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CHARACTERIZATION AND ORIGIN OF
DROPSTONE IN PENINSULAR MALAYSIA
MOHAMMAD NOOR AKMAL BIN ANUAR
UNIVERSITI SAINS MALAYSIA
2018
CHARACTERIZATION AND ORIGIN OF
DROPSTONE IN PENINSULAR MALAYSIA
by
MOHAMMAD NOOR AKMAL BIN ANUAR
Thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of
Master of Applied Science
June 2018
١ لرحهيمه ٱ لرنمحٱ لله ٱ مسب
خرى ٥٥۞مهنها خلقنكم وفهيها نعهيدكم ومهنها نرهجكم تارة أ
55. From the clay We created you and into it We shall send you back and from it will
We raise you a second time.
نسن ٱنا خلق ولقد هن حإ مسنون له ٢٦مهن صلصل م
26. And certainly We created man of clay that gives forth sound, of black mud
fashioned in shape.
هن لل ٱو نبتكم م رضه ٱأ
١٧نباتا ل
17. And Allah has made you grow out of the earth as a growth:
ن لم أ
نزل مهن لل ٱتر أ
خرجنا بههه لسماءه ٱأ
نها ومهن ۦماء فأ لو
تلهفا أ ثمرت مخ
باله ٱ نها وغرابهيب سود له لوتلهف أ بهيض وحر مخ ٢٧جدد
27. Do you not see that Allah sends down water from the cloud, then We bring forth
therewith fruits of various colors; and in the mountains are streaks, white and red, of
various hues and (others) intensely black?
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and foremost Praise to Allah. I would like to express my sincere
gratitude to Dr. Hassan Baioumy who act as co-supervisor for the continuous support
of my master study and research, for his patience, motivation and guidance helped
me in all the time of research and writing of this thesis. One simply could not wish
for a better or friendlier supervisor. Besides, I would like to thank my backbone
lecturer, Prof. Dr. Mohd. Nawawi Mohd Nordin and Dr. Nordiana Mohd Muztaza for
being supportive, insightful comments and give his great help all the time. Also to all
Geophysics lab staff, for scarifying their time and energy assisting me in the projects.
My sincere thanks to KPJ Penang specialist Dr. Amirozi Ahmad and my best
friend Mohd Rafizal Hamat who struggle to save my life from infection in 6 months
period, along with all hospital staff. While I’m being warded for several month and
undergo tonsillectomy in February 2017 and turbinoplasty surgery in May 2017. My
dearest research partner Dr. Hariri Mohd Ariffin and (personal talk) with Universiti
Kebangsaan Malaysia lecturers, along with Dr. Meor Hakif from Universiti Malaya
who have been very supportive to me and this research.
Further and the most important, thanks to my family member: Anuar bin
Johari ,Noordyana binti Ali, Mohd Ariffuddin, Mohd Azimmuddin, Ahmad Noor
Azizul, Siti Nurain Laily, Ahmad Adli Azmil and my nephew Abdul Rahman Khalid
and all my friends for their prayers, in supporting me throughout this journey.
Finally, I would like to thank the Government of Malaysia, Kementerian
Pengajian Tinggi (KPT) under My Brain program for my master fees sponsorship
during my studies.
iii
LIST OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgement ii
List of Contents iii
List of Table vi
List of Figure vii
List of Symbol
List of Abbreviation
xv
xvi
Abstrak xvii
Abstract xix
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.0 Background 1
1.1
1.2
Study areas
Problem statements
2
13
1.3 Research objectives 14
1.4
1.5
Significance and novelty of the study
Layout of thesis
15
16
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
18
2.0 Preface 18
2.1 Dropstone 18
2.1.1 Glaciers 20
2.1.2 Turbidity currents 24
2.1.3 Biological rafts 25
2.1.4 Volcanism 26
2.1.5 Extraterrestrial origin 26
2.2 Global distribution of Paleozoic dropstone lithofacies 28
2.3 Regional scale phenomenon of Paleozoic dropstone 31
2.4 Geological setting of dropstone in Malaysia 34
2.4.1 Langkawi 35
2.4.2 Perlis 40
2.4.3 Sepang, Selangor 42
iv
CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 45
3.0 Preface 45
3.1 Field study 45
3.2 Petrography 46
3.2.1 Thin section preparation 47
3.2.2 Diamond blade cutting 48
3.2.3 Grinding 48
3.2.4 Drying 49
3.2.5 Gluing 49
3.2.6 Thin section cutting 49
3.2.7 Hand grinding 50
3.2.8 Petrographical investigations 50
3.3 Analysis of glaciomarine dropstones deformation structures 58
CHAPTER 4 RESULTS 62
4.0 Preface 62
4.1 Occurrence and geology of dropstone in Langkawi 62
4.1.1 Rebak Member of Singa Formation 64
4.1.2 Kentut and Selang members of Singa Formation 65
4.2 Occurrence and geology of dropstone in Perlis 68
4.2.1 Chepor Member of Kubang Pasu Formation 70
4.2.2 Singa Formation 71
4.2.3 Undifferentiated Kubang Pasu Member 72
4.3
4.4
4.5
Occurrence and geology of dropstone in Kedah
4.3.1 Kubang Pasu Formation
Occurrence and geology of dropstone in Selangor
4.4.1 Kenny Hills Formation
Composition of dropstone
4.5.1 Granitic dropstone
4.5.1(a) Singa granitic dropstone
4.5.1(b) Kubang Pasu granitic dropstone
4.5.2 Quarzitic dropstone
4.5.2(a) Rebak Member quartzite dropstone
74
76
78
80
83
83
83
85
87
87
v
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS
4.5.2(b) Singa quartzite dropstone
4.5.2(c) Singa in Perlis quartzite dropstone
4.5.2(d) Chepor Members quartzite dropstone
4.5.2(e) Kubang Pasu quartzite dropstone
4.5.2(f) Kenny Hills quartzite dropstone
4.5.3 Kenny Hills sandstone dropstone
88
90
91
91
97
98
CHAPTER 5 DISCUSSIONS 99
5.1 Origin of dropstone 99
5.2 Source of dropstone 111
5.3 Formation mechanism of dropstones host rock 114
5.3.1 Visean Rebak and Chepor members 115
5.3.2 Middle Carboniferous-Permian Kentut and Selang
members
116
5.3.3 Middle Carboniferous-Permian Kubang Pasu
Formation
118
5.3.4 Permian Kenny Hills Formation 121
5.4
5.5
Paleoclimate implication of Peninsular Malaysia dropstone
Paleogeography implication of Peninsular Malaysia
dropstone
124
129
CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 135
6.0 Conclusions 135
6.1 Recommendations 139
REFERENCES
140
vi
LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 2.1 Principal agents of dropstone may be transported or
deposited and their characteristic (after Bennett et al.,
1996).
27
Table 4.1
The general stratigraphy of the Langkawi Island.
63
Table 4.2 The general stratigraphy of Perlis. 70
Table 4.3 The general stratigraphy of Kedah state.
75
Table 4.4 The general stratigraphy of Selangor state.
80
Table 5. 1 Summary of age, host rock and formational mechanism of
dropstones, Peninsular Malaysia.
114
vii
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Figure 1.1 Geological map shows the distribution of Carboniferous-
Permian sedimentary sequences from Peninsular
Malaysia modified after, (Jabatan Mineral dan Geosains
Malaysia, 2012).
3
Figure 1.2 Geological map of Langkawi Island (Lee, 2013), shows
the visited sites of dropstone; (1) Pulau Langgun, (2)
Pulau Tepur, (3) Tanjung Mali and (4) Bukit Malut.
5
Figure 1.3 The geological map state of Perlis (Hakif et al., 2013),
with numbered localities of dropstones occurrences; (1)
Wang Kelian, (2) Guar Jentik, (3) Bukit Chondong, (4)
Pauh, Unimap and (5) Hutan Aji.
7
Figure 1.4 The geological map state of Kedah (Cocks et al., 2005),
with number label refer to site localities of dropstone; (1)
Kodiang, (2) Tunjang, (3) Bukit Malau of Jitra district
and (4) Tanah Merah, Pendang.
10
Figure 1.5 The geological map of Selangor (Harun and Jasin, 2003),
label number 1, show the field location of Salak Tinggi,
Sepang area.
12
Figure 2.1 The pictures of dropstone deposition and tis variation in
shape and size. Note that a man standing in front of a 6
meter diameter granite boulder in basal giogenic sediment
in Ethiopia (Bussert, 2014).
20
Figure 2.2 The summary of glaciation mechanism that involve in
Late Paleozoic Ice Age and depositional mechanism of
dropstone in space.
21
Figure 2.3 The ice keel scour marks left by striation of glacial
movement, A and deposition of glacial megaclast
dropstone in South Africa, B (Huber et al,. 2001).
22
Figure 2.4 The deformational features (draped structure) from the
impact of dropstone clast in host rock, which varies by
substrates consolidation and constant in clast diameter.
Note that the relationship of intensity and depth of
deformation is inversely proportional to the substrate
lithification, as a function of dropstone diameter, (D). A-
Poorly consolidated substrate, the draped structure form
circular wave crests. B-Slightly consolidated substrate
23
viii
draped forming one ridge structure. C-Moderately
consolidate and viscous clay like substarte with thrust lips
shape as draped. D-Very consolidated substrate with
circular bulge draped strcuture.
Figure 2.5 The pictures of Quaternary turbidites deposits in glacial
Lake Columbia, Washington. A-Turbidites outcrop,
arrow shows the dropstone clast. B-The matrix support
clast, with poorly sorted clast inside mudstone C-Bedded
and massive sand and silt containing ice-rafted gravel
(arrows) (Hanson & Clague, 2016).
24
Figure 2.6 The variation in shape and size of stomach stone or
Gastrolith found in Tropic Shales, Utah.
25
Figure 2.7 An expelled out rocks from the volcanic eruptions.
26
Figure 2.8 Glaciation episode classified by Isbell et al, 2003 in
Brazil (Perez Loinaze et al., 2010).
29
Figure 2.9 The photos of dropstone in extension of Singa Formation,
or Kaeng Krachan Group of southern Thailand, on the top
a granitic dropstone inside Laem Mai Pai Fm. and below
is photo of scatter quarzitic dropstones inside Ko He Fm.
Photo after (Chaodumrong et al., 2007).
33
Figure 2.10 Geological map of Sibumasu terrane of Quaternary era
(Sevastjanova et al., 2011).
35
Figure 2.11 Geological map of Langkawi, specifically Singa
Formation distribution in Langkawi (oranges color) (Lee,
2013).
38
Figure 2.12 Summary and relationship of Carboniferous and Permian
stratigraphy of Gondwana and Cathaysia blocks of
Southeast Asia, (Hutchison, 2014).
38
Figure 2.13 Stratigraphy of Langkawi Island after Leman, (2010).
39
Figure 2.14 The general coverage geological map of Perlis (Hakif et
al., 2014).
41
Figure 2.15 The stratigraphy of Paleozoic sedimentary sequence in
Perlis (Hakif et al., 2013).
42
Figure 2.16 The geological map of Kenny Hills Formation coverage
in Putrajaya and Sepang district, label 1 show the Salak
Tinggi area (Tjia and Isahak, 1990).
43
ix
Figure 2.17 The general stratigraphy and dropstone bearing strata of
Salak Tinggi (Tjia and Isahak, 1990).
44
Figure 3.1 The above pictures describe on the discussion and
observation in the field (A) and (B) sampling technique
(C) that have been applied with some labeling paper
inside the plastic bags used as tagging (D).
46
Figure 3.2 The picture of diamond blade cutter and figure of cube
rock slap (A). Grinder plate and two type of carborundum
(Silicon Carbide) grains (C), Canada balsam in the circle
and rock slap and thin section glass (E). Thin section
cutter (F), hand grinder along with carborundum that use
as frictional medium (C, F and G) and the finished four
samples of thin section (H).
51
Figure 3.3 The description and labeling component in an Optical
Microscope OM and OM that has been used in
petrography section (Meiji OM).
52
Figure 3.4 Extinction positions and diagonal positions of a quartz
grain during a 360˚ rotation of the stage.
54
Figure 3.5 Double refraction in a calcite rhombohedron (Huygenian
construction), shows the pathways of E and O waves
travel through isotropic medium.
54
Figure 3.6 Vector construction for light intensities as the mineral is
rotated from the extinction position into a 45˚ diagonal
position.
56
Figure 3.7 Michel-Levy chart that use to determine the birefringence
and thin section thickness using interference color.
58
Figure 3.8 The resolution of force acting on the dropstone clast
(orange color) as it travel in free fall motion throughout
the water column in isolated system, where W is the
weight and Fd is the drag force.
59
Figure 4.1 Pulau Langgun massive red mudstone outcrop that lies on
the beach near shore line.
64
Figure 4.2 Tanjung Mali outcrop of massive black mudstone at the
bottom part and intercalation of sand and mudstone at
upper part.
65
Figure 4.3 Pulau Tepur outcrop of massive black mudstone near the
shore line.
66
x
Figure 4.4 Bukit Malut a road cut outcrop near Lambungan domestic
jetty area and shipyards, longest outcrop of Singa
Formation.
67
Figure 4.5 A photo of quarry outcrop of Chepor Member of massive
red mudstone in Hill C, Guar Jentik Perlis.
71
Figure 4.6 Road cut outcrop of weathered massive black mudstone
(A) and silty mudstone (B) of Singa Formation at Wang
Kelian, Perlis.
72
Figure 4.7 The expose horizon of massive yellowish red sandstone
outcrop in Hutan Aji quarry site.
73
Figure 4.8 The massive yellowish red sandstone intercalated with
grey mudstone near Unimap main campus in Pauh, Perlis.
73
Figure 4.9 Photo of sites visit in Bukit Malau active quarrying site,
located 8 km from Jitra town. Shows the Kubang Pasu
sandstone lies conformably on Telaga Jatoh black shales.
76
Figure 4.10 The fresh quarried outcrop of Kubang Pasu Formation in
Bukit Tunjang, Tunjang, Jitra, Kedah.
77
Figure 4.11 The ripples mark on the surface of Kubang Pasu
sandstone in Bukit Tunjang quarrying area.
77
Figure 4.12 The field photos of anticline structure in Kubang Pasu
Formation Tanah Merah (A), Pendang and a remnant of
sandstone boulders, lies on light grayish claystone,
relative to man (B). The basal part of the outcrop shows
Telaga Jatoh black shales (A).
78
Figure 4.13 At the top: The strata that lies in Kenny Hills Formation,
outcrop of active quarry sites in Bandar Baru Salak
Tinggi, (A). Scatters of crushed chuck of massive
yellowish red sandstone with massive light grey
mudstone in Salak Tinggi quarrying site (B).
81
Figure 4.14 Photos of variety of dropstone clast inside the massive
light grey mudstone in Salak Tinggi quarrying site. Well
rounded and sphere shape quartzite clast with draped
structure beneath the clast (A), elongated and rounded
surface of splitted into half sandstone dropstone (B), well
rounded and different sizes collected dropstone samples
(C) and elongated bullet shape dropstone clast (D).
82
Figure 4.15 Photos of granitic dropstone inside black mudstone host
in Tanjung Mali of Kentut Member of Singa Formation.
Partially round shape dropstone (A), rectangular shape
84
xi
with angular edges (B), well rounded oval shape clast
with dropstone deformation structure imprint to the host
rock (C) and elongated bullet shape clast (D).
Figure 4.16 Image under microscope of (A)XPL of granitic Singa
dropstone and (B) PPL of granitic Singa dropstone. (qz =
quartz, ort= feldspar).
85
Figure 4.17 A granitic dropstone clast on the massive yellowish red
sandstone host rock.
85
Figure 4.18 Petrography photos of granitic dropstone in Hutan Aji (A)
XPL image, (B) PPL image.(C) XPL image shows closer
look of orthoclase feldspar and (D) XPL image of
muscovite mica inside the granite dropstone. (qz=quartz,
Mc=lithic, Ort=plagioclase feldspar).
86
Figure 4.19 Photos of dropstone distribution in the Rebak Member of
red brick mudstone with different size and pattern. Single
quartzite dropstone with drapped structure (A). Two
elongated and angular quartzite dropstone (B).
87
Figure 4.20 Petrography photos of quartzite from the red beds. (A)
XPL image, (B) PPL image. (qz=quartz, fe=iron oxide).
88
Figure 4.21 Photos of various quartzite dropstone inside black
mudstone host Kentut Member (A), well rounded with
oval shape quartzite dropstone (B), irregular shape with
angular dropstone clast (C), (D) and quartzite dropstone
with draped structure in Selang Member of Singa
Formation (E) and (F).
89
Figure 4.22 Image under microscope of (A) PPL of quartzite
dropstone of Tanjung Mali, (B) XPL of quartzite
dropstone Tanjung Mali, Kentut Member, Singa
Formation.
90
Figure 4.23 Photos of dropstone clast inside massive weathered black
mudstone in road cut at Wang Kelian road.
90
Figure 4.24 Photos of dropstone in the massive red mudstone of Hill
A. (A) Quartzite clast with small draped structure, (B)
rounded grey quartzite and (C) elongated with bullet
shape milky white quartzite dropstone clast inside Chepor
Member host rock relative to a coin.
91
Figure 4.25 Photos of different size and shape of dropstone clast
inside massive yellowish red sandstone in Hutan Aji
quarry site quartzite dropstone (A) and (B). Also in
quartzite dropstones recorded in Pauh quarry site (C), (E)
92
xii
and rounded clast (F). Deformation sctruture of dropstone
host (D).
Figure 4.26 Photos of different size and shape of dropstone clast
inside laminated grey sandstone in Guar Jentik quarry
site. Quartzite dropstone (A), (B), (C) and (D) with
present of typical dropstone draped laminae deformation
structure (E).
93
Figure 4.27 Photos of different size and shape of dropstone clast
inside massive grey sandstone at Bukit Tunjang quarry
site. Quatrzite dropstones clast (A), (B) and (C) with
deformation strcuture left behind of dropstone clast (D).
94
Figure 4.28 Photos of different size and shape of dropstone clast
inside (A), (B)-yellowish brown laminated sandstone, (C)
massive grey sandstone, and (D) grey with faintly
laminated sandstone at Kodiang quarry site.
95
Figure 4.29 Photos of different size and shape of dropstone clast
inside massive yellowish red sandstone in Bukit Malau,
Jitra quartzite dropstone (A) and deformation structure
(B) and Tanah Merah, Pendang quartzite dropstones (C)
and (D).
96
Figure 4.30 Microscopic image of Kubang Pasu quartzite dropstone,
(A) XPL image of the dropstone and (B) PPL image of
the dropstone. (qz=quartz grains, Fe=iron stain).
97
Figure 4.31 Petrography photos of quarzitic dropstone from the Salak
Tinggi quarries. (A) XPL image of quarzitic sandstone,
(B) PPL image of quarzitic sandstone, (qz=quartz, fe=iron
oxide, lv=lithic/clay).
97
Figure 4.32 (A) XPL image lithic arenite sandstone and (B) PPL
image of lithic arenite sandstone (qz=quartz, fe=iron
oxide, lv=lithic/clay).
98
Figure 5.1 A) A field photo of quartzite dropstone clast and B)
Sketch of dropstone with deformation structure inside
Visean Langgun red beds, the draped structure show 1/3
D of very consolidated substrate.
102
Figure 5.2 A) A field photo of quartzite dropstone clast and B)
Sketch of dropstone with deformation structure inside
black mudstone of Carboniferous Singa Formation, the
draped structure show 2/3 D of slightly consolidated
substrate.
103
xiii
Figure 5.3 A) A field photo of granitic dropstone clast and B) Sketch
of dropstone with deformation structure inside black
shales of Tanjung Mali outcrop Singa Formation, the
draped structure show 1/2 D of moderately consolidated
substrate.
104
Figure 5.4 A) A field photo of quartzite dropstone clast and B)
Sketch of dropstone with deformation structure inside in
grey wavy laminated sandstone of Kubang Pasu
Formation in Guar Jentik outcrop, the draped structure
show 1/2 D of moderately consolidated substrate.
105
Figure 5.5 A) A field photo of quartzite dropstone clast and B)
Sketch of dropstone with deformation structure inside in
laminated yellowish sandstone in Kodiang outcrop of
Kubang Pasu Formation, the draped structure show 1/2 D
of moderately consolidated substrate.
106
Figure 5.6 A) A field photo of quartzite dropstone clast and B)
Sketch of dropstone with deformation structure inside in
light grey shales of Kenny Hills Formation in Salak
Tinggi Sepang, the draped structure show 1/2 D of
moderately consolidated substrate.
107
Figure 5.7 One of lineation type, the striation structure due to the ice
keel mechanism as the broken ice sheet moving by
floating on the sediment surface. (A) and (C) Striations
mark found on Bukit Raja Member sandstone. (B) Sketch
of striation based image in (A).
109
Figure 5.8 A) The picture of glaciogenic sedimentary rock,
diamictite of second glaciation episode of Gondwana in
Unimap Pauh outcrop of Kubang Pasu Formation. B)
Sketch of glacial groove and striation as effect of ice keel
scour mark.
110
Figure 5.9 Depositional mechanism that involve in soft sediment
deformation structure of ice keel scour mark in Unimap
Pauh outcrop. Note that different depth and iceberg size
result in different lineation structure.
110
Figure 5.10 The map of possible source rock of diamictite in
Sibumasu terrane, modified after (Chow, 1980; Cocks et
al. 2005; Kamata et al., 2014; Ridd et al. 2011; Tjia,
1989).
113
Figure 5.11 Sketch for the depositional model of Langgun and Chepor
red mudstone shows the formation of dropstone in these
members as ice berg.
116
xiv
Figure 5.12 Sketch for the depositional model of Singa black
mudstone shows the formation of dropstone of Selang
Members (deep) and Kentut Member (shallow) from ice
sheet.
118
Figure 5.13 Sketch for the depositional model of Kubang Pasu
interacted series of sandstone and mudstone shows the
formation of dropstone in these members as ice berg.
119
Figure 5.14 Illustration of the evolution through time from Early
Carboniferous to Permian era in depositional mechanism
of Singa and Kubang Pasu Formation which is laterally
corelated. Kubang Pasu Formation deposited in relatively
shallow setting compared to the Singa Formation.
120
Figure 5.15 The depositional model of Salak Tinggi shales of Kenny
Hills Formation the possible depositional environment
during the dropstone occurrences
122
Figure 5.16 Depositional model of dropstone in Kenny Hill
Formation. (A) Weathering of parent material, (B) The
rock fragment trapped in Alpine glacier, (C) Deglaciation
of alpine glaciers (D) Transported clast inside broken ice
sheet towards the oceans and melted into iceberg that
dropped the clast into marine setting.
123
Figure 5.17 The correlation of global glacial deposits and their
distribution of diamictite in space and time in different
facies. Modified after (Buatois et al. 2006; Burrett et al.
2014; Chakraborty and Ghosh, 2008; Chaodumrong et al.
2007; Danielski et al. 2016; Hakif et al. 2014; Henry et al.
2012; Isbell et al. 2012; Isbell et al. 2008; Lee, 2013;
Leman and Yop, 2002; Li et al. 2014; Perez Loinaze et al.
2010; Ridd, 2009; Souza et al. 2015; Tjia and Isahak,
1990; Wopfner and Jin, 2009)
128
Figure 5.18 The tectonic setting during depositional of Late Paleozoic
Ice Age of Sibumasu basin. (Hutchison, 2014;
Sevastjanova et al., 2011).
131
Figure 5.19 The configuration of paleogeography Sibumasu Basin
during Late Paleozoic Ice Age, of Gondwana glaciation
episodes. A) Early Carboniferous (Visean) Sibumasu, B)
Late Carboniferous of Sibumasu and C) Early Permian of
Sibumasu basin. Map modified after (Robin et al,. 2013;
Gamundi and Buatois, 2010; Metcalfe, 2013; Torsvik and
Cocks, 2013; Wopfner and Jin, 2009).
133
Figure 5.20 Paleoclimate configuration of apex glaciation episode of
Late Paleozoic Ice Age Gondwana continent (Wopfner
and Jin, 2009).
134
xv
LIST OF SYMBOL
Ar Argon
Fe 2+ Iron (II) ion
Fe 3+ Iron (III) ion
µm micrometer (1 x 10 – 6 m)
mm millimeter (1 x 10 – 3 m)
cm centimeter (1 x 10 – 2 m)
m meter (1 x 1 m)
km kilometer (1 x 10 3 m)
km2 Square kilometer ( Area=length times by width)
K Potassium
Pb Lead
U Uranium
xvi
LIST OF ABBREVIATION
BOD Biological Oxygen Demand
D Diameter (function of diameter measured in centimeter)
Fm. Formation
GDFs Glaciogenic debris flow deposits
Kg. Village (Kampung)
LPIA Late Paleozoic Ice Age
lv. lithic (clay cementation)
N North (direction with respect to earth magnetic pole)
NW North West (direction with respect to earth magnetic pole)
Ma Million years ago
Mc Muscovite mica
Ort Orthoclase feldspar
PPL Plane polarized light
qz Quartz (Silicon dioxide)
S South (direction with respect to earth magnetic pole)
sp. Species
Unimap Universiti Malaysia Perlis
USA United State of America
USM Universiti Sains Malaysia
XPL Cross polarized light
xvii
PENGELASAN DAN ASAL USUL BATU JATUH DI SEMENANJUNG
MALAYSIA
ABSTRAK
Sekitaran pemendapan dan mekanisme batu jatuh di Malaysia masih dalam
perdebatan, sama ada ia berasal dari glacio-lautan atau bukan glacio-lautan. Di
samping itu, sumber batu jatuh di dalam diamiktit ini belum lagi diketahui. Oleh itu,
kajian ini direncanakan untuk mengintegrasikan kajian lapangan geologi dan
petrografi terhadap beberapa batu jatuh di Semenanjung Malaysia serta mengkaji
asal usulnya. Di samping itu, pencirian batu jatuh di dalam diamiktit ini dapat
memberikan pemahaman berkaitan sifat dan komposisi batuan asas yang tidak
tersingkap di Malaysia. Pemerhatian lapangan dalam kajian ini menunjukkan bahawa
berlakunya kejadian batu jatuh di Pantai Barat Semenanjung Malaysia termasuklah
kepulauan Langkawi, Kedah, Perlis dan Selangor dari seawal usia Karbon-Perm.
Batu jatuh di dalam diamiktit ini mempunyai julat saiz dari 2 sm hingga 20 sm yang
bertaburan di dalam unit litologi yang berlainan seperti syal hitam, batu lumpur
hitam, batu pasir dan syal kelabu. Kajian mineralogi dan petrografi menunjukkan
bahawa batu jatuh ini terdiri daripada granit, kuarzit dan batu pasir. Salah satu batuan
pengepong, yaitu syal hitam Formasi Singa mengandungi komposisi utama, iaitu ilite
dan kaolinit. Kajian semasa menunjukkan bahawa batu jatuh di Semenanjung
Malaysia berasal dari glacio-lautan. Batuan purba daripada batuan asas granit Pra-
Kambria serta batuan kuarzit daripada Kambria Machinchang dan Kambria Jerai
telah diseret oleh glasier dan dijatuhkan di kedua-dua batu pasir marin yang agak
cetek dan syal yang lebih dalam. Kepelbagaian warna di dalam batuan pengepong
mencadangkan keadaan pengoksidaan dan pengurangan semasa pemendapan batu
jatuh. Hal ini berkait rapat dengan pembentukan batu pengepongnya. Walaupun
xviii
banyak diketahui tentang peristiwa global Zaman Ais Akhir Paleozoik, namun data
dan penyelidikan yang terbatas mengenai Sibumasu sebagai sebahagian daripada
dunia Zaman Ais Akhir Paleozoik masih kurang difahami. Oleh itu, kajian ini
mencadangkan penambahbaikan hubungan serantau ke peringkat global jujukan
litofasis yang memberikan tumpuan kepada Malaysia. Struktur deformasi (struktur
drap) di bawah batu jatuh dan mekanisme pemendapan batuan pengepong bagi batu
jatuh telah memberi pencerahan tentang sifat batu jatuh di Semenanjung Malaysia,
iaitu diolah dari sumber glasial dan dimendapkan oleh mekanisme glacio-lautan.
xix
CHARACTERIZATION AND ORIGIN OF DROPSTONE IN PENINSULAR
MALAYSIA
ABSTRACT
Depositional environment and mechanism of dropstones in Malaysia are still
debatable whether they are of glaciomarine or non-glaciomarine in origin. In
addition, the source of diamictites in these dropstones is not yet known. Therefore,
this study was designed to integrate geological field observations and petrographic
investigations on some of the dropstones in Peninsular Malaysia to examine their
origin. In addition, characterization of diamictites in these dropstones can shed the
light on the nature and composition of unexposed basement rocks in Malaysia. Field
observations in this study indicated the widespread occurred of dropstones in West
coast of Peninsular Malaysia including Langkawi archipelagos, Perlis, Kedah and
Selangor of Carboniferous-Permian in age. Dropstone in these diamictite occur as
rounded grains ranging in size from 2 cm to 20 cm that are scattered different
lithological unit of black shales, black mudstone, sandstones and white shales.
Mineralogical and petrographic investigations indicated that these dropstone are
composed of granite, quartzite and sandstone. One of the host rock, Singa black
shales is mainly composed of Illite and kaolinite. The current study suggests that the
dropstones in Peninsular Malaysia are of glaciomarine origin. Older materials from
the Precambrian granitic basement rocks as well as the quartzite from the Cambrian
Machinchang and Cambrian Jerai quartzite were dragged by glacier to be dropped in
both the relatively shallow marine sandstones and deeper shales. Varieties of colors
of the host rock suggests the prevailing of relatively reducing and oxidizing
conditions during the deposition of these dropstones in relation with the formation of
its host rock. Although much are known about the global event of Late Paleozoic Ice
xx
Age, yet restricted data and research on Sibumasu as a part of LPIA realm still
poorly understood. This study suggest an improvement in regional to global
relationship of LPIA lithofacies succession that focus on Malaysia. Deformation
structure (draped structure) underneath the dropstones and mechanism of deposition
of the dropstones host rock has enlighten the nature of Peninsular Malaysia
dropstone, which are glaciogenic in origin and deposited via glaciomarine
mechanism.
1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.0 Background
Dropstone is an older clast of foreign rock fragment with variety of lithofacies
and sizes, which is introduced in an oblique or vertical direction into heterogeneously
finer sediment host by various depositional mechanisms driven by gravitational force
(Bennett at al. 1996). Different depositional environments would result in different
impact-deformation structure, distribution and frequency of dropstone throughout the
space of the sedimentary host rock. The most recorded dropstone depositional
mechanism is via glacier. Glaciation is not limited to continental part only, it can also
cover the ocean surfaces such as dynamic earth magnetic poles, as an effect of celestial
interaction which results in different temperature on earth’s surface. In addition, earth’s
climatological influences such as tectonism, volcanism and meteorite impact has
contributed to climate change throughout the geological time. Eyles (2008) suggested
that several glacio epoch or ice age has occurred in alternating patterns starting with
Neoproterozoic, Ordovician, Carboniferous, Permian, Cenozoic and lastly Quaternary,
that chronological order.
As glaciation is common and seems to be the main dropstone transportation
agent, specific geological terms have been introduced based on its depositional
environment either on continental basin or oceanic basin. Flint (1960) used the term
“diamictites” to describe a sedimentary rock originating from a wide range of lithified,
non-sorted to poorly sorted, terrigenous sediments suspended in mud matrix
sedimentary unit, instead of restricted only to glacier origin. Gaschnig et al. (2014)
2
used the term ‘tillites’ for dropstones that were deposited on land or continental basin
rather than marine, and described diamictites as a universal unit which refers to
dropstones which were deposited on land or marine environments. In general, there
are four classes of dropstone rafting agents which are climatological such as glaciation,
physical such as floating stone (pumice and coral), biological such as indigestible
Gastrolith and projectile such as volcanic ejecta and meteorite. Thus, the origin of
dropstone is not only restricted to glacier realm, but it can be anything that sticks to the
earth’s gravitational force that emplace it into a new and completely heterogeneous
and different environment as compared to the dropped clast itself.
The dropstone is a good indicator of paleoclimate implication during the past,
such as a well-documented catastrophic event in sedimentary host rock. Glaciogenic
dropstone bearing sediments were recorded as global reservoir for oil and gas such as
Devonian diamictite of Libya and Morocco, and Carboniferous Permian West
Australia Basin and South America in Brazil and Argentina. Dropstones also can be a
part of geotourism attraction such as in Langkawi where it is well recognized as a
Global Geopark under UNESCO.
1.1 Study areas
This study has been designed to study dropstone occurrences and origin over
Peninsular Malaysia. Previous authors only focused on Singa Formation dropstone
from Langkawi. Several locations of dropstone-bearing formations are reported in this
study and can be simplified into three different sedimentary formations. Some of the
localities were not reported yet by previous authors as dropstone-bearing formations.
Based on their ages, dropstone-bearing formation from Malaysia belong to the
3
Carboniferous-Permian Gondwana glaciation episodes. Thus, the scope of this study
can be narrowed down to Carboniferous-Permian sedimentary sequences in Peninsular
Malaysia, of Langkawi, Perlis, Kedah and Selangor (Figure 1.1).
Figure 1.1: Geological map shows the distribution of Carboniferous-Permian
sedimentary sequences from Peninsular Malaysia modified after, (Jabatan Mineral dan
Geosains Malaysia, 2012).
Langkawi Island with 99 cluster of islands, located in the northern part of
Peninsular Malaysia, in the state of Kedah (Figure 1.2). Generally, Langkawi Island
has six different formations with five of them sedimentary in addition to the granitic
intrusion (Lee, 2013). Machinchang Formation, which is the oldest known sedimentary
4
outcrop in Malaysia is dominated by coarsening upward sequence quarzitic sandstone
with subordinate conglomerate, siltstone and mudstone. The features of wavy bedding,
cross beds, ripple marks with fossils of brachiopods and trilobite leads to interpretation
of shallow marine and deltaic depositional environments. Machinchang Formation is
overlain by the marine Ordovician Silurian Setul Group which is dominated by dark
grey bedded limestone with at least two detrital band of black mudstone. It extends
further on land to the state of Perlis. The next lithofacies reflects the change in sea level
where regression took place and implication of the Late Paleozoic Ice Age, LPIA the
shallow marine deposits influenced by the glaciation product of the Carboniferous-
Permian Singa Formation that is composed of black to gray siltstone and mudstone.
This alternating series of mudstone and siltstone were deposited with glacial derived
material of dropstone with limestone lenses. It covers almost half part of Langkawi
Island distributed along northeast-southwest direction. During this period of
Carboniferous-Permian, Sibumasu started drifting northwards. This northward drifting
and global warming resulted in the cycle of non-clastic sedimentary unit, with the
deposition of Permian limestone of the Chuping Formation with light color, thin to
thickly bedded limestone and dolomite as the basin goes deeper and more to equatorial
region. The Triassic Gunung Raya Granite is predominated by coarse grained granite
where some of it are porphyritic. Intrusion of these granites into older sedimentary
rocks resulted in the formation of some metamorphic rocks such as marble, quartizite
and horfels.
In this study, four locations of dropstone have been visited in Langkawi Island,
which are Tanjung Mali, Pulau Tepur, Bukit Malut and Pulau Langgun. From that
localities, 2 different lithology were identified and described as follow;
5
Figure 1.2: Geological map of Langkawi Island (Lee, 2013), shows the visited sites of
dropstone; (1) Pulau Langgun, (2) Pulau Tepur, (3) Tanjung Mali and (4) Bukit Malut.
Perlis is located at the uppermost northern Peninsular Malaysia, border to
Thailand with an area of 821 km². This small state represents the most variant of
Paleozoic sedimentary sequence starting from Ordovician up to Permian (Figure 1.3).
Ordovician Setul group consist of Middle to Late Ordovician Kaki Bukit limestone,
Ordovician Silurian Tanjung Dendang Formation and upper part of Silurian
Mempelam limestone. This pelagic Setul Group has received hemiplegic source of well
bedded, black to grey colored quartzite, siltstone, shale and chert sediment that were
preserved as Tanjung Dendang Formation. Overlying conformably on Mempelam
limestone is Early Devonian Timah Tasoh Formation with gradual transition of thin
bedded limestone to tentaculitid and graptolite-bearing black mudstone. This
formation is overlain by the Late Devonian Sanai limestone. It is composed of bedded
6
stylolitic mudstone and wackestone. Overlying the Sanai limestone is Carboniferous-
Permian Kubang Pasu Formation which is subdivided into four units which are the (1)
Telaga Jatoh Member; (2) Chepor Member; (3) Undifferentiated Kubang Pasu
Formation; and (4) Uppermost Kubang Pasu Formation. Tournaisian Telaga Jatoh
Member, is an important marker of Devonian Carboniferous boundary, it comprises of
rhythmically alternating, cm-thick beds of black mudstone and dark colored chert. It is
also local and just happens to be in small scale outcrop same to Sanai limestone. Then
comes Visean Chepor Member which overlies Telaga Jatoh Member where it pinches
out Chepor directly and overlies on Timah Tasoh Member is the Chepor Member, it
consists of thick fossiliferous red mudstone interbedded with mainly tabular beds of
quarzitic and feldspathic sandstone and occasional bedded diamictite. While previous
studies suggest that the Chepor Member is deposited during Early Carboniferous, the
latest discovery of the ammonoids Goniatites and Praedaraelites has further specified
the age of the Chepor Member to the Visean. Next, lies conformably the Late
Carboniferous Undifferentiated Kubang Pasu Member with thick red and grey
mudstone, interbedded sandstone and diamictites that is similar to Chepor. So far, the
classification of Undifferentiated Kubang Pasu Member, as “undifferentiated” is due
to the lack of fossil evidences makes it age still remain unclear, even its lateral
composition is extension by thickening of Chepor Member.
The Permian uppermost Kubang Pasu Formation succession is composed of
several coarsening upward cycles of intercalation sandstone and mudstone with several
features like bioturbidation, hummocky cross stratigraphy and ripple marks which
represents wave and storm generated facies. The equivalent to the whole Kubang Pasu
Formation and exist trending northward adjacent to it, is Carboniferous Permian Singa
Formation that can be found to be at the border of Perlis-Thailand at a road cut outcrop
7
to Wang Kelian. Even the same Singa Formation is extended from Langkawi to
southern Thailand up to Phuket.
Then, the top of Perlis Paleozoic stratigraphy is Permian Triassic Chuping
Formation that is also an extension from Langkawi. It conformably lies on Uppermost
Kubang Pasu Formation and at another occasion in Perlis can be found in contact with
Singa Formation Chuping limestone dominated by massive, light colored, rich in
skeletal grains. The basal part is a wave influenced deposit in present of Hummocky
cross stratigraphy structure which reflects the shallow marine deposition setting
(Figure 1.3).
Figure 1.3: The geological map state of Perlis (Hakif et al., 2013), with numbered
localities of dropstones occurrences; (1) Wang Kelian, (2) Guar Jentik, (3) Bukit
Chondong, (4) Pauh, Unimap and (5) Hutan Aji.
8
The general geology of Kedah can be subdivided into three regions which are
west Kedah-Perlis (including Langkawi), Perlis-Central North Kedah and East Kedah-
Central North Perak. For the state of Kedah, this study covers the area of Perlis-Central
North Kedah, where previous chapters has described this as west Kedah-Perlis region.
There are no dropstone or diamictite bearing sediments observed inside Baling Group
and Nenering beds of Perlis-Central North Kedah region. Overall, the distribution and
geological boundary of the formation in Kedah is mapped such in (Figure 1.4).
Cambrian Jerai Formation is the oldest sedimentary rock in Kedah that only covers
Gunung Jerai area which is located at the border of Kuala Muda and Yan district
southwest of Kedah, facing the strait of Melaka with height of 1,217 meter. It is usually
correlated to Cambrian Machinchang Formation in Langkawi due to the similarities in
quartzite facies, yet the features on this quartzite are different as Jerai quartzite is a
massive quartz arenite while Machinchang quartzite consist of metamorphose
greywacke sandstone, laminated, cross stratified and contain trace fossils. Overlying
the plutonic biotite granite with medium to coarse size grains intruded by pegmatite
dyke is the oldest Jerai Fm. unit which is the argillaceous schist in grey color rich in
biotite, muscovite, tourmaline and garnet. Silurian Devonian Mahang Formation
covers southern Kedah just beside Jerai Formation.
Carboniferous Early Permian Kubang Pasu Formation in Kedah seems rather
the same like Perlis where at some localities the red beds and grey mudstone coexists
as one beds, with similar grains but different color clearly affected by weathering
process. That makes Early Carboniferous Telaga Jatoh black shales conformably in
contact with sandstone of Late Carboniferous undifferentiated Kubang Pasu
Formation.
9
Middle Permian Grik Formation formerly known as Grik Tuff, distributed in
the south eastern part of Kedah and locally can be found at Grik and Lawin area near
the transcend area. Generally composed of metamorphose tuffs, rhyolitic to rhyodacitic
volcanic dust, interbedded with limestone and calcareous shales.
Triassic Semanggol Formation form in turbidites that scatter in three region of
northern Perak, southern Kedah and central northwest Kedah. The best outcrop was
discovered in northern Perak, a village named Gunung Semanggol. Generally it can be
sub divided into three units of; (1) Chert facies, bedded chert intercalated with mm
thick of shales, (2) Rhythmic facies, intercalation of sandstone, mudstone and shales
and (3) Conglomerate facies, dominated by conglomerate with minor intercalation of
sandstone and shales.
The youngest unconsolidated Pleistocene Nenering beds which is also local to
Felda Nenering near Pengkalan Hulu area, only covers 12km square area. With two
different facies of; (1) Basal Gravel Beds Facies and (2) Gravelly Sand Layer Facies.
Kubang Pasu actually is a village name and also used to refer to a district in
northern Kedah, yet there is no reported specific localities in this area. Thus, it leads
this study to the Kubang Pasu Formation up till the Pendang district. It is an outstanding
result as 3 active quarry sites were discovered with all of it having dropstone in the
sandstone host rock.
10
Figure 1.4: The geological map state of Kedah (Cocks et al., 2005), with number label
refer to site localities of dropstone; (1) Kodiang, (2) Tunjang, (3) Bukit Malau of Jitra
district and (4) Tanah Merah, Pendang.
Selangor is a state located in Central West Coast region of Peninsular Malaysia
which is below the state of Kedah and Perak respectively. In the central part of
Selangor state, lies the Federal of Kuala Lumpur, which is the capital city of Malaysia.
Selangor with the size of 8104 km² land covers the area which is most economically
11
important for Malaysia. The general geological boundary of various formation in
Selangor is mapped in (Figure 1.5).
Ordovician Silurian Hawthornden Formation is the oldest sedimentary rock in
Selangor that is distributed at Selangor central region extending eastward from Ulu
Klang to Ulu Langat. It is classified into pelitic Hawthornden Schist and psammitic
Dinding Schist. It is composed of quartz schist, mica schist, graphitic quartz schist and
occasionally tourmaline quartz schist.
Middle to upper Silurian Kuala Lumpur limestone underlies low lying plain of
north Kuala Lumpur extended and narrowing towards the southern town. This
limestone hills forming ranges with pinnacles shape up to 300 meters thick where the
lithology changes southward of Selangor to argillaceous and arenaceous Carboniferous
Permian Kenny Hills Formation. Kuala Lumpur limestone has undergone regional
metamorphism by Triassic granitic intrusion, where this dolomitic white clays grain
limestone marmorised with small intercalation of phyllite and schist that is rarely found
at the north part, but frequently observed towards the southern part.
Carboniferous Permian Kenny Hills Formation cover Kuala Lumpur area
extended towards southern Selangor. This series of intercalation of quartzite, light
color shale and occasionally phyllite is exposed at the basal part of Kenny Hills
Formation. It has undergone low grade metamorphism that turns the series of
sedimentary rocks into low grade metamorphic rocks. This formation is a comparative
to Kubang Pasu Formation by its lithology and paleontological records, with even less
trace fossils evidence found. Thus this makes the shales light in color compared to
carboniferous shales deposited at the northern peninsula. The quartzite is examined to
be angular to sub angular quartz grain cemented in silica matrix. Thinly layers of shales
by mm thick are usually present within this yellowish brown quartzite.
12
Triassic Batu Arang sedimentary unit, the unconsolidated loss sediment
comprised of two sub unit of Batu Arang bed and conglomerate bed. Miocene Batu
Arang bed is the lowest part that consists of intercalated fine grains sediment sand,
mud and shales with mm to 2 meter thick coal layer. Overlying it, is Eocene
conglomerate bed with grey to reddish brown color. The sediment shows coarsening
upward sequence, with fossilized leaf and pollen grains, thus interpreted to be
deposited in lacustrine environment.
Figure 1.5: The geological map of Selangor (Harun and Jasin, 2003), label number 1,
show the field location of Salak Tinggi, Sepang area.
13
1.2 Problem statements
A question mark left by previous researchers on how Malaysia’s base looks
like still remain unanswered until today. From the point of view of the continental drift
theory, Malaysia is uniquely important to the history of the continental part existence.
From the data recorded, Machinchang Formation in Langkawi was deposited at the age
of Cambrian. It is the oldest known formation in Malaysia yet no discovery has
recorded the basement of this sedimentary facies. Besides, Singa Formation that was
deposited on Permian exhibit some unique lithological structure compared to other
formation known in Malaysia – “The Dropstones”. Unfortunately, previous studies
such as (Altermann, 1986; Leman, 2003; Leman and Shi, 1998; Leman and Yop, 2002;
Stauffer and Lee, 1989) only focused on this dropstone bearing sediment in Singa
Formation, Langkawi Island. Whereas (Jones, 1981) has reported the extension of
Singa Formation were found to be on the mainland of northern Perlis, but the dropstone
inside it was poorly understood and reported. Besides, restricted studies by (Jones,
1981; Tjia and Isahak, 1990) described an occurrence of pebbly mudstone horizon
inside Kubang Pasu Formation and Kenny Hills Formation. This dropstone or
diamictites is uniquely distributed in Langkawi and Perlis including Thailand. The
previous study had reported the existence in Langkawi region however it is not found
in Perlis. Hence, from the recent research, it is believe that the dropstones were found
in Hutan Aji and also in Universiti Malaysia Perlis main campus and extended to the
northern Kedah region of Kodiang, Tunjang, Jitra and Pendang. Nevertheless the
discovery has not been recorded in those locations mentioned. Perhaps, the discovery
of the dropstone in Perlis, Kedah and Selangor can explain more about the environment
of deposition during that period either it has the same properties and sedimentation or
14
different settings to Singa Formation. This dropstone could lead to the findings of the
basement in Langkawi or throughout Malaysia. According to (Alsharhan et al., 1993;
Caputo et al, 2008; Lin et al., 2013) it was revealed that the evidence of Precambrian
basements of Thailand, Oman and Parana Basin of Brazil were based on the
glaciomarine deposition study of its characteristics. Moreover, only one attempt had
been made to distinguish the dropstone in Malaysia and its facies properties by
mineralogy study where it has described the possibilities of non–glacio marine
sediments (Altermann, 1986). The results of non glacio-marine origin are still in debate
and contradicts others research outcomes in Singa Formation and Kaeng Krachan
Formation, Thailand. Although the Carboniferous–Permian glaciation records were
well documented as evidence of glaciation-deglaciation sequences throughout the
world with at least three major events, yet there is no attempt to classify these glaciation
records and it is remain unclear in Malaysia. Furthermore, the unique depositional
environment dropstone of Singa Formation exhibits greyish black shales compared to
the other lithological units of oxidize mudstone yield yellowish reddish mudstone and
phyllite such as in Salak Tinggi and Kubang Pasu. Are there any special conditions
during the deposition of black shales dropstone in Singa Formation? Thus facies
analysis is needed to identify what are the ingredients behind this diamictites. Thus it
would be helpful to reveal the basement rock in Malaysia.
1.3 Research objectives
The objectives of this study are;
i. To identify and characterize the sedimentary facies of dropstone in Peninsular
Malaysia and distinguish the dropstone lithology of three localities.
15
ii. To examine the possible source and the origin of the dropstones and its possible
connection to the basement complex in Peninsular Malaysia.
iii. To compare and correlate the outstanding sedimentology and depositional
environments/ geological setting of dropstones of Peninsular Malaysia in time
and space.
iv. To resolve the controversy of the glaciomarine versus non glaciomarine origin
of dropstones in Peninsular Malaysia.
1.4 Significance and novelty of the study
The study of dropstone in west Peninsular Malaysia, especially in Langkawi,
Perlis, Kedah and Selangor shows some distinctive sedimentology and paleontological
records from other parts of Malaysia. This study has resolved the controversy of glacial
versus non-glacial origin of dropstone in Malaysia. It shed light on the nature of west
Malaysia dropstone depositional mechanism, where it is not an ordinary glaciation
product but it includes ocean as transportation mechanism. That is referred as
glaciomarine deposits and the sedimentary unit can be recognized as diamictite
horizon. Several diamictite horizon are recorded and suggest that West Malaysia
dropstone were deposited by several glaciation episodes in Carboniferous to Permian
era. Based on the field evidences and facies analysis, there are three types of rock that
were identified as dropstone clast that are igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks
that ranges from Precambrian to Cambrian in age. The Precambrian granitic dropstone
can possibly be a good indicator on how does west Malaysia basement looks like.
Besides, this study has outlined the possible source or parent material of Cambrian
dropstone clasts. Astonishing sedimentological records has been identified and
16
classified based on their age and their occurrences are significant to each major
glaciation episode of Gondwanaland during Late Paleozoic Ice Age. The outstanding
result of this study will increase the regional to global relationship of dropstone
occurrences and correlate the paleogeography and paleoclimate of Gondwana
glaciation realm. This ideology of Gondwana glaciation episode of LPIA would change
the way of how glaciation sedimentary rock were interpreted before in West Malaysia.
1.5 Layout of thesis
Generally, the contents of this dissertation are organized as follows;
Chapter 2 includes the literature review of previous study on the dropstone.
Starting from the general concepts of dropstone and other related terms that are used
to describe its properties. Then, its transportation agents and possibilities of
occurrences based on localities. Next the dropstone occurrences and their geological
background throughout the global event to regional and local in Malaysia.
Chapter 3 is devoted to research methodology. Firstly, it starts with the field
observation of sites physical evaluations. Then, several initiatives were used to explain
the dropstones facies within facies analysis discipline of petrography through Optical
Microscope and mineralogy study.
In Chapter 4, the results of facies analysis is presented as pictures and tables
with the analysis on their chemical, biological and physical properties to discover the
sedimentological aspects of each dropstones facies.
In Chapter 5, the possibilities of the dropstone based on their uniqueness in a
comprehensive expect is discussed. Each dropstone unit is classified and characterized.
17
Thus, this resolves the controversy of dropstones origin and that has not yet been
discovered which represents the basement complex of Malaysia.
Finally, Chapter 6 concludes overall of the research on characterization and
origin of dropstones in west peninsular of Malaysia, along with the recommendation
for future study and sustainability of dropstone geology in Malaysia.
18
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Preface
This chapter describes the definition of dropstone from its mechanism of
deposition, origin and distribution in local Malaysia, regional and global scale
phenomena. Terminology of dropstone, diamictites and tillite were emphasized as
according to the specific definition and lead for further analysis and classification
including dropstones lithofacies. Then, it focuses on the global occurrences of
dropstones to regional and local areas in Malaysia.
2.1 Dropstone
According to Bennett et al. (1994) a dropstone is a clast of an anomalous size,
lithology that was introduced into the host sediment vertically or oblique to the bedding
plane. It is an isolated fragments of foreign rocks found in finer grains of sedimentary
rocks. While Flint (1960) used the term “Diamictites” to describe a sedimentary rock
originated of wide range lithified, non-sorted to poorly sorted, terrigenous sediments
suspended in mud matrix sedimentary unit, instead of restricted only to glacier origin.
In addition, Tucker (2003) refer the diamictite as any poorly sorted terrigenous material
and non-calcareous in general, that exhibit mixture of pebbles, sand and mud that lump
together. Furthermore, a special characteristic has been made to emphasis the term
glacial diamictites by Gaschnig et al. (2014), that describe glacial influenced diamictite
19
as typically consist of angular and rounded clasts of variety sizes and shapes in a fine-
grained matrix. While diamicton is a term to describe the un-cemented and
unconsolidated diamictite (Tucker, 2003). Gaschnig et al. (2014) used the term ‘tillites’
for the dropstone that were deposited on land or continental basin rather than marine,
and described diamictites as a universal unit referring to dropstone which were
deposited on land or marine environments. Physically dropstone can be distinguished
by naked eyes in a sedimentary rock as it is unique and isolated depending on their
distribution in space. There are varieties in sizes, shape, sorting and angularity depends
on their mode of transportation. The variation of size is from megaclast or boulder size
granitiods up to 4 m in diameter recorded by Diaz-Martinez et al. (1999), pebbles and
cobble to a small granule size (1cm in diameter) that has been recorded by Bennett et
al. (1996); Stern et al. (2006); Vesely and Assine (2014), refer (Figure 2.1). The
existence of this dropstone also varies in type of rocks; data recorded by Kawai and
Windly (2008) shows ice rafted dropstone are sandstone, chert and basalt and Che Aziz
and Ibrahim (2003) record occurrence of granite, pegmatite quartzite, shale and
limestone, while Diaz-Martinez et al. (1999) record a granitiods boulder in shales that
were deposited by glaciomarine environment. It also can compositionally be
dominated by granites, schists, quartz and green sandstone like the one recorded in
Argentina by Limarino et al. (2014). Thus, the source of dropstone are not only limited
to sedimentary rocks, it can be including sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic rock
and not only restricted to glacier deposition Bennett et al. (1996); Korstgard and
Nielsen (1989). Besides, glaciomarine dropstone clasts are recorded to have subangular
to rounded sphericity and in some cases exhibit faceted surfaces and glacial striations
on it surfaces (Limarino et al., 2014). Basically there are four main agents that control
the dropstone transportation mechanism; ice rafting, biological rafting, floatation and
20
projectiles. Here are several factors that contribute to the dropstone transportation and
deposition:
Figure 2.1: The pictures of dropstone deposition and its variation in shape and size.
Note that a man standing in front of a 6 meter diameter granite boulder in basal
glaciogenic sediment in Ethiopia (Bussert, 2014).
2.1.1 Glaciers
According to Gaschnig et al. (2014) glacial diamictites classified as poorly
sorted sedimentary aggregate derived from abrasion and erosion of bedrocks that are
transported and deposited by the melting of ice. Glaciation naturally occurs in
Mediterranean and polar region as it needs snow that were deposited in years to form
glaciers. Due to the seasonal and climate changes, rise in temperature melt the glacier
make it move as the gravitational forces pull it downwards. Moving glacier on a surface
plucks away the source rocks and leave scour marks (Becq-Giraudon et al., 1996)
(Figure 2.3). Deglaciation in mountain range will transport such debris flow and
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deposit it in the valley as gravity deposits preserved as “tillites”; clasts of angular and
immediately proximal origin, indicating little transportation, Le Heron (2012) and this
phenomena is called subglacial erosion product, but if it is at coastal area it will float
away drifted by the ocean currents, winds and tidal force (Vesely and Assine, 2014).
Slowly ice rafts will melt into the ocean and deposits its load, or iceberg float away
drifted and brings the rock fragment at the bottom part of it and discharge its load
(Vesely and Assine, 2014). Thus, this rock fragment transported kilometers away from
its origin and drops into a new host resembling the glaciomarine deposition mechanism
(Liverman and Bell, 1996; Vesely and Assine, 2014), refer (Figure 2.2).
Figure 2.2: The summary of glaciation mechanism that were involved in Late
Paleozoic Ice Age and depositional mechanism of dropstone in space.
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Figure 2.3: The ice keel scour marks left by striation of glacial movement, A and
deposition of glacial megaclast dropstone in South Africa, B (Huber et al., 2001).
The most important key role to identify glaciomarine dropstone or diamictite
deposits is by examining the deformation structure, which disturbs the primary
structure of the facies. Such example of the laminated mudstone facies the laminar will
be interrupted as the weight acting on it due to gravity driven force exerted on the soft
sedimentary structure and produce what is called a draped structure. This
deformational structure of soft sediments host rock can varies in degree of deformation,
it depends on several factors that directly affect it during the depositional periods
(Hladil, 1991). It can be caused by: 1. Sufficient water depth for stabilization of free
fall motion of dropstone, which acquire in range of (1.2 – 7.5) meters water depth, 2.
Factors that influence fall velocity oscillation, such as the “the coin effect” where
frequently the position of clast fall will be on larger dimensions in horizon, 3.
Significant bulk density of the dropstones, the relationship of density is directly
proportional to kinetic energy, 4. Lateral water column force, such as currents,
upwelling and downwelling could be neglected in the bottom water column, based on
sedimentological evidence, 5. Neglecting the effect of water density and viscosity
A B
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fluctuations which occur natural due to increasing depth of water column or by
hydrostatic pressure by external force, 6. Resistance of sediment against deformational
impact, which is related to the sediment composition, mainly grain sizes and early
cementation during diagenesis, or degree of lithification and primary structure of
sediments, 7. Dropstone is subjected to rework of sediment, where very intense sinking
of clasts occur when the whole sediments is moved. Such structure used to be deep,
laminae are often penetrated and sediment is irregularly deposited on the dropstone
margin. 8. The degree of substrate lithification, which will give different draped
structure on the host rock during the deposition of dropstone and their diagenesis. In
illustration, refer (Figure 2.4) to see the different effect of deformational structure. 9.
The function of dropstone diameter, D that was introduced to the substrate of host
sediments that will affect the apparent depth of deformation and the size of draped
structure around the dropstone itself.
Figure 2.4: The deformational features (draped structure) from the impact of dropstone
clast in host rock, which varies by substrates consolidation and constant in clast
diameter. Note that the relationship of intensity and depth of deformation is inversely
proportional to the substrate lithification, as a function of dropstone diameter, (D). A-
Poorly consolidated substrate, the draped structure form circular wave crests. B-
Slightly consolidated substrate draped forming one ridge structure. C-Moderately
consolidate and viscous clay like substrate with thrust lips shape as draped. D-Very
consolidated substrate with circular bulge draped structure.
B A
C D
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2.1.2 Turbidity currents
Thin sand to clays interbedded structure with deformation bedding due to
dropstone bearing sediments can be interpreted as turbiditic origin or glacio–turbidities
deposits in the melt water around the glacier front (Vesely and Assine, 2014).
Tectonics and earthquake motion usually triggers sediment movement downwards the
continental slope in the ocean which makes turbidity currents happen. The potential
difference due to the slope structure makes a sediment gravity flow that brings a denser
current flow in the ocean. This strong ocean current flow can be one of the agents that
brings rock fragment into finer sediment in Deep Ocean (Pindell, 1994).
Figure 2.5: The pictures of Quaternary turbidites deposits in glacial Lake Columbia,
Washington. A-Turbidites outcrop, arrow shows the dropstone clast. B-The matrix
support clast, with poorly sorted clast inside mudstone C-Bedded and massive sand
and silt containing ice-rafted gravel (arrows) (Hanson and Clague, 2016).
A
B C