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Chemistry From Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaFor other uses, see Chemistry (disambiguation).

"Chemical science" redirects here. For the Royal Society of Chemistry journal, see Chemical

Science (journal).

Solutions of substances in reagent bottles, including ammonium hydroxideand nitric acid, illuminated in

different colors

Chemistry is a branch of physical science that studies the composition, structure, properties andchange of matter .[1][2] hemistry deals !ith such topics as the properties of indi"idual atoms, ho!atoms form chemical bonds to create chemical compounds, the interactions of substancesthroughintermolecular forces that gi"e matter its general properties, and the interactions bet!eensubstances through chemical reactions to form different substances.

hemistry is sometimes called the central science because it bridges other natural sciences,includingphysics, geology and biology.[#][$] For the differences bet!een chemistry and physics

see omparison of chemistry and physics.[%]

Scholars disagree about the etymology of the !ord chemistry . &he history of chemistry can betraced toalchemy, !hich had been practiced for se"eral millennia in "arious parts of the !orld.

Contents

  [hide]

• 1 'tymology

o 1.1 (efinition

• 2 )istory

o 2.1 hemistry as science

o 2.2 hemical structure

• # *rinciples of modern chemistry

o #.1 +atter 

#.1.1 tom

#.1.2 'lement

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#.1.# ompound

#.1.$ +olecule

#.1.% Substance and mixture

#.1.- +ole and amount of substance

o #.2 *hase

o #.# onding

o #.$ 'nergy

o #.% /eaction

o #.- 0ons and salts

o #. cidity and basicity

o #. /edox

o #.3 '4uilibrium

o #.15 hemical la!s

• $ *ractice

o $.1 Subdisciplines

o $.2 hemical industry

o $.# *rofessional societies

• % See also

• - /eferences

• ibliography

• Further reading

Etymology 

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Chemistry

• History

• Outline

• Index

• Glossary

• Category

• Portal

• V 

• T 

• E 

&he !ord chemistry  comes from the !ord alchemy , an earlier set of practices that encompassedelements of chemistry, metallurgy, philosophy, astrology, astronomy, mysticism and medicine6 it iscommonly thought of [by whom?] as the 4uest to turn lead or another common starting material intogold.[-] lchemy, !hich !as practiced around ##5, is the study of the composition of !aters,mo"ement, gro!th, embodying, disembodying, dra!ing the spirits from bodies and bonding thespirits !ithin bodies 78osimos9.[] n alchemist !as called a :chemist: in popular speech, and laterthe suffix ;<ry; !as added to this to describe the art of the chemist as ;chemistry;.

&he !ord alchemy  in turn is deri"ed from the rabic !ord al!m# 7=>?@?ABC9. 0n origin, the term isborro!ed from the Dreek EGHI or EGJHI. [][3] &his may ha"e 'gyptian origins. +any[$uantify ] belie"ethat al!m# is deri"ed from the Dreek EGHI, !hich is in turn deri"ed from the!ord Chemi or Kimi, !hich is the ancient name of 'gypt in 'gyptian.[] lternately, al!m# mayderi"e from EGJHI, meaning ;cast together;.[15]

Definition

0n retrospect, the definition of chemistry has changed o"er time, as ne! disco"eries and theoriesadd to the functionality of the science. &he term ;chymistry;, in the "ie! of noted scientist /obertoyle in 1--1, meant the subKect of the material principles of mixed bodies. [11] 0n 1--# thechemist hristopher Dlaser  described ;chymistry; as a scientific art, by !hich one learns todissol"e bodies, and dra! from them the different substances on their composition, and ho! tounite them again, and exalt them to a higher perfection. [12]

&he 1#5 definition of the !ord ;chemistry;, as used by Deorg 'rnst Stahl, meant the art ofresol"ing mixed, compound, or aggregate bodies into their principles6 and of composing suchbodies from those principles.[1#] 0n 1#, Lean<aptiste (umas considered the !ord ;chemistry; torefer to the science concerned !ith the la!s and effects of molecular forces. [1$] &his definitionfurther e"ol"ed until, in 13$, it came to mean the science of substancesM their structure, theirproperties, and the reactions that change them into other substances < a characteriNationaccepted by Oinus *auling.[1%] +ore recently, in 133, *rofessor /aymond hang broadened thedefinition of ;chemistry; to mean the study of matter and the changes it undergoes. [1-]

History %ain article& 'istory of chemistry 

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See also&  lchemy  and imeline of chemistry 

(emocritus: atomist philosophy !as later adopted by 'picurus7#$1P25 '9.

'arly ci"iliNations, such as the 'gyptians[1] abylonians, 0ndians[1] amassed practical kno!ledgeconcerning the arts of metallurgy, pottery and dyes, but didn:t de"elop a systematic theory.

  basic chemical hypothesis first emerged in lassical Dreece !ith the theory of  four elements aspropounded definiti"ely by ristotle stating that that fire, air , earth and !ater  !ere thefundamental elements from !hich e"erything is formed as a combination.  Dreek atomism datesback to $$5 , arising in !orks by philosophers such as (emocritus and 'picurus. 0n %5 ,the /oman philosopher Oucretiusexpanded upon the theory in his book *e rerum natura 7Qn &heRature of &hings9.[13][25] nlike modern concepts of science, Dreek atomism !as purelyphilosophical in nature, !ith little concern for empirical obser"ations and no concern for chemicalexperiments.[21]

0n the )ellenistic !orld the art of alchemy first proliferated, mingling magic and occultism into thestudy of natural substances !ith the ultimate goal of transmuting elements into gold anddisco"ering the elixir of eternal life.[22] lchemy !as disco"ered and practised !idely throughoutthe  rab !orld after the +uslim con4uests,[2#] and from there, diffused into medie"aland /enaissance 'urope through Oatin translations.[2$]

Chemistry as science

nder the influence of the ne! empirical methods propounded by Sir Francis acon and others,a group of chemists at Qxford, /obert oyle,/obert )ooke and Lohn +ayo! began to reshapethe old alchemical traditions into a scientific discipline. oyle in particular is regarded as thefounding father of chemistry due to his most important !ork, the classic chemistry text he

Sce+tical Chymist  !here the differentiation is made bet!een the claims of alchemy and theempirical scientific disco"eries of the ne! chemistry.[2%] )e formulated oyle:s la!, reKected theclassical ;four elements; and proposed a mechanistic alternati"e of atoms and chemicalreactions that could be subKect to rigorous experiment. [2-]

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 ntoine<Oaurent de Oa"oisier  is considered the ;Father of +odern hemistry;. [2]

&he theory of phlogiston 7a substance at the root of all combustion9 !as propounded by theDerman Deorg 'rnst Stahl in the early 1th century and !as only o"erturned by the end of thecentury by the French chemist  ntoine Oa"oisier , the chemical analogue of Re!ton in physics6!ho did more than any other to establish the ne! science on proper theoretical footing, byelucidating the principle of conser"ation of massand de"eloping a ne! system of chemicalnomenclature used to this day.[2]

*rior to his !ork, though, many important disco"eries had been made, specifically relating to thenature of :air: !hich !as disco"ered to be composed of many different gases. &he Scottishchemist Loseph lack 7the first experimental chemist9 and the (utchman L. . "an

)elmont disco"ered carbon dioxide, or !hat lack called :fixed air: in 1%$6 )enrya"endish disco"ered hydrogen and elucidated its properties and Loseph *riestley and,independently, arl Wilhelm Scheele isolated pure oxygen.

0n his periodic table, (mitri +endelee" predicted the existence of ne! elements,[23] and placed all -5

elements kno!n at the time in their correct places. [#5]

'nglish scientist Lohn (alton proposed the modern theory of atoms6 that all substances arecomposed of indi"isible :atoms: of matter and that different atoms ha"e "arying atomic !eights.

&he de"elopment of the electrochemical theory of chemical combinations occurred in the early13th century as the result of the !ork of t!o scientists in particular, L. L. erNelius and )umphry(a"y, made possible by the prior in"ention of the "oltaic pile by lessandro Tolta. (a"y

disco"ered nine ne! elements including the alkali metals by extracting them fromtheir oxides !ith electric current.[#1]

ritish William *rout first proposed ordering all the elements by their atomic !eight as all atomshad a !eight that !as an exact multiple of the atomic !eight of hydrogen. L. . /.Re!lands de"ised an early table of elements, !hich !as then de"eloped into the modern periodictable of elements[#2] in the 1-5s by (mitri +endelee" and independently by se"eral otherscientists including Lulius Oothar +eyer .[##][#$]&he inert gases, later called the noble gases !eredisco"ered by William /amsay in collaboration !ithOord /ayleigh at the end of the century,thereby filling in the basic structure of the table.

Qrganic chemistry !as de"eloped by Lustus "on Oiebig and others, follo!ing Friedrich WUhler :ssynthesis of urea !hich pro"ed that li"ing organisms !ere, in theory, reducible to chemistry.[#%]

 Qther crucial 13th century ad"ances !ere6 an understanding of "alence bonding 7 'd!ardFrankland in 1%29 and the application of thermodynamics to chemistry 7L. W. Dibbs and S"ante rrhenius in the 15s9.

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Chemical structure

o+& 'xpected resultsMalpha particles passing through the plum pudding model of the atom undisturbed.

ottom& Qbser"ed resultsM a small portion of the particles !ere deflected, indicating a small, concentrated

charge.

 t the turn of the t!entieth century the theoretical underpinnings of chemistry !ere finallyunderstood due to a series of remarkable disco"eries that succeeded in probing and disco"eringthe "ery nature of the internal structure of atoms. 0n 13, L. L. &homson of  ambridgeni"ersity disco"ered the electron and soon after the French scientist ec4uerel as !ell as thecouple *ierre and +arie urie in"estigated the phenomenon of radioacti"ity. 0n a series ofpioneering scattering experiments 'rnest /utherford at the ni"ersity of +anchester disco"eredthe internal structure of the atom and the existence of the proton, classified and explained thedifferent types of radioacti"ity and successfully transmuted the first element by

bombarding nitrogen !ith alpha particles.)is !ork on atomic structure !as impro"ed on by his students, the (anish physicist Rielsohr  and )enry +oseley. &he electronic theory of chemical bonds and molecular orbitals !asde"eloped by the merican scientists Oinus *auling and Dilbert R. Oe!is.

&he year 2511 !as declared by the nited Rations as the 0nternational Vear of hemistry.[#-] 0t!as an initiati"e of the 0nternational nion of *ure and pplied hemistry, and of the nitedRations 'ducational, Scientific, and ultural QrganiNation and in"ol"es chemical societies,academics, and institutions !orld!ide and relied on indi"idual initiati"es to organiNe local andregional acti"ities.

Principles of modern chemistry 

Oaboratory, 0nstitute of iochemistry,ni"ersity of ologne.

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&he current model of atomic structure is the 4uantum mechanical model.[#] &raditional chemistrystarts !ith the study of elementary particles, atoms, molecules,[#] substances,metals, crystals and other aggregates of matter. &his matter can be studied in solid, li4uid, orgas states, in isolation or in combination. &heinteractions, reactions and transformations that arestudied in chemistry are usually the result of interactions bet!een atoms, leading torearrangements of the chemical bonds !hich hold atoms together. Such beha"iors are studied in

a chemistry laboratory.

&he chemistry laboratory stereotypically uses "arious forms of  laboratory glass!are. )o!e"erglass!are is not central to chemistry, and a great deal of experimental 7as !ell asappliedindustrial9 chemistry is done !ithout it.

  chemical reaction is a transformation of some substances into one or more differentsubstances.[#3] &he basis of such a chemical transformation is the rearrangement of electrons inthe chemical bonds bet!een atoms. 0t can be symbolically depicted through a chemical e4uation,!hich usually in"ol"es atoms as subKects. &he number of atoms on the left and the right in thee4uation for a chemical transformation is e4ual. 7When the number of atoms on either side isune4ual, the transformation is referred to as a nuclear reaction or radioacti"e decay.9 &he type ofchemical reactions a substance may undergo and the energy changes that may accompany it are

constrained by certain basic rules, kno!n as chemical la!s.'nergy and entropy considerations are in"ariably important in almost all chemical studies.hemical substances are classified in terms of their structure, phase, as !ell as their chemicalcompositions. &hey can be analyNed using the tools of chemical analysis,e.g. spectroscopy andchromatography. Scientists engaged in chemical research are kno!nas chemists.[$5] +ost chemists specialiNe in one or more sub<disciplines. Se"eral concepts areessential for the study of chemistry6 some of them areM [$1]

Matter %ain article& %atter 

0n chemistry, matter is defined as anything that has rest mass and "olume 7it takes up space9 andis made up of particles. &he particles that make up matter ha"e rest mass as !ell < not all

particles ha"e rest mass, such as the photon. +atter can be a pure chemical substance oramixture of substances.[$2]

Atom

  diagram of an atom based on the /utherford model

&he atom is the basic unit of chemistry. 0t consists of a dense core called the atomicnucleus surrounded by a space called the electron cloud. &he nucleus is made up of positi"elycharged protons and uncharged neutrons7together called nucleons9, !hile the electron cloudconsists of negati"ely charged electrons !hich orbit the nucleus. 0n a neutral atom, the negati"elycharged electrons balance out the positi"e charge of the protons. &he nucleus is dense6 the massof a nucleon is 1,#- times that of an electron, yet the radius of an atom is about 15,555 timesthat of its nucleus.[$#][$$]

&he atom is also the smallest entity that can be en"isaged to retain the chemical properties of theelement, such as electronegati"ity, ioniNation potential, preferred oxidation state7s9, coordinationnumber , and preferred types of bonds to form 7e.g., metallic, ionic, co"alent9.

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Element

Standard form of the periodic table of chemical elements. &he colors represent different categories of

elements

%ain article& Chemical element 

  chemical element is a pure substance !hich is composed of a single type of atom,characteriNed by its particular number of  protons in the nuclei of its atoms, kno!n as theatomic

number  and represented by the symbol - . &he mass number  is the sum of the number of protonsand neutrons in a nucleus. lthough all the nuclei of all atoms belonging to one element !ill ha"ethe same atomic number, they may not necessarily ha"e the same mass number6 atoms of anelement !hich ha"e different mass numbers are kno!n asisotopes. For example, all atoms !ith -protons in their nuclei are atoms of the chemical element carbon, but atoms of carbon may ha"emass numbers of 12 or 1#. [$$]

&he standard presentation of the chemical elements is in the periodic table, !hich orderselements by atomic number. &he periodic table is arranged in groups, or columns, andperiods, orro!s. &he periodic table is useful in identifying periodic trends.[$%]

Compound

arbon dioxide7Q29, an example of a chemical compound

%ain article& Chemical com+ound 

  com+ound  is a pure chemical substance composed of more than one element. &he propertiesof a compound bear little similarity to those of its elements. [$-] &he standard nomenclature ofcompounds is set by the 0nternational nion of *ure and pplied hemistry 70*9. Qrganic

compounds are named according to the organic nomenclaturesystem.[$] 0norganiccompounds are named according to the inorganic nomenclature system.[$] 0n additionthehemical bstracts Ser"ice has de"ised a method to index chemical substances. 0n thisscheme each chemical substance is identifiable by a number kno!n as its S registry number .

Molecule%ain article& %olecule

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etc.9 the structure of polyatomic molecules, that are constituted of more than six atoms 7of se"eralelements9 can be crucial for its chemical nature.

Substance and mixture

Examples of pure chemical substances. rom left to right! the

elements tin "#n$

and sulfur  "#$%diamond "an allotrope of  carbon$% sucrose" pure sugar$%

and sodium chloride "salt$ andsodium bicarbonate "ba&ing soda$% 'hich

are both ionic compounds.

  chemical substance is a kind of matter !ith a definite composition and set of properties.[$3] collection of substances is called a mixture. 'xamples of mixtures are air  and alloys.[%5]

Mole and amount of substance%ain article& %ole

&he mole is a unit of measurement that denotes an amount of substance 7also called chemicalamount9. &he mole is defined as the number of atoms found in exactly 5.512 kilogram 7or12 grams9 of carbon<12, !here the carbon<12 atoms are unbound, at rest and in their  groundstate.[%1] &he number of entities per mole is kno!n as the "ogadro constant, and is determinedempirically to be approximately -.522X152# molY1.[%2] +olar concentration is the amount of aparticular substance per "olume of solution, and is commonly reported in moldmY#.[%#]

Phase

'xample of phase changes

%ain article& hase

0n addition to the specific chemical properties that distinguish different chemical classifications,chemicals can exist in se"eral phases. For the most part, the chemical classifications are

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independent of these bulk phase classifications6 ho!e"er, some more exotic phases areincompatible !ith certain chemical properties.  +hase is a set of states of a chemical system thatha"e similar bulk structural properties, o"er a range of conditions, suchas pressure or temperature.

*hysical properties, such as density and refracti"e index tend to fall !ithin "alues characteristic of 

the phase. &he phase of matter is defined by the +hase transition, !hich is !hen energy put intoor taken out of the system goes into rearranging the structure of the system, instead of changingthe bulk conditions.

Sometimes the distinction bet!een phases can be continuous instead of ha"ing a discreteboundary, in this case the matter is considered to be in a supercritical state. When three statesmeet based on the conditions, it is kno!n as atriple point and since this is in"ariant, it is acon"enient !ay to define a set of conditions.

&he most familiar examples of phases are solids, li4uids, and gases. +any substances exhibitmultiple solid phases. For example, there are three phases of solid iron 7alpha, gamma, anddelta9 that "ary based on temperature and pressure. principal difference bet!een solid phasesis the crystal structure, or arrangement, of the atoms. nother phase commonly encountered inthe study of chemistry is the a$ueous phase, !hich is the state of substances dissol"ed

in a4ueous solution 7that is, in !ater9.

Oess familiar phases include plasmas, oseP'instein condensates and fermioniccondensates and the paramagnetic and ferromagnetic phases of magnetic materials. While mostfamiliar phases deal !ith three<dimensional systems, it is also possible to define analogs in t!o<dimensional systems, !hich has recei"ed attention for its rele"ance to systems in biology.

Bonding%ain article& Chemical bond 

 n animation of the process of ionic bonding bet!een sodium 7Ra9 and chlorine7l9 to form sodium

chloride, or common table salt. 0onic bonding in"ol"es one atom taking "alence electrons from another 7as

opposed to sharing, !hich occurs in co"alent bonding9

 toms sticking together in molecules or crystals are said to be bonded !ith one another. chemical bond may be "isualiNed as the multipole balance bet!een the positi"e charges in thenuclei and the negati"e charges oscillating about them. [%$] +ore than simple attraction and

repulsion, the energies and distributions characteriNe the a"ailability of an electron to bond toanother atom.

  chemical bond can be a co"alent bond, an ionic bond, a hydrogen bond or Kust because of Tander Waals force. 'ach of these kinds of bonds is ascribed to some potential. &hese potentialscreate the interactions !hich hold atoms together in molecules or crystals. 0n many simplecompounds, "alence bond theory, the Talence Shell 'lectron *air /epulsion model 7TS'*/9,and the concept of oxidation number  can be used to explain molecular structure and composition.

 n ionic bond is formed !hen a metal loses one or more of its electrons, becoming a positi"elycharged cation, and the electrons are then gained by the non<metal atom, becoming a negati"elycharged anion. &he t!o oppositely charged ions attract one another, and the ionic bond is theelectrostatic force of attraction bet!een them. For example, sodium 7Ra9, a metal, loses one

electron to become an RaZ

 cation !hile chlorine 7l9, a non<metal, gains this electron to become

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lY. &he ions are held together due to electrostatic attraction, and that compound sodiumchloride 7Ral9, or common table salt, is formed.

0n the methane molecule 7)$9, the carbon atom shares a pair of "alence electrons !ith each of the four

hydrogen atoms. &hus, the octet rule is satisfied for <atom 7it has eight electrons in its "alence shell9 and

the duet rule is satisfied for the )<atoms 7they ha"e t!o electrons in their "alence shells9.

0n a co"alent bond, one or more pairs of  "alence electrons are shared by t!o atomsM the resulting

electrically neutral group of bonded atoms is termed a molecule. toms !ill share "alenceelectrons in such a !ay as to create a noble gas electron configuration 7eight electrons in theiroutermost shell9 for each atom. toms that tend to combine in such a !ay that they each ha"eeight electrons in their "alence shell are said to follo! the octet rule. )o!e"er, some elementslike hydrogen and lithium need only t!o electrons in their outermost shell to attain this stableconfiguration6 these atoms are said to follo! the duet rule, and in this !ay they are reaching theelectron configuration of the noble gas helium, !hich has t!o electrons in its outer shell.

Similarly, theories from classical physics can be used to predict many ionic structures. With morecomplicated compounds, such as metal complexes, "alence bond theory is less applicable andalternati"e approaches, such as the molecular orbital theory, are generally used. See diagram onelectronic orbitals.

Energy%ain article& /nergy 

0n the context of chemistry, energy is an attribute of a substance as a conse4uence ofits atomic, molecular  or aggregate structure. Since a chemical transformation is accompanied bya change in one or more of these kinds of structures, it is in"ariably accompanied byan increase or decrease of energy of the substances in"ol"ed. Some energy is transferredbet!een the surroundings and the reactants of the reaction in the form of heat or light6 thus theproducts of a reaction may ha"e more or less energy than the reactants.

  reaction is said to be exergonic if the final state is lo!er on the energy scale than the initialstate6 in the case of endergonic reactions the situation is the re"erse. reaction is said tobe exothermic if the reaction releases heat to the surroundings6 in the case of endothermic

reactions, the reaction absorbs heat from the surroundings.hemical reactions are in"ariably not possible unless the reactants surmount an energy barrierkno!n as the acti"ation energy. &he s+eed  of a chemical reaction 7at gi"en temperature &9 is

related to the acti"ation energy ', by the oltNmann:s population factor < that is theprobability of a molecule to ha"e energy greater than or e4ual to ' at the gi"en temperature &.&his exponential dependence of a reaction rate on temperature is kno!n as the rrheniuse4uation. &he acti"ation energy necessary for a chemical reaction to occur can be in the form ofheat, light, electricity or mechanical force in the form of ultrasound.[%%]

  related concept free energy, !hich also incorporates entropy considerations, is a "ery usefulmeans for predicting the feasibility of a reaction and determining the state of e4uilibrium of achemical reaction, in chemical thermodynamics. reaction is feasible only if the total change in

theDibbs free energy is negati"e, 6 if it is e4ual to Nero the chemical reaction is said tobe at e4uilibrium.

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&here exist only limited possible states of energy for electrons, atoms and molecules. &hese aredetermined by the rules of 4uantum mechanics, !hich re4uire 4uantiNation of energy of a boundsystem. &he atomsmolecules in a higher energy state are said to be excited. &hemoleculesatoms of substance in an excited energy state are often much more reacti"e6 that is,more amenable to chemical reactions.

&he phase of a substance is in"ariably determined by its energy and the energy of itssurroundings. When the intermolecular forces of a substance are such that the energy of thesurroundings is not sufficient to o"ercome them, it occurs in a more ordered phase like li4uid orsolid as is the case !ith !ater 7)2Q96 a li4uid at room temperature because its molecules arebound by hydrogen bonds.[%-] Whereas hydrogen sulfide 7)2S9 is a gas at room temperature andstandard pressure, as its molecules are bound by !eaker dipole<dipole interactions.

&he transfer of energy from one chemical substance to another depends on the si0e ofenergy 4uanta emitted from one substance. )o!e"er, heat energy is often transferred moreeasily from almost any substance to another because the phonons responsible for "ibrational androtational energy le"els in a substance ha"e much less energy than photons in"oked for theelectronic energy transfer. &hus, because "ibrational and rotational energy le"els are moreclosely spaced than electronic energy le"els, heat is more easily transferred bet!een substances

relati"e to light or other forms of electronic energy. For example, ultra"iolet electromagneticradiation is not transferred !ith as much efficacy from one substance to another as thermal orelectrical energy.

&he existence of characteristic energy le"els for different chemical substances is useful for theiridentification by the analysis of spectral lines. (ifferent kinds of spectra are often used inchemical spectroscopy, e.g. 0/, micro!a"e, R+/, 'S/, etc. Spectroscopy is also used to identifythe composition of remote obKects < like stars and distant galaxies < by analyNing their radiationspectra.

'mission spectrum of  iron

&he term chemical energy is often used to indicate the potential of a chemical substance toundergo a transformation through a chemical reaction or to transform other chemical substances.

Reaction%ain article& Chemical reaction

(uring chemical reactions, bonds bet!een atoms break and form, resulting in different substances !ith

different properties. 0n a blast furnace, iron oxide, a compound, reacts !ith carbon monoxide to form iron,

one of the chemical elements, and carbon dioxide.

When a chemical substance is transformed as a result of its interaction !ith another substance or !ith energy, a chemical reaction is said to ha"e occurred. chemical reaction is therefore aconcept related to the ;reaction; of a substance !hen it comes in close contact !ith another,!hether as a mixture or asolution6 exposure to some form of energy, or both. 0t results in some

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energy exchange bet!een the constituents of the reaction as !ell as !ith the systemen"ironment, !hich may be designed "esselsoften laboratory glass!are.

hemical reactions can result in the formation or dissociation of molecules, that is, moleculesbreaking apart to form t!o or more smaller molecules, or rearrangement of atoms !ithin oracross molecules. hemical reactions usually in"ol"e the making or breaking of chemical

bonds. Qxidation, reduction,dissociation, acid<base neutraliNation andmolecular rearrangement are some of the commonly used kinds of chemical reactions.

  chemical reaction can be symbolically depicted through a chemical e4uation. While in a non<nuclear chemical reaction the number and kind of atoms on both sides of the e4uation are e4ual,for a nuclear reaction this holds true only for the nuclear particles "iN. protons and neutrons. [%]

&he se4uence of steps in !hich the reorganiNation of chemical bonds may be taking place in thecourse of a chemical reaction is called its mechanism.  chemical reaction can be en"isioned totake place in a number of steps, each of !hich may ha"e a different speed. +any reactionintermediates !ith "ariable stability can thus be en"isaged during the course of a reaction./eaction mechanisms are proposed to explain the kinetics and the relati"e product mix of areaction. +any physical chemists specialiNe in exploring and proposing the mechanisms of"arious chemical reactions. Se"eral empirical rules, like the Wood!ardP)offmann rules often

come in handy !hile proposing a mechanism for a chemical reaction.

 ccording to the 0* gold book, a chemical reaction is ;a process that results in theintercon"ersion of chemical species.;[%] ccordingly, a chemical reaction may be an elementaryreaction or a step!ise reaction. n additional ca"eat is made, in that this definition includes cases!here the intercon"ersion of conformers is experimentally obser"able. Such detectable chemicalreactions normally in"ol"e sets of molecular entities as indicated by this definition, but it is oftenconceptually con"enient to use the term also for changes in"ol"ing single molecular entities 7i.e.:microscopic chemical e"ents:9.

ons and salts

&he crystal lattice structure of  potassium chloride 7\l9, a salt !hich is formed due to the attraction of

\Z cations and lY anions. Rote ho! the o"erall charge of the ionic compound is Nero.

%ain article& 1on

 n ion is a charged species, an atom or a molecule, that has lost or gained one or moreelectrons. When an atom loses an electron and thus has more protons than electrons, the atom isa positi"ely charged ion or cation. When an atom gains an electron and thus has more electronsthan protons, the atom is a negati"ely charged ion or anion. ations and anions can form acrystalline lattice of neutral salts, such as the RaZ and lY ions formingsodium chloride, or Ral.'xamples of  polyatomic ions that do not split up during acid<base reactions arehydroxide 7Q)Y9and phosphate 7*Q$

#Y9.

*lasma is composed of gaseous matter that has been completely ioniNed, usually through hightemperature.

Acidity and basicity

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When hydrogen bromide7)r9, pictured, is dissol"ed in !ater, it forms the strong acid hydrobromic acid

%ain article&  cid2base reaction

  substance can often be classified as an acid or a base. &here are se"eral different theories!hich explain acid<base beha"ior. &he simplest is  rrhenius theory, !hich states than an acid is asubstance that produces hydronium ions!hen it is dissol"ed in !ater, and a base is one thatproduces hydroxide ions !hen dissol"ed in !ater. ccording to rnstedPOo!ry acidPbasetheory, acids are substances that donate a positi"ehydrogen ion to another substance in a

chemical reaction6 by extension, a base is the substance !hich recei"es that hydrogen ion.  third common theory is Oe!is acid<base theory, !hich is based on the formation of ne!chemical bonds. Oe!is theory explains that an acid is a substance !hich is capable of acceptinga pair of electrons from another substance during the process of bond formation, !hile a base isa substance !hich can pro"ide a pair of electrons to form a ne! bond. ccording to this theory,the crucial things being exchanged are charges. [%3][unreliable source?] &here are se"eral other !ays in!hich a substance may be classified as an acid or a base, as is e"ident in the history of thisconcept.[-5]

 cid strength is commonly measured by t!o methods. Qne measurement, based on the rrhenius definition of acidity, is p), !hich is a measurement of the hydronium ion concentrationin a solution, as expressed on a negati"e logarithmic scale. &hus, solutions that ha"e a lo! p)

ha"e a high hydronium ion concentration, and can be said to be more acidic. &he othermeasurement, based on the rnstedPOo!ry definition, is the acid dissociation constant 7\a9,!hich measures the relati"e ability of a substance to act as an acid under the rnstedPOo!rydefinition of an acid. &hat is, substances !ith a higher \a are more likely to donate hydrogen ionsin chemical reactions than those !ith lo!er \a"alues.

Redox%ain article& Redo3 

/edox 7red uction<o3 idation9 reactions include all chemical reactions in !hich atoms ha"etheir oxidation state changed by either gaining electrons 7reduction9 or losing electrons7oxidation9. Substances that ha"e the ability to oxidiNe other substances are said to be oxidati"eand are kno!n as oxidiNing agents, oxidants or oxidiNers. n oxidant remo"es electrons from

another substance. Similarly, substances that ha"e the ability to reduce other substances are saidto be reducti"e and are kno!n as reducing agents, reductants, or reducers.

  reductant transfers electrons to another substance, and is thus oxidiNed itself. nd because it;donates; electrons it is also called an electron donor. Qxidation and reduction properly refer to achange in oxidation numberthe actual transfer of electrons may ne"er occur. &hus, oxidation isbetter defined as an increase in oxidation number , and reduction as a decrease in oxidationnumber.

E!uilibrium%ain article& Chemical e$uilibrium

 lthough the concept of e4uilibrium is !idely used across sciences, in the context of chemistry, itarises !hene"er a number of different states of the chemical composition are possible, as for

example, in a mixture of se"eral chemical compounds that can react !ith one another, or !hen asubstance can be present in more than one kind of phase.

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  system of chemical substances at e4uilibrium, e"en though ha"ing an unchanging composition,is most often not static6 molecules of the substances continue to react !ith one another thusgi"ing rise to a dynamic e4uilibrium. &hus the concept describes the state in !hich theparameters such as chemical composition remain unchanged o"er time.

Chemical la"s

%ain article& Chemical law hemical reactions are go"erned by certain la!s, !hich ha"e become fundamental concepts inchemistry. Some of them areM

•  "ogadro:s la!

• eerPOambert la!

• oyle:s la! 71--2, relating pressure and "olume9

• harles:s la! 71, relating "olume and temperature9

• Fick:s la!s of diffusion

• Day<Oussac:s la! 7153, relating pressure and temperature9

• Oe hatelier:s principle

• )enry:s la!

• )ess:s la!

• Oa! of conser"ation of energy leads to the important concepts

of e4uilibrium, thermodynamics, and kinetics.

• Oa! of conser"ation of mass continues to be conser"ed in isolated systems, e"en inmodern physics. )o!e"er, special relati"itysho!s that due to massPenergy e4ui"alence,!hene"er non<material ;energy; 7heat, light, kinetic energy9 is remo"ed from a non<isolatedsystem, some mass !ill be lost !ith it. )igh energy losses result in loss of !eighableamounts of mass, an important topic in nuclear chemistry.

• Oa! of definite composition, although in many systems 7notably biomacromolecules andminerals9 the ratios tend to re4uire large numbers, and are fre4uently represented as a

fraction.

• Oa! of multiple proportions

• /aoult:s la!

Practice

Subdisciplines

This article relies largely or entirely upon a single source. (ele)ant discussion may be

found on the tal& page. Please help impro)e this article by introducing citations to additional

sources. (September 2014)

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hemistry is typically di"ided into se"eral maKor sub<disciplines. &here are also se"eral maincross<disciplinary and more specialiNed fields of chemistry. [-1]

•  nalytical chemistry is the analysis of material samples to gain an understanding oftheir  chemical composition and structure. nalytical chemistry incorporates standardiNedexperimental methods in chemistry. &hese methods may be used in all subdisciplines ofchemistry, excluding purely theoretical chemistry.

• iochemistry is the study of the chemicals, chemical reactions and chemicalinteractions that take place in li"ing organisms. iochemistry and organic chemistry areclosely related, as in medicinal chemistry or  neurochemistry. iochemistry is also associated!ith molecular biology and genetics.

• 0norganic chemistry is the study of the properties and reactions of inorganic compounds.&he distinction bet!een organic and inorganic disciplines is not absolute and there is mucho"erlap, most importantly in the sub<discipline of organometallic chemistry.

• +aterials chemistry is the preparation, characteriNation, and understanding of substances!ith a useful function. &he field is a ne! breadth of study in graduate programs, and itintegrates elements from all classical areas of chemistry !ith a focus on fundamental issuesthat are uni4ue to materials. *rimary systems of study include the chemistry of condensedphases 7solids, li4uids, polymers9 and interfaces bet!een different phases.

• Reurochemistry is the study of neurochemicals6 including transmitters, peptides, proteins,lipids, sugars, and nucleic acids6 their interactions, and the roles they play in forming,maintaining, and modifying the ner"ous system.

• Ruclear chemistry is the study of ho! subatomic particles come together and makenuclei. +odern &ransmutation is a large component of nuclear chemistry, and the table of

nuclides is an important result and tool for this field.

• Qrganic chemistry is the study of the structure, properties, composition, mechanisms,and reactions of organic compounds. n organic compound is defined as any compoundbased on a carbon skeleton.

• *hysical chemistry is the study of the physical and fundamental basis of chemicalsystems and processes. 0n particular, the energetics and dynamics of such systems andprocesses are of interest to physical chemists. 0mportant areas of study include chemicalthermodynamics,chemical kinetics, electrochemistry, statistical mechanics, spectroscopy,and more recently, astrochemistry.[-2] *hysical chemistry has large o"erlap !ith molecular

physics. *hysical chemistry in"ol"es the use of infinitesimal calculus in deri"ing e4uations. 0tis usually associated !ith4uantum chemistry and theoretical chemistry. *hysical chemistry isa distinct discipline from chemical physics, but again, there is "ery strong o"erlap.

• &heoretical chemistry is the study of chemistry "ia fundamental theoretical reasoning7usually !ithin mathematics or  physics9. 0n particular the application of 4uantum mechanics tochemistry is called 4uantum chemistry. Since the end of the Second World War , thede"elopment of computers has allo!ed a systematic de"elopment of computationalchemistry, !hich is the art of de"eloping and applying computer programs for sol"ingchemical problems. &heoretical chemistry has large o"erlap !ith 7theoretical andexperimental9 condensed matter physics and molecular physics.

Qther disciplines !ithin chemistry are traditionally grouped by the type of matter being studied or

the kind of study. &hese include inorganic chemistry, the study of inorganic matter6 organicchemistry, the study of organic 7carbon<based9 matter6 biochemistry, the study

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of  substancesfound in biological organisms6 physical chemistry, the study of chemical processesusing physical concepts such as thermodynamics and4uantum mechanics6 and analyticalchemistry, the analysis of material samples to gain an understanding of their  chemicalcomposition andstructure. +any more specialiNed disciplines ha"e emerged in recent years,e.g. neurochemistry the chemical study of the ner"ous system 7seesubdisciplines9.

Qther fields include agrochemistry, astrochemistry 7and cosmochemistry9, atmosphericchemistry, chemical engineering, chemical biology,chemo<informatics, electrochemistry, en"ironmental chemistry, femtochemistry, fla"or chemistry, flo!chemistry, geochemistry, green chemistry,histochemistry, history of chemistry, hydrogenationchemistry, immunochemistry, marine chemistry, materials science, mathematicalchemistry,mechanochemistry, medicinal chemistry, molecular biology, molecularmechanics, nanotechnology, natural product chemistry, oenology,organometallicchemistry, petrochemistry, pharmacology, photochemistry, physical organicchemistry, phytochemistry, polymer chemistry,radiochemistry, solid<statechemistry, sonochemistry, supramolecular chemistry, surface chemistry, syntheticchemistry, thermochemistry, and many others.

Chemical industry

%ain article& Chemical industry 

&he chemical industry represents an important economic acti"ity !orld!ide. &he global top %5chemical producers in 251# had sales of S^35.% billion !ith a profit margin of 15.#_. [-#]

Professional societies

•  merican hemical Society

•  merican Society for Reurochemistry

• hemical 0nstitute of anada

• hemical Society of *eru

• 0nternational nion of *ure and pplied hemistry

• /oyal ustralian hemical 0nstitute

• /oyal Retherlands hemical Society

• /oyal Society of hemistry

• Society of hemical 0ndustry

• World ssociation of &heoretical and omputational hemists

• Oist of chemistry societies

See also

 

Book: Chemistry

Chemistry portal 

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 Science portal 

• Qutline of chemistry

• Dlossary of chemistry terms

• ommon chemicals

• 0nternational Vear of hemistry

• Oist of chemists

• Oist of compounds

• Oist of important publications in chemistry

• Oist of soft!are for molecular mechanics modeling

• Oist of unsol"ed problems in chemistry

• *eriodic Systems of Small +olecules

• *hilosophy of chemistry

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•  tkins, *.W., Q"erton, &., /ourke, L., Weller, +. and rmstrong, F. Shri5er and t!ins

inorganic chemistry  7$th edition9 255- 7Qxford ni"ersity *ress9 0SR 5<13<32-$-#<%

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