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Characteristics and Challenges of Open-Water Swimming Performance: A

Review

Article in International journal of sports physiology and performance · May 2017

DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2017-0230

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“Characteristics and Challenges of Open-Water Swimming Performance: A Review”

by Baldassarre R, Bonifazi M, Zamparo P, Piacentini MF

International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance

© 2017 Human Kinetics, Inc.

Note. This article will be published in a forthcoming issue of the

International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance. The

article appears here in its accepted, peer-reviewed form, as it was

provided by the submitting author. It has not been copyedited,

proofread, or formatted by the publisher.

Section: Invited Brief Review

Article Title: Characteristics and Challenges of Open-Water Swimming Performance: A

Review

Authors: Roberto Baldassarre1, Marco Bonifazi2, Paola Zamparo3, and Maria Francesca

Piacentini1

Affiliations: 1Department of Movement, Human and Health Sciences, University of Rome

Foro Italico, Rome, Italy. 2Department of Physiology, University of Siena, Siena, Italy. 3Department of Neuroscience, Biomedicine and Movement, University of Verona, Verona,

Italy.

Journal: International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance

Acceptance Date: April 11, 2017

©2017 Human Kinetics, Inc.

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.2017-0230

https://doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.2017-0230





Title: Characteristics and challenges of open-water swimming performance: A review

Submission Type: Review article

Authors: Roberto Baldassarre1, Marco Bonifazi2, Paola Zamparo3, Maria Francesca

Piacentini1.

Affiliations: 1Department of Movement, Human and Health Sciences, University of Rome Foro Italico,

Rome, Italy.

2Department of Physiology, University of Siena, Siena, Italy. 3Department of Neuroscience, Biomedicine and Movement, University of Verona, Verona,

Italy.

Corresponding author: Maria Francesca Piacentini

Department of Movement, Human and Health Sciences

University of Rome “Foro Italico”

P.za L. De Bosis, 15

00135 Rome, Italy

Phone: +39-0636733245

Fax: +39-0636733330

E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract Word count: 218

Text word count: 4,955

Number of tables: 6

Number of figures: 0

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Abstract

Purpose: Although the popularity of open water swimming (OWS) events has significantly

increased in the last decades, specific studies regarding performance of elite or age group

athletes in these events are scarce. The purpose of this review is to analyse the existing literature

on OWS. Methods: Relevant literature was located via computer-generated citations: during

August 2016, online computer searches on PubMed and Scopus databases were conducted to

locate published research. Results: The number of participants of ultra-endurance swimming

events has substantially increased in the last ten years. In elite athletes there is a higher overall

competitive level of women compared to men. The body composition of female athletes

(different percentage and distribution of fat tissue) shows several advantages (more buoyancy

and less drag) in aquatic conditions that determine the small difference between males and

females. The main physiological characteristics of open-water swimmers (OW-swimmers) are

the ability to swim at high percentage of V̇O2max (80-90%) for many hours. Furthermore, to

sustain high velocity for many hours, endurance swimmers need a high propelling efficiency

and a low energy cost. Conclusion: Open-water races may be characterized by extreme

environmental conditions (water temperature, tides, currents and waves) that have an overall

impact on performance influencing tactics and pacing. Future studies are needed to study open-

water swimming in both training and competition.

Keywords: Endurance, Marathon swimming, athletes characteristics.

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Introduction

The FINA (Fédération Internationale de Natation) defines “open-water swimming” any

competition that takes place in rivers, lakes, oceans or water channels.1 Three distances 5, 10

and 25-km (conventional races) are present in World and European championships, while only

the 10-km is an Olympic event. For the conventional races a multi-lap 2,500-m long course is

usually used. Environmental challenges (unpredictable waves, tides and currents), not typically

seen in other aquatic sports, may have an influence on effective distance covered by

swimmers.2

Around the world there are other non-conventional distances, like the “English Channel

Swim” race (34-km), “Catalina Channel” race (32.2-km), “Maratona del Golfo Capri-Napoli”

(36-km) or “Manhattan Island” race (40-km). All events have seen an increasing number of

participants in the past years. In 2011 Massimo Voltolina swam 78.1-km, the first man ever to

cross the Adriatic Sea from Punta Palascìa (Italy) to Punta Linguetta (Albania), in 23h 44min.3

This is an example of ultra endurance swimming performed in solo conditions. Over the last

decade the popularity of ultra-endurance events has increased, because of the spirit and

challenge of overcoming human limits.4,5 While several studies have focused on ultra running,

ultra triathlon, or ultra cycling, data regarding performance in ultra-swimming are scarce.4,6

Most OWS research has focused on body temperature responses in cold water7–16, very

few studies have focused on performance analysis4–6,17–19, athlete characteristics4,6,19–25,

training programs21,24–26 or nutritional strategies2,27–30 (Table 1). Very little information exists

on physiological3,31–35 or psychological3,36 responses during ultra-swimming events (Table 1).

Therefore, the type of athlete best suited to OWS remains unclear.21

The purpose of this review is to analyse the existing literature on OWS performances

and to review performance trend analysis; physical and physiological characteristics of OW-

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swimmers; training methods; effects of water temperature on open-water performances and

nutritional strategies during competitions.

Methods

Literature search

For this purpose, online computer searches on PubMed and Scopus databases were

conducted to locate published research, during August 2016. The key words used to locate

relevant studies were: swimming, open-water, ultra-endurance, endurance exercise,

performance, physiology, psychology, training and nutrition. The initial literature search

identified 533 articles.

Screening process and Inclusion criteria

The screening process was conducted using the following method: 1) all articles

obtained were selected by title and duplicates were deleted; 2) some were discarded after

analysing the abstracts as not pertinent; 3) an integral reading of the remaining studies was

conducted, and those that were deemed outside the scope of the current review were excluded.

Criteria for inclusion were: (a) studies published in English; (b) full texts available; (c) studies

involving only human subjects; investigating (d) endurance swimming and (e) open-water

swimming (rivers, lakes, oceans or water channels). The searching and screening process was

conducted by the authors using the same protocol.

A total of 29 studies were selected for analysis (Table 1). Studies were divided in those

investigating conventional races (Olympic, World or European championship distances), non

conventional races (races longer than 25-km) and solo events.

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Results

Performance analysis and racing strategy

Conventional races

Three recent studies5,19,22 have analysed the trend of elite races performed during World

Cups, European championships, World championships and Olympic Games.

Data show that swimming speed (SS) of the 10 annual fastest finishers increased

between 2000-2012 in 10-km World Cups races for females, while the SS of the 5 and 25-km

races remained unchanged for both males and females19 (Table 2-3). The unchanged

performances in 5-25-km may be explained by the small number of these races during a single

season. During the Olympic Games (only 10km race), the SS for both males and females

improved until London.5 In Rio the SS of female athletes remained stable while it decreased in

males (https://www.rio2016.com, Table 4).

It has to be specified that comparison of SS in different races, courses and occasions

can be misleading due to different environmental factors (tides, currents and waves), race

structure, water temperature or race strategy. Contrary to other endurance races (i.e. marathon)

where athletes race also for world records or best performances, OW-swimmers prefer to

maintain top positions during the race to control the opponents rather than accomplish new

records.19

Analysis of FINA World Cup races between 2002-2012 show that SS gender

differences remained stable in the 5-km event (7.65±0.6%), decreased in the 10-km event (from

7±0.7% to 1.2±0.3%) and increased in the 25-km event (from 4.7±1.4% to 9.6±1.5%).22

Differences in performance between males and females during the Olympic Games increased

until London (6.3±0.1% in Beijing 2008; 6.6±0.2% in London 2012)5, and decreased in Rio

(3.74±0.98% Rio 2016; https://www.rio2016.com).

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Performance density ([SS of the 10th place (or last place)] – [SS of the 1st place])/[SS

of the 1st place] × 100 5,19,22, is a type of analysis that highlights the difference in swimming

speed between the winner and the 10th or last place. Table 5 shows that between the first and

10th finisher performance was more dense for men compared to women in 10-km races5, while

a similar performance density was found in the 5 and 25-km in both males and females.19

Between the first and the last finisher the performance was more dense for women compered

to men in all distances (Table 5).5,19 During the Olympic Games of Rio (2016), a high

performance density was noted between the first and 10th finisher in both males (0.07%) and

females (0.81%), while between the first and the last finisher the performance was more dense

for men (5.27%) compared to women (7.01%) (Table 5). The high performance density

observed in swimming compared to other disciplines, seems to confirm that OWS at the

Olympics is a very tactical event. During the Olympic marathon for example, performance

density was 2.91% and 3.15% between the first and 10th finisher, while 29.18% and 36.18%

between the first and the last finisher for men and women respectively

(https://www.rio2016.com). Confirming that performance is more dense in swimmers

compared to runners at the Olympics.

The higher density observed during the OWS Olympic races can be explained by two

factors: 1) The limited number of participants, in fact only the best 25 athletes in the world

qualify for the Olympic race, compared to the top 50 athletes for the World championships. 2)

The benefits of drafting and different race strategies. Recent research37, identified three

frequent racing tactics: a) the swimmer stays relaxed during the first half of the race in back of

the lead pack, conserving physical and mental energies, increasing speed only at the finish

(Dutch tactic); b) the swimmer maintains a one-body length distance behind the leader

(drafting), increasing speed at finish (Russian tactic); c) the swimmer sets the pace and

direction for field throughout the race while having sufficient speed to hold off everyone at the

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finish (British tactic). A sheltered position in fact allows the swimmer to control the race and

to save energy for the critical moments (start/end) and decreases significantly the metabolic

cost.38 This qualitative analysis is confirmed by the Rio Olympic results

(https://www.rio2016.com). The split data of the race showed how the medallists adopted a

conservative tactic during the first two laps, increasing speed in the last lap

(https://www.rio2016.com). The lead group was unified until the last buoy at 350-m to the

arrival, and only 5 seconds divided the first from the 10th athlete. However, there are no specific

studies on pacing strategies on elite athletes during open-water competitions.

Non conventional races

The world of OWS includes races longer than 25-km, such as the “Marathon-Swim

Lake Zurich”, “Manhattan Island Swim” and “Maratona del Golfo Capri-Napoli”, performed

by elite and age group athletes. In the “Marathon-Swim Lake Zurich” (26-km), participation

has increased over the years, while SS remained pretty stable and gender difference

approximately 11% between 1987 and 20116. In the “Manhattan Island Swim” (45.87-km),

participation and performance remained unchanged between 1983 and 2013 17, however the

fastest woman was 57min faster than the fastest man, a difference of 14%.17 In the “Maratona

del Golfo Capri-Napoli” (36-km), the difference between the fastest male and the fastest female

decreased from 39.2% (1955) to 4.7% (2013).23. Pooling together the fastest 3 male and the

fastest 3 female swimmers decreased this difference from 38.2±14.0% (1963) to 6.0±1.0%

(2013).23

The OWS performances have improved over the years while the gap between women

and men has decreased.17,23 Gender differences during OWS are smaller compared to other

endurance or ultra-endurance performances of the same time duration.5,19,22 Body composition

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of female athletes would confer several advantages in aquatic conditions that contribute to the

small difference between males and females observed in OWS.39

Solo events

Two of the most challenging OWS in solo conditions are the 34-km “English Channel

Swim” between England and France, and the 32.2-km “Catalina Channel Swim” in open

Ocean, between California’s coast and Catalina Island. The solo events are open to anyone and

can be attempted at any time of the year.18 The “English Channel Swim”, “Catalina Channel

Swim” and “Manhattan Island Marathon Swim” races together are called the “Triple Crown of

Open Water Swimming”. The “English Channel Swim” is one of the oldest open-water races

and nowadays represents one of most important ultra-swim races in the world. The first man

to swim across the Channel was Matthew Webb, in 1875, who covered the distance in 21h

45min.4

In a recent study, Knechtle et al.,18 analysed the performances of the “Catalina Channel”

race between 1927 and 2014. The fastest woman ever was 22min faster than the fastest man.

Considering all the years analysed, the annual fastest women were 16min faster than the annual

fastest men, a performance difference of 2.3%. The fastest ever to complete the Triple Crown

of Open Water Swimming was a woman, performing the three races in 70:50 (h:min) within

36 days during July and August 2008.18

Solo performances, did not show an improvement over the years, this might be

explained by the fact that in OWS there has not been technological innovation, wet suits are

not allowed in these events, and in this type of race every athlete competes only for himself (no

drafting) and not against other athletes. The spirit of emulation and the challenge to overcome

human limits has led an increased number of participants each year. It is interesting to note that

the mean age of participants has increased over the years (40 years old).4,18 Most of these events

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see in fact massive participation of non-professional OW-swimmers, falling in the category of

“Masters athletes”.

Age of peak performance of elite athletes

Establishing the specific age of peak performance could help the coaches to develop long-term

periodization between the Olympic cycles and establish guidelines for talent identification.

The age of peak swimming performances for OW-swimmers of the ten elite fastest

finishers in several international competitions between 2000-2012 was 22.4±1.2 and 24.8±0.9-

yrs for the 5-km, 23.4±0.9 and 28.4±4.8-yrs for the 10-km and 23.7 ± 0.9 and 27.2±1.1-yrs for

the 25-km, for women and men respectively.19,22 The age of peak performance in swimming is

related to the distance. In pool events the peak age increased with decreasing distance, while

in open-water events the peak age increased with increasing distance.6,19,22,40

One explanation for this trend may be the different timing to improve the specific

characteristics of sprint and endurance performances. Moreover, the differences in physical

maturation, training adaptation, aquatic skills and racing experience have an important

influence on the age of peak performance. It seems easier to maintain speed or endurance when

they are trained separately, whereas when they are combined it seems more difficult to keep

both at a high level.40

Physical characteristics of open-water swimmers

The idea of understanding the physical characteristics of OW-swimmers, especially

those who perform in extreme events caught the attention of researchers by the mid 1950’s.20

The data collected during “English Channel” in 1954 showed that the subcutaneous fat of the

swimmers measured averaged twice the thickness found in factory workers.20 The

anthropometric profile of ultra-endurance swimmers is characterized by a large body-weight

in relation to height, causing a better tolerance to cold water.20 Conversely, more recent data

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report that OW-swimmers are smaller and lighter than pool-swimmers.21 Data regarding the

relationship between anthropometric variables and performance are inconsistent. Knechtle et

al.,24,25 found no relationship between anthropometric variables and performance in master

swimmers, while there are no specific studies on elite athletes.

Physiological and biomechanical characteristics

Most models of athletic endurance performance focus on running and cycling

specifically because there are several physiological data on elite athletes and it is easier to

simulate in laboratory what happens during a competition.41 Maximal oxygen uptake (V̇O2max),

lactate threshold (LT) and efficiency have all been considered limiting factors of endurance

performance.41

Table 6 shows V̇O2max values of elite: marathon runners42,43, professional cyclists44,45,

middle-distance swimmers46, and OW-swimmers21,35, measured by different research groups;

these values are comparable to those reported for athletes specialized in endurance events on

land, although swimmers show lower values. However, it is difficult to make a suitable

comparison of V̇O2max values between swimmers and land athletes for three main reasons: 1)

the lack of standard procedures to estimate V̇O2max in water; 2) V̇O2max is difficult to measure

while swimming due to technical constraints imposed by the aquatic environment; 3) there are

few studies attempting to assess V̇O2max in elite swimmers in real conditions and through direct

measurements 47. Nevertheless, the ability to sustain an elevated percentage of V̇O2max, rather

than a high V̇O2max, seems to be the best predictor of performance in endurance events, which

is also true for marathon runners. 31,42

The relationship among the factors determining performance in endurance events (for

cyclic forms of locomotion such as running, cyclic and swimming) was formally described by

di Prampero48 as:

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vmax = F . V̇O2max / C Eq. 1

where vmax is the maximal speed attainable during the race, F is the fraction of V̇O2max that can

be sustained during the race and C is the energy cost of that specific form of locomotion, at

that speed. This equation indicates that larger values of vmax would be attained by swimmers

with larger values of F . V̇O2max.

As indicated by Eq. 1, larger values of vmax are associated with lower values of C (the

energy expended to cover one-unit distance, at a given speed). The relationship among the

factors determining C in water locomotion (i.e. the energy cost of swimming: CS) can be

formally described as:

CS = WD / (P . O) Eq. 2

where WD is hydrodynamic resistance (drag), P is propelling efficiency and O is overall

efficiency.49 Thus, larger values of P (and O) and lower values of WD (i.e. the biomechanical

determinants of performance in swimming) are associated to lower values of CS and, hence, to

larger values of vmax.

At a given speed, women have a lower CS than men due to their smaller size, higher

fat percentage, more buoyant position and smaller underwater torque32,48–50; all factors

affecting hydrodynamic resistance (WD).

Propelling efficiency defines the capability of a swimmer to transform mechanical

power produced by his/her muscles into useful power to move in water (e.g. to overcome drag).

Propelling efficiency (P) increases with training and decreases with fatigue hence, in both

cases, CS is bound to increase and vmax to decrease.49,51

Toussaint and Hollander52 estimated that a 10% increase in propelling efficiency

(technique) resulted in an improvement in performance which was superior to the gains found

when increasing the maximal aerobic or anaerobic power by 10%. Similar findings were

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reported by Capelli53 who indicates that (in running, cycling and swimming) the changes in

vmax brought about by changes in C (i.e. in swimming by changes in P and/or WD) are far

larger than the changes in vmax that could be obtained by changing maximal aerobic or

anaerobic power of the same amount.

In OWS the efficiency of locomotion, rather than the power output, is the parameter to

be maximized. The onset of fatigue during OWS negatively affects propelling efficiency,

technique and stroke mechanics.35,51 Zamparo et al.,35 evaluated changes in CS, stroke rate (SR)

and stroke length (SL) during 3x400-m performed at increasing speed, with or without a pre-

fatiguing 2-km trial performed at 10-km race pace. The authors noted an increase in CS and

SR due to development of fatigue and a consequent decrease in SL. SL is an index of propelling

efficiency35,54 and thus the deterioration of stroke mechanics in fatigued subjects could be

expected to lead to a progressive increase in CS.35,51,55 By learning to manipulate their SL and

SF, and eventually their arm coordination, swimmers can achieve a given velocity with a lower

CS.51,55

The leg kick influences the kinematics of the arm stroke, modifying SL56,57; as

suggested by Zamparo et al.,50 it is better to use the leg kick as little as possible for stabilizing

the body and improving the propulsion of the upper limbs, rather than for obtaining an increase

in propulsion directly from the action of the legs.

Similar results were reported by De Ioannon et al.,3 who monitored SR, SL and speed

of a master athlete while crossing the Adriatic Sea solo (78.1-km). After the first 3 hours SL

and speed started to decrease while SR increased. Although the swimmer self-selected the

speed to complete the event, several environmental conditions (water temperature, tides,

currents and waves) in addition to other than fatigue, may have affected swimming technique.

The authors suggested that, SL was critical in influencing ultra-endurance swimming

performance similar to what has already been seen in pool events.3

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The first study on physiological responses during an OWS event was performed by

Pugh and Edholm.20 They estimated that during a 10.5-mile (~16.9-km) race oxygen

consumption was 2.1-2.6 L.min-1 in male endurance swimmers (the authors did not report the

respective maximal values). Dwyer31 estimated, by the relationship V̇O2/velocity, intensity

during a 71.5-km race to be 72% V̇O2max for a female swimmer who completed the event in

24:38:24 (h:min:sec) and 95% V̇O2max for a male swimmer who completed the event in

19:40:00 (h:min:sec).

During a 9 hour open-water race, the heart rate (HR) reserve of one female athlete

remained constant between 81% and 86% until the end of exercise (32.2-km).33 Valenzano et

al.,34 reported the cardiovascular responses during and after an ultra-endurance event (78.1-

km) of a male athlete. The authors observed a wide heterogeneity in the responsiveness of the

cardiovascular system to physical effort and a sustained elevation in HR, following a 16-hr

recovery.34 Considering the different performances and type of athletes, further studies are

needed to understand the cardiovascular responses during ultra-endurance swimming.

Summarizing, the different physiological parameters of OW-swimmers are comparable

to those of athletes competing in different endurance sports. To sustain high swim velocity for

many hours, OW-swimmers should be able to sustain a high percentage of V̇O2max (80-90%)

for many hours. A good swimmer is able to convert most of his power output in power useful

for propulsion in water and this capability (propelling efficiency) can be easily evaluated by

measuring the swimmer’s SL at a given speed. Technical improvement has more effects on

performance than increase in physiological parameters.

Psychological aspects

The psychological and emotional experiences before and during a competition may

have a significant effect on performance.58

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Baldassarre et al,36 showed how, in a group of elite athletes, the state anxiety levels

were similar before and after a 10-km open-water race and were not different from trait anxiety

measured 10 days before the race. Moreover, the profile mood state (POMS) showed an overall

significant increase in fatigue and decrease in tension after the race.36

One recent case-study has analysed the effect of ultra-endurance distance swimming

(78.1-km solo) on psychological state through rating of perceived exertion (RPE) and changes

in POMS.3 In this case, POMS showed a tremendous increase in fatigue matched by a relative

decrease of tension and vigor. RPE showed a progressive increase reaching the “hard” value at

6 hours from start, “very hard” at 9 hours, and maximal values from 21 hours until the end (23h

44min).3 Most probably, sleep deprivation had a negative impact on performance, increasing

RPE and decreasing mood.3 Training and knowledge about the specific distance in a

competition could have direct effects on psychological and emotional aspects of performance.

However, there is a lack of studies that focus specifically on OWS.

Training in open-water swimming

The impact of different combinations of intensity and duration of endurance training,

to maximize performance and minimize negative outcomes, has been studied and debated for

decades among athletes, coaches, and scientists.59 However, research implications gained from

other endurance activities should not be used as guidelines for physiological responses in

swimming.60

Swimming is a high technical discipline requiring specific movement patterns. Athletes

tend to undergo high swimming volumes to acquire technical mastery and physiological

adaptation. In this review, the three zones model was utilized to quantify the intensity of

exercise in different studies: zone 1 (Z1; light intensity, below the first ventilatory threshold

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(VT1)), zone 2 (Z2; moderate intensity, between VT1 and the second ventilatory threshold

(VT2)), and zone 3 (Z3; high intensity, above VT2).59

In ultra-endurance swimmers, performance seems to be related more to the swimming

speed during training (intensity) rather than to the volume.24,25 However, these assertions are

based on the training volume of master athletes that train approximately 23-km per week.

Studies on elite OW-swimmers show an average just over-12-km per day during a training

camp.21 During 1 week, athletes reported to swim about 86-km with a intensity distribution of

74±17% Z1, 23±19% Z2 and 3±4% Z3 21 (data were converted from United States swimming

training categories to three training zones cited above).

A female open-water Olympic medal winner trained during the Olympic season a total

of 3,631.9-km, an average of 74.12-km per week, in 454 water training sessions (8 km/session)

with a training intensity distribution of 89% (3237-km) Z1, 10% (348.2-km) Z2 and 1% (46.7-

km) in Z3 (personal communication of the coach).

One study reported the 32-week training period of an ultra endurance swimmer in

preparation of a 78.1-km swim.26 Most of the training was performed in Z1 (64%) while the

remaining was divided between Z2 (28%) and Z3 (8%). On average, the athlete swam 43

km/week, a distance much shorter than the whole event. These data seem to confirm that OW-

swimmers perform the majority of training in Z1, but more time in Z2 and less in Z3 compared

to running or cycling.59

The OWS training programs need high levels of individualization and specialization

compared to traditional endurance training programs. Despite the large amount of research

performed on training of elite endurance athletes of different disciplines, there is a lack of

studies specifically reporting data regarding training of elite endurance OW-swimmers,

considering the diversity of the discipline and the high technical requirement necessary to

succeed.

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Water temperature and hypothermia

According to the FINA rules: the water temperature should be a minimum of 16°C and

a maximum of 31°C, and the use of wetsuit is prohibited.1 One of the major risks in some OWS

events is hypothermia, when the core temperature drops below 35 °C.8–10,14 The individual

ability to develop an adaptation against environmental stress may be the basis of natural

selection in marathon swimmers31, and the bias toward high levels of adipose tissue in early

studies.20

Swimming in cold water

The physiological defences against heat loss in cold environments are peripheral

vasoconstriction of blood and increased metabolic heat production via exercise and shivering

thermogenesis.61

Pugh and Edholm20 suggested that tolerance to cold water is related to the thickness of

the subcutaneous adipose tissue. The increased insulation and the decreased rate of heat loss

appear to be the chief factors enabling OW-swimmers to maintain body temperature in cold

water for a long time. Later studies all supported the theory that higher percentage of fat tissue

may have positive effects in OWS.11,12,16,20,31,62 Different studies21,27,35 reported body fat % of

male (6-10%) and female (18-23%) OW-swimmers, which is higher than endurance athletes

of other disciplines as marathon running, triathlon and cycling.63–65

An important physiological defence against hypothermia is shivering.61 Holmér and

Bergh7 reported an increase of 0.5 l.min-1 in V̇O2 during sub-maximal swimming at the same

intensity in cold water (18°C) compared to swimming in warm water (34°C). An increase of

V̇O2 levels has been attributed to thermogenesis and the superimposition of shivering on

swimming metabolism.14

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Expert cold water swimmers are able to swim in water temperatures <11°C for a long

time, without suffering from hypothermia.12,16,62 Therefore, acclimatization to cold water is an

important element for these athletes.33 OW-swimmers have a unique combination of fatness

and fitness that allows them to maintain a high level of heat production and retain it below

significant levels of insulation.14 Many other studies should be conducted to explain the effect

of extreme conditions on endurance and ultra-endurance performances. It seems that the trained

and acclimatized swimmers are able to swim in extreme conditions of cold water. Specifically,

when the water temperature is near or below 11°C swimmers with a high quantity of body fat

have some advantage. However below, 16°C water temperature no official races are permitted,

so contemporary OW-swimmers may be leaner than early pioneer OW-swimmers.

Nutritional strategies in competitions

Carbohydrate (CHO) and fat are the main substrates oxidized during, endurance

exercise, whereas fat sources are relatively plentiful, CHO sources are limited.66,67 CHO

feeding will prevent hypoglycaemia, will support high rates of CHO oxidation and increase

endurance capacity compared with placebo.68 Furthermore, subjective fatigue and muscle

glycogen depletion are associated with a decline in the distance per stroke at a given speed in

swimming.35

Similarly to other endurance events of similar duration, OW-swimmers should ingest

30-60 g.h-1 of CHO during a 10-km race and 90 g.h-1 of CHO during a 25-km, while for 5-km,

nutritional support during racing is minimal.2

Zamparo and Bonifazi69 estimated the energy expenditure of the male winner of the

London Olympic 10-km race. The overall energy expenditure was estimated to be

approximately 3132 kcal, based on the average speed of 1.52 m.s-1 that corresponds to CS=0.31

kcal.m-1.70 Assuming an average respiratory exchange ratio (RER) of ~0.85, the contributions

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of CHO and fats used as a fuel during race are ~49%, (1529 kcal) and ~51% (1604 kcal),

respectively.69 The absolute amounts of CHO and fats used as a fuel during a 10-km race are

hence of 370 g and 170 g respectively.69

Three studies27,29,30 have described energy intakes during an ultra-endurance open-

water race.

The first study reported that female and male master swimmers ingested 199.3±104.1

and 325.2±174.6 kcal.h-1, with a fluid intake of 0.44±0.17 and 0.56±0.22 l.h-1, during a 26.4-

km performance at a speed of 0.78±0.19 m.s-1 and 0.83±0.14 m.s-1.27

The second study29 described the nutritional intake during 7 FINA Grand Prix races

(between 15-88 km) of an elite female swimmer. The CHO and protein intake were 83±5 g·h−1

(~332±20 kcal.h-1) and 12±8 g·h−1 (~48±32 kcal.h-1) respectively, while fat intake was

neglected (~1 g·h−1). Furthermore, caffeine (3.6±1.8 mg·kg-1 per event) and sodium (423±16

mg·h-1) were supplemented, in all events. The total average energy intake was 394±26 kcal.h-

1.29

The third study reported energy intake in a group of 12 elite male OW-swimmers during

an 18-km race covered in 304±44 min.30 The CHO and mineral intake were 30 g.h-1 (~120

kcal.h-1) and 5 g.h-1 respectively. The authors noted an increase of sodium and chloride plasma

concentration and a decrease of the haematocrit.30 This condition might have been due to the

amount and composition of the CHO-mineral solution used during swimming and to the lack

of sweating in cold water.30

These studies reported three different nutritional strategies adopted by different athletes

in different type of events. Furthermore, the frequent changes of environmental conditions have

an overall impact on nutritional strategies. A characteristic of OWS is the possibility to race in

cold water conditions and nutritional strategies need to be adequately reformulated.71 However,

the beneficial effects of CHO-electrolyte provision during prolonged exercise in cold

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environment are still not clear. The ingestion of a CHO solution did not improve exercise

capacity in cold environment and beverages with CHO concentrations of 15% may result in

gastrointestinal distress.71

Moreover, the swimmers must stop or substantially reduce velocity to feed or drink

during an official race. Feeding strategies that require minimal interruption to swimming speed

may provide a tactical advantage to swimmers especially when the feed zones are positioned

at significant distances off the race line.2

Considering the emerging nature of OWS, very little research is available regarding

nutritional practices.2 It must be noted that most studies are based on findings in runners and

cyclists, the guidelines of OWS are extrapolated from other sports with similar duration and

physiological requirements but alter with vastly different thermoregulatory challenges.

Therefore, it is still to be verified if swimmers can adopt the same nutritional strategies of

runners and cyclists. Future research is necessary to understand nutritional requirements of

OWS according to water temperature.

Conclusion

Despite the number of participants of ultra-endurance swimming events has

substantially increased, after the introduction of the 10-km event in the 2008 Olympic Games

in Beijing, specific studies regarding OWS are still scarce. The major difficulty in OWS

research is to create standardized study conditions, it is not possible to reproduce in controlled

laboratory conditions the situational challenges of an ultra-endurance race.3 Open-water races

may be characterized by extreme environmental conditions that have an overall impact on

performance. OW-swimmers are able to adapt to different environmental conditions and to

their opponent’s race strategy and this event can be considered an open-skill sport compared

to pool swimming.

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Although there are several studies on the physical and physiological characteristics of

OW-swimmers, there are few data regarding the physiological responses and the nutritional

strategies during ultra-endurance swimming events in elite athletes.

In this perspective, future studies are needed to study OWS in both training and

competition in order to individualize and maximize performance of these athletes.

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Table 1: Summary of studies.

Study Subjects Age Level Methods Main Findings km Water Temperature (°C)

Cold water responses

Brannigan et al.,9 70M

30W

38.8±12.4M

37.7±11.8W Master QU; BMI

Hypothermia is common in OWS and is

more frequent with increasing race time

and less frequent with increasing BMI

19.2 19 to 22

Castro et al.,10 7M

5W 21.0±7.0 Elite

ANT; BF;

CT

Hypothermia is a common phenomenon.

Measurement of core temperature may be

a key concern to physicians during an

OWS

10 21

Holmèr and Bergh,7 3M 16.3±3.21 Well-trained VO2; CT

Individual responses in heat loss during

exercise in cold water, due to differences in

subcutaneous fat thickness

20 min

50%-V̇O2max 18-26-34

Knechtle et al.,11 2M - -

SS; ANT;

BMI; BF;

SK; HR; SR

The thickness of SK (and not BMI) was

presumably an important factor in OWS 2.2 4.3

Knechtle et al.,12 1M 56 Well-trained

SS; ANT;

BF; BMI;

CT

An experienced ice swimmer with a high

BMI and high BF suffered no hypothermia

during ice swimming

1.6 4.8-3.9

Leclerc et al.,8 13M;

4W 20 to 41 Competitive

ANT; BMI;

BF; CT

Hypothermia is a major medical concern

during the cold water swimming

competitions

40 18.3 to 22.4

Nuckton et al.,15 78M

27W 54.3±10.8 Master

ANT; BF;

BMI; QU

Individuals with a wide variety of ages

and backgrounds are able to swim

recreationally in cold water

46.4±18.8 9.6 to 12.6

Rüst et al.,16 1M 53 Well-trained ANT; SK;

BF; CT

It is possible to swim for 6 h in water of

9.9°C without signs of hypothermia 15 ~9.9

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Performance analysis

Eichenberger et al.,4 1,078M

455W - - SS; ANT

Participants and finishers at the English

Channel Swim increased. Female ultra-

swimmers are capable of similar

performances as men during ultra-swim

events.

34 14 to 18

Eichenberger et al.,6 348M

174W - - SS; ANT

Participants and finishers at the Marathon

Swim in Lake Zurich increased for both

women and men

26.4 16 to 26

Knechtle et al.,17 551M

237W - - SS

The best women were 12-14% faster than

the best men in a 46-km open-water race 46 ~20

Knechtle et al.,18 235M

135W - Master SS

The annual fastest women crossed the

Catalina Channel faster than the annual

fastest men

32.2 15 to 21

Vogt et al.,5 1,548M

1,171W - Elite SS

10-km OWS performances remained stable

for the best elite female and male. The

gender difference in swimming speed of

~7%

10 -

Zingg et al.,19 - - Elite SS

The swimming speed of the 5 and 25-km

races remained unchanged for both males

and females

5-10-25 FINA

World CUP -

Zingg et al.,22 - - Elite SS

The gender gap will be further reduced in

10 km but it is very unlikely that the gender

gap will be reduced in the 25 km

5-10-25 FINA

World CUP -

Athletes characteristics

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Pugh and Edholm,20 3M 41.3±0.58 Competitive ANT; BF;

CT; VO2

Tolerance of cold water is related to the

thickness of the subcutaneous fat - -

VanHeest et al.,21 4M

4W

18.6M

17.8W Elite

ANT; BF;

BMI; SK;

VO2; BL;

HR; TDT

Open-water swimmers are smaller and

lighter compared to pool-swimmers and

they have ability to perform high volume

aerobic work

- -

Knechtle et al.,25 15M 40.0±8.2 Master

SS; ANT;

BMI; BF;

SK; TDT

Anthropometry was not related to race

performance, whereas speed in training

showed a moderate association with total

race time, in OWS events

26.4 23

Rüst et al.,23 662M

228W - Competitive SS

The difference between the fastest male

and the fastest female decreased from

39.2% to 4.7%.

36 ~22

Physiological and biomechanical characteristics

Dwyer,31 1M

2W 19.0±2.65 Competitive

ANT; BF;

HR; VO2

Open-water swimmers have a high

mechanical efficiency and an ability to

sustain a high percentage of V̇O2max for

hours

35.9 to 73.1 15.8 to 20.1

Judelson et al.,33

1W 24 Competitive

SS; ANT;

HR; RPE

Training, acclimatization and feedings can

safely maintain elevated exercise

intensities for long durations during OWS

events

32.2 19.1±0.4

Valenzano et al.,34 1 M 48 Well-trained

HR;

Salivary

alpha-

amylase

This is the first study reporting cardiac

autonomic adjustments to an extreme and

challenging OWS

78.1 28 to 30

Zamparo et al.,35 5M

5W

17.8±4.0M

24.2±5.9W Elite

ANT; BF;

BMI; SL;

SR; VO2;

BL

The development of fatigue affects stroke

mechanics and energy cost of swimming

Pool swim

test 27

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Psychological aspects

Baldassarre et al.,36 5W

4M 22.2±5.6 Elite

ANT,

POMS, QU,

RPE

State anxiety does not seem to affect

performance in elite open-water

swimmers, despite the different level of

athletes.

10

De Ioannon et al.,3 1M 48 Master

POMS;

RPE; SL;

SR

Mental aspects and physiological

responses affecting extreme OWS

performance

78.1 28 to 30

Nutritional strategies

Bonifazi et al.,30 12M 26.7±9.3 Elite BS

Atrial natriuretic peptide would appear to

have exerted a modulatory effect on some

fluid regulating hormones

18-km 21

Kumstát et al.,29 1W 28 Elite ANT; NS

Continuous intake of carbohydrate, sodium

and caffeine were an essential part of the

feeding strategy during elite ultra-

endurance OWS races

15 to 88 14 to 25

Wagner et al.,27 25M

11W

39.7±8.5M

40.0±13.7W Master

ANT; BF;

BMI; NS

The females had a lower body mass and

higher prevalence for exercise associated

hyponatremia than the males

26.4 ~23

Training programs

Piacentini et al.,26 1M 48 Well-trained TDT

Training intensity to swim 78.1-km

consisted in Z1=64% , Z2= 28% and Z3=

8%

- -

VanHeest et al.,21 4M

4W

18.6M

17.8W Elite

ANT; BF;

BMI; SK;

VO2; BL;

HR; TDT

Open-water swimmers have ability to

perform high volume aerobic work - -

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ANT, anthropometric measures; BF, % of body fat; BL, blood lactate; BMI, body mass index; BS, blood samples CT, core temperature; HR, heart rate; M, men;

OWS, open-water swimming; POMS, profile of mood states; QU, questionnaires; RPE, rating of perceived exertion; SK, skinfold; SL, stroke length; SR, stroke rate;

SS, swimming speed; TDT, time and distance training; VO2, aerobic capacity; W, women; Z1-2-3, intensity of exercise in zone 1-2-3.

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Table 2: Swimming speed of the annual fastest finisher, between 2000 and 2012 Zingg et

al.,19

Distance

(km)

Speed

(m.s-1) Trend

Women 2000 2012

5 1.41±0.05 Stable

10 1.40±0.07 Stable

25 1.27±0.07 Stable

Men 2000 2012

5 1.53±0.06 Stable

10 1.49±0.06 Stable

25 1.4±0.09 Stable

Table 3: Swimming speed of the 10 annual fastest finishers between 2000 and 2012 Zingg et

al.,19

Distance

(km)

Speed

(m.s-1) Trend

Women 2000 2012

5 1.39±0.05 Stable

10 1.32±0.01 1.59±0.01 Increase

25 1.28±0.02 1.23±0.02 Decrese

Men 2000 2012

5 1.50±0.01 1.48±0.01 Decrese

10 1.49±0.06 Stable

25 1.37±0.09 Stable

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Table 4: Swimming speed of the 10 fastest 10-km swimmers

Competition Velocity

(m.s-1) References

Women Men

International 1.34±0.09 1.44±0.10 Vogt et al.,5

Beijing (2008) 1.39±0.00 1.49±0.00 Vogt et al.,5

London (2012) 1.41±0.01 1.51±0.01 Vogt et al.,5

Rio (2016) 1.41±0.02 1.47±0.02 https://www.rio2016.com

International, 47 international 10-km competitions between 2008 and 2012.

Table 5: Density of performance in official open-water swimming races

Distance

(km) 1-10 1-Last References

Women

5 1.95±2.10% 18.13±6.54% Zingg et al.,19,22

10 2.3±3.1% 13.6±5.9% Vogt et al.,5

25 3.31±3.27% 13.77±6.01% Zingg et al.,19,22

10 (Rio, 2016) 0.81% 7.01% https://www.rio2016.com

Men

5 1.83±1.44% 24.21±12.0% Zingg et al.,19,22

10 1.5±2.4% 16.0±5.0% Vogt et al.,5

25 3.76±2.97% 16.22±6.51% Zingg et al.,19,22

10 (Rio, 2016) 0.07% 5.27% https://www.rio2016.com

1-10, first and the 10th finisher; 1-Last, first and the last finisher.

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Table 6: V̇O2max values of elite athletes

Type of athletes V̇O2max

L.min-1 (mL. Kg-1.min-1) References

Middle-distance PS W 3.53±0.77 (59.80±9.97)

M 5.68±0.79 (71.74±6.09) Fernandes et al.,46

American OWS W 5.06±0.57

M 5.51±0.96 VanHeest et al.,21

Italian OWS W 3.6±0.7 (61.6±13.4)

M 5.2±0.7 (68.0± 6.7) Zamparo et al.,35

Kalenjin Marathon

Runners M 3.83±0.36 (64.9±5.8)

Tam et al.,42

Portuguese and French

Marathon Runners

W (61.2±4.8) M (79.6±6.2)

Billat ey al.,43

Professional Cyclists W 3.6±0.2 (61.4±3.4)

M 5.21±0.23 (74.8±3.6)

Decroix et al.,44;

De Pauw et al.,45

M, Men; OWS, Open-water swimmers; PS, Pool swimmers; W, Women.

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