chemical in workplace

SALAM SEJAHTERAUNTUK KITA SEMUA

GOD BLESS YOU ALL

CHEMICALS IN THE WORKPLACE

IPCS International Programmeon Chemical Safety

• Chemicals have improved the quality of life.• Agrochemicals in the form of pesticides and

fertilizers have greatly increased food production.

• New drugs are constantly entering the market for the treatment of heart disease.

Today, in virtually every workplace, workers are exposed to chemicals.

Chemicals such as solvents are used for cleaning and degreasing, mixing paints and varnishes, and diluting chemical fire and explosion hazards; concentrated compounds and mixtures.

Gases and vapors are employed in industrial operations such as welding and refrigeration, or in a variety of chemical processes. Gases are also used as anesthetic agents in hospitals.

Laboratories in schools, universities, research institutions, government agencies and private enterprises make use of a variety of chemicals in both large and small quantities.

In agriculture, workers may be exposed to chemical-based products such as fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides. Many chemical-based pesticides are used for controlling insect-borne diseases such as malaria.

Even in today's modern office, one may find a variety of different chemicals.

However, certain chemical substances can both harm and kill.

Chemicals alone in concentration, or when mixed with other chemical substances, can cause injury, disease

or death.

The misuse of chemical substances may also result in fires and explosions.

It is imperative that everyone who could potentially come into contact with chemicals should know and understand the risks, and the methods available for reducing them.

We must have gold and silver, also other metals, iron, tin, copper, lead and mercury. If we wish to have these, we must risk both life and body in a struggle with many (Paracelcus, 1493-1541).

All substances are poisons; There is none which is not a poison; The right dose differentiate a poison from a remedy.(Paracelcus, 1493-1541)

Toxicology is the science that studies the poisonous, or toxic properties of substances. Everyone is exposed on and off the job to a variety of chemical substances; most are not hazardous under ordinary circumstances, but they all have the potential to cause injury at some concentrations.

Environmental toxicology is the study of the effects of toxic substances in relation to the environment in which they occur.

It should not be confused with ecotoxicology, which is the study of the toxic effects of chemical and physical agents on all living organisms, especially on population and communities within defined ecosystems.

A poison is generally considered to be any substance that can cause severe injury or death as a result of a physicochemical interaction with living tissue.

All substances are potential poisons since all of them can cause injury

of death following excessive exposure.

The term poison tends to be limited to those substances of high toxicity and lethality, the ability to kill at relatively small exposure.

A more general term for potentially toxic substances is “toxicant”.

The related term “toxin” should be restricted to a poisonous substance produced by a organism such as a microorganism such as a microbe, animal or plant.

Ecology is the study of the relationships between living organisms and between organisms and their environment, especially animal and plant communities, their energy flows and their interactions with their surroundings.

• The ecosystem embraces the food chain through which energy flows together with the biological cycles necessary for the recycling of essential nutrients.

• Thus, an ecosystem has the means of producing both energy and materials for life going on continuously.

Greenhouse Effects

As these gases are transparent to solar radiation, the short-wave incoming radiation

is transmitted. They are opaque to long-wave ray-

radiation from the earth’s surface or from any other objects underneath, thus heat is trapped and the underlying surface thereby warmed.

Greenhouse Effects

The mechanism whereby incoming solar

radiation is trapped by a glass sheet or the presence of carbon dioxide and other

greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.

Greenhouse Effects

The best estimates by the UN panel onclimate change (1990) for temperaturechanges by 2030 are :• Central North America : increased

temperature between 2 to 4 oC in winter and 2 to 3 oC in summer.

Greenhouse Effects

• South-East Asia : warming between 1 and 2 oC throughout the year.

• Australia : up 1-2 oC in summer and 2 oC up in winter.

• Sahel (area south of Sahara) : up between 1 and 3 oC generally.

Greenhouse Gases

This term links all gases together, although some components are much more damaging than others, e.g. a molecule of methane is ca. (circa = kira-kira) 30 times more powerful in “greenhouse” terms than a molecule of carbon dioxide and CFCs are estimated to be up to 10.000 times more powerful than CO2.

Greenhouse Gases

The best estimate of the relative contributions to the greenhouse effect of these gases is that carbon dioxide is the greatest single contributor (50 per cent), CFCs 15 per cent, methane 20 percent, ozone (O3) 10 percent, water vapor and nitrous oxide (N2O) 5 per cent.

Health Hazards A great deal of attention in recent

years has been focused on the effects of exposure to chemicals on the health of workers.

Many chemicals which were once regarded as safe have been found to be associated with diseases ranging from mild skin rashes to chronic health impairment and fatal cancers.

Although much has been learned about chemical toxicity from the study of diseases in laboratories and elsewhere, there are far too many chemicals used in the workplace today whose harmful effects are still unknown. It is therefore essential to treat all chemicals with care.

Chemicals are a part of everyone's life. At least 400 million tonnes of chemicals are produced each year worldwide and at least 1,200 new chemicals are developed each year in North America alone. For the majority of chemicals used and developed, there is no information about their possible immediate or long-term health effects, yet workers are still required to work with potentially toxic substances.

In many countries, chemicals are dumped

into the environment, often with serious human and environmental consequences. The laws about chemical disposal in other countries are strict, to protect both people and the environment.

Nearly all workers today are exposed to some sort of chemical hazard since chemicals are used in every type of industry.

Therefore it is important to learn as much as possible about the chemicals you work with.

Chemical : chemical elements and compounds, in and mixtures of them, whether natural or synthetic.

Poisoning : normally the human body is able to cope with a variety of substances, within certain limits.

Poisoning occurs when these limits are exceeded and the body is unable to the deal with a substance (by digestion, absorption or excretion).

Industrial Chemicals There are a variety of chemicals that are

commonly used in industry. Industrial chemicals can be described in a

number of ways, for example by their effect on the worker (whether the chemical is corrosive or causes dermatitis, etc.), or by the physical form of the chemical (that is, whether it is a dust, fume, vapor, gas, etc.).

Solids Solids are the least likely of the

chemical forms to cause chemical poisoning.

However, certain chemical solids can cause poisoning if they get onto your skin or food and you then ingest them. Personal hygiene is important to prevent the ingestion of chemical solids.

Solids The greatest danger with solids is

that some work processes can change them into a more dangerous form.

For example, wood that is being cut can turn into wood dust which can then be inhaled.

Solids Welding rods can decompose into

fumes and gases. Polyurethane foam is safe in its normal solid form but gives off deadly gases if it burns.

Chemicals in solid form can give off toxic vapors which can be inhaled, and solids can be flammable and explosive, and corrosive to the skin.

Dusts Dusts are tiny particles of solids. You can be exposed to dust in the

workplace from materials that normally exist in dust form (for example, bags of cement), or from work processes that create dust (for example, handling glass fiber can produce toxic dust).

The main danger from harmful dusts is that you can breathe (inhale) them into your lungs.

Dusts • When breathed in, the larger dust

particles are usually trapped by hairs and mucus and then removed by the body.

• Smaller particles, however, are more dangerous because they can get deep inside the lungs where they can have damaging effects, or they can be absorbed into the bloodstream and travel to other parts of the body where they can cause damage.

Chemicals can change their physical form, e.g. wood into sawdust

Chemicals that are dumped into the environment can cause serious humanand environmental problems

Dust in the workplace should be kept at or below “safe” levels. If you must wear a mask, be sure it is the correct type for the particular hazard.

Mists and Vapors are Often Invisible

Liquid Many liquid chemicals give off

vapors which you can inhale and which may be highly toxic, depending on the chemical.

Liquid chemicals can be absorbed by your skin. Some liquid chemicals may cause immediate skin damage (they may or may not be absorbed into the bloodstream as well).

Liquid Other liquids pass directly through

the skin into the bloodstream, where they can travel to different parts of the body and cause damaging effects.

Effective control measures should be used with liquid chemicals to eliminate or reduce the possibility of inhalation, skin exposure and eye damage.

Vapors A vapor is the gas phase of a material

which is normally liquid under standard conditions.

Tiny droplets of liquid which are suspended in the air are called mists.

Many liquid chemicals evaporate at room temperature, which actually means that they form a vapor and stay in the air.

The vapors from some chemicals can irritate your eyes and skin.

Vapors Vapors can be flammable or

explosive. To avoid fire or explosion, it is

important to keep chemicals that vaporize away from any sparks, sources of ignition or incompatible chemicals.

Gasoline and water are two examples of liquids which generate vapor under standard conditions.

Gases Some chemical substances are in the form

of a gas when they are at a normal temperature. However, some chemicals in liquid or solid form become gases when they are heated.

You can detect some gases easily by their color or smell, but there are other gases that you cannot see or smell at all — you can only detect them with special equipment.

Gases Some gases produce irritant

effects immediately. The health effects of other gases

may be noticeable only after your health has already been seriously damaged.

Definitions• Toxicity : the inherent potential of a

chemical substance to cause poisoning. • The toxicity of chemicals varies widely. For

example, a few drops of a given chemical will cause death while. other chemicals will produce the same effect only after a large quantity has been consumed.

• Hazard : a potential to cause danger to life, health property or the environment.

Definitions Chemical hazard: any chemical

that has been classified as hazardous or for which relevant information exists to indicate that it is hazardous.

Risk : the measured probability of an event to cause danger to life, health, property or the environment.

LD50 (Lethal Dose 50%)

• LD50 is an abbreviation for “Lethal Dose

50%”. • It is sometimes also referred to as the “Median Lethal Dose”.• Although the LD50 is no longer the

only measure available for assessing the acute toxicity of single dose of a substance, for historical reasons it is probably still the most commonly cited measure.

The LD50 for a particular substance is essentially the amount that can be expected to cause death in half (i.e. 50%) of a group of some particular animal species, usually rats or mice, when entering the animal’s body by a particular route.

For example, if the substance is swallowed

the figure is an “oral LD50” whereas if it is

absorbed through the skin it’s a “dermal LD50”.

Acute LD50 Values For A Variety of Chemical Agents

1. Ethanol

2. Sodium chloride

3. Ferrous sulfate

4. DDT5. Nicotine6. Dioxin (TCDD)7. Botulinum

toxin

10.000 mg/kg BW (mouse)

4000 mg/kg BW (mouse)

1500 mg/kg BW (rat)100 mg/kg BW (rat)1 mg/kg BW (rat)0,001 mg/kg BW (guinea pig)0,00001 mg/kg BW (rat)

Lethal Concentration 50%

The LC(t)50 is similar and widely used measure for acute toxicity by inhalation.The LC(t)50 is essentially the concentration of a substance that can be expected to cause death in half (i.e. 50%) of a group of some particular species when entering the body over the specified period of time.

Lethal Concentration 50%

“LC(t)50“ figures are usually reported as milligrams of the substance per cubic meter (or liter) of the atmosphere to which the animal is exposed for the specified time [t].Generally, no account is taken of body weight when comparing values for different species.

Toxicity ClassesToxicity Rating

Descriptive Term

LD50 wt/kg Single Oral Dose in Rats

4-hr Inhalation LC50 in Rats (ppm)

Extrapolated Dose (g) for 70-kg Human

1

23

45

6

Extremely toxicHighly toxicModerately toxicSlightly toxicPractically nontoxicRelativelyharmless

≤ 1mg

1-50 mg 50-500 mg

0.5-5 g5-15 g

≥ 15 g

< 10

10-100100-1,000

1,000-10,00010.000-100.000

> 100.000

< 0.07

0.07-3.53.5-35

35-350350-1000

>1000

Lethal Dose 50

0100020003000400050006000700080009000

10000

Oral Dermal

NicotineChlorpyrifosDiazinionChlordaneFenvalerateCarbarylMalathionPermethrinMethoprene

The EPA Guidelines For Acute Toxicity

Toxicity category

Oral LD50mg/kg)

Dermal LD50 (mg/kg)

Inhalation LC50 (ppm)

I DANGER POISON

Less than/equal to 50



II WARNING 50-500 200-2000 200-2000

III CAUTION 500-5000 2000-20.000 2000-20.000

IV caution > 5000 > 20.000 > 20.000

Threshold Concept A threshold is a point at which a

physiological effect begins to occur. A small amount of most chemical is not harmful. As the dose increases, there is a point at which the first measurable effect is noted.

As the dose continually increases, there is a point at which the effect may be lethal. In other words, the dose makes the poison. In large enough quantities, even harmless substances, like water, can be harmful.

Threshold Limit Values

The ACGIH has established guidelines for exposure to airborne contaminants.

These guidelines are widely accepted and updated annually. The TLV of an airborne chemical

represents the concentration of that chemical below which there is thought to be no significant adverse effect on most workers.

Not every chemical will have a TLV.

Threshold Limit Values

ACGIH TLVs are based solely on health factors; there is no consideration given to economic and technical feasibility.

ACGIH TLVs should not be adopted as standards without an analysis of other factors necessary to make appropriate risk management decisions.

TLVs refers to airborne concentrations of chemical substances and represent conditions under which it is believed that nearly all workers may be repeatedly exposed, day after day, over a working lifetime, without adverse health effects. TLVs are developed to protect workers who are normal, healthy adults.

TLVs Because of wide variation of individual

susceptibility, however, a small percentage of workers may experience discomfort for some substances at concentrations at or below the threshold limits;

A smaller percentage may be affected more seriously by aggravation of a pre-existing condition or by development of an occupational illness.

Threshold Limit Values These limits are intended for use in the

practice of industrial hygiene as guidelines or recommendation in the control of

potential health hazard, and for no other use, for

examples: a. In the evaluation or control of community

air pollution nuisance.b. In estimating the toxic potential of

continuous or uninterrupted exposures and other

extended work periods.

TLV (Continued)c. Adoption or use by countries whose working

conditions and cultures differ from those in the USA and where substances and processes differ.

d. These limits are not fine lines between safe and dangerous concentrations nor are they a relative index of toxicity. They should not be used by anyone untrained in the discipline of industrial hygiene.

e. As a proof or disproof of an existing disease or physical condition.

STEL is a short-term TWA exposure to which workers can be continuously exposed for up to 15 minutes, four times in one hour of exposure’s ranges without suffering from irritation, chronic or irreversible tissue damage, or narcosis of sufficient degree to increase the likelihood of accident or injury.

Short-Term Exposure Limit

Ceiling (C)This is the concentration that should not be exceeded during any part of the work day or the concentration that should not be exceeded even instantaneously.

TLVs For Mixtures

• Most threshold limit values are developed for a single chemical substance.

• However, the work environment is often composed of multiple chemical exposure both simultaneously and sequentially.

TLVs For Mixtures

It is recommended that multiple exposures that comprise such work environment be examined to assure that workers do not experience harmful effects.

TLVs For Mixtures

There are several possible mode of chemical mixture interaction.

Additivity occurs when the combined biological effect of the components is equal to the sum of each of the agents given alone.

TLVs For Mixtures

Synergy occurs where the combined effect is greater than the sum of each agent.

Antagonism occurs when the combined effect is less.

TLVs For Mixtures

When two or more hazardous substances have a similar toxicological effect on the same target organ or system, their combined effect, rather than that of either individually, should be given primary consideration.

In the absence of information to the contrary, different substances should be considered as additive where the health effect and target organ or system is the same.

TLVs For Mixtures

If the sum of :C1/T1 + C2/T2 + ……. Cn/Tn exceeds unity, the threshold limit of the mixture should be considered as being exceeded (where C1 indicates the observed atmospheric concentration and T1 is the corresponding threshold limit).

Points to Remember

Industrial chemicals can be described by their effect on the worker or by the physical form of the chemical.

Chemicals can enter the body by inhalation, ingestion, or skin absorption.

Points to Remember Toxic chemicals can cause a variety of harmful

effects on different parts of the body, including acute, local, chronic and systemic effects.

There are a number of factors that determine the type of toxic effect a chemical can have on you, including the form of the chemical, route of entry, and individual response to the chemical.

Points to Remember Workers may show different physiological responses to industrial chemicals. Union strategies for protecting

workers against chemical hazards should try to create a safe working environment for all workers, whether they are male, female, “vulnerable”, women of childbearing age, etc.

Points to Remember

Regular medical examinations should never be used to eliminate “vulnerable” workers from jobs.

Exposure to toxic substances in the workplace can also lead to higher accident rates. It is important to learn about the substances you work with, make sure the proper control measures are in place, and to know your rights.

Exposure to Toxic Chemicals and Accidents

Exposure to toxic chemicals can also lead to higher rates of accidents at work.

For example, chemicals such as solvents and asphyxiants may slow your reaction time by affecting your nervous system or limiting the amount of oxygen that gets to your lungs.

A slow reaction can be very serious (or even fatal) if you are in a dangerous situation that requires an immediate response.

Exposure to Toxic Chemicals and Accidents

Continued…….Unfortunately, when accidents occur in theworkplace, management often blames theworker, claiming he or she was careless.

Exposure to toxic chemicals and accidents

This tendency to “blame the victim” is yet another reason to learn about the substances you work with, to make sure the proper control measures are in place, and to know your rights!

Exposure to toxic chemicals can also lead to higher rates of accidents at work.

For example, chemicals such as solvents and asphyxiants may slow your reaction.

Working around chemicals without the proper protections in place can lead to

serious accidents

Effects of chemicals on the environment

Many employers do not dispose of chemical wastes safely

Chemical Waste

Many employers are not aware of the hazards associated with toxic chemicals and often do not know how to dispose of chemical wastes safely. (Employers also need to be educated about chemical hazards.)

Chemical Waste

As a result, these employers often simply “dump” waste chemicals into the environment.

Convenient dumping grounds are the ocean, rivers, lakes, fields, roadsides, etc.

Sometimes these dumping grounds are right in the community where you and your family live and work.

Chemical Waste

Toxic chemicals which are improperly disposed of may eventually end up in your drinking water, in the places where your children play, in the soil where your food is grown, etc.

In reality, every country is struggling today with the problem of chemical waste and how to dispose of it permanently yet safely.

Chemical Waste

The best solution to date is to use specially approved and well-maintained disposal sites that prevent chemicals from leaking into groundwater and into residential or farming areas.

Dumping chemicals into the ocean is never a solution.

In fact ocean dumping can have very serious effects - chemicals can get into the food chain, destroy marine life, wash back to shore, etc.

Your family can be exposed to your workplace hazards if you bring chemicals or other workplace contaminants home with you on your clothes, hair or skin.

To prevent this “spreading the hazard”, if possible wash/shower and change your clothes when necessary before you leave work.

Leave your dirty clothes at work or, if you must wash them at home, wash them separately ---never with the family wash!

Although you may think that the amount of contaminant you can bring home on your clothes or skin is very small and cannot hurt your family, in fact, a small exposure every day for months can add up to a big exposure and can lead to serious illness.

Points to Remember

The physical form of a chemical can affect how it enters your body and, to some extent, the damage it causes. The main physical forms of toxic chemicals are: solids, dusts, liquids, vapors and gases.

Points to Remember

Solids are the least likely of the chemical forms to cause chemical poisoning. However, certain chemical solids can cause poisoning if they are ingested.

Personal hygiene is important to prevent the ingestion of chemical solids. Some chemicals in solid form can give off toxic dusts or vapors which can be inhaled.

Effective control measures should be used with chemical solids, especially during work processes that may change them into more hazardous forms.

Points to Remember

You can be exposed to occupational dust from materials that normally exist in dust form or from work processes that create dust.

The main danger from harmful dusts is that you can inhale them.

Once inside your body, dusts can produce a variety of serious health problems. Under certain conditions dusts can also explode. Effective control measures should be used to keep occupational dusts at “safe” levels.

Points to Remember Some liquid chemicals give off

vapors which you can inhale and which may be highly toxic, depending on the chemical.

Liquid chemicals can be absorbed by your skin. They can also cause burns or eye damage due to eye splashes.

Points to Remember If absorbed, chemicals can cause

skin damage and/or internal (systemic) health effects.

Effective control measures should be used with liquid chemicals to eliminate or reduce the possibility of inhalation and skin exposure.

Points to Remember Vapors are tiny droplets of liquid

suspended in the air. Vapors can be inhaled and, depending on the chemical, can be highly toxic.

Some vapors irritate the eyes and skin. Certain vapors are flammable or explosive.

Control measures should be used to prevent workers from being exposed to vapors from liquids, solids or other chemical forms.

Points to Remember Some chemicals are in the form of a

gas when they are at a normal temperature. However, some liquids and solids become gases when they are heated.

Some gases have strong odors or colors while others are odorless and colorless (and can be highly toxic). Gases can be inhaled.

Points to Remember Certain gases can produce

immediate irritant effects, while others produce noticeable effects only after serious damage to your health has already occurred.

Gases can be flammable or explosive.

Points to Remember Many employers are not aware of the

hazards associated with toxic chemicals and often do not know how to dispose of chemical wastes safely — employers also need to be educated about chemical hazards.

Employers often “dump” waste chemicals into the environment. Chemicals that are improperly disposed of may eventually get into your drinking water and your food.

Points to Remember

Chemical wastes should only be disposed of in approved and well-maintained disposal sites.

To prevent bringing workplace chemicals home to your family, wash/shower and change your clothes when necessary before you leave work. Leave your dirty clothes at work. If you must wash them at home, wash them separately — never with the family wash !

How Can You Identify Health and Safety Problems ?

Here are some of the ways you can identify

health and safety problems: Observe your workplace; Investigate complaints from workers; Examine accident and near-miss

records; Examine sickness figures;

How Can You Identify Health and Safety Problems?

Use simple surveys to ask your co-workers about their health and safety concerns;

Use check-lists to help you inspect your workplace;

Learn the results of inspections that are done by the employer, the union or anyone else;

Read reports or other information about your workplace.

Routes Of Entry

Chemicals can enter the body (routes of entry) by : Inhalation through the lungs Absorption through the skin Ingestion through the mouth

Certain substances irritate the mucous membrane of the upper respiratory tract and respiratory passages within the lungs.

This irritation may serve as a warning of the presence of chemicals.

However, certain gases or vapors do not have this effect.

Unnoticed by the workers, they penetrate deeply into the lungs causing lung injury, or become transported in the bloodstream.

Respiratory System

Respiratory System

The hairs in your nose trap large dust particles.

You can see how effective this natural filter is by blowing your nose after working in a dusty or smoke-filled environment.

Respiratory System

Your body's respiratory system has very effective mechanisms for filtering out normal pollutants from the air you breathe.

Filtering systems in the nose and mouth (for example, the hairs in the nose, the mucus in the mouth and lungs) prevent large foreign particles (like coarse dust) from traveling down into your lungs where they can have damaging effects.

Respiratory System

The air passageways are lined with tiny hairlike structures (cilia).

These structures are part of the clearing mechanism of the lungs which causes foreign particles, deposited on the surfaces of the respiratory passages within the lungs to be carried by mucus towards the throat.

Respiratory System

It is estimated that 2 liters of mucus flow to the throat each day.

During breathing, airborne chemicals enter the nostrils or mouth, pass through the air passageways and finally reach the gas exchange area where they are either deposited or pass through the wall of the area into the bloodstream.

Respiratory System

Certain substances irritate the mucous membrane of the upper respiratory tract and respiratory passages within the lungs.

This irritation may serve as a warning of the presence of chemicals.

However, certain gases or vapors do not have this effect.

Unnoticed by the workers, they penetrate deeply into the lungs causing lung injury, or become transported in the bloodstream.

Filtering Mechanisms

Generally, large dust particles (including fibers) can be filtered out of the respiratory system.

But small dust particles are difficult to eliminate and can reach the deepest parts of the lungs where they can cause serious local respiratory problems.


When the lungs are exposed to high concentrations of dust, toxic vapors, cigarette smoke, etc. (high amounts of the pollutant in the air), the filtering mechanisms can become overloaded and damaged.

Once they are damaged, various bacteria, viruses, etc. are more likely to grow in the lungs, causing infections such as pneumonia.


That is why workers in dusty occupations (bauxite and coalminers, sugar factory and asbestos workers, flour mill workers, furniture makers, etc.) are known to be more susceptible (open) to tuberculosis, bronchitis and other respiratory diseases than workers in non-dusty occupations

The entry of dust particles into the body depends on their size and solubility.

Only small particles (less than seven thousandths of a millimeter in diameter) will be able to reach the gas exchange area.

This respirable dust (which reaches the gas exchange area) will either be deposited there or diffused into the bloodstream, depending on the solubility of the chemicals.

Insoluble dust particles are mostly eliminated by the clearing mechanisms of the lungs.

Inhalation

The larger dust particles are filtered by the hairs of the nostrils or deposited along the path from the nose to the air passageways.

They will eventually be transported to the throat where they will be either swallowed, or spat or coughed out.

Extreme care must be taken because chemicals in the form of vapor, fumes, dust or gas can easily enter the body through breathing.

Inhalation

Inhalation

Insoluble dust particles are mostly eliminated by the clearing mechanisms of the lungs.

The larger dust particles are filtered by the hairs of the nostrils or deposited along the path from the nose to the air passageways.

They will eventually be transported to the throat where they will be either swallowed, or spat or coughed out.

Inhalation In industry, inhalation is the most

significant route of entry. The respiratory system represents an efficient entry point for chemicals.

With a total surface area of the lungs of 90 square meters in a healthy adult, a worker performing a moderate task inhales about 8.5 cubic meters of air in the course of an eight-hour shift.

Inhalation

The respiratory system consists essentially of the upper respiratory tract (nose, mouth, throat), the air passageways (trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveolar ducts) and the gas exchange area (alveoli) where oxygen from the air diffuses into the blood and carbon dioxide from the blood diffuses into the air.

Mouth Breathing

Mouth breathing is very common in humans and obviously bypasses the nose, taking aerosols directly into the lungs with some loss on the way of large particles (> 10 um) to the gastro-intestinal tract.

Particles which enter the trachea and larger airways (bronchi and bronchioli) may be deposited in the mucus lining these airways.

Uptake From The Respiratory Tract

Gases which are very water soluble do not reach the alveoli because they dissolve in the water of the mucous membranes with which they first come into contact.

Lipid soluble gases which reach the alveoli may be readily absorbed into the blood through the very thin alveoli epithelium.

Uptake From The Skin

For intact skin, the main barrier to absorption is the epidermis and, in particular, the dead cell layer of the stratum corneum (horny layer), across which movement is by passive diffusion.


Fat soluble substances such as some organophosphate pesticides and polychlorinated organic molecules may cross the skin quite rapidly.

Ions and readily water soluble molecules mostly penetrate the skin slowly by passage through the hair follicles and sebaceous glands.


The thinnest stratum corneum (< 0,01 mm) is found in the eyelids and scrotum and the thickest (1 mm) on the palms of the hands and on the soles of the feet.

Uptake From The Skin However, thickness and resistance to

absorption of toxicants are not necessarily proportional.

The thick horny pads on the hands and soles of the feet are at least as permeable to water and some other substances as the thinner stratum corneum elsewhere in the body.

• Sole of the foot > scrotum > palm of the hand > back of the hand > forehead and scalp > arms, legs, trunk.

The stratum corneum may change with age. Preterm infants may have a skin permeability to chemicals 100 to 1000 times greater than full term infants.

Skin disease may also affect absorption. In general, diseases of the skin seem to

result in increased permeability.


More hazardous agents get into your body by inhalation (by being breathed in) than by any other route.

How do you know whether you are being exposed to respiratory hazards at work?

Your body has several built-in mechanisms which can act as warning signals when hazards are present: smell, sneezing, coughing, a runny nose.

More hazardous agents get into your body by inhalation than by any other route of entry.

Although your body filters many of the normal pollutants from the air you breathe, it cannot eliminate every type of contaminant.

Points To Remember

Small particles are difficult for the body to eliminate and can get deep into the lungs where they can cause respiratory problems.

Workers in dusty occupations are more susceptible to respiratory diseases than workers in non-dusty occupations.

Points To Remember

Chemicals, in their various forms, can be inhaled and damage various target organs as well as the lungs.

It is important to notice warning signals, such as smelling chemical odors.

Points To Remember

It is also important to notice if you stop smelling a chemical odor that you used to smell, you may be “accustomed” or used to the smell and not know that you are being exposed to the chemical.

Points To Remember

Ingestion

Ingestion is another way in which chemical substances can enter the body.

Entry via ingestion is possible when workers eat or smoke with contaminated hands or eat their meals at their workstation where food and drink may be contaminated by vapors in the air.

Ingestion A second way in which chemical

substances are ingested is when inhaled particles are transported to the throat by the air passageways into the lungs, and swallowed.

The digestive system consists of the esophagus, the stomach, and the small and large intestine.

Absorption of food and other substances, including ingested hazardous chemicals, occurs primarily in the small intestine.

Ingestion

It is dangerous to consume food and drink, or to smoke at a workstation where chemicals are used.

The food or drink may be contaminated by dirty hands or even vapors in the air.

Skin Absorption Absorption through the skin constitutes

another route of entry. The thickness of the skin, together with its

natural covering of sweat and grease, provide some protection against chemical exposure.

The solubility of chemicals (such as organic solvents and phenol) in fats enables their absorption through the skin. If the skin is damaged by cuts or abrasions, or is diseased, the chemical would be absorbed into the body even quicker.

Chemical substances that enter the body through inhalation, ingestion or skin absorption will leave the body through the urine.

Others will be excreted unchanged via breathing or urination. These substances may cause damage to internal organs.

Excretion

Concentration And Type Of Exposure

The damage done by a chemical to a specific organ depends in principle on the amount (dose) absorbed.

In the case of inhalation, the dose depends mainly on the concentration of the substance in the air and the duration of the exposure.

Concentration And Type of Exposure

Therefore a short-term exposure to a high-level concentration may result in acute effects (acute poisoning), whereas exposure to a low concentration spread over a long period of time, which would result in the same absorbed amount of the toxic substance, may be tolerated but may result in an even higher cumulative dose resulting in chronic effects.

Combined Effects of Chemicals

Occupational exposure is rarely confined to a single chemical.

The combined chemicals will be stored in tissues or organs, with effect of multiple exposure to chemicals is an area very little being excreted.

Some will be changed for which sufficient information is often lacking.

Combined Effects of

Chemicals

Combined Effects of Chemicals

Because of this lack of information on the combined effects of chemicals, multiple exposure should be avoided or reduced to the lowest possible level.

Hypersusceptible Group

There is great variation in individual response a chemical.

Exposure to a particular dose over a similar time period will induce different responses among different people.

Some may be severely affected and some may be mildly affected, while others may show no apparent effects.

Individual sensitivity may also depend on age, sex and general state of health.

Hypersusceptible Group

Children, for example, will be more sensitive than adults. The unborn fetus may be very susceptible to the risks of chemical substances.

Therefore, in the recognition of potential hazards, individual variation in sensitivity should be taken into account. skin, the eyes and the respiratory tract.

Health Effects

Once toxic chemicals get into your body, they can cause a variety of harmful effects, including immediate (acute) effects or long-term (chronic) effects which may not show up for a number of years after the exposure occurred.

Toxic chemicals can also produce local and systemic effects, depending on the nature of the chemical and the route of exposure

Toxicity LevelExample Toxicity Hazards

Water None(0)

None

Hexil ether Low(1)

Mild skin irritant

Ethyl acrylate Moderate(2-3)

Vapor; irritate eyes and respiratory systemLiquid; irritate skin and eyes

Pentachlorophenol

High(4)

Chronic exposure can cause liver and kidney damage.

Health HazardsDefinition Examples

Irritants Inflame living tissue on contact

Sulfur dioxide

Corrosives Destroy or “eating away” living tissue

Phenol, sulfuric acid, HF, chromic acid, caustic

Sensitizers Cause allergic reaction

Nickel, formaldehyde

Target organ chemicals

Damage specific organ or system

Tetrachloroethylene CNS, liver)

Health Hazards Definition Examples

Reproductive hazardsMutagens

Teratogens

Change genetic information in the sperm or egg

Damage fetus after conception

Lead and PCBs

Cancer Cause or are suspected or are suspected of causing cancer

Vinyl chloride, benzene

Kinds Of Effects

There are a number of factors that determine the

type of toxic effect a chemical can have onyou. These factors include: The chemical composition of the hazardous

substance (certain substances are more harmful than others because of their chemical structure);

The physical form of the chemical (dust, vapor, liquid, etc.);

For the majority of chemicals used in the workplace, little or nothing is known about their immediate or long-term health effects.

Kinds Of Effects

The route of entry by which the chemical gets into the body (chemicals have different routes of entry. Some chemicals can enter the body in more than one way.

Different health effects can occur depending on the route of entry);

Kinds Of Effects

The particular tissues and organs in which the chemical collects or localizes;

The frequency, concentration, and length of exposure; and

The worker's individual response to the chemical, which can vary a great deal from person to person.

Toxic Effects of Industrial Chemicals

Toxic property

Part of body affected

Time scale of appear-ance

Effect Example Effect

Irritant or corrosive

Any, but usually the eyes, lungs and skin

A few minutes to several days

Inflammation, burns and blisters of exposed area. Frequently healed after acute exposure. Chronic exposure may lead to permanent damage.

Ammonia, sulfuric acid, nitrogen oxides, caustic soda

Toxic property


Time scale of appearance


Fibroge-nic

Generally lungs

Years Gradual cumulative loss of lung function leading to disability and death if there is chronic exposure

Bauxite dust, asbestos, bagasse


Toxic property




Carcino-genic

Any organs, but frequently skin, lungs, bladder

Any organs, but frequently skin, lungs, bladder

Cancer in affected organ or tissue. Ultimately this may cause premature death.

2-Naphthylamine, certain tars and oils, benzidine, asbestos


Toxic property




Allergic Any, but frequently lungs and skin

Days to years

In lungs may lead to chronic asthma-like disease and permanent disability. In skin may produce industrial dermatitis.

Toluene, di-isocyanate (TDI), amine hardeners for epoxy resins.


Toxic property


Time scale of appearance


Asphyxiants Lungs Minutes Gases replace normal oxygen

Acetylene, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, carbon monoxide, HCN, H2S, LPG


• Irritants in the form of mist, gas or vapor will induce a burning sensation when in contact with the upper respiratory tract (nose and throat).

• This is normally caused by soluble substances such as ammonia, formaldehyde, sulfur dioxide, acids and alkalis which are absorbed by the moist lining of the nose and throat.

Irritants

Asphyxiation

Asphyxiation refers to interference with the oxygenation of the body tissues.

There are two types: simple and chemical asphyxiation.

Lack Of Oxygen

Asphyxiants Asphyxiants interfere with oxygenation of the

tissues and the affected individuals may suffocate.

This class is generally divided into simple asphyxiants and chemical asphyxiants.

Simple asphyxiants are physiologically inert gases that dilute or displace atmospheric oxygen below that required to maintain blood levels sufficient for normal tissue respiration.

Asphyxiants Common examples of asphyxiants are

carbon dioxide, ethane, helium, hydrogen, methane and nitrogen.

Asphyxiants deprive the body of the needed oxygen that must be transported from the lungs via the blood stream to the cells.

With complete deprivation of oxygen, brain cells perish in 3-5 minutes.

Total asphyxiation leads to complete absence of oxygen in the blood (anoxia).

Simple Asphyxiation

This refers to a condition whereby oxygen in the air is replaced by an inert gas such as nitrogen, carbon dioxide, ethane, hydrogen or helium to a level where it cannot sustain life.

Simple Asphyxiation

Normal air contains about 21 per cent of oxygen.

If this concentration falls below about 17 per cent, the body tissues will be deprived of their supply of oxygen, causing symptoms such as dizziness, nausea and loss of coordination.

This type of situation may occur in confined workplaces. A further reduction of oxygen may cause unconsciousness and death.

Chemical Asphyxiants

Through their direct action, chemical asphyxiants prevent the uptake of oxygen by the blood, interfere with the transportation of oxygen from the lungs to the tissues, or prevent normal oxygenation of tissues even when the blood is well-oxygenated.

Carbon monoxide prevents oxygen transport by preferentially combining with hemoglobin.


Hydrogen cyanide inhibits enzyme systems, particularly the cytochrome oxidase system necessary for cellular oxygen use.

Hydrogen sulfide paralysis the respiratory center of the brain and the olfactory nerve.

At sufficiently high levels, all three of these chemicals asphyxiants can cause almost instantaneous collapse and unconsciousness.


Concentrations of 0.05 per cent of carbon monoxide in the air may considerably reduce the capacity of the blood to carry oxygen to the various tissues of the body.

Another example is the toxic effect of hydrogen cyanide or hydrogen sulfide.

These substances interfere with the cells' ability to accept oxygen even though the blood is rich in oxygen..

CNS Depressants

CNS depressants (CNSDs) can produce unconsciousness and many of the same symptoms that asphyxiants cause.

They prevent the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) from doing its normal job.

CNSDs exert their principal action by causing simple anesthesia without serious systemic effects, unless the dose is massive.

CNS Depressants

Depending on the concentration, the depth of anesthesia ranges from mild symptoms to complete loss of consciousness and death.

In accidents involving very high concentrations, death may be due to simple asphyxiation.

Narcosis and Anesthesia

Exposure to relatively high concentrations of certain chemicals such as ethyl and propyl alcohols (aliphatic alcohol), acetone and methylethyl ketones (aliphatic ketone), acetylene hydrocarbons, and ethyl and isopropyl ethers depresses the central nervous system.

Narcosis and Anesthesia

These chemicals will induce an effect similar to being drunk.

Single exposure to a high concentration may result in unconsciousness or even death.

There are also cases where workers have become addicted to these substances.

Sensitizers The pattern of sensitization varies

according to the species. In humans, the skin and the eyes

are the most common areas of allergic response, whereas, for example, in the guinea pig reactions are more common in the respiratory system.

Systemic Poisoning

The human body is made up of many systems.

Systemic poisoning refers to the adverse response induced by chemicals to one or more body systems, which in turn spreads throughout the body. The effect is not localized at any one spot or area of the body.

One of the tasks of the liver is to purify any noxious substances from the blood by converting them to harmless and water-soluble substances before being excreted.

Systemic Poisoning

However, some chemical substances cause damage to the liver.

Depending on the dose and frequency of exposure, repeated damage to liver tissues may cause injury resulting in scarring (cirrhosis) and decreased liver function.

Liver injury can be caused by chemicals such as solvents (alcohol, carbon tetrachloride, trichloroethylene, chloroform) and may be mistaken for hepatitis, as the symptoms (yellowish skin and eyes) produced by these chemicals are similar.

The kidneys are part of the urinary system.

Their task is to excrete waste products generated by the body, maintain the balance of water and salts, and control and maintain the acidity level of the blood. .

Kidney

Chemicals that prevent the kidneys from excreting poisonous products include carbon tetrachloride, ethylene glycol and carbon disulphide.

Other chemicals such as cadmium, lead, turpentine, methanol, toluene and xylene will slowly deteriorate the kidney function.

Certain chemicals may impede the

normal functions of the kidneys

The Nervous System

The nervous system controls body function, and can be damaged by certain chemicals.

Chronic exposure to solvents has been linked to symptoms such as fatigue, sleep difficulties, headache and nausea. More serious cases cause motor disturbances, paralysis and an impaired sense of perception.

The Nervous System

Exposure to hexane, manganese and lead has been associated with effects on the peripheral nerves resulting in symptoms of "wrist drop".

Exposure to organophosphate compounds such as parathion may cause the nervous system to fail. Another example is carbon disulphide, which has been linked with cases of mental disorder (psychosis).

MALE AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH HAZARDS IN THE WORKPLACE

Reproductive System

Reproductive Hazards

Reproductive hazards are chemicals that cause sterility, fetal death, and/or birth defects.

Mutagens are reproductive hazards that permanently change the genes in the egg or sperm. The change in the genes can be drastic enough to prevent conception, making a man or woman sterile.

Teratogens are reproductive hazards that damage the fetus during pregnancy, causing either death or birth defects.


Exposure to certain chemicals may also have negative effects on the reproductive system, producing sterility in men and causing miscarriages in pregnant women.

Chemicals such as ethylene dibromide, benzene, anesthetic gases, chloroprene, lead, organic solvents and carbon disulphide have been linked with the reduction of fertility in male workers.


Miscarriages are linked with exposure to anesthetic gas, mercury ethylene oxide, glutaraldehyde, chloroprene, lead, organic solvents, carbon disulphide and vinyl chloride.


Many workers are exposed to such hazards everyday at work. Working with particular substances or under certain work situations may cause some workers to experience abnormalities in their sexual or reproductive health.

Many workers may not know that such problems can be related to occupational exposures.


While the information is minimal, much of what is known about the effects of workplace substances on male and female reproductive systems has been learned, in fact, by studying exposed workers, their spouses and children.


Reproduction results from a complex series of events involving both parents.

It begins with each parent’s genetic contribution (chromosome) and ends with expression of the genes acquired by the offspring.

Every step in the reproductive process is vulnerable to effects from external physical and chemical agents.


Chromosomal replication, sexual function, ovulation, conception/fertilization, embryo implantation, placental function, fetal development, labor, delivery, and even child development are component of the reproduction process.

Mutagenesis

A mutagen is an agent that affects the genetic material of the exposed organism.

It may cause cancer, birth defects, or undesirable effects in latter generation. People who work with a certain chemical may not be harmed, but their offspring can be.

Mutagenesis

The problem of time lag between exposure and effect is particularly severe for mutagenic agents.

Mutations will not show up until the next generation at the earliest and may not appear for several generations.

The long latency makes it difficult to discover the connection between the exposure and the manifestation of genetic damage.

Mutagens Mutagens are chemical or physical

agents that cause inheritable changes in the chromosomes.

A mutagen might have an effect on somatic cells but no on germ cells. In this case, its effects are not passed on to offspring, but depend on the kind of cell affected.

Teratogenesis

Teratogenesis (congenital malformation) results from interference with normal embryonic development by a biological, chemical, or physical agent.

Teratogenesis

Exposure of a pregnant female may, under certain conditions, produce malformations of the fetus without inducing damage to the mother or killing the fetus. Such malformations are not hereditary.

In contrast, malformations resulting from changes in the genetic material are mutations and are hereditary.


Exposure to certain hazardous substances or hazardous work conditions can affect reproductive health before or after conception takes place.

Some occupational hazards, particularly certain chemicals and radiation, can seriously affect a developing embryo or foetus (also written fetus).


Adverse effects due to exposure can also occur after birth, affecting the development of a baby or child.

While these effects are not considered reproductive hazards, it is important to know that newborns and children are particularly vulnerable to the effects of hazardous substances

Points to Remember

Thousands of hazardous chemicals are produced and used in a wide variety of workplaces worldwide.

Some of these substances can have negative effects on the reproductive health of workers who are exposed to them.

There are also physical and biological agents and a variety of work situations that may result in negative reproductive health outcomes when workers are exposed to them.

Points to Remember

Little is known about the potential for damage to the reproductive system from exposure to certain substances, agents, or work situations.

Despite the lack of adequate information, many workers are forced to work with and be exposed to reproductive hazards.

Points to Remember

Workers and unions need to be as informed as possible about the substances used in their workplaces.

Protective measures should be implemented to ensure that pregnant workers and workers (male or female) planning to have a child are not exposed to known or suspected reproduction health hazards.

Human Reproductive Toxicity

Developmental effects Carbon disulfide Carbon monoxide Ethylene glycol monoethyl ether Ethylene glycol monoethyl ether acetate Ethyelene glycol monomethyl ether Ethylene glycol monomethyl ether acetate


Developmental effects (continued) Ionizing radiation Lead Mercury (compounds) Methyl bromide PCB (polychlorinated biphenyl) 2,3,7,8-tetrachlrodibenzo paradioxin

(TCDD)


Female reproductive toxicity Alkylating/antineoplastic agents Arsenic Carbon disulfide Ethylene oxide Ionizing radiation Mercury


Male reproductive toxicity Carbon disulfide 1,2-dibromo-3-chlropropane (DBCP) Dinitrobenzene Ethylene glycol monoethyl ether Ethylene glycol monoethyl ether acetate Ethylene glycol monoethyl ether Ethylene glycol monomethyl ether acetate Lead

Corrosives

Corrosives are chemicals capable of actually destroying or “eating away” certain substances including human tissues.

Swallowing corrosives can severely damage your mouth, esophagus, and stomach.

Many acids and alkalis are corrosives. For example: hydrofluoric acid causes

severe skin burns and damage nerve and muscle tissue below the skin surface.

Corrosivity

A solid waste that falls into one of the following

categories is considered a hazardous waste because of its corrosivity :a. An aqueous material with pH less than or equal to 2 or greater than or equal to

12,5.b. A liquid that corrodes steel at a rate

greater than 0,25 inch per year at a temperature

of 55 oC (SAE 1020; SAE = Society of Automobile Engineers).

Target-Organ Chemicals

Target-organ chemicals damage specific organs or body systems. Such chemicals may enter the body at one place and travel to the target organ somewhere else.

For example, tetrachloroethane (a degreasing solvent) damage both the liver and the central nervous system.


Reproductive hazards are chemicals that cause sterility, fetal death, and/or birth defects.

Mutagens are reproductive hazards that permanently change the genes in the egg or sperm. The change in the genes can be drastic enough to prevent conception, making a man or woman sterile.

Teratogens are reproductive hazards that damage the fetus during pregnancy, causing either death or birth defects.

Carcinogenesis

Carcinogens are chemicals that cause cancer or have the potential to cause cancer.

Carcinogens are extremely hazardous because many cancers are deadly, and safe exposure levels to cancer-causing chemicals are not known.

CNSTetrachloroethaneMercuryCarbon disulfide

HeartChloroform

Kidneys

Mercury,Methyl bromide,Uranium

LungsCotton dustAluminium dustAsbestos fiberSilica

LiverTetrachloroe-thane,Vinyl chloride,Carbon tetrachloride

CHEMICAL ASSOCIATED WITH CANCER IN HUMANS (IARC)

BLADDER :4-AminobiphenylAuramineMagentaBenzidineChlornaphazine2-NaphthylamineSoot, Tars, Mineral oilsCyclophosmide (?)Phenacetin (?)

BRAIN :Vinyl chloride

KIDNEY :Phenacetin (?)

GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT :AsbestosEthylene oxide (?)

LIVER :Vinyl chloride, Arsenic, CCl4

Aflatoxins (?), Oxymetholone

SKIN :Arsenic, PCBs (?),Soot, Tars,Mineral oils

BLOOD :BenzeneMelphalanChloroambucilCyclophosphamide (?)Ethylene oxide (?)Thiotepa (?)

LUNG :Asbestos, Vinyl chloride, CMME,BCME, Iron oxide (?), Arsenic (?)

Controlling Hazards

1

2

3

4

5

Eliminasi

Substitusi

Rekayasa/EngineeringPengendalian AdministratifAlat Pelindung Diri

Hirarki Pengendalian

Many countries now have some kind of hazard information or right-to-know legislation.

These laws make it the employer's legal responsibility to provide workers with as much information and training as possible on all chemical substances used. Some unions have negotiated agreements which require that the union be given full information on all chemicals used in the workplace.

Management

Management Unfortunately, many employers do not

have this information and may not know where to get it.

If this describes your situation, then the health and safety representative should insist that the employer obtains information from the chemical manufacturer or the supplier and makes it available to the workers.

These laws make it the employer's legal responsibility to provide workers with as much information and training as possible on all chemical substances used.

Ask management for information. Make sure that the company fulfils its obligation to inform

workers about workplace hazards.

Which Control Method To Choose

Points to Remember

If you cannot completely eliminate a hazard, then use a combination of control methods to protect yourself and your co-workers from being exposed to occupational hazards.

Points to Remember

For control measures to be of any value, the atmosphere in the workplace must be monitored (checked) regularly for levels of hazardous materials.

Health and safety representatives must always check on operating systems and look for signs of hazards in the workplace, such as the smell

of fumes, lack of ventilation, etc.

Control Measures

Work with the union and the employer to eliminate hazards wherever possible.

If new work processes are being discussed, or equipment purchases are being planned, try to get agreement from the employer to place safety as a priority in the planning process.

For example, only machines that meet national or internationally recognized safety standards should be purchased.

Control Measures

Similarly, if a chemical has been banned or severely restricted by any government, it should not be used.

When hazards cannot be eliminated, then a combination of control methods is the best way to prevent exposure.

Control Measures If you are looking for “safer” substitute chemicals, try

to find out whether the proposed substitute chemicals really are safer.

Try to get information on substitute chemicals from: your employer, the chemical manufacturer, your union, local factory or labour inspectorate, local colleges or universities, the local fire department, your local library, ITSs (International Trade Secretariats) or the ILO (International Labour Office).

Control Measures

It is best to enclose all toxic materials or work processes using toxic materials. However, since this is often not possible, try to get the employer to enclose at least all highly toxic materials.

When using administrative controls, it is important that employers use other protective measures at the same time to prevent exposing workers to hazards. Administrative controls only reduce the amount of time you are exposed — they do not eliminate exposures.

Control Measures

PPE is the least effective method of hazard control and should be used only when hazards cannot be controlled sufficiently by other methods.

Before requiring the use of PPE, the employer should demonstrate to the union that he or she has tried to control hazards with engineering controls, but was not able to reduce exposures to “safe” levels.

Control Measures

Try to get agreement from the employer to implement effective engineering controls and eliminate the need for PPE by a specified date.

PPE should always be used together with other control measures.

Control Measures

Remember that the effectiveness of some PPE decreases in hot, humid working conditions.

When purchasing PPE, try to get items that have been designed in accordance with recognized standards set by relevant institutions. Also, try to get the employer to purchase protective clothing in sizes to fit the workers who will wear the PPE.

Control Measures

Workers who must use PPE should be trained before using the equipment and should receive refresher training at least once a year.

Workers using PPE should participate in a company-sponsored medical surveillance program (if the employer will not provide this then the union may want to sponsor such a program).

Control Measures

Washing/toilet facilities should be a priority among union demands for a healthier and safer working environment.

It is possible to provide adequate washing/toilet facilities for a minimum cost. Workers should be encouraged to wash/shower regularly, not only when they think they may be contaminated.

Control Measures

First-aid facilities and adequate personnel trained in first aid

should be a priority among union

demands for a healthier and safer working environment.

Control Measures Try to get your employer to provide

laundry facilities so that workers do not have to launder their work clothes at home.

Workers should be educated about the

importance of washing work clothes separately — not

with the family's clothes. This is particularly important if workers receive laundry money from the

employer.

Control Measures

Workers should be provided with eating and break areas away from their work areas to prevent ingesting hazards and for a more pleasant work environment.

Work with the union and employer to make sure the atmosphere in the workplace is monitored regularly for levels of hazardous materials.

Some control methods are better than others, but no single method of control can completely protect workers from hazards.

If a hazard cannot be completely eliminated, then a combination of methods should be used to reduce hazards to “safe” levels (levels that will not place workers' health at risk).

Some methods of control cost less than others but may not reduce hazards effectively.

The responsibility for preventing exposure is often placed on workers, requiring them to wear protective clothing, which is usually very uncomfortable in the hot and humid conditions that exist in many workplaces.

Personal protective equipment, such as respirators, protective suits and ear muffs, should be thought of as providing a back-up for other techniques that are designed to control hazards at the source.

A worker soldering in a dirty shop without ventilation and with no

PPE

Question: What is wrong with this picture? What is missing? How will this situation lead to this worker being exposed to the lead used in the soldering process? Could this situation also cause his family to be exposed to lead? How? What suggestions can you make to prevent this situation?

Picture of local exhaust ventilation system while the same worker is soldering

A worker is dry sweeping dustfrom soldering area

Picture shows a worker cleaning upthe worksite with an industrial vacuumcleaner

A worker is eating something in the work area

Picture shows a worker washing his hands. There are clean towels, and a lunch room sign.

Picture shows shower and locker areas

How to find a safer alternative to a dangerous chemical

You will need to know the generic name of the chemical you wish to replace.

Determine which chemical group the chemical belongs to. For example, methyl ethyl ketone belongs in general to the solvent group.

Among the solvents, it belongs to a chemical category called ketones.

How to find a safer alternative to a dangerous chemical

Identify the chemicals with similar properties by checking the Chemical Groups List.

For example, methyl ethyl ketone is listed with other ketones, such as acetone and methyl isobutyl ketone.

Substitution Compare the health and fire risks of each

of the chemicals in the group to see which is less hazardous. Among the ketones, for example, acetone is considered to be safer to use than other ketones.

When comparing chemicals, it is absolutely essential (1) to consider how the chemical is to be used, (2) to review several medical texts which describe the toxicity of the chemical, and (3) to consult an expert on chemical toxicology.

Substitution

If any chemical is associated with causing cancer, mutations (changes in cells), or birth defects, it should be replaced immediately with a chemical which does not pose these risks.

Hazard Data Sheets

Hazard data sheets (HDSs) (sometimes called material safety data sheets (MSDSs) or chemical safety data sheets (CSDSs)) are detailed information sheets on chemicals.

HAZARD DATA SHEETS

They are generally prepared and made available by chemical manufacturers, or programmes such as : the International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS, which is a joint activity of the World Health Organization (WHO), the International Labour Organization (ILO), and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).

Hazard Data Sheets

HDSs are important and accessible sources of information on chemicals, but their quality can vary. If you use or plan to use HDSs, be aware of their limitations. For example, they are often difficult to read and understand.

Another serious limitation is that they often do not contain enough information about the hazards and the necessary precautions you need to take when working with certain chemicals.

Hazard Data Sheets

To overcome these limitations, whenever possible use other sources of information together with HDSs (MSDSs).

It is a good idea for health and safety representatives to keep a hazard data sheet on each chemical used in the workplace.

Controlling Hazards Once you recognize a hazard, then you can

determine which measure will correct the problem most effectively.

Generally, there are five major categories of control measures: elimination, substitution, engineering controls, administrative controls and personal protective equipment.

Eliminating a hazard means removing it completely; substitution is replacing one hazardous agent or work process with a less dangerous one.

Controlling Hazards

An engineering control may mean changing a piece of machinery (for example, using proper machine guards) or a work process to reduce exposure to a hazard; working a limited number of hours in a hazardous area is an example of an administrative control (for example, job rotation); and

Personal protective equipment (PPE) includes ear and eye protection, respirators, and protective clothing.

Points to Remember

Occupational hazards can be controlled by a variety of methods. The goal of controlling hazards is to prevent workers from being exposed to occupational hazards.

The most effective control measure is to control hazards at the source by eliminating the hazard or by substituting a hazardous chemical, machine, work process, etc., with a less dangerous one.

Points to Remember It is important to recognize hazards and health and

safety problems in the workplace. There are five general categories of control measures:

elimination, substitution, engineering controls, administrative controls and personal protective equipment.

A combination of methods usually provides a safer and healthier workplace than relying on only one method. Personal protective equipment should be the last choice in control measures.

Controlling Hazards

Remember : it is always better to control the hazard as close to the source as possible. Using personal protection is the least acceptable and least effective of all control measures

Elimination Elimination of a specific hazard or

hazardous work process, or preventing it from entering the workplace, is the most effective method of control.

Eliminating a specific hazard is the most effective method of control. It is easier to eliminate hazards while a work process is still in the development stages

Personal Hygiene

Finally, personal hygiene (cleanliness) is also very important as a method of controlling hazards.

Your employer should provide facilities so you can wash and/or take a shower every day at the end of your shift, no matter what your job is.

Personal Hygiene Wash your skin and hair with a mild

soap, rinse and dry your skin completely to protect it.

Washing hands regularly, and eating and smoking away from your work area help to prevent ingesting contaminants.

Personal hygiene is very important in terms of reducing health hazards. Dirty clothes can spread

hazardous substances to your family.

Personal Hygiene

It may seem that the amount of contaminant you can bring home on your clothes or skin is very small and cannot hurt your family.

In reality a small exposure every day for months can add up to a big exposure.

Do not take workplace hazards home with you !

Personal Hygiene

A classic example of this “spreading the hazard” involves asbestos, where wives of asbestos workers have developed asbestosis from exposure to the asbestos on their husbands' work clothes.

Similarly, children have developed lead poisoning from exposure to lead which comes home on their parents' work clothes.

Personal Hygiene

If you wear protective clothing at work, such as aprons, laboratory coats, overalls, etc., these should be cleaned regularly and you should inspect them for holes or areas that are worn out.

Personal Hygiene

Workers who launder these clothes should be trained in the types of hazards they may work with and how they can be controlled.

Inspect your underclothes at home for any signs of contamination with oils, solvents, etc. If you find any signs, then it means your protective clothing at work is not effective.

Make sure you read and understand labels before using chemicals

All chemical containers should have adequate labels on them

Training On Health and Safety

Training Effective training is an important means of providing

information on chemical hazards. If you work with chemicals, your employer should provide you with training for the chemicals you use. Training should include:

Information on the possible or known hazards of specific chemicals, including any health effects;

Information on how to work safely with the particular chemicals;

Emergency and first-aid measures;

Training Use and care of any protective

equipment that may be necessary; How to identify whether control

measures are operating effectively; How to interpret labels, hazard data

sheets and other hazard information provided on the chemicals.

Training is essential for new workers. Existing workers should receive refresher courses periodically.

Workplace Inspection

One of the other ways of identifying chemical hazards in the workplace is by keeping a record of complaints from co-workers: an increased amount of sickness or strange symptoms among workers; etc.

These indicators could tell you there is a need to identify and investigate particular chemical hazards in the workplace.


Air monitoring can tell you what the levels of chemicals are in the workplace but it can be extremely difficult to get both the monitoring equipment and the trained personnel.

Workplace inspection Air monitoring can tell you what the levels of chemicals are in the workplace but it can be extremely difficult to get both the monitoring equipment and the trained personnel.


Another effective way to identify hazards is to do an inspection of your workplace, noting all chemicals used and the positions of workers, machines, ventilation (windows, etc.), storage areas, etc. (you may find it helpful to make a simple diagram of the workplace).

Note: Even if air monitoring is done, you should still do the inspection because it will provide you with information air monitoring cannot give you.

Try to answer the following questions during your inspection

What chemicals are used in your workplace, including the various work processes and in maintenance work?

Try to get information from container or drum labels and hazard data sheets.


What are the exact names of the chemicals?

Try to find out both the trade names and the chemical names.

How long has each chemical been in use and how often is it used? For example, is it used only on certain shifts? This information is important because you may find a connection between the use of a chemical and certain workers who have health complaints.


How many workers are exposed to the chemical and for how long?

Have any workers noticed any health changes that might be connected to the use of certain chemicals?

Where is the chemical used and how is it stored? What is the chemical used for cleaning, spraying, etc.?


Is it a solid, liquid, gas? Does it change its form during use (from wood to sawdust, for example)?

What do your senses tell you — can you see, smell or feel the chemical? Does it irritate your eyes, give you headaches, etc.?

What measures have been introduced to prevent exposure to the chemical hazard?

If you work with chemicals then you should be in a company-sponsored medical surveillance programme

Medical Surveillance

If you work with chemicals, your employer should make sure that you are in a company-sponsored medical surveillance program.

An effective medical surveillance program should detect any early signs of health effects that may be related to the substances you work with.

Medical surveillance includes pre-employment and periodic medical examinations.

Medical Surveillance

Pre-employment medical examinations help to identify “vulnerable” workers who should then be assigned to jobs or workplaces where their health will not be at risk.

For example, workers with a history of lung diseases should not be employed in dusty areas. (As stated earlier, all jobs should be safe enough so that even “vulnerable” workers will not suffer ill health effects.)

Medical Surveillance Periodic examinations help detect early

symptoms of occupational diseases (which will be a clear sign that control measures are not effective).

Medical examinations (pre-employment and periodic) should include biological monitoring, which includes blood and urine testing for traces of chemicals and biological indicators of chemical exposure.

The role of a health and safety representative

dealing with chemicals.

Summary Chemicals are used in virtually every

occupation today, even though very little is known about the damaging effects they may cause to humans and the environment.

Toxic substances come in many different forms and can cause a variety of health effects, from skin rashes to cancer.

Summary

Working with chemicals can be dangerous, therefore all workers should be well protected against hazardous substances.

However, eliminating hazardous substances from the workplace is still the best method of prevention, even if adequate control measures are used.

Summary

Information on industrial chemicals is vital and should be obtained from your employer or from the manufacturer of the chemical. Get the facts on chemicals from as many sources of information as possible because most sources have some limitations.

The Problem In workplace XYZ, a number of workers dip machine

parts into a degreasing tank for eight hours a day. The process uses a common solvent called 1,1,1-trichloroethane (TCA).

There are no engineering controls around the degreasing tank, there is no local exhaust ventilation, and workers are not provided with any personal protective equipment.

The workers have never received any information or training about the substance in the tank.

The Problem A number of workers on the degreasing

process have complained of headaches, dizziness, nausea and drowsiness.

Most of the workers say that the symptoms disappear in the evening but return when they go back to work in the morning.

They also notice that they do not experience these symptoms during weekends and holidays.

The Problem

The health and safety representative is very concerned because the management has threatened to dismiss several of the workers, claiming that they have been drunk on the job.

What short-term and long-term solutions can you suggest for this problem?

An uncovered degreasing tank releasing vapors into the work area and a covered

degreasing tank which contains the vapors.

SolutionsShort-term solutions Find a safer substitute for the chemical.

Something as simple as soap solutions may work in the short term.

Isolate the work process by moving it to a well ventilated area.

Enclosure: cover the tanks when they are not being used. This will prevent vapors from escaping into the air.

Short-term Solutions Install fans behind the tank so that

the vapors will be pushed away from the workers' breathing area.

Insist that the employer provide respirators and protective clothing, including gloves, aprons and face shields for protection against splashes, for the workers.

Administrative controls: rotate workers so their exposure time is decreased.

Long-term Solutions

Eliminate the chemical altogether. Engineering controls: effective local

exhaust ventilation - hoods or flexible suction hoses - should be installed to draw the vapors away from the worker.

Make sure the work process is performed only in a well ventilated area.

Ask management for information on the chemical.

Long-term Solutions

Write to the chemical manufacturer for information on the chemical.

Insist that the employer provide information and training to the workers.

Negotiate contract language that gives workers the right to refuse extremely dangerous work.

Picture shows a worker cleaning up the worksite with an industrial

vacuum cleaner.

A worker eating something

in the work area

Will this respirator prevent the

worker from breathing in dusts or other

hazardous substances?

Bump cap face shield and prescription for this employee. Shields are available in clear light

green, dark green

EYE PROTECTION

Chemical cartridgerespirator

Self Contained Breathing

Apparatus (SCBA)

Gas FilterSealing stripAir outletCover cap

Nuckle thread connection Gas filter(Active charcoal)

Air inlet

Particle Filter

Cover cap

Filter Sleeve

Particle Filter

Coarse dust filterSieve

1.Prefilter2.Dust filter

Gas filter

Combination filter

A Dust - mask

respirator

Full facepiece cartridge respirator

BREATHING APPARATUS

CHEMICAL CARTRIDGE RESPIRATOR AND SCBA

Air Supplying Hood

Man and Material Fully Protected

Self Contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA)

BREATHING APPARATUS(AIRLINE RESPIRATOR)

Air Supplying Respirator

AIR-PURIFYING RESPIRATOR(FILTER + ADSORBENT)

CHEMICAL CHECKLIST

Chemical ChecklistInstructions Read through the check-list and spend

some time familiarizing yourself with the workplace before starting to check.

Decide on the work areas to be checked. If your workplace is a small enterprise then the whole production area can be checked.

If it is a larger enterprise, particular work areas can be selected which you may want to check separately.

You may want to make copies of this check-list if you have different work areas to check.

Chemical ChecklistContinued ……… Read each item on the check-list. As you

fill out the check-list, ask fellow workers (and the foreman) questions if necessary. After you have completed the check-list, look at the items you marked “NO”.

Identify those items that require immediate attention and mark them as “PRIORITY”.

Chemical ChecklistContinued ……… Discuss the priority areas with your union and

with the health and safety committee if you have one.

Try to plan strategies for improving the high-priority problem areas.

When evaluating your workplace, check for the following:

Safe Procedures and Practices1. Are all chemicals clearly labelled with the

name and origin of the chemical, name of the supplier, the danger symbol(s), hazard information, and advice for using the chemical safely?

2. Have chemicals been relabelled if they have been transferred into smaller containers?

3. Are labels and instructions on chemical containers in a language that workers understand?

Safe Procedures and Practices4. Are all chemicals stored in appropriate, safe

containers?5. Are chemical storage areas well ventilated and

located away from sources of ignition? 6. Are appropriate devices used to allow the safe

transport and transfer of chemicals?7. Are small spills cleaned up immediately?8. Is monitoring done to ensure the area is safe to

continue work?

Safe Procedures and Practices 9. Are chemical wastes, including empty

containers that have had chemicals in them, properly disposed of so that they do not present a risk to workers or the environment?

10. Does management inform workers of proper procedures for the safe storage, transportation and disposal of chemicals?

Control Measures11. Can toxic chemicals be substituted with

less toxic ones? 12. Are processes that emit dusts, vapors

or mists isolated? 13. Are processes that emit dusts, vapors

or mists enclosed? 14. Are there local ventilation systems

operating?

Control Measures15. Do they reduce contaminants in

the work area?16. Does natural ventilation provide

adequate air exchange? 17. Are there fans and/or mechanical devices operating to improve

general ventilation?

Hazard identification18. Are flammable chemicals stored in such

a way as to prevent the formation of flammable

or explosive mixtures? 19. Are there any open flames near where flammable chemicals are used,

transferred or stored? 20. Are floor areas, work benches and

machinery surfaces clean and free from oil deposits

and dusts?

Hazard identification

21. Are passageways well marked and free of debris? 22. Are storage racks provided around work stations for raw materials and finished products?

Personal Protective Equipment23. Is PPE provided only when other methods

of control cannot eliminate the risk of workers being exposed to chemicals?

24. Is PPE well maintained and inspected regularly?

25. Are workers provided with appropriate eye and skin protection when there is a possibility of chemical splash?

Exposure Monitoring

26. Is there a person designated to monitor workers' exposure at regular intervals?

Medical Surveillance27. Are pre-employment medical

examinations required for workers assigned to hazardous chemical areas?

28. Are workers handling hazardous chemicals given regular medical examinations?

Training and Education29. Are new workers given adequate training

on the hazards of the chemicals they work with, safe work practices and emergency procedures?

30. Are existing workers given periodic refresher training?

31. Are workers trained in the use, maintenance and storage of PPE?

Management of Chemicals32. Is there a person or committee

appointed to plan and coordinate activities on chemical safety?

33. Does the employer have hazard data sheets on all chemicals used in the workplace?

34. Are workers and the union involved in health and safety activities related to the safe management of chemicals?

Terima Kasih Atas Perhatian Anda

chemical in workplace

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