chris smart creighton bradley leandra londo [email protected] [email protected] [email protected]
TRANSCRIPT
9.1 Using Reasons to Plan Your Argument 9.2 The Slippery Distinction between Reasons
and Evidence 9.3 Evidence vs. Reports of Evidence 9.4 Selecting the Right Form for Reporting
Evidence 9.5 Reliable Evidence 10.1 Questioning Your Argument 10.2 Finding Alternatives to Your Argument 10.3 Deciding What to Acknowledge 10.4 Responses as Subordinate Arguments
Introduction
Readers use reasons to believe and understand
Collect evidence and use reasons to organizeUse a storyboard
Try different arrangementsChange as you information changes
Using Reason to Plan Your Argument
Reasons are whyEvidence is accepted as factStart with reasons but base them on facts
Readers decide whether it is fact or a reasonImagine “how” and “why”
Distinction Between Reasons and Evidence
Evidence is usually reported.Evidence is rounded or shaped.
Unlikely for a researcher to rely on only 1 source
Most evidence we get is 3rd handReaders want proof
Methodssources
Evidence vs. Reports of Evidence
Numerous ways to report evidence Direct QuotesPhotographs, video, other mediaCharts or tablesParaphrasing
Different researchers require different techniques
Improper use of reporting leads to suspicion and loss of credibility
Selecting the Right Form for Reporting Evidence
Criteria for reliable evidencePrecision
Avoid vague words like “great deal” or small amount.Use discretion in differing fields
RepresentativeMore than one bit of infoFind best evidence
AccuracySmall mistakes kill credibilityAcknowledge if evidence is of unknown accuracy
From an authoritative sourceMake the evidence easy to interpret
Reliable evidence
Question the problem as your reader wouldWhy have you defined it that way?Is there even a problem?What kind of problem is it?
Question the solution as wellWhat kind of solution is it?Is the claim too strong?Why is your solution the best?
The best time to fix a problem is when you find it
Chapter 10: Questioning your argument
Different type of evidence wantedNot accurateNot preciseOutdatedNot representativeNot authoritativeNot enough evidence
Common objections to evidence
Alternatives in your sourcesNote where source takes a different approach
Especially outright disagreementsAcknowledge alternative positions of the
sourceDon’t ignore evidence because you deem it
irrelevant – explain why.If you pay attention to problems noted in
sources, you will understand the problem better.
Finding Alternatives to your argument
“But there are causes in addition to the one you claim.”If using cause-effect to explain your problem,
remember no cause has a single effect and vice-versa
“But what about these counter examples?”Think of them firstAcknowledge the more plausible onesExplain why they aren’t valid for your
argument
Three Predictable Answers
“I don’t define X as you do. To me, X means…Define it in a way that supports your solutionArgue your definition to support itIf using a technical definition over a common
one, explain why. Also do this if using a common definition over a technical one.
Three Predictable Answers, cont’d
Selecting Alternatives to respond to:Consider these priorities
Plausible charges of apparent weakness you can rebut
Alternative lines of argument that have been important in your field
Alternative conclusions readers want to be trueAlternative evidence that readers knowImportant counterexamples you have to explain
away
Deciding What to Acknowledge
Selecting alternatives to respond to:Look for alternatives that allow you to repeat
part of your argumentAcknowledge alternatives that may particularly
appeal to readers, but only if you can do so without sounding too dismissive.
Deciding What to Acknowledge, cont’d
If finding questions you cannot answer, try redefining your problem, or rebuilding your argument to avoid it.
Openly acknowledge the problem and respond that:The rest of your argument more than balances the
flawWhile the flaw is serious, further research would
show a way around itWhile the flaw makes it impossible to accept your
claim fully, your argument offers important insight into the question and suggests what a better answer would be.
Acknowledging Questions you can’t Answer
You have to respond to your imagined readers most thoughtful alternatives and objectives with an argumentEven most minimal responses give reason for
accepting, limiting or rejecting what you’ve acknowledged
More substantial responses require a full argument
Acknowledging the readers alternatives and objections brings you and your argument more credibility.
Responses as Subordinate Arguments
9.1 Using Reasons to Plan Your Argument 9.2 The Slippery Distinction between Reasons
and Evidence 9.3 Evidence vs. Reports of Evidence 9.4 Selecting the Right Form for Reporting
Evidence 9.5 Reliable Evidence 10.1 Questioning Your Argument 10.2 Finding Alternatives to Your Argument 10.3 Deciding What to Acknowledge 10.4 Responses as Subordinate Arguments
Summary
Booth, Wayne C., Gregory G. Colomb, and Joseph M. Williams. The Craft of Research.
2nd ed. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2003. 138-60. Print.
Bibliography
Questions?