chapter11 qualitative research methodology

Copyright © 1999 by W.B.Saunders Company. All rights reserved.

Qualitative Research

Methodology

Qualitative Research

Methodology

Chapter 11Chapter 11


Qualitative ResearchQualitative Research

A systematic, subjective A systematic, subjective approach used to describe approach used to describe life experiences and give life experiences and give them meaningthem meaning


Qualitative ResearchQualitative Research

Useful in understanding Useful in understanding such human experiences as such human experiences as pain, caring, powerlessness, pain, caring, powerlessness, and comfortand comfort


The Logic of Qualitative ResearchThe Logic of Qualitative Research

• Focuses on understanding the wholeFocuses on understanding the whole

• Consistent with holistic philosophy Consistent with holistic philosophy of nursingof nursing

• Provides means of exploring the Provides means of exploring the depth, richness, and complexity depth, richness, and complexity inherent in phenomenainherent in phenomena


World ViewWorld View

• RealityReality• There is not a single reality.There is not a single reality.

• Reality is based on perception and Reality is based on perception and is different for each person.is different for each person.

• A person’s perception of reality A person’s perception of reality changes over time.changes over time.


World ViewWorld View

• KnowledgeKnowledge• What we know has What we know has

meaning only within a given meaning only within a given situation or contextsituation or context


Reasoning Process in Qualitative ResearchReasoning Process in Qualitative Research

• Involves perceptually putting pieces Involves perceptually putting pieces together to make wholes.together to make wholes.

• From this process, meaning is From this process, meaning is produced.produced.

• Because perception varies with the Because perception varies with the individual, including researchers, individual, including researchers, many meanings are possible.many meanings are possible.


Frameworks For Qualitative StudiesFrameworks For Qualitative Studies

• Goal of qualitative research not Goal of qualitative research not theory testingtheory testing

• Frameworks used in a different Frameworks used in a different sense in qualitative researchsense in qualitative research

• Each type of qualitative research Each type of qualitative research guided by a particular guided by a particular philosophical stancephilosophical stance


Frameworks For Qualitative StudiesFrameworks For Qualitative Studies

• Philosophical base of a Philosophical base of a qualitative study directs:qualitative study directs:• questions askedquestions asked• observations that are madeobservations that are made• approach to interpretation approach to interpretation

of data of data


Data From Qualitative StudiesData From Qualitative Studies

• SubjectiveSubjective• Incorporate the perceptions Incorporate the perceptions

and beliefs of the researcher and beliefs of the researcher and the participantsand the participants


Findings From Qualitative StudiesFindings From Qualitative Studies

• Lead to understanding a Lead to understanding a phenomenon in a particular phenomenon in a particular situationsituation

• Not generalized in same way as Not generalized in same way as those of quantitative studiesthose of quantitative studies


Findings From Qualitative StudiesFindings From Qualitative Studies

• Understanding the meanings of a Understanding the meanings of a phenomenon in a particular situation phenomenon in a particular situation gives insights that can be applied gives insights that can be applied more broadly.more broadly.

• Guides nursing practiceGuides nursing practice

• Aids in the important process of theory Aids in the important process of theory development for building nursing development for building nursing knowledge.knowledge.


Approaches to Qualitative Research

Approaches to Qualitative Research


PhenomenologyPhenomenology

• Both a philosophy and Both a philosophy and a research methoda research method

• Purpose is to describe Purpose is to describe experiences as they are livedexperiences as they are lived• to capture the “lived experience” to capture the “lived experience”

of study participantsof study participants


Phenomenological PhilosophyPhenomenological Philosophy

• The person is integral with the The person is integral with the environment.environment.

• The world is shaped by and shapes The world is shaped by and shapes the self.the self.

• Reality is subjective: thus, an experience Reality is subjective: thus, an experience is unique to the individual.is unique to the individual.

• The researcher’s experiences are unique The researcher’s experiences are unique to him/her.to him/her.


Phenomenological PhilosophyPhenomenological Philosophy

• Truth Truth • is an interpretation of some is an interpretation of some

phenomenon.phenomenon.• is temporal. is temporal. • is cultural.is cultural.• May be a truth shared with others.May be a truth shared with others.


Heideggarian Phenomenologist BeliefsHeideggarian Phenomenologist Beliefs

• The person is a self within a body - thus The person is a self within a body - thus the person is referred to as embodiedthe person is referred to as embodied

• The person has a world that they have by The person has a world that they have by virtue of being born into a culturevirtue of being born into a culture

• meaningful relationshipsmeaningful relationships

• meaningful practicesmeaningful practices

• meaningful languagemeaningful language



• The person is situated - shaped by his or The person is situated - shaped by his or her world.her world.

• The person is constrained in ability to The person is constrained in ability to establish meanings by establish meanings by • languagelanguage• cultureculture• historyhistory• purposespurposes• valuesvalues



• The person has only situated freedom, The person has only situated freedom, not total freedomnot total freedom

• A person’s world is so pervasive that A person’s world is so pervasive that generally it is not noticed unless some generally it is not noticed unless some disruption occurs.disruption occurs.

• The person can be understood only in the The person can be understood only in the context of their unique body, world, and context of their unique body, world, and concerns.concerns.



• Being-in-timeBeing-in-time• the person experiences the person experiences beingbeing

within the framework of time.within the framework of time.

• The past and the future influence The past and the future influence the now and are part of the now and are part of being-in-time.being-in-time.


Phenomenology & Nursing TheoryPhenomenology & Nursing Theory

• Parse (1981) Theory of Man-Parse (1981) Theory of Man-Living-HealthLiving-Health

• Paterson & Zderad (1976) Paterson & Zderad (1976) Theory of Humanistic NursingTheory of Humanistic Nursing

• Watson (1985) Theory of CaringWatson (1985) Theory of Caring


Phenomenology MethodsPhenomenology Methods

• Broad questionBroad question• What is the meaning of one’s lived experience?What is the meaning of one’s lived experience?

• The only reliable source of information to The only reliable source of information to answer this question is the personanswer this question is the person• Requires that the person interpret the action Requires that the person interpret the action

or experience for the researcheror experience for the researcher• The researcher must interpret the explanation The researcher must interpret the explanation

provided by the person.provided by the person.


Grounded TheoryGrounded Theory

• Based on symbolic interaction theoryBased on symbolic interaction theory

• Holds many views in common with Holds many views in common with phenomenologyphenomenology

• Explores how people define reality Explores how people define reality and how their beliefs are related to and how their beliefs are related to their actions.their actions.


Grounded Theory PhilosophyGrounded Theory Philosophy

• RealityReality• Reality is created by attaching Reality is created by attaching

meanings to situations.meanings to situations.• Meaning is expressed in terms of Meaning is expressed in terms of

symbols such as words, religious symbols such as words, religious objects, and clothingobjects, and clothing



• Symbolic MeaningSymbolic Meaning• Symbolic meanings are the basis for Symbolic meanings are the basis for

actions and interactions.actions and interactions.• Symbolic meanings are different for Symbolic meanings are different for

each individual.each individual.• We cannot completely know the We cannot completely know the

symbolic meanings of another symbolic meanings of another individual.individual.



• Social GroupsSocial Groups• Symbolic meanings are shared Symbolic meanings are shared

by groups and communicated to by groups and communicated to new members through new members through socializationsocialization

• Group life is based on consensus Group life is based on consensus and shared meaningsand shared meanings



• Social GroupsSocial Groups• Interaction may lead to Interaction may lead to redefinition and new redefinition and new meaningsmeanings

• Social redefinition can lead to Social redefinition can lead to redefinition of selfredefinition of self


Grounded Theory MethodsGrounded Theory Methods

• Artinian’s Four Qualitative Artinian’s Four Qualitative Modes of Nursing InquiryModes of Nursing Inquiry• Descriptive modeDescriptive mode• Discovery ModeDiscovery Mode• Emergent fit modeEmergent fit mode• Intervention modeIntervention mode


Descriptive ModeDescriptive Mode

• Provides rich detailProvides rich detail• Must precede all other modesMust precede all other modes• Ideal for the beginning Ideal for the beginning

researcherresearcher


Descriptive ModeDescriptive Mode

• Research QuestionsResearch Questions• What is going on?What is going on?• How are activities organized?How are activities organized?• What roles are evident?What roles are evident?• What are the steps in a process?What are the steps in a process?• What does a patient do in a particular What does a patient do in a particular

setting?setting?


Discovery ModeDiscovery Mode

• Identification of patterns in life Identification of patterns in life experiences of individualsexperiences of individuals

• Relates individual patterns Relates individual patterns to each otherto each other

• Generates a theory of social Generates a theory of social process (substantive theory) that process (substantive theory) that explains a particular social worldexplains a particular social world


Emergent Fit ModeEmergent Fit Mode

• Used when substantive theory Used when substantive theory has been developedhas been developed

• Purpose to extent or refine Purpose to extent or refine existing substantive theoryexisting substantive theory


Emergent Fit ModeEmergent Fit Mode

• Enables researcher to Enables researcher to • Focus on a selected portion Focus on a selected portion

of the theoryof the theory• Build on previous workBuild on previous work• Establish a research program Establish a research program

around a particular social processaround a particular social process


Intervention ModeIntervention Mode

• Used to test the relationships Used to test the relationships in a substantive theoryin a substantive theory

• Research question: “How can I make Research question: “How can I make something happen in such a way something happen in such a way as to bring about new and desired as to bring about new and desired states of affairs?”states of affairs?”

• Demands deep involvement on the part of Demands deep involvement on the part of the researcher/practitionerthe researcher/practitioner


Ethnographic ResearchEthnographic Research

• Developed by anthropologistsDeveloped by anthropologists• Mechanism for studying culturesMechanism for studying cultures• Word means “portrait of Word means “portrait of

a people”a people”• Seeks to understand people - ways Seeks to understand people - ways

of living, believing, adaptingof living, believing, adapting


Ethnographic PhilosophyEthnographic Philosophy

• CultureCulture• A way of life belonging to a designated A way of life belonging to a designated

group of peoplegroup of people• A blueprint for living which guides a A blueprint for living which guides a

particular group’s thoughts, actions, particular group’s thoughts, actions, and sentimentsand sentiments

• All the accumulated ways a group of All the accumulated ways a group of people solve problemspeople solve problems

• Reflected in language, dress, food, Reflected in language, dress, food, traditions, customstraditions, customs


Ethnographic PhilosophyEthnographic Philosophy

• Material CultureMaterial Culture• All created objectsAll created objects

• Nonmaterial cultureNonmaterial culture• Symbolic referentsSymbolic referents• Network of social relationsNetwork of social relations• BeliefsBeliefs• IdealsIdeals


Ethnographic ResearchEthnographic Research

• PurposePurpose• Describe a cultureDescribe a culture• Study people’s origin, past ways of living, Study people’s origin, past ways of living,

ways of surviving through timeways of surviving through time• Discover the many parts of a Discover the many parts of a

whole culture and how these parts whole culture and how these parts are interrelatedare interrelated

• Develop a picture of the wholeness Develop a picture of the wholeness of the cultureof the culture


EthnonursingEthnonursing

• Theory of Transcultural Nursing Theory of Transcultural Nursing - Leininger- Leininger

• Focuses on how daily life Focuses on how daily life conditions and patterns influence conditions and patterns influence human care, health, and nursing human care, health, and nursing care practicescare practices


Historical ResearchHistorical Research

• Examines events of the pastExamines events of the past

• Greatest value of historical Greatest value of historical knowledge is increased self-knowledge is increased self-understandingunderstanding

• Increases nurses’ understanding Increases nurses’ understanding of their professionof their profession


Historical PhilosophyHistorical Philosophy

• There is nothing new under There is nothing new under the sun.the sun.

• One can learn from the past.One can learn from the past.• Search for wisdom in what Search for wisdom in what

has been, what is, and what has been, what is, and what ought to be.ought to be.


Historical PhilosophyHistorical Philosophy

• Goal to identify a Goal to identify a developmental scheme for developmental scheme for history to explain all events history to explain all events and structures as elements of and structures as elements of the same social process.the same social process.


Historical ResearchHistorical Research

• Search throughout history for Search throughout history for generalities.generalities.

• Develop a theoretical Develop a theoretical explanation.explanation.

• Based on a world view.Based on a world view.


Historical Nursing KnowledgeHistorical Nursing Knowledge

• How can we in nursing today possibly How can we in nursing today possibly plan where we are going when we don’t plan where we are going when we don’t know where we have been nor how know where we have been nor how we got here.we got here.

• Criterion of a profession is that there is a Criterion of a profession is that there is a knowledge of the history of the profession knowledge of the history of the profession that is transmitted to those entering that is transmitted to those entering the profession.the profession.


Qualitative Research MethodologyQualitative Research Methodology

• Some methods similar to qualitative Some methods similar to qualitative studiesstudies• Select a topicSelect a topic• State problem or questionState problem or question• Justify the significance of the studyJustify the significance of the study• Design the studyDesign the study• Identify sources of data Identify sources of data

such as subjectssuch as subjects



• Some methods similar to qualitative Some methods similar to qualitative studiesstudies• Gain access to sources of dataGain access to sources of data• Select subjects for studySelect subjects for study• Gather dataGather data• Describe, analyze and interpret Describe, analyze and interpret

the datathe data• Develop a written report of resultsDevelop a written report of results



• Some methods unique to Some methods unique to qualitative studies and qualitative studies and sometimes to specific types sometimes to specific types of qualitative researchof qualitative research


Areas In Which Qualitative Research Methods Are DifferentAreas In Which Qualitative Research Methods Are Different

• Selection of subjectsSelection of subjects• Researcher-participantResearcher-participant

relationships relationships• Data collection methodsData collection methods• Data managementData management• Data analysisData analysis• InterpretationInterpretation


Selection of Subjects - ParticipantsSelection of Subjects - Participants

• Subjects referred to as participantsSubjects referred to as participants

• May volunteer to be involved May volunteer to be involved in the studyin the study

• May be selected by the researcher May be selected by the researcher because of their particular because of their particular knowledge, experience or views knowledge, experience or views related to the studyrelated to the study


Purposive Sampling MethodsPurposive Sampling Methods

• May select individuals typical in May select individuals typical in relation to the phenomenon relation to the phenomenon under studyunder study

• May seek out individuals that are May seek out individuals that are different in some way from other different in some way from other participants in order to get diverse participants in order to get diverse perspectivesperspectives

• Snowballing usedSnowballing used


Sample SizeSample Size

• Decisions regarding sample size are Decisions regarding sample size are different than in quantitative studies.different than in quantitative studies.• Based on needs related to study purposeBased on needs related to study purpose

• Usually number of subjects is small in Usually number of subjects is small in comparison to quantitative studiescomparison to quantitative studies

• Case studies with one subject may be usedCase studies with one subject may be used

• 6 - 10 subjects not unusual6 - 10 subjects not unusual


Decision to Stop Seeking New SubjectsDecision to Stop Seeking New Subjects

• Informational redundancyInformational redundancy• When the researcher ceasesWhen the researcher ceases

learning new information learning new information

• Theoretical SaturationTheoretical Saturation• When theoretical ideas When theoretical ideas

seem complete seem complete


Researcher-Participant RelationshipsResearcher-Participant Relationships

• Participants treated as colleagues Participants treated as colleagues rather than as subjectsrather than as subjects

• Researcher must have the support Researcher must have the support and confidence of participants in and confidence of participants in order to complete the studyorder to complete the study

• Maintaining relationships of utmost Maintaining relationships of utmost importanceimportance



• In many studies, researcher observes In many studies, researcher observes social behavior and may interact socially social behavior and may interact socially with the participants.with the participants.

• To varying degrees, the researcher To varying degrees, the researcher influences the individuals being studied influences the individuals being studied and, in turn, is influenced by them.and, in turn, is influenced by them.

• The researcher’s presence may alter The researcher’s presence may alter behavior of participants.behavior of participants.



• Participants often assist in Participants often assist in • Determining researchDetermining research

questions questions• Guiding data collectionGuiding data collection• Interpreting resultsInterpreting results



• Researcher’s personality is Researcher’s personality is key factorkey factor• Skills in empathySkills in empathy• IntuitionIntuition


The Qualitative ResearcherThe Qualitative Researcher

• The researcher must become The researcher must become closely involved in the subject’s closely involved in the subject’s experience in order to interpret it.experience in order to interpret it.

• The researcher must be open to The researcher must be open to the perceptions of the participants, the perceptions of the participants, rather than to attach his or her rather than to attach his or her own meaning to the experience.own meaning to the experience.


Qualitative ValuesQualitative Values

• The researcher’s aims and means The researcher’s aims and means need to be consistent with those of need to be consistent with those of the participantsthe participants

• For example, if the researcher’s For example, if the researcher’s desire is to change the behavior of desire is to change the behavior of the participants, this must also be the participants, this must also be their desire.their desire.


Data Collection MethodsData Collection Methods

• ObservationObservation• What is going on hereWhat is going on here• Look carefully as well as listenLook carefully as well as listen• Note routine activitiesNote routine activities• Focus on detailsFocus on details• Note processes as well as Note processes as well as

discrete eventsdiscrete events• Note unexpected eventsNote unexpected events



• InterviewsInterviews• Open-ended formatOpen-ended format• Researcher defines the focusResearcher defines the focus• There is no fixed sequence of questionsThere is no fixed sequence of questions• Questions asked tend to change as the Questions asked tend to change as the

researcher gains insights from previous researcher gains insights from previous interviews and/or observationsinterviews and/or observations



• InterviewsInterviews• Respondents encouraged to Respondents encouraged to

raise important issues not raise important issues not addressed by the researcheraddressed by the researcher

• May use focus groupsMay use focus groups



• InterviewsInterviews

• Researcher and participant are Researcher and participant are actively engaged in constructing actively engaged in constructing a version a version of the worldof the world

• Goal is to achieve mutual Goal is to achieve mutual understandingunderstanding



• InterviewsInterviews• Focus of interview is on obtaining Focus of interview is on obtaining

an authentic insight into the an authentic insight into the participant’s experiencesparticipant’s experiences

• Dialogue between researcher and Dialogue between researcher and participant may continue at participant may continue at intervals across weeks or monthsintervals across weeks or months



• InterviewsInterviews• Continued dialogue over time Continued dialogue over time

decreases the problem of fleeting decreases the problem of fleeting relationships in which the relationships in which the respondent may have little respondent may have little commitment or may provide only commitment or may provide only information they believe the information they believe the researcher wants to hear.researcher wants to hear.



• InterviewsInterviews• Strategies to record interviewStrategies to record interview

information information• Writing detailed notesWriting detailed notes

immediately after interview immediately after interview• Recording the interview on tapeRecording the interview on tape



• Text As A Source of Text As A Source of Qualitative DataQualitative Data

• Text may be written by Text may be written by participants on a particular topic participants on a particular topic at the request of the researcherat the request of the researcher

• Text narratives may be solicited by Text narratives may be solicited by mail rather than in personmail rather than in person



• Text As A Source of Qualitative Text As A Source of Qualitative DataData• Text developed for other Text developed for other

purposes, such as patient purposes, such as patient records or procedure manuals, records or procedure manuals, can be accessed for qualitative can be accessed for qualitative analysisanalysis



• Text As A Source of Qualitative Text As A Source of Qualitative DataData• Published text - books, Published text - books,

newspapers, journal articles, newspapers, journal articles, Internet materialsInternet materials

• Transcripts of recorded interviewsTranscripts of recorded interviews• Text related to historical eventsText related to historical events



• Text As A Source of Qualitative Text As A Source of Qualitative DataData• Notes taken while reading Notes taken while reading

written documents will be written documents will be important to the analysis important to the analysis process.process.


Data ManagementData Management

• Qualitative data analysis occurs Qualitative data analysis occurs concurrently with data collection concurrently with data collection rather than sequentially as is true rather than sequentially as is true in quantitative research.in quantitative research.

• The researcher is simultaneously The researcher is simultaneously gathering data, managing a growing gathering data, managing a growing bulk of collected data, and interpreting bulk of collected data, and interpreting the meaning of data.the meaning of data.


Data ManagementData Management

• Data must be stored in organized manner.Data must be stored in organized manner.

• Traditionally, data collection and analysis Traditionally, data collection and analysis has been performed manually.has been performed manually.

• Some qualitative researchers are now Some qualitative researchers are now using the computer to make management using the computer to make management and analysis of qualitative data quicker and analysis of qualitative data quicker and easier without losing touch with and easier without losing touch with the data.the data.


Qualitative Data AnalysisQualitative Data Analysis

• Because published qualitative Because published qualitative studies tend not to describe studies tend not to describe the methodology in detail, the methodology in detail, many believe that qualitative many believe that qualitative analysis is free-wheeling.analysis is free-wheeling.



• ““Many believe that qualitative analysis Many believe that qualitative analysis can be done in a spirit of careless can be done in a spirit of careless rapture, with no principles or discipline rapture, with no principles or discipline whatsoever. . . They think they will know whatsoever. . . They think they will know what to do with the data once those data what to do with the data once those data are collected. . . When they begin are collected. . . When they begin analysis, they find that things are not analysis, they find that things are not quite so simple” (Coffey & Atkinson).quite so simple” (Coffey & Atkinson).



• Stages:Stages:• DescriptionDescription• AnalysisAnalysis• InterpretationInterpretation



• Descriptive stage of qualitative Descriptive stage of qualitative analysis is more critical in analysis is more critical in qualitative studiesqualitative studies

• Researchers encouraged to Researchers encouraged to remain in the descriptive mode remain in the descriptive mode for as long as possiblefor as long as possible


Descriptive AnalysisDescriptive Analysis

• Become familiar with the dataBecome familiar with the data• Read and reread notes and transcriptsRead and reread notes and transcripts• Recall observations and experiencesRecall observations and experiences• Listen to audiotapesListen to audiotapes• View videotapesView videotapes

• Become immersed in the dataBecome immersed in the data



• Focus of immersion is the Focus of immersion is the question, “what is going on?”question, “what is going on?”

• Grounded Theory Research - uses Grounded Theory Research - uses constant comparative process, in constant comparative process, in which every piece which every piece of data is compared with of data is compared with every other piece.every other piece.



• During the data analysis process, During the data analysis process, a dynamic interaction occurs a dynamic interaction occurs between the researcher’s self between the researcher’s self and the data, whether the data and the data, whether the data are communicated orally are communicated orally person-to-person or in writing.person-to-person or in writing.



• Reflexive ThoughtReflexive Thought• The researcher explores personal The researcher explores personal

feelings and experiences that may feelings and experiences that may influence the study and integrates influence the study and integrates this understanding into the study.this understanding into the study.

• Requires conscious awareness Requires conscious awareness of self.of self.



• BracketingBracketing• Used in some phenomenological research Used in some phenomenological research

to help the researcher avoid to help the researcher avoid misinterpreting the phenomenon as it is misinterpreting the phenomenon as it is being experienced by the participants.being experienced by the participants.

• Bracketing is suspending or laying aside Bracketing is suspending or laying aside what the researcher knows about the what the researcher knows about the experience being studied.experience being studied.


Descriptive AnalysisDescriptive Analysis• Data ReductionData Reduction

• Initial efforts at analysis focus on Initial efforts at analysis focus on reducing the large volume of data reducing the large volume of data acquired in order to facilitate acquired in order to facilitate examination.examination.

• During data reduction, the researcher During data reduction, the researcher begins to attach meaning to elements begins to attach meaning to elements of the data.of the data.


Descriptive AnalysisDescriptive Analysis• Data ReductionData Reduction

• Researcher discovers classes of things, Researcher discovers classes of things, persons, events, and propertiespersons, events, and properties

• Notes regularities in the setting Notes regularities in the setting or the peopleor the people

• Classifies the elements of the data, by Classifies the elements of the data, by using an established classification using an established classification system or developing a new onesystem or developing a new one


Descriptive AnalysisDescriptive Analysis• Codes and CodingCodes and Coding

• Essentially a way of indexing or identifying Essentially a way of indexing or identifying categories in the data.categories in the data.

• Codes may be placed in the data at the time Codes may be placed in the data at the time of data collection, when entering data into of data collection, when entering data into the computer, and during later examination the computer, and during later examination of the data.of the data.

• Data segments can then be retrieved by Data segments can then be retrieved by coding category.coding category.


Data DisplaysData Displays

• Equivalent to the summary tables Equivalent to the summary tables used in quantitative studiesused in quantitative studies

• Allow the researcher to convey Allow the researcher to convey succinctly the main ideas succinctly the main ideas of the studyof the study

• Codes can be used to organize Codes can be used to organize the displaythe display


Data AnalysisData Analysis

• Goes beyond descriptionGoes beyond description• Uses methods to transform Uses methods to transform

the datathe data• Extends the data beyond Extends the data beyond

the descriptionthe description



• Researcher identifies essential Researcher identifies essential features and describes features and describes interrelationships among them.interrelationships among them.

• Emphasis is on identifying Emphasis is on identifying themes and patterns from themes and patterns from the data.the data.



• Coding, used earlier for Coding, used earlier for description, can also be used description, can also be used to expand, transform, and to expand, transform, and reconceptualize data, reconceptualize data, providing opportunities for providing opportunities for more diverse analyses.more diverse analyses.



• MemoingMemoing• Used to record insights or ideas related Used to record insights or ideas related

to notes, transcripts, or codesto notes, transcripts, or codes

• Move the researcher toward theorizing Move the researcher toward theorizing and are conceptual rather than factualand are conceptual rather than factual

• May link pieces of data or use a specific May link pieces of data or use a specific piece of data as an example piece of data as an example of a conceptual ideaof a conceptual idea



• StorytellingStorytelling• ““..an event or series of events, encompassed ..an event or series of events, encompassed

by temporal or spatial boundaries, that are by temporal or spatial boundaries, that are shared with others using an oral medium or shared with others using an oral medium or sign language” (Banks-Wallace, 1998)sign language” (Banks-Wallace, 1998)

• Includes a sequence of events with a beginning, a Includes a sequence of events with a beginning, a middle and an endmiddle and an end

• Have their own logic and are temporalHave their own logic and are temporal



• StorytellingStorytelling• ““People sharing a story People sharing a story

(storytellers) and those listening to (storytellers) and those listening to a story (storytakers) and the main a story (storytakers) and the main elements of storytelling.” (Banks-elements of storytelling.” (Banks-Wallace, 1998)Wallace, 1998)



• StorytellingStorytelling• Can be instructive in Can be instructive in

understanding a phenomenon understanding a phenomenon of interest.of interest.

• Researcher may record Researcher may record stories shared by participantsstories shared by participants



• StorytellingStorytelling• In some qualitative studies, In some qualitative studies,

the focus of the research may the focus of the research may be the gathering of stories.be the gathering of stories.



• StorytellingStorytelling• Gathering of stories can enable Gathering of stories can enable

health care providers to develop health care providers to develop storytelling as a powerful means storytelling as a powerful means to increase insight and facilitate to increase insight and facilitate health promotion behaviors of health promotion behaviors of clients.clients.



• Narrative AnalysisNarrative Analysis• A qualitative means of A qualitative means of

formally analyzing storiesformally analyzing stories• Researcher unpacks the Researcher unpacks the

structure of the storystructure of the story


Data AnalysisData Analysis• Narrative AnalysisNarrative Analysis

• Can be used to determine how people Can be used to determine how people tell storiestell stories

• how they give shape to the events they describehow they give shape to the events they describe

• how they make a pointhow they make a point

• how they “package” events and react to themhow they “package” events and react to them

• how they communicate their stories to audienceshow they communicate their stories to audiences


Narrative AnalysisNarrative Analysis• StructureStructure QuestionQuestion• Abstract------Abstract------ What is this about?What is this about?• Orientation--Orientation-- Who? What? When? Where?Who? What? When? Where?

• Complication---Complication--- Then what happened?Then what happened?• Evaluation--- Evaluation--- So what?So what?• Result---------Result--------- What finally happened?What finally happened?• Coda----------Coda---------- Finish narrativeFinish narrative


Narrative AnalysisNarrative Analysis

• AbstractAbstract• Initiates the narrative by Initiates the narrative by

summarizing the point of the summarizing the point of the study or giving a statement of study or giving a statement of the proposition the narrative the proposition the narrative will illustrate.will illustrate.



• OrientationOrientation• Provides an introduction to the major Provides an introduction to the major

events central to the storyevents central to the story

• ComplicationComplication• Continues the narrative, describing Continues the narrative, describing

complications in the event that make it complications in the event that make it a story.a story.


Narrative AnalysisNarrative Analysis• EvaluationEvaluation

• The point of the narrative The point of the narrative

• ResultResult• Gives the outcome or resolution of eventsGives the outcome or resolution of events

• CodaCoda• Ends the story, and is the transition point at Ends the story, and is the transition point at

which talk may revert to other topicswhich talk may revert to other topics



• Can focus on social action Can focus on social action imbedded in the textimbedded in the text

• Can examine the effect Can examine the effect of the storyof the story



• Purposes of StoriesPurposes of Stories• May make a point or be moralisticMay make a point or be moralistic• May be success storiesMay be success stories• May be a reminder of what not to do or how May be a reminder of what not to do or how

not to be with guidance in how to avoid the not to be with guidance in how to avoid the fate described in the studyfate described in the study

• May be used to understand cultural values, May be used to understand cultural values, meanings, and personal experiencesmeanings, and personal experiences


Narrative AnalysisNarrative Analysis• Purpose of analysisPurpose of analysis

• Examine multiple stories of key life Examine multiple stories of key life events and gain greater understanding events and gain greater understanding of the impact of these key eventsof the impact of these key events

• May assist in understanding the May assist in understanding the relationship between social processes relationship between social processes and personal livesand personal lives



• Purposes of analysisPurposes of analysis• May be used to examine issues May be used to examine issues

related to power, dominance, related to power, dominance, and oppositionand opposition

• Through stories, silenced groups Through stories, silenced groups can be given voicecan be given voice


InterpretationInterpretation

• The researcher offers his or The researcher offers his or her interpretation of what her interpretation of what is going on.is going on.

• The focus is on understanding The focus is on understanding and explanation beyond what and explanation beyond what can be stated with certainty.can be stated with certainty.


InterpretationInterpretation

• May focus on the usefulness May focus on the usefulness of the findings for clinical of the findings for clinical practicepractice

• May move toward theorizingMay move toward theorizing


InterpretationInterpretation• As the study progresses, As the study progresses,

relationships among categories, relationships among categories, participants, actions, and events participants, actions, and events begin to emerge.begin to emerge.

• The researcher will develop hunches The researcher will develop hunches about relationships that can be used about relationships that can be used to formulate tentative propositions.to formulate tentative propositions.


InterpretationInterpretation• The researcher gains increasing The researcher gains increasing

understanding of the dynamics understanding of the dynamics involved in the process under study.involved in the process under study.

• This understanding might be This understanding might be considered a tentative theory.considered a tentative theory.

• The tentative theory is often The tentative theory is often expressed as a map.expressed as a map.


InterpretationInterpretation• The validity of predictions developed The validity of predictions developed

in the tentative theory must be tested.in the tentative theory must be tested.

• One strategy sometimes used is to One strategy sometimes used is to predict outcomes expected to occur predict outcomes expected to occur 6 months after completion of the study. 6 months after completion of the study. These predictions are sent to informants These predictions are sent to informants who respond to the accuracy of who respond to the accuracy of the predictionsthe predictions..


Rigor in Qualitative ResearchRigor in Qualitative Research

• Rigor needs to be defined Rigor needs to be defined differently in qualitative differently in qualitative research because the desired research because the desired outcome is different.outcome is different.



• Characteristics of Rigor in Qualitative Characteristics of Rigor in Qualitative StudiesStudies• OpennessOpenness• Scrupulous adherence to a philosophical Scrupulous adherence to a philosophical

perspectiveperspective• Thoroughness in collecting dataThoroughness in collecting data• Consideration of all of the data in the Consideration of all of the data in the

subjective theory development phasesubjective theory development phase



• Evaluation of rigor is based, Evaluation of rigor is based, in part, on the logic of the in part, on the logic of the emerging theory and the emerging theory and the clarity with which it sheds clarity with which it sheds light on the phenomenon light on the phenomenon studies.studies.



• Causes of lack of rigorCauses of lack of rigor• Inconsistency in adhering to the Inconsistency in adhering to the

philosophy of the approach being usedphilosophy of the approach being used• Failure to get away from older ideasFailure to get away from older ideas• Poorly developed methodsPoorly developed methods• Inadequate time spent collecting dataInadequate time spent collecting data



• Causes of lack of rigorCauses of lack of rigor• Poor observationsPoor observations

• Failure to give careful Failure to give careful consideration to all the data consideration to all the data obtainedobtained

• Inadequacy of theoretical Inadequacy of theoretical development from the datadevelopment from the data


Decision TrailsDecision Trails

• Strategies by which other Strategies by which other researchers, using the same researchers, using the same data, can follow the logic of data, can follow the logic of the original researcher the original researcher and arrive at the same and arrive at the same conclusions.conclusions.


Decision TrailsDecision Trails

• Requires that the researcher Requires that the researcher establish decision rules for establish decision rules for categorizing data, arriving at categorizing data, arriving at ratings, or making judgments.ratings, or making judgments.


Decision TrailsDecision Trails• A record is kept of all decision rules used A record is kept of all decision rules used

in the analysis of data.in the analysis of data.

• All raw data are stored so that they are All raw data are stored so that they are available for review if requested.available for review if requested.

• Thus, evidence is retained to support the Thus, evidence is retained to support the study conclusions and the emerging study conclusions and the emerging theory and is made available on request.theory and is made available on request.


Decision TrailsDecision Trails• Some qualitative researchers are opposed to Some qualitative researchers are opposed to

the idea of decision trails.the idea of decision trails.

• Of concern is that data analysis would Of concern is that data analysis would become too mechanistic.become too mechanistic.

• Some qualitative researchers are opposed to Some qualitative researchers are opposed to the expectation that other researchers would the expectation that other researchers would come to the same conclusions since one come to the same conclusions since one would expect each researcher’s work to be would expect each researcher’s work to be unique.unique.

chapter11 qualitative research methodology

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