E/ECE/1197ECE/ENVWA/12

ECONOMIC COMMISSION FOR EUROPEGeneva

CHARTERon

ground-water management

as adopted by the Economic Commission for Europeat its forty-fourth session (1989)

by decision E (44)

UNITED NATIONSNew York, 1989

NOTE

The designations employed and the presentation of the material in thispublication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on thepart of the Secretariat of the United Nations concerning the legal status ofany country. territory. city or area, or of its authorities, or concerning thedelimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

E/ECE/1197ECE/ENVWA/12

UNITED NATIONS PUBLICATION

Sales No. E.89.1I.E.21

ISBN 92-1-116456-7

00400P

FORE\VORD

Ground water - as a natural resource with both ecological andeconomic value - is of vital importance for sustaining life, healthand the integrity of ecosystems. This resource is, however, in­creasingly threatened by over-use and insidious long-term effectsof pollution. Pollution comes from both point sources and dif­fuse sources. Potential risks or actual impacts could permanentlyimpair underground water resources, with far-reaching and un­predictable implications for present and future generations.Action is urgently needed. The Charter on Ground-water Man­agement provides policy measures for such action.

The adoption of the Charter by the member Governments ofthe Economic Commission for Europe was the culmination ofintense regional co-operation aimed at reaching agreement oncommon policies for the protection of this vital natural resource.Prepared by the Senior Advisers to ECE Governments on Envi­ronmental and Water Problems, assisted by the Working Partyon Water Problems, the Charter builds on the results of extensiveexperience. It reflects, in particular, the outcome of two specialmeetings devoted to the subject: the Seminar on Ground-waterProtection Strategies and Practices, held in Athens (Greece) in1983 and the Seminar on Protection of Soil and Aquifers againstNon-point Source Pollution, held in Madrid (Spain) in 1987.

The Charter on Ground-water Management gives broad sup­port to ECE member Governments in their common endeavoursto protect ground water by providing planners and decision­makers with appropriate policy instruments. Publication of theCharter is intended to heighten public awareness of the need forconcerted action to protect ground water. The Commission hasrecommended that member Governments apply the provisions ofthe Charter1; when formulating, adopting and implementingwater-related policies and strategies at both national and inter­national levels.

Contents

Page

I. Ground-water policy I

II. Ground-water strategies I

III. Integration of instruments 2

IV. Ground-water allocation 2

V. Ground-water legislation 3

VI. Competence 4

VII. Economic measures 5

VIII. Permit and penalty system 5

IX. Exploration and abstraction permits 5

X. Abstraction and recharge permits 6

XI. Pollution-control permits 7

XII. Wells and boreholes 9

XIII. Monitoring and control 10

XIV. Impact assessment 11

XV. Inventories 11

XVI. Planning and forecasting 12

XVII. Land-use policies 13

XVIII. Protection zones 14

XIX. Pollution from agriculture 15

XX. Pollution from urban and industrial sources 16

XXI. Control of mining activities 17

XXII. Heat pumps 17

XXIII. Research 18

XXIV. Education and information 19

XXV. International co-operation 20

I. GROUND-WATER POLICY

Governments should formulate and adopt a long-termpolicy to protect ground water by preventing pollution andover-use. This policy should be comprehensive andimplemented at all appropriate levels. It should beconsistent with other water-management policies and beduly taken into account in other sectorial policies.

II. GROUND-\VATER STRATEGIES

1. As ground water should be recognized as a naturalresource with economic and ecological value, ground-waterstrategies should aim at the sustainable use of ground waterand preservation of its quality. These strategies should beflexible so as to respond to changing conditions and variousregional and local situations.

2. Ground-water pollution is interrelated with the pollutionof other environmental media (surface water, soils,atmosphere). Ground-water protection planning should beincorporated into general environmental protectionplanning.

3. Protection measures aimed at prevention of ground-waterpollution and over-use should be the basic tools forground-water management. Such protection measuresinclude, inter alia, monitoring of ground waters,development of aquifer vulnerability maps, regulations forindustry and waste disposal sites paying due account toground-water protection considerations, geo-ecologicalassessment of the impact of industrial and agriculturalactivities on ground waters, and zoning of ground-waterprotection areas.

III. I~TEGRATIOj\\ OF I~STRUMENTS

I. In formulating and implementing national ground-waterpolicy, legal, administrative and regulatory measures shouldbe co-ordinated with the best available technologies andeconomic instruments.

2. Integrated water management should be promoted bypaying equal attention to both quantity and quality aspectsof ground water. Likewise, emphasis should be placed onthe co-ordinated management of ground water and surfacewater, while taking into account the distinguishing featuresof ground water as compared to surface water whichnecessitate special protective measures for aquifers.

IV. GROUND-\VATER ALLOCATION

An appropriate policy should be adopted for preferentialallocation of ground water, giving appropriate weight tocompetitive uses and balancing short-term demands withlong-term objectives in the interest of present and futuregenerations. In allocating ground-water resources, accountshould be taken of the amount of ground water in reserveand of the rate of its replenishment. Allocation ofhigh-quality ground water only to uses demandinghigh-quality water, in particular for human and animalconsumption, should be encouraged. More emphasis shouldbe given to the nature conservation value provided byground-water resources, in particular where natureprotection areas are vulnerable to changes in ground-waterconditions.

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v. GROU1'\D-\VATER LEGISLATION

1. Provisions of the Charter should be applied in nationalground-water legislation. Legal provisions specific topeculiarities of ground-water management should beformulated and promulgated. Legislation should containprovisions for its effective implementation including themandate, competence and power of the relevant .authoritiesin accordance with uniform principles, e.g. as set out in thisdocument. Governments' rights to control ground-waterabstraction and use as well as all activities with a potentialimpact on the quantity and quality of ground-waterresources should be recognized by legislation.

2. Adequate definitions of ground-water Characteristics, useand protection should be formulated and integrated intolegislation with a view to avoiding ambiguities and thusfacilitate implementation of legal provisions forground-water management.

3. Ownership with respect to ground water should be clearlydefined in a water act or code depending on nationallegislation. Ground water should be declared in the publicdomain or authority should be vested in Government torestrict, in the public interest, the rights accruing from itsprivate ownership. New legislation should strive towardschanging ownership rights into ground-water use rightssubject to a government-controlled permit system. To thisend, it would be necessary to draw up precise rulesconcerning the selection of criteria applicable for therecognition of ground-water use rights and for the grantingof permits taking into account orders of priority for theallocation of available water. Such rules should alsodetermine conditions of transfer, modification or abolitionof use rights. Priorities to use ground water, however,should be kept flexible so as to satisfy present and futurerequirements such as socio-economic factors.

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VI. COl\IPETENCE

l. Water authorities or co-ordinating bodies should have thecompetence to integrate all aspects of water managementand should be rendered competent to arbitrate among thevarious competing demands. and diverging interestsregarding ground-water abstraction and use, both short­and long-term. The authority or body should collaboratewith other authorities, competent for public health, land-useplanning, soils' management, waste management, etc.Legislation should provide administrative mechanisms foremergency cases and should empower the competentauthorities to act immediately against damage.

2. The territorial competence of such authorities withrespect to ground-water management should not necessarilybe limited to either administrative boundaries or catchmentareas but should allow for encompassing, as appropriate,management of aquifers in their entirety. The work of theseauthorities should be supported and facilitated by providingthem with the resources necessary for the proper dischargeof their functions.

3. Regulations, within the framework of legislationmentioned above, should define the actions to be taken bycompetent authorities in case of accidental pollution or otheremergencies impacting on ground water.

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VII. ECONOMIC MEASURES

I. Economic measures such as fees and waste-disposalcharges should be applied in co-ordination and havesufficient impact to constitute an effective incentive to useground water rationally or be a disincentive to pollutingaquifers.

2. The abstraction of ground water could be subjected todifferentiated fees in proportion to the volume abstracted,in relation to the available resource or according to theanticipated use of the abstracted ground water, whilecomplying with legal provisions and regulations governingthe applied permit system.

3. Costs attributable to pollution should be borne by thepolluter whenever the latter can be identified. Seriousconsideration should be given to all possible economicmeasures which could have an influence on preventing,mitigating and counteracting damage as well as thosebearing on remedying critical situations caused by pollutionor over-exploitation of aquifers.

VIII. PERMIT AND PENALTY SYSTEM

An appropriate and effective permit and penalty systemshould be introduced and administered by the competentauthorities. The system should promote preventiveapproaches inducing users to control any activity affectingthe quantity and quality of ground water.

IX. EXPLORATION AND ABSTRACTION PERMITS

Permits for ground-water exploration or prospection'should be granted by the responsible authority separatelyfrom those for ground-water abstraction or use because ofthe functional difference between the sinking of anexploration well and the large-scale exploitation of aquifers.Exploration permits should have short-term duration.

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X. ABSTRACTIO:'J AND RECHARGE PERMITS

1. Abstraction of water from aquifers and the artificial re­charge of ground water should be licensed and controlledby competent authorities according to specific requirementslaid down in an appropriate permit system which should beflexible so as to adapt to site-specific conditions. The ques­tion of ground-water exploitability should be clarified on acase-by-case basis, taking into account all relevant aspects,including ecological ones. The relevant regulations shouldestablish the extent to which exemptions can be allowed incases of, for example, ground-water abstraction for house­holds and systems for draining fields. Where compatiblewith national legislation, permits for ground-water ab­straction and use as well as pollution- control should not re­lease the user of ground water from responsibility in case ofdetrimental effects on ground-water quality and quantity asa result of interventions covered by the permit granted.

2. Specifications of licences should include, inter alia, thepurpose, amount, location, duration and technical charac­teristics of abstraction, as well as the legal status of theground-water user.

3. Authorization for artificially recharging the aquifershould be granted only if the hydrogeological situation, en­vironmental conditions and the recharge-water quality per­mit injection, percolation or infiltration of water by artificialmeans into aquifers for storage and retrieval of good-qualitywater as well as for restoring over-exploited ground-waterresources. For induced recharge from adjacent streams orlakes, appropriate security measures should be applied toforestall accidental pollution.

4. Appropriate measures should be taken to combat salt­water encroachment into coastal aquifers. In such areasspecial regulations for ground-water abstraction should beenforced to avoid seepage into aquifers owing to over­pumping and the resultant lowering of the ground-water ta­ble.

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XI. POLLUTION-CONTROL PER:\'lITS

I. To prevent ground-water pollution: permits issued toregulate the discharge, disposal and possibly the storage ofwaste should specifically take into account the vulnerabilityof the aquifer concerned and the provisions necessary for itsprotection. These provisions should, in particular apply toproduction, handling, trading, transporting, storage and useof potentially hazardous substances especially those whiehare toxic, persistent and bioaccumulative and apply aboveall to:

• Effluents and sludges produced by waste-watertreatment plants;

• Domestic-waste disposal sites;

• Subsurface waste containment by deep-well injection orcontainer storage as ultima ratio;

• Surface storage of wastes potentially hazardous byvirtue of their chemical composition.

In permitting such activities, inter alia, the hydrogeologicalsituation of the area should be taken into consideration. Onthis matter the opinion of qualified specialists should besought in all above-mentioned cases. Continuousmonitoring programmes should be set up both to controlwater quality in aquifers as well as for checking compliancewith permits granted. The specific regulations on nuclearplants and the handling and processing of radioactivesubstances should include appropriate provisions for theprotection of underground waters.

2. Siting of controlled waste disposal should assure thatthere is no immediate and/or long-term hazard to groundwater. Controlled sites should be equipped with protectiveinstallations according to the best available technology andmonitored by competent authorities. Regulations or

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guidelines should be drawn up for the site selection ofcontrolled waste-disposal sites, their operation, monitoring,shut-down and eventual rehabilitation, with particularemphasis on ground-water quality protection. Solid orliquid wastes which are toxic, persistent, bioaccumulative orradioactive and which put ground water at risk should besubject to special treatment. Legislation should bandumping of solid or liquid wastes at unauthorized sites.

3. When applying and operating pollution-controltechnology for cleaning gases, liquids or solids, during orafter treatment processes, the pollutants concentrated insludges, slurries, gases or solids should not be releaseduncontrolled into the environment and nor ultimately reachand pollute aquifers. Care should be taken so thatpollutants separated from exhaust gas, flue gas and othergaseous emissions do not enter ground water. Measuresshould be taken to prevent pollution by volatile organiccompounds and other aerosols.

4. Pollution control at the source should cover, in particular,those pollutants which are toxic, persistent andbioaccumulative. To this end, regulatory measures andeconomic incentives should encourage the replacement ofchemicals hazardous to ground water by less harmfulsubstances in industrial production processes. Similarly,regulations governing contaminants could be enforced withregard to trade, processing and transport of hazardoussubstances, with a view to averting or minimizing the risksof leakage into aquifers, and preventing accidental spills ofhazardous substances.

5. Application of treated waste water and resulting sludgeon land should be subject (0 licence and/or conform tonationally agreed codes of practice and be restricted to areaswhere there is no immediate or long-term hazard toground-water quality. In this respect, particular care shouldbe taken not to overload the self-purification capacity of the

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soil filter and corresponding natural processes therein.Special attention should be paid to hazardous substances,for example heavy metals.

6. In principle, injection of liquid wastes into the groundshould be prohibited. Deep-well injection of liquid wastesof industrial origin and other water of objectionable qualityinto the ground should be authorized only case-by-case asultima ratio, if the necessary precautions and controls fordeep-well disposal can be specified, and if injected wastescannot harm nearby aquifers. Control methods shouldinclude proper siting, design, construction, operation,abandonment and monitoring of deep-well injection.Control measures should. be taken to prevent wastesescaping into freshwater aquifers. Continuoushydrogeological surveys should be carried out in theplanning stage and during construction. These should serveas a basis for authorization. Permits should specify, interalia, restrictions on the operation programme, emergencyprocedures in the event of malfunction, as well asmonitoring and abandonment procedures for deep wells.

XII. 'YELLS Al'\D BOREHOLES

Drilling and sinking of wells and boreholes should as arule be carried out by qualified and properly skilledpersonnel and with appropriate equipment. Prior noticeshould be given to competent authorities for drilling,sinking, constructing, enlarging, altering, sealing andrepairing wells or boreholes and, once work is terminated, areport on the work accomplished should be filed. Provisionsmight be made for exemptions following precise rules in thecase of small and shallow wells. Systematic control shouldbe carried out over the technical status of operation,exploring and monitoring wells, in order to prevent theintrusion into aquifers of polluting substances from the landsurface and the mixing of various water layers throughdrilling of wells.

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XIII. J\10~ITORING A~D CONTROL

1. Monitoring programmes for ground-water protectionshould be set up and applied. These programmes shouldinclude monitoring at the source of potential pollution whichcould pose a serious or chronic threat to an aquifer. Thereshould be regular inspections to ensure compliance withprotection requirements imposed. Attention should also bepaid to the monitoring of ground-water quality changesbrought about by air-borne pollution.

2. Systematic monitoring should be carried out for allaquifers found to be vulnerable to pollution and/or over-use,as well as for those whose particular importance has beenrecognized for public water supply, mineral water supplyand industry.

3. Monitoring and control should be considered a public­service activity. Facilities should be set up for co-ordinatingthe assessment and availability of monitoring data and in­formation on aquifers. The resulting collections of datashould be related to information on ground-water quantityand quality characteristics of aquifers as well as details oftheir location, use,and exposure to various impacts fromland uses such as agriculture, industry and urban develop­ment. Information should be readily available to those in­terested.

4. The data from monitoring should make it possible, interalia, to revise periodically plans and forecasts of ground­water use, taking into account actual evolution of aquifers,and to determine measures necessary to ensure the sustain­able use of ground-water resources in the long term. Legis­lative provisions and regulations should, as appropriate,allow for the revision of protection requirements imposeddepending on the measures thus determined.

5. Monitoring programmes should be periodically reviewedto ensure that they are achieving their stated aims and thatthe results have been used effectively.

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XIV. IMPACT ASSESSMENT

1. All projects in any economic sector expected to affectaquifers adversely should be subject to an assessmentprocedure aiming at evaluating the project's possible impacton the water regime and/or the quality of ,ground-waterresources, with particular attention to the important roleground water plays in the ecological system. Impactassessment surveys should continue during the constructionand operation phases of a project, in order to keep underreview any adverse impacts on ground-water resourcesbefore, during and after human interventions.

2. Impact assessments should be undertaken at an earlystage of project planning and should be systematicallyapplied to the different alternatives considered in a projectstudy. Results of impact assessment procedures should dulybe taken into account in decision making. Systematicmonitoring of project realization by competent authoritiesshould ensure compliance with conditions of ground-waterprotection.

XV. INVENTORIES

Inventories of all ground-water aquifers should be made,including data on their quantitative and qualitativecharacteristics, and their vulnerability to over-exploitationand pollution. The evaluation should include data on thepresent situation and future prospects with regard to aquiferuse.

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XVI. PLANNING AND FORECASTING

I. Special attention should be accorded to the applicationof planning tools and forecastihg methods when managingground waters and protecting aquifers against pollution andover-use. Programmes for continuous assessment of boththe quality and quantity of ground water should beimplemented, particularly for those aquifers vulnerable toor threatened by pollution or over-exploitation.

2. In the planning procedures, prospective studies andforecasts - both in terms of water quantity and quality - offuture ground-water demands, use, consumption, dischargeand environmental stress should not only be anextrapolation of past trends but should also take intoaccount the anticipated effect of applied or foreseen controlmeasures, economic incentives and other managerialinstruments for ground-water protection. Objectives ofplanning, and in particular long-term planning, should notonly serve the purpose of exploitation and utilization ofground-water resources but - to an increasing extent - shouldserve their protection. Planning should among otherelements seek to include quality-forecasts of ground-waterresources for appropriate time horizons, taking into accountpotential pollutants already in the ground and which wouldeventually contaminate ground water long after strictpollution-control measures had become effective.

3. Ground-water models should be built so thatmulti-variant/multiple forecasts can be made of theground-water regime, particularly for aquifers at risk.

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XVII. LAND-USE I)OLICIES

1. Land-use policies should take duly into account theexigencies of natural recharge and protection of groundwater against pollution and over-exploitation.Co-ordination between the various responsible authoritiesshould be promoted. The general application of land-useplans, where appropriate, can be an effective measure in thisconnection.

2. A co-ordinated approach to ground-water managementand land-use control may call for negotiation procedures.Land-use policies should be co-ordinated with other relevantpolicies of integrated water management such assurface-water and ground-water management policies.Water managers should be involved in land-use planningalready at an early stage of development processes. In areaswhere aquifers are unique, endangered or already impaired,ground-water protection strategies should carry decisiveweight in land-use planning and control.

3. Aquifers should be designated critical when alreadyheavily endangered or impaired by pollution or over-use.To avoid further degradation and to make possible theirrestoration, appropriate measures should be taken whichcould include changes in land-use patterns and relatedrights.

4. Sites of waste disposal and places where activities mayresult in contamination of land should be appropriatelyrestored.

5. Increased attention should be paid to enhancing naturalrecharge of aq uifers.

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XVIII. PROTECTION ZONES

1. Where compatible with national legislation, ground-waterprotection zones should be established over and above thegeneral protection of ground waters through relevant legalprovisions, as a preventive measure protecting acquifersaround present and future abstraction sites and in rechargeareas where aquifers are vulnerable. Compliance with theprescribed restrictions should be strictly controlled.

2. Protection zones could be divided into different classeswith differentiated restrictions on land-use and water-usegraduated according to environmental considerations andthe relative importance of the underlying aquifer. In thisrespect, particular consideration should be given to theestablishment of well-head protection areas. Necessarymeasures should be taken to minimize the risks of accidentalor diffuse pollution in protection zones.

3. Restrictions and/or prohibitions on land-use activitiesshould include mining and industrial processes,manufacturing, intensive farming, including the applicationof fertilizers and pesticides on agricultural land,transportation, waste disposal and treatment as well asstorage of dangerous substances.

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XIX. POLLUTION FRO;\,( AGRICULTURE

1. Advice, recommendations, codes of good agriculturalpractice, legislation, regulations or economic measuresshould be applied to keep under control the widespread useof fertilizers and any chemicals in agriculture havingpotential effects on ground water. Policies applied throughsuch measures should take into account the general diffusenature of such pollution as well as the often considerabletime-lag in the transfer of polluting substances to aquifers.These policies should, therefore, promote the application ofpreventive measures. To that end, all appropriate measuresmentioned above should also be implemented to encourageand to promote the rational application of industrialfertilizers, manures, crop-protection products and pesticides.Restrictive measures with penalties for non-complianceshould be adopted in particular for the protection ofvulnerable aquifers and for protection zones.

2. In order to promote the rational use of agriculturalinputs, appropriate measures or a combination of themshould be taken, wherever deemed necessary, e.g. theestablishment of contractual arrangements betweenprofessional agricultural organizations and waterauthorities; restrictive measures of a legal, regulatory oreconomic character taking into account socio-economicconstraints and environmental conditions prevailing in eachcountry or region.

3. Appropriate measures for controlled use of manure couldbe, for instance: limiting the operation of intensivelarge-scale livestock farming to sites where sufficient land isavailable for correct application and use of manure andslurry; making available large tracts of arable land throughco-operative agreement between crop-farmers and livestockfarmers, if necessary transporting manure over longerdistances to croplands. If in a particular region manure isproduced in excess of that needed for plant growth,

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transport to regions which are deficient should be consideredas a solution (manure banks). Conditioning of wastes forstabilization arid sale as well as treatment of manure withrecuperation of by-products (fertilizers) could also beconsidered. Manure-application control measures may alsoinclude: regulations including dosage and timing; volumeincrease of manure storage tanks; designing and usingbetter equipment for manure spraying.

4. Strict licensing procedures should be introduced for themanufacture and distribution of crop-protection productsand pesticides. Their use and application, however, isdifficult to regulate. Recommendations should neverthelessbe made with regard to their dosage, conditions of use,periodicity of application, precautions to be taken, etc. Thisadvice may be included in information campaigns forfarmers.

XX. POLLUTION FROM URBAN A~D INDUSTRIAL SOURCES

1. Measures should be taken to control pollution associatedwith surface run-off from paved impermeable areas (e.g.streets) and with leakage from industry, transport, seweragesystems and treatment plants. Polluted surface run-offshould be properly treated especially where vulnerableaquifers could be affected.

2. Sites of unauthorized waste disposal and othercontaminated areas should be identified and adequatelyrestored.

3. Leakage and spillage of contaminants from industries,transport, sewerage systems and waste-water treatmentplants should be prevented through appropriate design aswell as efficient maintenance and supervision includingleakage tests. Detection of leakage from pipelines, storagetanks and other industrial facilities should be improved byappropriate inspection procedures.

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XXI. CO~TROL OF i\llNING ACTIVITIES

1. Dewatering of mines should be kept under control so asto minimize the adverse effects on the water regime, preventdepletion or pollution of nearby aquifers and infiltration oflow-quality water. Special attention should Qe paid to thedisposal of mining wastes so that they do not put at risk thequality of ground water. When mines are closed down theyshould be properly sealed off parallel to the abandoned wellsand waste dumps. Vegetation on them should bere-esta blished.

2. In planning and operating in situ conversion of coal intonatural gas or fluids, strict safety measures should bedesigned and applied to avoid ground-water pollutioninduced by processing gases or liquids. This should be donein order to prevent leaching of minerals from reaction zonesafter mining, or to bar solvents, sulphur and phenol-richfluids from reaching the ground water. Sites of any kind ofwaste, in particular tailings. ponds for wastes from oil-sandarid oil-shale extraction, as well as coal and metal miningshould be sealed off against their contaminating groundwater.

XXII. HEAT PUMPS

Water authorities should specify criteria for the location,operation, maintenance and closing down of heat pumpsand other installations likely to use significant quantities ofsubstances with potential to pollute ground water, e.g.dielectrics, and should draw up guidelines on relatedground-water protection measures. Specific requirementsshould be set for a cooling agent and other chemicals used.Further restriction or even prohibition may be necessary inground-water protection zones.

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XXIII. RESEARCH

Research programmes should be intensified in order toimprove knowledge of:

(a) hydrodynamics in aquifers;

(b) transportation, fixation and leaching processes ofpollutants as well as cumulative phenomena of chemicalcompounds in the subsoil, in both saturated andunsaturated zones and even in deep-lying aquifers;

(c) appropriate technical measures which prevent, or atleast reduce substantially. the transfer of undesirablesubstances from human activities into ground watersand/or related surface waters;

(d) elaboration of guidelines and technologies with regardto the prevention of ground-water pollution fromagriculture;

(e) economical and effective clean-up methods for pollutedsoils and aquifers; and

(I) development and calibration of representativeground-water models. International co-operation aimingat the exchange of experience and views and/or join t orco-ordinated research programmes in these fields shouldbe encouraged.

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XXIV. EDUCATION Ai'\D I~FORMATION

I. Education and information should promote greaterawareness of the inherent ground-water problems at alllevels) contributing to efficient implementation of themeasures taken.

2. Every effort should be made to raise the level ofknowledge of the public, in general, and of water users, inparticular, as regards the nature, behaviour andvulnerability of ground-water resources. To this end, publicinformation, education and training programmes should beencouraged.

3. Active participation of all parties concerned with themanagement and use of ground water should be promoted,with a view, inter alia, to achieving public acceptance oflegal and administrative measures which could restrict thefreedom of individual water users, in order to avert possiblehazards in the case of misuse. Such knowledge shouldforestall resistance or outright opposition to theimplementation of sound policies for ground-watermanagement.

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xxv. f.\TERNATIO;\;AL CO-OPERATION

1. Concerted endeavours to strengthen internationalco-operation for harmonious development, equitable use andjoint conservation of ground-water resources locatedbeneath national boundaries should be intensified. To thisend, existing or new bilateral or multilateral agreements orother legally binding arrangements should be supplemented,if necessary, or concluded in order to place on a firmer basisco-operative efforts among countries for the protection ofthose ground-water resources which can be affected byneighbouring countries through exploitation or pollution. Inorder to implement such co-operation, joint commissions orother intergovernmental bodies should be established. Thework of other international organizations, particularly ondata harmonization, should be taken into account.

2. Co-operative arrangements could include: datacollection, standardization and exchange; establishment ofjoint inventories; research and training; planning anddemand-management; joint control and monitoring ofactivities with regard to quantitative and qualitative aspectsof ground-water protection; elaboration of compatiblemonitoring methods, standards and permits; establishmentof adjacent protection zones; establishment of commonlyagreed land-use plans and practices; monitoring of surface­and ground-water resources' behaviour andinterdependence; and the obligation to give notificationconcerning any activity which might modify the volumeand/or the quality of ground water.

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