TERRA PRETA OR THE USE OF CHARCOAL FOR THE SUSTAINED FERTILITY OF INDIA’S SOILSBernard and Deepika

Pebblegardenforest@gmail.com Aurobrindavan Auroville 605101 India

BACKGROUND INFORMATION ON TERRA PRETA

Terra Preta is a dark coloured, very fertile and apparently self maintaining anthropogenic soil found in large tracts of the Amazon forest. So far conventional research has not yet been able to recreate Terra Preta or to find out how Terra Preta was made by the erstwhile inhabitants of the Amazon basin. (1)

Dark and fertile anthropogenic soils are encountered in many places around the world, for instance the well known “plaggen” soils in the Flanders and Holland. The most spectacular anthropogenic dark soil however is Terra Preta. This dark earth, created more then thousand years ago by the erstwhile Amer-Indians- una gente In Dios*- is characterized by an enduring and self regenerating fertility. It has evolved through human action, starting from one of the world’s poorest soils, most prone to degradation, into a living soil, unequalled anywhere else on the planet. What is so surprising about Terra Preta is that contrary to the plaggen soils, where sods were taken and brought from the heather, Terra Preta has evolved in situ without sod or soil amendment brought from “outside”.

These amazing soils keep on producing abundant and nearly perfect crops year after year without fertilization or plant protection worth a name. Another fact as spectacular as it is doubtful is that they seem to grow at an estimated 1% per year ! (2) On top of that they absorb carbon from the atmosphere and inhibit the release of methane, otherwise a normal feature of all soils, especially of chemically treated agri-soils.

In 1492 India was called Hindustan. The word Indian may have been derived from In Dios.

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Although the secret of Terra Preta has not yet been fully unraveled, it is now certain that charcoal is the main agent that has brought about this astounding transformation. It is most likely, as research has recently indicated, that the “Gente In Dios” mixed charcoal with organic debris, excreta and kitchen wastes. Minerals derived from hand crushed rocks like feldspar and other rocks found on the banks of the Amazon rivers could equally have played an important role in the genesis of Terra Preta. It seems likely to us that a consorted action of physical, biological and energetic nature could lead to an equivalent of Terra Preta.

In other words, it is possible that the composition or arrangement of the physical components such as charcoal etc. has invited a dynamism that has brought about that very intense biological activity so characteristic of Terra Preta soils. Equally also of special interest is to note that large parts of the Amazon Forest are of anthropogenic origin.

THE PROBLEM OF SOIL DEGENERATION IN THE TROPICS.

Soil degradation is one of the most serious problems of agricultural land use in the tropics. Most tropical soils are old and deeply weathered, having been cultivated for ages on end. In such soils, because of high temperatures and humidity, rapid mineralization of organic matter takes place. Heavy seasonal rainfall causes severe leaching of this mineralized organic matter and of primary soil minerals. The fact that photosynthesis is reduced in the monsoon season- the sky is overcast- aggravates this condition.

Under tropical conditions soil degeneration is accelerated by a factor of 100 in comparison to temperate zones. In organic farming, soil degradation may be somewhat less rapid because organic matter is held by the clay mineral complex. It demands nevertheless constant attention and substantial inputs of organic matter to keep up level performance.

Soil degeneration remains the unaddressed and unsolved problem in tropical soil fertility management up to this date.

CHARCOAL FOR REGENERATING TROPICAL SOILS

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Biochar

Biochar is the charring of farm residues. As a soil amendment it has become the new fashion of our times and a good way to make money. While the benefits of applying charcoal to agricultural soils are real and beyond doubt, it is necessary to be aware of a few pitfalls covered over with this apparently good sounding word and intention. Two key issues need to be understood

These are the problems of first charring farm residues, known as biochar and second land grab for carbon sequestration. Charring farm residues instead of composting them would be detrimental to the fertility of India’s soils. Charcoal must be seen as an addition to composting not as a replacement.

Also under cover of mitigating a supposed global warming due to human interference, there exists in certain biochar circles an attempt to highjack “marginal soils” in tropical countries. This would as ever displace the local farmers, a socially unacceptable proposition. The motive for such a scandalous land grab is establishing wood-monocultures, converting them into charcoal for sequestration. Obviously it is especially for grabbing the notorious carbon credits.

The ultimate way to extract carbon from the atmosphere, besides providing food security and food safety, is the full scale shifting to organic farming on a global scale, there is no other way.

Charcoal

Sources indicate that possibly 10% of the Terra Preta soils consist of charcoal.Charcoal is a very porous material obtained by charring wood or other sources of biomass. One gram of charcoal can have an internal surface of up to 500 square meters depending on the base materials, the efficiency and type of the charring process. It is certain that the use of charcoal can substantially improve soil fertility.

Charcoal as a soil improver has traditionally been used in South-East Asia. The oldest description on charcoal use in agriculture is found in a text book, Nogyo Zensho (Encyclopedia of Agriculture) written by Yasusada Miyazaki of

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Japan in 1697. He remarks; “After roasting every wastes, the dense excretions (meaning human excreta) should be mixed with it and stocked for a while. This manure is efficient for the yields of any crops. It is called the ash manure”. Probably similar knowledge has been popular in China and Korea since ancient time. (3).

However here also ground facts have to be addressed. The danger of over exploiting the already scarce vegetative cover for the production of charcoal is very real and cannot be ignored. For this reason the promotion of charcoal as a soil conditioner must be preceded or at least go hand in hand not only with the creation of on farm woody biomass plantation e.g. bamboo but also and equally important with an awareness about environmental regeneration. It is in this context that the re-greening of village commons or the forestation of the 50 million Ha. of waste lands –rather wasted lands- becomes so crucial for the sustained fertility of India’s agricultural soils.

The effect of Charcoal on Tropical Soils

In the process of making charcoal, nutrients contained in the plant sap get fixed in the charcoal. Enzymes produced by bacteria that live in symbiosis with plant roots can mobilize these nutrients and make them available for plants. In return plants secrete nourishing substances for these bacteria. Its big internal surface allows charcoal to store a huge quantity of ions and so prevent leaching of nutrients from soil organic matter and of primary soil minerals. This is especially of importance in soils with clays of low internal surface. Owing to its porous structure charcoal also holds water readily, making it important for soil moisture conservation. Charcoal provides thus an ideal niche for micro organisms like Arbuscular Mycorrhiza that produce glomalin and for all kinds of soil bacteria.

Further, charcoal, due to its high exchange capacity, can absorb and fix mineral ions coming with the rain water. The soil bacteria associated with the root hairs can then again through their enzymic action release these nutrients. In this way, the trace minerals always present in rainwater become actually a fertilizing agent which provides for long lasting, i.e. sustainable soil fertility (4). It is interesting to note that charcoal remains stable in the soil for an estimated 5.000 to

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50.000 years. It can be considered an almost permanent sink of carbon and is thus the ultimate in carbon sequestration (5).

The high monsoon rainfall and temperatures cause organic matter to mineralize very fast in tropical soils. At the same time the overcast sky cuts of sunlight and reduces the photo synthetic activity of plants. There occurs thus an excess of available nutrients which are consequently leached down. Recent research has shown that addition of charcoal to very poor soils, could improve crop output by a factor of 8. It has been reported that the population of free living nitrogen fixing bacteria increased around the charcoal buried in tropical soil. Probably a small amount of nitrogen seems to accumulate into soils by charcoal application as is also the case in slash burn cultivation.

Charcoal has also the capacity to neutralize the impact of acid rains on agricultural soils.

THE FEASIBILITY OF ON FARM CHARCOAL PRODUCTION IN INDIA

Although charcoal application to India’s soils would bring about significant improvements in crop out put, it is very unlikely that the Terra Preta technology has any chance of becoming rapidly and widely adopted. The major problem is the availability of wood or woody biomass for charring. Most of the available biomass difficult to compost is used as fire wood. Even crop residues that should be composted are also, unfortunately enough, used as fuel. Cotton and pigeon pea stalks and other farm crop residues that are difficult to compost could form a source for making charcoal if other sources of fuel are available. The few sources likely to be available for charring are rice and peanut husk, decorticated corn cobs, husks from tender coconuts or Palmyra fruits. When rice husk is lit it smolders but does not really burn, it gets charred. The proper charring of rice husk plus it’s charging with urine could be the way for rice farmers. With the excessive application of rice husk charcoal - because of high concentration of potassium and the higher pH than wood charcoal- browning of leaves could result.

There are a number of other possible sources as well.Prosopis juliflora is a thorny tree growing wild on fallow lands, gullies, roadsides etc. The stem and bigger branches are the primary source for commercial charcoal. But masses of side

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branches, too small for traditional charcoal making are easily available. Ipomea carnea grows in thick stands in water bodies and produces huge amounts of semi woody material. These and other possible sources of semi woody material such as lantana (Lantana camara) or eupatorium (Eupatorium odoratum) can cheaply be collected for making charcoal in a very simple way.

PEBBLEGARDEN

Pebblegarden is an effort to regenerate severely eroded lateritic wastelands in Auroville, T.N. using home and neighbourhood resources.

At Pebblegarden, for 10 year now, we have been working with charcoal as an amendment to enhance and maintain soil fertility. The results have been very promising indicating better plant growth, better plant health and better yields. Pot experiments have shown clear results in favour of charcoal application. One small field experiment has shown a 40 % increase in biomass production in plots treated with powdered charcoal inoculated with EM versus control. The inspiration to work with charcoal came from various sources. Our reflections are based on the study of similar practices like raab, the available materials, film, books and web and personal experience. (6)

However the main source of inspiration for using charcoal came from the discovery of Terra Preta do Indio in the Amazon rain forest.

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WORKING ON TERRA PRETA AT PEBBLEGARDEN

Our approach to Terra Preta all these years has been mainly empirical. Just like all other gardeners, we know our garden well enough to figure out if something works or not. We have been following the practices described here on half an acre and have found a considerable improvement in the performance of the garden.

Making charcoal

There are very simple ways of making charcoal. Here, at first dry branches were collected and just tossed in a heap. Fire was set to the heap and allowed to burn until the high flames came down, after which the fire was extinguished by pouring plenty of water on it (sand or soil can also be used for that purpose) and charcoal is obtained. Next, we also burned odd shaped log-left over pieces from the saw mill. We let them burn for some time, poured water on the glowing fire and scraped the charred layer off and repeated the procedure. The obtained charcoal was then dried in the sun.At present we use a kiln called the Iwasaki kiln, made from old oil barrels. An important advantage of making charcoal in a drum rather then in the simple or traditional way is the possibility of obtaining wood vinegar (7). Wood vinegar is obtained by condensing the smoke during the charring process. Wood vinegar is an excellent pro-biotic agent either as plant health promoter or soil conditioner. It has been recognized since 1960s that the wood vinegars extracted from broad leaved trees are more efficient for the growth and rooting of various plants than that of conifers.

A drum kiln and distillation pipe can be made in any rural metal workshop. The cost of such a device should fall within the financial capacity of a very large section of Indian farmers (8).

Charging the charcoal

Charcoal needs to be charged before applying it to the soil. This could probably be done in many different ways. We are working with human urine, EM and EM bokashi, 10 % water-wood vinegar solution, vermiwash and vermicompost. In the process of compost making, the more charcoal is used, the faster the decomposition-Exothermic reaction- progresses.

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Under aerobic conditions the Bacillus group seems to become dominant and produces antibiotics. It has been reported that these antibiotics inhibited the growth of some soil born pathogens, Pythium, Rhizoctonia, Phytophtra and Fusarium and were effective to suppress root diseases of various plants.

Our usual procedure though is crushing the charcoal into particles of about 1 cm2, saturating it with human urine and keeping it overnight. There is very little or no smell detectable as the nitrogen and minerals contained in the urine get absorbed into the charcoal pores. The soaked charcoal is then mixed with vermicompost and EM bokashi and kept in a drum for fermenting for a few days. This mix is spread 1 inch thick on vegetable bed and incorporated.

One measured and controlled experiment has shown a 40 % increase in biomass production.

However the addition to the garden soil of charcoal only does not make for Terra Preta. Hence we also experiment with other ingredients found in Terra Preta such as pot shards, bone meal, rock dust and mulch which tend to be missed out by exegetes.

Overlooked ingredients in Terra Preta

Potshards. Not so long ago in South India people were cooking food in earthen -terra cota- pots.  Once a year at the harvest festival all the old pots were thrown away and broken. For preparing the festive meal with the fresh produce from the new harvest new pots were used so to obtain the best taste.  The old pots were thrown on a heap or just discarded in a haphazard way.There is no reason to suppose that the Amazonians would have acted in any way different to the people of South India. Because wherever Terra Preta is found one finds equally potshards. These can make up 8% of the total soil mass. However the pictures clearly show that the pots were not just thrown away on a heap; rather they seem to have been deliberately used in the elaboration of the Terra Preta soils. It is even mentioned that pottery was made with the only purpose to incorporate them into the soil. The potshards consists of baked silica clay mixed with various other elements. The dynamic exchange between silica and carbon is supposed to be pivotal for the appearance and construction of life on the planet. Research by Jeanne Rousseau has shown

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that the bio-magnetic exchange between carbon and silica radiates at the same wavelength as living molecules. One can infer that an electro magnetic exchange occurs between charcoal and silica-clay.

Research has shown that the ceramic potshards found in Terra Preta contain sand, (amorphous silica) feldspar and iron oxides. The abundance of feldspar, coarse igneous rock (Granites, Rhyolites and Quartz) suggests the crushing of rocks found near the banks of the rivers for incorporation in the clay substrate. Extracts from medicinal plants have also been detected in the kaolin clay matrix.

These rock elements are most likely paramagnetic. It can thus be inferred that the potshards could be paramagnetic. Paramagnetic volcanic soils are known to be very fertile. In his book on para magnetism, Philip Callahan reports that soils in which plant growth is perfect are mostly paramagnetic in nature. Thus pottery must be considered as an important and therefore an integral part as much as is charcoal, in the whole process of the Terra Preta creation.

The juices from cooking or frying meat, fish or veggies would have penetrated the walls of the cooking vessels which once buried in the soil may have had an influence on soil microbiology. Also, as it seems the soot deposited on the bottoms of the vessels could be considered a form of activated carbon.

Initially we collected all possible shards of broken pot all around Auroville. At present we make small pottery “cakes” consisting of clay and rock powder and leaf extracts. (neem, periwinkle and tulsi) These cakes are baked using the heat of the charcoal kiln.

Observations clearly show an improvement in crop growth where pottery is added together with charcoal versus the addition of charcoal only.

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Bone meal, Kitchen Wastes.There are an estimated 1200 kinds of edible fish in the Amazon rivers. It is thus likely that fish was an important part of the original people’s diet. As Terra Preta is found only close to the ancient village settlements (further away from the ancient villages one finds Terra mulata but not Terra Preta), one can assume that bones and or other fish or animal leftovers or wastes from the kitchen formed a part of the creation of Terra Preta. To prevent rodent infestation and other pathogen from proliferating in a humid tropical climate one can imagine that the Amazonians used amphora jars in the same way as we use a kitchen dustbin. The peals and other kitchen wastes could have been mixed with crushed charcoal to produce fermentation.

Charred bones are used by shamans to extract poison from insect bites. One can assume that fish and animal bones were used in the charring process with the intention to keep Terra Preta free of pollutants. This could eventually explain the low methane and greenhouse gasses emitted by these soils. The use of animal fats and fish products to create fertile soil has been described in the Vrkshayurveda, and is still used to this date by some farmers in India.

Needless to say that the application of bone meal with charcoal and pottery gives excellent results.

Leaf litter and Bio-inoculants. Even charcoal, silica and bone meal together may not have been able to produce Terra Preta. The Amazon forest would have provided leaf litter bursting with intense biological life. The leaf litter may have been used as mulch and thus provided microbial inoculants. Our vegetable beds are always mulched with partially decayed leaves or hay. These measures assure an optimal biological activity in the garden beds.

Volcanic dust.It has been suggested that volcanic dust may have been an essential part in the evolving of Terra Preta. The rivers in the Amazon basin originate in the high lands of the Andes. The Andes is characterized by intensive seismic activity. It seems probable that rock dust or volcanic dust was brought down by the Amazon rivers. During the flooding in the rainy season rock dust laden silt may have settled on the river banks or in

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the plains. This silt may have been used in the pottery or it may have been used to level up the mounds. In this way the paramagnetic rock and volcanic dust could have entered in the process of Terra Preta formation.

Unfortunately the granite powder available here has a strong negative effect on the garden soil. Yet it has a strong paramagnetic charge. We therefore mix the granite powder in the clay matrix of the pottery cakes. This gives the cakes a paramagnetic value.

Pure water. The water, rain water or river water would have been very clean and bio-dynamized. This would have prevented the clogging up of the pores of the charcoal. Lots of problems encountered by gardeners could be explained by the fact that the water we use to irrigate the plants is polluted and caries negative information. Polluted water may clog up the pores in the charcoal.

Air.Terra Preta is found on mounds often next to water channels. The pottery chards and charcoal would have significantly contributed to the aeration as well as moisture conservation and drainage capacity of Terra Preta. These conditions seem optimally present even where the under laying strata have a very high clay content.

Notes:

(1) One of the biggest patches of Terra Preta is on the high bluffs at the mouth of the Tapajos, near Santarem. First mapped in the 1960s by the late Wim Sombroek, director of the International Soil Reference and Information Center in Wageningen, the Netherlands, the Terra Preta zone is three miles long and half a mile wide, suggesting widespread human habitation - exactly what Orleana saw. The plateau has never been carefully excavated, but observations by geographers Woods and Joseph McCann of the New School in New York City indicate that it is thick with ceramics. If the agriculture practiced in the lower Tapajos were as intensive as in the most complex cultures in precontact North America, Woods told me, "you'd be talking something capable of supporting about 200 000 to 400 000 people" - making it at

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the time one of the most densely populated places in the world.

Charles C. Mann in 1491. New Revelations of the Americas before Columbus. Chapter Amazonia.

(2) The work of Prof. Siegfried Fleicher of Halmstad Universityseems to confirm this fact.

(3) Japan Biochar Association

(4) Tom Miles; Bio Energy List. (5) One of the major problems with agricultural soils is the “burning” i.e. rapid mineralization of soil organic matter under the impact of soluble chemical fertilizers. In France for instance soil organic matter in the last 50 years has fallen from 4.5 % to its present level of less then 1 %. This inconvenient truth which one prefers not to mention has contributed to an estimated 30 %- and possibly much more- of all carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Besides agro chemicals release methane and the troublesome nitrous oxide, 300 times more “efficient” then carbon dioxide !.

(6) Raab is a system of charring biomass used by some tribal communities in India. It consists of making beds of various layers of dry, half-dry and fresh woody and leafy biomass, dung and clay. The thus layered bed is fully sealed with clay and cold fired (burning in reduced conditions). In the resultant residues rice nurseries are started. The tribals affirm that this gives perfect growth to the rice plants. in 1885 a commission was appointed by the British Authorities to enquire about the "wasteful practice" raab. Mr.Ozanne, Director of Land Records and Agriculture from the Bombay Presidency conducted in that context a number of experiments for replacing Raab. He came to the conclusion that Raab was "the only means by which the raiyat- the farmer- could cultivate his rice crop with profit". Charcoal bits, ash, even wood vinegar as well as sulfur that may have been absorbed by the clay, could explain the growth enhancing factors of the raab system. It is most likely that a similar system was the basis for the formation of the Amazonian Terra Preta.

(7) Wood vinegar is obtained by conducting the smoke that issues from the charcoal kiln through a long pipe in which the

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smoke condenses. It is the cell sap that is still present in the wood even if the wood is dry. Specific Farm Uses for Wood Vinegar: The Appropriate Technology Association of Thailand recommends the following wood vinegar/water • Repel nematodes– Tomatoes, 1:500 (apply to the base of plants); strawberries, 1:200 (apply to the base of plants); and black pepper vines, 1:1500 (apply in place of water). • Repel insect pests- Cabbage and Chinese cabbage, 1:1500 (apply in place of water); corn 1:300 (spray onto leaves). • Control of fungal diseases– Tomato and cucumber, 1:200 (spray onto leaves). • Control of root rot– Tomato and cucumber, 1:200 (apply to the base of plants). • Reduce incidence of chili pepper flowers aborting– 1:300 (spray onto leaves). • Improve flavor of sweet fruits and stimulate development of crops. Mix solution rates of 1:500 to 1:1000. Wood vinegar prevents excessive nitrogen levels, improves plant metabolism and contributes to higher fruit sugar levels. • Stimulate compost production. A solution rate of 1:100 will help increase the biological activity of various beneficial microbes and can decrease composting times. • Enrich garden soil. Use a strong solution of 1:30 to apply to the garden soil surface at a rate of 6 liters of solution per 1m² to enrich the soil prior to planting crops. To control soil-based plant pathogens, use an even stronger rate of 1:5 to 1:10. • Repel houseflies. Dilute wood vinegar at a rate of 1:100 and apply to affected areas. Wood Vinegar Concerns? Thailand’s Department of Agriculture stresses that wood vinegar is safe for organisms in the food chain, including pollinating insects. However, they also point out that the substance is slightly toxic to fish and very toxic to plants if applied excessively. Research at Mae Jo University also shows that wood vinegar with excessive amounts of tar can be harmful to plants.

(8) various designs for drum kilns are available on internet. We found the Iwasaki kiln to be the most appropriate.

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Appendix 1

165 VOL. 34(2) 2004: 165 – 178 ExtractsThe ceramic artifacts in archaeological black earth (terra preta) from lower Amazon region, Brazil: Mineralogy.Marcondes Lima da COSTA1(*), Dirse Clara KERN Alice Helena Eleotério PINTO Jorge Raimundo da Trindade SOUZA.

ABSTRACTSeveral archaeological black earth (ABE) sites occur in the Amazon region. They contain fragments of ceramic artifacts, which are very important for the archaeological purpose. In order to improve the archaeological study in the region we carried out a detailed mineralogical and chemical study of the fragments of ceramic artifacts found in the two ABE sites of Cachoeira-Porteira, in the Lower Amazon Region. Their ceramics comprise the following tempers: cauixi, cariapé, sand, sand +feldspars, crushed ceramic and so on and are composed of quartz, clay equivalent material (mainly burned kaolinite), feldspars, hematite, goethite, maghemite, phosphates, anatase, and minerals of Mn and Ba. Cauixi and cariapé, siliceous organic compounds, were found too. The mineralogical composition and the morphology of their grains indicate a saprolite (clayey material richon quartz) derived from fine-grained felsic igneous rocks or sedimentary rocks as source material for ceramic artifacts, where silica-rich components such cauixi, cariapé and/or sand (feldspar and rock fragments) were intentionally added to them. The high content of (Al,Fe)-phosphates, amorphous to low crystalline, must be product of the contact between the clayey matrixof pottery wall and the hot aqueous solution formed during the daily cooking of animal foods (main source of phosphor).The phosphate crystallization took place during the discharge of the potteries put together with waste of organic material from animal and vegetal origin, and leaving to the formation of the ABE-soil profile.

INTRODUCTION

Black earth soils, called by natives Indian black earth (Terra Preta de Índio in Portuguese) or classified by archaeologists as archaeological black earth (ABE) are very common found in the landscape of the Amazon region. The ABEs have been identified since 1879 and since there arebeing studied by naturalists, archaeologists and pedologists (Smith, 1879; Ranzani et al., 1962; Sombroek, 1966; Baleé, 1989; Kern & Kämpf, 1989, 1990). Several researchers have

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been carried out in order to study the pedological features of these soils as well as attempts to description and morphological classification of their ceramic artifacts as important tools for understanding the peopling of the Amazon region (Ranzani et al., op. cit; Falesi, 1974; Simões,1982; Eden et al., 1984). On the contrary of the black earth which are being in detail investigated no consideration has been made about the mineralogy, texture, and chemistry of the archaeological ceramic artifacts found in great quantity in these soils. We decide to develop a mineralogical study of the fragments of ceramic artifact found inside the ABEs from Cachoeira-Porteira. This paper presents these data and discus their source, utility and alteration during their daily use and importance for archaeology and geology.

PHYSIOGRAPHIC ANDARCHAEOLOGICAL ASPECTS

The sites are located 21 m above the river water level in the dry season. The actual climate of the region is rainy equatorial and dominated by dense tropical forest (theHyläea Amazonica) including bamboo (Guaduasp.) and secondary forest (capoeira). The drainage system is dense, the valleys are overflowed, normally have a rocky bottom and under this condition present water falls and/or rapids. River dikes and channels give origin to several lakes and islands of different forms and sizes.

The soils are composed mainly by yellow to red Latosols, yellowish brown Podzolsand Structured Red Earth (Terra Roxa Estruturada). The alluvial soils are found in the flood plains.The ABE classified as anthropogenic soils (Ranzani et al., 1962, Kern, 1988 ) are well distributed in the region, and marked by several small sub-circular areas of 1 to 8 ha located near eachother and developed preferentially over the yellow Latosols and Petroplinthosol(Kern, 1988: Kern & Kämpf, 1989).The fragments of ceramic artifacts present tempers made of cauixi, cariapé, sand, and fragments of rocks and feldspars (Hilbert, 1955). The tempers after Meggers & Evans (1970) are exotic material intentionally put in the ceramics during their confection. The cauixi (Tubella reticulata and Parnula betesil), for example, is fresh water spongy that cumulates on trunks of trees, boats, and so on. The artifact with cauixi temper carry theKonduristyle culture (Nimuendaju, 1948), which are typical of ABEs from Trombetas and Jamundá rivers. They are ceramics for daily use. The Konduri lived from 900 years BP until the first contact with Europeans in 16 and 17 century when they extinguished.The cauixi temper has its origin in the Lower

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Amazon region, where cauixi occurs. The tradition of cauixi temper was modified lately by the introduction of a cariapé temper, a tree outer skin (Hilbert, 1955), representing a Bignomiacea, Moquilea, Licania utilis, and Turiuva. Before the cariapé get in the ceramics as raw material it need to be burned. Although the cariapé ceramics are less homogeneous than the those ones with cauixi, they have the advantages toavoid stomach diseases normally promoted by cauixi artifacts when the food are prepared inside of them (Hilbert, op. cit.).

GEOLOGICAL SETTING

The region around the village Cachoeira-Porteira comprises paleozoic to mesozoic sedimentary rocks (sandstones and claystones) of Lower Amazon basin laying the proterozoic volcanic acid rocks of Iricoumé Formation and Mapuera Granite (Fig. 2). Dikes of basic rocks crosscut the paleozoic formations. Laterite profiles derived from these formations also occur in the area and have been afterward partly transformed into Latosols, widespread in the region. Clays, sands and pebbles found commonly on the riverbanks and lakes as well as the Latosols are the youngest (Holocene in age) geological manifestations on the region. The two archaeological sites studied here (Figs. 1 and 2) are just located over the Latosols derived from sedimentary rocks, close to volcanic and plutonic rocks..The archaeological data presented in the previous items show that the ceramic artifacts were clearly submitted to firing and in such way the clay minerals must have experimented structuralmodification, where the modification degree gives an idea about the temperature of firing. By 500 to 600ºC the clay minerals, such kaolinite or allophane becomes quasi-amorphous or amorphous (Dixon, op. cit.; Wada, 1989). This might have been the highest temperature reached by these ceramics, when one takes in account the XRD patterns. This is the temperature observed during theheating of present caboclo pottery of the Amazon region, after our observation in the field and after Prof. Dr. J.R. expected in such primitive process observed inside of the primitive Indians and Amazoncaboclos..

A small and rare bone fragment made of apatite has been also found in the matrix (Fig. 12b). Possibly it may represent an incorporation of bone waste during the ceramic preparation.

All these features allow to conclude that most of mineral grains were taken from fresh crystalline rocks and intentionally crushed and introduced into clay material as well as cauixi and cariapé.

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The above described minerals and organic substances led to identify the following materials as raw materials for the ceramics:

1) clay material derived from weathering (saprolite/ mottling zone) of fine crystalline and less frequent sedimentary rocks (indicated by clay-derived minerals and iron oxy-hydroxides, anatase and quartz );

2) fresh crystalline rocks crushed (feldspars, quartz androck fragments);

3) organic materials (cauixi and burned cariapé). The mineralogical similarity between the differentceramic tempers mainly for the most abundant ones permit to conclude that the basic raw materials used to their preparation were nearly the same. The domain of clayey materials (closely derived from kaolinite) and quartz suggest a saprolite (clayey mottled zone) derived from fine-grainedacid rocks, for example rhyolites and/or fine-grained granites/granodiorites or even clayey sedimentary rocks to ask as a main source of raw material. The abundance of fresh feldspars, rocks fragments and roundless quartz indicate that coarse igneous rocks, e.g. granites, granodiorites, and even rhyolites and quartz of veins were used as temper, after crushing. It’s possible that pre-historic Indians extracted the fresh rocks from the same place where they took the clayey saprolite.To improve the plasticity of the raw material they introduce organic material like cauixi and cariapé, crushed quartz, or even old ceramic (waste) crushed, in an old process of recycling.

Until present days cauixi is found in many lakes and rivers near to archaeological sites of Amazon region as well as cariapé in the forest do (Fig.13). Fresh and weathered rhyolites, granites and granodiorites occur near to the sites 1 and 2 (Fig. 2).The (Al,Fe)-phosphates (5.3 Wt. % in average) in the ceramics of the ABE of Cachoeira-Porteira do not show to be of primary origin, from the clayey saprolite or claysediments. In the ceramic fragments they are found exclusively in the clay-matrix. Freestone & Middleton (1987) reported phosphates within the clay matrix in some Far East ceramics too. There the clay source and local soils contain less than 0.5 wt. % P 2O5 . The local soils of Cahoeira-Porteira show less than 0.036 wt. % P 2O5 (Kern, 1988). In the modern ceramics, calcium phosphates are added to act as flux and to vitrify the final ceramic product. However, the ancient ceramics with high P 2O5 content are not vitrified, so in this case, P 2O5 was not used for this purpose (Freestone & Middleton, op.cit.). Freestone & Middleton op.cit. conclude that P 2O5 content (identified as very fine-grained Ca-phosphate but not apatite) is a

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result of Figure 13- Geological cross-section showing the possible sources of the raw materials for manufacture the ABE ceramics at Cachoeira-Porteira.

The most important source of phosphor contamination occurs during the cooking offood, mainly meals and fishes, some roots, the principal diet of the ancient Indians of Amazon. The cooking behaves as hydrothermal process, where the chemical nutrients go partially into solution and may react with the aluminous silicate (former clay minerals) of the ceramic potteries.(Al,Fe)-phosphates (variscite-strengite, crandallite group, wavellite, and so on) form preferentially in this condition in the groundmass (Kittrick & Jackson, 1955; Hsu, 1968; Kafkafi et al.,1967; Yariv & Cross ,1979 and Costa, 1982); the cooking of food in the potteries also leaves to partialrehydration of clay-derived minerals (neoformation of some kaolinite), recrystallization of anatase and formation of other Ti-minerals, Ba-Mn-oxides, rabdophanite. Clay-derived minerals, hematite and maghemite formed during the firing of the ceramics; tridymite and cristobalite formedduring the pre-ceramic burning of cariapé and cauixi; bone waste and others were incorporated during pottery confection.

The young age of the culture itself (900 to 400 years BP) and low temperature (cooking temperature) can explain the low cristallinity and too fine-grained nature of these neoformed phosphates. It is possible that the reaction (and contamination) may continue after the discarding of the ceramics as wastes and during their incorporation into anthropogenic soil profile developed at the time of the settlement and after the abandonment of it. The pedogenesis afterward the discharge of the ceramic artifacts left to the formation of the black earth soils, during the actual tropical weathering phase. This led to superficial deferrification (destruction of hematite and maghemite) of the ceramic fragments and to form goethite and kaolinite as well.

The presence of maghemite, although in little amount, explains the magnetism of some ceramic fragments. The burning of the iron-mottled clayey material (as clayey saprolite), the probable rawmaterial of ceramic artifacts, may have produced maghemite partly. Maghemite was detected in lithic artifacts in other archaeological sites (Roosevelt et al., 1996) as well as in fired surficial Amazon soils

. Ed., p. 1051-1087.

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Appendix 2

Le Phénomène TERRA PRETA : un modèle pour une utilisation durable de la terre par une application ciblée de Microorganismes EfficacesLa TERRA PRETA constitue un phénomène étonnant des anciennes hautes cultures dans le bassin de l’Amazone. Cet espace naturel, souvent appelé « enfer vert » fut décrit jusqu’à maintenant comme hostile à l’homme. Pourtant il y a plus de 500 ans, avant l’arrivée des espagnols, plus de 6 millions d’êtres humains s’y sont nourris des fruits de ses cités-jardins. Ceci ne fut possible que grâce à leur haut niveau technologique qui dans sa génialité n’avait rien à envier aux conquêtes de la science moderne. Dans ce bassin des Tropiques on trouve, dans les lieux qui furent habités, une terre très noire. Des restes de poterie prouvent une ancienne présence humaine. Les surfaces correspondent à des jardins d’environ 300 hectares. Ces surfaces se sont développées visiblement en même temps que les habitations. Elles se trouvent toujours sur des collines qui ne pouvaient pas être inondées et se distinguent par une fertilité extraordinaire. Les fermiers les utilisent encore aujourd’hui, bien que le mode d’élaboration de cette terre soit tombé dans l’oubli. Ce qui est paradoxal c’est que les alentours sont constitués de terres pauvres tropicales qui , après l’incendie des forêts, n’ont qu’une fertilité médiocre pendant 3 à 5 ans et ensuite doivent être abandonnées. Et tout à coup on rencontre de la Terra Preta bien noire contenant jusqu’à 5 fois plus de phosphore et d’azote et de 10 à 20 % plus de carbone organique (charbon de bois). Chez nous, la plupart des terres arables contiennent de 1 à 3 % carbone. 5 % pour de très bonnes terres de jardin. Ces hauts pourcentages de la TERRA PRETA ne peuvent normalement être obtenus par une bonne pratique professionnelle ou par une utilisation régulière et intensive d’engrais. Les méthodes connues ne permettent d’arriver qu’à 1% maximum de carbone organique sur une période de 40 à 60 années. La réalité quotidienne montre que nos méthodes agricoles modernes appauvrissent l’humus plutôt qu’elles ne l’enrichissent .Pour beaucoup de spécialistes la TERRA PRETA est un vraie énigme.

Sur les traces du secretUn groupe de scientifiques et de praticiens de différentes spécialités a réussi grâce à des observations de la nature et d’expériences faites à partir de ces observations à découvrir le secret de la préparation de la TERRA PRETA. Résultat : Une rentabilité multiple, des plantes d’une grande santé et aucun besoin d’engrais artificiels ni de pesticides. Le contenu en carbone dans la terre ne se trouve plus diminué, au

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contraire : les engrais organiques sont efficacement transformés par une vie active à l’intérieur de la terre.Comme chacun sait, on peut enterrer en son jardin de grosses quantités d’ordures, ou de compost ou d’y mettre d’épaisses couches de mulch et accroître ainsi rapidement la proportion de substance organique. Mais nombreux sont qui savent que, surtout en terrain sablonneux, la matière organique va fondre comme du beurre au soleil. Après deux ou trois ans tout a disparu et seulement une petite proportion d’humus va rester. Les collemboles et les asticots ont tout mangé et respiré. Dans la TERRA PRETA la proportion d’humus reste par contre stable pendant des siècles et de plus sous les tropiques où l’humus est pratiquement inconnu . En effet, la chaleur, l’humidité et l’activité réductrice du sol ne permettent pas sa constitution.

Comment les Indiens de l’Amazone ont-ils exactement créé cette terre fertile.La recherche scientifique et expérimentale des dernières années a élucidé les trois secrets de la TERRA PRETA, l’un après l’autre. En Allemagne il y a le groupe de recherche du Dr. Bruno Glaser à l’Université de Bayreuth à mentionner qui a jeté les bases de la redécouverte de l’élaboration de la TERRA PRETA. Furent également décisifs les apports du ‘’terrologue’’ et spécialiste de TERRA PRETA Dr. Haiko Pieplow en collaboration avec le conseiller EM Alfons Krieger (Bureau d’ingénierie durable) et le développeur de systèmes botaniques d’épuration d’eau pour une gestion durable de l’eau - Joachim Böttcher du bureau Areal GmbH. Il est possible de trouver des informations sur le dernier état des recherches sur le site www.das-gold-der-erde. Depuis, de nombreux projets TERRA PRETA prouvent qu’il est également possible de produire l’or noir aussi en Allemagne, sans besoin d’un équipement coûteux. On a besoin d’une connaissance spécifique pour savoir comment utiliser le matériau disponible sur place pour faire de la terre noire.

Les trois secrets de la TERRA PRETA1. Le charbon de bois. Ce qui est le plus remarquable dans la

TERRA PRETA c’est le haut pourcentage de charbon de bois réparti partout. On en a trouvé jusqu’à 50 tonnes par hectare.Le charbon de bois reste stable dans le sol pendant des millénaires et ne subit pratiquement aucune réduction ni chimique ni biologique. Sa grande surface intérieure permet d’absorber de grandes quantités d’eau et de nutriments. Une grande activité biologique permet d’avoir un sol sain. Ceci permet de nourrir les plantes de manière parfaite et régulière. Le rêve de tout jardinier et agriculteur. Le charbon de bois constitue également un espace vital parfait pour des microorganismes de la terre. La structure

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spongieuse et poreuse du charbon de bois permet de s’y installer, des communautés de vie complexes et parfaitement protégées, pouvant également survivre à des périodes difficiles et peu favorables de sécheresse et de manque de nutriments. Dès le retour de l’humidité et des nutriments, le sol peut se refaire efficacement en puisant dans le charbon de bois.2. La Fermentation avec des Microorganismes Efficaces. Le

charbon de bois offre un logis aux Microorganismes Efficaces. Mais il faut savoir qui sera l’habitant. Dans les expériences pour produire de la TERRA PRETA , une vaccination avec de bons Microorganismes Efficaces bénéfiques s’est avérée d’une grande importance. Un rôle clé est rempli par des Microorganismes Efficaces qui fabriquent de l’acide lactique qui favorisent la création et la conservation de substance organique. On peut considérer les Microorganismes Efficaces EM1* comme des produits sûrs et favorables pour cette application. La recherche sur la TERRA PRETA n’aurait pas abouti sans les découvertes sur les EM du Professeur Terruo Higa du Japon. La fermentation forcée par l’acide lactique permet que la substance organique ne soit que lentement réduite et que, au contraire, des formes durables d’humus soient formées. Les EM combinés au charbon de bois dans un système durable constituent la pierre angulaire. Le premier pas dans la fabrication de la TERRA PRETA peut être appelé le charbon de bois Bakaschi. Dans une deuxième phase, dans un compost plein d’asticots, ce charbon Bakaschi se transforme en Terra Initial, comparable au EMa. Dans une troisième phase, se passe la maturation vers la TERRA PRETA par l’introduction dans un système durable dans une culture écologique ou une culture ‘’perma’’.

3. Exploitation cyclique. Cycle de la vie. La nature ne connaît pas de déchets. Si on crée avec des Microorganismes Efficaces un espace de vie sain, il faut en prendre soin et les nourrir. Il est prouvé que la TERRA PRETA a été élaborée à partir de matières fécales, d’os, de poissons et de la viande et toutes sortes de détritus organiques mélangées à du charbon de bois dans des vases d’argile spéciaux. Le cycle de la vie était ainsi bouclé dans un petit espace.Les sols sains produisent des plantes saines et des aliments sains pour humains et animaux dont les excréments retournent à nouveau à la terre. Les mêmes bons microorganismes se trouvent dans la flore intestinale et aussi dans le sol. Le sol est le système digestif des plantes comme l’a déjà dit Aristote. En ce qui concerne les organismes vivants, la fonction des fines racines des plantes est comparable aux villosités intestinales. Grâce à une fermentation ciblée on peut hygiéniser les déchets et charger le charbon de bois et l’humus créé en microorganismes

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et en nutriments pour les plantes. Pour clore la boucle, les excréments des animaux et des humains jouent un rôle prépondérant. Ils peuvent nous rendre malades ou devenir la base de notre bonheur. Pour arrêter dans les excréments la création de putréfactions, de milieux malsains et d’émanations de méthane, il faut séparer l’urine. L’urine est comme une eau dorée qu’il est dommage de mélanger à la matière fécale. L’urine sans germes peut être diluée et utilisée directement comme engrais rapide. Le système de canalisation et la centralisation de collecte des eaux usées représentent de graves erreurs de notre civilisation. Depuis leur introduction, certains esprits perspicaces nous ont prévenus. La collecte centralisée des eaux surcharge nos fleuves, nos lacs et nos mers de nutriments et de germes. Il s’en dégage du dioxyde de carbone, du gaz hilarant et du méthane qui contribuent au changement climatique. Ces nutriments et le carbone manqueront ensuite à nos sols. Le conseiller EM Marco Heckel a mis en œuvre les expériences positives de Haiko Pieplow et de Alfons Krieger avec une toilette sèche anaérobique. Par son intermédiaire chacun peut se procurer le matériel nécessaire à la fabrication de la TERRA PRETA.Les civilisation inconnues qui nous ont laissé en héritage la TERRA PRETA nous ont fait le plus précieux cadeau imaginable avec cet or noir. Avec notre savoir et nos « valeurs intérieures »nous pouvons nous créer notre propre paradis, un jardin prolifique en aliments et qui donne un sens à notre vie.

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Appendix 3

The Use of Wood Vinegar In Reducing The Dependence On Agro-Chemicals

Posted in: ESSAYS

Modern research on the use of wood vinegar was first carried out in Japan in the early 1950s. It was reported to be effective against: rosette or green mosaic in wheat, nematode in sweet potato, tobacco mosaic, powdery mildew in leafy vegetables, leaf miner and other insect pests. However, due to the introduction of agro-chemicals and their instantaneous effects, research on wood vinegar took a back seat. Ten years ago, interest in wood vinegar resurfaced as the effectiveness and safety of agro-chemicals were put on the spot. It is now commonly used by Japanese farmers and is also catching up fast in Taiwan and Korea.  

It is estimated that wood vinegar contains more than 300 constituents such as acetic acid, methanol, phenol, ester, acetals, ketone, formic acid and many others. Instead of the specific effectiveness of a certain element, in the case of wood vinegar, various elements work synergistically. Various factors are controlled by the dilution rate of the wood vinegar. It has a bactericidal effect as well as the ability to propagate microbes. It has radicational qualities, which provides a growth inducing effect. But depending on the concentration of the mixture it can also be used to retard the growth of the plant.

The various elements in the wood vinegar work as co-enzymes or catalysts. Various enzymes are involved in reactions such as cell multiplication. The functions of the enzymes are assisted by the

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elements in the wood vinegar which co-ordinate the reactions and the cell multiplication. Elements that are effective as co-enzymes and catalysts require only a minute amount. It is like vitamins in our bodies. The dosage of some of these elements is effective in the unit of PPM. (Parts per million).

Wood vinegar contains a small amount of nutrients directly taken in by the plants. It also contains very few elements that have the bactericidal and anthelmintic effect. It is neither a fertilizer nor an agro-chemical. Yet when it is correctly applied, it enhances the intake of fertilizers and reduces the damages by various diseases. Wood vinegar enhances rooting, helps in the regulating of the nutrients condition of the soil, and the balance of the microbiological population. The changes in the microbiological population not only greatly reduce the tendency of soil bound diseases, it also increases the vitality of the roots and hence enable better uptake of nutrients.

Wood vinegar had been long known to be very effective against nematodes.  It kills nematodes directly as well as propagates microbes that feed on them. The high acidity, methanol and phenol content have strong bactericidal effect at a high concentration, such as 50 to 100 times dilution. However, microbes propagate well when it is diluted to 200 times dilution. This is mainly due to the effect on the metabolism by its main element, acetic acid. Acetyl co-enzyme is produced by plants and microbes from acetic acid. Through the TCA cycle, acetyl co-enzyme is converted into citridic acid, malic acid, fumaric acid, succiric acid and other elements that are necessary for the plant and microbes. This is the main reason behind the propagation of microbes.Through foliar application, some bacteria are killed by direct contact and the changes of the microbiological population deter the propagation of pathogenic bacteria.  The acidity on the leaves surface also deters propagation. However, the most remarkable effects of foliar application are the increase in resistance of the leaves against pests and diseases and the increase in the effectiveness of agro-chemicals.

Through foliar application of wood vinegar, the leaves become shiny and darker in color. This is due to the increase in chlorophyll through the effect of ester in the wood vinegar which promotes photosynthesis. This ester also helps in the formation of sugar and amino acids. This also results in a better taste of the produce. The healthier leaves naturally have a stronger resistance against pests and diseases.

Five plant hormones are closely related to the growth and health of a plant. These are: gibberellin, cytokinin, auxin, etherlene and abscisic acid. Etherlene and abscisic acid contribute to the plant’s resistance against diseases and attacks from bacteria. An amino acid called

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methionine effects the formation of etherlene. The formation of etherlene is reduced by the excessive intake of nitrogen. On the other hand, growth hormones like gibberellin, cytokinin and auxin will be produced. As a result, the size of the plant increases but the resistance against diseases is reduced. The formation of oxidized ethylene from ethylene and the formation of methionine is accelerated by acids. The wood vinegar helps in their formation due to its acidity.

Furthermore, wood vinegar accelerates the process of transformation from nitrogen to amino acids. In other words, nitrogen is effectively transformed into amino acids. This will also stabilize the formation of methionine. As the result, oxidized ethylene is also produced. These processes contribute to higher plants resistance against various diseases.

At 500 times dilution, wood vinegar can reduce the cluster value of water to 1/3. This means that the water is activated and can be easily absorbed by the plants because water with a low cluster value is in a very small mass. Each of these masses will hold one or few mineral elements. These elements can be easily taken into the plants.

The concentration of agro-chemicals or liquid fertilizers can be reduced by 50% if it is diluted in a 500 times dilution solution of wood vinegar due to its higher permeation. This will greatly reduce the use of agro-chemicals. However, it should not be used with alkaline chemicals.

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Appendix 4Technology and Innovation for Sustainable Development Conference (TISD2008) Faculty of Engineering, Khon Kaen University, Thailand28-29 January 2008 Utilization of Wood Vinegar By-product from Iwate kiln for Organic

Agricultural System Udomporn Pangnakorn

Department of Agricultural Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Natural Resources, and Environment, Naresuan University, Phitsanulok, 65000 E-mail: udompornp@yahoo.com.au Abstract Wood vinegar is one of organic compound which is suitable for organic farming concept. According to wood vinegar is a byproduct from charcoal production. It is a liquid generated from the gas and combustion of fresh wood burning in airless condition namely Iwate kiln. When the gas from the combustion is cooled, it condenses into liquid. Raw wood vinegar has more than 200 chemicals, such as acetic acid, formaldehyde, ethyl-valerate, methanol, tar, etc. Utilization of wood vinegar has been used in several purposes such as industrial product, livestock, household and agriculture. The wood vinegar improves soil quality, eliminates pests, accelerating plant growth, plant growth regulator or growth inhibiting. It accelerates the growth of roots, stems, tubers, leaves, flowers, and fruit. In certain cases, it may hold back plant growth if the wood vinegar is applied at unsuitable volumes. This study shows that after applying wood vinegar on sweet corn (Zea mays L.var. sacharata), it could prevent insect pest and acceleration of crop growth. The wood vinegar were applied on sweet corn with spraying on leafs compare with spraying on soils every 5 days after planting. The volume of wood vinegar were formulated to contain 1: 1:500; 1:400; 1:300; 1:200; 1:100 and control. The result revealed that 1:500 was the highest efficiency for controlling insect pests both spraying on leafs and spraying on soils followed by 1:400 of the wood vinegar ratio. While there were not different occurred on 1:300; 1:200 and 1:100 when compared to the treatment of control. Keywords: Wood vinegar, Iwate kiln, organic agriculture, insect pest control, sweet corn

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1. Introduction Wood vinegar has been known for its strong sterilizing properties. It has been used for ages as a sterilizing agent, deodorizer, medicine for intestinal disorders, and an additive which brings out flavor and preserves freshness. Since the 1930’s, wood vinegar has also been used in agriculture as a fertilizer and growth-promoting agent. At present, wood vinegar is recognized by experts of various fields as having positive health and beauty effects, and is thus widely used in daily life in Japan. While good wood vinegar has approximately 200 chemicals such as: acetic, formaldehyde, ethyl-valerate, phenol, tar etc. that are constantly reacting and changing over time, the transparency, fragrance and components of the wood vinegar do not change over tens of years. This similarity with wine underscores the high level of purity of the product (International Bio-Energy, 2003; Xinxi, 2004). Pyroligneous acid is obtained by the dry distillation of wood. This is a development of the traditional process of charcoal burning or the burning of wood in an airless condition reducing it to a charcoal rather than a carbon dioxide, water vapor and ash. In the process of wood distillation, a chamber of firebricks is substituted for the mound of earth, and a device is added to collect and cool the vapors released to condense them. The condensate consists of pyroligneous acid and a tarry residue, which will separate and settle upon cooling wood vinegar is slightly toxic to fish and very toxic to plants if too much is applied (Yoshimura and Hayakawa 1991). This study, the kiln type were developed and modified to high efficiency for charcoal burning and condensing gas from the combustion into liquid and collection the wood vinegar. The volumes of wood vinegar were also studied to suitable ratio for using in organic agricultural system.

2. Materials and methods 1. Development of kiln type: Iwate kiln are pilot kiln from Iwate district in Japan. The structure is made from clay, brick, and chimney with produced high quality of charcoal. By-product of carbonization is pyroligneous liquor or wood vinegar. Yield of charcoal 20-32% depend on kiln type and carbonization process (Tongdeethare 2002). The structure of Iwate kiln and pilot kiln (fixed) had shown in figure 1. The kiln is modified to moveable kiln both vertical and horizontal; it’s made from a 17 200-liter oil drum and 120-cm-tall concrete chimney with a 4-inch diameter (Figure 2 and 3).Figure 1 Structure of Iwate kiln (fixed type)

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Figure 2 Modification of Iwate kiln to moveable type Figure 3. Pilot Iwate kiln fixed type (left) and horizontal moveable (right)

2. Preparation and Purification method of raw wood vinegar: Wood vinegar for agricultural sed is made from

burning fresh wood in a charcoal kiln (or Iwate kiln). Good wood for vinegar must have heartwood. Wood

were burn at 120-430 OC. The smoke from carbonization was cooled by the outside air when passing through the chimney occurs to produce pyroligneous liquor. The hot steams condensed into liquid were collected. It is called raw pyroligneous liquor or raw wood vinegar and necessary to purr before using.

2.1 Standing method: The raw wood vinegar were leave for 3 months to become silted. The vinegar will turn yellow like vegetable oil. After which, it will turn light brown and the tar will become silted. The top content will be light, clear oil. Remove the tar and light oil, as well as the dark brown translucent oil and the remainder will be sour vinegar (Figure 4).

2.2 Filtering method: Charcoal is broken into small piece, soaked with water and place on funnel. Then the raw wood vinegar is poured through the charcoal (Figure 4).

2.3 Distillation method: The wood vinegar is distilled in laboratory with 2 methods e.g. normal pressure distillation method and reduced pressure distillation method (Figure 4). Figure 4. Raw wood vinegar are purred by standing method (top left); filtering method (top right); and distillation method (bottom left); wood vinegar after distillation (bottom right)

3. Efficacy test of the wood vinegar: The experimental plots were located at faculty of Agriculture Natural Resources and Environment, Naresuan University, Thailand. Wood vinegar were blend with water in ratio of 1:500; 1:400; 1:300; 1:200; 1:100 and control (water) and were applied on sweet corn of 5 days old by spraying on leafs and soils. The experimental design was randomized complete block with 6 treatments and 10 replications.

4. Result and Discussion Iwate kiln could be modified in different types such as fixed, vertical movable and horizontal movable, which produced yield of charcoal depend on type of kiln and carbonization process. This study showed that the Iwate kiln produced high quality of charcoal with less ash, the yield of 25-30% charcoal from wood 100 kg. However, different charcoal wood required a different carbonization kiln (Tongdeethare 2002). Therefore, fresh wood had effect on quality and quantity of

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wood vinegar as well as the type of kiln. In this study, application of wood vinegar for agriculture indicated efficacy of wood vinegar against and control insect pests of sweet corn. The number of damage on leafs and ears of sweet corn caused by insect pests were counted and evaluated (Figure 5). The result revealed that the highest effectiveness of wood vinegar ratio for controlling the insect pests on sweet corn were occurred on concentration rate 1:500 both spraying on leafs and soils when comparing to control. Wood vinegar can protect foot rot and root rot and also prevent egg layingof some insects in soils (Apai and Tongdeethare 2001). Every concentration showed efficacy of wood vinegar with spraying on leafs higher than

spraying on soils except only ratio of 1:200. This may be the high concentration from 1:200 are not the appropriate for field crop but it suitable for vegetable (Sompong 2002).

5. Conclusions Wood vinegar is byproduct from wood burning in airless condition namely Iwate kiln. It application for agricultural use in several purposes including pest control, improving soil fertility, plant growth accelerating substances, plant growth regulator, or growth inhibiting (Tsuyoshi, 1994). It can be use for organic agriculture. However, the wood vinegar must be purify process and diluted water before use, therefore, the volumes is very important for considering, also appropriate plants are determined. However, the wood vinegar is new organic substance and great benefit to concept of organic agriculture, also need to do much more research in the future.

Acknowledgments This research was financially supported by the Provincial Chief Executive Officer (CEO) in Phitsanulok province, Department of Provincial Administration, Thailand. References Journal[1] Apai W., Tongdeethare S. 2001. Wood vinegar the new organic compound for agriculture in Thailand. 4th Conference

Toxicity Division, Department of Agriculture , pp 166-169. [2] International Bio-Energy 2003. Wood vinegar, http://bioenergy.com.sg/products/wood_vinegar.p hp (accessed 2005-08-20). [3] Tsuyoshi. 1994. The use of wood vinegar and charcoal in agriculture. ICCA, Japan.

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[4] Tongdeethare S. 2002. Wood vinegar the new organic compound for agriculture. Kehakaset Journal. 26 (9): 96-101.

(in Thai) [5] Yoshimura, H. and Hayakawa, T. 1991. Acceleration effect of wood vinegar from Quercus crispulaon the mycelial growth of some basidiomycetes. Trans. Mycol. Soc. Japan32: 55–64.http://www.springerlink.com/content//[6] Xinxi, Jang 2004. Wood charcoal and pyroligneous liquor

technology, http://www.cn/dz/en/charcoal-tech.htm (accessed 2007-06-20). 19

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