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Chapter 7

Memory

Is this true?

YES

Processes of Memory

Encoding

Attention Types of encoding Elaboration,

Visual Imagery, Self-Reerent

Structural Phonemic Semantic

Retrieval Storage

Semantic networks Schema, script Errors

Repression, T.O.T, Decay, forgetting

curve

Misinformation: Source and Reality

Monitering errors

Stages of Memory

Sensory

Iconic Echoic (Acoustic)

Structural Phonemic Semantic

LTM STM

7-11 items 20 seconds

Rehearsal, Mnemonic devices Permanent?

Learning Curve

Physiology of Memory

Stored in Synapses

Memory Systems PDP

Declarative?

Semantic

Non-Declarative (Implicit)

Episodic

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A-G people memorize left side H-M people memorize the middle

N-Z memorize the right side !   NOX !   CEG !   MIB !   BOF !   HUC !   BOF !   WOJ !   PIW !   DAV !   REZ !   JEQ

!   NAR !   CUS !   MEX !   BEC !   HON !   BEC !   WOM !   PUF !   DAR !   REG !   JUS

!   DOG !   CAT !   ODD !   LOG !   RAT !   ODD !   FOG !   GOD !   DID !   SAY !   RAY

3 PROCESSES of MEMORY

!   Memory: Active system that stores, organizes, alters, and recovers (retrieves) information l  Encoding: Converting information into a

useable form l  Storage: Holding this information in

memory l  Retrieval: Taking memories out of storage

Fig. 9.1 In some ways, a computer acts like a mechanical memory system. Both systems process information, and both allow encoding, storage, and retrieval of data.

TYPES of ENCODING

!   Selective Attention !   Levels of Encoding

l  Shallow or structural (what it LOOKS like) l  Intermediate (what it SOUNDS like) l  Deep (what it means semantic)

Do experiment 12 and 13 animal word list

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Levels-of-Processing Model !   A model of memory as a single system in

which retention depends on how deeply information is processed l  With the shallowest levels of processing, a person is

merely aware of the incoming sensory information l  Deeper processing (elaboration) takes place only

when the person does something more with the information, such as forming relationships, making associations, attaching meaning to a sensory impression, or otherwise engaging in active elaboration on new material

Selective Attention (moon walking bears, anyone)

!   We can “filter out” extraneous stimuli to focus on specific important stimuli 3 ways l  Early: BEFORE we process it l  Late: AFTER we process it (cocktail effect) l  Anywhere in b/w

Sensory Memory •  Sensory memory is affiliated with the

transduction of energy. !   The memory system that holds information

coming in through the senses for a period ranging from a fraction of a second to several seconds l  Visual sensory memory--less than ½ second l  Auditory sensory memory--lasts 2 to 3 seconds

Now for part TWO: STORAGE

!   Sensory memory. Storing an exact copy of incoming information for a few seconds (either what is seen or heard); the first stage of memory. l  Iconic: Visual sensory memory--less than ½ second l  Echoic: Auditory sensory memory--lasts 2 to 3 seconds

!   Short-term Memory (STM): lasts about 20 seconds, holds 7-11 “items”. Will last longer if you constantly rehearse it.

!   Affected by l  Primacy Effect l  Recency Effect

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Memorize the following words

!   Candle !   Store !   Chair !   Phone !   Bike !   Ball !   Outrageous !   Cat !   Book !   Milk !   Clock !   Shoe !   Gym !   Plant !   Basket

Write them Down

!   Other processes of Encoding l  Elaboration l  Chunking

!   Car !   Flower !   Desk !   Key !   Video !   Carpet !   Magnet

Ways of STORING (cont) !   Radio !   Ice !   Peanut !   Bench !   Clock !   Briefcase !   Envelpoe !   Nail

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MEMORIZE THE FOLLOWING

!   ABCCBSAAAMTVUSANBCCNN

!   ABC CBS MTV USA NBC CNN

l  Volunteers for a little experiment???

Ways of STORING (cont)

l  Self-referent encoding l  Mnemonic Devices l  Acrostics and Acronyms l  Study for short periods l  Visual Imagery (click for Elephant)

Ways of STORING (cont)

l  Visual Imagery (Elephant Overhead) in the ”Visio-spatial” work pad”

l  Self-referent encoding l  Mnemonic Devices l  Acrostics and Acronyms l  Study for short periods

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MORE Ways of STORING (cont) !   Narrative Method

!   Rhymes and songs !   METAPHORS !   Keyword (connect concrete words with

abstract ones) Do Activity p. 28 !   Memory Mansions !   Overlearning !   Link Method (Method of Loci) !   Flashbulb Memory

Flashbulb Memories

!   Kennedy Assassination !   Neil Armstrong on Moon !   Margaret Thatcher Resignation as UK

PM !   Death of UK Princess Diana !   Attack on World Trade Centre in New

York !   The Tsunami Disaster in South Asia

!  Flashbulb memories l Neiser and Harsch

l Questioned university freshmen about the Challenger disaster the following morning

l When the same students were questioned again 3 years later, one-third gave accounts that differed markedly from those given initially, even though they were extremely confident of their recollections

Stages of Memory

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Short-Term Memory (STM) AKA: Executive Memory

!   Storing small amounts of information briefly l  Working Memory: Part of STM; like a mental

“scratchpad” l  Selective Attention: Focusing (voluntarily) on a

selected portion of sensory input (e.g., selective hearing)

l  Phonetically: Storing information by sound; how most things are stored in STM

!   Very sensitive to interruption or interference

Short-term Memory !   Getting information into STM

l  Attention !   Keeping information in STM (executive memory)

l  Organization (advance organizer) l  Repetition (maintenance rehearsal) l  An interruption to repetition can cause information to be

lost in just a few seconds !   Displacement

l  The event that occurs when short-term memory is holding its maximum and each new item entering short-term memory pushes out an existing item

Long-Term Memory (LTM)

!   Storing information relatively permanently

!   Stored on basis of meaning and importance

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Fig. 9.2 Remembering is thought to involve at least three steps. Incoming information is first held for a second or two by sensory memory. Information selected by attention is then transferred to temporary storage in short-term memory. If new information is not rapidly encoded, or rehearsed, it is forgotten. If it is transferred to long-term memory, it becomes relatively permanent, although retrieving it may be a problem. The preceding is a useful model of memory; it may not be literally true of what happens in the brain (Eysenck & Keane, 1995).

Types of Long-Term Memories

!   Procedural: Long-term memories of conditioned responses and learned skills, e.g., driving

!   Declarative: LTM factual information (Semantic Memory: Impersonal facts and everyday knowledge. Subset of declarative memory) l  Episodic: Personal experiences linked with

specific times and places l  Semantic: placing MEANING on learning

Fig. 9.7 In the model shown here, long-term memory is divided into procedural memory (learned actions and skills) and declarative memory (stored facts). Declarative memories can be either semantic (impersonal knowledge) or episodic (personal experiences associated with specific times and places).

Long-term Memory !   Nondeclarative memory (also called implicit

or procedural memory) l  The subsystem within long-term memory that

consists of skills acquired through repetitive practice, habits, and simple classically conditioned responses

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Long-term Memory

!   The relatively permanent memory system with a virtually unlimited capacity

!   Elaborative rehearsal l  A technique used to encode information into

long-term memory by considering its meaning and associating it with other information already stored in long-term memory

Methods of Elaboration

There are several examples of elaboration that are commonly used in the teaching/ learning process:

Imaging Creating a mental picture

There are several examples of elaboration that are commonly used in the teaching/ learning process:

Method of loci--

(locations)

Ideas or things to be remembered are connected to objects located in a familiar location

Methods of Elaboration

There are several examples of elaboration that are commonly used in the teaching/ learning process:

Pegword method

Ideas or things to be remembered are connected to specific words (e.g., one-bun, two-shoe, three-tree, etc.)

Methods of Elaboration

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There are several examples of elaboration that are commonly used in the teaching/ learning process:

Rhyming (songs,

phrases)

Information to be remember is arranged in a rhyme (e.g., 30 days hath September, April, June and November, etc

Methods of Elaboration

There are several examples of elaboration that are commonly used in the teaching/ learning process:

Acrostics: a type of mnemonics

The first letter of each word in a list is used to make a sentence (the sillier, the better)

Methods of Elaboration

Long-term Memory

!   Eidetic imagery l  The ability to retain the image of a visual

stimulus several minutes after it has been removed from view

l  Some studies show that about 5% of children apparently have something akin to photographic memory

l  Virtually all children with eidetic imagery lose it before adulthood

Test pictures like this are used to identify children with eidetic imagery. To test your eidetic imagery, look at the picture for 30 seconds. Then look at a blank surface and try to “project” the picture on it. If you have good eidetic imagery, you will be able to see the picture in detail..)

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Drawn from memory by a 12 year autistic

person with NO artistic training

This talent? Takes many forms

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LTM may be unlimited.

l  Clustering/Conceptual Hierarchies: Handout word list 8-6 and 8-7

l  Semantic Networks: explains how we think: Stream of Consciousness; “I am going to the baseball game Tuesday, I love the ballpark hotdogs. That was a funny commercial about tofudogs. I wonder how my dog is, it was sick when I left. OH NO, I forgot my project at home. The teacher will never believe…

l  Parallel distributive Processing (PDP). Neural networks (nodes) of highly interconnected neurons that when fired create PATTERN recognition. This can explain why we can recognize shapes in 300 milliseconds.

l  Schemas and scripts

LTM may be unlimited.

RED Fire engine Death

Dalmatian

Mars

Of a salesman

Schemas and Scripts

!   A SCHEMA is any over-arching body of knowledge that is central to our thinking. (Piaget)

l  SCRIPTS are the more practical aspects of schemas that are used in particular contexts.

l  “A SCRIPT is a set of information that provides guiding principles about what normally to expect in a specific situation” . A stereotype of WHAT HAPPENS NEXT.

Schemas

!   The integrated frameworks of knowledge and assumptions a person has about people, objects, and events, which affect how the person encodes and recalls information

!   Schemas influence what people notice and how they encode and recall information

!   When we encounter new information or have a new experience related to an existing schema, we try to make it fit or be consistent with that schema

!   To do this, we may have to distort some aspects of the information and ignore or forget other aspects

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The Problem is usually Retrieval

§  Forgetting can result from failure to retrieve information from long-term memory

External events

Attention

Encoding

Encoding

Retrieval failure leads to forgetting

Retrieval Sensory memory

Short-term memory

Long-term memory

Retrieval !   Encoding Specificity (Memory Cues): Any stimulus

associated with a memory; usually enhances retrieval of a memory l  A person will forget if cues are missing at retrieval time

!   State-Dependent Learning: When memory retrieval is influenced by body state; if your body state is the same at the time of learning AND the time of retrieval, retrievals will be improved l  If Robert is drunk and forgets where his car is parked, it will be

easier to recall the location if he gets drunk again! !   Context-Dependent Learning: studies done on people

learning in different environments, and tested in same and different environments.

Fig. 9.15 The effect of mood on memory. Subjects best remembered a list of words when their mood during testing was the same as their mood was when they learned the list. (Adapted from Bower, 1981.)

Forgetting

§  Forgetting as encoding failure §  Information never enters long-term

memory

External events

Sensory memory

Short- term

memory

Long- term

memory

Attention

Encoding

Encoding

Encoding failure leads to forgetting

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Forgetting as encoding failure

Some of the distracter items used in a study of recognition memory and encoding failure. Penny A is correct but was seldom recognized. Pennies G and J were popular wrong answers. (Adapted from Nickerson & Adams, 1979.)

Forgetting

§  Ebbinghaus forgetting curve over 30 days-- initially rapid, then levels off with time

1 2 3 4 5 10 15 20 25 30

10

20

30

40

50

60

0

Time in days since learning list

Percentage of list retained when relearning

A-G people memorize left side H-N people memorize the middle

M-Z memorize the right side !   NOX !   CEG !   MIB !   BOF !   HUC !   BOF !   WOJ !   PIW !   DAV !   REZ !   JEQ

!   NAR !   CUS !   MEX !   BEC !   HON !   BEC !   WOM !   PUF !   DAR !   REG !   JUS

!   DOG !   CAT !   ODD !   LOG !   RAT !   ODD !   FOG !   GOD !   DID !   SAY !   RAY

Forgetting §  The forgetting curve for Spanish learned in school

Retention drops,

then levels off

1 3 5 9½ 14½ 25 35½ 49½ Time in years after completion of Spanish course

100%

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Percentage of original

vocabulary retained

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So the “Forgetting Curve” declines in direct proportion ro how involved YOU

were in creating meaningful connections

!   Unfortunately the newest breed of educrats believes the opposite. There is no reason to know the FACTS b/c it is all on the internet.

!   Colleges HATE these ideas and know that the current 56% college dropout rate is due to flawed studies like Ebbinghaus

!   They are creating these to fight back.

Forgetting as Interference

§  Learning some items may disrupt retrieval of other information §  Proactive (forward acting) Interference

§  disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of new information

§  Retroactive (backwards acting) Interference §  disruptive effect of new learning on recall of

old information

Forgetting as Interference

Fig. 9.18 Retroactive and proactive interference. The order of learning and testing shows whether interference is retroactive (backward) or proactive (forward).

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Fig. 9.11 The curve of forgetting. This graph shows the amount remembered (measured by relearning) after varying lengths of time. The material learned was nonsense syllables. Forgetting curves for meaningful information also show early losses followed by a long, gradual decline, but overall, forgetting occurs much more slowly. (After Ebbinghaus, 1885.)

Forgetting

§  Forgetting can occur at any memory stage

§  As we process information, we filter, alter, or lose much of it

Motivated Forgetting people unknowingly revise

memories § Repression: defense mechanism that

banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

§ Suppression : Consciously putting something painful or threatening out of mind or trying to keep it from entering awareness

Forgetting

!   Nonsense Syllables: Meaningless three-letter words (fej, quf) that test learning and forgetting

!   Encoding Failure: When a memory was never formed in the first place

!   Memory Traces: Physical changes in nerve cells or brain activity that occur when memories are stored

!   Memory Decay: When memory traces become weaker; fading or weakening of memories

!   Disuse: Theory that memory traces weaken when memories are not used or retrieved

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Pick a card from the six shown. Look at it closely and be sure you can remember which card is yours. Now, mentally tap all four corners of your card with your fingertip. Obviously, you could have selected any one of the six cards in Fig.9.12. How did I know

which one to remove? This trick is based entirely on an illusion of memory. Recall that you were asked to concentrate on one card in Fig.9.12. That prevented you from paying attention to the other cards, so they weren’t stored in your memory. The five cards you see here are all new . Because you couldn’t find your card in the “remaining five,” it looked like your card had disappeared.

More on Forgetting

!   Positive Transfer: Mastery of one task aids learning or performing another

!   Negative Transfer: Mastery of one task conflicts with learning or performing another. (both proactively and retroactively)

Measuring Memory

!   Tip-of-the Tongue (TOT) Phenomenon: Feeling that a memory is available but not quite retrievable

!   Recall: Direct retrieval of facts or information (essay)

!   Recognition Memory: Previously learned material is correctly identified l  Usually easier than recall (multiple choice)

!   Relearning: Learning again something that was previously learned

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Measuring Memory (cont.)

!   Explicit Memory: Past experiences that are consciously brought to mind

!   Implicit Memory: A memory not known to exist; memory that is unconsciously retrieved

!   Priming: When cues are used to activate hidden memories

!   Internal Images: Mental pictures

Memory Formation

!   Retrograde Amnesia: Forgetting events that occurred before an injury or trauma

!   Anterograde Amnesia: Forgetting events that follow an injury or trauma

!   Consolidation: Forming a long-term memory

Memory Structures (physiology)

!   Hippocampus: Brain structure associated with information passing from short-term memory into long-term memory (CONSOLIDATION) l  If damaged, person can no longer “create” long-

term memories and thus will always live in the present

l  Memories prior to damage will remain intact

!   Engram: Memory trace in the brain

But where are they stored? !   Stored in RNA? (flatworm experiment) !   Synaptic Cleft? Neurotransmitters/hormones

recreate memories based on type and volume emitted into SC.

!   Neural Circuits? Titanic Stimulation (LTP) !   Parallel Distributive Processing. Starts in

hippocampus as the word “storm”. When it gets to the O.L. you see lightning. When it gets to the T.L. you hear Thunder.

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Ways to Improve Memory !   Knowledge of Results: Feedback allowing

you to check your progress !   Recitation: Summarizing aloud while you are

learning !   Rehearsal: Reviewing information mentally

(silently) !   Selection: Selecting most important concepts

to memorize !   Organization: Organizing difficult items into

chunks; a type of reordering

Ways to Improve Memory (cont.)

!   Whole Learning: Studying an entire package of information at once, like a poem

!   Part Learning: Studying subparts of a larger body of information (like text chapters)

!   Progressive Part Learning: Breaking learning task into a series of short sections

!   Overlearning: Studying is continued beyond bare mastery. Ex: Teaching the material

Ways to Improve Memory (cont.)

!   Spaced Practice: Alternating short study sessions with brief rest periods instead of Massed Practice

!   Lack of sleep decreases retention; sleep aids consolidation

!   Hunger decreases retention

One more time. Memorize your list

!   NOX !   CEG !   MIB !   BOF !   HUC !   BOF !   WOJ !   PIW !   DAV !   REZ !   JEQ

!   NAR !   CUS !   MEX !   BEC !   HON !   BEC !   WOM !   PUF !   DAR !   REG !   JUS

!   DOG !   CAT !   ODD !   LOG !   RAT !   ODD !   FOG !   GOD !   DID !   SAY !   RAY

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Did You do Better. Everytime it gets easier

!   NOX !   CEG !   MIB !   BOF !   HUC !   BOF !   WOJ !   PIW !   DAV !   REZ !   JEQ

!   NAR !   CUS !   MEX !   BEC !   HON !   BEC !   WOM !   PUF !   DAR !   REG !   JUS

!   DOG !   CAT !   ODD !   LOG !   RAT !   ODD !   FOG !   GOD !   DID !   SAY !   RAY

Mistakes in Remembering !   Distortion in memory

l  Occurs when people alter the memory of an event or an experience in order to fit their beliefs, expectations, logic, or prejudices

l  The tendency to distort makes the world more understandable and enables people to organize their experiences into their existing systems of beliefs and expectations

l  Bahrick and others l  Found that 89% of college students accurately remember

the A’s they earned in high school, but only 29% accurately recall the D’s

Mistakes in Remembering !   Sir Frederick Bartlett

l  Studied memory using rich and meaningful material learned and remembered under more lifelike conditions

l  Concluded that people systematically distort the facts and the circumstances of experiences

l  Information already stored in long-term memory exerts a strong influence on how people remember new information and experiences

Mistakes in Remembering

§  We filter information and fill in missing pieces

§  Misinformation Effect (Do Story Chain) §  incorporating misleading information into

one's memory of an event §  Source Monitoring (Source Amnesia)

§  attributing to the wrong source an event that we experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined (misattribution)

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Memory Construction

§  Eyewitnesses reconstruct memories when questioned

Depiction of actual accident

Leading question: “About how fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?”

Memory construction

Improve Your Memory

§  Study repeatedly to boost recall §  Spend more time rehearsing or

actively thinking about the material §  Make material personally meaningful §  Use mnemonic devices

§  associate with peg words--something already stored

§  make up story §  chunk--acronyms

Improve Your Memory §  Activate retrieval cues--mentally

recreate situation and mood §  Recall events while they are fresh--

before you encounter misinformation §  Minimize interference §  Test your own knowledge

§  rehearse §  determine what you do not yet

know

READ and PROCESS page 303

!   Please !   Please !   Please !   Please !   Please