INTRODUCTIONIn this paper, we compare China and India on one of the significant scopes of development, specifically, Education. China and India are home to nearly two-fifths of the worlds population (Rand 2008). Their contemporary performance in terms of economic growth and improving socioeconomic condition is a reflection of progress of human welfare. Evaluating their diverse systems of education might shed light on the efficacy of different strategies for development of not only these two countries, but also for the rest of the developing countries. Given Chinas and Indias aspirations to become world-class economies, it is important that they have education systems comparable with the best in the world. Therefore, a comparative study of the Chinese and Indian education systems, including their achievements and challenges, would be very useful in understanding in gaining insights of their education systems.DISCUSSIONA. Primitive Education From primitive era to the present, humankind developed skills of creating, sustaining, and transmitting culture. These cultural survival skills, became the basis of formal schooling. Pre-literate persons faced the problem of survival in an environment that pitted them against natural forces, animals, and other hostile human beings. To survive, human beings needed food, shelter, warmth, and clothing. In order to transform a frequently hostile environment into a life sustaining one, humankind developed life skills that eventually became cultural patterns. To preserve culture it must be transmitted from the groups adults to its children. As the children learn the language, skills, knowledge, and values of their society, they inherit the culture. The earliest patterns of education involved (1) tool or instrument making, (2) the customs of group life, (3) and language learning.B. History of Ancient Chinese EducationGood education has always been highly valued in China, as the societies believe that education ensures not only the future and development of the individual but also the family and the country as a whole. In Shang Dynasty (16th century BC - 11th century BC), inscriptions on bones or tortoise shells were the simple records of teaching and learning.Education in Zhou & Han DynastiesEducation has played an important role in China's long cultural tradition. In the Western Zhou Dynasty (11th century BC - 771 BC), nobles built schools to teach their children, as their offsprings would be the officials of the future, while those who were gifted but of poor families could but dream of approaching state affairs. During the imperial period (221 BC-1911 AD), only educated intellectual could hold positions of social and political leadership. In the 2nd century BC, the first imperial college was established for educating prospective officials in Confucian teaching and Chinese classics. In ancient times, few Chinese had the time to learn the complicated Chinese writing system and its associated literature.

ConfuciusConfucius, the great educator, devoted all his life to the private school system and instructed most students. Confucianism: a philosophy embracing benevolence in living, diligence in learning, and other standards. Passed down from ancient times, the maxim from the Three-Character Scripture that says 'if no proper education is given to children, their nature will go bad' has proved to be true. It is Confucius who taught us that 'it is a pleasure to learn something and to try it out at intervals'. Similarly, numerous students have been convinced that 'reading books excels all other careers. Recommendation through Observation in the Han Dynasty In 136 BC during the reign of Emperor Wudi (156 BC - 87 BC), the government introduced a system which was named 'taixue'. Usually the students were provided with a free diet and mainly studied the Classical Confucian books. Following examinations, those with good marks would directly be given official titles.In the Han Dynasty there had been no system for testing a person's ability, and the most prevalent method was merely through observation. Officials would see who was intelligent and recommend individuals to their superior. This obviously restricted the source of talented people and did little to provide any kind of equality for the population as a whole. Such a system could only lead to nepotism and corruption and the need for a different means of selection had to be sought.

The Nine Grades of Rank in the Regime System in the Jin, Northern and Southern DynastiesThe Nine Grades of Rank in the Regime System (or Jiupin zhongzheng system), employed the following method: in each state and county there was official acting as 'Zhongzheng' with authority to decide how people were ranked in the local precincts according to ability. By ranking candidates for official positions in this way, the government was able to make a choice of the best people for various posts.Although it had no relationship originally with family background, the 'Zhongzheng' was himself invariably a member of the upper classes and he would often show partiality to families of dignitaries and other upper class people. Thus the disadvantages gradually became apparent and the system was abolished before long.Little Dormitory of Examination RoomThe system of the Imperial Examination, or Keju in Chinese, became the method by which talented people were recognized and selected for future positions in civil service. It began to be put into practice in the Sui Dynasty and lasted more than 1,300 years until the last examination during the Qing Dynasty. Thus it played a long and dominant position in the history of ancient Chinese education.The imperial examinations comprised two parts namely an arts exam and the wushu exam. The arts examination includes composition, study of books, laws, calligraphy, paintings and so on, while the wushu examination was used for selecting military officials but was not subject to the same degree of importance as the arts examination.In the ancient society, class consciousness was strong and many people from lower classes would had have little chance to reach high office, not mention having any position in the official court. But once the 'keju' evaluation system was introduced, children from poor families had opportunities to attend the government exams, and this enabled them to bring honor to their families. Also, was a special exam for smart little children - 'tongziju', which was similar in many ways to today's special classes for gifted children. Thus regardless of parentage, or age, nearly all males were eligible to realize their self-development.Origin of Imperial Examination in Sui DynastyIt was during the Sui Dynasty that the many separate states were unified into a whole. To enforce the centralization of power, the emperor realized the need for a strong, well - educated civil service, one that employed the best talents in the land. To bring this into effect the most influential system was initiated and substituted for what had gone before - Although it was immature at the outset, it inter-wove closely the three essentials for state officials, those of learning, examination and administration. This system proved to be fairer and more far-reaching than any that had preceded it.The Tang DynastyThe Tang Dynasty adopted the personnel selection system and gradually refined it. The main subjects of the examinations were writing and study of classical books, which were the most popular, as well as mathematics, law, calligraphy, etc. Most of prime ministers during that feudal period were titled 'jinshi', were good at writing.The candidates almost always came from two sources. These were students of official schools and also intelligent people undergoing the exams in their local county, who were entitled 'juren' when they achieved the necessary qualifications to take the central government examinations held each spring.The form and content of the exams varied from one another. The one testing knowledge of the classical books followed the method of filling in blanks. Usually one page of a book was chosen and several lines would be omitted. The candidates were required to fill the missing lines. Alternatively, they might be required to explain some of the lines in the book. Therefore the need to be able to recite the work was important. While the tests for 'jinshi' were not so easy - they required a talent for literature. Thus there was a saying that 'one only becomes 'jinshi' in his fifties, although he knew the books well in his thirties.'Candidates who passed the highest imperial examination held by the Board of Rites would have a court officials position. the successful candidates was proudly called 'stepping into the dragon's door'. The most successful scholar was then granted the title of 'zhuang yuan', the second 'bang yan', and the third 'tan hua'. However there would be a final hurdle to cross - a test of another department 'the Board of Civil Office'. The well-educated scholar was given an official position directly after passing the exam because of his extensive knowledge while others who failed and had to be contented with the position of an assistant to a high official.Writing Brush, Ink Stick and Ink SlabInclusion in the list of successful candidates not only relied on the exam result but sometimes also upon the recommendation and instruction of a notable person with authority. The highly reputed poet Bai Juyi (772 - 846) had benefited a lot in this way, with the precondition of his dazzling endowment. When he was young he visited the senior poet Gu Kuang, he was not given too much attention but when the old poet saw that the boy's name meant in Chinese 'living free and easy'. He said to the modest and keen young lad, 'Hey boy, living in the competitive capital Chang'an (now Xi'an) is never an easy thing.' Then he began to casually read Bai Juyi's verse. However, after reading the first sentence of the poem, Gu Kuang became surprised and eager to read more, saying hopefully, 'You can write so brilliant a verse, that living in Chang'an will never be a difficulty for you.' This submitted poem was "A Farewell Poem to the Old Meadow", which has a widespread admiration today.During the reign of Empress Wu Zetian, she asked questions of candidates herself. This was the initialization of the interview. She also created the form of Wushu examination in subjects such as the use of fire arms.In the Song Dynasty (960 - 1279) subjects raised by government had been much less than that in the Tang Dynasty, but the examination for 'jin shi' was still applied. Meanwhile, regardless of form and content, the system underwent great innovation. In the former dynasties like the Tang Dynasty, each year the 'jinshi' were no more than twenty to thirty in number but in the Song Dynasty, there were as many as hundreds of people passing the exams and even those who failed the exams many times could apply for tolerance of the emperor and so serve as officials with less important positions.As content was concerned, while the earlier examinations laid much stress on the ancient classical texts, the great reformer Wang Anshi (1021 - 1086) advocated an innovation which was much more practical. He changed the blank-filling of verses into composition about the verse, giving free reign to the ability of the candidates. However this was opposed by other grandees and did not last for long.Finally, to prevent the practice of favoritism, examinees' names were closely covered on their papers which were then exchanged among different local examiners. This did indeed greatly reduce the incidence of cheating.In the Song Dynasty, few governmental schools were established, numerous private educational organizations - 'shu yuan' were put up. The function of this kind of school was to cultivate talented people, to encourage a devotion to learning, as well as to spread culture. Scholars were invited to give lectures and students were provided with dormitories, desks and food while basically studying on their own and prepared for exams.Ming DynastyWith the coming of the Ming Dynasty, the imperial examination system reached its period of full bloom. Great attention was given to the administrative procedures and the tests became more rigorous.Central government managed to found schools called 'guozijian', and strengthened their function to be the only road by which people could take the exams. There were in total three stages leading to realizing the dream of becoming an official: provincial examination (xiangshi), metropolitan examination (huishi) by the Board of Rites, and Palace examination (dianshi) by the emperor himself. Only students of 'guozijian', commonly known as 'xiucai', could participate at the provincial level as their starting point.Ming DynastyThe provincial and metropolitan examiners tested only 'eight-legged' essays and people easily realized that the quality of that sort of essay was the key to achieving a pass. Therefore, it became usual for them to concentrate too much energy on it, neglecting other forms and contents. They were required to write in a fixed style with a fixed word count - it had to be eight paragraphs, while imitating the tone of the classics. Eventually, it was realized that this method was harmful as it stifled both creativity and imagination. Once these book worms had passed their exams, they could go further to take the simpler test set by the emperor. There were no failures during the Ming Dynasty, but each candidate's placing on the pass list was decided personally by the emperor.Examination in the Qing DynastyThe Qing Dynasty (1644 - 1911) was ruled by the Manchu ethnic group, they gave their people priority over the Han people. Manchu people attending the imperial examination were not tested but required only to undertake some translation, yet the Han people were still formed a majority of the examinees. As the tight hold on affairs held by the Qing Dynasty became more and more unpopular, the education system also needed fresh ideas and input as it was a disservice to the country. A trend appeared towards the way in which the positions of court officials could be purchased and this sometimes even gave rise to unlawful pass to the degraded system.In 1898, Emperor Guang Xu, supported by Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao, well-known reformers, reformed Chinese education. The measures included the establishment of a system of modern schools accessible to a greater majority of the population, abolition of the rigid examination system for the selection of government officials, and the introduction of short and practical essay examinations. A modern school system was built on their foundations with primary, secondary, and college levels reflective of Western models. Schools throughout China were organized into three major stages and seven levels. Elementary education was composed of kindergarten, lower elementary, and higher elementary; secondary education consisted of middle school; and higher education was divided into preparatory school, specialized college, and university. The Qing Court also instructed provincial, prefectural, and county governments to open new schools and start a compulsory education program. The civil examination system (keju) was officially abolished in 1905, marking the end of the trademark of traditional Chinese education.Six years later, China's dynastic tradition also came to an end when the new Nationalist Republic replaced it. With this political metamorphosis, China's educational system experienced further transformations. In 1912 and 1913 the Republican government issued Regulations Concerning Public and Private Schools and Regulations Concerning Private Universities; these documents laid out the criteria for private schools and stipulated proper application and registration procedures, while calling for financial investment in education nationwide.

Beginning of Modern Education

The aim of modern education was to spread literacy and learn new scientific knowledge; it advocated the use of vernacular language instead of the classical idiom. The classical language had prevented the emergence of masses of knowledgeable population. The national drive for the new education resulted in a drastic change at the turn of the 20th century signified not only a drastic change of education in its form, but also it pertains to the position of Confucian classics which was no longer the only source of standard and valid knowledge. It was during this time that much modern natural and social scientific knowledge was brought into China, such as social theories and modern technology. Henceforward, new education has become the norm of education setting in China. The new education is in many ways different from the traditional education. Unlike traditional education where children studied together regardless of age, the modern system required students grouped together separately in line with their ages with children of seven years old and older being obliged to enter schools. The education system was, like the other countries, divided into three levels; elementary, secondary and high education levels. New school system adopted largely Westernized subject division of curriculum plus Chinese literature and language, mostly in vernacular form. The interest for the Western-style school and knowledge can be illustrated by the instance of overseas study. It was this period of time that an increasing number of Chinese going studying abroad mainly to Japan, Europe, and the United States. The first generation of Chinese studying overseas began from the late 19th century. Students, who went abroad to study in higher education for a number of years then return to China were highly expected, to save the nation through their new acquired knowledge ranging from engineering to law and arts.

Nationalism and Education

Education in modern time China has never been considered as merely an individual enterprise of knowledge pursuing. In the early years of the Republic, Chinese officials, inspired by the examples of Britain, Germany, Japan, emphasized the importance of an extensive educational system producing a patriotic, hard-working and united citizenry as a cause of national strengthening. After the founding of the Republic in 1911, the goal of searching for modern nationhood had become even more urgent. The First Conference on National Education under the Republic was convened in Beijing in July 1912. (under the Ministry of Education, headed by Cai Yuan-pei.) The conference declared that development and reform of education was the precondition for the nations revival and the first step toward creating a new citizenry. In general the new education would cover five fields: military training, practical skills, moral cultivation, aesthetic education and world outlook. Cai proposed the equal importance of five ways of education and life i.e. moral, epistemic, physical, social, and aesthetic which are still seen as the ultimate objectives of education today in mainland China and Taiwan.

After the Nationalist Party (KMT) had ascended to power and reunite China, Sun Yat-sens thought had become the main source of ideology, where education was thought to enrich the peoples social life, to improve the standards of living, and thus achieve the nations salvation. It will ultimately serve the cause of national independence, democracy and economy prosperity and striving for world peace. Shortly after its inauguration, the KMT government implemented a compulsory education program with centralized educational administration and standardized curricula in elementary and secondary schools. Chinese government focused on public education, in order to create educated citizenry. At this stage education is highly related to the idea of nationalism. The aims of education as promulgated by the government at various time implied a nationalistic meanings (national power, national unity, national culture and national sovereignty).

One of the characteristics of education in China is that it carries a strong sense of pragmatism. Although the content of education has changed considerably before and after the founding of republic, what has remained intact with Chinese mentality on education is that they have had a sheer pragmatic view on education and knowledge. Equality is a very important aspect in traditional education in so far the examination system is concerned. One of the legacies of Imperial Examination System that has a bearing on todays view on education is that it makes the people believe that individuals, even from the most humble backgrounds, could rise to great highs through education if they could survive the rigors of study and examinations. Thats why exam is still a very important part and integral to whole system of education. One of the most well-known Confucian maxim on education is, in teaching there should be no distinction of classes, it has a truly equalitarian spirit. Confucius believes men were born the same, only practice makes people apart. Hence, inherently no one is smarter or dumber than any other. Education can only reduce and ultimately eradicate the difference among human beings of different classes.

National salvation One apparent change of view before and after the Republic is that the connotation of education has changed. Rather than seeing education as a means of allowing personal prosperity and social upward mobility, it has taken up another dimension. The dominant view on education since modern days is that many saw education as the most important, if not the only, means to build a strong nation-state resting upon military power and capable of existing in the world of nations. At least, many believed a modern system of education was conceived as the most effective means of saving and strengthening the nation.

Moral perfection The perennial Confucian ideal on education is to guide people to pursue moral perfection in realizing the life that performs goodness and benevolence. Such a Confucian ideal still holds valid nowadays. Confucian also supposes that moral perfection through self-discipline. It stands as the primary step of virtue making followed by family management good governance of the country and finally pacify the world which would amount to the accomplishment of human being as a moral agent in the Confucian ideal. In this sense moral perfection is not only intrinsically desirable, but also carries a strong propensity as means to an end. Education does matter in Chinese belief. Education has never been an individual business. Parents often have high expectation of their childrens education. Education in China has always accompanied a high expectation from the family and parents.

SIGNIFICANCE

Studying History of Ancient Chinese Education and Hindu is significant. It was thought that the past helps us understand their present education system. Since history, the general attitude toward education that has transcended over time is that it pertains to pragmatism, equality, national salvation and ultimately moral perfection. Evaluating their diverse systems of education might shed light on the efficacy of different strategies for development of not only these two countries, but also for the rest of the developing countries. History, by its very nature, it tells us more than about the past; it argues for an ideology a world view. History of Ancient Chinese Education and Hindu gave us an excellent opportunity to see a struggle between different groups each trying to claim history in support of their cause.In comparing education of China and India, where I found beauty, joy of discovery, and somehow found an intellectual challenge. Between the inevitable minimum and the pleasure of deep commitment in history through cumulative skill in interpreting the unfolding human record, it provides me a real grasp of how the world education works.

LOMAGDONG, ANGELA DOMINIQUE T. Student