chapter2 e learning wpix

8/4/2019 Chapter2 e Learning Wpix

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Study Guide

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Anatomical Language Integumentary System Skeletal Tissue Appendicular Skeleton AxialSkeleton Joints Muscular System: Structure Muscular System: Axial Muscles MuscularSystem: Appendicular Muscles Nervous System: Tissue Nervous System: Central Nervous

System Nervous System: Peripheral Nervous System Nervous System: Special

Senses Cardiovascular System: Blood Cardiovascular System: Heart Cardiovascular System:Circulation Lymphatic System Respiratory System Urinary System Digestive

System Male Reproductive System Female Reproductive System Endocrine System

AXIAL SKELETONCHAPTER OBJECTIVES

When you have completed this chapter you should be able to:

Name and identify all the bones of the axial skeleton. Describe the major landmarks of the cranial and facial bones Describe the foramen found in the base of the skull. Describe and discuss the differences between the cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral and

coccygeal vertebrae.

Theaxial skeleton forms the central axis of the body. It is made up of theskull, the vertebral

column, theribs and thesternum.

Skull

The bones of the skull can be divided into two categories, those that form the vault or cranium

and enclose the brain, and those which form the framework of the face.

Cranial bones

There are 8 cranial bones which form a case to protect and contain the brain;

Bone No. of Description Important Landmarks
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Bones

Frontal

bone1

The frontal bone is asingle convex bone

extending from the

orbits to thecoronalsuturebehind.

It forms theforehead and the

roof of the orbits.

Frontal eminences- smooth elevatedprominences above the eyebrows.

Supra-orbital margins- are two ridgeswhich lie beneath each eyebrow.

Orbital plates - two horizontal platesthat form the roofs of the orbits.

Frontal sinuses - are air filled cavities,lined with a mucous membrane and that

lie within the frontal bone above and

behind the superciliary arches.

Parietal

bones2

The two parietalbones form the bulk

of the vault of the

skull behind the

frontal bone.

Each bone isquadrilateral inshape and articulateswith the frontal,

occipital, temporal

and sphenoid bones

as well as with eachother.

Grooves for meningeal vessels- theconcave internal surface of the parietal

bone shows grooves related to themeningeal vessels.

Groove for the superior sagittal sinus- agroove present along the internal surfaceof the sagittal margin.

Occipital

bone1

The occipital boneforms the back and

base of the skull.

It is divided intosquamous, lateral

and basilar parts.

External occipital protuberance- anexternal pronounced lump on the backof the head.

Foramen magnum- a large, ovoidopening in the floor of the posteriorcranial fossa.

Occipital condyles- located on theeither side of the foramen magnum onthe lateral parts of the occipital bone

they articulate inferiorly with the atlas at

theatlanto-occipital joints.

Temporal

bone2

Each temporal bonecontributes to thebase and to the

lower lateral aspect

of the skull.

It is divided into

Zygomatic process- an arched processthat projects from the lower part of thesquamous part to articulate with the

zygomatic bone.

Mastoid process- a large prominencelocated immediately behind the external


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squamous, petrous,

mastoid andtympanic parts.

Thesquamous partis thin, translucent

and forms theanterior and upper

part of the bone.

Thepetrous part isthe solid, wedge of

bone that forms

most of the posteriorand inferior portions

of the temporal

bone.

Themastoidpart ofthe temporal bonelies below the

squamous part and

behind the tympanicpart.

Thetympanic partof the temporal bonesurrounds the

external auditory

meatus.

acoustic meatus; it gives attachment to

the sternocleidomastoid muscle.

External acoustic meatus- the openinginto the temporal bone

Styloid process- is an elongated, narrowprojection of bone which passesdownwards and forwards from the base

of the tympanic part.

Ethmoid

bone1

The ethmoid is asingle mid line bone

which forms parts ofthe nasal septum,

medial wall of the

orbital cavity and

the roof and lateralwall of the nose.

Cribriform plate - a thin plate of bonethat forms a large part of the nasal roof.

It is perforated with holes (olfactory

foramina), which transmit theolfactorynervesfrom the nose to theolfactory

bulbs.

Perpendicular plate- a thin, mid linequadrilateral plate of bone, whichdescends vertically from the cribriform

plate to form the superior part of the

nasal septum.

Ethmoidal labyrinths- a network of aircells which lie under the cribriform

plate.

Superior nasal concha- upper, thinscroll-like plate of bone that hangs

down from the medial surfaces of the

ethmoidal labyrinth.

Middle nasal concha- lower, thin scroll-


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like plate of bone that hangs down from

the medial surfaces of the ethmoidallabyrinth.

Sphenoid

bone1

This single bone isfound in the base ofthe skull and is often

described as being

butterfly-shaped as

it consists of a

central body andthree paired

processes.

Greater wings - two strong processes ofbone, which arise from the sides of thebody.

Lesser wings - are two thin triangularplates, which arise from the upper and

anterior parts of the body.

Pituitary (hypophysial) fossa- a deep pitin the body, which houses the pituitary

gland.

There are usually two air sinuses withinthe body of the sphenoid bone whichcommunicate with the nasal cavity.

Optic canals- two holes located wherethe lesser wing attaches to the body;they transmit the optic nerves.

Superior orbital fissures- a large fissurebetween the greater and lesser wings atthe back of the orbit. It transports

important nerves and vessels into the

orbit.


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SKULL VIEWED FROM THE SIDE


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SKULL CUT VIEWED FROM ABOVE

Clinical Considerations

SinusitisThe frontal sinuses within the frontal bone of the cranium are lined by mucous

membrane and may become infected, causing sinusitis.

SELF-TEST

Complete the following questions before you go onto the next section:


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Name the bones that make up the cranium See if you can work out which bones articulate with each other. Name 5 important landmarks on bones of the cranium.

Facial bones

These 14 bones do not contribute to the cranial cavity, but form the structure of the face;

BoneNumber

of bonesDescription Important Landmarks

Maxilla 2

The pairedmaxillary bones

support the teethof the upper jaw

and contribute to

much of theskeleton of the

upper face.

Alveolar process - extends inferiorlyfrom the body of the maxilla and

supports the teeth within bony sockets. Zygomatic process- projects laterally

from the body and articulates with the

zygomatic bone.

Palatine process- extends horizontallyto form most of the hard palate.

Maxillary sinuses - are the largest of theparanasal sinuses and are situated in the

bodies of the maxillary bones. Itcommunicates with the nasal cavity

through themaxillary hiatus.

Zygomatic

bones2

The twozygomatic bonesform the

skeleton of the

cheeks and theinferior and

lateral walls of

the orbit.

Frontal process- forms outer margin ofthe orbit by articulating with the

zygomatic process of the frontal bone.

Temporal process- forms the prominentzygomatic arch by articulating with the

zygomatic process of the temporal bone.

Mandible 1

The mandible isthe onlymovable bone in

the skull.

It consists of ahorizontal,

horseshoe-

shaped body and

Body- an arch that forms the main bulkof the mandible.

Alveolar ridge- forms the superiormargin of the body of the mandible and

houses the lower teeth.

Rami - these are the flat vertical projectsthat ascend from the obtuse angle of the

body.


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two vertical

rami. Coronoid - found on the top of the

ramus it lies anteriorly and serves as anattachment point fortemporalis.

Condylar processes- found on the top ofthe ramus it lies posteriorly and

articulates with the temporal bone at thetemporomandibular joint (TMJ).

Palatine

bones2

The palatinebone forms part

of the hardpalate, the floor

and lateral wall

of the nasal

cavity and the

floor of the orbit.

Horizontal plate- forms the posteriorportion of the hard palate.

Perpendicular plate- the medial surfaceforms the lateral wall of the nasal cavity

and articulates with the inferior nasal

concha.

Orbital process- projecting from theperpendicular plate it forms the

posterior part of the orbital floor.

Hyoid

bone1

The horseshoe-shaped hyoid

bone is situated

in the upper part

of the front ofthe neck, at the

level of C3.

It does notarticulate withany bones but is

maintained in

position by themuscles,

ligaments and

membranesattaching to it.

It givesattachment to the

tongue muscles.

Body- the curved medial portion of thebone.

Lesser cornu- two small superiorprojections from the junction between

the body and the greater cornu.

Greater cornu- two backwardprojections from the body.

Inferior

nasal

conchae

2

The inferiornasal conchae

are curved plates

of bone attachedto the lateral

wall of the nasal

cavity covered in

It hasmedial andlateral surfaces. Superior border - attaches the bone to

the lateral wall of the nasal cavity.

Inferior border- thick and curvedinwards, it lies free within the nasal

cavity.


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mucous

membrane.

There are alsosuperior and

middle conchae

but they are partof the ethmoid

bone.

Lacrimal

bones2

The pairedlacrimal bonesare small, thin

and rectangular,

and each lie in

the anterior partof the medial

wall of the orbit. They house the

lacrimal sac

which collects

tears from theeyes via the

nasolacrimal

duct and empties

them into thenasal cavity.

Lacrimal fossa- a depression thathouses the lacrimal sac.

Nasal

bones2

The two nasalbones form the

upper part of thebridge of the

nose.

Superior border - articulates with thefrontal bone.

Inferior border- is continuous with thelateral nasal cartilage.

Vomer 1

The vomer is aflat bone whichforms the lower

part of the

septum of thenose.

Alae - a wing like projection whicharticulates with the sphenoid bone.

Anteriorlyit articulates with the septalcartilage.


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SKULL VIEWED FROM THE FRONT

SELF-TEST


Which facial bones contribute to the orbit? Name 5 important landmarks of the mandible. Which bone does not articulate with any other bone; what holds it in position?


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Trunk

The trunk includes the thorax and abdomen and is supported by thethoracic cage and vertebralcolumn.

Thoracic cage

BoneNumber


Sternum 1

The sternum is a flat boneforming the middle part of theanterior thoracic wall.

It is constituted from threebones; themanubrium sterni,bodyandxiphoid process.

o Manubrium - atriangular portion on

top of the body.

o Body - the largest partof the sternum.

o Xiphoid process - isthe narrow irregularshaped inferior end of

the sternum.

Suprasternal notch- a largeindentation in the superior

border of the manubrium.

Articular fossae for clavicles-two indents found either side

of the suprasternal notch for

articulation with the clavicles. Articular facets for the 1st

costal cartilages- shallow

depressions either side of themanubrium for articulation

with the 1st costal cartilage.

Sternal angle- the junctionbetween the manubrium and

the sternal body.

Facets for the costal cartilages- indents found on the lateral

borders of the body forarticulation with the 2nd - 7th

costal cartilages.

Ribs 24

The ribs are 12 paired boneswhich form the curved walls

of the thorax.

The first 7 ribs are termed'true ribs' and join the

sternum directly via costal

cartilages.

The 8th to 10th pairs of ribsare joined to the sternum via

the cartilage of the rib above

and so termed 'false ribs'.

The lowest 2 ribs areunconnected to the sternum

and termed 'free-floating'.

All the ribs are connected

Head- slightly expanded, it isfound at the back of the rib

and has two articular facets for

articulation with thecorresponding thoracic

vertebrae.

Shaft- the longest part of therib, it is thin and flat with acurved convex external

surface.

Tubercle - located at the angleof the rib at the junction

between the neck and the

shaft, it has anarticular part

for articulation with the


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behind to the vertebral

column.

transverse process of the

corresponding thoracicvertebrae.

Vertebral column

The vertebral column forms the axis of the trunk and is formed by 31 firmly connected irregular

bones. It allows minimal movement and encases and protects thespinal cord. The vertebralcolumn displays a series of normalcurvatures when viewed from the side (in the sagittal plane);

the cervical, thoracic, lumbar and pelvic curves. The cervical curve is convex forwards, the

thoracic curve is concave forwards, the lumbar is convex forwards and the pelvic curve is

concave forwards and downwards.

The thoracic and pelvic curves areprimary curves and are present at birth; the cervical andlumbar curves aresecondary curves and develop after birth. The cervical curve develops when

the child is able to hold its head up and the lumbar curve when they begin to walk.

The curves give the vertebral column strength when in the upright position by distributing the

weight evening and acting as a shock absorber.

NORMAL CURVES OF THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN


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Clinical Considerations

Abnormalcurves of the

spine

The overall alignment of the spine can be altered in many conditions;degenerative, congenital or traumatic and can be severe enough to result in an

abnormal curvature of the spine. Abnormal curves are described as below and

their severity is measured using Cobb's Measurement Method.

All vertebrae possess similar main features, but the size and shape of them change depending on

their position along the vertebral column. The vertebral body is the most anterior and largeststructure of each vertebra, with the exception of the first cervical vertebra which does not have a

body. Each body is separated from the bodies of adjacent vertebra by a fibrousintervertebral

disc. Behind the body is a hole, the vertebral canal (foramen) for the passage of thespinal cord

and meninges. Projecting posteriorly from the vertebral body are two stoutpedicles, whichtogether with the laminae and spinous process form the vertebral arch posteriorly. Between the

pedicles of adjacent vertebrae are openings called intervertebral foramen; they allow the exit of

the spinal nerves from the vertebral canal. The twolaminae

are broad, flat structures whichemerge posteriorly from each pedicle; they join in the mid line to form a posterior projection, the

spinous process. The transverse processes project laterally from the sides of the vertebrae at the

junctions between the laminae and the pedicles. Thesuperior articular facets project superiorly

and the inferior articular facets project inferiorly from the junctions between the laminae andthe pedicles. They articulate with the articular facets of the adjacent vertebrae.

BoneNumber


Cervical

vertebrae7

The cervicalvertebrae form

the neck. The 1st (atlas)

and 2nd (axis)cervical

vertebrae are

specialised toallow the head to

rotate on the

neck.

The atlas doesnot have a body;

it is a ring ofbone thatarticulateswith

the occipital

bone of the

cranium.

The body of theaxis has an

Vertebral foramen- large and triangular. Body- small and broad the bodies are

separated from each other by thecervical intervertebral discs; except

between the 1st and 2nd vertebrae

where there is no disc.

Spinous process- short bifid processes. Transverse processes- short with a

transverse foramen for the passage of

the vertebral arteries.

Superior articular facets- they pointpostero-superiorly to articulate with theinferior facets of the vertebra above.

Inferior articular facets- they pointantero-inferiorly to articulate with the

superior facets of the vertebra below.


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upward

projection (dens)which the atlas

rotates around.

Thoracic

vertebrae12

The thoracicvertebrae form

the vertebral

column of thethorax.

The 12 bonesarticulate with

the 12 ribs.

Vertebral foramen- small and round. Body - heart-shaped, they are separated

from each other by the fibrous thoracic

intervertebral discs.

Spinous processes- long and thin. Transverse processes- large and club-

like.

Superior articular facets- they pointpostero-superiorly to articulate with the

inferior facets of the vertebra above.

Inferior articular facets- they pointantero-inferiorly to articulate with thesuperior facets of the vertebra below.

Lumbar

vertebra5

The lumbarvertebrae are the

largest vertebrae

as they are

designed tosupport the

weight of the

body.

Vertebral foramen- triangular. Body- large and kidney-shaped, they

are separated from each other by the

fibrous lumbar intervertebral discs.

Spinous process- quadrangular. Transverse process- long and thin. Superior articular facets- they point

medially and slightly posteriorly toarticulate with the inferior facets of the

vertebra above.

Inferior articular facets- they pointlaterally and slightly anteriorly to

articulate with the superior facets of the

vertebra below.

Sacrum 5

The 5 sacralvertebrae fuse toeach other to

form the largetriangular

sacrum.

It is concaveanteriorly.

It articulateslaterally with the

Sacral canal- triangular it is thevertebral canal of the sacrum and

contains the cauda equina and the lower

dural sac. Body- the bodies are fused together to

form the ventral and dorsal surfaces of

the sacrum.

Sacral promontory- the upper border ofthe upper end of the 1st sacral vertebral

body.

Ventralanddorsal sacral foramina- 4


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hip bones. holes on the front and 4 holes on the

back of the sacrum which communicatewith the vertebral canal and transmit the

sacral spinal nerves.

Median sacral crest- an irregular raisedridge on the back of the sacrum; itrepresents the fused spinous processes

of the sacrum.

Alae (lateral parts)- wide above andnarrower below, they represent the

fused transverse processes and pedicles

of the sacrum.

Sacral hiatus- an inverted U-shapedopening in the posterior wall of the

sacral canal.

Coccygeal

vertebrae3-5

The 3-5coccygealvertebrae fuse to

each other to

form the coccyx.

Cornu - two processes that project fromthe sides of the 1st coccygeal vertebra to

articulate with the sacrum above.

A TYPICAL CERVICAL, THORACIC , AND LUMBAR VERTEBRA

VIEWED FROM ABOVE

SELF-TEST


Describe the important landmarks found on a typical rib. Describe the differences between the cervical, thoracic and lumbar vertebrae.


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Which cervical vertebrae are atypical; explain.Curvature Description

Scoliosis Side-to-side (lateral) curvatures.

Kyphosis Hunchback curve (forward bend) commonly found in the thoracic or thoracolumbarregions.

Lordosis Excessive inward curve of the spine, commonly found in the lumbar region.

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