Cities Without SuburbsCities Without Suburbs

Madeline Roche, Ben Sebers and Madeline Roche, Ben Sebers and Nick VorpagelNick Vorpagel

OutlineOutline

David RuskDavid Rusk

Cities Without SuburbsCities Without Suburbs

ElasticityElasticity

Why Elasticity is DesirableWhy Elasticity is Desirable

Characteristics of Elastic CitiesCharacteristics of Elastic Cities

ConclusionsConclusions

DiscussionDiscussion

David RuskDavid Rusk

Former Mayor of Former Mayor of Albuquerque (1977-Albuquerque (1977-1981) and New 1981) and New Mexico State Mexico State Legislator (1975-Legislator (1975-1977).1977).Author and Author and consultant on urban consultant on urban policy throughout policy throughout the US and abroad.the US and abroad.

Image from Wisconsin Alliance of Cities website.

Cities Without SuburbsCities Without Suburbs

First written in 1993, First written in 1993, intended primarily for intended primarily for urban Mayors.urban Mayors.

Has gained critical Has gained critical acclaim, widespread acclaim, widespread adoption in academia, adoption in academia, and thrust Rusk to the and thrust Rusk to the forefront of urban forefront of urban policy debate.policy debate.

Most recently updated Most recently updated in 2003.in 2003.

Image from Barnes and Noble website.

Question ExaminedQuestion Examined

Why do some cities, like Houston, grow Why do some cities, like Houston, grow rapidly?rapidly?

(360% population change from 1950-2000)(360% population change from 1950-2000)Image from City of Houston website.

Question ExaminedQuestion Examined

While other cities, like Detroit, grow slowly?While other cities, like Detroit, grow slowly?

(37% population change 1950-2000)(37% population change 1950-2000)Image from www.city-data.com

Examining the QuestionExamining the Question

Studying cities from Studying cities from 1950-2000, Rusk 1950-2000, Rusk learned 26 lessons.learned 26 lessons.

He learned that in He learned that in order for a city to grow, order for a city to grow, the city must be the city must be “elastic”.“elastic”.

Elasticity measures the Elasticity measures the ability of a city to grow.ability of a city to grow.

Images from www.learner.org

What is Elasticity?What is Elasticity?

Zero Elastic CitiesZero Elastic Cities– New YorkNew York– DetroitDetroit

Low Elastic CitiesLow Elastic Cities– ChicagoChicago– MilwaukeeMilwaukee

Medium Elastic CitiesMedium Elastic Cities– Des MoinesDes Moines– Cedar RapidsCedar Rapids

High Elastic CitiesHigh Elastic Cities– Kansas CityKansas City– IndianapolisIndianapolis

Hyper Elastic CityHyper Elastic City– Las VegasLas Vegas– Little RockLittle Rock

Formula:Formula:

X+3y=Elasticity ScoreX+3y=Elasticity Score

Elastic cities have a Elastic cities have a common set of common set of characteristics which Rusk characteristics which Rusk points out in his lessons.points out in his lessons.

For a number of reasons, For a number of reasons, elastic cities are more elastic cities are more desirable than inelastic desirable than inelastic cities.cities.

Distribution of CitiesDistribution of Cities

Characteristics of Elastic Cities Characteristics of Elastic Cities vs. Inelastic Citiesvs. Inelastic Cities

Elastic Cities:Elastic Cities:– Newer citiesNewer cities– Grow quicklyGrow quickly

– Generate post-Generate post-industrial jobs.industrial jobs.

– Have a well-Have a well-educated populace.educated populace.

– Are integrated Are integrated racially, socially, and racially, socially, and economically.economically.

Inelastic Cities:Inelastic Cities:– Older citiesOlder cities– Grow slowlyGrow slowly– Are hard hit by the Are hard hit by the

loss of industrial jobs.loss of industrial jobs.– Posses poor Posses poor

education systems.education systems.– Are highly segregated Are highly segregated

racially, socially and racially, socially and economically.economically.

Age of CitiesAge of Cities

Old city has an inventory of old, often decaying Old city has an inventory of old, often decaying neighborhoods that typically house the poorneighborhoods that typically house the poorLong established black or Hispanic population in an old Long established black or Hispanic population in an old city may increase segregation due to social prejudicescity may increase segregation due to social prejudices

Census When Population Census When Population Exceeded 100,000Exceeded 100,000

Zero ElasticityZero Elasticity 18851885

Low ElasticityLow Elasticity 19131913

Medium ElasticityMedium Elasticity 19471947

High ElasticityHigh Elasticity 19491949

Hyper ElasticityHyper Elasticity 19541954

Growth in CitiesGrowth in Cities

Higher Elasticity areas have been able to Higher Elasticity areas have been able to increase not only in population but also in size of increase not only in population but also in size of citycity

Population Population Percent Change Percent Change from 1950-2000from 1950-2000

Percent Change in Percent Change in Sq. Miles from Sq. Miles from

1950-20001950-2000

Zero ElasticityZero Elasticity 47%47% 1%1%

Low ElasticityLow Elasticity 94%94% 21%21%

Medium ElasticityMedium Elasticity 241%241% 193%193%

High ElasticityHigh Elasticity 185%185% 342%342%

Hyper ElasticityHyper Elasticity 291%291% 944%944%

Post-industrial Job CreationPost-industrial Job Creation

Deindustrialization hit less elastic areas harderDeindustrialization hit less elastic areas harderMost old, smokestack industries that were driven Most old, smokestack industries that were driven out due to international competition were mostly out due to international competition were mostly located in Northeast or Industrial Midwest (the located in Northeast or Industrial Midwest (the more inelastic areas)more inelastic areas)

Manufacturing Jobs as Manufacturing Jobs as a percent of total jobs a percent of total jobs

(1969)(1969)

Percent Change in Percent Change in Manufacturing Jobs Manufacturing Jobs

(1969-1999)(1969-1999)

Zero ElasticityZero Elasticity 24%24% -40%-40%

Low ElasticityLow Elasticity 27%27% -23%-23%

Medium ElasticityMedium Elasticity 19%19% 28%28%

High ElasticityHigh Elasticity 21%21% 18%18%

Hyper ElasticityHyper Elasticity 15%15% 65%65%

Race, Economy, and Social Race, Economy, and Social IntegrationIntegration

Average Metro Average Metro Race Race Segregation Segregation Index (2000)Index (2000)

Average Metro Average Metro Economic Economic Segregation Segregation Index (2000)Index (2000)

Elementary Elementary School School Segregation Segregation index for index for Blacks (1990-Blacks (1990-2000)2000)

Elementary Elementary School School Segregation Segregation index for Poor index for Poor (1990-2000)(1990-2000)

Zero ElasticityZero Elasticity 6868 4040 7373 5656

Low ElasticityLow Elasticity 6565 3939 6767 5050

Medium Medium ElasticityElasticity

5757 3535 6060 4646

High ElasticityHigh Elasticity 5555 3434 5757 4343

Hyper Hyper ElasticityElasticity

4949 3434 5151 4545

100=apartheid100=apartheid

Elastic v. InelasticElastic v. InelasticMadison, Wis.Madison, Wis. Harrisburg, Pa.Harrisburg, Pa.

Percent Change in Population Percent Change in Population (1950-2000)(1950-2000) 152%152% 58%58%Percent Change is Sq. Miles Percent Change is Sq. Miles (1950-2000)(1950-2000) 346%346% 29%29%Metro Race Segregation IndexMetro Race Segregation Index

4646 7171Percentage of income in central Percentage of income in central city compared to Metro Areacity compared to Metro Area 95%95% 57%57%Poverty Rate in CityPoverty Rate in City

15%15% 24.6%24.6%Number of suburban governmentsNumber of suburban governments

5959 129129Percent change in number of Percent change in number of manufacturing jobs (1969-1999)manufacturing jobs (1969-1999) 86%86% -18%-18%Total non-manufacturing job Total non-manufacturing job growth (1969-1999)growth (1969-1999) 135%135% 96%96%Bond RatingBond Rating

AaaAaa Baa2Baa2Percent of areas workers with a Percent of areas workers with a bachelor’s degreebachelor’s degree 24.8%24.8% 14.4%14.4%

Structure of Elastic CitiesStructure of Elastic Cities

Elastic cities:Elastic cities:– Possess forms of Possess forms of

unified local unified local government.government.

– Receive favorable Receive favorable treatment from state treatment from state and federal and federal government.government.

NON-UNIFIED GOVERNMENT

FEDERAL|

STATE|

COUNTY|

TOWNSHIP LARGE CITY SMALL CITY

UNIFIED GOVERNMENT

FEDERAL|

STATE|

CONSOLIDATED GOVERNMENT

Unified Local GovernmentUnified Local Government

Elastic cities have “big box” institutions as Elastic cities have “big box” institutions as opposed to “little box” institutions.opposed to “little box” institutions.

Big boxes facilitate integration while little Big boxes facilitate integration while little boxes foster segregation.boxes foster segregation.

City-county consolidation and annexation City-county consolidation and annexation of outlying areas allows a city to continue of outlying areas allows a city to continue to grow and capture economic growth.to grow and capture economic growth.

Indianapolis – Unified CityIndianapolis – Unified City

Detroit – Non-Unified City Detroit – Non-Unified City

Favorable State and Federal TreatmentFavorable State and Federal Treatment

The City is dependent The City is dependent on the state and federal on the state and federal government to grow. government to grow. Elastic cities receive Elastic cities receive favorable treatment.favorable treatment.

– Liberal Annexation Liberal Annexation Laws provided by Laws provided by the state.the state.

– Federal Aid money Federal Aid money invested in the invested in the central city rather central city rather than the suburbs.than the suburbs.

Image from www.wisconsinhighways.org

State Annexation LawsState Annexation Laws

State Law South (16) West (13) Midwest (12) Northeast (9) TotalMunicipal Annexation

Allowed 16 12 12 4 44

Property Owner Petition12 10 9 3 34

City Ordinance Initiation12 9 10 1 32

Mandatory Public Hearing10 8 7 2 27

Majority Approval in

Annexing City 8 2 4 0 14Majority Approval in

Annexed City 11 3 3 2 19

Approval of County1 6 4 0 11

Number of States

Federal Programs Promote SprawlFederal Programs Promote Sprawl

Federal Housing Authority and VA support Federal Housing Authority and VA support low-interest mortgages for single family low-interest mortgages for single family homes.homes.Federal Highway Administration spent Federal Highway Administration spent $874 Billion on highways, and only $147 $874 Billion on highways, and only $147 Billion on Mass transit from 1956-2001.Billion on Mass transit from 1956-2001.Most sprawl-oriented infrastructure built in Most sprawl-oriented infrastructure built in 2001 was financed 75-90% by the Federal 2001 was financed 75-90% by the Federal government.government.

How to build Elastic CitiesHow to build Elastic Cities

Improve Improve annexation laws.annexation laws.Enact laws to Enact laws to encourage city-encourage city-county county consolidation.consolidation.Promote regional Promote regional planning planning authorities.authorities.

Policies Elastic Cities PursuePolicies Elastic Cities Pursue

Diminish racial and economic segregation Diminish racial and economic segregation by pursuing mixed-income housing by pursuing mixed-income housing strategies.strategies.Implement regional land use and Implement regional land use and transportation management schemes to transportation management schemes to reinvest into the central city.reinvest into the central city.Establish metro-wide tax bases to help Establish metro-wide tax bases to help equalize local revenues.equalize local revenues.

Questions about Questions about Cities Without SuburbsCities Without Suburbs

Will cities pursuing the Rusk strategy lose Will cities pursuing the Rusk strategy lose jobs to cities not pursuing the Rusk jobs to cities not pursuing the Rusk strategy?strategy?

Is metropolitan government possible in Is metropolitan government possible in places where municipalities span multiple places where municipalities span multiple counties, states or even countries?counties, states or even countries?

Is inclusionary zoning a practical strategy Is inclusionary zoning a practical strategy to pursue on a large scale?to pursue on a large scale?