circuit engineering: the beginner's guide to electronic circuits, semi-conductors, circuit...

CircuitEngineeringBySolisTech

TheBeginner’sGuidetoElectronicCircuits,Semi-Conductors,CircuitBoards,andBasic

Electronics

Copyright2015bySolisTech-Allrightsreserved.

Innowayisitlegaltoreproduce,duplicate,ortransmitanypartofthisdocumentineitherelectronicmeansorinprintedformat.Recordingofthispublicationisstrictlyprohibitedandanystorageofthisdocumentisnotallowedunlesswithwrittenpermissionfromthepublisher.Allrightsreserved.

TableofContentsIntroduction

ChapterI–FirstThingsFirst:AnIntroductiontoCircuitEngineering

ChapterII–TheAnatomyofaCircuit

ChapterIII–ResistanceIsn’tFutile

ChapterIV–It’sTimetoMeasuretheElectricFlowinaCircuit

ChapterV–PowerTransferatMax

ChapterVI–Laws,Laws&MoreLaws

ChapterVII–UnderstandingElectromagnetism

ChapterVIII–Let’sTalkCircuitBoards

ChapterIX–SufficientSafety

ChapterX–Here’saMultimeterforYou!

ChapterXI-DIYCircuits:SimpleProjects

ChapterXII–MakingYourWaytoCircuitDesign:PCBLayouts&SchematicDiagrams

ChapterXIII–AWayIsthroughEDA

ChapterXIV–TheOtherWayaround:ReverseEngineering

ChapterXV–HackingtheSystem

ChapterXVI–AdvancedCircuitEngineering:Microcontrollers&Robots

Conclusion

Introduction

I want to thank you and congratulate you for downloading the book, CircuitEngineering:TheBeginner’sGuidetoElectronicCircuits,Semi-Conductors,CircuitBoards,andBasicElectronics.

Thisbookcontainsabeginner’scourseoncircuitengineering.Here,thebasicsofelectricand electronic circuits are discussed. You will grasp the definitions of circuits, semi-conductors, resistors, inductors, transformers, circuit boards, and electronics, in general.You’llevenbeintroducedtoelectricalsafetytipsandasetofskillsneededinelectronics,aswellasashorttakeonreverseengineering,hacking,microcontrollerprogramming,androbotics.

Alongside,youcanapplyallthatyou’llbelearningonceyougetstartedwiththeproposedcircuit projects for beginner. You’ll also be rewarded a peek at different career-advancementpossibilities.Whilereadingabout thefundamentalsandvarious theories inthe subject is important, hands-on learning is equally important. Thisway, you can putyournewlygatheredknowledgetogooduse.

If you’re uncertain whether or not you havewhat it takes to learn the ropes in circuitengineering,letthisbookhelpyoudecide.Chancesare,youhavethestaminaforthefieldandforallyouknow,youcandiscoveranewpassionforcircuitsandelectronicdevices.

Thanksagainfordownloadingthisbook;Ihopeyouenjoyit!

ChapterI–FirstThingsFirst:AnIntroductiontoCircuitEngineering

In1882,therewasacircuitwar;itwasbetweenthenotableelectricalengineersandscientists,ThomasEdison(inventoroftheDCsystem)andNikolaTesla(inventoroftheACsystem).

WhileThomasEdisonstatedthatanefficientwayofdistributingpowerwasviaaDCsystem,NikolaTeslaarguedthatalthoughDCsystemsareefficient,analternatingcurrentisthemorepracticaloption.Itstartedasasimpleclashofideas,butiteventuallyledtoamajorrift.Neitherprofessionalconceded;bothoftheminsistedthattheirownsystemswere“better”.

Intheend,itwasNikolaTeslathattookhometheglory.Caseinpoint?Hewasgrantedfundsbyaninternationallyrecognizedfirm,Westinghouse.ThemajorityofthepowersourcesofNewYorkCitywerebasedontheideasoftheSerbianengineer;atNiagaraFallsinCanada,apowerplantwasbuilt.

Ifyou’reinterestedinfindingoutmoreabouttheparticularcircuitwar,ACandDCsystems,andallcriticaldiscussionsoncircuits,takingacourseaboutelectroniccircuitsisthewaytogo.

I.A.-WhatIsaCircuit?

Bothanelectriccircuitandanelectroniccircuitrefertoacompletepathwayforelectriccurrent,whichstartsandendsatasinglepoint;itisapassagethatallowstheelectricitytoenteratoneplace,then,letitpassthroughaseriesofstops,andfinally,leaveittoexitatthesameplace.Thelistofbasicexamplesofacircuitincludesalightswitch(offandon)andbattery-operatedlamps.

Acircuitthatfollowsafundamentaldesign

Acircuitcanfunctionwell-grantedthatitsdesigniswell-conceptualized.Asmuchaspossible,itisrecommendedthatarrivingatasimplisticproductshouldbethegoal;thesimpleandstraightforwardadesignis,thebetter.Withafundamentalconcept,evenifother(beginner-level)circuitengineerswhowillsubjectittoinspectionwillnothaveadifficulttimeinunderstandingitsflow.Althoughtheremaybecomplexsystems,theagendaisnotintendedtocomplicatetheexplanations.

Moreover,acircuitcanbereferredtoasaspacewithaconductivepaththatgrantselectronstheopportunitytomovefreely.Tocreateonewithabrilliantdesign,atipistolearnabouttheclassificationsofallcircuits.Youcanusetheknowledgetodeterminetheappropriatekindofnetwork,aswellastheneedforanexternalorinternalsource.

2classificationsofacircuit:

1. Linearornon-linear–acircuitthatisbasedoneitherlinearornon-linearnetworks;itiscomposedofindependentand/ordependentsourcesandpassiveelements

2. Activeorpassive–acircuitthatisbasedoneithertheabsence(passivecircuit)orthepresence(activecircuit)ofasource;asourcecanbeapowersourceorvoltagesource

I.B.-ACircuit&ItsTypes

Notallcircuitsarealike.Infact,oneofthemostcommonmisconceptionsinvolvesanelectriccircuitandanelectroniccircuit;botharesaidtobeoneandthesame,buttheyarenot.Whiletheformercancarryaveragetohighvoltage,thelatterhasthetendencytohavelowvoltageload.

Moreover,itisalwaysimportanttobeawareofthedifferentcircuittypes,especiallyifyou’reabouttomakeyourowncircuit;thekindofcircuitthatyoucreateneedstohavetheabilitytohandleapreferredload.

Circuittypes:

Closedcircuit–itisacircuitthatisfullyfunctional

Opencircuit–itisacircuitthatcannolongerfunctionduetoadamagedormissingcomponent,oralooseconnection

Shortcircuit–itisacircuitthatcomeswithoutaload

Parallelcircuit–itisacircuitthatconnectstoothercircuits;itislikethemainpowersourceortheprimarycircuitinaseriesofcircuits

Seriescircuit–itisacircuitthatconnectstoothercircuits;thesameamountofelectricityisdistributedtoeachofitscomponentcircuits;themainpowersourceortheprimarycircuitisunclear

I.C.-Conductors,Insulators&Semi-Conductors

Conductors,insulators,andsemi-conductorsgivelighttothefactthatacircuit’s

electricalpropertiesaredependentonthecircuittype,aswellasontheirconductionbands(i.e.theirallowedelectricpower).Forinstance,ifaparticularpowersourcechoosestodistributea9-voltelectricpowertoaclosedcircuit,itselectricalpropertiescanbeevaluatedbyusing2details:(1)itscharacteristicasaclosedcircuitand(2)9-voltelectricpower.

Moreover,conductors,insulators,andsemi-conductorsareintegralconceptstotheconductivityofanobject.Whileconductorsandsemi-conductorsaregroupedtodescribechargedcarriers,insulatorsarestillconsideredasrelativedespitenotcontaininganyfreecharge.

Insulatorscanbeany“ion-less”object;themostcommonexamplesofsemi-conductorsarecopperandaluminum&forconductors,goldandsilver

Conductionbands:

Conductor–itisaconductionbandthatisreferredtoasthealmostfullband

Insulator–itisaconductionbandthatisreferredtoasanemptyband

Semi-conductor–itisaconductionbandthatisreferredtoasanalmostemptyband

I.D.-BreakingDowntheComponentsofaCircuit

Acircuitcanbeeithersimpleorcomplex,andbebothsimpleandcomplex.Ifthecircuitinsubjectisaseriescircuit,withagroupof10differentcircuitsthatareconnectedtoitorifthesaidcircuitisjustabasicclosedcircuitwith5differentstops,itcanberatherconfusingtotrace.However,ifyoudissectanycircuit,you’lldiscover3constant,integralcomponents.

Integralcomponents:

1. Load–itistherepresentationofthepowerconsumption,aswellastheworkthatisaccomplishedwithinasystem;withoutit,there’sbarelyapointinhavingacircuit

2. Powersource–itiswheretheelectricitycomesfrom

3. Pathway–itistheframeworkofacircuit;fromthepowersource,itfollowstheloadthrougheachofthenetwork,andfinallyreturnstoandexitsthepowersource;itisalsoreferredtoastheconductivepathway

I.E.-TheRolesofCurrent,Resistance&Voltage

Current,resistance,andvoltagearethe3representationsoftheimportantcomponentsofacircuit’ssystem.Theycanexplainhowelectricityenters,then,movesfrom1pointtoanother,andfinallyexits.Whetherthepathofelectricityisrathersimple,theserepresentationsremainconstant.Apartfromdescribingtheelectricflow,theycanserveasindicationsoffaults(ininstanceswhenacircuitfailstowork).

3representations:

Current–itistherepresentationoftheelectricflow;particularly,itsfocusisontheflowofelectrons

Resistance–itistherepresentationofthenatureofanelectricflowasitmovesaroundthecircuit

Voltage–itistherepresentationoftheelectricforceorpressure;ingeneral,thesupplycomesfromanelectricoutletorabattery

I.F.-AC/DCSystems:WhichSystemIsin?

ACandDCsystems(oralternatingcurrentanddirectcurrentsystems)areoftenassociatedtoeachother.WhentheACsystemismentioned,soistheDCsystem.Conversely,whenit’stheDCsystem’sturntobeinthespotlight,itwon’tbelonguntiltheACsystemismentioned.Thisisbecausethesesystemsareoppositeofoneanother;togetabetterunderstandingofoneofthem,it’srecommendedtobefamiliarwiththeother,aswell.

Moreover,ACandDCsystemsaretypesofacircuit’scurrentflow.InanACsystem,thecurrentflowchangesitsdirectionoccasionally.Meanwhile,inaDCsystem,thecurrentflowfollowsasingledirection.

Itcanbededuced,therefore,thatanACsystemgrantsacircuitfreedomtoletthecurrentflowinseveraldirections.Whilethiscanbeanadvantage,thisdoesn’tpermitthecontinuousflowthataDCsystemcanentitle.

So,shouldyouuseanACsystemoraDCsystem?Thedecisionastowhichcurrentsystemisdependentonthemorepracticaldesigntofollow;takeintoaccounttheaimofhavingyourowncircuit.Ifyouprefersomethinggrandandyouintendtopowersomethinglarge,theACsystemcanstepin.Ontheotherhand,ifyou’regoodwithabasicsetup,youcanusetheDCsystem’sconceptasbasis.

I.G.–WhatIsaTransformer?

Atransformerisadevicethatservesasaportalforenergytransferwithinthepointsinacircuitorfromcircuit1tocircuit2.Inmostcases,itisusedforincreasinganddecreasingthevoltagesinasystem.

Whenthefirsttransformerwasbuiltinthemid1880s,circuitengineersdiscovered

thatatransformersignificantlyimprovestheelectricflowinacircuit,andconsequently,resultstoamorepowerfulcircuit.Thediscoverymadewayforvarioustransformerdesigns,aswellasvarioustransformersizes.

Aprimaryprincipleofatransformerisitsneedforextremelyhighmagneticpermeability.Itfollowsthatacircuitthatiscapableofattractingpoweris,ofcourse,moreinclinedtohaveelectriccurrenttransferredtoit;and,conversely,acircuitwithlowmagneticpermeabilityislesslikelytoextractpowerfromanothercircuit.

Magneticpermeabilityisdefinedastheabilityofacircuittoholdandsupportaninternalmagneticfield

ChapterII–TheAnatomyofaCircuit

Let’ssaythatalampinyourroomhasbeenaroundforawhile,andlet’ssayitchosetogiveuponyoutheothernight;althoughit’sanoldlamp,youstillbelieveitcanworkfine.Yoususpectthattheproblemisintheswitchingboard.Insteadofjustlettingitbeandsinceyou’reinterestedinhowitworks,youchoosetostudyitscomponents.

Asyouopenitsinternalsystem,youseethatconnectedtosomesortofpanelare2wires;onewireisred,theotherisblack.Asfarasyourknowledgeincircuitscantellyou,the2wiresinyourhandsare:(1)alivewireorthewirethatisconnectedtoaswitch,and(2)aneutralwireorthewirethatcarriestheload.

Astheuniversalruleincircuitengineeringgoes,redisthecolorthatindicatesalivewire,black,ontheotherhand,isaneutralwire.Forachancetoknowwhyyourlampgaveuponyouotherthanoldage,checkingtheredwirewouldbeagoodstart.

II.A.–IndividuallySpeaking:PartsofaCircuit

Acircuitcanworksmoothlyifitsindividualpartsarecontributingtotheworkflowasexpected.Rememberthatitfollowsaseries;ifonepointinthatseriesisnotincondition.So,ifyou’rewonderingwhyasystemisfunctional,checkeachoneofitscomponents.Tousetheoldadage(andmodifyitabit),thecircuit,asawhole,isjustasgoodasitsindividualparts.

Individualparts:

Capacitor–itisinchargeofthestabilityinthepowersourceinacircuit

Diode–itisinchargeofsupplyingthelightinacircuit

Inductor–itisacoilofwiringsystem

Resistor–itisinchargeofpowerconsumption

Transistor–itisinchargeoftheelectricsignalcontrol

II.B.–CircuitCategories:WhichCategoryDoYouBelongto?

Circuitcategories describe the voltage levels, aswell as their electric flow overtime; they refer to howmuch and how powerful the current is as it enters andpasses througheachpoint in a circuit.Since theyvary, it’s listedas aneffectivewayofunderstandingcircuitsystemsofsortsiftheyarecategorized.

Circuitcategories:

Analogcircuits–thesearethecategoriesofcircuitsthatusetheconceptsofparallelcircuitsandseriescircuitsasbasis.Amongtheirfundamentalpartsarecapacitors,diodes,resistors,andwires.

Indiagrams,analogcircuitsareeasytorecognize.Usually,whenamodelof the particular circuit is drawn, a simple illustration is presented sincethese circuits do not follow a complex system. In most cases, whenillustrated,theparts(e.g.capacitors,diodes,wires,etc.)arerepresentedby

lines.

Digitalcircuits–thesearethecircuitsthatrelyheavilyonBooleanalgebra(i.e.valuesareeither trueor false,orasdenoted1or0); therefore, thesecircuits are often dependent on transistors that can create closed logic.Comparedtoanalogcircuits,thesefollowastate-of-the-artdesign.

Furthermore, digital circuits are designed to create either numerical orlogical values for the representation of electricity that flowswithin theirsystem. Since these are not only focused on the mere ability to take inelectriccurrent,butrather,ontheindividualpropertiesofalloftheirparts,as well, these circuits come with advanced functions; they can providememoryandaccomplisharbitrarycomputations.

Analog-digital – these circuits are sometimes called hybrid circuits ormixed signal circuits since both system designs of analog and digitalcircuitsaregivenlight.Althoughtheirconceptcanbequitecomplex,thesecircuitscandeliveramore thorough result; theproceduresarecombined,which allows collaborative effort from different parts. One example is atelephone receiver; first, itworks basedon analog circuitry to create andstabilizesignals,then,basedondigitalcircuitry,thesesignalsareconvertedintodigitalunits,andfinally,aresubjectedtointerpretation.

II.C.–WhereDoesInductanceEnterthePicture?

Incircuitanalysis, the term inductance, introduced in1886byOliverHeaviside,refers to thepropertyofacircuit’selectricity-producingcomponent tochange inamount.Apartfromthesupportofacircuit’saspecttovary,itpointsouttheneedforafilterandenergystoragesystemstobeprovided.

As it follows, the component in a circuit that enables inductance is called aninductor. Usually, these parts are made out of wire. But, while some circuitscontain inductors as integral parts, others remain functionalwithout the need toaltertheelectricflow.

Inductancecanbeeithermutual inductanceorself-inductance.Theformerreferstoachangeinelectriccurrentfromoneinductortoanotherinductor;itexplainstheprimary operations of a transformer. Meanwhile, the latter refers to the stableinductancewithinasystem.

Moreover,inductanceisrepresentedbythesymbolL,whichismeanttogivertothescientist,HeinrichLenz.ItalsomeasuredinunitsofhenryaftertheAmericanscientist,JosephHenry;itfollowsthatalthoughitwasOliverHeavisidewhointroducedtheterm,themanbehindthedevelopmentisJosephHenry.

Mutualinductancedescribestheoccurrenceinacircuitwhenthereischangethatcanbetracedtoaninductor;particularly,itreferstothealterationduetoaninductor’spreferenceofanearbyinductor.Itisessentialtolearnabouttherelationshipof2inductorssinceitisthebasisoftheoperationsofatransformer.Additionally,alimithastobemaintainedinordertokeeppotentialenergytransfersregulated;thefailuretoincorrectlycalculatemutualinductancecanresult

tounwantedinductancecoupling,aswellasapoweroverload.

Itcan,therefore,bededucedthatmutualinductance(asrepresentedbythesymbolM)isthemeasurementofthecouplingthatinvolves2inductors;the2inductorsare,then,givenparticularimportance(intermsofcoilturns),alongwitheachinductor’sabilitytoadmitcurrentfloworpermeance.Theformulaforcalculatingmutualinductanceisasfollows:

**representations:MAB=mutualinductanceincircuitAandcircuitB

NB=inductanceincircuitB

NA=inductanceincircuitA

PAB=permeabilityincircuitAandcircuitB

MAB=(NB)(NA)(PAB)

Whenexplained,theformulahighlightsthatthemutualinductancebetweeninductorAandinductorB(orMAB)isequaltotheproductof3elements:[1]thecoilsofinductorB(orNB),[2]thecoilsofinductorA(orNA),and[3]thepermeanceofinductorAandinductorB(orPAB).

Ontheotherhand,self-inductancereferstovoltageinductionofacurrent-carryingsysteminrespecttothechangingcurrentinthecircuit.Itpointsoutthateventually,therewillbeanothercurrentthatwillflowalongwiththeprimarycurrent.Duetotheamountofforcewithinthemagneticfield,voltageisinduced;particularly,voltageisself-induced.

II.D.-WhatMakesanIntegratedCircuit?

Anintegratedcircuit(orIC)isalternativelycalledamicrochiporachip,duetoitssize.Itworksdependingonaparticularsignallevel.Oneexampleistheintegratedcircuitthatenablesacomputertoperformamultitudeoftasks;insteadofloadingacomputer’sstructurewithalargecircuit,itcomestotherescue.

Inmostcases,an integratedcircuitoperatesat littledefinedstates.Compared tothenormalcircuitwhoseoperationsaredistributedovercontinuousamplitudes,itcan function within a small network; the normal circuit may sometimes fail toworkwithonlyminoramplituderanges.

Basically,anintegratedcircuitisnodifferentfromanyothercircuit;itspowercanastoundyou,yes,but,ifitcomesdowntodescribinghowitis,it’ssimplyacircuitthathasbeenreducedsoitcanfitinsideachip.

ChapterIII–ResistanceIsn’tFutile

Withoutamaterialthatcanactastheopposingforce,acircuitcanfunction,butitmaynotfunctionasdesired.Whenanelectricsupplycanperformitsfunctionbydistributingelectricitytotheopeningofacircuit,theelectriccurrentwillkeeponflowing;itsflowcanbeuncontrollable,whichcandestroyasystem’sintegrity.Usually,withouttheopposition,acircuitendsuptakingtoomuchload.

Thetermforthisopposingmaterialisresistance;itgoeshandinhandwiththetermconductance.And,asmentionedinthefirstchapter,itistherepresentationofthecurrentflowinacircuit.

III.A.–WhatIsResistance?

Resistanceisthemeasurementofanopposingelectriccurrent;itcanbeexpressedinohms.Itgeneratesanamountoffrictionthatisrelativetothenecessaryamountofelectricitythataparticularcircuitcanhandle.

Inaway,resistanceisresponsibleforthesmoothflowofelectricityinacircuit.Althoughotherswouldcountertheargumentbysayingthatratherthansupporttheeffortlessflowofelectricityinasystem,itslowsitdown.

However,itisresistancethatallowsbalanceofelectricityinacircuit.Takeforexamplethecaseofacircuitthatcanonlyhandleatotalof15V.Ifacircuittakesin20Vataresistanceof5ohms,thenumberisdiminishedto15V,whichindicatesafunctionalcircuit.Conversely,if,inthesamesituation,thereisnoresistanceof5ohms,acircuitmaynotbeasfunctionalasdesired;itssystemendsupcarrying20V,whichimpliesthatitisoverloaded.

III.B.–ResistiveCircuit101

Aresistivecircuitisakindofcircuitthatconsistsofnothingbutaseriesofresistorstocompletethecomboofelectriccurrentandvoltagesource.Ifviewedinachart,itisnoticeablethatthepowerwaveformisalwayspositive;itissuggestivethepowerinacircuitisalwaysdissipated,andisneverreturnedtotheoriginalsource.

Itisimportanttonotethatthefrequencyofthepowerinacircuitshouldnotbeequaltothefrequencyoftheelectriccurrentandvoltage.Ifpossible,thefrequencyofthepowershouldbetwiceashighasthatoftheelectriccurrentandvoltage.Thisunequalfrequencydistributiongrantsconstantchangewithinasystem.

Sinceitismadeupofresistorsanddoesnotincludetransistorsandcapacitors,aresistivecircuitisrathereasiertoanalyze.Understandingtheelectricflowwithinthecircuit(whetherinanACorDCsystem)requiresastraightforwardtechnique.Therefore,determiningtheflowofthecurrentinaresistivecircuitissimple;byadheringtotheformula,calculatingthefigureiseasy.

Inaresistivecircuit,voltagecaneasilybemonitored

**representations:I=totalcurrent

RS=ResistanceSource

RL=ResistanceLoad

I=voltage÷(RS+RL)

III.C.-WarbetweentheTypesofResistance

Resistanceisclassifiedaccordingtothetypeofresistivitythatitcancontain,alongwiththeamountofresistancethatacircuitcancarry.Thisallowstheopportunityforanopposingforcetobevalued,regardlessofitsresistivity.Astheprofessionalelectricalengineerscanattest,noteverycircuitcomponentthatproducesresistancesatisfiestherules,particularly,Ohm’sLaw.

2typesofresistance:

Differentialresistance–itistheresistancederivativeofvoltageinlightwiththeelectriccurrent;alsoreferredtoasincrementalresistance,smallsignalresistance,ordynamicresistance,itsconceptisresponsibleforoscillatorsandamplifiers

Staticresistance–itistheresistancethatcorrespondstothetypicaldefinitionofresistance;itisalsocalledchordalresistanceorDCresistance

III.D.-Resistancevs.Conductance

Theaveragecircuitcomeswithbothresistanceandconductance,whichgivesbalancetotheelectricflowinacircuit’ssystem.Whiletheformerreferstotheopposition,conductancedescribestheamountofcurrentthatisconvertedintopowerthatrevolvesarounddifferentpoints.

Conductancealsocoverstheabilityofacircuit’scomponentstoconductelectricity.And,tobringlighttoitscounterpart’sabilitytoopposetheflow,itdwellsonthesubjectoftheconvenienceofelectricitytopassthroughaseriesofpointsinacircuit.

Withboththeresistanceandtheconductanceinthesystem,acircuitcanfunction

asdesired.

III.E.–TheNeedforCalculations(FourWays)

Forelectriccurrenttoflowsmoothlywithinasystem,alevelofresistancehastobepresent.And,sincenotallcircuitscomewithasimilardesign,theirresistancelevelsvary.Tocalculateaparticularcircuit’sresistance,first,youneeddetermineitstype,anditsprovidedvalues,aswell.

Fourways:

#1–Resistancecalculationforaseriescircuit

Theformula:

Resistance=1R+2R+3R+4R

#2–Resistancecalculationaccordingtovoltage&power

**representations:totalvoltage;PT=totalpower

Theformula:

Resistance=VT2÷PT2

#3–Resistancecalculationaccordingtovoltage&current

**representations:VT=totalvoltage;IT=totalcurrent

Theformula:

Resistance=VT÷IT

#4–Resistancecalculationaccordingtopower&current

**representations:PT=totalpower;IT=totalcurrent

Theformula:

Resistance=PT÷IT

III.F.–WhataboutSheetResistance?

Sheetresistancereferstothemeasurementoftheresistanceinathinsheetinacircuit’scomponents.Itcanbeusedtodescribetheresistibilityofdifferentcircuitsandcanpointoutthespecificdifferenceincircuitsthatvaryinsize.Especiallyinthecaseofacommercialproduct,thetopiciscoveredfortheassuranceofquality.

Youcanlookatsheetresistanceasaspecialkindofresistancesinceitgeneratesamorespecificvalue.Usually,theaverageresistanceinacircuitisexpressedinohms;sheetresistanceisexpressedinOhmspersquare.

Inmostcases,sheetresistanceisusedfortheanalysisofcircuitswithuniformconductivityorsemi-conductivity.Typicalapplicationsareextendedtoquality

assuranceforacommercialcircuit.

III.G.–TheRoleofImpedance&Admittance

Likeresistance,impedancecanbedescribedastheoppositioninacircuit;unlikeresistance,however,itreferstotheopposingforceofacircuitaftertheapplicationofvoltage.ItisonlyrelevanttoACsystemsorcircuitswheredirectcurrentisn’tthesupplied.

Itwasin1893whentheconceptofimpedancewasinitiallyintroducedbytheIrishengineer,ArthurKenelly.Backthen,itwasdenotedbyZandisdefinedasacomplexnumber.

Whenitcomestoquantitativeterms,impedancereferstotheratioofvoltagetotheelectriccurrentinacircuit.Itsintroductionisimportantforbeginnersespeciallyifthey’rescratchingtheirheadsastowhythere’sanopposingforcebesidesresistance.

Impedance,likeresistance,comeswithvalues.Inasingleopencircuit,itsvalueispresentedinohms.Intheeventofaseriescircuitoraparallelcircuit,itsvaluecanbecalculatedbysimplyaddingallthedefinedvaluesineachunit.

Theformula:

**representations:TZ=totalimpedance

Z1=impedanceincomponent1



Z10=impedanceinfinalcomponentofacircuit

TZ=Z1+Z2+Z3…Zn

Meanwhile,admittanceisarelativeconceptincircuitengineering.Itaddressestheissuethatalongsidethedifferenceinthemagnitudeoftheelectriccurrentandvoltagethatareflowingwithinacircuit,thedifferenceinphasesneedstobegivenlight,too.Thisway,themaximumloadwithinasystemcanbecalculatedaccordingly.

Theformula:

**representations:TY=totaladmittance

Y1=admittanceincomponent1



Y10=admittanceinfinalcomponentofacircuit

TY=Y1+Y2+Y3…Yn

ChapterIV–It’sTimetoMeasuretheElectricFlowinaCircuit

Inthepreviouschapter,theformulasforthecalculationofacircuit’sresistancelevelswereshared.However,theformulasforthecalculationoftheentireloadinacircuithaveyettobediscussed.

Thisisduetothesignificanceofusingtheappropriatemeasurementunits.Inafewcases,especiallythosewhoarestillontheinitialphaseoflearningcircuits?Theyaren’tquitecarefulwiththeirselectedunits.Asitfollows,it’snotonlynecessarytocalculateacircuit’selectricflow;it’salsonecessarytocalculateacircuit’sflowcorrectly.

IV.A.–StandardUnits

Amongtheseveralreasonstousestandardunitsofmeasurementareforindicationsofexactmeasurementsandforindicationsofthepreferredmeasurementsinasystem.Theseunitsbringuniformity.

Incircuits,theusualstandardunitsthatyouencounterareV,W,I,andP.Althoughtherearemore,thosewhowishtoexplainasystem’selectricflowrelyonthesemeasurements;ratherthanintroduceabunch,whichmayonlymakemattersmoreconfusing,somearepreferred.Moreover,withoutsuchunits,understandingothers’discussionsofcircuitsisnearlyimpossible.

Standardunits:

Conductance–itsmeasuringunitisSiemenwithGassymbol

Current–itsmeasuringunitisamperewithIoriassymbol

Frequency–itsmeasuringunitisHertzwithHzassymbol

Inductance–itsmeasuringunitisHenrywithHorLassymbol

Power–itsmeasuringiswattswithWassymbol

Resistance–itsmeasuringunitisohmwithRassymbol

Voltage–itsmeasuringunitisvoltwithVorEassymbol

IV.B.–CommonlyUsedAlternatives

Otherthanthestandardunitsofmeasurement,otherunitsaregivenlightsincethesecanenableclearerexpressionoftheelectricflowinacircuit.Especiallyifthecircuitinsubjectcontainsarathercomplexsystem,itcanbedifficulttoarriveatadefinitesolution.

Otherunits:

Angularfrequency–itisaunitofmeasurementusedinanACcircuit;itisarotationalunitthatdescribestherelationshipofatleast2electricformsin

acircuit

Decibel–itisaunitofmeasurementthatrepresentthegainineithercurrent,power,orvoltage;sinceitisonlyatenthoftheoriginalunit,Bel,itisprimarilyreservedfordenotingextremelysmallamounts

Timeconstant–itisaunitofmeasurementthatdescribestheoutputofacircuit’sminimumormaximumoutputvalue;inaway,itreferstothemeasurementoftimereaction

Watt-hour–itistheunitofmeasurementthatdescribestheelectricalenergyconsumptionoveraperiodoftime

IV.C.–UnitsofForce

Sinceforceinacircuitisanimportantconcept,itisadvisedthattheparticularunitofmeasurementispresentedcorrectly.Eveninphysics,itisreiteratedthatitshouldbelabeledaccordingtoitsrightcategory.

Atomicandelectrostaticunitsofforce:

Hartrees

Newtons

Tesla

Coulombs

Meters

ChapterV–PowerTransferatMax

Therewillbeinstancesofapowertransferinacircuit.Fortheelectricitytocontinueitssmoothflow,itsoriginalenergysourcewillbereplacedwithaninternalenergysource.Withsuchachange(especiallyinthecaseofaseriescircuitwherepowerneedstoflowcontinuously),theexplanationforitssystem’spatternbecomesanotchchallenging.

Forbeginners,agreatwayofunderstandingpowertransferinacircuitistounderstandmaximumpowertransfer,alongwiththeconceptsthatdwellonthetopic.Asitfollows,bygainingclarityonhowmuchwastheoriginalpower,aswellashowmuchpoweraparticularcircuitcanhandle,youcanseewhetherapowertransferisnecessaryorwillonlycauseitsloadtobecompromised.

V.A.–MaximumPowerTransfer

Maximumpowertransfer,aconceptthatwasintroducedbyMoritzvonJacobisometimeinthe1840s,drawslightontheideathatformaximumexternalpowertobeobtained,aninternalresistanceneedstobeinplace.However,thetransfercanonlybeflawlessiftheoriginalresistanceisequaltothepotentialpowerthataninternalresistorcanproduce.

Consequently,maximumpowertransferyieldsresultsthatpointoutpowertransfer,andnotefficiency;whileimprovedefficiencycanbeabyproduct,itisnotthechiefpurposeofmaximumpowertransfer.Itimpliesthatalthoughhigherpercentageofpoweristransferrable,itdoesnotaffectthemagnitudeofthepowerload(i.e.theextentthatitcanaffectacircuit).Intheeventthattheinternalresistanceismodifiedtoaccommodateavaluehigherthanthevalueoftheoriginalresistance,improvedefficiencycanbeachieved.

Moreover,theconceptofmaximumpowertransferwasinitiallymisunderstood;asubjectofmanyargumentswasacircuit’sreducedefficiencywiththeoccurrenceoftransfer.Someinsistedthatduetothepotentialpowerthatislostduringanexchange,acircuitmayfailtoreach100%efficiency.Asemphasisofthisgroup’sangle,takeforexamplethecaseofamotorwhosepoweristransferredfromabattery;powerinthissituationmaynotbemaximized,anditwillonlyberealizedovertimewhenbatterypowerhasbeenfullyconsumed.

Themaximumpowertheorystatesthatthetaskoftransferringpowerconsumespower,too

ItwasThomasEdison,aswellashisfellowscientists,FrancisRobbinsUpton,whocontestedthatmaximumpowertransferandefficiencyareonlyrelative;the2conceptsarenotoneandthesame.Infact,thereisadiscussionaboutmaximumpowerefficiency,too.

Intheexchange,youwillfindthatresistanceplaysanimportantrole.Bygivinglighttotheformerargument,youcancalculateacircuit’scapabilityofamaximumpowertransfer,inrelationtomaximumpowerefficiencywiththefollowingformula:

MPT=RL÷(RL+RS)

Acircuit’sMPT(ormaximumpowertransfer)canbedeterminedwithbasicarithmeticskills.First,dividetheRL(orResistanceLoad)bythesumoftheRLandRS(orResistanceSource).

V.B.–Thevenin’sTheory

Thevenin’sTheory,conceptualizedbyHermannvonHelmholtzandLeonCharlesThevenin,discussesthatifacircuitfollowsalinearnetwork,anypointcanbereplacedgiventhatitremainstocarryasourceforcurrent,resistance,andvoltage.Behindit,theideaistosupplyanequivalent.

Originally,Thevenin’sTheorycanonlybeappliedtocircuitsthatoperatewithaDCsystem;sinceaDCsystemisrathersimple,replacingitscomponentswithanequivalentispossible.Eventually,however,itscapabilitytohandlealoadinanon-linearsystemwasdiscovered;itcanoffersolutionsforanACsystem.

Moreover,theTheveninTheoryputsemphasisonthattheaveragecircuitcanonlybeconsideredtohavealinearaccordingtoalimitedrange;itcanonlybereplacedbythecomponentsofwithvaluesamongtherange.

TheTheveninTheoryfollowsthatpowerdissipationcanyielduniquevalues,andcanalsoyieldidenticalvalues.However,theresultscanonlybeaccomplishedwiththepowersuppliedbyanexternalresistor.

V.C.–TheStarDeltaTransformation

TheStarDeltaTransformationdwellsontheideathatacircuit’ssystemcanchangefromonephasetoanother.Forinstance,ifacircuit’spowersourceis

altered,itsabilityofcarryingpowerfromapointtothenextisaltered,too.Especiallyifthereare3branchesinacircuit’ssystem,thepowerthatcirculatesisknowntoformaclosedloop.

TheStarDeltaTransformationrefersto2kindsofcircuittransformations.Thefirstcircuittransformationisastartransformation,whichcanbedescribedbya“Y”formation;thesecondcircuittransformationisadeltatransformation,whichcanbedescribedbyatriangularpattern.

Moreover,theStar-DeltaTransformationdescribesa3-phasenetworkofcircuits,whichcanexplainpowertransferbetweenthese3networks.Itenablestheconversionofimpedancesthatareconnectedtoeachother.Withthetheoryasbasis,alongsidegettingaclearscopeforpowertransferanalysis,solvingvariousconcernscanbeaccomplished,too;theconceptisapplicabletodifferenttypesofcircuitsincludingseriescircuits,bridge-typenetworks,resistivecircuits,andparallelcircuits.

TheStar-DeltaTransformationcanbeconvertedtotheDelta-StarTransformation.FromthestarorY-formation,thecircuitcreatesatriangularnetworkasthetransitionisachieved.

TheStar-DeltaTransformationortheDelta-StarTransformationisalsocalledtheY-ΔTransformationortheΔ-YTransformation

ForthetransitionoftheStar-DeltaTransformationintotheDelta-StarTransformation,aformulashouldbefollowed;thisismeanttoensurethatthetransformation,alongwiththecalculationsforthetotalresistanceinall3circuits,issuccessful.Initially,thegoalistocomparetheamountofpowerinanindividualnetwork.Oncethepowerinnetwork1hasbeenacknowledged,proceedtoidentifyingtheweightthatonenetworkholdsintheentireformation;onewayofdeterminingthisistodisconnectthatentirenetworkandobservetheoperationsofacircuit.

Theformula:

**representations:ΔR=totalresistanceofthetransformation

1N=resistanceinnode1

2N=resistanceinnode2

AR=resistanceincircuitA

BR=resistanceincircuitB

CR=resistanceincircuitC

ΔR(1N2N)=CR||(AR+BR)

Thesimpleversionoftheformula:

**representation:TR=totalresistance

AR=resistanceincircuitA

BR=resistanceincircuitB

CR=resistanceincircuitC

TR=AR+BR+CR

V.D.–ExtraElementTheory

AcircuitanalysistechniquethatcanbeusedforthesimplificationofacomplicatedproblemistheExtraElementTheory;itwasproposedbyR.D.Middlebrook.Theideabehinditistotakeacomplexmatter,thendivideitintosmallportions;eachofthesmallportionswillbeaddressed.

Itfollowsthateverycircuithasatransferfunctionanddrivingpoint;theprocessofanalyzingacircuit,therefore,canbecomeeasieriftheaforementionedelementsarefirstidentified.

IntheExtraElementTheory,unlikeinothercircuitrytheorems,anelementsuchasacapacitororresistorcanbetemporarilyremovedsothetransferfunctionordrivingpointcanbedetermined.Sincetherearecircuitcomponentsthatcancomplicateanequation(regardlessofhowintegraltheyaretoacircuit),itispracticaltosetthemasideforawhile;althoughtheymaybeofvaluetoacircuitasawhole,itwasproventhattheydon’taffectcalculations.Oncetheinitialgoalisachieved,theelementscanbereturned.

ImpedanceisafamiliartermindiscussionsoftheExtraElementTheory;itcanbeanalyzedwiththeemploymentofthetheory.Incertaincases,itsinputcanbedeterminedinnetworkgrantedthatanextraelementjoinsin.

TheExtraElementTheory(inrelationtoinputimpedance)proposestheadditionofan“extra”elementthatisequivalentinvaluetotheotherelements

Theformulaforfindingtheimpedanceis:

**representations:Z=impedance

s=source

Z=1÷s

V.E.–SimplificationoftheSource

SimplificationoftheSource,sometimesreferredtoasSourceTransformation,istheprocessofconvertingelectriccurrentintovoltage,orvoltageintoelectriccurrent.Itisacommontechniqueusedbymanycircuitengineersforexplainingtheircircuit’ssysteminsimpleterms.

TheprocessofSimplificationoftheSourceusuallybeginswithanexistingresistancesourceinacircuit;itisthenreplacedwithnewelectriccurrentsourcewithasimilarlevelofresistance.Sinceitisbilateralprocedure,onecanbederivedtoyieldresultsfromanother.Itmakeswayfortheadjustmentofvoltageasitgraduallybecomestheequivalentofaparticularcircuit’sresistance.

Moreover,SimplificationoftheSourcemaybeginwithanexistingresistance,butisnotlimitedtotheaccommodationofresistivecircuits.Itmeansthattheprocesscanbeperformedoncircuitsthatinvolveinductorsandcapacitors.

V.F.–WhereDoestheRosenstarkMethodFitin?

TheRosenstarkMethod,sometimescalledAsymptoticGainModel,isyetanotherimportantsubjectwherepowertransferisconcerned.Inlightofthereturnratio,itservesastherepresentationofnegativegainfromfeedbackamplifiers.Asitprovidesanintuitiveformofcircuitanalysis,itintroducesanewbatchofelementssuchasthereturnratioandasymptoticgains.

TheRosenstarkformula:

**representations:G0=0asymptoticgain

G∞=infiniteasymptoticgain

T=returnratio

RosenstarkMethod={G0+[T÷(T+1)]}+{G∞+[T÷(T+1)]}

TheRosenstarkMethodservesasthebasicrepresentationofpowertransferinacircuit

BestfeaturesoftheRosenstarkMethod:

Assumesthatthedirecttransmissionissmallandcanbeequatedtotheasymptoticgain

Characterizesbilateralpropertiesandfeedbackamplifiers

Identifies(viathoroughinspection)thepassivecircuitelements

Steps:

1. Chooseasourceinacircuit’ssystem;preferably,optforadependentsource.

2. Determinethesource’sreturnratio.

3. IdentifytheG∞.

4. IdentifytheG0.

5. UsetheRosenstarkformulaandsubstitutevalues.

ChapterVI–Laws,Laws&MoreLaws

Cometothinkofit,circuitanalysisisoneofthebroadbranchesofelectricalengineering.Itcoversthebasicsofcircuitsandpowerconsumption;italsocoverstheextensiveaspectsofthetopicsuchastheoperationsofanentireelectricalnetwork.

Withoutlawsregardinghowelectriccurrentisdistributedwithinacircuit’scomponents,thereisariskofuncleardiscussionsoffundamentalandin-depthanalysis;withoutthem,aguidethatcanbreakdownlengthycomponentsisabsent.Forbeginners,especially,theyareimportantsincetheygrantthechancetounderstandthefunctionsofacircuitandeveneachoneofitsparts.Itstaystruetotheideathatfortheresolutionofabigproblem,lookingatitlikelittlepiecesisanopportunitytoconqueroritsdifficulties.

VI.A.–PuttingKirchhoff’sLawsintoMotion

Kirchhoff’sLawsarecomposedof2equationsthatdwellontheconservationofchargeandenergy.Theywereinitiallyintroducedin1845byGustavKirchhoffasameansforthedeterminationofacircuit’spowerconsumption,aswellasitsparameters.

Asseveraldiscussionsgo,Kirchhoff’sLawsmaynotbetooimportantsinceitwasderivedfromtheworkofScottishphysicist,JamesMaxwell;sinceitwasderivedfromanother’swork,itissaidthatacircuitengineershouldratherusetheoriginalworkasbasis.However,itisasetoflawsthatprimarilyfocusesontheoperationsofaclosedcircuit;thepreviousworkfromwhichitwastakendoesn’tputemphasisonaclosedcircuit,andisratherdescriptiveofthegenericcircuit.

Moreover,Kirchoff’sLawsareconditional.Itmaybeusefulindescribingchargeandenergyconservationfordifferentcircuitelements,butitcanonlyyieldanapproximation;italsorequirescertainfactorssuchaschangingelectriccurrents,voltage,andresistance.

Kirchhoff’sLawisactuallyageneralterm.Tobespecific,itaddresses2subjects:currentandvoltage.Itacknowledgesallcircuits,regardlessofcomplexities.

Tosolidifyitsargumentintheconservationofchargeandenergy,oneofKirchhoff’sLaws,KCL(orKirchhoff’sCurrentLaw),statesthattheelectriccurrentinaninterconnectednetworkisrelative.And,toemphasizehispoint,GustavKirchhoffconteststhatthealgebraicsumoftheelectriccurrentinajointnetworkis0.

AnotherlawofKirchhoffthatcomplementstheKCLisKVL(orKirchhoff’sVoltageLaw).Itsbasisisonthegenerallawonenergy

conservationthatdefinesvoltageastheenergyperunitofcharge.Justlikeinthepreviouslaw,GustavKirchhoffsaysthatinaclosednetwork,thealgebraicsumoftheelectricvoltageinajointnetworkis0.

AccordingtoKVL,addingallthevoltageswithinthecircuityields0VI.B.–DoesMichaelFaradayKnowWhatHe’sGettingInto?

TheLawofInductionbyMichaelFaradayisafundamentallawthatrevolvesaroundthefieldofacircuitandthepossibleelementsthataresubjecttoeventualinteraction.Itcarriesbothqualitativeandquantitativeaspects,andproposesthatonlywiththepresenceofaninfinitesourceofinductorscanacircuitretainitsinductivecapability.

Unfortunately,notallcircuitengineersandscientistsareonewithMichaelFaradayandhisLawofInduction.Itisarguedthatalthoughitholdssomematterstrue,especiallywhereloopsofwireareconcerned,itcanyieldthewrongresultsifusedextensively;itcanonlyhandleacertainfieldandisusuallyarbitrarilysmall.Infact,counterexampleswerepreviouslypresented.

AcounterexampleofFaraday’sLawofInductionisthecaseinvolvinganelectricdiscgenerator.Duetoitsownmagneticfield,itcanrotatecircularlyataspecifiedangularrate;itcancompletearotationandintheprocess,inductelectricitybydistributingittootherareas(withinthecircuit).Itcanbededucedthatalthoughthecircuit’sshapehasremainedconstantoveraperiodoftimeandalthoughitcaninductelectricity,itsdistributivemethodmadeitloseinductivecapabilities.

Anelectricdiscgeneratorinduceselectricityuntilcyclecompletionintheobject’slowerbrush.

Faraday’sLawofInductionmayhavebeennotedforcertainflaws,butitisalawthatmadetheconceptionofotherimportantlaws(notallofthemareinthefieldofcircuitengineering)possible.AnimportantlawwithbasisonMichaelFaraday’sideaisAlbertEinstein’sSpecialRelativity.

VI.C.-Ohm’sLaw&Conductivity

Ohm’sLaw,namedaftertheGermanscientist,GeorgSimonOhm,isapowerfullawthatdescribestheresistanceandelectriccurrentinacircuit,aswellastheirpotentialdifference.Particularly,itshedslighton2points,then,subjectsthemtofurtheranalysis.Consequently,therelationshipbetweenPointAandPointBwillindicateeachoftheirpropertiesasindividualcomponents.

Inthevergeoflearningitsconcepts,itwilldawnonyouthatOhm’sLawisanempiricalmatter.Afterobservationswithdifferentrangesoflengthscales,itwasproposedthatitwouldfailwheresmallwiresareconcerned;however,thisprovedtobeamereassumptionsinceitwasdiscoveredthatitcouldfunctionregardlessofawire’ssize.

Sinceitisabasicequationincircuitengineering,Ohm’sLawcanalsobeappliedforthedeterminationofmetalconductivity;itcanbereliedonwhenitcomestounderstandingtheelectricflowandconductiveaspectinacircuit’scomponent.VariousmaterialsthatmakeuseofGeorgOhm’sprinciplesarereferredtoasohmic.

GeorgOhmsettheparametersforhislawtoincludeonlycommontermsincircuitry

Inthephysicsofelectricity,Ohm’sLawisimportantwherequantitativemeasurementsinacircuitareconcerned.Initially,whenitwaspresentedtoGermanscientists,itwasonlymockedandrejectedduetothemerefactthatitwentagainstthebasicunderstandingofelectricflow;itwasdismissedas“aweboffancies”andworse,GeorgOhmwasdubbedasa“fancybutinvaluable”scienceprofessor.Itwasonlyuntil1840whenitearnedrecognitionandisnowwidelyusedtoday.

HowtocalculatefortheelementsinOhm’sLaw:

Formula#1:

voltage=current⃰ resistance

Formula#2:

current=voltage÷resistance

Formula#3:

resistance=voltage÷current

VI.D.–TheArgumentofNorton’sTheorem

EdwardLawryNorton,asheimpliesinNorton’sTheorem,proposedthatincircuitanalysis,anylinearnetwork,grantedthatithassourcesofvoltage,electriccurrent,andresistance,hasanequivalentindualnetwork.Acertainsystemmaybeunique,butvaluesthatcanmakeasimilarmodelcanbeobtained.

Tofindacircuit’sequivalentusingNorton’sconcepts,certainvaluesneedtobeidentified:voltage,electriccurrent,andresistance.Oncethereareclearsources,youcanbeginformulatingthenecessaryequations.However,whenthesourcesare

dependentoneachother,another(andithastobefromagenericsource)electriccurrentneedstoenterthepicture.

Moreover,Norton’sTheoremgiveslighttothefactthatthevaluesfortheequivalentcurrentandequivalentvoltagearevaluesthatcanbeidentifiedatthefirst2terminalsofacircuit.Itisimportanttonote,however,thatsuchacaseisonlypossibleifallthecomponentsinthesaidcircuitareshort-circuited.Ifthecomponentsarenotshort-circuited,apracticalsolutionistohavecurrentandvoltagesourcesreplaced;currentcanbereplacedbytransformingacircuitintoanopencircuit,andvoltagecanbereplacedbytransformingacircuitintoashortcircuit.

Norton’sTheoremwasalsodevelopedbyHandsFerdinandMayer

Theformula:

**representations:TCAB=totalcurrentincircuitAandcircuitB

TC=totalcurrent

TCAB=voltage÷(TCincircuitA+TCincircuitB)

VI.E.–Coulomb’sLaw

Oneofthelawsthatunderwentheavytestingisalawthatgivesimportancetotheelectrostaticrelationshipofallthechargedelementswithinacircuit;thislawiscalledCoulomb’sLawafterthescientist,CharlesAgustindeCoulomb.Itarguesthatthemagnitudeofinteractivecircuitcomponentsisindirectproportiontothesquaredareabetweenthedistances.Todemonstrateapoint,itshowsthattheprimaryforceworksalongastraightline.

Moreover,Coulomb’sLawrequiresthattheplacementofthechargedelementsisaccomplishedthroughasinglemedium.Thiscausesthearrangementtoeliminateanypossiblecomplications.

TheapplicationofCoulomb’sLawisonlyvalidifthecircuitcomponentsarepointcharges

TomakeiteffortlesstoobeyCoulomb’sLaw,thedeterminationofCoulomb’sconstantisrecommended.Oncethevalueoftheconstanthasbeendetermined,notonlyisiteasiertoadheretotheaforementionedlaw,youarealsoensuringthatthecalculationsfortheelectriccurrentarevalid.

Theformula:

**representations:CC=Coulomb’sConstant

ε0=electricconstant

CC=1÷4πXε0

ChapterVII–UnderstandingElectromagnetism

Apairofloudspeakersisanexampleofanelectronicdevicethatworksduetothestrategicpositioningofcircuitelements.That,alongwiththeintegralpartscalledelectromagnets;suchcomponentscausedisturbancetoothercircuitelements.Theireffectontheirfellowsisrathersignificantastheytendtomakethedevice’sconetovibrate.Asaresult,sound,andinmostcases,highqualitysound,isproduced.

Foradeeperunderstandingofaloudspeaker,youcouldusealessoninelectromagnetism.

VII.A.–AnIntroductiontotheConceptbehindElectromagnetism

Electromagnetismisabranchofsciencethatinvolvesthestudyofelectricityandmagnetism.Itfollowsthatwhereverthereisanelectricfield,thereisalsoamagneticfield.ItwasinitiallyintroducedanddevelopedbyHansChristianOrsted.In1802,anItalianscholarbythenameofGianDomenicoRomagnosialsoexaminedthefield

Incircuitry,understandingtheconceptbehindelectromagnetismisimportantduethepossiblystrongelectromagneticreactionofcircuitcomponents.ItfollowsthattheEMF(orelectromagneticforce)ofanycircuitservesamajorroleinthedeterminationofinternalproperties.

ChapterV,PowerTransferatMax,andChapterVI,Laws,Laws&MoreLaws,containdifferentdiscussionsabouttransferringelectriccurrentandvoltage.Inelectromagnetism,morediscussionsabouttransferwillbetackled.Thistime,however,thefocusisonthechargedelementsinacircuit(whethernegativelyorpositivelycharged),aswellastheirresponseswhenexposedtomovement.

Theprimaryprinciplesofelectromagnetism:

Thedirectionofamagneticfielddictatesthedirectionofthecurrentinacircuit

Theelectriccurrentofaconductorcreatesamagneticfield;theformationisdependentonthedirectionoftheconductor,butisalwaysshapedinacorrespondingcircle

Themagneticpolesofchargedelementsalwayscomeinpairs;onepoleinapairneedstobeinverselyproportionaltotheother

Chargedelementscaneitherattractorrepel;elementswithdifferentchargesareattractivetoeachother,whilethosewithsimilarchargesavoidcontact

Electriccurrentcanbeinducedwhenitismovedawayortowardamagneticfield

VII.B.–GaussWho?

AnotableindividualinthefieldofelectromagnetismisCarlFriedrichGauss.HeisaGermanmathematicianwhoputtogetherthecriticalelectromagnetismconceptsintheformofalawcalledGaussLaw.Accordingtohim,todeterminetherelevanceofthedistributionofelectriccharges,thecircuit’selectricfield,initsentirety,mustbeevaluated.

GaussLawallowsmathematicalexpressionwiththeemploymentofintegralanddifferentialcalculus,preferablyinvectorform.Forabeginnerincircuitry,theparticulartechniqueofdemonstrationisadvisedsinceitgrantsaclearperspectiveoftheconceptofelectromagnetism.

Theintegralformula:

**representations:ΦE=electricfield


Q=totalelectriccharge

ΦE=Q÷ε0Thedifferentialformula:

**representations: ∇ =anelectricfield’sdivergence

E=theotherhalfofanelectricfield’sdivergence

p=electricchargedensity


∇ XE=p÷ε0VII.C.–TheMainFormulasinElectromagnetism

Inacircuit’selectromagneticfield,itisimportanttorememberthatchargedelementstendtomoveradically;sometimes,predictingthedirectionoftheelectricflowisnearlyimpossible.Whileothersgoaboutinanon-linearnetwork,manychargesobeytheruleofsuperpositionsincetheyadheretoalinearpath.Withtheuseofcertainlawsasbasis,therelationshipbetweenthechargedelementscanbeevaluated.

4laws:

1. Ampere’sLaw–animportantlawwhoseapplicationsincludeinstancesofamovingmagneticfield;particularly,itbeappliedinsituationsinvolvingcurrent-carryingwires

Theformula:

**representations:B=electromagneticfield

DL=differentialelementoftheelectriccurrent

µ0=permeabilityof0space

I=electriccurrentinanenclosedcircuit

∫BXDL=µ0XI

2. Biot-Savart’sLaw–alawthatisemployedforthecalculationofsteadycurrentinanelectromagneticfield;arequirementisaconstanttimevariable,aswellasachargethatisasubjectofneitherabuild-upordepletion

Theformula:

**representations:B=electromagneticfieldoutsideacircuit

µ0=permeabilityof0space

I=electriccurrentinanenclosedcircuit

R=distancefromtheelectromagneticfield

B=∫(µ0XI)÷4πR2

3. Faraday’sLaw–likehis[MichaelFaraday]lawofinduction,thisisalawthataddressestheinducedelectromagneticforceofanobject;itisstrictlyapplicabletothechargedelementswithinaclosedcircuit

Theformula:

**representations:IEMF=inducedelectromagneticfield

Dφ=differenceofspace

DT=timedifferential

IEMF=−Dφ÷DT

4. LorentzForce–alawthatassessesapointchargeduetobothanelectromagneticfieldandanelectricfield

Theformula:

**representations:LF=LorentzForce

q=totalcharge

EMF=electromagneticfieldinsideacircuit

V=velocity

B=electromagneticfieldoutsideacircuit

LF=q[EMF+(VXB)]

VII.D.–Electrodynamics&QuantumElectrodynamics

Beforethe1900s,ascientistnamedWilliamGilbertaddressedaproposalconcerningelectricityandmagnetism;accordingtohim,whilebothsubjectscanbetracedtoattractingandrepulsingobjectswithinacircuit,electricityandmagnetismaredifferentconcepts.Thekeytounderstandingelectromagnetism,therefore,istounderstandtheindividualterms;particularly,understandtheirrelevanceanddistinction.

Aconflictregardingelectromagnetismisthat,despiteagreeingtoAlbertEinstein’sSpecialRelativity,itgoesagainstsomeoftherulesofmechanics;itisonlydependentontheelectromagneticpermeabilityof0space.Itfollowsthatinthecaseofmovingframes,theelectromagneticfieldissubjectedtotransformationtoincludespace.

Moreover,allelectromagneticphenomenaarecoveredunderquantummechanics.Thismakestheelectromagneticfieldofacircuitaccountableforthephysicalphenomenathatareobservable,especiallymagnetismandelectricity.

ChapterVIII–Let’sTalkCircuitBoards

Areyoufamiliarwithcrocodileclips?

Crocodileclipsaredevicesthatcanbeusedfortheassemblyofacircuit;thesetoolsareso-namedfortheirresemblancetothejawsofacrocodile.Withthem,asolidgriptoconnectacomponentispossible.Ifyou’rewonderinghowelectricalengineerscancreateelectricalconnectionswithouttheassociateddangers?Well,there’syouranswer.

Byusingcrocodileclips,youcanmakeamodelofaworkingcircuit.Whetherbeitabasiccircuit,aseriescircuit,oraparallelcircuit,youcancreateforanaudiencetoanalyze.

VIII.A.-PrintedCircuitBoards101

Printedcircuitboards(orPCBs)aredevicesthatenableelectricalconnectivityeveninan“open”environment;withintheirsystem,thereareresistors,inductors,transformers,capacitors,conductors,andsemi-conductors.Thesetoolssupporthighcomponentdensity.Inaway,printedcircuitboardsarereferredtoaslivecircuits.

Sincefunctioningcircuitboardscanberatherrisky,especiallywhenexposedtoextremeenvironments,theyarepackagedaccordingly.Inmostcases,thesedevicesaresubjectedtoaseriesofcoatingproceduresandaredippedinacrylic,wax,polyurethane,andepoxy.

Designstandards:

Templatesandcarddimensionsaredesignedaccordingtorequiredcircuitryregulations

ManufacturedGerberdataaregenerated

DesignisplannedthoroughlywiththeassistanceofanEDAorElectronicDesignAutomationtool

Tracesforsignalsarerouted

Copperthicknessandlayerthicknessarecarefullyevaluated

VIII.B.–CircuitBoardTests

Toseeifacircuitworks,certaintestsareperformed.Particularly,itisdeterminedwhetherornotitisfunctionalandcanperformdesiredtasks.Alongwithitscapacitors,resistors,transformers,andothercomponents,itisanalyzedforopensandshorts.

Objectivesoftestingmethods:

Todetectflaws

Todetecterror-freeoperationsofeachofitscomponents

Todeterminesystemstability

Toevaluatewhetheritisfitforuse

Toevaluatesafetyissues

Toverifytestsystems

Exampletestingmethods:

Analogtests

Contacttests

Contacttests

Electrolyticcapacitortests

Flashtests

Powereddigitaltests

Shorttests

VIII.C.–Let’sLearntoPrototype

Prototypingistheabilitytoputaparticularideatotestbypreparingamodelfromwhichothercircuitsaredeveloped.Especiallywhenthecircuitinsubjectinvolvesacomplexsystemorexpensivecomponents,aprototypeisinitiallydesigned.

Ifthecircuitcreatorisunsureofhowaparticularcircuitwillfunction,hisbestbetistocreateaprototype.Thisway,hecanevaluatehiscreationandseehowitcanbeimproved.Ifit’snotyieldinghisdesiredresults,hecanmodifytheplacementsofeachofitscomponentsuntilheachievesanecessaryoutput.Otherwise,hecanproceedtotheactualcircuit-makingprocess.

VIII.D.-TheArtofBread-Boarding

Breadboardsallowthecreationofacircuitprototype,whichisthereasonwhythesetoolsareidealforbeginners.Bread-boarding,therefore,istheprocessofcreatingacircuitprototypeinaboardtoresembletheoperationsofarealcircuit.Itshistorycanbetracedtothetimethatelectricalenthusiastswouldusealiteralbreadboard(i.e.theboardusedforslicingbread).

Accordingtoexperts,it’srecommendedtolearnandunderstandbread-boardingpriortomakingyourfirst-evercircuit.It’sadvisedtobefamiliarwitheachofitscomponents,aswellashowitworks.

Breadboardcomponents:

Chips–thesearelegsthatcomeoutofbothsidesofabreadboards;thesecomponentsfitperfectlyandserveasconnectorsofdifferentparts

Posts–thesearecomponentsthatenableconnectionsfrompowersources

Powerrails–theseareverticalmetalrowsstripsthatareadjacenttoterminals;throughthesecomponents,easyaccesstoapowersourcecanbe

provided

Powersupplies–thesearecomponentsthatenablethesupplementationofawiderangeofelectriccurrentandvoltagelevels

Terminals–thesearehorizontalmetalrowstripsthatareadjacenttopowerrails;throughthesecomponents,wiresareallowedtobeinserted,then,beheldintact

VIII.E.–EssentialSkillsinCircuitry

Afterunderstandingbread-boarding,you’realmostreadyforsomehands-oncircuitlessons.First,however,youshouldadoptacertainsetofskills;whilebread-boardingishelpful,it’sonlypractice(i.e.forinstance,thereisnosolderinginvolved).Sinceyou’llbemakinganactualfunctioningcircuit,it’stimetogetyourhandsdirty.

5skillsrequiredincircuitry:

1. Stripping(wire)–itisaskillthatpromotessecureelectricalconnections;itinvolvestheknowledgeonvarioustypesofwires,thicknessofwires,andhowtomaintainasolidgrip;sinceexposuretoelectriccurrentisarisk,itisbesttocheckouttheappropriatetoolsforwires

2. Drilling–itisaskillthatfocusesontheproperdrilling(ofholes)inacircuit,then,makingsurethatelectricalconnectionscanremainintact;itisaslowprocessthatrequirespracticewithaccuracyandprecision

3. Howtotestbatteries–itisaskillthatrequirestestingthecapacityofabattery;particularly,itinvolvesmeasuringthecurrentloadinopenandshortcircuits

4. Howtouseagluegun–itisaskillthattakesadvantageofagluegun’sconductiveproperty;itteacheshowtoinsulateandhowtosetasemi-permanentcoating;especiallywhenthereisaneedtostrengthenthejointsofacircuit,itcomesinhandy

5. Howtouseliquidelectricalcoating–itisaskillthatfocusesontheabilitytoapplyliquidelectricalcoatingwhereconventionalelectricaltapeislikelytofail;itrequiresprecautionsinceabout30%ofthepartsintheliquidcoatingarequitevolatile

VIII.F.–TheSecretsofaSolder

Solderingisaprocessthatinvolves(atleast)2metals(oranyconductivematerial);the2metalsarejoinedbyflowingandmelting.Intheindustryofcircuitry,itisoneofthemostfundamentalmethodsincircuitcreation;itallowsindependentcomponentstoworkasone.

Atechniqueofgoodsolderingrevolvesaroundtheknowledgeoftheamountofheatthatisapplied.Forbasicsoldering,361Fisthetemperaturetoconsiderandforadvancedsoldering,thegoalistoarriveatatemperatureofsomewherebetween361Fto419F.

Inmetallurgicalengineering,atermnamedfluxiscommonlyused;incircuitengineering,assoonasthecircuitcreationprocesscommences,itwillbeintroduced,too.Itiscleaningagentandaflowingmaterialthatfacilitatesthesolderingprocess.Shouldtherebeinvisibleimpurities(e.g.oil,dirt,etc.),theywillberemovedforthepurposeofnotriskingtheintegrityofacircuit.

Moreover,itisimportanttonotethatinsoldering,theproperapplicationoffluxissuggested.Impropermethodscanresulttojointfailure.Thesystem’sdamage(duetoincorrectfluxapplication)maynotbeobviousatfirst,butgradually,itiscapableofcorrosionandrenderingacircuituseless.

ChapterIX–SufficientSafety

Onasunnyday,tryheadingoutsideofyourhouse,then,checkingouttheelectricalconnections(wires)fromoneposttoanother.Morelikely,one,two,orevenaflockofbirdsarecalmlyrestingonpowerlines.

Doyoueverwonderwhytheydon’tgetshocked?

No,birdsarenormalcreatures;theydonotpossessextra-specialpowers.Intheirheads,theyunderstandthatit’samustnottosteponopenelectricalnetworks,whichisoneofthethingsthatneedtobecoveredforbeginnersincircuitengineering.

IX.A.–TheLackofElectricalSafetyCourses

Whilesomecircuitengineeringprofessorsteachenoughlessonsaboutelectricalsafety,othersarequitebehindonthearea.Theyassumethatpracticalknowledge,aswellasageneral“becareful”wouldsuffice;sincethebeginnersincircuitengineeringarefrequentexposuretoelectricaldevices,no,thestatementwon’tcutit.Therefore,itisimportanttostressouttheneedtobecarefulespeciallyduringtheirfirsthands-onactivity.

Electricalsafetytips:

Treateachelectricaldeviceasiflivecurrentisrunninginsideit(regardlessifyou’reawarethatthereisn’t)

Overloadingsocketsforacircuitboard?Notagoodidea

Tocutoffrunningcurrent,addaresidualcurrent

Alwaysdisconnect(andnotjustturnoff)electricaldeviceswhenworkingonacomponent

Alwaysturnoffanyelectricaldeviceifnotinuse

Regularlychecktheconditionsofsocketsandplugs

Practiceextremecautionwhendealingwithliquidsandelectriccurrent

Makesureyourhandsaredry

Avoidoctopusconnections(i.e.devicesthatenablemultipleplugsorsockets)

Keepelectricalwiresandcordstuckedneatly

Weartheproperattirewhencreatingacircuit;putonnon-conductiveglovesandfootwearwithinsulatedsoles

IX.B.-TheImportanceofHands-onCircuitLessons

Hands-onlearningisimportantforabeginnerincircuits.Itgiveslighttothefact

thatincircuitengineering,itismoreaboutactualfieldwork.Oncetheconceptsareunderstood,it’sbesttomoveontocreatingfunctionalcircuitboards.

Acommonproblemthatisencounteredbybeginners?Sweatyhands.Eveninanair-conditionedlaboratory,therearepeoplewhohavetodealwithsweatyhandswhenhandlingcircuits.Alongside,theyhavetodealwiththeneedofmaintainingastrongandsolidgriponvarioustools.Althoughthismaybeaconcern,it’sonethatrequirespractice.

IX.C.–The80-20RuleofCircuitSafety

Incircuitry,thereisarulethatfocusesontheinstallmentsoftransmittersinhazardousareasfordeviceswithacircuit;itiscalledthe80-20RuleofCircuitSafety.Accordingtotherule,itisrecommendedtotakeextraprecautionwhendealingwithparticularportionsofanelectronicdevice;therearesomepartsthatincreasetheriskofelectricalshockwhentouchedormoved.

Hazardousareasofacircuit(thatrequireextraprecaution):

Pointwithhighimpedance

Pointwithhighresistance

Areanearthevoltagesource

Areanearanopening

Areawithconductiveelements

IX.D.–TroubleshootingConcerns

Intheeventthatadevicewithacircuitisnotfunctioncorrectly,itisrecommendedtohaveitevaluatedaccordingly.Whileabeginnermayhandlethetaskofchecking,aprofessionalincircuitryistheonewhoisadvisedtoassessthesystem.Sinceanexpertisalreadyfamiliarwithdifferentcircuitcomponents,andheknowsexactlywheretolookforpossiblefaults,heismorequalifiedforthejob.

Troubleshootingtips:

Determinewhethertheconnectionsaresecure

Determinewhetherthewiresarecorrectlyconnectedtooneanother

Checkforcircuitcomponentsthatseemoutofplace

Checkforcircuitcomponentsthatmaybelargerinsize

ChapterX–Here’saMultimeterforYou!

Animportantandindispensibletoolincircuitryisamultimeter.

Imagineasituationwhenacircuitprojectwaspresentedtoyou.Sinceyouwererequestedtodetailaccuratemeasurementsforitselectriccurrent,voltage,andresistance,yougotothenearestequipmentlaboratorytoborrowastackofdevicesforassistance.

Now,imaginethesamesituation,butthistime,youhavethistool;insteadofhavingtogototheequipmentlaboratorytoborrowastackofdevicestomeasuretheelectriccurrent,voltage,andresistance,youturntothattool.Thisparticulartime,youhaveamultimeter.

Ifyou’renotfamiliarwiththeoperationsofamultimeter,letitbeyourfirstjobpriortocreatingacircuitproject.It’sactuallyquiteeasytouse.Solongasyouareattentivetoinstructions,andyouknowitscomponents,certainrestriction,andthetechniquetomaximizingitsfunctions,you’reset.

X.A.-What’saMultimeter?

Amultimeter,alsocalledamultitester,Volt-Ohmmillimeter,andVolt-Ohmmeter,isanelectronicdevicethatmeasurestheelectriccurrentinacircuit;itiscapableofmeasuringvoltage,resistance,andavarietyofotherunitsinacircuit’ssystem.Toknowhowtousethedevice,it’simportanttobefamiliarwitheachofitscomponents;ifyoucanunderstandhowthecomponentswork,youcanalsounderstandtheoperationsoftheentiredevice.

Partsofamultimeter:

1. Theselectionknob–itenablesausertochooseaparticularsettingthatissubjectformeasurement

2. Thedisplaymeter–itenablesthedisplayofthemeasuredreading;itcancontainupto4digits,aswellasanegativesign

3. Theprobes–thesearepluggedintoamultimeterthatcaninterpretandconvertmeasurementsfromadeviceintoamultimeter;usually,thesecomeinapairofredandblackprobes

Typesofprobes:

1. IChook

2. Alligatorclips

3. Testprobes

X.B.-AMultimeterintheWorks

Inarguably,amultimeterisoneofthemostusefultoolsincircuitryandoneofthetoolsthatcanmakethetaskofbuildingcircuitseasy.Itcanbeusedtomeasureanyobjectordevicethatcontainsacircuitandanelectriccurrent.Usingit,however,

comesthehardpart;infact,intheworldofcircuitsandelectronics,itearnedthetitleasoneofthemostchallengingjobs.Itmaybeeffortlesstogetareading,butgettinganaccuratereading,theninterpretingthereadingisanotherstory.

Howtouseamultimetertomeasure(abasicexample):

1. PrepareanAAAbattery.

2. Plugtheblackprobeofamultimetertothenegativeside(i.e.thesidewitha“-“)oftheAAAbattery.

3. PlugtheredprobeofamultimetertothepositivesideoftheAAAbattery.

4. Checkthedisplaymeter;asrecommended,checkthemetertwice.

5. Listdownthereadingandbegintheinterpretation.

X.C.–Resolution,Accuracy&InputImpedance

Thesmallestpartofamultimeter’sscaleiscalledastheresolution.Itisresponsibleforachievinganaccuratereadingandinterpretation.Inmanymultimeterkinds,especiallydigitalones,itcanbeconfiguredorcalibrated.And,astherulesgo,adevicewithlowresolutiondoesn’trequiremuchcompletiontime;adevicewithhighresolutioncanrequireademandingprocessingtime.

Meanwhile,theaccuracyofamultimeterreferstoanerrorinthemeasurementofanelectriccurrent,incomparisontoaperfectreading.Itisrelativetothedevice’sresolutionsinceresolutionmaynotbecalibratedaccordinglyiftheabsoluteaccuracylevelisquestionable.Therefore,todeterminethetotalaccuracyofamultimeter,itsrelativeaccuracyshouldbeaddedtoitsabsoluteaccuracy.

Formulaforthecomputationoftotalaccuracy:

**representations:TA=totalaccuracy

RA=relativeaccuracy

AA=absoluteaccuracy

TA=RA+AA

Whentalkingaboutamultimeter’sresolutionandaccuracy,inputimpedanceisasetoftermsthatneedstobeacknowledged,too.Thisisduetothedevice’sinabilitytoachieveaccuratereadingswhenitisnotsetaccordingly.Especiallyforthemeasurementofacircuit’svoltage,itsinputimpedancehastobecalibratedhigh(i.e.higherthanacircuit’svoltage)sotheoperationremainssmoothly.

X.D.–SafetyConcerns

Groupsthatareinchargeofthemanufactureofmultimeters,aswellastheauthoritiesthatpromotethesafeuseofsuchdeviceshavesetsafetystandards.Thisistoemphasizetheimportanceoftherightemploymentoftheelectricaltools.Althoughthemethodforusecanberatherstraightforward,recklesshabitscanresulttoproblems.Alongsidethepossibilityofinaccuratereadings,itcancauseharmtotheindividualthatishandlingthedevices.

Categoriesofsafetystandards:

Category1–applicabletotheemploymentofamultimeter,circuit,oranyelectronicequipmentwithadistancenearmainconnections

Category2–applicabletotheemploymentofamultimeter,circuit,oranyelectronicequipmentwithadistancesomewherenearthefirstphaseofmainconnections

Category3–applicabletotheemploymentofamultimeter,circuit,oranyelectronicequipmentwithadistancenearpermanentlyinstalledloads

Category4–applicabletotheemploymentofamultimeter,circuit,oranyelectronicequipmentwithadistancenearfaultycurrentlevelsthatcanbequitehigh

ChapterXI-DIYCircuits:SimpleProjects

Whenyou’reintocircuits,aswellaselectronicsandelectricalengineering,youneedtostepupyourgamewhenitcomestobuildingitems.Isn’tthemainreasonforlearningthebranchofelectricalengineeringforthecreationofcircuits,then,puttingthemtogooduse?

Intheeventthatyourfirstcircuitprojectwouldn’tturnoutasdesired,trynottogetdiscouragedeasily,andinstead,givemattersanothergo.Notgettingtheresultsyouwantedmaybeabitofadowner,buteventually,theoddswillbeinyourfavor;lookatthesetbackasanopportunityforlearning.Ifyourheart’sintocircuits,you’llsoongetthehangofhowthingsaredone.

XI.A.–CommonToolsinCircuitry

Forthecreationofacircuit,youcanmakeuseofjustaboutanytoolyoucomeacross;ifyoufindequipmentthatwillmakeyouaccomplishataskeasier,then,maybeyoushouldputitinyourarsenal.Youcanusejustanytool,yes,but,doingsoisnotadvised.Itisbesttochoosetherightset(i.e.asetoftoolswithanon-conductivehandle)tonotputyoursafetyatrisk.

Commontools:

Crimper

Cutters(e.g.cablecutter,electricalcutter,etc.)

Extractiontool

Gluegun

Non-metallictweezers

Pliers

Screwdriver

Solderinggun

Wire-wrappingtools

XI.B.-BeginnerCircuitProjects

Buildingyourfirstcircuitcanbeachallenge;sinceyou’restillabeginner,youmayendupmakingmistakes.Maybeyourcircuitwon’tendupasfunctionalasdesired,despitehavingfollowedyourunderstandingofaseriesofprocedures.Insuchacase,thisiswhereyouhavetotweakyourwork;bediligentinfiguringoutwhereyouwentwrong.Ifyou’reuncertainofyouractions’impact,don’tworrytoomuch.Theimportantpartistobegin;youcan,then,figureouttherestalongtheway.

7easycircuitprojects(derivedfromhttp://www.instructables.com):

Project#1–StaticElectricityAnalyzer

TheStaticElectricityAnalyzercandetectnearbystaticelectricity;toindicatethatstaticelectricityispresent,itsLEDcomponentglows.Apartfromadetector,itcanbeusedtoanalyzetheelectricityinitssurroundings.Itisanextremelysensitivedevicesinceitcanevendetectnearbyhandmovementwithouttouchingtheantenna.

Materials:

Around10pieceswire

1pieceLED

1piecestaticelectricityantenna

1piece100Kresistor

1piece1Mresistor

3pieces2n222transistor

Procedures(asshowninthelayoutabove):

1. Totheleftsideofthecircuitboard,connectthe1Mresistorto2n222transistor.

2. Besideit,attachthewire,then,attachthestaticelectricityantenna.

3. Onthebottom,attachthewire,then,attachtheother2n222transistor;nexttoit,attachthewire,andfinally,attachthethird2n222transistor.

4. Placethe100Kresistoradjacenttothesecond2n222transistor.

5. PlacetheLEDadjacenttothethird2n222resistor.

6. Establishconnectiontoapowersupply.

Project#2–DarkLEDLight

http://www.instructables.com

TheDarkLEDLightisacircuitprojectthatcandetectdarkness.Itfollowsthatwheninsufficientlightissupplied,anICtimerisalerted;consequently,ahighoutputisproducedandLEDlightwillbeswitchedon.Theideabehinditissimilartothatofastreetlightthatautomaticallyturnsononceitdetectsthatit’salreadyevening.

Materials:

Around10pieceswire

1pieceLED

1pieceLDR

1piece10nfcapacitor

1piece100nfcapacitor

1piece10Kresistor

1piece100Kresistor

1piece555ICtimer


1. OntopoftheLDR,attachthe100Kresistor.

2. OnthebottomoftheLDR,createaconnectiontotheLED.

3. TotheleftoftheLED,createaconnectiontothe10nfcapacitor.

4. Totheleftofthe10nfcapacitor,createaconnectiontothe100nfcapacitor.

5. Nexttothe100nfcapacitor,createaconnectiontothe10Kresistor.

6. Placethe555ICtimerbetweenalltheconnections;establishthemainconnectionbyattachingtheotherendsoftheLED,LDR,capacitors,andresistorstothe555ICtimer(directlyorwithawire).


Project#3–TheTickingBomb

TheTickingBombismeantforcreatingatickingsoundthatresemblesabomb.Onceitisturnedon,itproducessoundthatisadjustable,butismodifiedto1tickpersecond.

Materials:

Around10pieceswire

2pieces10ufcapacitors

1piece555ICtimer

1piece47Kresistor

1piece8ohmspeaker


1. Makethe555ICtimerasthecentralcomponent;toitsleft,createaconnectiontothe47Kresistor.

2. Onthebottom,createaconnectiontothefirst10ufcapacitor;then,createaconnectionfromthe10ufcapacitortothe47Kresistor.

3. Totherightofthe555ICtimer,createaconnectiontothesecond10ufcapacitor.

4. Fromthesecond10ufcapacitor,createaconnectiontothe8ohmspeaker.


Project#4–TheRemoteTester

TheRemoteTester,asitsnamesuggests,isacircuitthatcheckswhetherornotaremotecontrolisworking.Behindit,theideaisfocusedonthesufficientamountofsignalsthattheIRreceiverisgetting.Ifitreceivesenoughsignals,theLEDlightsup,whichmeansthataparticularremotecontrolisfunctioning;conversely,iftheLEDremainsasis,itisanindicationofafaultycomponentinthedevice.

Materials:

Around10pieceswire

1pieceLED

1pieceIRreceiver

1piece1Kresistor

1piecebc557transistor

1piece10ufcapacitor


1. Ontopofthebc557transistor,createaconnectiontotheLED.

2. Adjacentofthebc557transistor(totheleft),createadirectpathtothe1Kresistor,then,totheIRreceiver.

3. Onthebottom,createaconnectiontothe10ufcapacitor.

4. Connectthe10ufcapacitor(directlyorwithwire)toclosethe

connection.


Project#5–TheBellExperiment

TheBellExperimentisabasicprojectthatproducesamusicalsound;theresultisadevicethatmaybesimilartoadoorbell.Itworksaccordingtoeachofitscomponents;iftheresistor,transistor,andICaretriggered,thebunchsendsasignaltothespeaker,whichwillthen,createthesound.

Materials:

Around10pieceswire

1piece1Kresistor

1piece2n222transistor

1pieceUM66IC

1piece8ohmspeaker


1. Ononeendofthe8ohmspeaker,createaconnectiontothe2n222transistor.

2. Onanotherend,createaconnectiontothe1Kresistor.

3. Fromthe1Kresistor,createaconnectiontotheUM66IC;makesurethattheUM66isparalleltothe8ohmspeaker.

4. ConnecttheUM66(directlyorwithwire)tothe2n222transistortoclosethecircuit.


Project#6–TheLEDThatFades

TheLEDThatFadesisaprojectthatproducesandsometimes,blinkinglights.Itoperatesaccordingtotheweaknessorstrengthofthesignalsthatareinterpretedbyeachofitscomponents.IfitsICtimer,transistor,resistor,andcapacitorreceivestrongsignals;theLEDwillglow;conversely,iftheyreceiveweaksignals,thelightstartstofade.Intheeventthatthesignalsthataresubmittedareunstable(i.e.theyalternatebetweenweakorstronginafewminutes’time),theblinkingpatterncomesin.

Materials:

Around10pieceswire

1pieceLED

1piece555ICtimer

1piecebc547transistor

1piece33Kresistor

1piece220ohmresistor

1piece100ufcapacitor


1. Tothebottomofthebc547transistor,createaconnectiontotheLED.

2. ParalleltotheLED,createaconnectiontothe100ufcapacitor.

3. Ontopofthe100uf33Kresistor,createaconnectiontothe220ohmresistor.

4. Nexttothe220ohmresistor,createaconnectiontothe555IC

timer.

5. Createaconnectionaroundthe555ICtimerforaclosedcircuit.


Project#7–TheLEDwithActivatedLight

TheLEDwithActivatedLightisabasicprojectforbeginnersincircuitengineering;itismeantforaclearerunderstandingoftheconceptofresistance.TheLEDlightsupwiththeapplicationofsufficientresistance;ifresistancelevelsareinsufficient,thelightwon’tbeactivated.

Materials:

Around10pieceswire

1pieceLED

1pieceLDR

1piece10nfcapacitor

1piece100nfcapacitor

1piece10Kresistor

1piece4.7Kresistor

1piece555ICtimer

1piece220ohmresistor


1. TothebottomoftheLDR,createaconnectiontothe4.7Kresistor.

2. Paralleltothe4.7Kresistorconnection,createanewconnection

totheLED,followedbythe22ohmresistorontop.

3. Fromthe22ohmresistor,createaconnectiontothe555ICtimer.

4. Tothebottomofthe555ICtimer,andparalleltotheLEDconnection,createanewconnectiontothe10nfcapacitor.

5. Totheleftofthe10nfcapacitor,createaconnectiontothe100nfcapacitor.

6. Ontopofthe100nfcapacitor,createaconnectiontothe10Kresistor.

7. Createaconnectiontoclosethecircuit.


ChapterXII–MakingYourWaytoCircuitDesign:PCBLayouts&SchematicDiagrams

Ifyouarefamiliarwitheachofitscomponents,youmayhaveagoodgraspofhowanelectroniccircuitworks;grantedthattheintegralparts(e.g.powersource,conductor,resistor,diode,etc.)areinplace,andyouwereintroducedtodifferenttechniquesonestablishingconnectionsproperly,there’sahighchancethatanycircuitprojectyoutakeoncanbeasuccess.Onceanopeningforapowersourceisidentified,andthestabilityofanarrangementfortherestinaseriesisachieved,you’reset.

However,ifgiventheopportunitytomakeaparticularcircuitmorefunctional,wouldn’tyoutakeit?Insteadofsettlingforarandomcircuitdesign,whynothaveitmodifiedforsuperiorperformance?

XII.A.-CircuitDesign101

Everwonderwhycircuitengineersarepaidhighlyand(dependingontheirchosencareerpath)arepresenteddifferentcareeradvancementopportunities(e.g.workascomputerengineers,roboticsspecialistsjobs,etc.)?

Theresponsibilitiesofcircuitengineersareratherdemanding;theyneedtobementallytoughandbeopentodifferentchallenges.Theyspendhoursandhoursrackingtheirbrainsouttodeterminehowsystemscanbemademoreefficient.Chancesare,there’salwaysaway;it’suptothemtolookforone.Whenaparticularprojectasksforit,it’smandatoryforthemtolettheircreativejuicesflowtoarriveatacompatiblesolution.Otherwise,theirbuiltcircuitsmaystopfunctioningeventually.

Asmentioned,it’spracticaltodesignacircuitaccordingly;especiallywiththeiremploymentforthefieldsofcommunication,navigation,telecommunication,travel,andotherindustries,theirdesignsshouldconsideraparticularpurpose.Apartfromtheobjectiveofmeetingdifferentrequirements,thereneedstobeastrategysinceamorefunctionalcircuitcomeswithhigherquality;itcanmakeaprojectconsumeareducednumberofresources,too.

Reasonswhytherearevariouscircuitdesigns:

Improvementofacircuit’sefficiency

Improvementofacircuit’ssizeandweight

Guaranteeacircuit’sdurabilityforasetperiod

Guaranteeacircuitissafetouse

XII.B.–TheDesignProcess

Manytimes,aPCBlayout(asdiscussedinchapterVII,Let’sTalkaboutCircuitBoards)andaschematicdiagramareofteninterchangedincircuitry;ithasled

others,especiallythenovicesincircuitengineering,tobelievethattheyareoneandthesame.Inaway,sincetheyarebothpresentationsofacircuit’ssystem,theymayseemsimilar.However,uponcloserinspection,theyarenot.Itis,therefore,essentialinthecircuitdesignprocessthatthedifferenceisacknowledged.

APCBlayoutisaphysicalrepresentationorarealmodelofacircuit.Itpresentsalloftheelectricalcomponentsthatareincluded;italsodetailswhichofthecomponentsareactiveandwhichonesarepassive.Althoughitcanshowanactualworkingcircuit,understandingthefunctionsofeachofitspartscanbetedious.

APCBlayoutisanactualcircuitmodel

Ontheotherhand,aschematicdiagram,alsocalledsimplyasacircuitdiagram,isadescriptiveoutlineofacircuit’ssystem;itisthestandardandlesscostlywayofcircuitrepresentation.ItislikeaPCBlayoutthatshowsbothoftheactiveandpassivecomponentsinacircuit;unlikeaPCBlayout,however,itspresentationscanbeeasilyunderstood.

Aschematicdiagramcanincludeimportantnotesfortheimprovementofacircuit’sdesign

Stagesofcircuitdesign:

Meetingspecificrequirements

Thecreationofacircuitdiagram

Buildingabreadboard,oraPCBlayout

Thepresentationofeachcircuitcomponent(forprofessionalevaluation)

Applyingtheresultsofevaluation

Testing(andretesting)

Gettingapprovalfromprofessionals

Circuitdesigntipsforbeginners(preparationprocess):

Categorizethecomponents

ConstructaPCBlayout,aswellasaschematicdiagram

Determinethecompatibilityofeachcircuitcomponent

Circuitdesigntipsforbeginners(circuit-buildingprocess):

Alwaysavoidcoldsolderjoints

Alwaysseparatepowercontrolsandotherconnections

Alwaysseparateanaloganddigitalcomponents

Createtracesshouldhard-to-findcomponentsbeincluded

Remembertoalwaysmakeintegralnodesaccessible

Solderthecomponentssystematically;soldersmallcomponentsfirst,then,solderlargercomponentsnext

Strategizethespacesyouallowbetweencomponents

Takenoteofanyheatspots

XII.C.-CircuitSymbols

Ontheprocessofbuildingacircuitandmodifyingitsdesign,anunderstandingofdifferentcircuitsymbolsisimportant.Descriptionsofcircuitcomponentscanbeputinsimplewords;itiscalledaverbaldescription.However,sinceathoroughapproachisrecommendedinmanycircuitrylessons,avisualrepresentationcanenableyoutounderstandtheelectricflowinacircuit.

Here’sagoodcomparison:

Verbaldescription Visualrepresentation

Circuit#1containsalightbulb,aswellasD-cellbatteryaspowersource.

Moreover,circuitsymbolsforavisualrepresentationofacircuitispreferredoveraverbaldescriptionssincetheymaybelesscomplicatedtounderstand.Especiallyiftheparticularcircuitisquiteadvanced,adescriptioncontainingwordscanbechallengingtouseasbasis.Ifavisualmodelisemployed,however,youcansimplyfocusonconnections,insteadoftheinterpretationofawordeddescription;thereisabetterchanceofbuildinganimpressivecircuitdesignsuccessfully.Especiallyifyouhaveplansofadvancingyourplaceincircuitengineeringbysoonmovingforwardfromanovicetoacircuitexpert,memorizingthedifferentcircuitsymbolsisamust.

Listofbasicsymbols:

Symbolname Symbol

AC

DC

Capacitor

Resistor

Fuse

Diode

LED

Regulator

Transistor

Listofbasiccapacitorvariationsymbols:

Listofbasicdiodevariationsymbols:

Listofbasicswitchesvariationsymbols:

Listofbasictransistorvariationsymbols:

XII.D.–FactorstoConsider

Astrategiccircuitdesignisimportantsinceacircuitmaynotfunctionatallintheabsenceofagoodplan;iftheplacementofeachofitscomponentswasn’taccomplishedaccording,youmayhavejustwastedresources.Youmayhavethecorrectcomponentsbutiftheyarenotdesignedproperly,acircuitisfarfromworking.Besides,attherealizationthatyoumaynotbedesignacircuit’ssystemaccordingtorequirements,youwouldn’twanttoputthecircuit-buildingprojecttoanendatthemiddleoftheprocess,right?

Moreover,theproperdesignstructureofacircuitneedstobeprioritized.Regardlessifitisnotmeanttoimpressanother,itshouldstillbedesignedaccordinglyastobeasteppingstoneinthepossibilityofhandlingmoreprojectseventually.Withtheknowledgeofhowtodesignacircuitproperlyasabeginnercomestheeffortlessknowledgeontheconstructionofmoreadvancedcircuitseventually.

Whattokeepinmind:

Timeavailability(ofthecreator)–althoughitcanbecompletedquickly,acircuitprojectshouldn’tberushed;theprojectcreatorshouldbeavailableforasetperiodsohecanconcentrateproperlyonacircuit.Especiallyifhehashardlyanytimetospare,it’ssuggestedthatheeitherdeterminesawaytofindadditionaltime,ortakesonadifferentproject

Difficultylevel–theassessmentofacircuitprojectisimportantpriortoacceptance.Whiletherearesimpleones,someprojectsarerathercomplicated.Ifacreatoriscertainthathecan’tfollowthroughtheproceduresofaparticularproject,hemaywanttoconsiderotherundertakings

Totalcostoftheproject–onereasonthatthecreationofaschematicdiagramandotherpreparationsaresuggested(priortotakingonacircuitproject)isduetopracticalityregardingtheoverallexpenses.Asmuchaspossible,thecreatorshouldconsiderhisabilitytofundaproject.Especiallyifheplansonusingexpensivecircuitcomponents,heneedstothinkaboutwhetherhecanaffordtheprojectuntilcompletion.

Thedesiredfunction–identifythereasonwhyyoutookontheproject.Isitforexperimentationandpersonaluse?Or,wasitarequestfromacompany?Especiallyifthepurposeisforacommercialcompany,designacircuittoachievefirst-ratequality.

XII.E.-Documentation,Verification&Testing

Aprimarybenefitofthedocumentationprocessisitsadvantageoflettingyouidentifypossibleerrorsinputtingtogetheracircuit.Ifyouweren’tsuccessfulattheendstageofyourproject,youcanfigureoutexactlywhereyouwentwrong;infavorofhavingtodisregardyourcurrentprogressandstartingfromscratchthesecondtimearound,youcansimplyhavecertainmethodsmodified(forimprovement).

Verification,asdefinedincircuitry,istheprocessofthoroughlyevaluatingeachofacircuit’scomponents,aswellaseachofthestagesinthemaking.Theobjectiveistodeterminewhethertheprocesshasbeenadheredtocorrectly.Usually,thiscanbeatime-consumingprocess,butsinceitisintendtoensurequality,itisanimportantone.

Inaway,thereal-worldversionoftheverificationprocessistesting.Priortoacircuit’slaunchanditsexposuretodifferentcommercialindustries,itistestedinresearchlaboratories.Likeverification,itcanalsobeatime-consumingprocess,andsinceitisthelastprocessbeforeacircuitispassedontoanothersource,itcanbealabor-intensiveseries.

ChapterXIII–AWayIsthroughEDA

AreyoufamiliarwithFABSorSemi-conductorfabricationfacilities?

FABSareplaceswherecircuitdesigns,evencomplexones,canbeputtogether;theyareusuallyextensivesincetheyaremeanttoaccommodatebulkcircuitprojects.InsidethemarevariousequipmentforEDA,whichiswhycircuit-productionisrapid.

WiththeproductivitylevelofFABS,semi-conductorsarecontinuouslybecomingpopular.And,sincesemi-conductorsarecomponentsinacircuit,circuitsgrewinpopularity,too.

XIII.A.-WhatIsEDA?

EDA,alsoknownasElectronicDesignAutomationisaclassofsoftwareequipmentespeciallyfordesigningacircuitordifferentelectronicdevices.Itiscategorizedalongwithothermoderntoolsusedincircuitry;iteliminatestheneedtodesignacircuitbyhand,whichminimizessimpleandcriticalerrors,repairglitches,andsuggestpossibleimprovements.

Moreover,it’sduetoEDAthatcircuitcreationandcircuitproductionbecamefaster.Ifyou’reconcernedregardingthequalitysincetheprocessisdoneinanautomatedfashion,beconfidentthateachdesignunderwentthoroughanalysis.Remember,thesoftwareequipment’sdesignwasspecificallymeanttoaddressacircuit’ssystem.

XIII.B.–DesignFlows

Intheworldofcircuitry,it’simportanttobeinformedoftheconceptsofEDA;itprivilegesacircuitcreatorwithagoodgraspoftheproperwaytobuildcircuits.TheemployeesofgrandelectronicscompaniessuchasIntel,HewlettPackard,andValidLogicSystemsarealltrainedtohaveimpressiveknowledgeofthetools,despitealreadyhavinggonethroughyearsofeducation.

Throughtheyears,EDAtoolshaveundergonecontinuousdevelopment.Initially,theconceptswereratherlimited;intheAgeofEDAInvention,thefocuswasmerelyonrouting,logicsynthesis,staticanalysis,andplacement.Eventually,intheAgeofEDAImplementation,theseconceptsweresubjectedtomajorimprovements;moresophisticatedandadvancedalgorithmfortheEDAtoolswereconsidered.CometheAgeofEDAIntegration,theywerefurtherstudiedandweredesignedtocatertointegratedenvironments.

Now,youmaybewonderingwhythereisaneedtobuildcircuitsmanuallywhenthereareEDAtools.Well,althoughtheprocesscanbeaccomplishedeasierandfaster,sometimes,bringingtheexpertiseofacircuitengineeronthetableisrecommended;thisway,hecanthoroughlyevaluatethequalityofacircuit’ssystem.

Additionally,theoperatorsofEDAtoolsareselectedcarefully;usually,theyare

theoneswithabackgroundintheoperationsofEDAtoolsandsimilarequipment.Thisisduetotheexpenses,aswellasthepossiblecomplications,involvedinusingsuchdevices.Intheeventthataneedfortroubleshootingarises,it’sbesttohavesomebodywhoisknowledgeableincircuitdesignsonstandby.

PrimaryfocusesofEDA:

Thepresentationofschematic-drivenlayout

Advancedandlogicalinterpretationofeachcircuitcomponent

Hardwareandtransistorsimulation

XIII.C.-Circuit-LevelOptimization

Thecircuit-leveloptimizationorpoweroptimizationofEDAtoolsreferstothevarioustechniquesthatareemployedforthereductionofthetotalpowerinacircuit.Althoughtheintentistomodifyacircuit’ssetupeconomically,theprocessesshouldn’tcompromisetheproduct’soverallquality.Withthemaingoalofenhancingacircuit’sefficiency,theotherobjectivesaretoincreasespeed,eliminatepossibleleakage,enhancepowerdistribution,andimprovefunctionality.

Circuit-leveloptimizationtechniques:

Modificationofvoltagescales,thresholds,variables,blocks,supplies,andothervoltage-relatedconcerns

Modificationandre-sizingoftransistors

Modificationoflogicstyles

Re-routingofnetworks

XIII.D.-Interpretation,Analysis&Verification

AlthoughtheautomationprocessofEDAtoolsmayeliminateerrorsinacircuit’ssystem,aproductremainsasubjectofvarioustestingmethods.Thisisduetotheindustryofcircuitry’sinsistenceonguaranteeingtheflawlessnetworksofcircuitsystems.Intheaimofmakingsurethatacircuit’sfunctionsareintunewithspecificrequirements,itisinterpreted,analyzed,andverified.

Intheeventwhenacircuit(thatwascreatedwithEDAtools)hadn’tundergonetests,thereisalikelihoodthatitwon’tfunctionforaspecificpurpose.Especiallyiftheprojectwillbeemployedforcommercialagenda,theindustryexpertsarenotgrantingpermissiontodistribute“unevaluated”circuitsystems.

Circuitevaluationmethods:

Assessmentofacircuit’smaintenancerequirements

Inspectionofdesiredandundesiredeffects(inrelationtomathematicallogic)

Inspectionofacircuit’sfunctionality

Inspectionofacircuit’sstability

Verificationofphysicalcomponents

Verificationofstatictiming

ChapterXIV–TheOtherWayaround:ReverseEngineering

Oneofthecoolestwaysofunderstandingcircuitsistodisassembleallofitscomponentsonebyone.First,makesurethatitisnotconnectedtoanypowersource.Afterputtingonprotectivegloves,begintakingapartacomponent;then,determineitsfunction.Repeattheproceduresuntilyouknowthepurposeofthepartsandtheimportanceofhavingthemworkasanetwork.

Now,putthemallbacktogether;makesurethecircuitworks.

Suchaprocessiscalledreverseengineering.

XIV.A.-AnIntroductiontoReverseEngineering

Reverseengineering,alsocalleddeconstruction,reversing,backwardsengineering,andbackengineeringistheprocessofextractingknowledgefromanydeviceorelectronicequipment.Itinvolvestheneedtodeconstructanentirecircuitforfurtheranalysisofitscomponents.Althoughthemethodsthatwillbeemployedareoppositetotheprocessofcreation,itisconsideredasapracticalapproachoflearningcircuitry.

Moreover,reverseengineeringgiveslighttoAristotle’sconceptthatthekeytounderstandingtheoperationsofadeviceisstudyingeachoneofitsparts.Backinthedays,thefieldislimitedtoitsemploymentonacircuitandotherelectronicequipment;now,inthemodernworld,theapplicationofa“reverse”methodologyincludesalmostanything–fromchildren’stoysandhouseholdappliancestoneuroscience,computerprogramming,andDNA.

XIV.B.-ReasonsforReversing

Oneoftheprivilegesthatreverseengineeringcangranttoacircuitcreatoristheguaranteethatadeviceismadeaccordingly.Intheeventthathechoosestobasehiscircuitprojectonanothercircuitthatwascreatedwithquestionableprivacy,hecandetermineanyunethicalpractices.Ifhetakesapartallofitscomponents,hehasthechancetohaveaninsiderlook;bythen,hecanconfirmwhetherunregulatedmodificationsareinplace.

Whyusereverseengineeringtechniquesforcircuit-creation:

Documentationpurposes–especiallyinthecaseofshortcomingsandlow-qualitycircuitdocumentation,thediagnosisofacircuitisnecessarytopresentnewinformation

Interfacing–withreverseengineeringtechniquescanbesubjectedtointerfacing;itcanbeevaluatedaccordingly,regardingitscompatibilitywithanothercircuit

Bugfixing–iftherearecriticalfaultsinacircuit’sdesign,itcanberecognizedbetterwithacloserlookateachofitscomponents;insteadofresortingtoassumptions,acircuitcreatorcanidentifywhichpartofhisprojectneedsmodification

Advancedtechnicalinformation–advancedtechnicalinformationisrewardedwhenopeningupacircuit;especiallyforbeginners,reverseengineeringisapracticalwayoflearningaboutthestraightforwarddetailswithinthesystem

Incorporationofanewfunctionality–reverseengineeringcanallowtheincorporationofafeatureinacircuit;ratherthandesignanothercircuit,acircuitcreatorcansimplymakemodificationsonhiscurrentproject

Modernization–reversingisbeneficialincircuitrysinceitcanbeusedtomodernizeaproject;forinstance,ifmostmoderndevicesarepopularinthemarketduetoaninnovativefeature,acircuitcreatorcanemployreverseengineeringtoaddthesamefeaturetohiscircuit

Guaranteeproductsecurity–ifacircuitcreatorisunsureofthesecurityofhisproject,reverseengineeringisawayforhimtodeterminecertainconcerns;hecancheckthespecificationsofeachcomponentandguaranteethatnoneposessafetyriskswhenputtouse

XIV.C.–IsReverseEngineeringSimilartoHacking?

Sinceitisthemethodfortheextractionofinformationonacircuitthatcan’tberetrievedordinarily,reverseengineeringisarguedtobeaformofcorrupthacking;itis,therefore,afieldthatafewothersintheelectronicsindustryattempttoavoid.However,formanynumberofcircuitengineers(aswellasotherengineers),thereisbrillianceintheentireconceptofreverseengineering.

Accordingtothosewhoarenotagainstthefield,reverseengineeringisawayofoutsmartinganalreadyfinishedproduct;additionally,astheywouldinsist,isn’tthepointofengineeringexactlythat–tobuildandre-builduntilsatisfyingoutcomeisachieved?Itmaybeconsideredasaformofhacking,butmanycontesttotheideathatitisbehindcorruptobjectives.

XIV.D.–TheConstructionofReverseEngineeredProjects

Inarguably,reverseengineeringisratherdestructiveandinvasive.Somearenotinfavorofitsincetheydonotwelcometheideaoftearingtheirworksapart.Forothers,however,itisacreativewayofimprovinganalreadycompletedproject;especiallyiftheparticularprojectisoutstanding,theyaregrantedthechancetomakeitevenmoreoutstanding.

Amongthecommonprojectsthatcanbemodifiedwiththeuseofreverseengineeringarealarmclockradios,coffeemachines,andcoloredlamps.Alongside,theknowledgeofinternalsystems,theycanaddauniquefunctionalitythatisnotincludedduringcommercialdistribution.Forinstance,youcanaddanewbeepingsoundtoanalarmclockradio.

Fortheconstructionofvariousreverseengineeringprojects,it’sadvisedtohaveasetoftoolshandy.Prepareasetofscrewdrivers,magnifiers,andcuttingequipment.Additionally,whenthedisassemblyiscompleted,haveapackofelectricaltapenearby.

Reverseengineeringprojecttipsforbeginners:

Takepicturesofacircuit’sfrontandbacksystempriortodisassembly;youcanuseitasreference

Listdownthesetofproceduresyouplanonfollowing;makesureyouadheretothem

XIV.E.-ReverseEngineering&CAD

ReverseengineeringrodealongwiththepopularityofCADorComputer-AidedDesign.Throughtheyears,thefieldthatusedtobelimitedtothebasicimprovementofacircuit’ssystembeganincorporatingcomplexfeatures.Itprovidesacircuitcreatorthechancetoanalyzetheinternalportionofadevice.

Moreover,insteadofsettlingongettingafundamentalviewofacircuitprojectthatrequiresreverseengineering,acircuitcreatorcanmeticulouslyanalyzeacircuit;hecaninspecteachcomponentthoroughlyandcomeupatthemostpracticalsolution.Foritsdevelopment,circuitengineers,circuitdesigners,andotherprofessionalsonelectronicsstartedcollaborativeworkswitharchitectsandthosewhoareskilledinCAD.

AdvantagesofusingCADtechnologyforacircuitproject:

Toimprovethealignmentofeachcircuitcomponent

Toenhancethedesignationofspaceswithinacircuit’ssystem

Tomodifygeometricsubjectsforboostedperformance

Tozoomin(andlookclosely)oneachcircuitcomponent

XIV.F.-TheLegalityoftheIndustry

Inlighttothedifferentdiscussionsregardingitssimilaritytocorrupthacking,thereverseengineeringindustryissubjectedtovariouslegalcomplaints.Thereareevenlaws(thatusuallyfallundercontractlawsandfraudulentmanufacturinglaws)meantfortheprotectionofallsectorsthatemployreversedcircuitsorelectronicdevices.

Theterminteroperabilityisintroducedinrelationtoavarietyoflegalityconcerns.Withtheemergenceofcasesthatrevolvearoundthedisassemblyofcircuit’spartstocompromisethequalityofacircuit,somewhotacklereverseengineeredprojectarenotreceivedwell.

Reverseengineeringis,therefore,onlyconsideredillegaliftheprimarygoalistoachieveinteroperability.Ifthegoalisfortheimprovementofacircuit’soverallperformance,itisencouraged;alongwithalmosteveryothermeansofrepairingasystem,itisevenrecommendedtoarriveatadesiredpurpose.

ChapterXV–HackingtheSystem

Differentcommunitiesofhackershosteventsthatgivelighttothosewhoarepassionateincircuitry.

Onecommunity,ArtisanAsylum,hostsacircuithackingnightonceaweek.Inthegathering,circuitengineeringfellows–frombeginnerstoprofessionals,cometogethertodiscussvariousconceptsincircuitryandelectronics.There,like-mindedindividualssharetheirloveforcircuitryandtalkabouttheirfavoriteprojects,andbasically,anythingintheworldofcircuitry.

Moreover,ArtisanAsylum’scircuithackingnightprovidesgreatlearningopportunitiesforcircuithackingenthusiasts.Itpresentslessonsonhowtosolder,howtouseparticularcomputerprograms,andhowtomodifyacircuittofunctionasdesired.Apartfromteachingindividualsthebasicsandadvancedtechniquesonhowtohackacircuit,andhaveitworkasdesired,thecommunityencouragestheattendeestothinkoutsideoftheboxandcomeupwithbrilliantandinnovativeideas.

XV.A.–AboutCircuitHacking

Circuithacking,sinceitislinkedwiththewordhacking,cansometimesbeperceivedasfraudulent.However,thereisnothingfraudulentwithitsincethemainreasonwhytherearecircuithackersisfortheimprovementortherevisionofaproject;hacking,inthisessence,isdefinedasthemodificationofanexistingcircuittouseitforadifferentpurpose.And,inmostcases,acircuithackerisanindividualwhoexhibitscleverness,open-mindedness,andtechnicalaptness.

Duetoafewsimilarconcepts,circuithackingandreverseengineeringaresaidtobeoneandthesame;theyarenot.Whilebothmayincludecertaintechniquesthatareintendedfortheimprovementofacircuit’soperations,theformerismerelyfocusedondevelopinganexistingcircuit;itmaybeinvasive,too,butitdoesn’tinvolvethedeconstructionofanentirecircuit.Especiallyifitwasdeterminedthattheinstallmentofaparticularcomponentcanachieveadesiredfunctionality,havingtotearaparttheothersectionsofacircuitisdeemedunnecessary.

Commoncircuithackingmethods:

Patching–asimplecircuithackingmethodthatdescribesidentifyingacircuit’scontrolmechanismorthemostintegralpartofacircuit.Oncethemaincomponentisidentified,youcaninstallanewandbettercomponent

Componentreplacement–itisdefinedasreplacingatleastonecomponentofacircuitwithanothercomponentthatcomeswithbetterquality

XV.B.–AHacker’sMainTool:FIBTechnology

FIBorFocusedIonBeamTechnologyisconsideredasoneofahacker’smaintoolsinceitgrantshimthechancetohackalmostanycircuit.Eversincetheinitial

introductionoftheapplicationsinthe1990s,theirusefulnesshadn’tcomeunappreciated.Theearlyversionswerenotonlyquiteexpensive,butalso,clearly,inneedofimprovement;later,thetoolsunderwentcontinuousmodificationsfrommanyelectronicsenthusiasts.

AccordingtoastudythatwasledbytheengineersatBerlinTechnicalUniversity,apersonskilledincircuitrycaninstallFIBTechnology-basedapplicationstohackintoasystem’ssecurity.Fortheparticularresearch,anICwithlow-levelsecuritywasthefocus;theobjectivewastoworkarounditslevelofsecuritywiththegoalofdeliberatelyeliminatingitsdefensivemechanism.Thestudywas,ofcourse,successfulandeventually,itwasproventhatevenhigh-leveltoolscanbehackedwiththesamepractice.And,asitfollows,itshedslightontheconceptthatthereisnosuchthingasatamper-proofcircuit.

Moreover,FIBTechnology,asaclevertechniqueofmanufacturing,developing,andre-wiringacircuit,hasearnedtheapprovalofdifferentcommunitiesofhackersandcircuitengineers.Alongsideitsadvantageofboostingasystem’sperformance,itreducesregularoperationtime.Duetoitsingeniouswayofallowinganindividualwho’sworkingonanelectronicdevicetodesign(andevenre-designrepeatedly)hisproject,itwassubjectedtofurtherdevelopments.

ImportantpartsofapplicationsthatincorporateFIBTechnology(asshowninthelayout):

Aperture–itisinchargeofgatheringvisualaids,then,modifyingthesetoolsforacleardisplayofretrievableinformationfromaparticularelectronicdevice

Deflectorplates–itaccepts,interprets,then,measuresreceivabledata;initially,itacknowledgesallinformationpriortothescreeningoftheunnecessaryones

Extractor–itisinchargeofdrawingoutinformationfromanelectronicdevice,then,transferringthemtothehackingmechanism

Lens–itisinchargeofmakingadjustmentstoassistwhenprocessinginformation

Octupoles–itisalsoknownasdoublequadrupolesoroctopoles,whichmeanssomethingthathaseightpoles;itcontrolsbeamsofions

Suppressor–itisdesignedtopreventpoweroverloadduetovoltagespikes;itworksbyregulatingtheamountofelectriccurrentwithinasystemsoadevicecanremainfunctional

TheinstallmentofFIBTechnologycanbeverypromisingtoahacker

FunctionsofapplicationsthatincorporateFIBTechnology:

Enableand/ordisableintruderdetection

Evaluateacircuit’sbehavior

Evaluateacircuit’sdefects

Gathersecretcodesandsecuritykeys

Obtainpersonaldetails,sensitivedata,andproprietaryinformation

Removeprotectionsystems(e.g.tampernetworks,tracemeshes,opticalsensors,etc.)

Routeincomingdatatobereceivedbyanothernetwork

Traceandre-tracechanges

XV.C.–CircuitHackingProject

Aplussidetotheknowledgeofhowacircuitoperatesisthatyoucanchooseanyfromyourpackofelectronicdevicesandhaveitupgradedaccordingtopreference;thepossibilitiesofitsnewfunctionsareendless.Youwon’tevenhavetospendagrandamount,solongasyou’refamiliarwiththefunctionsofparticularinstallments.Theresultofhackingtheoriginalsystemmayberatherbizarre,sincetheproductisnolongerthesame,butnonetheless,theresultislikelythewayyoudesired.

Inthesampleprojectbelow,thegoalishackacharger;particularly,modifyanexistingchargerandhaveitoperatewithabattery.ItcanbeconnectedtoanyelectronicdevicewithaUSBport.Thisisusefulduringemergencieswhenanelectricoutletisnowheretobefound.

Projectexample(derivedfromhttp://www.maximumpc.com):USBChargerwithBattery

http://www.maximumpc.com

AUSBchargerwithbatterycanbeusedforhours(dependingonyourvoltagesource)

Materials:

Charger

5-voltvoltageregulator

9-voltbattery

9-voltbatteryclip

Electricaltape

USBconnector

Copperwire


1. Onasideofthecharger,drillaholefortheplacementoftheUSBconnector.

2. Ontheothersideofthecharger,drillaholefortheplacementofthe5-voltvoltageregulator.

3. Atthebottomcenter(betweenthe2holes),placethe9-voltbattery.

4. Aboveit,establishagroundusingthecopperwireand9-voltbatteryclip.

5. Solderthecomponentstogether.

6. Wraptheproductwithelectricaltape.

ChapterXVI–AdvancedCircuitEngineering:Microcontrollers&Robots

Amongtheplethoraofprospectsforacircuitengineeristheopportunitytoengageincircuit-bendingortheart(andscience)ofmodifyingexistingcircuitsofelectronicdevices,andturningthemintonewmusicalinstruments.Inmanycases,heisn’trequiredtofollowasetofrulesfortweakingacircuittoincorporateaparticularsound;infact,hecanre-designanelectronicdeviceasdesired.

Alongside,anadvantageofcircuit-bendingisitsrewardofreducingnecessaryexpenses.Intheeventthatheisveryresourceful,thecircuitcreatorcanmaximizetheadvantageevenmore;hecaninstallused(butinworkingcondition)componentsorlesscostlyparts.

Circuit-bendingismerelyoneoftheexcitingpossibilitiesforafellowincircuitry.Theoptionsareratherlimitless,especiallyifyouletyourcreativityrunloose.Solongasyouarecertainthatacircuitwillworkgivenaparticulararrangement,youshouldn’tholdbackintakingyourbeginner’sknowledgeofcircuitstoanadvancedlevel.

XVI.A.–ACircuitEngineer’sFutureinRobotics&ComputerEngineering

Arewardofbeingskilledincircuitryistheopportunitytoventureintootherengineeringfieldssuchasroboticsengineeringandcomputerengineering.Yourknowledgeofhowacircuitoperates?Youcanlookatitfromabrandnewperspective;youdon’thavetobesimplyintheindustryofcircuitengineeringorelectronicsengineering.Apartfromitsofferofamorebountifulcareer;youcanemployittocreateaproject(orabatchofprojects)thatyoucanbeproudof.Withthemasteryofthebasiccircuitrylessons,delvingintorelatedfieldsbecomeseasierandmoreexciting.

Withyourinterestincircuitry,youmayseekforothercareerpositions;usually,theemployersofroboticsengineersandcomputerengineerswelcomecircuitengineersintotheirworkforceduetotrainability,familiaritywithcircuits,andgoodbackgroundinelectronics.Itmaytakeanothersetofyearsofstudying,alongwithnewskillstolearn,butyoucandefinitelygohigher;ittakescommitmentfromyourend,too.

Advancedlessonsthatwillbeusefulforacircuitengineer:

Integralconnectionsforhardwarecomponents

Softwareandhardwareessentials

Roboticessentials

Computeroperations

Computerarchitecture

Computerprogramming(recommendedprogramminglanguagesareCand

C++)

XVI.B.–Microcontroller+MicrocontrollerProgramming

Amicrocontrollerisasmalldevicethatservesasthecomputerinacircuit;itisacommontoolthatcanbefoundinremotecontrols,smartmedicalassistanceequipment,officemachines,state-of-the-artappliances,andenginecontrolsystems.Withtherapidpaceofvariousinformation-retrievaloperations,itsfunctionofaddressingsize,cost,time,andperformanceconcernsoffersprivilegesauserwithimprovedoverallperformance.Itisusuallyimplantedonaseparateelectronicdevicebeforeorafterthatdeviceisfinished.Incertaincases,ituses4-bitwordsandlowfrequencyclock-rateoperations.

Amicrocontrollerisdependentonaprogrammer’sinstructions

Moreover,whileamicrocontrollerisaveryusefuldevice,itisonlyasgoodastheprogramthatwaswrittenforit;thisiswheretheimportanceofmicrocontrollerprogrammingentersthepicture.Itisatoolthatmerelyexecutescertaininstructions;intheabsenceofspecificcommands,itwon’tfunction.However,ifyoudesignitwithevenahundredtaskcapabilities,itcanperformeachonewithoutfault;granteditwasprogrammedwell,itcanpoweradeviceasdesired.

Whatamicrocontrollercando:

Enableand/ordisableclockfeature

Enableand/ordisablelightcapabilities

Configureaudioandvideosettings

Addanexternalmonitor

Automaticallydetectand/orrepairerrors

Automaticallyupdateoldcomponents

Magnifyanelectronicdevice’sperformance

Eliminateunwantedfeatures

Tightensecurityfeatures

Exampleofmicrocontrollerprogramming:

Result MicrocontrollerProgramming(inClanguage)

BytweakingitsUSBcomponents,amicrocontroller’sclocksettingcanbeformatted.ItisalsoprogrammedtoactivateBLorbacklightwithatrigger.

for(;;)[

handleserial();

CDC_USBdevice(&interface)

CDC_USBdevice(&digitalizer)

handleserial();

]

]

/Setup/[

intret

USB_initialize

clock_setup(div1);

BL_off(1),BL_on(0);

ret=digitizer_USB_initialize();

if(ret)

XVI.C.–Robots+Robotics

Anotherwaythatyoucantakeyourknowledgeincircuitryupanotchistoconsideracareerinroboticsengineering.Duetoyourfamiliaritywithacircuit,youcanbeginhoningyourskillsincreatingcoherentcircuits;youcanconstructaseriesthatisdependentontheindividualcircuitstodeliveritsprimaryfunction.

Asyoucommittorobotics,likeinprogramming,alineupofnewskills(e.g.artificialintelligencedevelopments,dynamics,motionplanningtechniques,mappingtactics,etc.)mustbeacquired,too.Thistime,otherthanyourhandincircuitsandotherelectroniccomponents,youhavetovisitaspectsinthemechanicalfields.However,givenyourexposuretosimilarconceptsincircuitry,learninginthefieldmaynotbeachallenge.

Withyourexpertiseincircuits,youcanbebehindinnovativeandextraordinaryroboticsprojectsthatcanbeadvantageousforbothcommercialandpersonaluse.Itjusttakesamatterofdeterminationtomoveforward,andthefactremainsthatacourseincircuitengineeringcanpresentyouwithasatisfyingplaceinrobotics,as

wellasotherpromisingopportunities.

ConclusionThankyouagainfordownloadingthisbook!

Ihopethisbookwasabletohelpyouunderstandthefundamentalsincircuitengineering.The lessons shared to you here are meant for a beginner in the subject; the differentdiscussionsarewrittensimply.And,sofar, itmayhavedawnedonyou that there’sstillmoretodiscoveraboutcircuits.

Thenextstepistolearnevenmoreaboutcircuitryandcircuitengineering.Especiallyifyou’reconsideringacareerinthefield,advancedlessonswouldbegood.Sincethisbookhasintroducedyoutothesubject,andmaybeinspiredyoutoseethefunsideincircuits,aswell as electronics and electrical engineering, you may want to take the beginner’sperspectivetoawholeotherlevel.

Finally, ifyouenjoyedthisbook,pleasetakethetimetoshareyourthoughtsandpostareviewonAmazon.It’dbegreatlyappreciated!

Thankyouandgoodluck!

circuit engineering: the beginner's guide to electronic circuits, semi-conductors, circuit...

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