so as to protect the

land from the ravages of erosion, tore-fertilise the soil, arrest aridity and influence

the climate.

5.7.3 GRAZING MANAGEMENT

Although the consequences of overgrazing are well documented, generally

the known, information about the impacts of livestock grazing controlled by the

scientific principals is much more limited and is nearly not understood as well.

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When controlled, grazing animals can have positive influence on the vegetative and

soil resources (Holechek, 1980). So, research shows that lightly or moderately

grazed plants are more productive than those left ungrazed (Holechek, 1980).

Research provides strong evidence that controlled grazing by domestic livestock is

compatible with other resources provided by rangelands and is a valuable tool to

enhance these resources.

Obviously, grazing is a necessary evil which has to be allowed in view of

its ecological significance and its role in livestock husbandry and poor man's

economy. But instead of unlimited and continuous free range grazing, it should be

controlled and restricted so that it does not interfere with the productive and

protective functions of the vegetation particularly the forest. The problem has to

be viewed in an integrated manner for developing technology for production,

storage and utilisation of the forage and animal husbandry. The grazing land

management has two sets of manipulatory tools. One aims at controlling grazing

land vegetation by altering the grazing factors, and the other applies such items as

seeds and fertilisers directly to the vegetation-soil complex. For instance, camels

gain a great deal of their sustenance from the top of acacia trees, a food source out

of reach of the other large herbivores and totally unexploited by cattle. Control of

the grazing land ecosystem needs to be practiced through manipulating both biotic

and abiotic factors. Of the abiotic factor fire (induced by man in most of the cases)

can be manipulated most easily. Among biotic factors, reseeding and brush control

will also alter the populations and composition of producers (plants). Grazing land

as a part of the ecosystem affects the entire system. The forestry sector should

develop a separate forest services grazing land management programme aiming for

national fodder banks to meet the fodder demand for scarcity period. Thus, the new

focus of the grazing land management programme will continue to emphasize

livestock reduction through grazing and integration with management strategies for

other resources, cost effectiveness and environment soundness.

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5.8 CONCLUDING STATEMENT

For centuries drought and famine inexorably blended with the human

population and their fate and destiny in the semi-arid Bagar belt. The pressure of

population in the ecologically fragile Bagar belt on an average was 2 persons per

hectare on the cultivated land for the sample of villages the Obra, Amirwas and

Phartia Bhima as a whole. The average density of population for the marginal and

small farmers landholding groups was 4 and 3 persons per hectare respectively

which were comparatively higher than that of the other size landholding groups and

even higher than the average population density ratio. Thus, the physiological

density of population seems to be largely influenced by the economic base at the

different levels of the categories of farmers landhloding groups as well as the

spatial location of the villages in the semi-arid Bagar belt. Besides this, the average

size of the largest landholding was 3.44 hectares in the Obra village and the

smallest was 2.76 hectares in the Phartia Bhima village, while in the case of

Amirwas, the average size of landholding was 3.26 hectares. It may, however, be

pointed out that the average size of landholdings represents the average size of

cultivated land.

Area under both the foodgrains crops of bajra (Pearl Millet) and jowar

(Sorghum) together constituted the largest proportion of 68.07 per cent during the

kharif season in the semi-arid Bagar belt for the sample villages as a whole. Apart

from this, during the rabi season, the largest area was under the pulses crops of

gram which accounted for 45.39 per cent of the arable land on an average. Among

the foodgrains crops, both the wheat and barley accounted for 30.05 per cent.

However, the cropping rotation practice was found to have changed with the

seasons as observed during both the kharif and rabi seasons since the cropping

pattern at the individual village level, both the Obra and Amirwas were identified

as a five crops combination region. The crop combination in the order of the

dominance was as the Bajra (Pearl Millet), wheat, Gram, Mustard and Guwar.

Thus, the imbalance in the cropping pattern arising from the new agrarian

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technology may impede rural development if proper checks are not applied.

About 62.04 per cent of the arable area of the selected landholdings was

in·igated on an average. The average intensity of irrigation was about 1-time per

hectare. It is noteworthy that the area under irrigation ~s well as intensity of

in·igation vary from season to season. Moreover, among the different types of

chemical fertilisers, both the Urea and Die Ammonia Phosphate (DAP) have largely

been used in agriculture among the sample villages in the semi-arid Bagar belt. The

average consumption of chemical fertilisers was 107.45 kgs. per hectare. Out of the

total pesticides consumption, the share of insecticides as a whole is the largest

which is 99.51 per cent. The weedicides ranked the second with the proportion of

merely 0.32 per cent followed by fungicides with 0.17 per cent. Among the

insecticides, the B.H.C. formed the largest proportion of 92.22 per cent followed

by the Aldrin, Malathion, Thimat and Endosulfan with the proportion of 4.92 per

cent, 2.07 per cent, 0.18 per cent and 0.12 per cent respectively on an average. So,

the average consumption of chemical pesticides was 2.32 kgs. with use intensity

ratio of 0.38 per hectare of arable land for the sample villages as a whole. In

addition to this, the new agrarian technological machineries and allied equipments

are being gradually adopted by the farmers in accordance with their utility and

scope for use since the adoption of new agrarian technological inputs requires high

capital investments in different agricultural machineries and equipments.

The livestock population in the Bagar belt comprises buffaloes with a

proportion of 27.00 per cent; cows 4.14 per cent; sheeps 13.57 per cent and goats

of 3.43 per cent, while camels constitute a comparatively significant proportion of

13.00 per cent. A large proportion of 38.72 per cent is constituted by the other

animals. The average density of livestock population per hectare was 2 animals

which is almost equal to the human density of population. Livestock animals form

the economic base of the marginal and small farmers because of the small size of

their landholdings. The rapidly increasing human and livestock populations are both

competing for limited land resource exploitation. The selective grazing habit of the

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animals causes severe deterioration of grazing lands. Apart from overgrazing of

herbaceous layer, the maltreatment of ligneous elements of grassland and forests

for firewood, fodder and minor forest produces reduces seed output and ultimately

results in poor regeneration. Because the livestock population pressure is one of the

important biological engine of desertification and indiscriminate exploiter of the

natural ecological system in one way or the other in the fragile semi-arid Bagar

belt, hence the over-exploitation of the natural resources such as the natural

vegetation by way of overgrazing and removal of tree species for fuel, fodder and

cultivation of marginal land like sand-dunes etc. leads to a series of ecological

changes in the semi-arid Bagar belt which becomes susceptible to erosion hazards,

thus finally leading to desertification.

The major agronomic problems faced by the cultivators such as the land

severely affected by the soil erosion on the one hand and the sand deposition on

the other hand are prevalent all over the arable land in all the sample villages in

the Bagar belt. Both these agronomic and allied problems together have affected

about 14.99 per cent of the cultivable land on an average. Nearly 9.49 per cent of

the land was severely affected by the soil erosion of the cultivated land on an

average. Wind is serious agent of sand deposition in the semi-arid Bagar belt.

Because of this problem, nearly 4.4 7 per cent of the land was severely affected by

the sand deposition on the cultivated land on an average. The agronomic problems

in the different villages located in the Bagar belt seem to be associated by and

large with the landscape physiography. So, the cultivation of the sand-dunes and

marginal lands has caused the shifting of sand and formation of new sandy

hummocks or low dunes tracts causing deterioration of the fertile land.

In fact, the over-exploitation of the natural resource i.e. the vegetation by

way of overgrazing and removal of tree species for fuel, fodder and cultivation of

marginal lands like sand-dunes etc. leads to a series of ecological changes in the

semi-arid Bagar belt and it becomes susceptible to erosion hazards, thus, finally

leading to desertification. Both the rapidly increasing human and livestock

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populations are competing for limited land resources. It will also lead to

polarization in grassland and fodder field resources. The intensity of animal

husbandry has grown in the semi-arid land ecosystem. In relation to the earlier

phenomenon, demand for arable land for the production of food of adequate quality

for direct human consumption is found to be growing. Severe soil erosion is taking

place due to the misuse of semi-arid vegetation for fuel, fodder etc. Thus, the

greater part of the semi-arid Bagar belt is exposed to serious sand-blows which

threaten the entire agricultural economy. Hence, to stop the soil erosion and

shifting of sand dunes, to provide greenery, shade near settlements, and to provide

shelter for agricultural crops and growing animals against the adversities of the

semi-arid ecosystem are the major aims of afforestation. All programmes aimed at

agricultural development like the irrigation, use of fertilisers, compost, improved

seeds, pest control etc. are likely to be rendered ineffective if the shifting sand are

not stabilised.

Thus,it has been conclusively established that a permanent vegetal cover

brings about substantial reduction in wind velocities and forms the foundation of

entire programmes of agricultural development in the semi-arid Bagar belt

ecosystem. Selection of the sites and the techniques applied for maintaining and

establishing tree cover is important for afforestation. Therefore, a land

transformation plan for improving the fertility of soil, introducing improved

varieties of crops, adopting soil conservation measures against wind erosion and

deposition in specific areas, increasing pasture production, afforestation in

uncultivable wasteland, encouraging farm forestry needs to be formulated to meet

the growing demands of the population and improve their standard of living.

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