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CinecolorAuthor(s): John BeltonReviewed work(s):Source: Film History, Vol. 12, No. 4, Color Film (2000), pp. 344-357Published by: Indiana University PressStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3815344 .

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FilmHistory,Volume12, pp.344-357, 2000. Copyright JohnLibbeyISSN: 892-2160. PrintednMalaysiaIII I III I

CinecoIor

John Belton'Theindustrys rapidlybecomingcolor con-scious.With hemajorproblemsofsoundsuc-cessfully solved, the studios and colorprocessesare nowbending heirefforts o thefurtherdevelopmentof color cinematogra-phy.The eading producing ompaniesareall em-ployingsome color systemin sequences oftheir important productions. Several out-standing eatureshave been madeentirelyncolor. Inthisbusinessof surprises,t is withinthe bounds of possibilityhatcolorwilleven-tually ransplanthe blackand white ilm.Evenastodaya silentfeature trikeshesound-edu-cated publicas more or less of an oddity,itmaycome to pass thatin the futurea black-and-whitesubject will appear outdated incomparisonwithan all-color ilm.... Technicolor, Photocolor,Multicolorandthe EastmanSonochrome intedpositive ilmsaretheprocessesmostgenerallyusedincolorcinematographyo date .... Theconsensusofinformed pinionisthat beforemanymonths50 percent of all Hollywoodeatureswillbeusingcolorat leastincertain equences. ..'- Anon., 'Color',The 1930 FilmDailyYear-bookof MotionPictures'

he Film Daily Yearbook's predictionsaboutcolourreflect hetechnologicalop-timismof thefilm ndustrynthe late tran-sition-to-sound(but pre-Crash)period.The 'transplanting' f blackand whitebycolourwouldnot,alas, occurfor another25 years.Itwasnotuntil1955 thatproductionsncolouroutnum-bered hoseinblackandwhite;anditwas not untilthe late 1960s - and the widespreaddiffusionofcolourtelevision- that colour wouldfinallysup-

plantblackandwhite,as colourproductions osefrom54 percentin 1966 to 94 percentin 1970.2One of the most ntriguingspectsaboutFilmDaily's peculationssjusthow aroff the markheyare. What is fascinating or the historianof tech-nologyabout theinvention, nnovation, nd diffu-sion of colourwithin he industrys the relativelylengthy panof time that ttook foritto occur.Likethedevelopment f widescreen inema,thehistoryof motionpicturecolour is a historyof failures,setbacks,detoursanddelays.The perceptionof what wouldtake place inthe field of colourtechnologyin 1930 is clearlyclouded by the recent developmentof sound.Within matter f fouryears, heindustryadcon-verted roman all-silent o an all-sound cinema.Drivenbythe economic interestsof WarnerBros.and Fox,soundfounda solid footholdwithinHol-lywood romwhichitquickly preadto the restofthestudios.But t was not until he late 1950s thatthe studiosbeganto invest ncolourtechnologyin the form of colour laboratoriesat M-G-M,WarnerBros.,and TwentiethCentury-Fox.3 ntilthisperiod,companiesinvolved nthe innovationof colour remainedindependentof the studios;theywereserviceprovidersnsearchof customers.From he vantage pointof the present,it isclearthat he adventofsoundwasnot an accuratemodelbywhich o predict he futuredevelopmentof colour.Thehistory f colour cannotbe writtenaccordingto the scriptsdevelopedforwritinghehistory f sound- orof anyother echnology.Thechief resultof such a comparisoncan onlybe therealisation f justhowdifferenthose histories re.Each echnologyexistswithin differentet of tech-

John Belton teaches film in the English Depart-ment at Rutgers University. Address correspon-dence to 243 Baltic St., Brooklyn, NY 11201,USA.


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Cinecolor345

Fig. 1. William T. Crespinel with the Prizma camera (left)and Nick Musaraca (standing) with astandard black and white camera on location for on The Glorious Adventure (1922).[Photo courtesy of William A. Crespinel.]nological, economic-industrial, and socio-cul-tural determinants and constraints. And, as a re-sult, the historyof each technology takes a differentshape. Yet the shape that the development of col-our motion pictures takes and our understandingof that development necessarily exist within thiscomparative discourse with the development ofsound - withinthe context of other technologies.

The following essay looks at the history of a'failed' colour process, Cinecolor, and attempts tounderstand its limited success and ultimate failureby viewing the history of that process within theunique and complex field of forces which governedthe uneven and erraticdevelopment of motion pic-ture colour.

One of the colour processes mentioned byFilm Daily in 1930 is Multicolor, a forerunner ofCinecolor. IfCinecolor is the direct descendent ofthe short-lived Multicolor Process, which was intro-duced in 1928 but went out of business in 1932, itis also related to Prizmacolor (ca. 1913-1928),which experimented with bi-pack negatives andDuplitized positive release prints (ca. 1919).4 The

chain of developments eadingto Cinecolor canbe traced back even further o thedevelopmentofKinemacolor 1906-1 914).5 Just before its de-mise, Kinemacolor evelopedan alternate ramecolour printingprocessthat eliminated he needforspecial filtersplaced infrontof the projectionlens.6 Featuresof this printingprocess seem tohave been incorporatedntothe Prizmaprocess,as well as processes for printingMulticolorandCinecolor ilms.One of the threadswhich links hese variousexperiments n colour technology is WilliamT.Crespinel,who firstbeganto work or Kinemacolorin 1907 and was sentbyKinemacolortohe UnitedStates n1912. Shortly fter he demise of Kinema-color in 1915, Crespinel oinedPrizma,where hephotographed sequences for Our Navy (1917)and The Gilded Lily(1921). Crespinelwas theprincipalphotographeror the first ull-lengthmo-tionpictureilmed ncolour(inPrizma), heGlori-ous Adventure(1922), produced by J. StuartBlacktonand starringLadyDiana MannersandVictorMcLaglen.7After eavingPrizma,Crespinel

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346workedfor Harriscolor.Crespinel's patentfor a'gate for multiple i.e. bi-pack) ilms'becamethebasis for Multicolor,which was formedin 1928,and whose patentsbecame the cornerstone orCinecolor 1932) afterMulticolorwentoutof busi-ness.8Thechiefobjective nthedevelopmentof col-our filmtechnologyis the productionof a three-colour,35mm negativeand print ilm.Thisgoalwasnotachieveduntil he 1940s.9 In 1941, Agfa-color introduced a negative-positiveprocessforthe productionof ... release prints'.10 hiswas adevelopmentof its 1937-1939 16mmcolourre-versal ilm.)1 n 1942, Eastman,whichhad itsown16mmcolourreversal ilmin 1935, introducedthree-colournegative,which tcalledKodacolor.'2EastmanKodak'sworkduring he war and post-wareraon a 35mm negative-positive rocesscul-minatedin the introduction f an EastmancolorNegativeFilm,Type 247, and a Print afetyFilm,Type5281, in 1950.13Ataroundthe same time,Ansco was developinga colour negative-colourpositiveprocess.14Toa certainextent,then, thewide diffusion f colourinHollywoodwasdelayedbytechnological actors thedevelopmentof col-ournegativeand positive ilm.Prior o thisdevelopment,companiessuch asTechnicolorand Cinecolor made do with blackand white film. They relied on colour sensitiveblackand whitenegativesand printingprocessesinwhichcolourdyeswereusedinconjunctionwithsensitised black and white positivefilmstock togenerate multiplerelease prints.The Cinecolorprintingprocess, knownas 'dye toning', involvestreatinghesilvermagein he emulsion i.e.toningthe silver)with mordantswhich enable the emul-sion to hold dye. Cinecolor'stwo silverimages,once mordanted,arethendyedincomplementarycolours (blue/green and red/orange).'5Techni-color's dye transferand Cinecolor'sdye toningprocessesdidwork,butthe former ailed to meetthe industry's eed foran affordablecolourproc-ess. More importantly,he Technicolorprocessplaced additionalstress upon the industry'sal-readyover-burdenedproductionand distributionsystems;Technicolortechnologyntroduced elaysinthe production nd distributionf studio ilms.The viabilityof two-colourCinecolor,as aprocess, lay in its ability o enable filmmakerso

makefilms ncolourcheaplyandsimply.16tschiefcompetitionduringhe 1930s and 1940s was withthethree-colourTechnicolor. echnicolorequiredfilmmakerso lease itsproprietary,hree-stripam-era and to work under he supervision f specialcolourconsultantswho set standards or set andcostume design, set illumination,and other as-pectsof the production nd pre-production roc-ess. Filmmakerswere often forced to watchTechnicolor ushesin black and whitebecause ittook Technicolorseveral four- Ed.]daysto proc-ess and delivercolor dailies'.17FilmingnTechni-color costroughly 0 percent more hanfilmingnblackand white. Technicolor ilms could only beprocessedand printed n Technicolorabs;theselabs wereregularly ooked solidand thecompanywasforcedto turnbusinessaway.'8Cinecolorpermitted ilmmakerso shoot incolourusingstandardblack and whitecameras;the Cinecolor lab could deliver colour rusheswithinwenty-fourours;andfilming nCinecolorcost only 20-25 per cent more than filminginblackandwhite.Itschief drawbackwas that t wasa two-colour process, while Technicolorwas athree-colour ystem.19Cinecolordidprovide ol-ourconsultants,fa producer o desired,butcon-sultants were not required.)20Technicolor'ssuperiorcolourrendition nabled itto corner hemarketn'A' ilmproduction;Cinecolor'scost andflexibilityecuredit dominanceinthe 'B' filmandshort-filmmarket.Butit is Cinecolor'shistoricalassociationwith B'films thatwillprevent tfromeversecuringa solid foothold nthe 'A'market amarkethat becomes increasinglymportantn thepost-war raas Hollywoodhifts o moreand morebig-budget ilmmaking.Themostsignificant dvance incolourtech-nology during he 1920s was the shiftfromtwo-colour additive to two-colour subtractiveprocesses. Additiveprocesses, such as Kinema-color, Prizmacolor and Technicolor ProcessNumberOne, producecolourby 'adding'twoormore differentcolours to one another on thescreen during he projectionprocess. InKinema-color, hiswasaccomplishedby projectingucces-sive framesof red thengreen-sensitiveblack andwhitepositive ilmthrougha rotating hutter on-tainingred-orangeand blue-greengelatinfilters.Throughhephi-phenomenonsometimesmistak-

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F1LM$KC.announces

ABi'.f~ ethe perfection ofMulticolorainbowNegativeThe year's most colorful contri-bution to the cinematographic artMulticolor Rainbow Negative calls for no increase in lighlingover black on white. Standard cameras used.Color and sound on positive film in one complete and reliableprocess.

MULTICOLOR FILMS, Inc. 201 N. OCCIDENTAL BLVD.DUNkirk 5401-2-3 Los Angeles, Calif.Protected by United States and Foreign Patents

Fig.2. Atradeadvertisementor Multicolor. he1931 FilmDailyYearBookof MotionPictures.enlyreferred o as 'persistenceof vision'), he twoseparatecoloursappearedto mergeor combineon screen. Prizmacolornitially eliedon rotatingfiltersin projectionbut eventuallydeveloped aprocess of dyeing successiveframes on positiveprints, huseliminatinghe need forfilters n pro-jection.21This nnovationwould be crucial o thedevelopmentof the Multicolor/Cinecolorproc-esses.

ThoughTechnicolor ad shifted romanaddi-tive to a subtractive rocessinthe early1920s, itwas not until1928 thatits two-coloursubtractivetechnologywas perfectedthroughthe advent ofdyetransfer,mbibition rintingwhichsecured wocolourrecordson a single stripof blackand whitepositivefilm. In 1928, Multicolor which wasrebornas Cinecolor n 1932 - introduced two-coloursubtractive rocessthat reliedon a bi-packnegativein filmingand on toningand dyeingtogenerate colour release printson Duplitizedilmstock.22Duplitized'tock featured woemulsionssandwichinga common base; in the Multicolorprocess,one emulsioncontains heblue-greenre-cordof theoriginal cene andtheotherthered-or-ange record. Multicolor dubbed its bi-packnegative he 'RainbowNegative'.Adoublemaga-zine fed twofilms,emulsion o emulsion, o a spe-cial camera gate where they were exposed

together.The 'front' nega-tive was on orthochromaticstockand recordedheblue-greenelementsof thescene;the rear negative, on pan-chromatic stock, providedthe red-orange record.23Crespinel's chief contribu-tion to bi-pack technologywas thediscoveryhatan or-thochromatic'front' nega-tive could be successfullycombined with a panchro-matic rear'negative o gen-erateclear,sharp magesonbothnegatives.He also de-veloped a cameragate thatheld the two negatives inperfect register.The specialcamera gate, which couldbe installed nanystandardblackand white35mm camera,reliedon a seriesof rollerswithcrowned surfaces to hold the two

negatives ightly ogether nregister s theypassedthroughhegate.24Crespinel lso patented,underthe name of Multicolor,a method for placingsoundtracks n colourprints, filmcolouringma-chine,a 'methodof producing ilm nnatural ol-our'(aprinting rocess),and a methodof makingcolouredphotographs afilmingprocess).25CinematographersHalHullandWilliam tullpraised heMulticolor rocess, citing ts compati-bility'withblackand white ilmingand processingtechniques.26twas notonlycompatiblewithblackand whitecameras,but the 'laboratoryreatmentof the twinnegatives[was]exactly dentical o thatof black-and-whiteegatives'.27'... In this printing process, an amazingamountof control can be exertedover thequalitiesof the finishedpicture.Not onlycanthe overalldensityof the printbe varied,aswithblack-and-white,but the color balanceas well .... The new RainbowNegative ...serves o improvehe color rendition eryno-ticeably,and increasesthe overallsensitivityof the process to exact equalitywithblack-and-white.Thismakes it possibleto handleMulticolorn exactly he same wayas black-

, Ir*347inecolor


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348 John Beltonand-white.Anythinghat s possibleinmono-chrome is equally possible in Multicolorwithno otherchangethan heuse of Multicolorilmand theadjustment f the cameragate to ac-commodate the two films[emphasis n origi-nal]. No additional lightingis required...everylightingeffect used in normalproduc-tion can be used unchanged in Multicolor.Extreme igh-key ndlow-key ightings an beusedexactlyas inmonochrome,as can everyimaginabletrickof artisticcamerawork, n-cludingglassshots and frontminiatures.. .28Multicolorwasthe brainchild f producer-di-

rectorsRowlandV.Lee and WilliamWorthington(Lee's ather-in-law), hoprovidedinancialback-ing forCrespinel's xperiments.Theyset up shopin Paramount'sReal-Artilm lab on OccidentalBlvd. in LosAngeles.29Latein 1928, Lee andWorthington oughtadditional inancialbackingfrom Howard Hughes. Hughes loaned themmoneyand,as itschiefcreditor, cquireda 51 percent interestn thecompany.30Hughesspent$1.5millionbuildingand outfittinga state-of-the-artcolour ab at 7000 RomaineAvenue the ab couldroutinely rocess1million eet offilmperweekandhada peakcapacityof 3 million).31heMulticolorprocesswas used on a numberof shortsand car-toons and on colour sequences in a handfulofblackand white eatures, ncludingFoxMovietoneFolliesof 1929 (Fox, 1929), The Great Gabbo(Sono-Art, 1929), and Good News (M-G-M,1930).32Limbacher lso lists he followingMulti-color films: Married n Hollywood(Fox, 1929),SunnySide Up (Fox 1929), and a short, GoofyGoat (Fox,1931).33According o DavidL.Parker,Universal sed Multicolorn a seriesoften-minuteshorts called Strange as it Seems, which were'based on John Hix'snewspaperfeature docu-mentingoddities of nature'.34Thirty-ninehortswere released between August 1930 and May1934.35BrianCoe refers o Doloresthe Beautiful(1932) as 'thelastMulticolorilm'.36In 1932, the Multicolorab failed, unabletorecoup the costs relatedto its construction.Ac-cording o Crespinel, Itwas rumoredhatauditorsfounditwascosting70 cents a footto process ilmselling or7 centsa foot'.37Shortly fter heclosingof thelab, Hughesputupforsale all the labequip-

mentand, more mportantly,ll thepatentsownedbyMulticolor.Withhis newpartner,Louisvillein-ancierAlanMcCormick,Crespinelboughtmostofthe processing equipmentand the basic patentsunderlyinghe Multicolorystem.38The Cinecolor process was essentiallythesame as the Multicolorprocess.As describedbyAlanGundelfinger, inecolor'sTechnicalDirector,in 1938, the'bi-packnegativeconsist[ed]of twoseparatenegative films of distinctlydifferenttypes,namelyorthochromatic egative,sensitive othe blue and green portionsof the spectrumand panchromaticnegative,sensitive o theentire spectrum ... . [The]orthochromaticnegative .. has impregnated n the emulsionsurfacean orange-reddyewhichprevent[ed]all but the orange and red portionsof thespectrumfrom reaching the panchromaticnegativeemulsion.In hismanner, .. the blueand greenvaluedobjects[were]recordedonthe frontor orthochromatic egativeand theorange and red valued objects [were] re-corded on the rearor panchromaticnega-tive.'39Astandardblackandwhitecamerawasused,outfittedwitha special gate to accommodatethebi-packnegative.Since the distance rom he lensto the surfaceof the twoemulsionsdiffered ome-whatfrom hat of the blackand whitesystem, thelensfocus [had to]be broughtback0.0045" overthat of blackand white ocus for maximumharp-ness on each negative. To accomplishthis, thegroundglass usedforfocussingbyeye [had o]bemovedbackbyinsertion f a 0.0045"shim,orthelens [had to] be recalibrated o move the focusback 0.0045".'40Additionaladjustments o thecamera involved the removalof the '"stripper"shoe at [the]backof [the]mainsprocketand re-plac[ingit]with [a] "cutaway"hoe', as well as'lockingoff' theclutch.41Theorange-reddyeon the surfaceof the or-thochromaticnegative was removed after the

negativehad been developed,fixed,and washedby immersingt in a solutionof sodiumhydrosul-phite and sodium bisulphite.The panchromaticnegativewas putthrough he same process- notto remove any dyes but to reduce 'differential

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shrinkagebetween hetwonegatives' i.e.toshrinkitto match heshrinkageof the orthonegative).42To achieve properexposure during filming,the cameraman was instructed o use a devicecalled an Illuminometer, hich was essentiallyalightmeterequippedwitha specialset of filters nda photronic ell. Once the maximum lluminationofthe scene wasdetermined,hecameraman henconsulted a 'curvesheet' whichprovided ettingsfor thecorrect ensstopand shutter peningto usewith hatillumination.43Cinecolor also provided guidelines for thekind of make-upto be used on performers.Thenumbers refer to special make-up devised forCinecolorbyMaxFactor.Blond-FemaleGrease Paint -21FacePowder -21LiningColour -21Masque -BrownDermat.Pencil -BrownLipRouge -Cinecolor-LightDryRouge -CinecolorBrunette-FemaleGreasePaint -22Face Powder -22LiningColour -22Masque -BrownDermat.Pencil -BrownLipRouge -Cinecolor-LightDryRouge -CinecolorBrunette-MaleGrease Paint -25Face Powder -25LiningColour -21Dermat.Pencil -BrownLipRouge -Cinecolor-DarkDryRouge -CinecolorBlond-Malesame as forBrunette44

Cameramenat studiosusingCinecolor rec-ommended that'make-upshouldbe on the lightside to avoid a red-orangeor sallowappearance.Lip-rougeshould be an orange-red, blue-redsphotographingmuch too dark.We have foundgrease to be moresatisfactoryhanpancakeandno make-up s usedabove No. 25 .... Formen,a

beard cover must be used; otherwise he beardcomes throughas a blue shadow. No make-up sused on children.'45SinceCinecolorwas onlya two-colourproc-ess, its colour renditionwas somewhat limited.Cameramenand art directorswere advisedto se-lectoriginalcolours on the basis of the finalcol-ours desired.In a letter o Twentieth entury-Fox,Crespinelwrote thatthe followingcoloursrepro-duced withreasonablefidelity a colourrenditionchart for Cinecolor can be found on the web atsimplecom.net/widefilm/oldfilm/cinecolor2.htm):

'Allshades of blue, except ultramarine lueand violetblue.Allshades of orange-redand warmyellow.Allshades of brown,gray,and black.To obtain green, the best color to use is abottlegreen.Bronze, ilver,andgoldreproducequite aith-fully.Pinksand magenta do not reproducewell.Neither do greens that have an excessiveamountof yellow nthem."46

Cameramenat HalRoachStudiosreported hat:'the successful use of two-color bipack re-quires he mostcarefulselection of colors inbothsetsand wardrobes... Theuse of pastelcolorsproduce he best results.Excessiveuseof brilliant olors is to be avoided ... Colorsdarkerthan the middle range of the scaleshouldnot be used .... This sbecause alldarkcolorstendto reproducewitha certain ame-ness,givinga monotoneeffect.... Ingeneral,graysreproducewitha greenishcast, yellowgoes orange-brown,reds on the magentasidetend towardsbrown,orange-redsrepro-duce the brightest ...'47Cinecolor filmswere released on Duplitizedfilmstock.Duplitizedtockhademulsionson bothsides. As a result, he emulsionswere potentiallysubject o scratches.Scratches n normal ilm endto damagethebase;scratcheson Duplitizedtockdamaged the emulsion the image area. Partofthe Cinecolor abprocessinvolvedvarnishinghereleaseprintsnordertoprotectheimagefrom hewearandtearofnormalprojection.Thevarnishingwas knownby the trade name of 'Peerlessing'.

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Fig.3. Duplitizedilmstock.Twoemulsions #13-1common base (#15).Cinecolor promoted this treatment of releaseprints. nDecember1941, to accompanyprints fa Cinecolor ilmcalledEvergreen layland,or ex-ample, Cinecolorsentthe followingmemo to themanagersof filmexchanges:

'Thisprints made on EastmanDuplitized ilmand has an emulsionon each sideofthe base.Thisprinthasbeen Peerlessedandwaxed ...Withpropercare Duplitized rintswilloutlastblackandwhiteprints.'48A few years later, worrying hat Cinecolorprintshada reputationorscratching ndeagertoget testimonialson behalfof the durability f itsreleaseprints,Crespinelwrote o JackDarrroch fFoxMovietoneNews to ask himfora lettercom-

mentingon Cinecolor printdurability.Fox hadbeen usingCinecoloron a seriesof shortsmadein1942, includingL.C. Thaw'sIndia he Goddessand Gatewayto Asia, Valleyof Blossoms,RoyalAraby,as well as Turkey penstheDoor. Includedwith he requestwasa reportroma filmexchangenoting that Cinecolor prints hat had been runmore than 400 times were less scratched thanblackand whiteprints hathad seen similar erv-ice.49Afew months ater, n response o a requestfromCinecolor,Sponablesent a note on Fox et-

terheadto Disney, estifyingi~'^ ~ ~that we find thatCinecolorprints tandup verywellun-derreleaseconditions'.50

Cinecolor started offslowly, competing with/4 three-colourTechnicolororanimation business. Cine-,,JZO color was used for some ofthe Color Classic cartoons

produced by the Fleischers^/8 at Paramountn 1934 andN,"s'

for PatPowers'production fUb Iwerks'Comicolor Car-2 CZa toons ca. 1935 (DisneyhadTechnicolor ocked up forcolour animation).5' The'MerrieMelodie'cartoon e-

4) sandwicha ries at Warner Bros. alsoused Cinecolor n 1934, in-cluding itlessuch as Honey-moon Hotel and Beauty and the Beast (both

1934).52Withfinancingfrom G. Brashears& Co.,Cinecolorslowly expanded its operationsin themid-1930s, thoughthe processwasstillusedonlyfor short films. On 31 August 1937, Cinecolorsigneda one-yearcontractwithWarnerBros. orprocessing828,759 feet of filmfor shortsandtravelogues;Warnersagreed to buyat least 75prints f 13 totaltitles nCinecolor.53In 1939, Cinecolor opened a new colourlaboratorynBurbank. undsorthepurchaseof a4.5 acre lotfromactor Gene Autrywere raisedbya publicofferingof Cinecolor tock.54The lot wasonly$10,000.55 But he buildinghousing he lab,which occupied 45,000 square feet, cost$125,000, while he cost of laboratoryquipmentwas over$150,000. Thenew,air-conditioneda-cilities,which ncludeda patentresearch ibrary,technical ibrary, researchroom,darkrooms,aprojectionroom, rooms for camera unloading,negative polishing, printing, nspection,positivecutting,waxing,opticalprinting, hipping,and a14,000 squarefoot processingroom,werecapa-ble of handling2 millioneetof filmperweek andprocessing500,000 feet of colourpositivea day.The basement, whichwas used for storingandmixingchemicals,contained '50 vats, ranging n

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Fig.4. The new Cinecolorprocessingplant.[Photo ourtesyWilliamA. Crespinel.]capacity rom1000 to 20,000 gallons'.Theplanthaditsown waterand emergencypowersupply.56Withheopeningof this newplant,Cinecolorlaunched tsentry ntofeature ilmwork,as well asitsentry nto the 16mm colour market.57tbeganwith Monogram's Gentleman from Arizona(1939/1940), the firstof manyCinecolor West-erns.58During he war years, Cinecolorrealisedthat he Technicolorabs wereworkingo capacityforthemajor tudiosand saw an openingfor itselfinthe area of 'B'picturesand filmsforminorstu-dios.59(During he war The FilmDailyoften re-ported hatthe demandfor Technicolor as 'onceagain exceeded the company's ability o supplyit'.)60Cinecolor's low-budget strategy soon paidoff. In 1942, Cinecolor did some work for FoxMovietone see above) and a coloursequence inThe Moonand Sixpencefor UnitedArtists;Cine-coloralso did the colouron Paramount's e-issuesof two PhilSpitalny horts,as well as a seriesofcommercial ilms made byCastle.6'In1943, thecompanyworkedon two-colourreissuesof three-colourTechnicolorilms hat had been sold to FilmClassicsbyJohnHay Whitney,heiroriginal pro-

ducer.These includedBeckySharp 1935), Danc-ingPirate 1936), AStaris Born 1937), and Noth-ing Sacred (1937). These two-colour versionscould not come close to the colourqualityof theTechnicolororiginalsand unfortunately ecameassociated with the Cinecolor name for sub-sequent generationsof filmbuffs.In 1944, Cine-colour processed three Mexican films - Asi seQuiereenJalisco,ChinaPoblana,and TheAdven-turesof Pinocchio.62n 1945, Cinecolorprovidedthe colourfor The EnchantedForestand Song ofOld Wyomingfor ProducersReleasing Corp.,doubling tscapacity o meet demand.63By1946,Cinecolor hadgraduated rompoverty owto themajors, providing he colour for an M-G-M'B'Western,GallantBess (1946). Thatyear,WilliamT.Crespinelwas electedpresident f thecompany,supervisingts rise o financialprosperity.n 1946,Cinecolorsigned a contractwiththe Hal RoachStudios,which,uponreopeningafter hewar,hadbegunto produceall of itspicturesncolour, or aseries of colour comedies(short ubjects).64 ine-colorfeaturesreleasedin 1946 includedCaravanTrailPRC),ColoradoSerenede (PRC),Death Val-

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352 John Beltonley (ScreenGuild),God's Country ScreenGuild),TheMichiganKid Universal), omance f theWest(PRC), nd WildWest PRC).65n1947, Cinecolorwas used for featuresby Paramount AdventureIsland)and UnitedArtistsCurley), mong others.By1947, Cinecolorwas also busystriking16mmcolourprints f 35mm colourfeatures or distribu-tionto membersof the armedforces bythe ArmyandNavy,as wellas doing35mm colourblow-upsof 16mmfilms; henumberofemployeesatthe labhad also jumped rom 28 at the end of 1941 to145 as of 15 April1947.66 InDecember 1947,CinecolorCEOA. PamBlumenthaloldFilmDailythatthe companyexpectedto process45 featuresin 1948-fourfor Columbia,eight-nine orEagle-Lion,hree or PineThomas,andone-each forsev-eral other low budget companies.67 In fact,Cinecoloronly processed 19 featuresin 1948.68Cinecolordid, however,developa 'latensification'process in 1948, enablingfilmmakerso shoot inlower ight evels.69By heendofthedecade, Cine-color had done colourwork or AlliedArtists,Co-lumbia, Eagle-Lion, Film Classics, M-G-M,Monogram, Paramount, Producers ReleasingCorp., Screen GuildProductions,TwentiethCen-tury-Fox,UnitedArtists, nd Universal.70AdrianCornwell-Clyneists, in addition,thefollowingCinecolor itlesof filmsreleasedduringthis period:WhoKilledDoc Robbin HalRoach),TwinSombreros (Columbia),Wild Fire (ScreenGuild), NorthwestTrail(Screen Guild), Trail oAlaska (Monogram),Scared to Death (ScreenGuild), Yosemite(Screen Guild), Here ComesTroubleHalRoach),andVigilantesReturnUniver-sal).71Thepost-warperiodproved o be Cinecolor'smost successfulyears.From1945 to 1948, salesrosefrom$248,244 to $2,908,929, whileprofitsclimbedfroma deficitof $25,607 to earningsof$266,204.72 Thecorporation aidno dividendsoitsstockholders ntilSeptember1947, whenearn-ings pershare were 12.5 cents;no dividendswerepaid afterthat.73However, arningsfell from anall-timehighof $398,351 in 1947 to a net loss of$373,144 in 1949 and its stockfell from $6 to$2.50 pershareduring he same period,in largepart,as a resultof Cinecolor'sacquisitionofa lowbudget distributor,Film Classics in October1947.74 FilmClassics,referred o by Variety s a

'reissueoutfit',had earlierbroughtsome colourbusinessto the lab throughits 1944 reissue ofWhitney's three-colour Technicolorfilms (seeabove). Cinecolor purchased FilmClassics for80,000 shares in its own stock and loaned thecompany$100,000 to helpitbuild ts business.75Cinecolorassumed FilmClassics wouldbringinadditionalwork orthe lab, but its workas a pro-ducer-distributorrovedto be low-budget,blackand whiteproduct.76 t hesametime,Cinecolor'sinvolvementwitha production ompanyviolatedone of the basic laws governingthe relationofHollywood abs and their customers.Iflabs andstudios went into businesstogether,the alliancecouldalienaterival tudios,whofearedprejudicialtreatment.That's one of the chief reasons thatTechnicolor everwent ntobusinesswith tsclients(anditwas one ofthe reasons hatstudios,such asParamount,balked at havingto lease processeslike CinemaScopefromone its rivals,TwentiethCentury-Foxn 1953).77Crespinelobjectedto theacquisition f FilmClassicsand,on 12April1948,retired rom hecompany.78By1949, when Cine-color and FilmClassicspartedtheirways, Cine-color had lost money on its investment.Thecompanycontinuedo losemoneyuntil1955.79Bythat time CinecolorInc. hadchanged its nametotheColorCorporation fAmerica.By1954, itwasno longer involvedin processing Cinecolor orSupercinecolor rints.80Thelastmajor echnologicaldevelopmentatCinecolorwas the introduction f a three-coloursubtractive rocess, Supercinecolor,n 1949/50.Appearingroughlyat the same time as the intro-duction of Eastman's hree-colournegativeandpositive ilm,Supercinecolorinally nabledCine-color to competeinthe three-colourmarketplace,butitcametoo lateto establisha solidfoothold nthe three-colourmarketwhichwas justbeginningto explode.Within fewyears,every tudiowouldbe usingEastman olournegativesand positives,processingthem in theirown 'proprietary'abs,and marketing hem as WarnerColor, DeLuxe,Pathecolor,tc. (MetrocoloreliedonAnscoColornegativesand positives).Theterm'Supercinecolor' eferred o a newthree-colourprintingprocess;the negativesusedin originalphotographywere the new Eastmanthree-colournegatives.81 rom hisnegative, hree

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Cinecolor 353

41.1Iv1,t

I..00;T,f:

Fig.5. Cinecolor's35mm two- and three-colourprinterorprofessingreleaseprints.[Photo ourtesyWilliamA. Crespinel.]separationmasterpositiveswereproduced,bear-ing the blue, green and red records.82The greenand the red recordswerestep-printed, long withthe sound track, simultaneouslyon to opposite

sides of the same sort of Duplitizedpositive ilmused for two-colourCinecolorprints.Aftera cyanand magenta dye toning process similar o thatusedfortwo-colourCinecolor,he blue recordwas

Cinecolor 353

.S


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354 John Belton

Fig.6. JimmyHuntand Helena Carter nWilliamCameronMenzies's nvaders romMars(1953).Frameenlargement.thenprinted ntothe side of the Duplitized ositivethatcarried he red recordand dye-toned yellow,producing finished hree-colourprint.83his wo-stage printing rocessmadeSupercinecolor rintsonly slightlymore expensivethan regularCine-colorprints ndthuscheaperthan mostthree-col-our prints.84 upercinecolorwas one of the firstprocessesused to print eleaseprintsrom he newEastman olournegative.85The first ilmreleasedin Supercinecolorwas The Swordof Monte Cristo(1951), which was independentlyproducedforTwentieth entury-Fox yAlpersonProductions.86By1951, 65 percent of the lab was devotedto workin Supercinecolor,while 35 per cent re-mained devoted to the old Cinecolor process.Though helabhopedto process25 films nSuper-cinecolorand15-20 inCinecolor n 1952, itproc-essed fewerthan 15 features thatyear- most ofwhichwere in Cinecolor.87LikeCinecolor,Super-cinecolorwas usedprimarilyor'B'pictures, ang-ing from Columbia's The RedskinParade, TheTexasRangers,TheBarefootMailman,HurricaneIsland,SunnySide of the StreetandMagic Carpet

(all 1951) to WarnerBros.'Abbottand CostelloMeet CaptainKiddand Jack and the Beanstalk(both1952).Theexpenseofconvertingts Burbank lant othree-colour significantlydepleted Cinecolor'sworkingcapital;itsestablishment,n conjunctionwithRadiantFilms,of a Cinecolor wo- and three-colour labin LondonnSeptember1950 also cutinto itspost-warprofits; t the same time,the cor-poration'searningscontinued to fall, recordinglossesof $373,144 in 1949, $604,642 in 1950,and $354,097 in 1951.88In1952, Cinecolor s-sued $425,350 of debentures npart to replenishits ownworking apital,which has been depletedbycosts involvednthe conversionof the Burbankplantto three-colouroperations'.89On 11 May1953, Cinecolorchanged its name to the ColorCorporationof America- in partto 'give pro-ducer[s]a chance to use [their] wn brand namefor [their]Cinecolor and Supercinecolorproduc-tions'.90But he name change - knowingly r not- marked he end of Cinecolor as a viable forcewithin he fieldof colour motionpictureprocess-

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Cinecolor 355ing. In 1954, the Color Corporationof Americapurchasedthe Houston FearlessCorp. and, in1955, it boughtthe HoustonColor FilmLab.InMay 1957, the Color Corporationof Americachanged its name to the HoustonFearlessCorp.91During he post-warera, as average weeklyattendance ellfrom90 millionn 1948 to 60 mil-lionin 1950, Hollywood ttempted o re-thinkhenatureof the product t provided.Competing orcustomerswithactive leisure-time ursuitsuch ashunting, ishingand gardeningand withpassiveentertainmentorms uchas television,Hollywoodredesigned itself as a 'participatory' ntertain-ment,engagingitsaudienceswithCinerama,3-D,CinemaScope,stereo sound and colour.92Colourbecamean important artof thisre-design,differ-entiating he new product romthe old and fromblackand white elevisionprogramming.Hollywood ank its fortunesmore and moreintobig-budgetcolourspectacles.Though B'pic-turescontinued o be made- often madeinCine-color - they became increasinglymarginalisedduring he 1950s, as studio'B'production lowlymoved nto heproduction ftelevision eries,suchas the 'WarnerBros. Presents' eries (Cheyenne,Sugarfoot,Bronco,ca. 1955-1958). Cinecolorwasslowtoadaptitself othisnewera. Itcontinuedto market ts two-colourprocesswell into 1953(Invaders romMars, KansasPacific,Sabre Jet)when the restof the industrywas beginning o relymore and moreon the new Eastman olourproc-ess forthree-colourproduction.Most mportantly,in an era inwhichanystudio couldworkcheaplyand efficientlyn colour, tcould notprovidepro-ducers with a unique product.Technicolor ur-vived,in part,because itquicklyadapted itself oprocess dye transferrelease prints rom the newEastman olournegativeand, in part,because itsname had been and continuedto be associatedwithprestigeproduct. twasstill thegreatestnameincolor'and wasidentifiedwith he sortof productthat Hollywoodwantedto make. Burdenedwithdebts andwitha 'B'moviepast,Cinecolor ried omake itselfoverinthe early1950s with hree-col-ourcapabilitiesand a new name ('ColorCorp.ofAmerica'),but failed. A two-colourprocess in athree-colourworld,it could not finda place foritself n an industryhathadfinallybecome inter-ested incolourina big way.6

Notes1.2.

JackAlicoate, d. NewYork: heFilmDaily,1930.Gorham Kindem, 'Hollywood'sConversiontoColor:TheTechnological, Economic,and AestheticFactors',TheAmericanMovieIndustry:The Businessof Motion Pictures,ed. Gorham Kindem. Carbon-dale: SouthernIllinoisUniversityPress, 1982: 146.

3. Louis Pelegrine, 'Color Progress', The 1956 FilmDaily Year Book of Motion Pictures, ed. Jack Ali-coate. New York:The FilmDaily, 1956: 115.4. Ryan,RoderickT.,A Historyof MotionPictureColorTechnology. New York: The Focal Press, 1977:92-93.5. For a discussion of Kinemacolor,see Gorham Kin-dem, 'The Demise of Kinemacolor', nTheAmericanMovie Industry, d. Kindem.Carbondale: SouthernIllinoisUniversityPress, 1982.6. Ryan,27-28.7. Ryan, 92. See also WilliamA. Crespinel, 'PioneerDays in Color Motion Pictures with William T.Crespinel', FilmHistory12, No. 1 (2000): 63-64.8. See US Patent1,927,887, 'Gate forMultipleFilms'.Accordingto Ryan, bi-pack motion picturefilmwasperfected by P. D. Brewster, a. 1915-1917.9. Prioro thistime, three-colourreversal ilm had beendeveloped, but it was difficult o generate multipleprints rom this material.Technicolorand Cinecolorreliedon black and white negative filmand the useof dyes and black and white positive film in theprintingprocess.

10. 'Colour Cinematography',The Focal Encyclopediafor Filmand Television Techniques. Boston: FocalPress, 1969: 176.11. Cornwell-Clyne,Adrian. Colour Cinematography.London:Chapman &Hall, 1951: 24.12. Cornwell-Clyne,Adrian. Colour Cinematography.London:Chapman &Hall, 1951: 23, 24.13. Ryan,148, 152.14. Louis Pelegrine, 'Color Developments', The 1950Film Daily Year Book of Motion Pictures,ed. JackAlicoate. New York:The FilmDaily, 1950: 95.15. Raymond Spottiswoode, Film and Its Techniques.Berkeley:University f CaliforniaPress, 1966: 217.16. Cinecolor was a subtractiveprocess. Itshould notbe confused witha British wo-colouradditiveproc-ess that was introduced ca. 1925; see BrianCoe,The Historyof Movie Photography, Westfield, NJ:EastviewEditions:120. PaulNash writesof a British

process related to the filmstock manufacturer, lfordLtd.,called Cinecolor and praises itssharpness; see'The Colour Film' in Footnotes to the Film, ed.Charles Davy, London: Lovat Dickson Ltd.: 1938:125-126. It is presumablythis process that is dis-cussed in an internalFox memo from R. M. Evans oE. I.Sponable and located in the 'Cinecolor folder'of the Sponable papers. On 3/3/31 (a year before

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356 John BeltonMulticolor ent out of businessand before Cine-color was namedCinecolor),Evanswrote: Theyhavea typicalwocolour dditive rocess,using wopicturesn each frameof standardilm,with heiraxes vertical instead of horizontal,and projectthroughwo enses,each coveredwith colour ilter.Theirpresentapparatuss quitecrude,but the es-sentialelement,that of rotating he axes of thepicturehrough 0 degrees n aking ndprojection,has beenpatentedbythem.The difficulty f course, is the same as withalladditive rocesses, hat tis almostout of theques-tion to get enough lighton the screen.'Box44,SponableCollection,Manuscript ollection,Co-lumbiaUniversityibraries.

17. RonHaver,David0. Selznick'sHollywood.NewYork:AlfredKnopf,1980: 188. See also 'ProfitthroughLoss',Time 23 September 946):89.18. 'ProfithroughLoss',Time(23 September1946):88-89.19. 'ProfithroughLoss',88-89.20. WilliamA. Crespinel eports hat his fatheroftenvisited he setsand locationsof Cinecolor ilms oadviseon colour ssues. Interview ith he author,14 August 000.21. Filtersn projectioneduced creen lluminationyas muchas 33 percent.See Robert .Nowatny, heWayof all FleshTones:A Historyf ColorMotionPicture rocesses,1895-1929. NewYork:Garland,1983: 319.22. Ryan,100-101.23. HalHulland William tull,A.S.C., MotionPicturesin NaturalColor',Cinematographicnnual,1930,VolumeOne. Hollywood:mericanociety f Cine-matographers,930; rep.NewYork:Arno,1972:279. Crespinel ecalled: The combination f anortho rontnegative arrying fugitive urfacedyeequalto a Wratten3Afilter nconjunction ithapanchromatic rear negative ... [enabled] everyMitchell nd Bell&Howell amera[tobecome]apotentialolorcamera'.SeeCrespinel, ilmHistory12, No. 1 (2000):68.24. See Wm.T.Crespinel'sUS Patent1,927,887 for a'GateforMultiple ilms'.25. See USPatentsnos. 1,893,698 ('Method ndAp-paratusorPlacing oundRecordsnColorPhotog-raphy'),1,922,725 ('FilmColoringMachineandMethod f ColoringFilm'), ,009,689 ('Method fProducing ilmsnNaturalColor'), nd2,016,666('Colored Photographand Method of MakingSame.')26. This discourse reflectsthe anti-Technicolor iaswithin Hollywood's cinematography ommunitywhich ended o favourblackand white.This ssue

isdiscussedmore ullynScottHiggins'Technologyand Aesthetics:TechnicolorCinematographyndDesign n the late 1930s', FilmHistory 1, No. 1(1999):56-57.27. HullandStull,279.28. HullandStull,280.

29. Crespinel, 8.30. Noah Dietrichand Bob Thomas,Howard:TheAmazingMr.Hughes.Greenwich: awcett ublica-tions,1972: 107.31. Ryan,100. Dietrich ndThomas,108.32. Martin Hart's American Widescreen Museumwebsite (simplecom.net/widefilm/oldcolor/old-color.htm) ostsa colour mage rom est ootageofthe MarxBros. ehearsing sceneforAnimal rack-ers (Paramount, 1930). He creditsthe colour proc-ess as Multicolor,hough manyscholarsremainuncertainas to the specificcolour process used here.33. Limbacher,270.34. 'Blazing Technicolor', 'Stunning Trucolor', and'Shocking Eastmancolor',TheAmerican Film Heri-tage Washington, DC: Acropolis Books, 1972: 23.35. Michael Fitzgerald,Universal Pictures. New York:ArlingtonHouse: 1977.36. BrianCoe,TheHistoryf MoviePhotography. est-field,NJ:Eastview ditions, 981: 128.37.38.39.

Crespinel, 69.Crespinel, 69-70.Gundelfinger,'TechnicalBulletin,No. 9', CinecolorResearch Laboratories,Cinecolor Inc., September1938. 'Cinecolor folder', Box44, Sponable Collec-tion, Manuscript Collection, Columbia UniversityLibraries.

40. Gundelfinger, 'TechnicalBulletinNo. 9'.41. John Boyle and BenjaminBerg, 'Studio ProductionwithTwo-ColorBipackMotion PictureFilm',Journalof the Society of Motion PictureEngineers48, No.2 (February947): 112.42.43.44.45.

Gundelfinger, 'TechnicalReportNo. 9'.Gundelfinger, 'Technical BulletinNo. 9'.Gundelfinger,Technical ulletin o. 9'.BoyleandBerg, StudioProduction ithTwo-ColorBipackMotion PictureFilm',JSMPE 8, No. 2 (Feb-ruary1947): 114.

46. Memo from WilliamT. Crespinelto E. I. Sponable,dated2/9/42. 'Cinecolorolder',Box44, SponableCollection, Columbia UniversityLibraries. na sub-sequent letter to Sponable, Crespinel noted that'green is a difficult olor to reproduceinany processother than true three-colour. However, bottle andbilliardcloth green, firtrees, cactus plantsand treeshaving a dark green leaf, usually reproduce verywell. Spring foliage and greens with an excessiveamount of yellow do not produce at all well.' Letterdated 5/15/42. 'Cinecolor folder', Box44, Spon-able Collection, Columbia UniversityLibraries.47.48.

Boyleand Berg,JSMPE February1947): 114-115.Memo dated 12/22/41. 'Cinecolorfolder', Box44,Sponable Collection.

49. Letterdated 4/15/43. 'Cinecolor folder', Box 44,Sponable Collection, Columbia UniversityLibraries.

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Cinecolor 35750. Letter romSponable o FredMaguireof Disney,dated12/13/43. 'Cinecolorolder',Box44, Spon-ableCollection,ColumbiaUniversityibraries.51. LeslieCabarga, The FleischerStory.New York:

NostalgiaPress,1976: 182. Carbarga istsPoorCinderella 3 August1934), LittleDutchMill(26October1934),andAnElephant everForgets 28December1934). LeonardMaltin,Of Mice andMagic:A History f AmericanAnimatedCartoons.NewYork:McGrawHill,1980: 189-190.52. Maltin,224-225. WarnerBros. used Cinecoloragainfora handful fcartoonsn 1949. SeeMaltin,253.53. Moody's ndustrials,938.54. The stock went public n 1936. See unpublishedWilliamT. Crespinelbio providedby WilliamA.

Crespinel.55. Author's nterviewwith WilliamA. Crespinel,14August 000.56. 'CinecolorOpens Burbank lant',AmericanCine-matographer March 1939): 114-115. Variety(3/22/39) gavesomewhat ifferenttatistics, otingthat he newplantcost$250,000 and that tcouldhandle720,000 feetoffilmpermonth ersus priorcapacity f 150,000 feetpermonth.57. Cornwell-Clyne,30.58. Martin corseserecalls he CinecolorWesterns e

sawas a childwithgreat ondness, eferringothemas iftheywerea kindofWestern;ee AndyDougin,Martin corsese London: rionMedia,1997:42).PRC'sCinecolorWesternstarring ddieDeanhaveachieved a certaincult followingamong today'sWestern uffs.59. Author's nterviewwithWilliamA. Crespinel,14August 000.60. See 'SamuelD. Berns,Color n 1945,"The1946FilmDailyYearBookof MotionPictures,d. JackAlicoate.New York: heFilmDaily,1946: 72.61. The 1943 YearBookof MotionPictures, d. JackAlicoate.NewYork:TheFilmDaily.62. SamuelD. Berns,Color n 1944', The1945 FilmDailyYearBookof MotionPictures, d. JackAli-coate. NewYork:TheFilmDaily,1945: 69.63. Bern, Color n 1945', FilmDailyYearBook.NewYork:TheFilmDaily,19445: 72.64. Boyleand Berg,JSMPE8 (February947): 111.65.

69. RalphWilk, ColorDevelopments', he 1949 FilmDailyYearBookof MotionPictures.NewYork,TheFilmDaily,1949: 91.70. JamesLimbacher,ourAspectsof the Film.NewYork:Brussel ndBrussel, 968: 48-49.71.72.

Cornwell-Clyne,0.'CinecolorCorp.',The1951 FilmDailyYearBookofMotion ictures,d.JackAlicoate.NewYork: ilmDaily,1951: 930.

73. Moody'sManualof Investments, 952. London:Moody'sInvestors erviceLtd.See also 'HoustonFearlessCorp.',The1967 FilmDailyYearBookofMotionPictures, d. CharlesAlicoate.New York,FilmDaily:1967: 715.74. See the 1951 FilmDaily,930. See also Variety

(4/6/49).75. RalphWilk, ColorDevelopments', he 1948 FilmDailyYearBookof MotionPictures, d. JackAli-coate. NewYork: he FilmDaily,1948: 11 1.76.77.

Variety6/15/49).JohnBelton,Widescreen inema.Cambridge: ar-vardUniversityress,1992: 124

78. WilliamA. Crespinel,nterview ith heauthor,14August 000.79. The1967 FilmDailyYearBookof MotionPictures,ed. CharlesAlicoate.New York:FilmDaily:1967:715.80. Ryan,102.81. Ryan,104.82. Ryan otes hatat this imeno panchromatic asterpositive ilmwas availableso that the separationmaterialamefrom heoriginal egative atherhanfroma masterpositive;Ryan, 04.83. Ryan,104-105. See also Alan M. Gundelfinger,'CinecolorThree-Colorrocess', ournal f theSo-cietyofMotionPicture nd Television ngineers4,No. 1 (January950):79-84.84.85.86.87.88.

See Limbacher,75-276.66. Moody'sManualof Investments, 947. London:Moody's nvestorserviceLtd.,1947.67. RalphWilk, ColorDevelopments', he 1948 FilmDailyYearBookof MotionPictures, d. JackAli-coate. NewYork:TheFilmDaily:111.68. RalphWilk, ColorDevelopments', he 1949 FilmDailyYearBookof MotionPictures, d. JackAli-coate.NewYork:TheFilmDaily,1949: 91.

89.90.91.

Ryan,102.Roderick . Ryan, onversation ith he author,2September000.Ryan, 02.Limbacher,82-284.Funds o setupthe Britishabapparentlyamefromoverseasprofitshathadbeen rozen ndcouldonlybe spent here.See also 'HoustonFearlessCorp.',1967FilmDailyYearBook,715.NewYork imes 3/1/52).Limbacher,7.Moody'sManual f Investments,958.

92. See 'TheLeisuredMasses' hapternmyWidescreenCinema. Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress,1992: 69-84.

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