nTgZrsruDY 'A,ruar

FOR CIYIL AIR PATROL

4 " - , ' . , /2

CADETS

PRCPANCD BY HEADQUARTERS AAF, OFFICC OF FLYING SAFETY

America need not fear for the future so long as her young men and women are arr-

minded. Civil Air Patrol Cadets, and others like them, will assure for this country a place

of leadership in aviation. Among you are those who will design, build and lly bigger, fas-

ter, and more powedul airylanes than we know now. \ But a man must walk be{ore he

can run, and he must work hard and long belore he can fly. Those o{ you who want to be-

come flyeIS must begin now to learn the Iundamentals of youl chosen profession. !i Your

CAPC trainine program, for which this manual is a guide and aid, has been careiully

planned to give you a solid foundation oI aviation knowledge. This will be of decided

advantage in flying training. It is important to your {uture in an aviation-conscious

world. \ Flying demands a lot oI you in retum for the thrill and satisfaction it provides.

You must study hard, be patient, and be thorough. Be grcedy to leam everything you can

about aviation. Your goal is well worth the eflort.

GENERAL OF TIIE ARMY,

COMMANDING CENERAL,

ARMY AIR FORCES

t l t tHts

ta l {uat

FO R EWO RD BY GENERAI. HENRY H. ARNOI.D

sEcTtoN5 PAGES

l- l lo I -4CADETS OF IHE CAP

SOME FACTS OF ARMY I IFE

HOW TO SPOT PTANES IN A FI.ASH

4 GETTING IN SHAPE TO FI.Y

2- l to 2-22

4- l lo 4-8

3- l to 3-2O

COMMUNICATIONS

WHAT MAKES AN AIRPI.ANE FtY

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WEATHER IN THE MAKING

YOUR BODY IN FI. IGHT

GROUND WORK

l0 How ro F|ND youR way tN THE sKy !o-t ro ro-28

OTHER AVIATION BOO K5 WORTH READING

In ihis rectlon ol your mdnuol you ond your lriends will trnd rhc onsverr

ro mony quostlon! oboui Civil Alr Pdrrol Cdderi. * You wtll le(rf'| how your

own pdrti.ulor unll of CAPC ls run, ond how it ffrs inro ?he notiotol

orgdnlzoiion. You will dis.over the lype of In.tru.tori tou ore to hove ond

wh.t they will teoch you, You wlll reod wlth pride ol ih€ Civil Air P.trolri

record, ond leorn wh.r i5 being done {or .odets by the €lvll Air Pctrol

Le.gue. * lhore frlend3 of your3 who ore nor yel .odet! can redd here how

rhey moy quollfy for membership in CAPC dnd ledrn of the odvontoges it

oFeri. By lefilng them reod the on3wsr! ro lhelr queriei qbour CAPC you

wlllrh6reby introduce them ro your mcnudl dnd lhe fo!.lncrlng srore of

ovlatlon fo.ri lr .onroln!.

i l t tHrs sEcttof , . . .

The CAP Cqdof6 ond YouYour Stolur dr o Civil Air Potrol Codet-Uniform ond ln3ignio-Trodition3

CAPC OrgcnlzotlonHow rhe Cod.tr Are Orgdnized cnd ted-The Notionol Conhond-Stote ond Locot Unirt

lhe Clvil Air PotrolWhe. dnd Why lt Wo3 Orgonired-CAP'S History-lb Relotionship to the Army Air torce'

The Clvll Alr Pohol leogeeHow ond Why li Wos Formed-How lr Functionr-lts Notionol Commi*ee lv{ehbert

Oudllfl.otlon! for GAPGAge, C;rizenrhip, PhFicol ond S.holortic Requiremenh for Appliconb-Spo.sorrhip Nece$ory-

Members of Air Corps Enlbted ieierye Are Elisible

Purpore of ihe Ccdet ProgrqmCur€nr Aini of CAPC-How the Progrom \vill Hetp You

Yosr InSlrualort

Who They Are*Typicol Bockgroundt-Whot lheir Instruction Meons io You-lmporronce of

Absorbing Fvndomenrols-How You Con Help the Initructor ond Your'elf

Your Job In CAPCWhot You Muil Leorn obout CAPC-Why ll PoF to Know ll

lhe MonuolWhy h Wc' Written-By Whom lt Wos Written-ltr Yolre to You

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TzecIPlnd you . . .

You ar€ now a junior member of the Civil Air Patfol.That, in turn, is an auxiliary o{ the United StatesArmy Ai Forces. It has been so nahed by the WarDepartmenl.

When you'rc engaged in cadet activities, you weara regulatioD Anny unilorm with special CAPC in-signia. These insignia in€lude shoulder and capemblems and an oblons pocket patch. The shoulderemblem is the regular red, white, and blue CAPemblem with the word "Cadet" embroidered beneatht}le btue ffeld. If you're in the Ail Corps Enlist€dReseroe you may wear your silver wings over th€ leftbreast pocket of your unifor.m. or as a pocket patch.

Behind your unifom are soldierly traditions thatgo back to the beeinning of history- Behind it, inparticular, are the traditions of the U. S. A.my,never defeated in a war, and of the AAF, th€mightiest air force in the world.

CAPC OrsonizotionYour CAPC unit will be a squadron, a flight, or asectioD. Cadets who show qualities of leadership wiltcommand it. The harder you work, the more likelyyou are to succeed in qualifying lor these r€spon-sibilities.

Cadet leaders are non-cornmissioned ofrcers inCAPC, and it is their impo{ani iask to make yourunit function smoothly. Cadet non-coms are underthe direction of CAP ofrcers, who report in turn tohisher CAP units. That sequence is called a chain o{command. You should learn the CAP chain of com-

-

mand and the nam€s oI ib omceis up to that oI thecomhander of you! state wing.

A national comand directs the CAPC and CAp.Its headquarters in New York is staffed by omcerswho hold comissions in the AAF. Therc 6 a wDscommnd in each of the 48 states composed entiretyof civilian volunteers. The wine comander and hisstalT oI CAP ofrcers direct alt subodinate units in a

Units arc usually squadrons, with 60 to 200 mem-bers, or flights of 10 to 60 members. The smallestCAP units are called sections and serve as palts oflargei o4anizations. In heavily poputated states,eroup commands made up of 3 or more squadrons aresometimes organized to relieve wing commanders oftoo much administ€tive work.

The Civil Air Potrol

The Civit Air Patrol, your unit's parent organiza-tion, has a sho{ but proud and colortul historv.Oreanized a veek before Pearl Harbor, CAP was setup to mobilize civilian airmen and planes {or volun-teer wartime duties. War came so swiJtly that CApFomptly had a big job on its hands.

Civilian pilots went to work immediarety flyingrescue, search, antisubmarine, coqrier and manvother rypes of missions to r" l ieve pr.s"ure on rheAAF. This was done on iheir own iime and in their

own equipment.This assistance was valued so highly that the Civil

Air Patrol was made an auxiliary of th€ Army Airrorces in Ap t 1943.

The expansion of the AAF has made it no longernecessary for CAP to op€rate the coastat parol, theborder patrol, and other services which the corDtryso urgentty needed before ft was tully prepared forwar. However, CAP pilots arc still assisting the AAFon such missions as aerial targer rowing and trackingflights to help tmin anti-aircraft guners and search-light crews.

Civil Air Patol units stand ready rhroughout theUnited States to fly in search of lost Army ptanes andon relief missions in time of flood and disaster. Theyalso help Fovide lorcst fire patrol, fast shipment ofblood plasma, and many other imporant flying

With this flying backg$und, CA? is a logical or-ganization to conduct the preflight traiDing pmgramtor young Ame cans of your age.

the Civil Air pdrot LoogueGroups of leading citizens rh.oushout the couniryhave organized the Civil Air parol League. Its mem-bers have in enthusjasm lor avrauon,ereat hopes for its future, and, in particular, a beliefin the value of early aviation iraining. Many of themhave volunteered to devote time and effor b makingthe CAP cadei iraiDing program an outsranding

At the head of the League are 2 committees. Onedecides what the organization's national policies witlbe. The ot}Ier, an executive comDittee, guides andassists cadet training activities of Civil Air patrol.and administers fuDds provided for rhat purpose.

In addiiion, it is expected that there will be anexecutive committee in each srare. Iis,purpose will beto work with both the state's CAP organization andthe national body in carryiDg outapploved policies.

Influential, air-minded citizens o{ ciries, towns, andcommunities may form local comittees to devetopand euide CAPC fiights and squadrons. These com-mitiees willbe responsible {or raising a.d using fundsfor this puryose in their commun ies, accordine toapproved state and national policies.

Men and women who have volunteered for rhesecommtttee posts were not chosen simply because iheyare members of CAP. Their wo!-k cannorbe measuredalone by their contribution to warlime flying. Theywork, too, for better civilian and commerciat aviationwith the coming of peace.

0uALlFrcATt0r{s F0R.i .. i . . qrrl lvho is 15 to 18 years old may apply

: : : . " : : : r ! as a Ci \ i l Air Patrol Cadci . Cadets musr. . - : : . - r : : . , f rhe Uni ted Statcs. nat ive borD or natur

. : - : : : east l0 lca.s. Ho$ever, wai lers may be:. : : . : : : appl jcants f roh al l jcd nat ions s 'ho ha!e

:: 'i S cj|zens less than 10 vears.

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CAP CAtlETSCadcts must meet physical standards similar t.

those rcquired by the Aimy {or flying. I{ you areuntaniliar with the lat1er, tum to thc section ca1ledYour Body in Flisht. Thcy are descdbed in con-sidoable detail there. Cadets must also mcct thcfouoNing heisht and !'eight reqLliremeDts:

lIHGflTl| TIO l|T

l5 5$ 85

l0 57 $0

11 58

17

95

,. 20015 to

l: :i:-:. rs a rLnit of the High School Viclory Corps: ::. .r_!. ichool ilhich a candidate {or CAPC

. .:r: ::i rLrsl b. a meDrber ol its Air SeNice Divi-

' l . r r oF,o, , , a,Fdpr. I t l . rL i no" : ' : Ci :ps m his hish school . he hust sho$ evr

. . . : : : rc gra. ies in l is s iudies, including physics,: : _: : . . r : : i e--onel f t . in order to appl ] for CAPC.l : : . : i r : t tak.D these subjccts already. hc must

:. i i,,r,-::.a.: hust b. sponsored by a CAP senior

-i: fl:,,r tenilles rliat he is of good chamctcr and

qualilied lor mcmbership. The applicani must alsosubini t h is parents 'consent v i th an opt ion as towhether ornothe \iiU bc permitted to fl] as a passen-ger.ltrhile passport photos arc requifed {of idcniifica,tioh, thc applicant does noi havc to fumish finger-prints or a birth ceriificate.

All mehbers of the Air Corps Enlisted Reservearc eligible {or CAPC membership and lfajDing \rhilcrh.) aqar ther_ ca l . t " . 'cr i \ . d-r) . Ho \ , \F . p:

rrust submit parenis' consent and lasspoft pholnras nr lhc cascs of other applicanis

l8

Purpo5e of the Coder progron

The present purpose of the CAPC program is toextend pre-aviation training to young men andworen ol h ieh s.hooL age who are planning on pur-suing aviation caieels o{ one kind or another. Incarrying oui ihis pur?ose, CAPC aims to give yourock-bottom knowledge upon which you may buitdmore specialized learning.

Naturally, your courses in CAPC will be invalu-able should it be necessary, or should you decide, to€nter military aviation training- If thai rs ure case,CAPC will have supplied you alrcady wilh a com-Fehensive eroundwork of air knowtedge which willalways be useful. However, in joiDing CAPC thercis no piedge of military service. You may resign at

Yosr In.rru.roisLocal people will teach you. Most of then are mem-bers oI CAP, well qualified to Cive instruction in rhevarious phases o{ the coure. Remember mese menand women are donating their time and serying atthet own expense to give you this hetp for your

Your drillmaster may be a veteran of rhe last war,too old for service now but eager to pass on hrsknowledge to those who may have ro go. l|ourinstructors in flying subjects will be skiiled civitianpilots or perhaps former military pilots with plentyo{ flying houls behind them. You Nill leam Morsecode from a local radio expert, ffrsi aid fron a com-petcnt medical or Red Cross instruclor.

As long as you plan a car€er in aviation you witlhave to know many fundamental facts abour fljsht_Horv much you learn wr l l be enr ' ret5.your re:ponsi-

bility. Instructors selected Ior you ae eamest intheir desirc to give you a good start on your road tosuccess in aviation. But they camot do rhe whotejob. They \ritl need your hetp.

CAPC does not intend to reach you ali here is toknow about subiects covered in this rmnuat. It at-tempts only to give you basic knowledge requiredto make you receptive to hieher aviation education.If CAPC does this, then it has lulfilted its .!ssro!.

Your Job in CAPCYour membe$hip in CAPC wilt be very much likemembership in a military outfit. For rnar reason,learn as much about your organization as you pos-sibly can. It will be useful if you become a memberoI the armed forces.

Learn your own job 6rst, rhen learn the jobs ofother cadets in your outfit. The more you knorvabout the othe! fellow's iob, tle easier it is ro coop-erate. In eirher military or civitian life, teamlvork rsalways necessary for the smooth functioning oI any

The MonuolThis manual has b€en prepar€d for you as an aid infitting you for a place in aviation. It is designed topresent material in a simple and €asilt. understand_able manner. trach secrion was $ritten by an experrin his field after collaboration Nith many othe.experts on the same subjecr. If it does not seem ro gofar enough, rcmember i1s purpose. That purpos€ is tosive you a {oundation for more advanced knoNledgeand a clear picture of aeronautical fundamentals.

CAPC will be the coach but you must carry theball.

Don't drop it!

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VffiSOilE FACTS OF ARIIY I IFE

A soldler ' i l l te l i not mcrkedly dl f ierenr t rom your5. But.erroin th ings ore

demonded or expeded ol him which dre forelgn ro clylllon woyi, ll you enler

mllltdry iervl.e h will be of concideroble odvontoge ro you fo be fomilior wirh

those thlngi from the srorr. * The idlure. tor Instonce. How do you do it

properly? When do you sdlure" dnd whon? Whdt i3 the rlght woy lo stond ot

dttenllon? Whotr3 on Arri.le ot Wsr? How do you morch o squod of men o.ro5i

o ticld,lurn ir oround, ond mor.h ir bd.k ogoin? Whot dre you supposed ro do

when on olfi.er enlers d room where you sre worklng? * You hqve ro leorn

the olphobet be{ore you .dn spell, dnd know how ro ipell before you .an recd.

You musr be fomili.r wirh simple orithmeti. in ord€r to noke chlngc. Ahd d

. lv l l idn musr leorn.ertoln elemenlol ru les dnd.ui tom. of lhe Army before he

con become a.opoble nember of i t . * In th is re.r ion you wl l l f ind olmosr every

fa.r you need lo know In order ro tlt qul.kly ond Intelllg€nrly Inro lhe Army or

Air For.es. Leqh them, dnd you'll have a heod rtort on the boy. who weren't

lu.ky enough ro be glven thli opporrunlry.

sEctto12

l l r THrS SECttOlt . . .How the Army lr Put Togeth€rGround Forcer, Air Fo.c.s, Service Forc8-Misii@i of vorjous cround cnd Service Forces_MLsion

of Air For.er-Buildins froh o Squod ro on Ahy-Non-comhiis;oned OFicer3 ond commi33ionedOfricer.-How o Compony FunctioN-Chief Sedions of cenerotsrqF

Teomwork In the Toughest Gome of Alllhporto.ce of Teomwort-How ro Sqture-Whom ro Soture-When ro Soture_When Nor ro sotute_Reportins io Your Cohmondi.g Ofiicer-Your A irude Towords your Unifoh

. How lhe AAF 15 BulltOrgoniuotion of o Squodron, ihe Bdsi. Unir-Voriou Kinds of SquodroB_Buitdinq froh o Sq,rodrdro dn Air Forcc-U.S. Air For.$-6 AAf Commdndr-Divbion, of H.odquo.t.B

Keep iluln, ChumlThe Morher Who Tolked Too A{rich-Four Woy3 oI Ctostifying t{itirory Dduncnt3

The Army's LqwHow Army Expecir You to Behove_Three Typer of Courr-t{drriot_The Arricte, of Wor

Pqper WorkSfote Your Subied-Morsins-"Subiar" ond .'To" Lines_Numberins ond Indenrins poroqroph,_

Signoture-How to Fold Letter-Deroils of on Indorsemenr

Chief Arri5tont3 to the COlhe G-Srofi, A-Srqfi, ond S-Stofi-The Comhondins Ofiicer-Duries of S-1, S_2, S,3, S_4

How to Influeh.e SoldierrNopoleon's 8oo3t-l.eodert Leoh by Erperience-Hetpfut Rutes ro Fo ow in Leqding Any c.oup of A en

lnlroductloh to lDl

"Att€ntioh"-"At Eo3e"-"Reif"-"porode Re+ -'.Fo Out'-.,Fo In"-How ro Drers o tine_TwoPorts of Morr Militory Conmo.ds-How ro cive o Commqnd_.'Righi Fo.e"_ left Fo.e"_..Abourtoc6"-Proper Woy ro Morch-,'Hotr,'-Den;ifions of Arinement, Cotumn, Fite. Ronk, Iniervo,,Dlitonce, Poce, Piece, Guid.-"Cotumn Righr"-,,Cotumn Left"-Morchhs by the Rishr ond LeflFlonk-|{orching ro the Reor

On GuordPurpo3e ond Moke-up oI on Interior cuord-Speciot ond ceneror Orders_The I I G.enerot Order,_How to Slnmon Help. Sound Alorms-Proper Woy ro Cho enge_Ofiicer of rhe Doy_Sergeo.r orthe Guord-Corpordl of the Guord-cuord lviounr

On DlrployConpony or Squodron lNpedion-Four porrr of o Review_Rerrear porode

; tr:r i

Think of the Arny of the Uniled Staies, prima.ily,as havihg three knrds of soldiers: those who fighton the sround, those ivho fisht in the air. and thosewhose job ii. is to supply thc othcrs with everylhingthet need to ffght.

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The Army S€rvice Forces includ. such typical unitsas the Corps of Engineers, Signal Corps, ChemicalWar{are Service, Quartermaste. Corps, Transporta-tion Corps, Mcdical Corps, ahd Ordnance.

><" Th" Infantry's principai mLs,on in

€ \ at tak is 1<l cumF ro gnps wi,h rhe

enemy and capture or destroy him; in defense, tohold its position and hurl back attacks.

ffip<pouring heavy shell fire upon enehy troops, guns,

, anr! corrmunication facilities.

Coast Artillery provides huge lire-power which can be directed at sur-

It uses both fixed and mobile guns.

The Corps of Ensineers buildsstruc-tures to assist olhe. arms'and de-

s insiallations ot use to the enehy.

Thc Signal Corps provides commu-nications by messehaer, wire, radio,

car i reruprgeon, and olher neans.

The Chenical Warfare S€rvic€ sup-plies and uses gas, smoke and in-furnishes defense asainst their use.

MY IS PUT TOGETHER,

(ORGANIZAfION oF fHE ARt Y)

Cavalry conducts reconnaissance,requiring great mobility. Once horse

now almost all mechanized.

Fi€ld Artillery suppolts other groundunits, either in atlack or defense, by

The Arny Ground Forces, as they are called offi-cially. include as basic alms the Infantry, Calalry,Field Aftillery and Coast Artillery.

The Army Air l'orc€s have as thcir combai arm. theAir Corps. It is the mission oI the Air Corps i.o strikeat the eneml in the skies and from the skies. Toaccc,mplish this mission, the Air Corps depends notonly on those who fly but also on thosc many more$ho kccp the planes in shape to fly.

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The mission of the Air Forcea is three-told: to drive ofi enemy oircrdfr,to support otf( 'cks by our gwn ground ond novol forces, ond lo corry ou,independent ottocks on the enemy,s mil i tory ond <ivi l estoblishmenrs.

ffi ,rt euarr€rmast€r corps reeds, W rhe Medicar corps rooks arter the, , .@.

ctorhes, and_ houses the Arrencan V heal th of t roops whi le they,re in

\oorpr Jnysnere rn the su.td. r rd i r i ig and wheh lbpy go into .ombar.

The Transportation Corps movessupplies and troops by boat or rail.

Its problems are hard and numerous

Our Army wouldn't be worth much if it simply con-tained 7,000,000 or more individuals. They have to b€grouped into teams to be efiective.

There are teams of many sizes. The smaltesr is asquad. There arc usually 8 to 12 men in it, thoughthere can be as many as 16. Most soldiers learn thefacts of Army life in a squad, ddtting under a cor-

But General George C. Marshall, our Chief of

Staff, can't plan victorious campaigns in tenns ofsquads. He and his principal associates work out themovements of whole armies and ai! forces, and leaveto subordinat€ omcerc, all the way do\rn the line, theway in which the smaller teams shall be handted.

These lesser units, however, hust be larger thansqusds. Tter€ has to be teamwork on a huse scate.So. in the lnfantry.2 to 4.quads at a trme are burlr

into platoons, commeded by second lieurenanm. ,\second lieutenant is rhe towest ranking commrs_sioned offic€r. Thrce or more plaroons are joined toform a company, usuatly headed by a captain. FourcoDpanies, as a rule, are combined to crea.e a Dar_tarion. A battalion leader normally has the rank ofmajor. Two or more battalions are ieamed togetherto form a regiment, under the comnand of a cotonel.Resiments, in tum, are buiit inro divisions, divisionsinto corps, and both corps and divisions are tinkedto make armies, Sometimes. a super-team made upof a group of armies is formed under one commander.These laiger component parts of amries are ted bygeneml officers, r:ugine tuom b gadier-generals tolieuteDant-genelals.

As small militaiy units are merged in bisser ones,a chain of command is formed. This insures thatevery leader from squad sergeant to Chief of Stafiis under the direct orders of the next hisher coni_mandel Even the Chief of Stafi is responsible to theSecretary of War and the Prcsident.

For some time non-commission€d omcers \{,ill pro_vide your most dircct contact with higher aurnorrry.They include corporals, sergeants, stalI sergeants,technical sergeants, ffrsr seqeants and masrcr ser-Ceants. You will be able to telt them apart by thechevron" on the:r s leevFs. Omcers wear rheir insjsn,aof rank on their shoulders.

You'Il find that what ihe Infantry cat)s a companyis known as a flight in the Air Forces. In the Artiltery,it becomes a battery; in the Cavalry, a troop_ Atso,in both the Air Forces and Cavahy, a squadron is theequivalent of the Infantry's battalion. However.despite the differences in names, the relative sizes o{these units remain roughly the same.

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The commandei of a company is responsible foreverything ii does or {ails to do. He must see thatyouand every other soldier in it arc properly trained, andat the same time fed, clothed, and shelteied. He mustCuard your health and, for morale's sake, must seethat you are well ente ained. Natumlly, he can'thandte all these mattels alone. Accordinely, he asksthe rcgimental commander to appoint non-commis-sioned officeN to assist him.

In a eompany headqua$ers theprincipal non-coms,as they arc called, are the first sergeant, the messseqeant, and the supply serseant. The first sergeanthas a job very nuch like that oI a chief clerk in acivilian ofrce. He takes car€ of all the administrativedetails of the company and publishes the companycomnander's ord€rs. The mess sergeant with hiscooks obtains and prepares the Iood you eai. The

There's only one right wdy ro repor ro your.omtr|onding officor.

Ihe mess sorgesnt derermines

supply sergeant issues clothing and equipment toyou and exchanges it when it's woln out or damaged.Other non'coms supenise d ll and work detaits. Thecompany is carefully o.ganized to leave as n,any Denas possible free for the primary job of 6ghtine.

The men who make the principal decisions abouthow our highty military {orces are going to be usedto win the war fo1n a c€nelal Staff. They workunde! the direction of ceneral Marshatl and hisDeputy ChieL They are in charse of Opedtions Divi-sion, which plans how the war is to be fought; Per-sonnel Division (c-l), which provides all the mennecessary to fiIl the €nks of the Army; Military tn-telligence Division (c-2); Organizaiion and Train-ins Division (G-3), which gets the soldiers ready tofight; and Supply Division (c-4), which gives themeverything to fight with.

Reipocr ronl. Don'r be overowed by ir.

The supply sorgeont issuos your .lorhins dndequipmenr-f requenrly, oll ot once.

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IN THE TOUGHEST GAME OF ALt

(t LTI ARY COURTESv AND DrsCrPr.rNEJ

I{ you've ever been on an athletic team, you knowthis: when you're trying to win a game you use theplays carefully worked out in practice. And youdo your part as well and as earnestly as possible.

Suppose it's a football eame. Wlen the quarterbackca s signals, you don't suddenly decide to try out anidea of your own. Swiftly, vith scarely a thought {orthe w€1I-ddlled details, you cany out the orde$ hissignals represent. Perhaps they mean you've got tobatter your bones against a bruiser on the other teamwhile Johmy Jones makes an end run aDd sets allthe dlory. \tre[, you take it {or gnnted that whatmatteN is the team, not you or Johmy. Perhaps youthhk the qua$erback is wrong to try that padicularplay. But you don't stand up and start arguing withhim about it. You r€ly on his judcment md cheer-fully obey his signals.

It's the same way in the Army, except that everycontest is {or k€€ps. If, in battle, you fail to carryo'.rt a play which your team has practiced, not onlymay the game be lost, but your li{e with it and t}elives of the other boys in you! outfit.

That is why discipline is so important to the Amy.It's not a system o{ punishments and penalties andannoying restrictions. 11 is teamwork at its best.

It has been proved over and over again in war{arethat without discipline no body o{ tmops in the worldcan hold its own asainst a well-directed, well-disci-plined enemy. That is one reason the AlJny places sonuch emphasis on drill. On the drill ffeld, a soldierlearns to obey orde$ instinctively. On the battlefield,even at the most cdtical moment, t}Iat training willDot lail him.

Coutesy is a vital p;t of military disciptine. I/sa sign that you are alelt, obeying the rul€s, aware ofyour obligations, prcud of your unifom, Foud of thejob you're doine as a sot&er, conscious of the fact that

you'rc a very necessary player on the Army team nomatter what you gEde, and that you respect your

Wlen you salute an officer correctly and snappily,looking him staight in the eye as you do so, it's as ifyou were saying, "How do you do, SiI? You're look-ing at a first-rate soldierl" And you may be certain

You lnurl know nol only how losolule, but whom ond when.

At other times you neither salute nor stand at ai-tention when an ofrcer approaches. Thai is whenyou're taking part in an athletic game, when you arepart oI a work detail, when you arc eatine a meal, orif you happen to be canying bundles in both hands.

Never salute indoors, except when reportins io anomcer. If he is in an ofrce, knock before entedngand remove your hat. w}|en told to enter, marchbriskly to a spot about 2 paces from his desk, salutesmartly, and announce yourself.

The way to do this depeDds on why you're there.If he sent for you, the proper declaiation is, "Sir,Private So-and-so rcports as ordered." If he is yourcommanding omcer and you have properly soughtpermission to see him by ffrst obtaining the FirstSergeaDt's apprcval, you will say, "Sir, Private So-

that is exactly t}le impression he gets.Salute by raising your right hand smaltly uniil the

tip oI the {oreffng€I touches the lower part oI yourcap or a spot just above your dght eye. Hold yourfingers and thumb tiehtly toeether, keeping the palmof the hand flat. Your upper arm will be parallel tothe ground, yoru lower ann inclined at 45 degrees.Turn your head and eyes to face the person you'rcsaluting. So long as you remain a private or a non-commissioned officer, you ivill salute omcers tust andhold your salute uniil they have returned it.

Salute all officers, wonen as well as men. Pay thesame respect to soldiers you recogDize as beineofficers of the armies of our Allies-

Salute, at a halt or a walk, when you are nearenoueh {or an officer to see you, yet not so close tohim that he won't have time to retum your salutebe{ore you've passed each other. Never salute onthe run.

If you are part of a group outdoors which is notin a military formation, all of you will come to atten-tion at th€ command oi the soldier who first sees anofficer approaching. Each one of you will then salut€.

If you are noi iD formation, saluie when the flagpasses or is being passed by you. Face the music andsalute when you hear "The Star Spangled Banner"or one of these bugle catls: "To the Colo$," "Escortof the Colors," or "Retreat."

Sometim€s, instead of saluting, it is proper simplyto srand al at tenl ior l . You do lhis when yoJ are in-doors and an omcer enters the room. The ffrst manto see him wiU shout "Attention." The rcst of youwill spring to your feet and take o1i your hats orcaps, if you have them on. You will also stand at at-tention without saluting when you meet an officeron a staircase! or if he stops to speak to you while

and-so has ihe First Sergeant's permission to speakto the Company Commander." He rvill immediatelyput you at ease and the rest of the conveBation willbe caried on just like any oth€r.

However, when you leavej come to attention again,face about, and march out of the omce iD a soldierly

Remember that your saluie is the key to your char-

An American coionel who rose {ron the ranks oncesaid that the day he became a member of the UnitedStates Army he vas so proud that he wore hisprivate's unlfoh as i{ it had a general's siars onthe shoulders. That is the kind of spi t every soldiershould have. Civil Air Patrol Cadets, however, nustcurb their impatience for that day to come. Don'1try 10 pass youGelf of as a regular Army rnan.rflri. i.

- .--r^,,-

2-7

HOW THE(oRGANf

To build :n air force, you start q'ith a planc and acombat crcw. In battle plans, ho$eve!, the smallestunit considered is a flight, lhich usually contains3 planes. Two or mole flights make up a squadron.

Just as the company is the smallest part of theArmy Cround Forces able to function by itself,regulating the duties of its members, feeding lhem,issuing them clothing and equipment, and taking careof their health, so the squadron is the basic unit ofthe Army Air Forces.

If you become a member of the AAI, you willundoubledly work and live with a squad.on. Thesquadron contains soldiers wiri mary diflerentdunes. Th$e is an administrative s€ction, & tech.nical Bection, and a light section. iD the first ar€ the

men who do the pap€r work, keep records, handlecorrespondence, and those who prcvide food andtranspotation. Engin€ering, supply, communication,photography, and rcpairs are provided by the tech-Dical section of the squadron. The flight section, asyou would €xpect, flies and maintains the squadron'splanes. Therc are additional soldieis assigned orbained by other ams and services. lhey handle suchtypical duties as maintaining the squadrm's weaponsand pmwiding chemical wa.fare equipment.

There are all kinds of squadrons: frghter; lisht,medium, and heavy bombardm€nti obscrvation; com-municatioDj weather; photographic mappingi photo-graphic reconnaissance; depot repat and supply;troop carrier; transport, and so fo{h.

tEcHNtca! tlctloil

2-8

lmpoitqnt os lhey ore, squqdrons olone ore not big or gtnong enough to hqve norethon o lemporory efiect upon the enemy. lhere must be inuch bigger qeriol teqms.Accordingl, 2 or more rquqdron3 ore combined to lonn groups. pdirs of group3 mokeup wings. Wing3,in lurn, {o}rn.ohrhondr, ond cornmqndsore linked to build on oi. force.

Lf . = w^"kl{..1,.=o*"r,'-,1, tt-=*,-.++ -l ++44 -..1 +++++++*, t+.=*. g, f ' 1i13=-'"^',-'"a f iiiill+i- *n tgrz++ J ++++ Jiiiii i i i

I'he United States has many air forces, at horneand ahoad. Only the first 4 arc in the 48 states.Among those operating outside of this couhtry, thesth, ?th, 10th, 11th, 13th, 14th, and 20th air forceshave distinsuished themselves in Pacfic areas or inAsia. The 8th, gth, 12th, and lsth have loushr forus in the skies over Europe. Ihe 6th has delendedthe Panama Canal and its approaches.

there are also 6 cornmands in the Armv AirForces: AAF Personnel Diskibutjon. ffui"i"g,Troop Carrier, AiI Transpor, Air Technical SeNice.and_Ploving Cround. Their names are lareety setf-exptanatory. In addition, ther€ is an AAF TacticalCenter at Orlando. Ftorida.

The Tactical Center provides the tast dress re_heaNal for air war. It is one of the most importantfa"rors in Lhe 6nat rrainins . t ou, ui .

" .a !ro,^acrews ed the testing of equipment which will beused oversetr. The men live, work, and ffeht as theywi l l abroad. Fiehrer, bomber. and parrot mr.sron. ar"carried out from a dozen airdromes in aD actualtheater oI operations about as large as Sicity. In_structoN and advise$ are experienced officers: manvof them have returned rhere from combar. Thc Tac'-tical Center not only tmins men in tactics devised intheatels of war{are but devetops other banle tech_niques and procedures.

The AAF Personnel Dist bution Cobmand ar_

ranges new assignments and sometim€s additionaltraining of a difierent type fo! Air Forces peEonnelIetulning ftom the ]var fronts.

In th€ oryanization o{ the AAF, these air forces,cornmands, and cente$ are on the same levet ofauthority. Above them all is the Commanding cen-eral, I{enry H. ("Hap,,) Arnold, and the nembersoI the Air Stafi. I'here is a Chief of t,he Air Stafi,4 Deputy Chiefs, and 6 Assistut Chiefs. The latterhead the 6 principal divisions of AAF Headquarrenin Washington: Personnel; Intelligenee; Tmining;Materiel and Service; Plans; and Operations, Crm-mitments, and Requir€ments.

Other offices of Headquaners iDctude those of theAir Inspector, Air Surgeon, Air Judge Advocate,and the Ofrce of Flying Saf€ty. The mission of thelatter is to increase the combat srrenglh of theAimy Air Forces by reducing losses of men andairciaft in accidents.

Plans, policies, and Fograms lor the air {orcesand commands are made at Headquarers. It is thenissiqn of those units to put rhe plans inro efiect,with the advice of Headquaters offices.

Mission is a military word which means th€ ioblhal has to be done. Wh"""r" t yo,

""" * t ' . ' y", f in

our vast ahed forces, resolve to put your heart aDdsoul into accomplishing every mission givea you.

(SAFEGUARDING fi l l Llf ARY lNFORil{ALON)

They iell the stoly of a soldie. who died because hewrote too much in a letter home, and because hismother talked about it in the villaee srocery. Theboy had proudly confided that he was one of a small

sroup chosen to Cuard some secret war mate als ontheft way to SaD Francisco. He even told his motherwhat tihe the train was to leave. She excitedlyboasted about it to the family grocer. and was over-heard by an agent o{ the enemy. He swiftly arangedwith othei saboteurs to wreck the train) and in the

Srre probobfy nevet rcalized fiow it ,roppered.

2-9

te ibte accident which followed, her son was killed.Too often, the tlaeic rcsults of such thoughtlessness

arcn't felt by the peNons who ar€ to blame. Usually,it is somebody eise's son who is blown up or shotor dro$'ned because o{ careless talk.

If you enter the Army you'll want io tell yourfamily and friends all about the things you see andhear and do, and they'll be eager to listen. They maynot understand why you jusi can't tell them. Be-cause they are honest and patriotic they tlink yourinformaiion is safe with them. The sad tluth is thatit isn't. Sooner or later, even the best intentionswon't Fevent a thoughtless remark or the exchaneeoI a few conffdences which don't seem impoltant topeople who are not in miliiary seNice.

They'd be shocked if they knew how importantseemingly commonplace matters may be to the Japsand Germans. Just because a gun or a plane seemsordinary to youj you may think everybody knowsabout it. Usually they don't, for very Sodd ieasons.

So r .mernber: don\ ta lk about mihrary equip-ment, tiansfers of troops, airylane accidents, whereyou imagine you're going to be sent, or any otherdetails of your life as a soldier which can Fossiblybe of value to our enemies.

When a person eat€rs the Ahy, his conduct isnaturally checked on morc closely than it is in civil-ian life. As a membe! of a potential ffghting team,certain aliscipline has to be demanded oI him towhich he is not now accustomed. Hovrever, in lhemain, the Army asks only that you b€have youNelfaccording to tlle rules oI the society in which you

Just as you llow can expect to be punished by thelaw if you steal, smash public property, have a fightin the street, or kiU someone, so can you expectpunishment if you do any of these things in the Army.In civilian life, such an act would lead to your arlestby a policeman and trial before a judse or jurv. Inthe Army, th€ lesuli would be v€ry huch the same,except thst the cop would be in klaki and eventuallyyou would be tded by a militaiy court. Courts-martial, tley are called, and there are 3 kinds:summary, sDecisl, and general, depending on theseriousness of lhe oFeise. A general court-matial isrhe highest of the thlee.

You arc already lamiliar with 2 kiDds oI laws: civiland crimiDal.lhe Army has a third set: the Arliclesof War, There sre 121 of th€m and they govem thelife of every soldier from private to general. Theystate some of his rights as well as all the things hemust not do. You can read them in th€ "Manual forCouits-Martial, U. S, Army," but most oI them youdon't need to know, Simply behave yoursell as younomally do and you needn't give a thought to theArticles o{ lltar.

However, there is a code of militaiy coDduct {'hichmust be obeyed as well as tlrc more familiar rules ofbehavior. Accordingly, there are Articles of V/arwhich provide punishment for such misdeeds as giv-ing a false age or false name when enlisting (Article

2-t r

ARMY'S LAWrARflC[ES OF WAPI

g), wilfuny disobeying a supelior officer (Article64), stdking or otherwis€ acting in an i$ubordinat€manner towards a non-commissioned oflicer (Article65), beins absent without leave (Article 61), deserhing (Article 58), and, most serious o{ all, aiding theenemy (Articte 81), There arc othels, but these arethe p ncipal on€s.

For minor acts ot disobedience, there is one Aiicleof \ryar, the 104th, which gives you commandingomcer the dght to innict upon you whar is caledcompany punishment, Ether than resorting to trialby corEt-martial. the penslty may simply b€ arcprimand, but it can include t€mporary loss ofplivileges, extla fatigue duty, or even had laborfor as much as a week.

The ffist known Articles of War wer€ written whileOliver Cromwell was ruling Ensland. They werecaued "Laws and Ordinances of Warre," and werepublished in 1642. Late!, some of them were includedin the English Mutiny Acts and Articles of Warestablished by th€ King. On July 30, 1775, whenan Ameican Congess drcw up a code of behaviorfor the tust national army, it copied lib€Ially fromthose sources. The next year, it enlarged upon thm-Our present Articles oI War date largely from 1806.Revisions in 1916, 1920, snd 192? mostly aftectedcourt-inartial Dmcedures.

2-12

P[?tt \[sRt\

(MILtf ARY CORRESPONDfNCf,

Military leitets aren't like any you ever vrote. They'never start with "Dear So-and-so" or end with "Sin-cerely youN." Likc any business lctter, they shouldbe typed. Unlike business letters, thcy first statewhat they'rc all about-

Supposing, a{ter you have been in the Armyawhile, ii seenE necessary {or you to leave 'yourpost for a {ew days to take care ol urgent family orbusiness matters. You are told to stat€ your request inNriting to your com1nanding officer.

After typing your address and the date at the upperrisht ot the page, I lincs belo$ the lelterhead andthrcc-quarters of an inch from rhe cdge oI the paper,

lou will drop dorvn 4 rnore hres and typc:"SUBJECT: Requesi for Emergency Furlough."Ihe word 'Subject must bc capiialized and beein

111 inches frorn ihe Ieft edee of thc shcct. The sub-jcct should ale'ays be slated in 10 sords or less.(Never try to talk about trvo subjects in one mili-tary letter. Writc a second letter on the other mai-

Nor', drop down 2 more lines and type:"TO: Commandine Officer. Blank Company, Blank

Battalion. Fort Blank, Blank Stale."Note that no Nord is abbreviated. Ii you knoN your

commandmg oftic-"r's Danle, use it in lull with hisproper rank. The $'ord "TO" musi be capitalized andpui right under "Subject."

Next, drop doivn 3 morc lines and start thc body

If rou \\rite more ihan one paragraph. every onemusi. be numbered. Ii must also be ibdenied so thatits fr$t lcttcr rvill be directly under thc il6t leticrot your "subject" and "to'lincs. Thc paragraphs willbe single-spacecl rvitli double spaces between them.Each is to express a single ihought onlt'.

At thc conclusion of the lciter, drop dolvn 5 linesand iypc your full name in caps, ovei by the eht-

hand malgin. Immediately below it, type your grade

and branch o{ the seivice. but not in capitals. wrii.eyour name in ink over the typed signatur€.

Number your paees, whenever there are morethan one, a hau-inch from the bottom of each.

You will then fold your letler in 3 equal parts,in such a mmer that the top third is open to vie$'and the bottom third is iight beneath it, Iace up.

YouI commandine oflicei will udoubtedly leplyby indorsement. This is a way of answedng letterswhich is peculia! to the Arhy.

It there is room lcft on the page on which you havew tten your request, hc will besin the indorsementrieht there, one-half inch below the last typcwrittenline of ihe basic letler. In the center of the pagehe will type "1st Ind."

Then, over at the l€ft hand marsin, \rhich remains1ya inches. he will typc his addrcss and thc date.They will be abbreviated as much as possible andwill be printed 1 line below the wods "lst Ind."

Two lines below he will type 'Tor." This time itwill noi be capitalizcd. Your name and address willfollow the $'ord "To."

The body of ihe indorsement will be written inthe sahe fortu as i.he leiter to which il repljes. Therecan be any numbcr of indorscmcnts to a basic letier,provided they all are on the samc subject. The) willbe typed on successive pages and attached to theodeinal communication.

Remember this: Don't $rite unnecessarr- lettcrs.Transact your military busincss in person or by loca1telcphone call whenever possible.

u

cHttF AsstsTAl{Ts

You are already Iamiliar with the odd symbols s'hi.hindicate the 4 plincipal parts of the U. S. Army'sGeDeral Siafi, c-1, c-2, c-3, and G 4. You learnedin ihe pages describins Army organization that,simply staied, ihey stand for: Personnel, Intelligence,OperatioDs ed Training, and Supply-

ln ihe Army Air Forces, the Commanding cen-erai's s1aff has similar sections but they ale labeled;A-1, A-2, A-3, A-4. In the units belos. air lorces andcommands (lower echelons, they are usually called)these sahe stafi {unctions undergo another changeoI 1itle. In Lings, groups, and squadrons they arecal led: S-1, S-2, S-3, S"1.

If you become a member of the Army Aft Foices,you probably will leam how a siafi operates by\latching it work in a squadron.

In the fi$t p1ace, you know t]lat the ComhandingOmcer of any unit is held solely responsible for every-thing $'hich takes place within it and what it does inbaitle. You also know that he can't possibly directand supervise all these activities himself. Thcrefore,he has to have a stafi of skilled advisers. Thetu jobis to relieve him Df detail work. provide him with allnecessary information upon which to base his de-cisions, and then see that his decisions and orders areproperly carded out.

The Executive Omcer of the squadron is its secondjn connand, but it is the adjutant rvho representsS-1. He's the officc manager, so to speak. He handlesall corrcspondence except that $'hich pertalns tooperation missions. He kecps up and has charge ofthe records of all pcrsonnel and prepares rcports onstrength, casualties, and other such returns.

The Intellig€nce Offcer (S'2) must work closelys'ith the Operations Officer (S-3) . He satheis aI1 theinformation, conffdential and otherwise, necessary to

2-13

cany out operation and training missions. He super-\'$es the preparation and use o{ codcs {or safe-auarding inrportani messaees, and is responsibte lorthe protection of classifled inforhation. When a mis,sion is completed, he questions all oe\\, menDersabout whai they saw and posts his findings on \'haiis called a situation map. He is responsible tor findingand setting rid o{ any members of the squadron whoare disloyal.

Th€ Operations Ofiic€r (S-3) is the CommandinsOfficei's assistant in charee of training the squadrcnand dirccting its gights. He assigns the missions andsives inslruciions on how to fulfill thcm. He keeps afile of all official instructions on opcrating abd flyingairciaft. He checks and sisns the bo.ks in rvhichpilots keep accounts of their flights, ntaintains recordsof his uhit's flying i.ime, and dererrnines iveather conditjons in areas where his mcn are operattue. Healso keeps records of forced landinss and crashcs.and makes sunmaries {roh time to tiine ot the totalhours flown by his unii.on various typcs of hissiohs.In CAP i.ralning squadrcns without active mNsrons,rhF S-3 i Incr jnn i , p, - formrd b) rha,tr i rh in-Ot i .er

The Supply Officer (S-4) is rcsponsible lor obraining. sto ng and djstributing suppties. incluctine air-craft. He also is required io supcrvise the hainte-nance of equipmert and salvage operations. He hascharee of the squadron's funds. acquires whaieverreal estate and facilities are needed. and procurcs andimprovcs airplane bases.

These are the principal staff oflicers of a squadron.In addition, there afe usually a Communications O{-f .er and a M, di , a l OFi. .er . Undpr.nlbi ' cordrr :uns.there mieht very well be an Armament Omcer, aPhoioefaphic .Offlccr, a Mcss Omcer, and so {r,rlh.

THE CO

(DUIIES OF COhltnaND AND SIAFF OFFICfRS)

T(l

2-14

(LEADERSHIP AND COItIItAND)

Napoleon used to boast thst evely private soldier inhis Guard caried a marshal's baton in his knapsack.I'lxat was his way of saying that he {elt each on€ ofth€m was not only eagd but able to lead a wholeamy il he had the chsnce.

the litde emperor, whatever \,/e think of his pur-pose, was a great military leader. He knew how toinspire his men.

No ofrcer staits out as a skilled leader. I{e has tolean by ex1rerience, generally by being a non-com-missioned officer first. For both enlisted men andofficers, however, therc arc certain principles ofleadership which have elways ploved successful.

Someone has said that ploper cohduct on the partof an officer can be summecl up this way: Be stict,be just, be cheeiful. But tlele is much mor€ to it thanthat.

B€ loyal. II you act or speak disloyaly towardsyour $pedols, your men in tuln will feel you pmb-.ably are not loyal to lbem, either. llley u,in thinkthere is no point in trying to be lo'.al to you-

Be checrful. Make e point of sccepting unsatis-

factory situations with good grace. Don't crab.Be ..ourrteous. Your men will follow your example,

and admi.e you for it.Be decent, You've got to prove you are morally

fitted to lead. If you &ink too rnuch, live loosely,gamble ext€nsively, iun up debts, you'[ lose theEsp€ct of those under your command as well as

B€ careful of your sp€ech. A good cuss word nowand then to eliewe your feelings in a teDs€ situationwi]l b€ understood and actepted as nstural by youmen. Never swear at them, however. It is particularlyhumiliating becau* they cannot retaliak.

B€ calm and seu.controlled, €specially whentbings go wrong. If your men see that you neitherlook no! act worried, even when you have Coodrcason to, they will gain courage and energy.

B€ far-sight€d. Anticipate diJffculties and plan inadvance how you will act, what decisions you vrillmake wh€n they aise.

Be sludious. Never lose a chance to leam em+thing more about your job. Don't try to blu-fi. Yourmen will find you out quickly. They don't €xp€ctyou to know ever'.thing but they righttully exp€ctyou to be honest with them.

Be generous with praise when it is deseNed.A good officer will be strict but just. If a soldier

desewes punishmeDt, give it to him, but rnake sureit is not petty or too severc.

Be comiderate. Find out everything you can aboutyour men-thei names, expeiience, backerounds.They'lI be grateful lor your personal interest andlespond to it by becoming more zealous. Just becarcful that this sympathetic interest do€sn't becomeundue familiarity, which would breed lax discipline.

Tell your nen as much as possible about militaryjobs the out6t has to do and, in general, how youexpect them to be doDe. American soldieN resentbeing kept in the dark about matt€rs which right-Iully concern them.

A capable officer will not lean on his non-coms inmaking d€cisions but, iI he is wise, he will conJerfrcqu€ntly with them. He will listen to their sug-g€stions and use them iI they are good. He willnot try to do their work, but wil rc]y on them tocarry out his orders. He will let them decide howthey'!€ goilg to do it.

(INFANIRY DR'TT.l

\bu I hear "lDR" mentioned a thousand times if you

i€cone a soldier. Those initials stand for In{antryDn]1 Regulations, ihe rules by which a civilian isDde over into a smoothly functionine member oI aailitary team. Naturally, they are of primary im-

lortace iD the Army.Here, you will find only a part of IDR. But ii's the

:rdamental pait. Lealn what's printed on these few

!€ses and your training as a soldier will be made

The tust thing lo remember is that you must obey!:err command {'iih snap and precision.

,\! the command, "AtteDtion," stand stmisht, brine

:. cur heels together with a click, and be quiet. Kecp

. :ur shouldem back, chest arched, eyes flont, armsa: lour sides, toes pointed outward at an angle oi. : - , " /5 , l^d"."" D^n'r hF cr i$

I\len the command, "At Ease," is given, relax but;,:. r talk. Keep your right foot in place.

\aen you are commanded to "Rest," rclax and=li. if Iou like, but keep one foot in place.

-\i rhe oder, "Pamde Rest," move your left footi: rches to the leIt, clasp your hands behind you

\ lher ]ou a"e to lo ro Fal I O, r , leave yoJr p^si-::r: iD line but siay nea.by. You \rill not leave ther::11 area util given the order, "Dismissed."

-{t the command, "Fall In," hury ba.k to the spoi

I r: left in the forhation and stahd at attention.

2-15

INTRODUCTIONIDR

When soldiers are ordered to fall in they next aregenerally given the conmand, "Dress dght, dress-"At this order, each man except the one at the leftend oI the line stretches out his 1e{t arm until hisfingers touch the rieht shoulder of the soldier at hisle{t. At the same time he tums his head hau deht andglances down ihe line in that direclion, moving untilhe is exactly in line with the man at his right. Thesoldier at the right end o{ the line natumlly does nottum his head to the right; the others are aligningthemselves on him.

As soon as the leader is satislied with the straisht-ness of ihe line, he commands, "Ready, {ront." At thisorder, each nan drops his left arm to his side andtums his head and eyes to the front.

Most military commands are in 2 parts. That isdone in order to warn you of what is coming beforeyou are actually told to do it. Take, lor examplc, thecomrnand, "By the ight flank, march." The fi$t palt,"By the right flank," prepares everyone in the squad{or what he is about to do. That's why it is called theprepamlory command. It is spoken loudly cnouehto be heard by everyone in the squad, and in risinstones, which capture more attention.

Thcn, an.r a b-rer pausF ' r lended ro girc ct"rysoldier a chance to think how he's eoine to executethe movement, comes ihe order, "March." This iscal led rhe command ol e\€cul ion. I l rs gi \ "n

" \ -plosively. For that reason it sometimes sounds like"March" and sometimes like a bark or somebodvbeins stransled. BLrt a ncll-drilled squad knows

TO

€+

ffiM

AI IAIE otatt o|lt Dtltl

2-16

LEfT FACE

what's coming and at th€ sound, however sarbled,every man snappily tuns to the ght.

A[ commands of execution are barked out. "At-tention," Ior instance, isn't forceful enough lvhen it ispronounced "At-ten-shun." Drill sergeants invariablymake it sound like "Ten-hut" and th€ "hut" makesa noise like t}Ie crack of a whip. Such commandscause troops 1o hop ro ob€y: lhal s why they are Eiventhat way. Sloppy, lazy orders result-in indifierent

One of the purposes of drill is to enable a leaderto nove troops trom on" place to anotber in an or-derly fashion. Befo.e they sta{ malching, however,it frequently is desinble to face them in anotherdirection. Therc are 3 principal commands used.

When you are given the command, "Right Face,"turn squarely to the ght on your right heel and theball of your left foot. Then bring your left foot intoposition beside your right.

At the command, "Left Face," reve$e the abovepiocedure, using your left heel and the ball of yourdght fooi.

When you hear the order, "About Face," placeyour dght foot about 6 inches behind you teft andtuh around on the ball of your ght foot and the

ASOUT FA'E

heel of your left.As soon as his squad is {aced the dght way, the

leader presumably will want to move it."Forward, march," is the comDand. When you hear

"March," or "Harch," as it will probably sound toyou, step out Fomptly, left foot first. Never forgetthat it is the left foot which moves first.

American soldiers are fortunate in being able tomarch in a natural way. You've seen the "goosesteps"and other peculiar and exaggerated gaits of {orcienarmies in the movies. We, on the other hand, simpiywalk in a businesslike manner, at a cadence whichinsures precision but neither tires t}|e marcheis norbecomes monotonous.

When he wants to stop his squad, the leader cries"Squad, halt." At this order, you take one more stepand plant both feet firmly in that spot.

There are words the Army always uses to desc bece ain fomlations of troops and parts of {ormations.They are woids unJamiliar to a civilian but essentialfor him to know when he becomes a soldier.

One is alinem€nt. When you and other soldiem arein alinement you are in a straight line, either abreastof each other or behind one another.

A column is a formatlon of troops in which the

2-17

the othe! troops which 'way to go and how fast.Ce ain essential comhands are used to direct the

movements of both a ffte and a column of soldiers.They are: "Colunm r ight (or lef t j , march : By rhe

cht (or left) flanl<, march"; and ,'To the rear,

Ifthe fonnation is a file, at the command, "Columndght, march," always given as each man's right footstiikes tI€ ground, the tust soldier in line takes onemore step and tums iight on the ball of his ieli foot.He then steps ofl in the new direction with his rightfoot. Each soldier behind him does the same thineas soon as he has marched to the exactspot where the

At the comand, "Column left, march," atwaysgiven as the leIt foot stikes the eround, the leadinesoldier of a ff1e takes another step, turm left on theball of his dght foot, and steps off in the new directionwith his left.

men march behind one another. There wilt be atleast 2 mws of them and may be as many as 4.

A file is a column coDsisting of only 1 row of hoops.A rank is a line of men side by side.Int€rval is the space between you and ihe soldier

standing beside you. "Normal interval" is one am'slength; "close interval" is about 4 inches. You willoften hear the cornmand, "Get your pioper interval."

Distarce is the spac€ between you and the {ellowin front of you. This is norma.lly about 40 inches, aspace just a little lareer than the length of an armstetched out straight beforc you.

There are 3 other terms you'll hear constantly.One is pace. That means a step of 30 inches. Anotheris pi€ce. I'hat's what the Army catls a rifle. A third isguide, A euide is the omcer, non-comissionedofficer, or private who is placed at the head of acolumn or file and who, by his own marchins, shows

COLUAN IIOHI

corurN l.ft

2-14

eryryWhen a ffl€ is ordercd to march by the fight flank,

at the command, "March," given on the right foot,every man in the frle takes one step forward, turnsright on the ball of his left foot and steps out in thatdiection with his Iieht foot. Each uses the oppositefoot but follows a similar procedure at the comand,"By the left flank, march."

When ordered to march to the rear. each manobeys the command simultaneously. It is alwaysCiven as the right {oot sirikes the grcund. At thecommand, "March," every soldier plants his left footforward md turns about on the balls of both feet.He then steps off in t}le new direction with his left.

If trcops are marching in column formations, theydo flanking movements and march to the rear exactlyas descdb€d above. However, a somewhat difiercntprocedule is executed at the command, "Columnight (or left), march."

In a column, there are 2, 3, or 4 fites abreast. Since,

$rythercforc, there are always at least 2 men at th€ headof th€ colurnn, it is necessary that both oI them dosomething simultaneously when they hear the com-

I{ the order is given to march to the right, thesoldier at right end oI the tust flank tuns in thatdircction iust as if he were at the head of a single6le. there is one exception. After his first full st€pto the dght he takes half steps until the men whowerc at his left have once more causht up with him.

The other soldier or soldieis in his rank take hautums to the dght rDtil they are eoine in the samedirection he is. They then align th€msetves with himby taking half steps or full steps until they areabreast. They must always keep in time, however.

In your AImy training you will be taught otherways in which these units and larger ones ean bemoved about, but these arc fundamentat. Learn themthoroughly and the rest will be easy.

2-19

GENERAT ORDERSl. ro t"L"

"r,."g. of tlis post and all

GovemmeDt property in view.

2. To walk my p6t in a military '1E-ner, keeping always on the alert and

observing everythiDg thai tlkes placewithin lighi oi hearing.

3. ro report all violations ot ordeBI m iDstructed to €Dfo.e.

4. ro "ep".t

all calls from posts horedistatrt from the guarilhouse than Ey

5. To qult my post onty when properly

E. To receive, obey, and pass oD to thesotinel who lelievs me aI ordeE fromthe commditrg ofrcer, ofncer of theday, and o6cers and non-commi$ionedofrceB ol ihe suard only.

7. ro t tt l" no one except in liDe of

8. 'To give the alarm in case of ffre or

L To call the corporar of the guaid indy csse not covered by instructions.

10. ro *r"t" a omcels and ell colorsed standards not cased.

ll. ro t" ""p."i"ttv

watahful at night,Dd duridg the time fo. challengih€ tochalenge all persons on or n€ar myposi abd to alov no one to pas without

n*,$2J

(,IVIER'OR

One of the most important jobs you'll be siven to doin th€ Army is that of being a sentinel You will thenbe part oI an interior guard, th€ body o{ amedmldiers which provides secu ty for any camp,whether it is a permMent posl or a temporary eslab'lishment of tents. The interior euard protects costlvand vital Gowernment property, keeps order, :ndsees 10 it that police rules are obeyed.

The guard must be on duty 24 hours a dav. Sincethat is much too long a time for a s€ntinel to calrva rifl€ and stay ale , the guard is usually divided into3 sections, cafled reliefs. Think of tlem d shiftsEach one seNes for 2 hours at a time until a[ haveguarded the camp for a total of 8 hours apiece. Whileone shift is walking post, the other two are sleepingor restiJlg, thouch thev are always on call.

Since emergencies sometimes arise which requireseve.al guards to be in one place at the same time,there have to be €xtra sentinels available. Otherwise,if thos€ on regrdar duty were to be called from theirposts part of the camp would be left unprot*tedTherefore, every intefor guetd is composed of th€main reliefs and e leseive.

Each senlinel in the respective reliefs is Eiven aparticular pait of the (::np to patrol. That is calledhis post, and is numbercd. lle is also given orderspeculiar to that psrt of the camp. they are calledsp€cial orders. There are other oders which applyto each and every sentinel on duty. These are gen-eral order+ md there ar€ 11 of them. In the Army,you are lequired to know them by hea , since theyare the sentry's code of behavior. You will be wis€

2-20

to learn them befoie you enter military selvice.I{ a sentinel at Post No. 3 desires io call the cor-

poral of the suard and is justifred in doine so, accord-ing to Genenl Order No. 9, he cries out, "Corporalof the guard, No. 3." The call will be repeated byevery sentinel vho heals it, between No. 3 and theeuardhouse.

In case ffre has broken out near him, he calls, "Fire,No. 31" If disorder is occurine and he thinks coqsid-erable help is needed, he calls out, "The guard,No. 3l" I{ the danger is very eieat, he will tue hisweapon into the air S times before calling.

WheD a sentinel is required to challenee someone,he should do so about 30 steps away, holdins hisweapon across his chest with both hands, in the so-called port position. He calls out sharyly: "HaltlWho is there?" The person challenged will identifyhimseu as "Friend," "Soldier of the post," "Omcer ofthe Day," or {hatever he is- The sentinel theD com-mands, "Ad\-ance, Friend (Otrcer of the Day, etc.),to be iecosnizedl" He will halt him again when heis near enough to be seen clearly, yet notso near thathe could, if hostile, overyower the sentinel. If he nowrecosnizes the person challenged, the sentinel says,"Advance, Friend (Office. of the Day, eic.)!" Hecontinues to hold his weapon at ihe port position,however, unless the pe$on challenged is an officer.In that case, as soon as he recognizes him, the s€n-

tinel gives him the rifl€ salute.The soldier who is rcsponsible to the cohmanding

officer o{ a camp for the proper perlormance of dutyby ihe interior guard is called the Omcer of the Day.Though he sometimes has an assistant called theCommander of the Guard, he usually rcviews, in-spects, and commands the Cuard himseu His prin-cipal helpeN are the Sereeant of the Guard and thecorpomls of the euard. Generally, there is also atleast 1 busler.

The Sergeant of t}le Guard forms the cuard \,"hen-ever a formation is necessary. He makes sure thecorporals know their duties and are peformingthem properly. A corporal of the suard has diiectcharye of each of the 3 reliefs- He must knorv everysentinel and where he is to stand guard. He mustmarch his relie{ to and tuom its posts, and be ihor-ouehly familiar with the special orde$ of each

A guard always forms under arms and is inspectedto make cerlain every man's piece is in pioper con-difon and his appearance creditable. The formingof a new guard als'ays involves a certain amount o{ceremoDy. It is called Cuard mounline. and may beiormal or in{ormal. The procedure of formal erardmount, as you would expect, is the more elaborate,involving a parade and band music. Informal guardmount takes place without either.

o0r

(R EV t EWS AND TTVsPEC rro^r5)

-{ lot of the pleasure and satis{action of inranhy driucon6 from seeing your outfit and youisetf, as a pa$oi rt. lose awkwardness and ragged timing and.€come ahost as precise as a machine. With this.iaig€ there comes a greater desire on the part ofeach soldier to look his best wh€never he 6 on meir,ll field. He spends more time shinins his shoes,b:lshirs his ctothes, and potishine his brass buuons.I{e my even practice the manual of arms in front..i s ba..acks mates and invite thetu criticism of his

Re$narly, just to keep him a little bit more on his:*-. urere rs a company or Bquadron inspeclion, The:rop are assembled, iequired to open ranks, and:;c€N then pass up and down the straight tines:a;jns a personal check of the men's clotliDg and=e pi<es they are carrying. Inspections of thisi:--a:led nature usually take ptace before o! arrer

Parades and reviews are the hieh spots of thisF:.L.€ o{ a soldier's training. If you eet a kick out ofs*g in a snappy squad on the drill fietd, littles.:rer-= of pride will really run u! and down yoursp=e $hen lou march in your frrst review.

2-21

A review has 4 parts: {orming the troops, presenr-ing them to the reviewing ofrcer, inspecriDg them,and paladine them. It nomally is hetd on the largestparade ground available. Flags indicare where thetroops are to line up and the route they arc to march.The r€vi€wing omcer's position, opposite the centerof the line o{ troops, is also marked by a flag.

When a rcview is h€ld at nebeat, which is rhe endof ihe soldier's work day, as soon as the rrcops havemarched to their marked positions and arc presentinearDs, their commander orders the bugles to sound"Retreat." Imnediately afterwads, the bmd ptays"The Sta! Spaneled Banner." On an AImy post, theevening gun is fired at the last note o{ the bugle call.Then the post flag is slorvly lowered white theNational Anthem is being played.

The troops aie next brought to order arms, andthe ce.emony proceeds with the reviewing officer andhis stafi and orderlies moving to designared positions

At this, the comander of troops brings them toattention and has thempresent arms.Ifthe revrewngomce. or visitins dignitary is of sumcient rank orimportanc€ to me t them, the band sounds the

Therc is a regular table of honors. It includes theffring o{ gun salutes, the ptaying of rumes by thedrums, flourjshes by the bugtes, and ,The StarSpangled Banner" or a march by the band. Thepe$on naturally entitled to the greatest nonors $the President of t}le United States. He medts a satuteoI 21 suns, 4 rufles and flourishes, and the playingof th€ National Anthem. The table of honors endswith vice consuls, who merit ontt 5 guns and no

At the conclusion of this part of the review, ttretoops arc again hought to orde. arms. Then, accom-panied by band music, the reviewing ofrcer and hisparty move forward to the commande! of troops.The larter lead" fiam around rhe soldiers rn an rn_.pect ion. Thi. may take any torm f ie reviewingofficer desires but is never the detailed type of inspec-tion previously described.

As the reviewing officer approaches each unit ofthe trcops, its commander gives the oder, ,,Eyes,dght." At this, th€ men smarly turn their heads hatfdght and follow the passage of the rcviewing officerwith their eyes and heads until he is directly in frontof them. At this point they remain iD the normatposition of attention.

Wlen the rcviewing party has retuned to itso ginal place, the command€r oI troops commands,"Pass in review." Then begins the most dramatic par

2-22

of the ceremony. Unit aftd unit moves otr to itsght, marches to the end of the Iield, turns, crosses

it, turns again, and moves towards the opposite endof the parade ground past the reviewing officer.

As each company apprcaches the point immediately in {ront of hih, its commaDder salutes or prc-sents his saber while giving the order, "Eyes right."At this, the guidon bearer in {ront of each uit dipshis guidon in a prescribed salute. Every mm in thecompany, except those at t}le risht end of each fank,simultaneously tums his head to the dght until giventhe comand, "Fmnt."

lt*"-.*

As soon a-s he himself passed in review, the com-manding ofrcer of the troops left his place at the headoI the column md spent the rest of the ceremonybeside the reviewing otrcer. After the troops havemarched by, he salutes that individual and rcjoins

In addition to honoring dignitaries, reviews of thissort are held when soldiers or flags arc dccorated.

At some posts, a Retreat Paradc is held at leastonce a week. This is nearly as imprcssive as the cere-monial review except that the reviewing officer in-that case does not inspect or pss around the toops.

. t \..oo*tt ' ..",,*,*u orr,"..

-

llooti

To shoot or not ro shoot: th.t's the de.lsiori every .omb.r pitol ond every gunner

h.s ro moke for himselt in o splir iecondr'When o ptone i5 rocing rowdrds you or 5

or 6 mi les. mlnute, you hove no r lm+ trsure out wherher t l t5 o f r iend or foe.

You husr re.ognize ir in3rsn y. You nu3r know insrin.rtvety lrom rhorough trdining

whelher to hold your fire or ler irt6or. * when our.ounrry enrered rhis wor,

miirokes in re.osnltion were roqnumerous tor hedtrh ond Gomforr. Over In the

Po.lfi. oreo, while our .onrdd *irh rhe enemy woi irttt new, nony of ou, p-4O s

were misroken for Zero5 ond'shot down by orher Americon tighrers, But coreful

study ot outstcnding fedtur6i of rhe rwo pldne5 soon remedted ihor siruolton. * Now

we fully reoliue thot the lnly woy ro prevent rhis ktnd ot misroke ts lo demond rhe

hlghesr prol i . len€y in dfrcrof i .e.ognir ion. You.on begin r tghr now ro o.hieve rhot

degree of ski l l . In th l . se. t ion of your monu.t you wtt t be.ome ocquointed wirh;

more thon o rcore,.f outitondlng Ameri.on oirplones. Buitd from rhts e6senriol

beginning unr i l you become .omplerety fomit tor wirh. n t tory oircrofr . Ihen t f you

ever be.ome .,rienber of the Air forces/ rhere witt never be o quecrion of your

re.ogniz ing.t 'p lone-fr iend or foe- ln rhe oir .

t l t THts sECttot{ . . .

Inlroduclion

Re€ognizing on Airplone by lt3 Overoll AppeoroEe-How io A<hieve Speed in Recosnirion_three

Stoges of Leorning to ldentily Plo.es lBtonrly o.d P6iriyety-HinB Hetpfut ro Speedy Recogniiion:Principol Difierehce3 between tdnd ond Seo Ploner; Numb.r of E|gines; pdirion of Whgs_WEFTSystem of Checkins Our.fondins feorurB-lnf,orrofte ot Klb*i.g How Wins, t@k from Any Angte

-How on Ef,sine'r Type Afie.rr lrr Appcoro.Ee-Vo.iorid3 in fc.tdse_Vorieries of Toik

Best W.yr lo Practice RecognitionThe 3-View Silhooene-ltokini the

^lott of Phorogrophi_Whdr you Con Leorn from Modet3_

Worning: Eewore of Folte lhpre$io.t!-Whot Sittogrophs Are-Skekh Boo&r_Molins o Set of

Sllhouefiet

Che.k Poinr3. Foduol Highlishrs, ond Vicwr ot P-38 (tishtihgl-p-39 hir.cob,o)_p-40 {Wod,owk)_P-{Z (Thunderbolr}-P-51 lMuions}-a-20 (Hovoc)-p-61 (8tock widow)_B-2,t (rib.rdror)_B-25

ll,{ir.hell)-8-26 (Moroud€r)-B-17 {Flrinq Forrrd3}-B-29 (S',perforrrc$)-C-46 {commondo)_C-47 (skytroin)-C-54 (Skydo'rer)-L-,1 (cro33hopperl-ss2C (He divorl-F4F (witd.or)_F4u(co6oi.)-F6F lHellcot)-SBD (A-24) (Dounfle.3l-PBY (Corolino)-pBM lMor;ner)-pB2y (coronooo/

Lefer Designoflons of U,3. AircroftHow Almy Air.rqfr Are Delignoted-Toble of Leiter Symbots for Voriour Typ6 ond Cto$ificoroi3_How Novy Aircroft Are D$ignoted-Toble ot Lefler Synboh tdenrifying Typee

SillogrophsKey to Sillogrophs on Poge 3-19-Key to Sitlogrophs Throughour t^onuol

3-l

i$0gtt

know instantly that ais a P-38 or a

highway at 60to Re.ognirion Mu.t Be

ites an Speed comes ftom

a long familiar with it,

Your in combatl

Ho* can you )earnBoting outline in theC-1? Well, look at it\-atch autos racing by on absotutely sure of yourself

know it positively.

. If you're only partlyhour. drd you stop tocar to know what it was? Didplaess of analysis to decide that i

ve to guess. The result is hesi-

, and you know what that meansa Ford or a Prerce-Affow? O{ crecoanition was instinctive. You had seentiEes in the past that you knew evely featurc of it atrhe quickest possible elance.

TraGIat€ this into ter:rns of aircraft, and you can.€e that the most importanl thing about recogniz-itrg a plane is 10 be complelely familiar with it.Then tou don't have to analyze it feature by Ieature.Your ey€ takes in allthe necessary details at a glance.You recognize the aircraft instantly by its ov€rall

sonality. Learn all you can about the difierent plan€s.Get to know them as well as you know the dilTercntautomobiles you see on the street.

has charactedstics that make it a per-

Practical results are the 6nal test. Try your skillon every actual ai.plane you see in the air. Testyour-self and your {riends on every reproduction of one,in the newspape$, magazines, or newsreels. Makeyour slogan: Eyes Alofl!

3-2

Your Progrels in R€cognition

As a student, you will pass through several interest-ing stages of instruction. Soak up all the informationyou can. It will pay off handsome dividends in yourfuture flyine career.

1. The first thing io do is to team the language offlyers. W}rat are the parts of the plane? Where arethey? What arc their technical names? What do theydo? When you have the ansvels, you know theimportant details about plaDes in genelal.

2. With this knowledge well stowed away, younow learn the shapes of individual aircraft. Analysisby parts is still h;ndy. But more and more yuu seethat each plane has an overall appeamnce, and lessand less do you analyze it bit by bit.

3. Now you are completely familiar with the diJ-ferent planes. At this poiDt, the whole business ofrecognition begins to appear pretty easy. You areconcerned with th€ whole plane, and study partsonly in their ielation to iLs overall appearance. Youare now eniedng the expert class.

You can always improve on your recognition.Strive for ereater speed, greater accumcy. Study thenew planes. New designs are always coming in. cetto know them-plactic-e on them. Make this yourslandard of perfcclionr "l shall learn ro recognizeaircraft at the greatest possible range in the qurcxesr

Your Re.ognirion T€.hnique

Any system you work out for recoenizing planes is6ne, so long as it pays off. But here are a few goodhints on how 10 spot planes quickly:

Learn fight away to ditrerentiate between landand sea nodels. Th€ land plan€ has wheels, whichare rctncted in flight (except in the case of a fewplanes, when they are plainly visible in the air).The s€aplane either has pontoons, which are toobulky to b€ retacted and stick out below the fusel-ase, or a large, hul-bottomed fuselage. ff it has thelatter, it is of the flying boat design. A few seaplanesare amphibious: They have both pontoons andwheels, so that they can Iet down on sea or land.

Number of Ensinos

Here is a good aid to recognition, quick to spot. Howmany engines does the plane have? Single €ngineplanes are usually 6ght€rs, dive-bombe$, or lightattack ships. Twin engine planes, though sometimesfighte$ like the P-38, arc generally transports ormedium bombers. Four-engine ships are heavybombers and huse transports.

There is another €asy general way to classiJy planesfor sFotting. Look for.the parasol wing, the highwing, the middl€ lving, or the low wing position.Associate its wing position with each plane's person-ality.

Leorning rhe Individucl Plane

Once you have learned eeneral characteristics, getright down to the business of knowing the details ofindividual planes.

At this point, make some sot of oderly ptan tocheck over the outstanding featues of a plane. That'sthe advantage of using the so-called WEFT System-checking, in order, by Wing, Engine, Fuselage, Tail.

Always rcmember, however, that this WEFT planis only to help you analyze the planes. The firm

ffi

foundation of kno ledee il providesflnal goal of spotting planes in theoverall appearance. '

3-3

Thc fuselage may look like anything hom a cigar toa bauel. Fiehters, as a class, have a slim. shotfuselage in contrast to the massive, bulky {usclaee ofr \F bomb"rs. Sr lk ing ou, j r f ronr nf r l -p !vrnB. rsthe fuselage nose, which often has chamcteristic

Some planes, likc thc P-38 and P 61, have twinbooms joined by a common hodzontal stabilizer. Ounblisters on top, undeneaih, or on the sides are alsohandy rccognition features.

Toi l

Single engine planes gcnerally have singlc fin andrudder. So do most multiengine airra{t, but someof them have tvin fins aitached near the ends of thehorizontal stabilizer. There is a {eaiute you can spotin a flash.

The shape of the horizonial stabilizer varies just

as the wing plan docs, and it's a wise student whostudies his silhouettes and photosmphs {or this fca-rure. The same eoes for the rudder and especially{or the 6n. In fact, the tail assembly as a whole is soimportant that it otten provides the chie{ clue toabsolute recognition o{ a planel

TA IL

Officially, the plan shape of the wine is the uay it

looks to you when the plane is directly overhead.Bur by le"rng you".pl t ar evpry oppur lur ' ly .8el ro

know the way the wing looks no matt€r what anglethe plane is coming from-

Know the position of the wings. Notice the way

they are attached to the fuselage. Do they extendsiraisht ourwad, or upward at a slight dihedral,or do ihey have some ulusual aBpearance? Look torany "mal l p.uul i r r i r iec ard . rorp Ihnm asa\ rn ]our

Ensine3

You have already learned to check the number ofcngincs on a plane. Now look {or rhe dilTerence intype of ensine. Is it air-cooled rudial or is it liquid-cooled inline? Notice how the radial type has around, snub, broad surface. Conirast that with thepurnl .d. . r rcaml ined apppar"nce ol thc in l i r " "n8'nFSee how the en8ine is slung in difierent positions ondifiercnt plancs sometimes undeislung. sometiDescenlered, som€times ovetslung.

l=tlf>l wil

3-4

luustntions of active Army and Navy combat planesappear iD the following pages. Study these photo-gaphs and silhouettes carelully and you'll be wellon your way td being an expet observer of U. S.

Mak€ good friends with the silhouettes. They'remighty imporlmt to know. In fact, silhouerrcs arerhe foundar ion o{ al l recogni l ion rrainine.

The "3-view" silhouette gives the head-on aspect,plan, and side view. It shows every importanr rccog-nition feature of a plane, just as an architect's draw-ine gives the essentials oI a buitding. Take a look atthe silhouettes of trvo planes and notice now snarpthe contrast is, how easily you can tetl the difiercnce

Study the photographs. These are ctoser to theway the planes actually look in flighr. co over them

PRACTICE DOES IT

uniil you can spot every distinguishing featurc. Bean expertl Concentmte on the pictures that showplanes at a distanc€.

Spend all th€ time you can wilh airplane models.Try your hand at making them. Some o{ the 6nestcohbat pilots we have were the fellows who werebuildins md flying models when they were in histi

Study every model you can tay your han& on.Notice the proportions. Check through your know-ledge for every outstanding detail.

-#

PREPARE YOURSELF FORTHE REAL TEST

Always bear in mind that the actual spotting of air-craft consists o{ recognizine a distant movine objectin the sky that is constantly changing appearance.\ryatch out for thisl Practic€ vith models and withmodel shadol,\'s thrown on a screen. Kdep themmoving and notice the changes.

One of the most disturbing factors in recognitionis the fact that perspect ive gives )ou fal"e impres-sions. Here's an example: The Army's chie{ trans-port, the C-47, has wings with a marked dihedral.It has a very pronounced taper on the leading edgeand a straight tmiling edgq In plan vi€w, this wingis one o{ the chief recocnition points o{ the plane.

Sketch 'am ond Know '€m

However, when you see the C-47 froft belowcoming at you, peNpective caus€s the wing to appearswept forwad. The leading edce seems almosfstraight, rvhile the taper se€ms to be on th€ trailingedee. Thus the plan form of the wing is just revelsed.

Every time you study a plane, try sketching it onpap€r. You don't have to be an artist. Just draw aswell as you can. The important thing is to get themain featurcs dolvn on palier. You'll remember thema lot better that way.

WLArH18Build yourself a set of flash cads. Get pocket sizecards and paste a photo of a plane on each one. Cutthe pictures out of papers, magazines, booklets. (Bulplease don't cut up this manual.) Test yourself forspeed and acculacy, challenee the stud€nts aroundyou. Make a war game out of it, and see if you can't

Remenbel: whcn.o6n rrom h€row(froni .r r.or), d wins with o mdrk.d dih.dEl

dpF..r. ro b. b.nl rowod. you, Wh.n

5*h fron obov., il .e.nr lo b.

.w.pr owdy fr.n y.u.

P'38 "ngr,nins":'(t:-9_ (D:

Hishl ighl5

l'hc P 38 lias specd, rarge, aDd excclte,)t high attlhr . le per iorr l l , rcc. , {bovc al l . j t rs a vcrsar i le plahe.ID lhc Aleul j rns. i r ) rhc S.uth pacinc. i r l ELrfope. andlri Norlh Afi.i.a, il has bccn used bolh as a !,w and

' , - l i , i i .4, , : , . , . , 'd, . t r . . r . . " . " . , . . . . . . .

p lane (rn l r f tcr . ' rs. . desjs.ated as F_] and Lj) .l'hr facl that jls prols rotar., ir opp()sitc (rf.ctoDs,lhus b| laDcir ig torqLrc. cnh.nfcs i rs maDeLiv.rah' ih. .\ f l l l i i t : l . \ in l r i l Lolr js, thc Lighni ing is one or ureersrcsl p ianes to rec()sDizc.

Highl ights

This airplaDc,. ,he of the ,nost sraccfLr l in ! ,c au !). td. . , , , , , , , r . "1:_ , . " r ' . , . , . . rh. , . . . .^ f . rried bl any airyhnc of similrr tyfe. The p-3r lusbcon uscd elTecrivri| for llfound stra6Ds, and as a1dv al t i tude l ighter I lcar) , delensive armor protccrsl i ic p i lot aganls l grouncl f i re whcn opcErjr jg at lo! ,a l t i ludes. The e,)s inc is placccL ahidship i r rnc ruselagc belu ihc pilot s co.kpit, tlie propclter being(lfiven bJ a 10-foor sliail.

CflECI v, r-i..'si"e. r: pir6r's n..ene p,oi6.h beyondbooms v

.twin rin5 v rcit pt.n.exrends beY.nd tin ruddeE

-(?cfbd.

P'39 "ono,ol,o,,

-----€E-

5&

P'40"*.n.*n" .'s

-s.--_

CHECK . ' b* * i .s-r , r ' d iheddr r r i - r .n.dst i . i Dmpi Pronin.n, l.ndhs E.or knu.kla:

i co.kpir rcns inrc ru3.lcao

P'4l "Ihundeftoti"

Cll[Cl( / n"di.r..gi.. j ov.r-.fidp.d.owt-plop hlbcbow..nL. V shbby vinq virh tull dihodral / tfii.t fu..t...,wirh .h.ri rids. doYn ,opins 5..1

Hishl ighrs

Tliis is oDe of 1.he besl known and mosi. wldely used,{Drerican lishle.s. E:rrlier modcls, callcd "Toma-hnwks aDd "Kiityharvks" by the British, were usedu Lib]'a. on thc RussiaD front, and by the "FlyinsTisers' jD China. r'he Warhawk is thc nrst Amo-ican airyla.c lo be cquipped with the lamous Merlincnsinc. Tliis figliter has excellent aimor. high dlvingspccd, good maneulerabllity, and hcavl' hittingpo$er. AlthoLrsh |hc P-40 is not at its best in higheraliilLrdcs, it is onc of thc most versatile ol plancs.

Hishl ights

The P-1? is oDe ol the larscst and fastesi single en-slhe lishlers Ict built. Its Neight of ovef ; tons, withuearly a ton of guns and arnr,unition. is greatcr thlnthat of many coNnercial tfansports of a lew I'earsag.. Desisned in 19.11. this is the hiehesl horscpowershglc cnguic fighter yet produced lor the Army AirForccs. Use ol a ,t-bladc propcller reduces thc sizcol ih-" pr()pcllcr afc, while still coping with rhe en-gine s greai poltcr output. This ajrplane Nas designedlof llehtine at lieh altiiudes.

P'51 "ilur,ong"-----a-==.e:9ff

Hishl ighls

The Musta.S was dcvelopecl quietly and attractedlittle public notice until ihe British used it ih thedramatic Comnando raid on Dicppe. Sihce thcn ithas been used extcnsively on fighter svceps overEurope, on rcconnaissance misslons, on all kinds ol1or-levcl straling and altack jobs. It is exceptionallytast. One P-5l crossed the U. S. in 6y, hours. An ourstandins virtue is its speed near the grouDd. Abomber version liited with dive brakes, the A-36. isnow in service {or Sround ail suppori.

Hishl ights

This airplane is un.luestionably one of thc bcst inits class. Desisbed as a {ast da!.bomber, it is alsoused us a fuhter. The night ffShter version ivith sc,lidnose is called the P-?0, while the Bfitish know thcA-20 as ihe "Boston" when uscd as a bomber and asihc "Havoc" u'hen used lor ground attack. The U. S.Navy designation is BD. The A-20 is nuch used inlaqe scale daJ'light fishtcr and bomber ss'eeps overFrance and was so used in North Africa Because ofits high performaDce, strlkihe power and Daneuver-:rbility, losses havc bccn relatively smal1.

aClit0l( a/ r-ri.a.'!r'., wbh rone p6inr.d noF y' sqoo'npror yins .nd .r.6ilir.r V ldll ruddr with.qu.BttF v rcnsEdidror und* lual.!., ch.l.o.kFll

A'20 "r.,*"

CH ECK r r* i . - .g i ,* , . "proi.d w.I beyond f.iri.s.dse I ro., rhin no.e 1 tus.t.serur..d up roword r.or i v.ry rofi rudd.r

P'61 "rmr widow"

Cll[Cl( w E"..etlonqlly r".s io'. y' rwi...sin.. y'

v t..r ol .6w n...ll..rr.hd. b.yond innd wins V

B-24"[iberolor"

Highl ighl .

The P-61 is thc 6$t American airylane to bc designed

and built specilically iof nieht 6ghting. With twinfuselaee and tsin tail, it tooks somewhat like an

overstulTed P-:18. Because il is a deadly plane and

has bcen painted shiny black from the time lhe liNt

modcl rollcd oJT the assembly line, it was early nick-

namcd thc "Black Widow." It has two 2000 Hp en-gines with 4 bladed propellem. It has efiective speedaDd climb cluracteristics, lone range, heavy frrepower and ammcni, and is highly maneuverable

Hishl ighls

This long range bomber is used in all theaters by the

tsliiish abd ihe U. S. Army Air Forces. It has highspeed, porvcrful armameDt and is extremely ma-neuverablc lor ils size. A1l of these factors reduce ihenumber ol fighter cralt needed to protect it. TheB2.1s high perforrnance results in part from itsclean design and usc ot the thin "Davis" wing whichhaterially ieduces drag. Thc rnilitary transport ver-sion. callcd thc C-87, has a norl-transpalcnt nosei anda cabin under the s'ing in place ol the bomb bay.

t_ l-...-0r-6-16-10'-0--

CHECK '

r .*-art-gr. . . I Lcne, n.r .* , rdp.r .o w' .Et

1 D..p, bulky rB.|.g. 1 lwln nB, l.rg..id rcund.d

B'25 ""nnr'"la l--ffi-E-t(O--

CH EC K i r*i. -ai"r..gr

i !n.nd.d no.dr.t

i roir, dorar, ond v.ntrdtrun.r

8'26 ""o,.,a,,"

Bishl ighrs

The B-25 lvas named for the late Gcn. "Bi11y', Mitch- .

ell- It has gained considetablc pubhriiy as the re-sult o{ t}e bombing raid on Tokyo in April 19.12. It isin use on nearly all oI the Allied I,ar fronts and per-forned s" l l Ior rh, Bf l r , - l - :n rhFrr Ar. i (dn carr-paigns. The Mitehell was thc firsr ro use 75 hmcannon, and has proven itsel{ hishly eI}ec|n.c rorlree-top or mast-hish bombing.

Highl ishts

No Axis airylane ;f the sa,ne class Dratches thc 8-26fot spced, ranse, or bohb-cauying capaciry. In theBattle of Midway, i1 was used as a torpedo bo'nber.This was the 6rst time that land,based torpedobohbcrs of the U. S. Arhy had been put in action.Over North Africa and Europe, i.hc Mamuder hasproven itself a hard-hitting bombcr-

The design for this airylane I'as conpietely new,owing little to any previous conception. The earliermodels hrd a wing span of 65 {eet.

C H EC K 1' r".s, .rg--.h"p.d ru.roso \ rwin.isi..., rlrins,4 cr$od of r.adins.dr. i wnE.nd hit phn.3in q h ,noD.,

tdne h.! DcrkeJ dit.drcl! High r.!.d.d ruddr i R..r r$.tqs..n& ii r.i.r b.yond rcil

B'17"ornn rorrress"

A-----oE.rgE-o--

CHECK i r .*e.gi .* r rone dk.d.ohi . , wrh,un

Hishl ighrs

The B-1? was th. first Iong range Ame can bomber.It Nas designed for high allitude, daytime precisionboDrbing. InteDded primarily lor ]ons flighis over thePacilic. sreat fucl (apacity rather than tremendousbomb load rvas emphasized in the orisinal dcsisn.But the B-1? has been used as a hcavy carier o{bombs io be unloadcd on Europe. In addition, it hnsdone elicctivc work in raids at shorter rangc. It is ahcavily-arDored, rvell-gurned ship. The latest modelshave a chin turret lo p.olect vhat was formerly avulnerablc spot on ihc plane.

B'29 "**,torness"Hishl ights

Fimt Amedcan airplane of the new Very HeavyBoDlber class, the B-29 $-as also the first to sirike atthc Japanese homeland frcm land bases. Possessinggreat rangej heavy frre power, and uDusual bombcauying capacity, the B 29 in its earliest attacks flewout ln lorce from bases in westem China and stiucktelting blows at targets ranging from Fonnosa toManchukuo. This giant bombing plane has four 18-ci l i id-r . 2200 Hp ensines. De..pi F a ma\ imJmseieht of 120,000 ]bs., it flies faster than 300 mph.

*4Cllt0l( / r..ol. rrk s-!7 wiir l.n! n6. a/ Idlln. n.3-17'. V Fwrqdill.nsin6 y' P.inr.d, pGn!d.!.{dr on inbad.rsinc ....r1* y' NoEow wins

Highl ighis

The larscst t$'in engmed military cargo plane iD the

lvorld, the Commando is somelimes called thc "!'1y-ing [Iha]e'or the "Troopship of thc SkJ." Originallyclesigned as a 3tj passenser coDniercial airLiner, il

lrequenlly cardes such matcrials as lrucks.liglit 6cldartillcry or "Jeeps." Adapted for troop carryina in19:11, it transports a larltc number of fu1lr'ecruipprdtroops. Thc Cohmando's engincs arc larser .rnd norepower{ul than those in use on coinm-"rcial airlincs.and in size thjs airplane drva s commcfcial cralt.

C'46 ".o"onro"

CH ECK i r - i^ -a i ' t . .g inB,

p.oiedins wer r . ruoddno' . \ h ishroundffn ! wins3

c-47,,,u,u,,,,Hishl ight3

This tmop aDd cargo transport is rhe military v.6ionoi ihe DC-3, one of the bcst known and nrost widelyuscd Anicrican codneicial planes. It has done mas-nificent seNice in cvcr) quarler of the slobe. It isuscd as a standar.l transport (dcsignatcd PS-8'1) ollhe RussiaD Air Force. This plane is either a C-47("Skytraih") or a C-53 ("Skytroopcr") , dcpendingon rvhether it is arran8ed to carl cargo or para-

troopers. The name "Skytrajn" comes froh use olthistransport as a troop carrier and as a glider tug.

CH ECK . ' r*h -dr.r-s, .

i Hish lir, slrh ,onq errension

C'54 "rn''u,,"II

-o*o.{,P;o--

CH EC( r r .* -arr*gr.d.a ripr i rons, .n.qlor

rus. l .s. i Lonsnore I lo l l t in

L'4 "c,orrhooo.,"

CHECK i Hish* i 's i squo,.{ ineedss'

ri.kinE 6ur lik. d6E'r.n6ur

f i i9hl i9h15

This tro.p and careo carrier is thc largest opcrationalnrilitary transport in the Uniled States today. Itscommercial designation was DC-4. the proiotlpc oIu4iich nas sold to Japan. The current military ver-sion djficrs in many ways. hovever, fron the plane{h . l rhF Jrp3r , - , , . r r r" l r ' , d. Wh,. 'a troop l.ransport. thc Sk]master can cany morethan .l0 fulll equipped soldiers.

Highl ights

The miliiary version oI thc widely used Piper Cub,this iis hp- L-4 caries peronnel, drops messagesand supplies, and spots targets tor fleld artillery units.The L-4 madc military headlines s'hen it landedGcn. llark Clark in the Main Streel oI Naples, infront of the post ofice. An ambLrlancc vcrsion of theL-4 lands closc io the battletuont. Its shorl take-ollallows the evacualion of urseni casualijes. ThcGrasshopper is tirtally unafmcd. Ncvcrtheiess, it hasan unusual front line sa{ctrr rccord, achieved by fly-ins los' so its camouflaee blends \!ith the tcram-

S82C "Herdiver"

I---4---tg,--

Highl ights

One of ihc largest operational single eneine . irp la ncs,thc Helldiver carrics torpedoes. depth charlles, orlarge bohbs. It operates eii"her from canie$ or lronland bascs. It is taster, and probably carries largcrbomb loads than thc cerman 'Stuka.'Sonrc modelsof tiis alrplanc appear wilh lwiD floats. From all n1,dicalions, the SB2C is one of the x'orld's dcadlicst

Hishl ights

This 6ghter, callcd the "Mar1lct" by the British, canbe based cither on .arriers or on land. It is an excellent airplane and was prcbably the best caui.r basedf i -ht ' rn I r r r lo s. .v. .a u, t rh" "omrr s "

r .newer, hea\-ier, and lnster Corsair which is nowgradually replacins it. The Wildcat has shoM alt!1.udc pedonnancc approachine that;f the Zero- TheMadnes uscd this plane on Wakc Island. Lt. Com-Drandef O'Hare $,'as flyhg one when he shot do\m 5Japs during a sinslc opemtion.

CHECK i R"di . r *sr" . , -dihedlo| \ ]5troi9hi IdodinE.d

F4F "***'"A--.-_-@-_-

CH ECK r n"ar"r*e;.roob i 5quorr wins riF o.d

F4U ".0,,,n"

---=6*--

CH ECK . R.dh,*sr*, b\ sEo[.o.kpir , omi&hips ! rudd.r

sr foru*d, ru*rcse rip Prciedins

t6F

Highl ight5

This is one ol th. fastest ship-bom. fighters in opcr-ation loday. Th-" lnrgc nl\'crted gult $ih!.t i.as de-sisned to giv-" added clcarance ftr'the lons prope crliladcs requfi'd to absorb the output of the F4Us2000 hp. ehsinc. The lovef a;ng positbn o{ gulldcsign also increases lhc air cushioD ellcct b.tNeendei:k and plane dLrdng landine.

Hishl ights

One of lhc lci! aifplaDes dcsigncd and pu1 into opcr-aiion since the rvar bcgan. the Hellc!i has beencalled the "ansNcr to a iighier pilot's pral,er." ItspernrlnaDcc i-c sir!i]..r ih i.any rcspecls ro that ofihe Corsair. It is lafgcr than the \(rildcat and itslanding geaf rctracts nilo the \\'ihg.

"Hellcof"

-@-

CH ECK 1 R"di . r*g, ." \ 'hcrP

dihddloIbl . .k

*llill

Highl ights

This cxeellcnt dile borrber is one of tile l{rngest liv-".iof at l combai. a i rc la l i l i has seen , , ,u.h acl l , )b l fon,carr je$ of thc U. S. Na!) in lhc I 'aci l ic . norablr 'x lthe Coral Sca Baittc an.l at MrcLNar. LoDs coDS eredto be the linest canier-based dive h.,i,oe|n

'ncvor ld, i t is no\ \ 'ercel led in sone rcspccls l )v thcmore reccntly dcrclopcd Hclldivcr. As thc ]\ 2.1. theDauntlcss is ihe tust .Li!e bonlber \lhich the U. SArmy used in quani i ly lo suppof l" gfouDd t .oops I tcafr ies a 1.000 lb. bo, , ,b in a cradlc uDder c-anlersection, and thcre arc bomb racks under rvmg rros.

Highl ighrs

A "Cat" spot led lhe Cerhran bal t leship 'Bisn,afck"al ief lhe s inking ol thc Br i t ish batt leship "Hood. ' I tscapacit]'to stal'long hours in the air makes this alr-plane ideally suited lo.lohs suL-spottins and convo!.,

euaf.lins palrols. In thc Alcuiians and Solonons. thePBY is rcported to luve been used as a iorpedobpmber, carrying 2 torpcdocs undcr the lvin!1. -\lter-nalivcll, ii can cauy eight 325 lb. deplh charees ort\!o 2.000-Ib. bombs uDder the rving The Calalina isbuilt undef license in Russirl with somc modification.The Russian dcsignation lor it is GST.

SBD (A'24)"Dounrr.,,"

CH EC( '

sr .s," , -ar . r -g

P8Y"..",n,"

CHECK 1r-n."er"*by trur3 i wihsfip n.oh, r€trcd.bb 1 rwo hrse blirr.r

i xish r.il I P..uli.r 3h.p. o

PB[Y| "".,,..,"

CH EC X .r r*r. -sr"*

i Hish ,,e!fl'. wins! i Tw,i trn3,

wirh 3h.rp d.p.r unde iiJ. i lwo tm.ll poiio.nr

PB2Y "".**".-"L=:rr-Je-.

2!

CH ECK 1Fo-. .er .* r , D..p hur wirh p,oninenl

r Winriip fl.rh 11..E., round.di rwih olibo.d rudd!6

Hishl ights

Thc Mariner is an extreDlely serviceable lone-rangeflying boat. It gives excellcni results over rough seasand undcr otherwise strenuous opcrating condrirr$.This airplane lvas tust desished. built, and floiln inniiniature. It caDied 2 ioryedoes or equil,atentweighl in bombs under thc lvirtgs inboard of the en-snrcs On the PBM 3. flxed rvng floats liave rep)accdthe retractable iloais of thc 2 previous model-c. Atpresent, some Marjnels arc being used for over-wareriransporr. The latcst model. PBM-3C (not shownhere), has 3 power-driven turrcts.

Highl ights

The "Coronado" is a scaplane of afeat size, pos,er,and range. The Navy uses it principaliy as a patrolbomber. In man! instances. hoNcver. ii. has bccnconverted Ior transporl purposes. In ihe latter case,it is called the PBzY 3R. The transport version hasgun positions removcd and lusel:ge faircd ih Thewingtip floais are retractablc. The "Coronado's"t$'in ffns and rudders arc practically identical s,iththose of the Army's B-24.

t

3-t8

atiLetter

Amy aircraft aie desiehated as {ollows: one or tsoleltets denote the class of aircnft; a number indi-cates the modeli and a lctter shows the modificationof the model.

For example. the desienation B 1?F means thcairplane is a bomber (8.), that it is the 17th bombermodcl accepted by the Anny, and thar it is the 6thmodification of the B 17 model- Urrlike Navy aircra{tdesignations, the Amy gives no information as tothe identity o{ the manu{ac|urer.

OA . . . .Amphibion

F . . . . . .Army Reconnoisrdnce (Phorogrcphic)

A . . . . . .Bohbordmenr (Lisht)

B . . - . ; . Bombordmenr (Medium ond Heovy)

P . . . . . .Fighter

L . . . . . .L io ison

O.. . . . -Ob5ervol ion

AT . . . . .Troinins (Advon.ed)

BT . . . . .Trcini rs ( ldsic)

PT . . . . -Trdinins (Pr imory)

C . . . . . .Tronspolr (Corso ond Porsonnel)

UC . . . . .Ur i l i ty r rdnsport ( less rho.9 plocesor 1,400 lbs. ot .orso)

cG . . . . .Gl ider (Troop)

TG . . . . .Gl ider ( I ro in ing)

CQ . . . .Tsrset (Conrrol)

OQ . . . .Torsel (Aer io l )

PQ . . . . .Torget {Aer io l )

Clos5ificorions ore p.ofixed os fcllows:

R . . . . . .Resrr i . red (Ploues no longer considoredfirsr lina oircrofr)

X . . . . . ,Exper imentol

Y . . . . . .serui .e Tesr

Z . . . . . .Obsolere

u. s.

Navy aircraft, airships, and gliders are designatedas {oUows: one or hvo Ietters show the class of air-craft; a nuhber indicates the model; a letter ihdicates the manufacturer; and a Dumber design:iesthe modification .,t thc mode1.

For exanpte, ihc fi6t patrol bodbing plane to beproduced hy Consolidated Aircra{i was the PBY-1.Thp nodj f ic ! l iuns ro rhi . r : "p l rne serF PBY-".PBY-3, etc. The second patrol bombing plane wasthe PB2Y-1 and successive modifications sere luxFbered in order. The prcfix letter "X" is used forcxpedmental aircraft and gliders.

H . . . . . .Alnbulon<e

B . . . . . .Bombing

F . . . . . .Fisht ing

O . . . . . .Obsorvot ion

5 . . . . . .Scour ing

T . . . . . .Torpedo

OS . . . . .Observcl ion-Scour ins

N . . . . . . I rd in ing

R . . . . . .Tronsporr (muhi-€neine)

G . . . . . .Tronsport {s ingle ensine)

J . . . . . . l j t i l i ly

BT . . . . .Bombing Torpedo

PB . . . . .Potrol Bombing

SB . . . . .S.our ins-Bombing

JR . . . . .Ut ihry-Tronsporr

L. . . . . .Gl ider

zN . . . . .Airship (non-r is id)

SO . . . . . s.ou|ing-Observolion

9N . . . . .Scour Troinins

TB - . . . .Torpedo-Eombing

De sign ons 0f Aircraf t

RR]ilY NAUY

t >4y

fJ\* \12lo

t8l7l6t5l3

l9

\xt ' * {

\ . r '222l

SILLOGRAPHSHorc are iuustmtions of planes itr flisht knorvnas sillosraphs. They dupiicate as n.arl! as possible lhe way air$aft look und.r actual obser!a-tron.ondi t ions. In niost d is lanl ! ie$\ , ) l a i rcrat t .for cxample. details of construdtion disappearand the plane appears to the cJ"c ns a dark gr.y

silhoucttc. The silloaraphs depicl lhis coDdittoniD piint. Thc detail has been rrr)oved. EnsiDe.Da.elles, tunets and othcr fcaiurfs rrc seen onlyin relief against the gray sky.

Try bard to recognize these plancs. In that Nar',r ' r r sr l l tur ld al l ]b i i r ) a rd r , ' r i l l , - , ' t rrrlual flight at extrcnic .angc.

Check your results sith the ideDtilical!)d keyb. low.I f you arc srong in your recogni t ron. turnt() the descupt ion of the plane jn qucst ion. andsre Nhcre \ .ou hade your mistakc.

23

, / /

25

4+

,N

KEY rg Srt lOGI

TH NOUG IIOU

k:----

TAX UAl

r. P-3t2. Pg2Y

3. P-u|o

4, SID (A-2,t)

5. P-39

6. PAm

9. P{l

to. 3a2c

19. F2520. 954

21,}2622. C4

2?. A-2124. Uf J

The berr o i rp lane in rhe wor ld is only os good oi rhe mon who f l le i l t . Hls strength,

speed, power, dnd endu.on.e must be.ommensurdre wirh thot o l h i5.hip. He musr

be oble to t ly . t h igh olr i tuder for long hours. He musl be cble lo stond lhe

gruelling lrroin ot prolonged onri-aircrofi tire ond trequent dogtighri. He'll be lnore

l lkely to.ome 3afely through o.rosh londlng or ro iurv ive d ser ious dic idenr i f

h l i physicol sromind is greor.* (nee-bends Jnd pushups rnoy seem unl lkely ro

produ.e these ne.essory resul l i . But they ond other (oreful ly ie le.red phy6l .o l

exercl ie i dre responi ib le to o lorge degree for rhe luperb.ondir ion ot Americ.n

nyers rodoy. Thelr stengthened cbdomlnol mui. les increoie rheir obl l l ty to ovold

blc.klng our. Their rroined heorls supply more blood ond oxysen to the tllcue!

thcn do unlrolned heor l i , when they.re s ' rb ie.red ro physic. l stress or when

there is o lower pcrcentcae of oxygen In rhe olr. * Regular p.rtlclpotlon In o

sen3lble, well-pldnned progrom of physi.ol educorion i! one of rhe hosl imporiont

woys to achieve such flrness. The collsthenl.s? .ombot gome3, .orrles, 6nd group

gomes de..rlbed or iuggested in the following plges will help improve your

srrenEth cnd enduronce.

l r t l t ls gECttol t . . .

Introduclion

Folr Groups of Exercises Which Should Be Included in Every Requtor Physicol Troining Progrom-

Suggested Voriotions-When to Toke Physicol Troinins-Who o Do thhediorety Afterwords-

Benefih oI Plonned Exercite

Cqlislhenics

Whdt Worfr-Up Exercises Are-Descriptions of 5 Sussesred Cotitthenica: The High jumperr Squor

Bender, Situps; Bonk Twisir 8-Counl P!5h!p3.

Duol Exer.ises ond Combqf GomesDescriplions of: Stroddle Pullupsr Foll ond Roll-Vdlue of Cohbor come3-Descriptions of: Hond

Wrestling; Indion Wresrlingr Rooster Fisht-Why Wrenling k Voluoble.

CorriesFor Men: Arm Cory; Fnemon'! Corry; Cross Coryr Sinsle Shoolder Cory-For cnls:2-Mqn Cotry;

3.Mon Lifr; Coryins Vicrim by Exrrehiries.

Swimming qnd Runnlngi Group GomesKindr of Ruhning o Physicol Troinins Prosrom Should Include-Seven Obie.rives ro Mosler

Swinming-Volue of Group Athleti6-Eight Sussesred croup cones.

4-l

You should devote an hour a day to physical train-irg, which should include 4 sroups ot exerciiesl

1. Calisthenics.2. Dual Exercises, including Combat Games andCarries.3. Swimmine and Running.4. Recreational Athletics and Group Gmes.

Devbte hau of the physical taining peliod tovigolous group athletics, and on altemate days, toswillming or running. By varying the exercis€s fromday to day, you will find them interesting as well asvaluable.

II possible, take your physical training at least 2hours after a meal and at lest 30 minutes beforeyour next meal. Dont ddnk warer during or im-mediately after exercise. Remove most of your cloth-ins drDins exercjse and add dothing afterwads. Ifpossible. ole a shower immedialely.

Physical fitness is as important for girls and women,if they de to take an active ed useful part in avia-tion activities, as it is for boys and men. Plannedexercise wi imprcve their muscular tone and pos-turc, increase their rcsjstance, improve their stamina,rclieve te.sion, and improve thel coordinationWomen will teach the physical haining Fogram forgirls md it will not be as strcnuous as the boys' pro-

Cram. Some of the exercises Ior boys, howev€r, canbe used to equal advantage by girls.

+2

simpl. wcrD-!p erer.i.4.hould pre..de.oli.rhenics Thos. wotm-up cxer.i.e. .onrist.l roiringrhe qrm. forword, .id€wdrd, .n.l overhsd; b.nd irs foNcrd c.d touGh ins lo.r; dnd h.nd in9 ihe hecd f.rwd rd,

bockword, ond rid€ ro .id., Then do rh. lollowing Gcti.rheni.. energeri.dlty. In.recie dqily the nunb.rol rim.. you do .c.h .n.. You will fird de..riPrion. of oddiriondl .oliith6ni.i, which ndy h.u..d.!dllernorer, inrh€ F mphlot " Phy.i.o I Condniorins &ied on Wcr DeForrn.nr Trcini ng Cir.ular8Z."

\ ?/4 7it4 /cur,pzaThis is a warm-up exercise, which involves the entirebody and develops coordination. Siart with {eetsprcad about 12 inches, knees slightly bent, armsraised backward, body beDt slightly forward at thewaist.Do the exercise at a fairly slow count(cadence)

and in 4 movements:a. Swins- arms forward and jump upward.b. Swins ams backwed and jump upward.c. Swinc anns forward over head vigorously and

Ieap upward at Ieast 12 inches.d. Swing arms backwad and jttmp upwad.

ft]

2. .>r44f 6e6d.ezThis is an excellent exercise for the legs, thighs, andlrubk muscles. Siart wiih feet slighdy separated and

r a. Do a {u1l squat and thrust arms {orwa}d, withnngers extended, palms down, trunl< €rect

b. Retum to original position.c. Bend fomard sharply. Touch toes, keeping

d. Return to starting position.thrust position. Do the following 4 move-moderate cadence:

4-3

3. slluldThis exercise strengthens the muscles of the ab-domen, thighs, and hips, and stletches the calfmuscles. Begin by lying flat on your back, feet apart,arms extended overhead. In slow cadence, do t}Ieexercise in 4 movements:

a. Sitting up, thrust arms forward and touch toes,keeping knees straight.

b. Lie back to odginal position.c. Raise legs, swinsing them back overhead, and

touch toes to ground, keeping knees stlaight.d. Lo$"r legs siowly to starting position.

e

t. &a"cb ?a'CatThis exercise strengthens the hip nuscles and theoblique muscles of the abdomen. Lie flat on yourbacL, arms extended sideward, palms down, legsraised to a fight angle, with knees straight,'feettogether. Do the exercise in 4 movements in slow

a. Lower legs to the left. Twisting body and keep-ing knees straight, touch ground wilh feet.

b. Return to siarting position.c. Lower legs to the ght. Twisting body and

keeping knees stlaight, touch eround with feet.d. Return to starting position.

s. €r4ll- &udl ?<z/'rpoThis is an excellent exercise for the muscles o{ tlearms, shoulders, trunk, and legs. It is pe ormed in 8movements, in moderate cadence. Besinning {romthe posiiion of attention:

a. Bend sharyly at the kne€s and sliehtly at thehips and place the hands in {ront of the feei in squat

b. Thrust fect and legs backwards to a front lean-ing position, with the body stiaight from shouldersto feet, weight suppo{ed on hands and toes.

c. Touch chest to emund, keeping body stifi.d. Retum to tuont leaning position.e. Touch chest to ercund again, keeping body stifi.f. Return io {roni leaning position.g. Retum to squatiing position.h. Retum to position of attention

c-rE--s

4.4

9'rr/8*"a*d

and supporting weight on heels, the percon lyingdown pulls himself up m high as possible, keeping hisnngers hooked into the palms and fineers oI thepenon staDding over him. (Note: it is important tohave your frneernails t mmed close for th$ exercNeto prevenr currrng your partner '" f ingcrs.)

b. He ther slowly lowers himself to the Crcund,keeping his body staight- After several pulups,

r Saaddle ?4//2p.Thjs exercis€ strensthens the arm ind shouldermusclcs. In the starting position, one man lies flat onhis back, with arms stretched upwad (palms facineaway fmm him). Another stands astride hisshoulde$ and erasps his outsfetched arms. Do theexercise in 2 movements, in moderate cadence:

a. Keeping body stlaieht lrom shouldeis to heels,

z. /a// aad. RaAThis exercise is of great practical impoftance to allflyers, because it shows the b€st way to land after apdachute escape. This exercise should be performedon soft tur{ or mats lor safety. The 2 men face eacllother, with hands ioined and arms cro$ed. The bot-tom man places his left les forwad and bends his

knees. .The top man places his left foot on the leftthish of the bottom man and steps up, placing hisright foot on tha right shoulder of the bottom manand his left foot o! the left shoulder. The bottom manrcleases hmds and places his hands behind the kneesof the top han. The top man balmces himself in thisposition. At a signal, he leans forward and falls, land-ing or the balls of his feet, with his legs togetherand slishtly flexed at the knees, and continues for-ward and sidewad into a tumbline ro1l.

You should practice elemental tumbling before you

-&('\

il/ n\K{6\w

/rr"t

t Za'cd ?4"444t",tOpponents {ace each othes clasp ght hands, andplace their right feet together, outsides touchins.At a signal, each attempts by pultins, pushing, bysid€ward movement, or othet maneuvedng, to forceopponent to both feet from odginalposition. Change hands (and {eet) after each bout.

z. ?r4ta"t. 7//4<14*4gContestants lie flat on backs alongside each other,with heads in opposite dir€ctions. Link dght elbows.At a sisnal, mise fight leg far enough to engage legof opponent. Do this 3 times rhythmically. On thethird time, attempt to rcll opponent over backward.After 3 bouts, chanse sides and use left arm and leg.

Fotrh. followins .x.rcir.. cnd for Codbot Gom$ cnd Corrie.. divid.up inro pciG, choo.ing d pdrtn.r obour yoor .iic cd w.isht.

Th..e conb.rr orc vdludbl. ir dev€loping rh.obility to re.d in.tcntly with d mdrinun ot...rgyfor th. purpo.e of ov.rcoming cn .ppon.trt.

4.5

s, ?ao.te, 7.?/fHop on left fooX, with arms folded across the chest.Use the rieht shoulder and sht side of chest to buttopponeDt. The object is to make opponent lose hisbalance and fall, or to unJold his arms. or to touchhis free foot to the ground.

+ Z/ae.odargThis is one of the most vatuable lorms of exercise forcombative activity. It develops all t]e muscles of thebody.

1-6

r. z'u &aa+One, standing and facing Two's side, bentls hisknes, leans forward arrd places one arm behindTwo's liack and one arm under Two's knees. Onest aightens up, lifting Two from the ground. T\^,oplac€s his arms around One's shoulder and clasoshands. One then runs forward 30 to 60 paces.

z. /acaaa'o @nnVOne, standins sideways in front of Two, bends hisknees, leans forward, and places one arm throughTwo's ootch. Two leans forward until he lies acrossOne's shoulders. One siraightens up, lifring Two ofrthe ground. One, using the hand of the am throughTwo's ootch, grasps the w st ot Two's arm that ishangiDg over his shoul<ler. In this position, One rtrnsforward 30 t 60 paces.

FOt MlN. Th. ldpo.ron.. ot m..r.rin! rh.....rr.r .onnorb. .x.ii.r.l.d. In oddnion ro rh..r..Gtn rhd fi.y F.vtd., th..orl.. wlll .@bl. you ro pqtdn Inpcn .t E.G!.totl.nd ro lEnlPcn r.urd.d cr lnconr.icu. D.ronl

t. (ho44 (hrutOne, standing sideways in front of Two, leans for-ward. Two bends forward until he is lying acloss themiddle of One's back. One then places one armaround Two's knees and one alm arcund Two,sshotrlders and sbaightens up, lifting Two frcm theground. One then runs forwad 30 to 60 paces

.. Sd,th Sf44U€n eb4ntOne, standing iD front oI and lacing Two, assumes asemi-squatting position. Two leans forward until helies acrcss One's lelt shoulder. One clasps his amsaround T\ro's legs and shaightens up, lifting Twofmm the ground. In this position, One runs forwad30 0o 60 paces.

4-7

FOR GltLS. the lollowihg <orrier dre bener iuired for girt, rhon .rerhe l -mon.dr i . . whi .h or€ reG.mm.nd€d for me.,you shosld rhoroughtymaster theie ..rries nor only for their €x.r.ire w.tue bui for rnewoluoble erperion.. vfiiGh rh€y provide for first-.id .nd r6s.ue work,

t, ?aa -%tae €aaaqThe 2 bearers kneel at either side of victim and, withone hand, grasp each other's shoulders around thetictim's back. With the other hand the bearers graspeach other's wrists under victim's thighs. Pushing up\!ith their le8s, they then rise slowly from the grcundand caDy victim 30 to 60 paces.

3. eaa.ql6g ?k 't 6t t*tzewlt<:ezTwo bearers kneel at head and foot of victim. Bearcrat the head places her ems under the victim's untilshc can clasp haDds aiound victim's chest. Bearer atthe feet places her hands under victim's knees. At asienal, bearers dse together by pushing up NitI theirlegs and carfy the victim 30 to 60 paces.

2. 74ue -7/4'4 Z4lThe I bearer kneel on one knee oD the same side ofthe lictnr, who is flat on her back. The bearer at rneshoulders puts one arm under victim's head, neck,and shoulders and ihe other ar.n under upper part ofractih's back. The second bearer places one ar:nDder victih's back and the orher under victim'sthighs. The third bearer places one arm under vic-

tim's knees and the other uder her less just abovethc ankles. At a signal, all 3 bearers lift together andplacq v;a1;r on rheir knces Then thp bparers r isetogethcr and cany victim in hodzontal pos[ion {or30 io 60 pace, bJ $alkrng forward in . tep.

4-8

These activities are among the best of all cond ioningexe.cises, and are as valuable to girls as they are toh1en. Include some running in the physical tuainingprogram at least every other day. This may inctudedashes, rclays, cmss counrry, or obstacte course

Swimming is paricularly valuable to all flyercbecause of the baini.g it gives them for meermgemersercies, such as bailing out over warer anddilching. In practicing swimmine, you should master

1. Stay afloat.2. Swim unde. water.3. Swim long distances without exhaustion.4. Ent.r rhe water feet f iEt wirhout submerging.5. Be at home in the water fully clothed.6. UDdress in deep water.7. ReDder assistance to anorher person in the water.Fo. this purpose you should learn and use the RedCross Iif e-saving merhods.

/2 ^/)q/2or4n Uataat / / fJ:":"it':tl".j,'ru'T-.,il:.H:*",:H":;"ecleation._ These games may include voley_balt,dodgelal, basketball, softbalt, touch {ootball, soccer,.p+db! l l . and human rug-of-rar. Evcry CAp cadelsh.urd tearn ro

"xcel in ar leasi 2 of rhe.r spor i" .

Milirqry .ompolsns have fdlled, snd o wor .ould be losr, beGouse of Inodequcre

(ommunl.otlons. A properly orgonlzed ond operoted .ommunl.arlons iysrem is rhe

nerve cenler of ony .ommcnd. Today i t provides our mlghry . rmed forc6s wirh c l l -

seelns eyes, In.redlbly dcuie eo13, !nd o vol .e whi .h wi l t c.rry ony desl 'ed disr6nce.

the mi l i r ! ry oirmon ls helpless wl lhout i t . And civ i l lcn Oyers should become fomi l ior

wlrh whorever commu.ic.tior {!ciliries cre ar theit dirlosat, Communt.orions

in.reose bolh lhe convenlen(e ond 3o{ety of rheir f l lghr i , * th ls secr ion

of your monudl wlll c€quaint you with qll rhe prlncipol neons of communl.otlon

used in militory operqrions. lr will Introdu.e you to lhe lnternotlonal Morse

Code cnd show you wdys In which, by diligenr practice, you con

reodi ly leorn ro send ohd receive meisoges in i t . In rhe tol lowlng poges you

ot3o wlll learn how lo use the rcdiotelephone most efie.tlvely.

| 1{ tH ts sECrloi l . . .

€,lhe Eyer, Eqri, ond Voice of lhe Commqnderlmpodonce of Communi.otiont-Vivid Exomplei of Their Use in Typicot Mission_Types ofWire Communicolion-Rodio Ures-Types oI Visuot Communicorion_Wheh Used_Why ondWhen Sound Communicotion ir Used-The M$soge Center-Me$enger

Cohmunicotion -The Pigeon

Internotionol Morse CodeLoymen's ldeo of Code-Nor Difiicolt to L.orn-Why Code i3 Slperior ro Voice_p.oper

Srepr to Toke in Leo.ning it-How to Prinr Whor you Heor.

Le5son One: Correcl Adi6lmsi ond Use of Key-How ro Moke your Own Boz,er_The Dir

Chorocier5 E.l, S, H-lmportonce of Sound-Review oI Dir Choro.re6.

Lesron Two: teornine To Spo<.-Ihe Doh Chorocre6 T, M, O-Exercise in Words

Contoinins All ChorocteG Leohed-Chorocters A, N, D, U-ftercites.

Le$on Three, Sounding LetleB ond How to Procti.e-Accuro.y t ore tmporront Thon

Speed-Chorocters W, G. V.8-Word ond Senre'Ee Erer<be-Cho.ocreB of Simitor Sound.

Lelron Four: Chqrocteri R, K, F, L-Exerciret in Word3 ond S€nteft$.

Leson Five: letter Groop Exercic-ChorocteB J, P, X, Z-Word ond Senren e Ererckes.

L6ton Sir: Correcting 8od Hobitr-Erercise in Proper formdrion oI LeheB_Chorode6

C, Y, Q-Word ond S.ntence Exercirer.

Le$on Seven: Exerciies in S€nding o.d Re.eiving-Procticing Nomerok.

tesson Eight: Review-Ererci5ei Combining Alphobet ond Numerok-Punctuorion

Mork-Exercires In Thei. Ure.

Lesron Nine: When ond How ro U5e Slinter Signor5.

Rodlolelephore ProcedureNeed For Rodio Dkcipline-Advonroses of Rodioielesroph-Other Types of Rodio

Communicolion-How lo folk-Explonotion of Phonetic Alphobet-Exompte

Of lrs U3e-Numerolr-How io Store Army Time-Coll Signs-Porrs of Me$oqe-sompte

Me$o9e-Proper Woy to Repeot Poft of Mestoges-Rodio Lqnsuoge-Trdnsmi ing

To Stotions in Groups-Checking Sisnot Slrength-Two-Stotioi Ner-Sdmple

Conveudtion-Four-Stotion Net-Conkol Tower Procedure-Somple

o

5-l

EYES, EARS, AND lJ(lICE

OF T|lE COMMANDER

:rhe vital necessity of communications not only. in the.{ir Forces but in all iypes oI military operations isvisidly illusirated in the following incident:

A small Signal Cor?s detachment palt of theAllied invasion force which landedat Palermo, Sicily,at the start of the Italian campaien-soon found itseudeep in enemy teritory, isolated from {riendly forces.

It occupied the crest o{ a hill comanding an unob-structed view, thoueh its piesencercmainedunknownto Genm and Italian Iorces.

Lorvering his birloculars, an otrcer issued an orderto an aide. That night, shortly a{ter dusk, a runnerslipped from the d€tachment's hiding place on thehill. He carried a coded messaee which reported themobilization of an enemy tank {orce, apparently {ora couter-otrensive. The messenger had only l chancein 10 of completing his mission. If he got throueh,,\tlied artillery md planes would concentrate on thereported position within 12 hours.

The omcer sent his message by runner becauseother means of communication were not feasible.Radio would sive away his position. Visual signalsNould ofier the same disadvantage even iI they couldbe seen ovei the mountainous telrain. PigeuN were

At an Allied airbase in Noith Aftica, meantime, amedium bomber wamed up for takeoF. Crew mem-bers rvere in place, safety harnesses fastened. Thepilot spoke into a microphone. He asked the contotto$er for lakeofi instructions, then taxied onto the.un\ray in response to a green light sienal. Instruc-troc Eere given by Edio, and the craft roared do\r,nthe mway. It circled the 6eld once, and headed outo\er t ie blue Mediterranean. I rs misron wassiraf ing-ils destination, Sicily.

The piane cme in low and fast over Palemo andheaded for enemy tenitory, gunners ale{ for thefrst sign of the enemy. The first burst was directedat a column windins thrcugh a shallow ravine whichskirted a hill. The line o{ nen broke as .50 calihemachine gu bullets kicked up dust along the enemyrcute. The ship climbed out of the valley ;s the

THE

enemy column passed beneath its belly. It circled thehill for another run.

The copilot and gunners scanned the g.een terrain

d;

be1ow. Suddeniy a flash of suntieht from the hicaught the copilot's etc. He .equested t|c pxor rocircle the spot. Now, men we.c seen scurrying abouia cleared place in thc trees Dcar the top of the hill.A panel revealiDs the eround unil. s ident y washastily sprcad on the ground.

"Thel rc Yahks, all rish1.,, thc copiloi reported."Circlc again, Joe let's see I'hat the!. l,ant.,,

A second panel appcared as thc plaDe passe.t o,crthe clcaring a third tirDe. Consulrins a charr, thecopilot interprcted the sihelc panet aloud:

"Reconnoiier 2; miles in thc direction ro be nldi-caled by the next displny.',

An alorv appeared on the eround on thc {ourrhl\rn, and the pilot dippccl his \\ings 1(] notify rhesignal uhit beloiv thai ]rc had reccired thL, n,essa8e.'Ihc planc then headed in rhe difcction indicated by

The piloi liftcd his ship s Dosc to sain airitude fora better view of thc enemy tcrritory. The copilot

,ll,I

I

d

sishted thc lirst of the tanks shorrly rttcr thet teftthe hill. Then his tranlcd eye picked up ue camou_ilaged vchicles in heavier coDccntration.

"Boy. thosc Jerrics are realty gcrtin' ready for

The copilot ro$' askcd the navignror for thcir position, and started io jot d.,*,n a nessage Completingi1, hc consulted a code referencc. and frote rhc mes_sagc, this time in codc. He ihcn placed it in a specialdrop rncssage container.

Thc plane headed back tox,ard Patermo, an.l$.ithinhinutes was over {riendi} troops. Spottins an,\rneficaD unit belov, the copilot inserred a carrridae inthe Very pistol. clamped it to thc liring tube andpullcd the trisgef. A flarc sprourcd fro,n the fusclaee,notitybs men bclow to be on ttie lookou1. The rnessage containef archcd earth!,ard Ttie pilot circlcdonce to Dakc sure rhe container had bcfn rerncverland. satis\'ing bimsell of this. hcaded again over th.Mcditerranean The suD had disappcared ud dark_

llid-\rat' bet\Leen Sicil] and the.AfricrD coNst therrghl ! !nor sputtcrcd and died. The pi lo l , , ,anipu-Ial .d thr controls and got the crai l back on an evenkeel . Bul the al t imeter showed thc planc rvas,r ,srrrB

lhc pi lo l ordered his tadio operator lo ropor l the!mcrgcnc]'i givih8 the plane's positkD. Hc lh.n toldcrov urubers to gathcr emergencv equipriedt, in-cludnrg radio. flarcs and Very pistol. The radn) \!ast l le k ind which could be operatcd b! hand Ir , rD thcr: f t i l lh. p lane was fofccd to land on thc $.r ter .The Vefl pi\t{,1 \1,uld hclp at[act pnssins L.icnd]]

Each crc\ nrcmbcr ackno$ledgcd thc ordcrthrough tho plancs interphonc srstcnr. l 'hc rrdioopemlof l.pp.d out the niessagc.

Slrugg)ir),t t., DriinlaiD altitude, the pil()1 u1r'kedthc ( lcrd cnsjDe sNitch {rcquent ly. Suddcnl \ ' i t lookhold. spul l . r fd, then picked up. ard $as so,,n w(,rk,ing snloolhly asain. Pi lot and copi lot s.nm{ thoi f

it ,r. .

'a. &

\ *<f;|{

re l ief . One of them rold th. ra( l io opcfalor to cancclthe dis l ress,nessagc.

The dark outlurc of the c0ast Do$ lo.nrled ahe.d.Thir ls minutes 1aler. . l ishl srgnal l roDi the ho,neficlcl conlrol to$er guide(l th!'m in.

''Got )our message, shourcd the operalbls ofllccr,as the cfew sleppcd from thc plnhe. Ir ivas pickedup at Bizc.tc and iclcl]p.d hefe llcssagc center

,{messen8er stepped l ( , fwrfd. sr luted, and ad-

' 'You re wanted at Int . l l is . ' r1cc. s i r . 'The oc\r liled into the S-2 headquarters. An oflicer

nr shirt sleeves greeted th.' pil()ll''Nice Nork. Joe Iour n)essago {ol through oka!.

Ar l i l le\-s alreadr-$orkiDs,D cDr. and $e\e just

senr ou1 a squadrob 10 hclp sof leD 'em up Goodthins rou spotted lhosc tank\ probably savcd thc

' 'Cn. l i ror t1. t L. l " r .S. . th. . - Sr: ' :

Cor l - gry-oD the hi l l , " Joe broke iD.

5-4

Now thqt you've followed q typicql misrion, let,s excmini: thedifferent meqns of comrnunicqtions more closely.

WIRE COM ATt01{Pdmary m€ans of conveying messages betweenpoints on the ground, its chief instrumeDts are:

Telephon€-PerDits woice tmnsmission quickly,and targe volune of traffic.

Telegraph-Assures gr€ater secrccy, and is notaffected by weather conditions.

Teletyp€-Assures secrecy,speed, accuracy, handtesIarge volume of traffic, and requires no skitled

This is th€ prlmary meaDs of communicating betweenaircraft in flight, within aircra{t (by interphone),and between aircraft and the sround.

Auxiliary means of cornmunicating, supplementingwire and mdio, are dependent upon characier ofwarfare, proximity of enemy, chamcter o{ tenain.and weather. Used when other means fait, usualyas emergency means, thei p ncipal implements are:Panels, sisnal lamps (flashing airplane lichtsl flags,pyrot€chnics, hand signals, airplane maneuverc, and

This neans of communication is used pdmadty foralarms, attlacting attention, and for transmission ofshort plearlaneed messages and oldeE. It shouldbe used whenever such use is economical of time.persorurel, or equipment, and only when making ofsound will not disclose prcsence of roops to enemy.The chief instuments of sound communicarion are:Whistles, bueies, smali ams, artilleiy, motors of air-planes in flight, horns. sirens, and nttles.

t|ISUAI. COMMUNICATION

SOUND COMMUI{ICATI,ON

COMMU

M ESSAGE CENTERThis is t}le agency of the comander ai each head-quarters or command post delegated to receive, trans-mit and deliver aU messages excepi those sent directto the addressee, those handled by civil or militarypostal service, or those sent by local or special mes-senger. Its purpose is to speed transmission andreceipt of authentic messages.

M ESSENGER COM MUN ICATIONThis means of communication uses people to caryorders and messages. They are:

RUNNERSEmployed when other means are not {easible, whendistances are short, or route is impassable {or other

MOUNTED MESSENGERS {biq.le, molorcy(le, horse)Emptoyed when enemy situation and condition of

MOTOR MEsSENGERSNormally employed betveen headquafiers separatedby not morc than 4 hor.m' motor time, when mailsenice will not suffice.

AIRPIANE MESSENGERUsed when other means will not sumce. Imporianimessaees are often tiansmitied between widelv sepa-mted units or between alied armies by this meansAirylane messengers use the drop message to relavin{ormation to ground units when other means arenot available or secrecy is necessary Thev emplovthe pick-up message to receive information iromgrcund units when other means are not feasible.

This hardy and dependable bird is used in emer-gency when othet means of communication fail.

PIG EON

5-6

- As a student, you must have coDffdence in yourabi l i ry. and bc determinFd ro fo ow insLrucr lons.Thus you will avoid Iearning certain bad opemtinghabits which orherwise would reraid yuur prosress.RemeDber that code is not dimcutt, if you followa iew simple ru1es.

The 6rst step is ro memorize tte signats. It is im_portant that you learn the sound of each signal cor-rectly at the beginning. Insread o{ visuatizing the"dot" and "dash." try to think of them by the sound"dit" fo. "dot,,,

You vill need to concenrare especia y hard while]eaming the sisnals. With repetition, you wilt soonrecognize the sound without thinkins roo muchabout it. Learn a few signals at a time, leah themthoroughly, and teain them by thetu sound.

Regule pnctice will train your mind and ear rorccognize the sound in much the same way you nowinstatly associate meanings with the sound ofspoken *'ords. You can practice the signats whichfollow either by repeariDe the code to yourseH orby wbistling it.

It is impo ant that you w te down everythingyou hear ed recognize_ Listening without recodingwhat you hear accompi i .hFs l i Ie. I t you miss some_thing, leave it out and wr e what you recognize.There ae mary available sho -wave broadcasrswhich will help give you practice.

.. rrh

The avemee lalnan associates Morse Code withdingy railway stations and sinking. ships. He prob-ably recognizes the now familiar 3 dots aDd a dashrepresenling the "V" in ,,V for Vicrory.', Doubttesshe also knows that 3 dots, 3 dashes and 3 dors signifyS.O.S. in any language. Aside from that, the dot eddash language to him is little more than gibberishwhicl , .an be mastered only arter )pars of srudy.

To acquire great speed at code, considerable prac-tice is necessary. It is not hard to be moderatety {astat it. However, we will attempt herc only to give youa knowledge of code and sufficient speed .o permrryou to send and rcceive.

Code plays an important part in many operatioN,and may prcvent disaster in emergencies not oriy inthe air but on land or at s€a.

It may seem unnec€ssary ro you to leam Intema-donar Mofte Code since you can tradsmit and receivemes-qges by voice. Code, however, is huch sup€rior!o .adio teiephone for 3 rcasons:

1. lyhen you use secret code, you can keep thelra.smissions unintelligible to anyone who does not1ale iacilities for decoding.

2. Duing periods o{ poor receiving cond ions suchs those caused by static, ignition noises, {ading sig_rals. etc., code is still rcadable after phone transmrs_

3. The ranse is greater when using code and thes:r oi equipment is considerably tess.

. . ) t, )Jrr* -&.F- ;

3'7

PRII{A uniforn merhod of puting on pcper whot you h.orfollowing lh€ mlthod illu3irct€d bolow:

TII{Gis sss€nrict. When you receive .ode prinr ecch lefi€r,

A B C D E F

G H I J K L

M N o P a R

S T U V W X

Vt v I 2 3 4

5 6 7 8 9 6L0|€ rhlr rhe zero hcs c diogondl line runn:ng rhroush it to distinguish it from th. O.

5.8

We hcve divided the mqteriql which follows

Lccrn eoch lesson thoroughly before proceeding

KEYINGYou can receive ooly as wett as the pe$on sendingcan transmit. H€nce, good sending is just as iDpor-tant as good }eceiving. It is important, therefore, tobegin youl sending Factice in a coEect manner.&d habits acquired now will stick wirh you later.

You must adjust the key properly and space the

into lessong.

to lhe next.

contacts correctly belore iou begiD to transmit. Thespdng tension (co ed spring) on any key must beadapled to the individual. The spring adjusonr scewcoDtrols this tension. If you have trcubte in fomincdits and dahs, change the spdng tensior until youarc able to seDd both elements €asity and colrectly.

Your elbow (not foream) rests on rhe table. Thereis space under your forearm and wrist. your ffngersare .uNed and flexible, not stmight and stitr. Theffnger ends of your first and second fingers rest on

top of the button near the back edge. Yoru thumb ison the edge of the button, rcsting very lightly againstit but not graspirg it.

Although it is possible to practice the characters

without uing a sending key, it is necessary that youhave access to oDe sooner oi tater. You will have thisopportunity in the class rcom. In case you want topractice sendiig at home, the simple diagran belowwill show you how to rie up your own buzzer.

Now with your fingeIs, wdst, and arm in the position described, press the key by a straight downwardmotioD of the forean. Your elbow stays in place.YorD Mist acts as a hinge. Your fingers are flexed;do Dot let them be stifi. When the key has madecontact. release the button and let the

5-9

spring bdng th€ key back to the up position. Do notallow your fngels to act independently. They merclytake palt in the coodinated actions of your forcarm,wrist, and hand. Most of the work is done+y thelareer muscles of the forearm and upper arm. Con-tiauous ind€pendent use of the ffngers in sendinewill cause your hand. to becone tired and cramped.

When you'rc sure the key is adjusted properly,your {oreard is moving straieht up and down, yourwrist is loose and operating like a hinge, and yourfingers are flexible. begin your tusl le"son.

o 2 OANC5 PO$flONt{oN-sHorriNG

5-lo

tEss0N 01{ E

dir dir dir dirEEEE

We'll consider the dit chalactels (letters) tust. Theyare E, I, S, and H. Make the dit by closins and open-ing the key quickly. The sound produced is the letterE. Remember, the sound is the character. Memorizethe sound, not dits and dahs.

Now make a stridg oI E's, altowing the same spaeebetween them as fotlows:

dir dir dii dirEEEE

R€p€at this procedure urtil you've firmly ffxedthe sound dit in your mind. Keep it sho , and watchyour spacing, makirxg it uniform.

dirdir dirdir dirdirr t l

The I is formed by 2 dits in quick succession. Key thelett€r so that it sounds like ditdit, not dit dit, whichwould indicate 2 E's. Repeat the folowing as youpracticed the E.

dirdir dirdir dirdirt r lListen to the chaEcter as you sound it, and rcmem-

The cbancter S is next in the dit sedes-3 dirs in arow. It's ditditdit, not dit dit dit. PEctice rhis tike theothers, remembering to space.

dirdirdir dirdirdii dirdirdir5S5

5-t I

dirdirdirdifH

If you have difficulty {orming this letter, or any ofthe prcvious characteri, say it aloud to youlselJ. TheH consists of 4 dits in quick succession, which youcan say ]ike this: &tdit&tdit. Be sure to key themevenly, smootbly. Now pnctice transnitting the Hlike this:

difdiidhdit dirdirdirdirHH

Review all the dit characteF you have covercd beforeyou unde*ake the word exercises. Be carc{ul to con-cenhate on one lette! at a time. Do not skip abouttoo much before you are well acquahted vrith each.Plactice these until you can recogDize each one with-out having to hesitate to fuule it out.

EXERCISE ONE

he dirdifdifdir dir

hi s dirdirdirdirdirdir dirdirdir

s h e dirdirdir dirdirditdir dir

s e s dirdirdir dit dir

When confident ihat you know them, begin sendingwords made up of the lette$ you have leamed. Keepthe E)ac€ between lett€N the same in each word. Keythe individual letters lust as you &d before.

Now try ihe lonowillg exercises, striving forsmootbness and unifom characters:

5-12

rEss0t{ TtY0spocing

In the 6rst lesson, you learned the imponance o{forrrins chalacte$ acculately. You also saw thenecessity: Ior proper and uni{om spacing. Properspacine is absolutely necessary iJ you are to developa good sending tut. A9 you begin to plactice addi-tional chalacteE, maintain €ven spacing at all timesuntil you know the alphab€t. UniJorm keying de-velops Foper timing.

You must know how loDg to pause between the

characterc of a t'ord, and between words in a sen-tence. This is oot difrcult to learn, and Foper spacinglgill become more clear as you progress. Here is asimple suggestion to help you leain ploper spacingl

The space between any two chalactels, such as Eand I, equals 3 units. A dit is 1 unil a dah 3 unib.I'hercfore the space b€t$'een E and I, or any chaEc-ters, will equd the time rcquired to send 1 dah or3 dfis.

the Wace between words is 5 to ? units, or dits.

O

dohT

doh dqh doh dohTTTI

lte s€cond goup of characters you will learn arethe dah fett€rs, T, M, ad O. Begin with a string offs, ke€ping lhe spacing equal between then;

doh . dqhTI

R€peat u.Dtil you are familiar with the souad oIthe chmcter T- aIhe lf, cnsists of 2 dabs in quick succession {,ith nospace between lhus M is dahdah, not dah dah. Thedabs are the same leagth; do not accent either one.llljs is true with aU cLracters of ary combination.

' Now re!€at the fofbwing exercise, as you did withtbe T:

dohdoh dohdoh dohdqh dohdqhttYl M

nre lettrr O consists of 3 dals-dahdahdah. Keeptbeo uniforn, witb no space b€rweeE. Howeve;,dont loryet to spac€ between lette$. Rep€at the fol-lowing exercis€ as bdore:

dqhdqhdoh dqhdohdqhdqhdohdqho oo

o

5-13

EXERCISE ONE

Now by the following exercise, watching construction of the letters, the spacing between them, and thespacing between words:

Tom

Motlo

To

Mol

Tot

Otto

dqh dqhdohdqh dohdoh

dqhdqh dqhdqhdqh doh dqh dqhdqhdoh

dqh dohdqhdqh

dohdqh dohdohdoh dqh

doh dqhdqhdqh dqh

dohdqhdqh doh dqh dqhdqhdoh

Using all the lette$ which you have now learned,make other wods of them. Send them over and overfor practice. II you are pncticing with someone,

divide the time wit! him fqr sending and rcceiving.You should both iGist on proper construcnon andspacing, obgerying all prewious suggestions

EXERCIsE TWO

is it to he oh so his .rie hit

see she lee sii tom tot tee sit

fime set mel miss home some hose

mess lhose moose sheel meeis shims messes

EXERCISE THREE(Don'r r]y ro l.crn rhe period now. lr will.ome ldrer.)

Try these:

She misses the home.

He met lvlisi smith.

The tot shot moose.

5-14

Ilre A is nade up of a dit atrd a dah, witlt ao spacebetwe€n the 2 €lements. Thus A is ditdah_ Make itsmoothly. Keep the lehgth of both the dit and dahcollecq not too long for the dit or too short for thedah. Fo[ow the procedure you've leamed for speedand spacing.

dirdqh dirdoh dirdoh dirdqh dirdqhAAAAA

dqhdir dqhdirNN

T}re btter N is dahdit. Practice a few as you did with

dohdir dohdir dohdirNNN

The D is dahditdi! without spacing. Key it smoothty,so rhat there is no pause between the elemen.s.

dqhdirdir dohdirdir dohdirdir dohdirdirDDDD

The U is ditditdah.

dirdirdqh dirdirdqh dirdidqh dirdirdqhUUUU

EXERCISE ONE

Don't undertake this €xercise until you have learned ,'not.,, Transmit it like thisthe previous lesson thorougNy. The fiIst word i" dohdir dohdohdqh dqh

PFctice the fouowing words, observing unilorm spacnrg:

nol

dot

ole

unil

moose

mcrn

men

misl

3hul

union

dim

mql

shoe

moqn

house

lo

hod

done

dusl

shoes

qnd

nul

moin

mon

mouSe

note

sound

the

hut

moon

sleqm

sodq

3qt

3ee

dude

losle

deeds

due

hot

dies

EXEnCISE rWOIf you have leamed the above well, begin practicing sentences. Here's an example:

The mqn hqs shoes on.

doh ditditdird dir dohdqh ditdoh dqhdir

dirdirdirdir difdqh dirdirdir

ditdirdit dirdidirdir dohdqhdoh dit dirdirdit

dqhdqhdqh dqhdir

Try fhese:

It is o dude home.

The man died in the hot sieqm.

The mouse did not meqn in lhe house,

The dust qnd misf dim the moon qs o mot.

5-t6

I ESS0NLLI

II ybu are visualizing dits and dahs instead of learn-ing to rccognize characters by souDd, something iswmns, and you musl co$ect it before you proceed.Use every spare moment to sound difiercnt lette$,as you see th€m in newspape$, on sign boads, inletters, wherever you may be. Say them aloud ifpossible, otherwise in a whisper. Hundrcds have usedthis Factice to increase their sound proficiency, andit is efiective.

Regular practice is important provided you develop

THREEcorect habits. It is more important to practice regu-larly than ior lonc periods. You will accomplish muchmore in 15 minut€s o{ concentmted practice eachevening than in 2 houis' practice once a week.

Accuncy is morc important than speed. Dotr't be-come discouraeed if you fail to gain speed. this vqiltbe attained later through Factice and familiariza-tion. Eventually you will be able to r€coenize wodsand phmses by sound, much as a child rccosnizesthe x'ords "mother" and "father."

The chaiacter W is formed with a dit and 2 dahs inquick sueession. Pr:actice as before:

ditdqhdoh dirdohdqh ditdqhddhwww

The c is dahdahdit, exactly the reverse of W.

dqh&hdit dohdqhdit dqhdqhdirGGG

llle letter V is ditditditdah-3 dits and 1 dah. Say italoud belorc you key it, srnoothly and wtthout stut-tedng. Now imitate the vocaf sor:nd on the kev.ditditd daL Practice as beforc.

dirdirdirdoh dirdirdirdohditditdirdohv' vv

dqhdirdirdilB

Ibe B is dahditditdit. Keep your spaciry uniformbetween characte$.

dohdirdirdir dohdirdirdir

5-17

EXERGISE ONE

Practice the following words, obseNing spacing. Don't artempt to gain speed yet, bur seek acculacy.

b"9

edge

voin

vocuum

wo9

bug

wesl

bqse

visit

vogue

bqton

weeds

bqsin

gun

dug

bqste

9OWn

women

vqt

weqn

beqd

woste

good

von

wqgon

both

EXERCISE TWO

When you have mastered these words, practice the foUowing sentences:

A wogon vqn moves on,

A womon hos lhe gun now.

h is q bod thing to wqste good shoes.

The gown hqs beqds on it qnd is in vogue.

A visit to fhe dentisl in time sqves tseih.

He wqnls lo bqthe now so get out with hoste.

GHARACIERS OF

You rnay expedence difrculty at first in distinguish-ine betwe€n celtain charactels similar to othels.These may be the so-caled opposites, such as W andG, B Dd V, and A and N, or they may be l€ttersl*e S and H.

I{ you find that you have this trouble, especiatlyD receiving pmctice, make up a number of words inwhich they both appear. Have someone send them toyou over and over again until you can identiiy each

SIMIIAR SOUND

character by its sound. Constant practice will over-come this difrculty.

Continue this exercise until you can both sendand rcceive such characters at slow speed, and with-out hesitation.

Slow speed is not more than 5 words p€r minute.You are sending at that late if, in the fo owineexercise, you send the group fton "an" ttrcugh"tm' in l minule.

cn no du ud gw vE by vb nt rln rh h. is ei

om mo to or bd db vu uv .i i! vt tv ow wc

5-t8

rEss0NIf you have caretully folowed instructions, developedgood habits and are thoroughly familiar with thesounds oI all chamctels covered so far, you have

FOURtaLen a big step in learning the code ploperly. Theremaining chalacte$ should be less difficult. Practicenow as you have in previous lessons.

dirdchdir ditdqhdirRR

diidohdir dirdqhdiiRR

R€peat K seve&l times vocally b€forc you beginkeying it. This will help you to keep it smooth.

dohdirdoh dqhdirdoh dohdirdohKKK

Now Factice thes€ two chrFacters together.

dirdqhdir dohdirdoh ditdohdir dqhdirdoh dirdohdirRKRKR

Ihe F is &tditdahdit. Sound it vocaly before youk€y it Keep it smooth. nren key it.

diidirdohdir dirdirdohdir dirdirdqhdir

WHAI PIANE5 ARE THISE?

5-t9

AiLdjrdjt dr^dn^d.lLL',d.A diL ddla.Xdit/.i}

add+ a,ialditd* &L

The L is ditdahditdit. Pnctice vocaly first as youdid with F, then key it.

ditdohdifdir dirdohdifdir dirdohdirdir diidqhdirdir

Now practice F snd L together:

dirdirdohd dirdqhdirdir dirdirdqhdir dirdohdirdirFTFt

EXERCISE ONE

Pnctice the following worils:

if of cre vole orher rook lcof bofne leh folr f6el .1..

si'l lill roll fun four lnow woft roof rook trom sroor

lousht€r thr.! l€ngth word war lecin long .r?o? eftort llrt

nror€ lettor nqke b6tor. qll fore3r .eek fole lslr volu.

dule urge run roke

EXER,CISE TWO

PEctice these sentences alter you have learned the wods thorougtily:

All of us mcke enors.

Hir wite ir cn invdlid.

Ihe.or tilled rhe rdbbir.

B€ suro lo 3ound rhe l.lt.r3.

li take! time to run down lhcr!.

5-20

tEss0 r{F IVEEXERCISE ONE

Concentate on the Jollowing letter eroups and words,sounding and keying each group sev€rat times before passing to the next:

sh nc du wsvbn r l mo ei gw i f bvud sh bd

tr tr. tm o|n fu rl in uf ow om uv kr if er ud on sw n rk

abd tmo €is nl@ auf obd df uvw odu lhi ruv .ou rnd ubd in.owk lfu drb dub ilh nr gwo cdn frs tkg nos wogon rook verbnotion left bovine ho3h sovernor roke rheir been fros dubbed mitkerduke elf blddder lefr dshr kind $ries hou!. otorm bant 3irikehditen wcg! lodf rh.n rrov. kitter dcub |no3r

6i it go ve

ditdqhdohdohJ

lhe J is ditdahdahdah. Practice it as before; ffrstvocally, then with the key.

dirdohdohdqhJ

The p is ditdahdahdit. tlactice it vocally, ffIst. Avoidey paue that might make it sound tike ditdahdahdit or ditdahdah dit. Now key it:

dirdqhdohdir dirdohdohdifPP

PLANE5 ARE THESE?

4

5-21

The X is dahditditdah. Make it smoothly so that thesound produced is not identified as na or ru, or asimilar combination. If you construcr a telter incor_rectly to begin with and do not eonecr th€ mistake,you have acquircd a bad habit, difficult to break.

dqhdirditdqh dohdirdirdohxx

The Z is dahdahditdit. Use the same care in keyinsthe Z as you did with the others. Unless you do, youwi be makins se, rd, or mi.

dqhdohdirdir dqhdqhdirditzz

lxERctsE TWOPractice the following words, a few at a time uDtil you have mastered them:

iob pix r.ro palr iarz rcx opon enrc nop sox i€ posr iohnpill ie$ie roxo. rop 'ioin 6xped tcmp power iomes oxe ppern.p zip wi xz ps lp wp sz dx ip,m rp pt iw mi wiwc lu eo td pl no go xp eg df orh di xd rx pi zd ru zg

EXERCISE THREEJelsi. Jdlner wds an expsrt shor.

The rippei lncp foil. ro work.

John hos d iob in o iozz b.nd.

The power of rhe pre:s wc; upheld.

S.fery i3the responribility of cll.

5-22

LESS0N StXYou should now realize the imporlance of prop€rconstruction and spacing of lette$ and words. If youhave develooed anv bad habits which tend to con-

tuse certain lette$, attempt to corect them beloreyou proceed. The records from which you are learn-ing to receive code are colrect; use them as a guide.

EXERCISE ONE

In this exercise pay particular attention to prcperformation of the letters and spacing between lette$and words. Take turns sendine and rcceivins the fol-

It is impodant that the sound of alf sign]s beleaned sht.

Memorize the sound, not the dits and dahs, keep-ing the sound of the letters in mind at atl iimes.

Extra moments spent ir d ling with letters thatgive trcuble are worthwhlle.

Making up words that hawe letters of similarsound in them is one of the best folms oi drill.

The C is dahditdaldit. Practice sending it, vocallyand by key.

dohdirdohdir dqhdirdqhdircc

dqhdirdqhdqhY

The Y is dahditdahdah. Practice as before.

dqhdirdohdohY

dqhdqhdirdqha

The Q is dahdahditdab. Do not make it ma or gt, ortk.

dqhdqhdirdqho

5-23

EXERCtSE tWO

quick .he.t yellow young .tique o.cui que.rion ,uch comoqu6ll spoce quor prccri.e quc.t qu.o, yo.hr c.tery quorry

fddory color t.quen..

the check wosfo; o y.llowyo€ht ofquestiondbte owno,ship.

lh.r.w6r c quorry locor€d nearrho o..upi.o zone.

Young Queen Mory qui.lly quslili€d ca dn durhoriry.

Iw€nly mcyorr d.r€rmined rh! .onn6dions nec.ssory.

Conning tower. or. the ncin exit on .ubmoriner.

EXIRC I3E THREE

mo tl gt nm tw nrn tr Io cq_ yq

'noq hy qrg lky n|ny twy nnr irc

lem met no lon nt6 tot ntt tot tc6

6no mac cnc qmr ykr nny ckr q.y

fly udq ihe gyw ynd uvq kqr db.

rhyq lfy. ftrq. dqby wyqb wqEc yq(K

.vto. cnn yrw qmo

.yo gcy gym

rwo gtq ywo qco

lfq vby sic nc

isgy hock fqly .udy .gwc

EXENCISE FOUR

yet flcy .otiify quay quiclly .enror dif,iculr pro.6ed rickai dnnoying

.ondole shipwreck y$terdoy rhay ronsrrila m.d. rwotold non3.n5e nit€

ny€r mere' cinemo rra6c twice kept teript sick coming running

ploying lru.e moiden rroln manner moyor omployer

5-24

LESS0T{ SEt,El{Faithful, rcgular pr:ctice with th€ prccedins exer-cises should have done much to help you becomeFoficient at making the sounds of the entirc alpha-

bet in code. From this point, make every efiort top€dect you sending. Remember: Practice daily,even if you can devote only 15 minutes to rI.

EXERCI9E ONE

Take tums sending and receiving the foUowing {'ords, smootNy and accurately:

on ir d5 by 30 h. ar do b 90 tny

or or of we roy gof hos but hod b. rhe

o.y cnd who vc?y ore rcro too mon moy out ou.

oll tog whol lhis v.?. oft.n govc rcid t nd |'o& rdke

oie whst th.n| bud wog b.g should ofi.? p.r. soon time

will tho.€ son righr rhe ron| mu3t .om. rhat *or dus

lhen 6ds.. n..d bol. bood elsc run -rok! Gll tirld bdll

b€gin oftend gem p.d deol rir.d volua zlppor drzl. tru.o ger

daloy you pldy .dnnot lihit pono loid tu.| fd|. lcfr vcls

into gre{i twenry club rodoy crir how mok. rur ox. poo.

cp. ie€k shell efiort for8t .rror look dobbed nut. roil verb

their rrov6 woson rcke iazr iclnor pill 3!x idpcn .:r'! i.lltop qui.k qudn yellow .om€ .ode with tokc queen ure nor

wonl lhem wirh gcno g.t firm buner n6nc moss did ierr

de.l rroy dumb woge rir€d woop .xt?d boy duo tllf .ory

I{ U M ERATSBeJore beginning tle pactice of numerals, spendsome time sounding and keying a series of dits anddahs, keeping thern uniform and properly spaced.This witl hetp you to construct the combinations,and you will not be making a number of letters tuoma gmup of sound units intended for a numenl.

First, make dits-at least 100 of them-with just aItttle space. lryatch your timing so that they sound as

if they were being made by a machine. lllen gradu-ally shorten the space, or pause, b€tween dits untilpracl.ically no space exisls. Make them in groupsof 25, slowly at tust, speedi:rg up as you progress.

Repeat tle same pmcedurc with dahs.Taking 2 numerals at a tine, use the same tactics

as described Feviously, watching your spacing par-ticularly. Learn the sound; forget the appearance.

IIUMBER I is ai,aoraoraoraor. l{UMBtR I is aoraouoraorar.

As sooD as you've,earned to distinguish ""::"T:::t"::i.wing

exercise:

191 191 191 191 191 191 191 191 191 919 919 919 919 919 919 919 919 919

IIUMBER 2 iS ai'anaouoraor. llUMBtR I is aonaoraonai,ai,.EXERC I5E THR,ET

As soor as you've leaned th€se, pmctice as in the p.evious lesson:

r r r r l1111r9 1919 19 19 t9 19 19 19

222222222?32J282a2a2a282A2a

IIUMBTR 33333

37 37 37 37373 373 373 3?3

lIUMBER 4EXEnCtSE

i lUMBER 5 is anananaoan.555555555

50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50505 505 505 505 505 505 505 505 505

99999999991 91 91 91 91 91 91 91 91

88888888882 82 82 82 82 a2 82 a2 a2

&, w n2 282 2a2 2a2 282 2a2 2a2 828 828 828 828 828 828 828 828 828

44444444446 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46

& 4M 4M 4M 464 464 4M 464 4U

S dirdirdirdohdoh. NUMBER 7 is dohdohditdirdi i .33333 77777777737 37 37 37 37 73 73 73 73 73 73 73 73 73373 373 3?3 373 373 737 737 737 737 737 737 737 737 't37

S airairdirdiraoh. ]{UMBER 6 is aora',anan.n.ExttctsE roun

66666666664 64 64 64 64 64 64 64 64

646 646 646 646 646 646 646 646 646

Z ER0 is dohdohdqhdqhdqh.000000000

05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05050 050 050 050 050 050 050 050 050

EXERCISE FIVE

16 [ sH v4 3V 27 28 5tH 7t S 5M3 7MS Or8

lfr4 HEs t98 7.X 143 2tO 865 431 Xt7 37a 982

t4r7 a7.f,' 1176 4315 2135 4632 to6l aO36 7849

tZLs 6459,1 01342 52964 A.'4l3 29473 89541 l03ll

tol

3129 3142 At24

19735 59302 t2438 04t73

5-26

tESSOl{ EIGHT

It is a mistake to assume that it is easier to send goodcode than to receive. Anyone cm manipulat€ the keya{ter a fashion, but it takes faithful pnctice to learnto send sood, readable code. You must make chalac-teN correctly and spaces must be unifon if thercceiver is to get them coraectly.

You have pmcticed tmnsmitting by key, and rc-ceiving either dircctly irom the key or from re-cordings.

Even without these, however, it is possible to attaina certain de$ee of proficiency. You can repeat char-acte$ verbally, ard where you hav€ a Facticingpartne. you can rcceive while he tmnsmits in this

Although such pnctice is valuable to.you as astudent, sooner or later it is necessary {or you toobtain actual practice on a key.

RElltry{Turn back to the fiIst code lesson given you in thismanual. Using the key, start with the first lesson andpactice sending. Follow the instructions given forevery charactet and continue this pmctic€ throughall lessons to the present one. Be sure to followiGtructions in the illustation in Lesson One on ad-jusiment and pmper position of the hand on the key.EXERCISET When you have mastered each char-acter so that you can send it evenly and with correctr iming. concentrate on f ie lol lowing exercise:

'The nuheral zero is printed O to distinguish it ftod lheletter O; rhe nmeml 1 is pinted I to distinguisl ffomihe print€d i, and Z is I 10 distingxish it tuom th€ nmetal 2,

PUNCTUATIOIi MARKSNow, you must add a lew punctuation marks to yotrcode vocabulary. The following are in coImoD useand you should l€arn them well. Sound them overas you did the characte$:

The pe od (.) ditdahditdahditdahThe coma (,) dahdahditditdahdahThe question mark (?) ditditdaldahditditThe ftaction bar (/) dahdjtditdahditSepantion sign ditdahditditdah

Note: The tuaction bar is tansmitted between thenumerator and denomiDator of a fraction. Example:21h.

The separation sign is transmitted between a wholenmber and a fraction and indicates that a {ractionis about to be s€nt. Example; The mixed nunber24% is transmitted:ditditdaldahdah ditditditditdah ditdahditditdahditdahdahdahdal dahditditdahdit ditditdahdahdahditdah&tdah&tdahErercisei Practice the following sentences, transmit-ting punctuation ma*s:Who is it?Maps, documents, photographs, and zebras are avail-able.We have 361, dozen messase btanks on hand.He commands & army of 2,500,000 men.

E I t f i 5 r M OO* A U V 3NDB6icr*r tMGO

'i lz3a67a9

rEss0l{ 1{t1{EPilors forced down at sea today cany flashlights andmetal mirors as part of their n€cessar.y equipment.The reason precious space is taken up with suchitems is that pilots consider signal equipment almostas impoiant as water in thei! battle to live.

Without means of communication, their chance of

The mirrors are used when the sun is shining tosig.€l Fossible rescue aircmft and boats.

The fluhlights can be used at night to transmit thealways familiar S.O.S.

Sienal Dits in the batde of Italy penetrated deepinto enemy terdtory early in the campaign, dis-covercd an ambush, and sienalled Allied artillerv.As a rcsult, the enemy was beaten back and an other-wise tngic defeat was Fobably avoided.

In many such instances, blink€r signals are theonly possible or saJe means of communication.

You have teamed the code. The illustmtion inLesson One shows you how the blinker op€rates. Ifpossible, Iig up a blinker, and practice sending. Youwill operate the key in the sane way, but you natu-mlly must do it at a considerably slower rate.

s-27

RADIOTE

You probably have taken for sranted the ease andclarity with which your favorite €dio announcertalks. Yet his cgsual tone and clear enunciation arenot eDtirely luck. They are tle result oI considerablestudy, not only by him, but by radio and sound en-ginee.s. Thus, when he stands in front of the micro-phone, the odds are in his favor.

The pilot or Iadio operator of an airplan€ is note fortunate. He speaks from t}le noisy cockpit of aplane, not a soundproof studio. The person listeningto him probably experiences the same difficulty. Ifstatic, either man-mad€ or atmospheric, is present,the pmblem is furth€r complicated. Try listening toyour radio vihile Dad is using his el€ctric razor addyou'll understand how dimcult it is to hear

Because tmnsmission and reception of verbal mes-sg€s are usually pelormed under such conditions,a uniform radiotelephone procedue is esential.

You have already learned the meanins of mililarydiscipline. Radio discipline is another type of militarydiscipline, and is iust as important as close order&ill or saluting.

You must catry on radiotelephone conversation, ortnnsmission, in a businessJike manner. That meansyou will r€frain from making personal remarks, orsivins your listener the details on the blonde youhad a date with last night. Remember, while youindulge in aimless chatter, you may b€ interferingwith the tmnsmission oI an impo ant message whichiDvolves the safety of othels.

Radio is the principal means of communicationbetween aircraft in flight, among passengers by in-te.phone within an airplane, and for air-ground com-

Radio sets lall into 2 seneral classes those iDstaledin aircEft, Md those installed in Erou;d stations.

TlaDsmittels are capable of operating either as.adiotelesraph or radiotelephone.

Radioteleeraph has the advantag€ of:Grcater dislance.Ability to compensad for intedercnce.Gleater secrecy.

The range of radio communication is dependentupon t}Ie power of the transmitter, the ftequencyused, the time of day or night, and upon the noiselevel at the rcceiving station.

Radio commu.ication is not sec.et. Thereforeclyptograins are usd extensively in the bansmissionoI messages by ndiotelegraph and Ediotelephone.

It is easy to lo@te Isdio transmitters by use of di-retion-nndine equipment. It is important, therefore,to make tranmi.ssioDs as brief as possible, and asinfrequent as possible.

Other typ€s of radio communication include:Instrument landing systems, radio ranges, radio

broadcast stations, Iadio compass and direction find-€rs, radio marker beacons and lescue boat iBtalla-

How to lolk

Don't use a normal tone when speaking into themicrophone. Hold the mike direcdy in front of and asclose ro your mouth as you can, and raise you voiceas much as possible without straining o! distortingit. Speak distinctly, and don't allow your voice totrail ofi at the ends of words and sentences. Remem-be! you are competing with outside noises.

5-23

PH(INETIC ALPHABETNewspaper rcporters apply the pfincipl€ oI thephonetic hlphabet frequently when telephoningstories to thei! cily desk!. paflicularly when givilgplope} names. You may have resorted to the sametactics wheb talking over the telephone. Suppose youare telling someone on the other end of the line howto spell yorrl name, Stewens. You might say S as insap, T aF in take, E as in Eden, V as in Volsa, E as

in Eden, N as in name, S as in sap.The Army Air Forces use this sane method in

radiotel€phone procedure, except that now you havea standad phonetic alphabet which is unde$toodunive$auy, rather than one of your own invention.

Learn the foUowins AImy Air Forces alphab€t.When it is n€cessary for you to identifu any tetterof the alphab€t, this alphabet is to b€ usea:

Code wods such as Lruow wilt be spoken as ,,Love Uncle X-ray Oboe Wiltiam.,'Difrcult wods such as "catenary', will be spoken and spelled. Example:"Catenary-I spe[-Chartie Able Tare Easy Nan Abte Roger yoke-{arenary.,,

NUTITEIALS

When you tansmit ffgures by radiotelephoFe, pronounce them as Iollows:umlrol 5p6k6n As Nunrlrct Spoten A.

O Ze-ro 5 Fi-ytvI Wun 6 Sb(2 loo 7 Sev-cn3 Thuh-roa' 8 Ar.4 Fo-wor 9 Ni_ner

Lett6. Spol€n A3A AbleB Bok.rc Chorl leD DogE EoryF Fox

c C€orgo,H HowI ltemJ JisX Kingt lov.

Lerror Spokon A!,ri MileN NdnO ObooP P.ror

a OueenR Roger5 Sugor

U UndeV Vi.ror

W Wil l iomX X.r.yY YokeZ Zobft

Transmit numb€$ as numerdls or digits, except inthe casg of aa even hunilred or ihousanil whea thewold "hundred" o. "thousand" is used:

Twenty-Four Hour Clock '

Always state Army tlne in 4 fiCules, using the 2a-hour cloct. This is done to elimi.aie the possibilityof erlor and to.rnake it unnecessary to use a-m. andp.m. Ibe ffrst 2 aumemls state the hour, the last 2,the minutes.

3-?/J

Goll Slgn,Cdl signs identily either tbe tdnsmitte! or Eceivingstation.

Airplane c€.ll signs consist of ntmrh€rs, letters,wods, or combiqations of them. Exampler "itrmysix too ze-ro," "fiaco wurx ate wun fo-wer thuh-re€,"

Contlol tower call signs colltsin the name of theailpoit fo[owed by the word "tower." Example:''SacrameDto Tower," "Scott Towe}."

nadio radge ca[ signs coisist oI the naine of theA':ttry field, civil airport, or other pldce at {'hich theyarc locsted, fo owed by ttre word "radio." Examples:"Chanute Radio," "Mobile Radio."

Portr of I||€$ogeThe }adiotelephone message has 3 part-lhe cal!the text, srd the ending. A call w r fo[ow this

Call sign of receiving statioll.Connecting ph,r'ase.Ca[ sign o{ the ba$mitting statiod.

EXAflPIEColl: Army six too thuh-ree ze-&

This isChanute Radio.

R.ply: Chimute R'dio

Army six too thuh-ree ze.ro.

The text of the message may consist ot plaid Ia[;guage, code words or groups, or figures.

Every transmission wiU end with the wods "over"o! "out." This procedure is explained rnore tullytmder the suLheading Radio Language.

L47A7000

16000

SF;k.n A.t[4 Fo-rver fo-wer80 Ate ze-!o

136 Wun thih-ree six500 Fi-yiv hun-&ed

Wun fo-wer sev-en ateSev-en thow-zandWun six thow-z:nd

Example:tim.0000 (midnight)0920 (9:20 AM)1200 (noon)1647 (4r 4? PM)

Spok.n ArZe-rc ze-roZe-ro ni-ner too ze-roWun too ze-ro ze.mWun six fo-wer sev-eD

WNAT PTANES ARI THE'E?

5-30

SAMPtt MESSAGECall "Shamrock flom Domino."Text "Wlere are planes?"Endins "Over."Catl "Domino tuom Sharnrock."Text "Plan€s are at base."Ending "Out."

EXAMPLE TWONashville Tower tiaDsmits:"Stinson wun too thuh-ree fo-wer this is Nashville

'lwhat is your position ?--over."Stinson 1234 traismits:"Nashville Tower this is Stinson wun too tbul-ree

"Ni-nei miles south at ate hun-dred {ver "Nashville Tower bansmit^s:"Stinson wun too thuh-rce fo-wer, this is NashvilleTower-cleared to land-trafrc north-runway thuh-

RepelitionrIf you miss words or are doubtful that you heardconectly, request the transmitting opeEtor to 'rsayagain." He wil repeat the section you missed, pre-ceding the repeat by saying "I say agaid." In request-ing repeats, always specify the portion you ne€d, in-dicating with the remark "alt before," "all aIter,,, or"word aJter." The tEnsmitting station will alwaysrepeat the words you used to id€ntiJy the portions

EXAMPLE THREEWXIIF hansmitsi"KXYZ this is WXBF-Roseville squadron has sight-ed Meckaee near top of mountain wun fi-yiv milesnortlwest of Placervilte-over. "KXYZ tmnsmitr:"WXBF this is KXYZ-say again all after mountain-

WXBF traMits:"This is WXBF-I say again-mountain wun 6-yivmiles northwest of Placerville-over. "KXYZ tradsmits:"This is KxYz-roger{ut."

RADI( l TANGUAGEIt is impmcticable to decide on precise 1|rordilrg forall procedure phrases which you might ne€d to llans-mit messages. You'[ use a lew which have beenadopted, when applicable. Be sue to use them onlrto exprcss the meanings indicated here. Other wodswhich you might substitute may have an enttuelydifierent operational meaning. If you make a mis-take, co$ect it before contiruing. State th€ word"co$ection," then proceed with the corect veNion.

Roger Received youl messag€.

Let me know that you havereceived and unde$tood my

Wilco WiIl comply. (Use Wilco toindicate that you will carryout oders or insiructions.)

Over Transmitting operator ex-pects reply.

Out End of communication.

IMait I must pause for a {ew sec-

I must pause longer thai a

How do you hearme? (As wods indicate.)

Speak slower (As wods indicate.)

Say again R€peat.

I say again I wjll repeat.

Message for you I wish to tnnsmit a message

Send your message I am ready for you to trans-

Break Separate this t€xt ftom rcst

sTATt0r{s t l t GR0uPsSevenl stations often work in a group, or on thes€me frequency. When transmittine in groups o{ thistLpe, repeat the can sign of the rcceiving station atthe end of the message. A station in the goup whichdoes not hear the ffist call and tunes in late willthen know for whom the message is intended.

Stations working in groups should answer in thealphabetical and numerical order of thei! call sieDs.The alphabetical statioN should answer tust whenboth opemte on the same net.

Signql Slrength

You $i l l a.qume rhat t}e person reca;r ing yourtransmission can h€ar you satisfactorily unless henotilies you otherwise. When making orieinal con-tact, you may ask, "How do you hear me?" His re-sponse should be, according io reception, "Weak butreadable," "Strong but distoiied," etc.

Two-Stql ion Net

Assume that stations AWM and JFC are engagcd in2 r'ay communication.JFC i.ransmits: (Establishine communication)"Able William Mike, t}lis is Jig Fox Charlie-How doyou fiear me?-over."

"Jis Fox Charlie, this is Able William Mike-Okay-

JFC transmits:"Able wiiliam Mike-message {or you over."

"Send your messaee-over."JFC t.ansmits:"Proceed to Shancri-la I spell-sucar how able NmGeorye Roger item love ablc too thuh-ree 6-yivniner hours time Nun six ze-ro ze-ro correctionwun 6-yiv ze-ro ze-ro iead back all a{ter iime

"Time wun 6-yiv ze-roJFC transmits:"That is coFect out."

Four-Slql ion Net

AssLmc thal ihe lollowing si.aiions on a 4-way netare in communication:

AWM net contrc1 station (contrr,lling station).AB1 subordinatestation.AB2 subordinatestatlon.At}3 subordinale sr€r ion.XYZ net calt (collective call for all 4 stations).Example: AWM has a message lor all stations on

AWM tlansmits:"X-my Yoke Zebra, this is Able William Mike mes-sage for you-over."

"This is Able Baker Wun-send your message over."

5-3t

AB2 trusDits:"This is Able Baker Too-send your message-over."AB3 transmitsi"This is Abl€ Baker Thuh-ree-send your message-

"X-ray Yoke Zebra proc""d ro Shansrita I spellsucar how able Nan ceorce Roser iiem love able-too thuh-iee fr-yiv nrner hours time

AB1 transmits:"This is wu roger-out."AB2 tmnsmits:"Too say again-all after word proceed over."

"Too and thuh-ree-I say asarn. words rwice pro-c"Fd Io Sharsr ' la proceed ro Shanerrta I spet lsusar how able Nan ceo€e Roser item love able-Ispell sugar how abte Nan ceorye Roser item loveable-too thuh-ree fi-yiv ni,ne} houN too thuh reeff-yiv ni ner hours-timetime wun sev-enAB2 tansmits:"Too-roger-out."AB3 transmits:"Thuh-ree-roger-out."Later AB2 wishes to have the receipt of ihis messaee

AB2 tmnsmits:"Able William Mike, this is Too-ve fy message-time wun sev-en ze-roAWM repeats message, and AB2, acknowledgine,

"Too-roge!-out."AwM i ishp. ro correcr mpssage, rransmir-"X-ray Yoke Zebra message time wunze-io corection word afier Shangri-la too too fi-yivni-ner-I say again-too too fr-yiv ni-ner-.acknowl,

Each subordinate station sends in turn:"This is (481, AB2, AB3) roeer-out."

CONTROT TOWEREvery pilot either departing from or ariving at afield must contact the control tower before takeotror landine.

The tower opemtor uses either radiotelephone orlieht signals io transmit iakeoff and landing irlstruc-tions. He usuauy notiffes the pilot o{: (1) wind di-rection and velocity, (2) runway and field conditions,

5-32

(3) special inslructions conceming local conditions,(1) taxi clcarance, (5) lakeoli clcarance, (6) altil.udcof l ie ld, and (?) correct t imc ( i f t i rDe is .equcstcd).

EXAMPIESuppose you are iD the cockpit of a P-38 at the Na-tional Airport in Washington, prepaline to take o{Tfor New York. Your conversation with me rowerwould run something like this:You: "Washington Tower, ihis is Army fo-wer fi-yivni ner ze-ro over."

Towcr: "Army lo-wcr 1i-yiv hiner ze-.o this isWashington Tower over."You: "Taxi clearancc ovcr."Tower: "Wind east twelve E wun too lield is softuse easFwest ruDway heavyconstruclion in progresssoutheast of lield iaxi to wesl end of easfwest run-

You: "Wilco out."(Upon departurc, you will remain tuned to to$'er

frequency for at least 5 minutes unless cleared toanother ftequency by the tower.)

Assume you are now 10 miles solrth of LacuardiaField, New York, and wish to laDd there. Youi mes-sage would run like this:You: "LaGuardia Tower, this is Army fo-wei fi-yivnincr ze-ro-over."Tower: "Army fo-wer fi-yiv ni-ner ze-ro, this is La-Guardia Tower-over."You: "Ten miles south of fietd at too thou-zand feetcontact landing at Lacuardia over."Tower: "Roger-out."You: (Arrivine at fleld) "Lacuardia Tower, this isArmy {o-wer n-yiv ni-ner ze-ro-landing instiuctions

Tower: "Army fo-$er fi-yiv niner ze-ro, this is La-Guardia . Towe!- wiDd south-west fifteen SW wunri-yiv-Taylorftaft six ff-yiv now ap-proaching field to land-field is soft-use the norrh-cast-southwest runway you are second to tand-

Your "Roger-out."Tower: "Army fo-wer fi,yiv ni-ner ze-ro, this is La-Guardia Tower you are cleared to land over."You: "Wilcrout."

sl lde, ond lo

"HoqdSes rhe p

ed the olrplcn

he

in

to oll oI thetn ln 3ludy of lhe

d rhe

r lhc

Ir norhlng myrrerlour In lh I gr'.rLp

rhe derolled plan o{ dn o

fly, ot whot dlrtp.sd ofi tbdground, how much so

you wonr ro./3k hlm abour lt. + He knowr whor rhe

hc hot cd wlll do rhsr€ ors l.wr ond prlnctpl't of nlshl ond d

lsauaalon thot In rhlr .e.llon lt derlgned to expldln some ol th.

the tcl.nc! ot .vlollon k bulh.

r l f tHrs sECttolr . . .

Theory of FllghrWhy Lift ls So-Colled-How tilr 15 Produced: Derign of rhe Wing. EFect of Atovins tr Through a,r.lmportonce of Air's Weight ond Volqne-Why Speed t5 N.G33ory ro Lih_Retorion of Angje ofAtlock to Lifr-tlow l l,ch lift on Ai.Plone Needi-Whor Drog ts_Deod D.og ond Urefut Dros_The 4 Forc6 oI Flisht

SrqblllryWhy Ploner

^lud be Sioble dnd Coitrollobl._Whor Inherent Stobitiry tr_Verricot ond Ho.izontdl

SrobilizeE ohd whot They Do-lh. Axi3 oI Yo*-The Ati' of piich_The Axi3 of Ro _Fun.tion ofControl Surfoces-How Ailero6 Work-lvhor rhe Rudder Doee_How rhe EtevoroE Work_WnyPres3ure lv{url 8e Coord'noted-whoi Trim Tob. Are ond How They Work

Slruclure of Aiicr.ftUnder the Skin of o Fu3elose Two Kind' of Coniru.rion-The 3 podi of o wins_Two Type, ofWins Con+ru.tion: The Spor Wins, The Bro.ed Strei'ed-Skin Wins-Shocts Which Londins ceorMu3t Stond-How Tricy.le Londi.g ceor Work!-The Convenridot 3-poinr Londino ceor

InslrurnenfsPurpose, Principle, ond Det.riprion of Mogneric Compd3s-Two Kinds of Composr EroB-Difieren.eBetween Voriorion ond De$otion-Whot Couser Flighl Ero6 in Compos-pvrpoie, principte, ohdDescriplio. of Altineter-lorometric ond Temperorure EroB in Attimerer_prenighr Chcck_purpo,e,Principle. ond Errorr of AiEpeed Indicoror-Preflishr Che.k-purpore, principte, ond prenight Che.kof Role-of.Clinb Indicoto.

PowerMonl SrruSgle to Gel Power Enolgh to Fly-The ,l Srrokes of o 4-Cycte Engine-Whoi Hoppe$ !nthe Corburetor-lsnition Sy3tefr-Preiight /vtognero Check-Liquid.Cooted Engine_Air-CootedEngine-ln-Line Engine-V-Type En9in.-Opposed or Ftor-Type Engine-RodiotEngine_purpore ondDeicription of o Propellcr-How Propeller Pirch Afiecrs Airptone in Flighr-Whor o Connont-SpeedPropeller k-E 9ine Inrirunent5. To.hofrerer, Oit Temperoture covge-Minidun Engine preffight Check

6- l

LIFTYou know that a balloon goes up in the air becauseit is filled with a sas that is lishter than air. Theforce that li{ts the balloon is buoyancy, and $e callan airship that is lifted by such Deans a light€r-than-air ship.

We are not conc€rned in this study with lighter-than-air $aft, but we cal it to your attention tobesin the discussion of lift.

Anything that goes up into the atmosphere off theearth Dust have some force to lift it oF 1be eround.Even the ljghlest airplane is a relatively hcavy thing,and larse bombers wFigh manl tons. Belore an air-

plane can fly it must be lifted ofi lhe ground, andonc€ it is in th€ air it must be kept there by someforce. That force is called, Iosically enoush, lift-

How 13 Lift Produ.od?

There are three steps in the explanaiion of how lift

1. A \I'ine is so designed that when2. A force moves i1 ar the dght speed and in the

right directioD through thc air,3. The ai so acts upon it that we get lift.Let us take each oI these steps and explain them.

Ff RST STEP: ?/pDeois' "/ tk%,,sIf you have eve. built a flying model airplane, you

remember the shape o{ the wing. It is rounded atthe froDt, wlich is called the leadinla edg€ of thewing. It is sharp at the back, or trailing edge of thewine. The upper su ace is curved; the bottom isalmost a stlaight line. It is thick and stubby near

crcss section of almost any ahplane wing. Wingsections of vadous airplanes difier slightly in detail,bul rhe principle is rhe same in alL airplane wings.

SEC0ND ST[P: "k

E//&t at?ltouttt a,o Aatfta,rc%a2 ?Onafi tip Aaz

U we move the wins through the air at a rclatively

6-2

the leading edse and thin and tapered near the trail-ing edge. You will soon lean why it's shap€d that way.

Take that db and study it, for itrreFesents the

TH IRD

high speed with the blunt end (leadins edge) {orwardthe foUowing thiacs happen:

The blunt and thick leading edse pushes air outo{ the way. Part of the air so displaced flows overthe wing; part o{ it flows under the wine mpidly (thespeed is imporiant). the layers of air, after goingover and under the wing, ioin again behind the trail-ing edge. But the important thing is that th€ airthat fowed over the wing had to go farther thanthe air that went under the wing.

In going farther it stretched out, so to speal<, andbecame thimer. Loosely speaking, it forrned a partialvacuum at the top of the wing dd exeted forcewhile the alr at the bottom of the wing cornpressedslightly and exerted a cedain force tbere. The sumof these two forces represenls lift becau"e-

t

STEP:W1]en air mov€s, its weight and the speed (velocity)with which it moves exert energy and do work- Thesame is true of anything which moves through oragainst air.

The design of the wing and the speed with whichit is moved through the air give us liJt.

WHY IS SPEED I{ECESSARY TO tIFT?We mentioned in Step Two that we must move awing "at a relatively high speed through the air" tomake it work. Whai happens when we move itslowly ?

Suppose you take a board and move it edgevaysthrough the watei, holding it at a slight angle to thediretion in which you are pushing it. If you push itrapidly you will see that the water rushes out of theway of t}le leadine edge, leavins a hole (or vacuum)at the top oI the board. This water doesn't join the.water {rom the bottom of the boad until the boa.dis well past.

762 a'a,444 uq4ir add uo(t*ro

6-3

Push it stowly, however, and the water swils andburbles in on top of the boad. That is what happens,approximately, to the air that your wing displaces.The low pressure area above the wing is spoiled iIthe wine mov€s too slowly; the air swirls and bublesinto the partial vacurm.

The heavier an alplane is in relation to its totalwing swface, the higher speed it requires to developliJt enouch to get ofi the gmund.

There is another thing that afiects the amount of liftyou get {rom a {ing and that is th€ angle at whichyou direct it into the air. In the example above wesaid we would move it stlaight ahead. We get somelift that way, but we can get more lift if we tip thetuont edge up and attack the air at a higher angl€of attack,

The winc now displaces more air (that is, it makesthe air over the wing travel farther) and, up to apoint, Cives us more lift. When w€ get past a certainpoint, however, we are pushing so much ail out ofthe way that our airplane slows down. The air swirlsand bwbles into the low presswe area on top of the$'ing. IMe have increased the dras too much. (We'[explain that lat€r.) Accordingly, we lose lift andapproach a stall.

The amount ol lift, then, is determined by (1) thedesign of the wing, (2) the speed of the airylane,and (3) the angte of attack. Now is it necessary ordesirabte to get as much lift as we can? Or is therca point at which we don't need any more?

Think it over a minute. Just how rauch liJt doesan airylane need?

The answer to that is, how much does your airylaneweigh? You need enough lift to overcome t}le forceof gavity.

. To ctimb you need more lift than the force gravityis exelting. As lone as you have more lilt thanweight, you airplane will continue to climb.

However, when you wish to fly straisht and level,at a constant altitude, lift and gravity must exactlybalance each other. If lift is greater, you will climb;if gravity is great-er, you will descend-

LIFT AI{D ANGTE OF ATTACI(

H(|W MUCH LIFT lt(lES AN AIRPTAI{EIIEEIl?

Jo you can see the designer of an ai.plane mustigue his lift in relation to the goss weight of hisinished airplane and the total load it is to carly.

We told you thst to produce liJt you have to moveI wing thmugh the air at relatively hieh speed. Inlying model airplanes that you may have built, youroduced the movement thrcugh the air by meansrf a propeller and strands of rubber. By winding theubber strands you made the propeller rotate with)noueh speed to pull the model forwad. rrhen it;ot up enoush speed it took oft the $ound and Reu'.

The force pulling the airplane throush the air we:11 thrust-

{ow tr,lu.h Thr'rrr Do.t on Airplcn. Need?

that is u important question. You must know theInswer to it before you can figure how powerful a)owerplant you need. That is, how much ho^s€pow€rrour engine has to develop to do the work that youvant it to do. Let's se€ just what that work amounts

through the air, some of your thrust turns to lift.)You know it takes more power to start an auto-

mobile and speed it up than it does to keep it goingonce you have sta$ed ii. That's why you have lowand intermediate gears in a car. It takes more powerto ctmb a hill in a car than it does to speed over alevel highlvay. So in an airplane it takes more thrustto take ofi and climb than to maintain straight andlevel flieht at a constant airspeed and a coGtantaltitude.

But once you are in straight and level flight, andyou want to fly at a constant speed and a constantaltitude:

Thrusl must equal drag, just as lift must equalgnvity.So let's find out what drag is.

Try to stand up in a high wind and you will realizehow much iorce moving air exerts agaiDst you. body.When an airplane moves rapidly through the air, ithas lhe same efiect as if tbe air weie llowins at thatspe€d agai$t the airylane. It t€nds to hold the air-

1. You have to have thrust enough to overcome

'll the resistance (dng) that is built up as you move

rour aLplane through the air.

2. I'hen you have to have enough additional thrust:o start your airplane, build up speed, take otr, andtimb.

(It is impodant to remembe! that, because of whatEppens when your wing moves more lapidly

plane back, or lower its speed. All that force thatthe air exerls against the airplane is called drag.

Some drag is useful. Some of it we would like toget dd of-it is merely dead drag.

D6cd Drcg dnd str€omlinirgAnything on an airplan€ that has a surlace exposedto the air gives th€ ail something to push againstand ihercforc crcates drag. Aftplane desisners, oI

course, hav. studied the efiect of wind on variousshapes and forms and have discolered those formswhlch o{ter the least resistrnce to rhe air. We callsuch shapes streamlined, and as tar as possible

cle4.thing on ar airplane is stlemliDed. In thai waywe reduce dead drag.

Useful Drds

But $a'can never eet rid o{ all drag. for soDeof it is usctul. The ihrust tliat sc usc to pull iheNDg throush the air so as to producc lilt creatcsuscful dras. I t is onc., l the forces necessar l ' toltight. So, no mattcr hor. lvcll we sireamlire lhedesish oi an airylane we always havc io ha!c lhrust

1. If we havc morc ihrust thaD drag we begin toa.celerare (eo iastcr).

6-5

2. If we have more drae than thust we begin to

decelerate (coslower).

3- If we have exacily the same thrust as we have

drae, we keep a coDsiant speed at a constant altitude.

You hrr- "rp"rr"nccl r l - . - . c.a, l ' r ion i , in

automobilc.Thtust in a cai is thc force ihat the ensine

exerts io drive the car lorward. Drag is ihe t.iciioD

and wind resislance of thc car. You step on thc sasto speed up that is, increase the thrust until it isgreater thaD the drag. Your car goes Iaster.

I{ you take }ou foot off the gas, }'ou slox downbecausc Iour thrust is less than your drag.

WheD you lvant io cruise along ai lhe sahe speed

on a lerel highway, you hold a constanl lhrottlesettnlg lhat gives you an exact balance betNccD your

thrust and ]our drae.

In the f l ight of ony oirplone, then, we hove these four forces ol work!

Li f r , weighr, thrust ond drog.

6-6

- \

B, fure rn rrrplar, (an bF da. jer pd In f ) . ' l mL"bc so built as to balance the torces applied uponit in flight. In other words. it rust bc slable, aDd ii"musi be controllable. It musi tend to fl)' strajght andlcvcl, without rcquirjng the pikn 10 keep it on aneven keel by ruin force. At the s{nc iinie, il nustbe so built that lhe pilot may movc it lcft o. rishi,up or down, or from one side io the other at 1vil].Inherent Siobi l i tyIn building modcl plancs you have discovefed thatbelore they will fly they must bc balanccd- Thc dis-iribulioh of Ncight is important-

A planc that is tail-heavy or nose-healy or one-wing-heavf is badly balanccd.

The center of gravity (as it is callcd) must bcfisured so that it js very near to the center of lift.

That is the IiBt consideraiion tor inherent stalility(which merely means buili.-in stability).

The second ihinlt that niust bc built in is some con-trol that will keep the airplaDe ftyins slfaisht and

If you lake a shcci ot papcr and skirrl it throughthe ai., it will fly in an euatic and uDpredictableway, but it *'on't go slraight. Il y.u l{)ld it inlo lr drrlshape, it lvil1do betier. bu1 il $,ill still lwist and lulnand ro11 erraiically. It has only a littlc rnhercntstabiliiy.

A carefully buih model airylane, ho$'ever, flicsstraight and level uDless and until it Cels blown about

The stabilizcrs you build into a modcl airplane areihc samc in principlc as those built into any airplane.

Th. vlrticcl srobilire. is a ffxed airloil ir the tail\\'hich stands vertically. It holds the airplane fromr , ' - , .d l . f t r^ ; l r i rhr

6-7

The Axer of RordrionYou can s€e that an airplane can tum in three planes,wh€reas m auto, for exaDple, tuns only in one, leftor right. Think of an airplane as having three axes

Tak€ a piece of cedboard and cut it into a roughairylane shape. Then fol low rhis explanat ion:(1) Tum to the left or ght around the verticalaxis. That is caled the axis of yaw. That is the axisyou can tuIn an auto in.(2) Put the nose dorc and the tail up, or the noseup and the tail down. That is called rotation aboutthe axis ol pitch. By controlling that rotation youput an airplane in the proper position to climb ordive.(3) Now roll the left wins down and the rishr winsup, or the other way around, and you have rotationabout the axis of roll.

nI

lho ho.ironrol ilcbilizer is like a small wingbuilt horizontally into the tail. It holds the airylanefrom nosing up and down.

There is still another way an airplane can move-it can roll, wing do$m or up. The wings are so con-structed and so placed on th€ ai.plane that they tendto keep the airplane stable in tlat direction.

3

6-8

ea'&ra/ Sto4a4z4To contrcl the flight path of the airylane around itstbr:ee axes-the axis of.pitch, the axis of rcll, and theaxls of yaw-movable control su aces are used.

RUDDERMovement around the axis oI yaw js conholed bythe rudder, which answers to pressurc or the.udde!

pedals. When pressure is applied to the right rudderp€dai, the no6e of the airplane moves to the lieht.When pressure is appl ied ro the tefr rudder;dat.the nos€ of the airylare moves to the left.

ETEIJATORSMovement aound the axis of pitch is contiolled bylhe elelators. The elevators answer to {orward €nd

2.

AITERONSMovement around the axis of roll is controlled bytle ailerons, which answer to sideivays pressuresapplied to t}Ie contlol stick. Pressure applied to thestick toward the leIt depresses the leftwing. Pressuie

J.

6-9

backward pressures on the stick. when forwa.d stickpressure is applied, ihe nose of the, airplane is low-ered. W]ren backward pressure is applied, the noseo{ the airplane is raised.

on the stick toward the iight depresses the rightwing.The ailerons are so linked together by control cablesthat when one aileron is down. ihe opposite aileronis always up. In other words. pressure on the con-trols forces one wing down and Ihe oppo. i re wrng upat the same time, and thus eovems the movehentof the airylane around the axis o{ roll.

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Contml prcssures are seldom used separately. Thesimplest meeuver needs cootdination oI all threepressu.es. A simple turn to the Ieft requires coor-dinated prcssures on ailero.s, rudder, and elevator.

TRIM TABSEven though an airplane has inherent stabili6', itdoes not always tend to fly straislt and levet. Youremember we told you that the weight of the loadand how it is placed in an airplane aftects its stability.Vadous speeds also afiect its flight charactedstics. Ifyou use up the fuel fmm one wing tank before youuse it ftom another, your plane wants to rc[ towardthe tuIl tank. AI of these va.iatio.s require a pilotto exert prcssure on the contrcls to co$ect for them.

Whil€ climbins or while Cliding, it is necessaryconstantly to exelt prcssurc to keep the airplane inthe attitude you want.

Such constant control pressure is tiring in a smallplane; it is exhausting in a medium-size plane; it isimpossible for any length o{ time in a heavy plane.

So airplanes are coNtructed with trim tabs, asthey arc called. ltrese are really nothins but small,hinged, conhol surfaces on the main contol surfaces.You can move them up and down by means of a erankor .eel in the cockpit. An ingenious syst€m of control.wires lifts them up or drops them as you will. Byusing theD you can balance the forces on the con-trols so that the airplane wiu fly straight and levelwith your hands ofi the controls. Or you ean setthe tabs so that the airplane will maintain a climbingattitude or a Cliding attitude.

One of the most interesting things about triln tabsis that they actualy work like cortrcl surfaces o{contols. That is, if the rudder tab is set toveard thefight it pushes the rudder to the left. and thus mak€sthe airplane yaw to the left.

'or.u ".n

/

AftcraJt are built oI the shonsest, lidt€st matedalsthat can be procured. Beforc special-sbenstl, lightweight metals w€re developed, planes were con-structed of wood and fabric. On some small airplanes,these materials are sti used in wing construction.But metal is better than wood because it is shongerand does not deteriorate as fast. It is more resistantto fire, and it does not change its shape and size underprcssure or changes oI weather.FutelcAe

called ribs. When the lengthwise strins€rs and thecross-section ribs ar€ joined toeether, you have theskeleton oI the fuselage. Tlfs construction providesonly a {airly rigid frame. I{owever, when the metalskin is fastened over these stdnsels and bs withhundreds of small dvets the luselaee becomes risidand strong. This is the modern or stressed-skinmethod of fusetage construction.

In older aiIclaft and in some lisht atplanes today,a slighdy ditrerent lus€Iage consbuction is used.

6-t I

Instead of many shingeIs oI light weight, a smallernumber oI heavier members are used. they arecalled longerons. The cross members, or ribs, arealso fewer and much heavier. This framework, strongwithin ilself, is covered with fabric, which is thenpainted with a special Feparation called dope. Dopeshrinlrs the fabdc, drawing it taut over the frame-work so that it adds some sbength to the whole

The body o{ the airplane we call the fuselage. It islike the body of an automobile because it houses thecargo, passenge$, and crcw. But there is no heavychassis in an anphne. Instead, the sbength is builtinto the entire stucture. The l€ngthwise memb€rsarc ca[ed stringen. The crcss-section members arc

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THE SPAR WING THE BRACED STRESSED-SKIN WING

b-12

|vINGS

t

Ti,ef. are three paris of thc rving:1. The {.nig tip.2 Thc NinC seciiolr.3. The center scction.

These ihfec scct ions are so,nct jn ics buL:t s. !a-fatel ! part icular l ] in ,nodcrn al l meral t ,hnei ihf , :: rn.ncd togetLer ryhcn thc wmg js a 'scr lnr l . l i ri ip is usur l ly thc port ion bel ord r l ,c ai leron Thrrn3...tn!r is thc portnD belween thc wolg riir .rrl rl:il: - - r r . r scct ioD. the ccni . r scct ion is ol1-.L par l . r rhf:::ain body ol thc airplaD-" rvhere rhe ruL,:' ar--: :stered to thc {uselage.Wing Construct ion' l hrre are onl) two main t tpes of { ing . ! , ,srrJ.1: !n

1. The spar wihg.2. The braccd strcssed-skrr tlng.

The :pa. l i r ig has hear l spars c\ ten. l ing 1bc1.:grh r i r . 1hr- , : .pars. $heih.r lhct are t Lcansr i r r . i - . - | ] r : r f ! i l . r : r r ! ihc load.

Tre brrc.r l s:r . r :s.r l skLn {DrC is,n!de Duch l i t ielh i , , ,o(rrn :1r-- fd skDr f l rsclasc. Smal ler sccr ioDs.. f . f i r . i : .1 i . )qfr i r . r

Ea.h ' , i : \ is . ie.r i , r j is cross bra.ed. i ikc a secr i . r i , , i l . : i : : i l . r . r br j . ls . . Then thc s l iore sed.s.r . t f l : , rLs. : i1f f lh.r ' are j ( , in.d.(rD sre. l : of l i lh l bL[ r l r lng mctal rhst arc letd.r : f l i re : . I : r rg ld s l .ucture.

F. , . , , i iu.h. , , . . i fLLcl iod se ge1 a srrong se,r i r ig idsr.Lrf ture 11 r , iLrLl l has ru-e givc io i t rhan lhc spa!

:r " . \ . " . , , 1J! , f1r .1. I r ab: . rbr rh. v io lent shodis that p laDes inf i inhr ar. s. Ier in.s srLbjeclecl to. l t is some\\hat l ikcthr sprLngs on |our aui.trrobile.

THE SPAR WING THE BRACED STRESSEO.SKIN WING

5-t3

TANDII{G GEAR

Before you can fly an airplane you must be ablc totaxi and take oF. Then you must tand it again andtaxi along the $ound to its parking place.

Even in normal operations, the landins sear hasto withstand great loads and the landing shock. Itis designed to stand these heavy loads. It is not, how-ever, made to stand heavy side loads. That is whypilots arc taught t}le impodance oI landing with astraight landins track. Even a slight amount of driftdurine a landing places great side loads on thelandins gea!.

Tri.ycle Londins Geri

There are only two t}?es of landing gear:1. The modern tricycle cear.2. The conv€ntional 3-point landing gear.

The modern tricycle gea.r has ereat advantage overthe old or conventional gear because onc€ the air-plane is on the glound it tracks straight and true.

It consists of two main landing wheels and a nose$heel that operates on a {ull-swiveling caster. Theairplare is always landed on the rnain wheets. Youuse the nose wheel only for ground operation. Afterlanding, and as you slorq down, the plane settlesgentb on the nose wheel. That's because the maintanding wheels are behinil the cent$ o{ gravity.

The conventional landinc gear is still the mostcornmonly us€d. It consists of two main landingwh€els, placed in tuont of the center of gavity, anda vh€el at the tail.

When such a plane lands, it settles with its taildown, since there is more weight behind the landingwh€els than th€re is in front of them. The pilot thenhas some control in turning lefi or iight on thesound because the tait wheel is usually steerable.It is hooked up to the rudder pedals in such a waythat as you press the right pedal the plan€ turns tothe right, and vice versa.

IHE MODERN TRICYCLE LANDING GEAR. THE CONVENTIONAI. 3-POINT TANDING GEAR

5-14

As you study you lrill leam about many insuumenB.Later. iI you t ke flying training and begin youprogress though Primary, Basic and Advancedschools, you wiU undeNtand just what one AviationCadet meant when asked by his inst uctor what hethought of the iNtrument panel of a fighter airplane.

"It looks, sir," he said, "like the Grand CanyonfuU of alarm clocks."

,Vlagneri. Compas3All a plane instruments ar€ important. But remem-ber this: The magnetic compass is th€ mosl impor-lant instrurnenl in th€ cockpit, You will learn moreabout it in the section called How to Find Your l{avin the Sky.Purpose: To indicate the heading or direction inwhich the airplane is flying.Principle: The earth acts as a huge magnet. TlIe

north magnetic pole is near the geognphical (true)Nodh Pole and the south magnetic pole is near rrlegeographic South Pole. A freety suspended barmagnet will swiDg until one end points to the mag-netic north pole. That is the principle o{ rhe magneticcompass, the direction-indicating instrument in your

D€€cription: An airplane's rna8inetic cohpass coD-sists of a metal bowl filled with a liquid. Restins ona pivot inside this bowl, free to rotate, is a saucerlikedome. It carries a set of rnagDetized needles and acircular scale indicating North, South, East, andWest. AII other directioDs of the 360. are markedwith lines at 5' int€Nals. Tlle magnetic needles with-in the dome alvrays seek to line up in the North-South dircction. When the plane tums, the domestays in the same N-S direction, and the plane head-

inc can be read against a Iine tbrough a window.

Compdaa ErroraThe compass is an accurat€ and depen<l,able tutru-ment in dle. han& of the pilot or navigator vhoknows hore io use it. But it is subj€€t to t$/o t]?es

1. Inherent errors.2. night erlols.

Inherent errors must always be colsidered wbethe!you are usbg a compass lor a hike thrcugh the woo&,on a boat at s€a, o! in an airplane. They have nothingto do with flying itsef.Vari4lio[ is caused by the Iact tbat the earth'sEagnetic poles do not coincide with the geoEraphicpoles. The amount of variation is the difielence inangle between the directions of true north and mag-netic north.

u. 5. aoftaas val|Al|oN

Aemnautical charts sho{' the smount of vadationfor every section over which you may fly. llle linesof equal magnetic variations are call€d tuogonic lin€s.Devialion is caus€d by neaiby iDagneuc sources inthe plane, such as the Foximity of itoa parts and theelectric current in the ladio o! electrical system.Deviation is gready reduced by cornpeDssting mag-

6-t5

rcts so placed in the €ompass case as to couDteractthe efrect of tbe shay magnetism in the ai4lane. Itis seldom possible, howeve!, to eliminate deviationcompleteb. TIre amou of deviatioo the pilot hasto reckon with in dgud.ng hea&ngs is stat€d on thecompass cerd installed on the instlument panel.

This card is 6tled in eft€t tb€ compas has beeniDstalled and swug to find its deviation enor:s.

All the compass erlols we have discussed baveb€en irherent erroE of all magtretic compass€s. NotetlEt yariation is a Foperty of a location while devia-tion is a property oI the airplane.

Fllghr Ertor.In an airplane there are other compass errors loownas dight errors. Tlre lines of magFetic force of theeafih are vertical at tlle poles and horizontal at theequator. Thus, at the equalor, a compass {rorks best.

At the poles the.lines of force, being vertical, arcpu[ing the neeille do{rn. As long i.s an ailplane isflyiDg straight and level, tlle compass is accurate.But when the airplane banls arld tuins, the verticalmagnetic force causes the iistrum€nt literally to"go crazy." It spins, olten in tlle wrong directioqand it swings back and fodh unable to rnake up itsmind as to ivhat direction the airplane is heading.

A good pilot alvrays makes one sirnple pre0ightcompass check. He lires up his plane in a knowndirection and checks his compass rdading.

6 -16

Ahimeler

Purpose: The altimeter rccords the height above sealev€1,Principle: The altimete! is a lype o{ barometer read-ing altitude in {eet. Its design is based on the Iactthat ail pressure decreases evenly with incr€ase ofattitude. You will l€arD mor€ about this fact in thesection call€d Your Body in Flisht.

D6ciiption: An altimeter consists mainly of a caseopen io the atmosphere. Inside the case there is anaifiight metal chamber 6lled with normal air atnomat pressure. When the plane is at sea level, thepressure in the outer case and in the chamber isthe same. As the plane gains aliitude, the pressurein the case decreases. The pressure in the chamber,however, remains the same. This crcates a conditionin which the pressure in the chamber is greater thant}le pressure in the case. By means df a sensitive

diaphrasm and a gear mechanism the pressure dif-ference is indicated on ihe dial as altitude in {eet.Errorsi Because the altimeter is a barometer, it isafiected by.the change of barometiic pressure aDdmust be set foi the prevailiDg barometric pressure togive accurate results. This is done by a knob whichturns the dial hands.

On the sround, the aliimeter can be set to showthe altitude of rhe freld. This conects rhe rAslrumen.for the prevailing baromeidc pressue. The altimererwill show the conect altitude above sea level untilthe barcmetric pressure changes.

Some altimeters are equipped so rhat th€ settingcan b€ chaneed in ihe air. For this purpose a smallsetting window on the face is provided. The pilotobtains the prevailing barometric pressure by radioand res€ts his iistiument accoidingly.

T€mperature Errors: The altimeter is also afiectedby change of temperature. It is designed {or normaltemperature (15' Centismde) at sea level pressure.A built-in conection takes care of the normal2" dropin temperature {or each 1000 feet gained with tem-perature normal at sea level.

Thus, if the temperatures are hieher than usual,your altimeter will indicate a lowe. altitude thanyou are flyins. This is nol danBcrous because acci-dents never occur lecause you fly too high over a

But if temperatures ar€ lory€r than normal, usecaufion because your altimeter vill indicate a higheraltitude than you are flying. These corrections arcmade by the pilot with a computer or with an altim-

6-17

Airspeed IndlcotorPurpos€: The airspeed indicator shows the speed atNhich the airplane is flying thrcugh the suroundingair. Its greatest use to the pilot is warning him tostay within safe speed limits between the mnllum.peed tsral l ing speed) and the red I ine or marjmumallowable speed limit of the airplane.

It also helps the pilot to compute ground speed.

Principle: The airspeed indicator depends on a pitottube that delivers tu'o kinds o{ ail pressure to the

1. Dynamic air prcssure (impact presswe createdby the motion of the plane).

2. Srat ic air pr .s-urp rpresai l jng arr pr"s.ure).Note thai there is no flow of air through a pitot

The airtight case o{ the instrument is connectedwith the static pr€ssur€ lin€ of ihe pitot tube. A

diaphragm inside the case is connected with thedynamic pr€ssure lin€ o{ the pitot tube.

When the plane is in motion, there is an impact ofair creat ing d)nanic pres.ur". This pres.ure in-creases as the speed increases.

Preflight Check: Check the setting knob andthe instrument with your finCeI to be sure

tap

Beiore takeofi, sei altimete. to ffeld elevation.

6-t8

As tle impact pressure increases, the diaphragmexpands and the needle connected by a g€ar mechan-ism shows ihe corresponding airspeed on the dial.

Rore-of-Clinb Indi.olo.

Drrors: As you climb in the sky, the aii becomesthinner and the temperature drops. These changescause your airspeed indicator to deceiv€ you. It is areliable and accurate instrument. but it was builtto rcad corrcctly only at sea level pressure and at59' F. Therefore, at higher altitudes and low$ tem-pentures, you have to correct each reading of it.The chart below shows you how mueh {aster you aretraveling at vadous altitudes than your airspeedindicator shows. It assumes tempentures based onthe nornal lapse rate.

Ordinarily, you will make the necessary corec-tions with a simple computer which changes indi-caled airsp€ed into 1rue aiBpeed. In the section,How to Find Your Way in the Sky, you are told howto do this.

HOW FAST ARE YOU REAI,I.Y FI.YING?

Purpose: The rate-oI-climb indicator shows the velti-cal speed of the airplane. It indicates how manyhundred feet per minute the airylane is climbingor diving.Principle: The principle of this instrument is thest€ady decrease of ah pressure with increase o{altitude. The rate-of-climb indicator consists mainlyof a case which is connected with the outsid€. Asthe airplane gains or loses altitude, the air pressurechanges in the case. Inside the case there is achamber, airtight except for a small calibrated leak.While the air pressure in the case changes with thechanee of altitude, the pressure in the chamber re-mains coNtant until it is equalizcd by th€ air leakingin through the calibmted leak. With the help of asensitive diaphragh and a gear mechanism the re-sulting prcssure difference, which is in propoltion tothe rat€ of climb or descent, is indicated on the dial.

An example will best explain the operation of thisiNtrum€nt. At sea level flight, the Fessure in thecase and in the chamber is thE same. The needle onthe dial points to zero. The airylane has no ve icalspeed- As the airylane climbs, the pressure in thecase decrcases, and the pressurc in t}Ie chamber re-mains the same except {or th€ minute flow of airthrough the small leak. Therc is now a hieher airpressue in the chamber than in the case. The dia-phragm expands and the needle points to the lateof climb on the dial.

This instument has a lae of ? to 10 seconds.

-

rI rtum rr. rt0o fr. o.m rr. r5.ou rr

100 mlh 1011h 116 163143126 137

150 mph 161 224189174 205 245

200 mph 215 238214252233

4003i3342315291

441410349

321

250 mph 269

300 mph 323 311 490

Preflighl Check: The pitot's preflight check is simpte.On the $ound the needle wi[ rcst at 0, unless thereis a stronE headwind.

Pr€flight Check: The needle should show 0 on theground.

In explaining the four {orces that act upon an air-plane in flight, we have taken it {or gmnted that theairptane moved thrcugh the air at relatively highspeed. Naturally it requi.es power properly applied

We mentioned that model planes are usually pow-ercd by twisted rubber strands, which exert pressur€on a propeller, makins it whirl around fast enoushto produce thrust.

ln man's long struggle to conquer ihe air and fly,one of the chie{ difficulties he ran into for centu eswas how to get power enough to mak€ his contrap-tions rake off rhe ground and sta) in rhe €ir.

Thoush he tried flapping wings which he movedwith his arms or lees, he could never prcduc€ enouchpower with his own muscular exertion to gy. Birdsare able to fly because 60 per cent of their weight ismuscles. But man, even if he could buiu emcientmechanical wings, could never produce enoughpowe! in relation to his weight to fly. Only about

6-t9

8 per cent of his weight is made up of muscles.It was necessary to devise some powerplant that

could produce a great deal of power and still weighrclatively little. We express the rclatioD berween theweight and the power of an €ngine in terms of poundsper horsepover. For instance 2 pounds per horse-pow€r, 1]4 pounds per hors€power, etc.

It was not until the invention of the intemal com-bustion engine t}lat we had an engine capable o{power enough per pound io make an airplane fly.

Nearly a1l aircraft engines today are 4-cycle re-cipmcating intenal combustion engines.

Four-cycle engines are so called because there arefoul cycles or events that Dusl occur {or each power

1. The ffrst stroke is called the inlake or admissionstmke. The piston moves outward; or toward thecrankshaft, and draws a charce of th€ combustible

Iliiil

. , t rnr , ' r ! to p!pular l ) f l ic l , t l ie cr ig ine d({ ,s noi bumn. l , r lon. . I1 burns. r , i \ r rLre of a i r t . l t ich a s, , )a l i! . .1,1,n1 ot \ rpofzed lucl has bcn artr tcd. Ttrc car_rurctr,r's onl]' funcrion is to nix rht: hree quadrit]., i : r i . s i lh lhc cr)rrcct sDial l qur. t i r \ ' . t f t r .1 f . r, . l i lcr l i i , lo the cr l iNlef . I r acrompt js l , fs thrs rnl ic \ renlur i lubr of r le carbureror \ \ ' ] r fc t r re in-orlDg rLr is resrricknl rnd co.scctu.rih tralels ai

Liqoid or Air-Cooled Engin6.Two types of engines are in conDon use in our first-line miUt€ry aircnft today

L Liauid*ool.d

A liquid-cooled engine is jacketed around the cylin-dels. A liquid coolant is cir.culated to absorb theheat and tlansler it to the air through a ndiatorlocated somewher€ in the s)ipstream o{ the ailplane.

2. Air-cool.dAir-cooled eneines are, in tlemselves, direct radia-tors. They radiate their heat tbrough a series of 6nsand radiating su aces into the airctleam and arecooied in this dircct way.

There is a never-ending discussion between pilotsand engine designers as to which is the more efficientengine-the air-cooled or tiquid-cooled. Both typesare considered to be equally sood by the Army AirForces. The liquid-cooled engine ogersb€tter stream-lining possibilities. The air'cooled engine senerallyhas a higher holsepow€r-to-weicht ratio. cenerally

6-21

speaking, the advantages and dGadvaatages oI th€6€two types of powerplaDts equalize themseh.es.

lypes of Enginer

4.,**r*tThe cylinders of the inline encine arc anaDsed ina single row on the crankcase. sometimes in an uFright position, but prefelably in an inverted position-This tr?e of powerplant is not suitable for highhorsepower engines, but is rcliable and satisfactory{or tow-peformance airplanes. An inline engine isusually limited to 6 cylindels to {acilitate air-coolingand to avoid too much weight per horsepower.

"-rrr.**VThe cylinders of the V-type engine are aranged onthe crankcase in two rows or banks formine a V. Thisauangemeni greatly reduc€s weieht per ho$epowerbecause both banks of cylinde$ uiilize th€ smecrankshaft.

"ffi;r-,.fDIn the opposed eneine, the cytinde$ are anangedhorizontally in two rows on opposite sides of thecrankcase. A single crankshaJt is employed. Becaus€of the flat shape oI th€ engine, it ofiers sood'visibility.It also is especially adaptable for streamlining and isused particularly on lightweight airylanes- Becauseof its flat shaper it is aiso adaptable to larger ai.craftIor iDstallation in the wine.

Rcdiol Engino

Radial engines are built in sinsle or double-row dF

6-22

sigDs. T'he cngine is partjcularly e[i(icnt bccausL- ituses a singlc throlv 360- crankshr{r to vhich a1l olthe connccting rods a.c ritachcd. This results nr a

' , . , .J . I J l , - r , | . r " rk.r 'g parr" a, .o . \ , , , ts L\r.rgnl.

All niodcrn airplanc cngines are reliablc, dependa-ble sourt'es ol poNcr. A eo(,d pilot has a h-"nlthlrcspcct n)r propcr engine n\aintcnance. h fn(t, roLrcaD parrphrasc th-" old s|yinC this wav: "A pilot sbesi friend is his rno|or."

. t ,

\ ,

/--'

Th. purpose of ih. propr) ler Ls to t ranster t i re por t rof the ehsiDc into lonrarci t l rust . Tne plpt l i i r r . ar- .

" . :n- . . .1. r1. I ^ . . :

cxact ly the san,e m|n, icf that rhc (r i ! i . re1. , ! . I .l i f t . I t has a lcadmg cdec lust Lk. a \ f , r : . r l : , 1, i l lis c.rhbcrcd jusi l ihc a Nms ard he lUir . : : : r . ar . . .1. f l , | . , rL, , f , .p I ^rr Iniorc blades faslened ro a roiatlg hL:b oi ilr etrdol the eDsine craDkshalt.

-.\_l.-

IaclL.al a i fphDes. th is propel ler p i tch or angle ofat la.k ! i th. propel ler b lade is control lable l roh

Thu: ii the pilol d€sires a high cruisins speed and

0i

fl fl n[ / l ' i

IoN enside ryD he places thc propeller in full hishpit(+, (loN rpD). causing the blades ro takc a biggerbrtc oi air. For lakcofi, controllable-pitch propellersare sel at thcil loNest anslc of attack (io takc as,nallcf bite of dre ajr) lor a quick surse of powernecessarl {or thc takcoff itself.

Constonl-Speed Propelle15

Another reilnetne.l is lddcd on large aircraft and]\rmJ, Air Forces taciical airplaDes. It is knos'n asthe constant-specd propell-"r. It is both conlrollablcand automatic. Once in rhe aif. thc pilot sels his pro,

D.pendirrs on the ensine's rym's,1he pfopellef bladesare set at a ccrtaiD aDgie of attack or pitch to trans-Iorm engine poNer ellicientltr into forward thrusr.I'Iost lishiNcisht airplancs have fired-pitch pro-pcllos. On larger airpiancs and Army Air Forces

p€ller at the angle o{ attack at which his engineoperates most emciently. Th€n climb or dive, regard-less of what he does, the propeller blades chansetheir angle of attack automatically to maintain aconstant engine speed.

6-23

The purpose o{ the tachometer is to indicate thespeed o{ the engine cmnkshaft. It is calibrated inrevolutions per minute and is driven directly ftomt}le crankshaft through a flexible cable. Faulty orrough €ngine operation can be deienined by thetachometer. It is also used in larger aircraft to de-termine propeller speeds.

I

Oil Temperolure Gouge

The purpose of the oil tempeEiure cauge is to aidin maintaining oil tempemture *ithin designatedlioits. Overheating of an air-cooled ensine (unlessit is equipped with head t€mpeiature gaug€s) canfirst be det€rmined by consultinc the oil temperaturegauge.

Since airplanes must never be taken oF until theengirles are thoroughly waroed up, the oil tempera-ture gauge is of paramount importance to the pilotjust be{orc takeofi.

t-24

The oil temperature gauge is a vapor-presslrr€

themometer consisting of three units:'

i. n. u"lu, which is located at the point of teD!

oelatule measurement,--i. if'"

".ot """ tube, which connecis thc indi-

cator with the bulb

3. The indicalor itself. mounted on the instrument

Tho bulb rs f i ] ] "d !v i rh a volal i ! " l icuid $hrLh s h 'n

h€ated changes into a gas and develops a Pfessure

in the capillary tube This pressure moves lhe pointer

on the dial.

P'soight Ch€ckUsnrs the enginc instfumcnts we hale

stud;d. r pr l " r " l

b l isht aLfplam should

mike the fol ld$rng minimum prerrrgnL

check on hc engine instfuftenis:

1. After starling the engjne, he should

Nait until thc oi1 tedper'ture eauge E

within prcscribcd limits belore taxiing to

2. H. should lock his brakes' slo$4v open

th€ thrcltle 1o tho prescribed )imit and

consult his rachomei.r to be sure his

cngnre is dcveloping fuu Po$o'

3 He should then check his tNo sepafAtc

rgnrtron sJslcms bJ lur l l rna thc sui tch to

.ach renr l ron \ !s l tm s(para(elr ano Incn

to b, th I l thefe is mu.h ot a- drop rn

rom s un the rdthume(tr on c ' t f t r o l thc

i;nition sys1.ms. he should not iake ofi'

b,,t should llxi back lo the llling line

E5 ARE

8: 'N

,t

In the poi l lO yeorE rremendou! ldvcncei hove been mode In olrplons d. t ign

and conslrudion. We cdn.onf idenl ly scy lhal our engins€r! dnd de. lgnert have

mlirered the problehr ot a€rodyt|omlct ond, .o far o5 thelr conlrlbullon i5

con.erned, hove mode nylng 03 rofe qt dr lv lns o.or, * NeYerthelet t , lhe

oirpldne ho. not yel been builr which c.n dely the elemenrs. The weother on

hl3 porh of flighr is rtill the firrl conlld€rotlon of ! nyer ond wlll conllnue lo be

lor a long r lme to.ome. * In rhe fol lorv lng pdges you wl l l l6!rn much cboul

lhe 3 blg fo.lor5 which delermlne whql the woqlher wlll be: moltlure .onl€nt,

remper.ture, ond prersure. KnowinE thot there fd.torr Produc. weothei ond,

eipe.ldlly, knowlng whdt klnd of wealhet vorlout .omblndlloni of lhem cr€

llkely to .redte li a3 lmporlont lo rhe nyer cr the omounl of fuel In hlr ldnk!'

il\llll fl

t l t tHts sECrtoi l . . .

Inlrodudion

Who|he Scien.e of Meieorotogy tr-The 3 LoyeB oI rhe Atnorphere_The Tropopoure_The coiesWhich l^oke Up rhe Armosphere-Three tnporronr FodoB Which Creote Weqrher

Wdtgr Vapor qnd porflctet

Exploining Humidirv ond sorurorion poinr-porr proved bv porri<re3 of sorid Morer in proce$ orCondeBotion

le]nperotureThe Eorrh! Heoti.g sFrem-How ro c@verr Fdhrenheir s.ore inro cenrisrode-whor Rodiorion k-Whol Conduction k-Exptoining rhe Lopse Rore_Tempe.orure Inve6ion

Pf€isure

Whor o tnillibor ls-How Arh6pherk pre,sure Drops d3 you Rbe_Whor on kobor k

l ovemgnfs of fhe AirTwo ,rnoin Fo.to6 Which Couse An'ro L{ove-Eiptoining d Convecrion Current_Four Foch Whi.hltrfluence cenerol Direclion of rh. Windi_Meosurins rhe Wind,3 Velo.ilv

Molrturg in the Ahorphere\{hol the Dewpoinr of lhe Arhosphe.e k_Exptoining Spreod_Whor Retorive Hlh;diry k_TheProceis Which Fo.mi Ctoud3 or Fos

Fog ond CloudsExploining Ground Fog, Advedion Fog, Upltope Fog_When o piloi Moy Exped fog_The 2 Typesof Clouds to Remember-The 3 Levet' or Which Ctoudi Forn_Whor Vorious Ctouds Are Co eo_T.rhr

^teteorologkB Use ro De*ribe Ctoud Cond ions

StobilityEfiecl of Srobie ond U6robte Air on Weorhe.-Eiptoihing the Adioboric Lopre Rote_How Unsrobteond Srobb Condiriohs of rhe Air Are Cfeoted

Alr Mor6e5 ond FrohtrDefinins on Air Mosr-Tobte of fiorrh Ahericon Air t{o5,es_Chorocrerkri$ of Cold ond Worh a,rfioises-Worh ond Cold F.onrot Zdca or Fronrs

Weolher Repons for the FlyerWhot Eoch Weother Report Cohroinr-sompte Repodr of o Singte Afrernoon_Tronrloring rheSyhbol3 Used-How Pilor lnrerprerr Repori, in Tern5 of Th.ir Innu.nce on His propored Ftishr

ka- s-

METEOROTOGY

Note iL! color, its size and shape, and t}le rate atwhich it travels. Then, with t}Ie help of a thermom-ete. and barometer, you may be able to decidcwhether to expect iainj snow or good weather. If youcan, you are an amateur meteoroloEist. You are ableto interyret for your own use the signs in the skyor the atmosphere,

Look up ond wqtch o cloud moving ocross ihe sky.

The science o{ meteorology is the study of theatmosphere and the things that happen in the atmos-phere such as winds, temperalure changes, andvadations in moisture content. The cloud you seein the sky is the .esult of a numb€. of those happen-inss in the atmosphere. They beean a long timebefore the cloud was formed.

Simply stoted, metcorology is thc itudy of chonging otmorphericconditionr, commonly known as weolher.

The atmosphere is the whole mass of air which sur-rounds the earth. It ts most dense at sea level andgrows less dense as its distance from the earth

the atmosphere may be divided into 3 layers:l . The lropo.ph.r.or lowest laye!, extebds to a height of about 8 milesabove the €a h's suface.2. Ih. 3trclorph.r.or middle hyer, extends lo a height of about 60 milesabove the earth's su ace.3. lhs ion6ph.r.or uppe. layer, extebds to a heisht oI more rhan 500miles above the earth's suface.

7-2

ttoPoSPHttE

Tl -r" I . t , rFL r , n l - r rgF In. t r ,o.ph,. . . : , . . : . ILetvccn ihe tfoposphere and lhe srralosphere. Thedi | id ing l iDc bet! 'een thesc 2layc6 ol ihe atmos-pher-" is ca1led the tmpopause.

Although cerlain small atmospliedc chang.s dooccur abole thc tfopopause, the meieorologist andthc avirtor are p narilj' concetned Niih the tropo-

Ihe troposphere is the weother regionof lhe otmo5phere.The ahrosphere is cornposcd ot a DrixtLrfr of qases.BI J i r l ._C- . . r 'pn," nr ' I : r r n. , r - . .a.drunl i .g lor aboLrt 78 per .ent of the totaL. Nextiafg.s l . i ! oxjgcn, wi ih 21 per cent. The reDraiDderconsists of Nater vapor and smal l quanl i l ics. t o lhergases such as heliuDr and hldrogcn. In acldltion. tliocare ' inal l quanl i i ies ol sal t cr lstals aDd oih.-r par-t ic lcs ol matter, mostt l dust .

l . r " ' - . .1. r , r ' . , r ' l

. . , I 'L '

NatL'r lapor and particlcs of mattcr found in thcaldosphere \'ades Creatb'. Its othcr ci,nstiiu.ntsrcnain Lrni iorm in pfopor l idrs at a1l l€! .1s.Thrcc important factors \'ltich crfirl{, wfalhrr arc:1. The aDlount o{ Nater lapor and solid Pariicl.s

(salt crrstals, €tc.) pr-psent in the atrnosplicrc.2. IDequal i l ies i r lemperature.3. Inequaliiies ir prcssure.

"16q

7-3

WATER IJAPOR AI{D PARTICThe atmosph€re d€rives most of th€ water vaporwhich it contains ftom the earth's supply of vaterin oceans, rivels and lakes; from ialling rain andsnow, and from plants. In regions where there arelalge sulaces of open water and where vegetationgrows abundandy, wat€r in large quantities is drawnoff into the atrnospherc in the form ol vapor. In warmweather this happens to a greater extent than in coldweather. The summer is therefore a pedod when theatmosphere is dch in water vapor.

Tbe amount of water vapor which the atmospherecontains determines its humidity.

Thir .h{i.hovt lh. ndrinuE .n.!nl ol w.l.' vdpot whkh c .uhi.

lodol.lnorph.6.o. contdin.tlh. E.p..rlv.i.mP.Elu6. indi..i.d

Ihe prqcess ol water vapor rrs'ng 'nro

Lne a'r maybe compared to rhe process of dissolving sugar in aglass oI water. You can't see any change in the wateruntil it has absorbed all the susar it can contain.

When that point is reached and you add more sugar,it won't dissolve the water has reached the salura-tion point. But iJ you heat th€ water it can dissolvemore sugar-you have raised t}le saturation point.

IE59 THAN 5ATUNAflON POINI

Similarly, when the air has received a ih€ waterit can contain, it has reached the saturarion poinr. Th€amount of water vapor which the atmosphere canhold at any given time is detemined largely by itstemperature at that time. When air is heated, it canabsorb more water vapor. When air is cooted, itwon I hold as much water vapor. I t rhere is morewater vapor in the air than tle air can hold, a cedainamount o{ it will condense out.

The paiicles of solid matrer which we mentionedabove are impotant to the process of condensation.

T EM PERATURE

The sun is ih€ furnace which operates the heatings]'stem of the earth. In the summer time its raysstrike more effectively at the ea{h's su#ace than inr}1e winter time. The hear produced by mese raysE not €quauy dist buted, however.

It is this unequal warming oI ihe €arth's su ace*luch causes dilTercnces in tempemturc. These dif_leEnces are directly responsible fo! changes in the

These particles consist of a number oI impudtieswhich are present in the lower atoosphere. They aremostly myriads of miooscopic salt crvstats (teftwhen the sea spray €vaporated). Over industrialareas and big cities, smoke particles are also presenrin large quantities. A red sun in the moming andevening indicates the piesence of these particles inthe atmosphere. They are impo$ant in the processoI condensation because it is arcund them that thewater vapor begins to condense into clouds, fog, min

Tempemturc is measu.ed in degrees. In the UnitedStates we use 2 scales oJ measurement, Fahrenheitand Centigrade.

loo.+ _

,ao. -CETNOIADE

7-5

Conv€rr ;dhr.nheit inlo Cenrigrod.in tho following woyl

The rays of the sun penetrate the atmosphere andwarm the earth. This process is called radiation.Direct radiation from the sun does not heat thc airappreciably. The air receiYcs Factically all its heat

The chief process by which the air is heated is

59x( ' I -32):oC

For ihe pilot. the follo\ring simplified for-mula will usually sulEce: Deduct 32 fromthe number of degrees Fahrenheit anddivide lhe remainder in halJ. For example,to convert ?0 des- F- to Centigrade, deduct32 flom 70, leaviDs 38. Then dividc by 2 andyou havc 19 deg. Ccntigrade. While this js

not strictly accurate, it is close enough lorall ordinar}. flying problehs.

called conduction, By this means. air passing over ahot surface gains heat in the same Nay lhal clothrvrapped around a hot iron ab$rbs heat from theiron. It is tho actual contact of an and carth lvhichproduces the bansfer of heat by conduclion. Thisnaturall) means ihat onl] the lowest layer of ajr is

directly affected by the process.As rve ascend into the air, we find that the tem-

peraturc normaliy drops. The .aie at which ii dropsis called the lapse rat€. With each 1,000 feet o{ ascentue ffnd that, on the average, the tempeHture goesdolvn 51,, des. F ( 2'c).

7-6

9PLANES AR

to

It is jmportant to bcar in mind.however, that the lapse .ate isby no means uniform. A differ,ence of as much as 30 degreesFahrenheit may exist on levelsonly 1,000 fect apart.

The pressure of the atmosphere fluctuates. At sealevel, it averages about l5 pounds upon each squareinch of the ea.tn's suface.By means of the bammeterwe know that this p.essure is equal to that of approx-imately 30 inches of melcury.

On weather maps pressur€ units called millibarsarc used instead of inches of mercury. Thidy-fourmillibars are app.oximately equal to 1 inch o{ mer-cury. And 29.92 inches of mercury, which is rhestandard atmospheric pressure at sea level, is equalto 1013.3 millibals.

STA}IIIARD AIR

The "3londord oir" ot seq level

is orbitrdlily lixed by meteor-

ologisls ot 29.92 inches pres-

sure (1013.3 mi l l ibor i ) ot

rsoc (59oF).

+Sometimes, temperatur€ rises with altitude. When

this happens, the condition is called a temperature

Widely varying lapsc rates aie vital factors in themaking of weather, particulaily in detcrmining the

As we ascend into the atmospherc, the prcssuredrops at an approximately even mte of about 1 inchof mercury, or about 34 millibarc, {or every 1,000 {eeto{ climb. The hisher we ctimb, the less dense theatrnosphere becomes. In other wods, although theatmosphere extends {or hudreds of miles, i{ weascend to approximately 3 miles above sea level, hauof all the existing air in the atmosphere is b€low us-

To explain this in another way, as you will encoun-ter it again in the section on Your Body in Flight,although nitrogen and oxygen are present in theirusual pioportions at 18,000 feet, only half th€ quan-tities are present.If we ascend to 36,000 Jeet, we findonly about hall as much as at 18,000. At higher alti-tudes, the lowedng o{ pressure is more rapid.

HuDan beinss, who are accustomed to breathinsoxygen at the normal air pressure of about 30 inchesof mercury, or 1,016 millibars, find it hard to brcatbewhen their supply of oxygen is cut in hau.

At an altitude of about 24,000 {eet, an aviator willbecome unconscious unless he provides himse withan additional supply of oxygen.

ASCENT TO 25,OOO fEET WITHOUT OXYGEN

A ,ye + .^-"r LJ-..,.-/'. i ^-'W a.+ a4.. /4Conlrol spa<imen o{ nd-Imcl hondwri l ing.

1a* /1 - 4",;/4-No opporenl efie<t., ,

"": ll Yu*"^L LL*n\l- t"! J *--t

I 'Besinnhs mu.Gulot incoordinql ion.

/ / a-, 24 */o,,7, ,Dennite phyiisFr ond

^e"r.t i"ert<!!^,V4

, n{'f 6"-J ru."".r"-,."-,,v.

W /1.1'q.,- f4u"-77tosr zero of borh I8,OOO ond 2O,OOO-hd/*ed

/ ar{il^M V-74

Feel3 so6d. Indshr, iuds|nenr .nd .oordincrion very

# rr',l'run A

Menlol ond phyr i ro l helple5!ne55.

1 61 r ( , . t , , .^ , . /tt /' t i i

lmprovcment with few breqlh3 of oxygen.

;/ ,1.j" r/ r ;,,...,,^,, 4,,, /6,U , 4"- . " . r / ' /t : ' i . ' (a t 1, , ! .

Lq3l zero lef t oF-senercl improvenenl , butnol completely noTmol.

7-a

THE"eoF*EATHER

Taken togetler, the moisture content of the air, thetempeiature, and the pressure fom a round-tabletrio which makes the basic decisions on what theweather is going to be.Movomenrr of th€ AirThe movement oI air is caused by 2 main facto$:

1. Inequaliti€s in temperature2. Inequalities in pressure

We have leamed that th€ sun does not heat aI partso{ the earth's surface equaily. As a result, the air isunequally heated also.

Sinc€ varm air tends to se, an air parcel warmerthan its neighboring parcels rises aDd is replaced bycold air. The vertical movement of warm air is calleda convection currenl. These cuEents are realy windsblowinc up or blowinc do\ri.

They are of considerable importance to tle avraror,because these localized rising and falling curenlspush his airplane up and do\a.:n suddenly and producebumpy flight. The flyer calls it "turbul€nce."

On a leger scale, inequalities of temperatue causewhat rs cal led the global c ircular 'on of rhe air .

From the tropics, warm air is costantly rjsing and

movins towards the poles. Cold.air from the potes isconstantly moving away fron them.

These movements of air cause th€ prevailing hori-zont€l winds i'hich blow across the earth.

7-9

The prevai l ing dircct iono certoin ext.ni bY:

of these winds is modified ro

a. The rctation of the earth

b. Unevenn€ss of th€ €arth's surface'

c. Distribution o{ land and sea areas'

d. The passage of storms.

These 4 factors influence the general

direction of the winds

In localized areas, the difiereni temp€ratures or

tand and sea c.eate local winds The land heats raster

than th€ sea, and air over ihe laDd b

dudng the day tban it does over the sea Cooler

theavier) air from the sea moves in io take the place

oI the warm air, creatiug a sea breeze'If heat is removed lrom the €anh-for example' at

sundown the €arth cools rapidlv When

oerature falls belorv that o{ the adjoining sea' a land

Lreeze is created. Cool air from the land flos's out

to Lake lhe place of rhe r is ing wam air i rom the sea'

The atmosphere has a basic tendencv-ro stabilize

itself around the earth. This means that the ail tends

to equalize its barometric pressure lf there is too

OFF-SHORE gREE2ESEA BRECZE

7-lo

little air in one place (low baronetric pressurc) andtoo much air in another place (high baromet c pres_sure) the air fmm the hish pressure area tends tomove towed the low pressure area. If the difierencein plessurc is great, the air moves faster. If it isnttso great, the air moves tess rapidly. The difierence inprcssures between points in the 2 arcas is caled"pressure gradient." The speed or vetocity of thewind is determined by this pressure gradient.

If the isobars, which are lines of equal atmos-phedc pressure dlawn on a weather map, arc closetogether this means that the pressurc gradient issteep. High winds may b€ expected in that arca.

The speed o{ wind is measured in miles per hour.On weath€r naps meteorotogists use the Beaufortscale to ;ndicate wind \elocity. r- r

rIL n r.n of. rypr.ct wrrlo mcp. tr +qr rh. mdh! cr oEo or hr.h

W|{AI PLANE5 ARE IHESE?

! !i :

o o

I

4

6

7

8

9

lo

l l

t2

" f ,l*'^ ''""' "

MOISTURE IN IHE AIMOSPHEREWe have learned that the arnouni of water vapor int}le air vaiies. We have also leam€d that th€ amountof water vapor in the air determines its humiditv

In modern weath€! {orecasting, humiditv can beexpressed as the dewpoint ol th€ stmosphere, The

dewpoint is a temp€rature reading. It is the tem-perature to wbich a given part of the altospheremtlst be cooled to become satunted with water

Th€ dewpoint of the air in your own home mav b€

determined by a simple experiment Take a thinmetal pitcher partly filled with water aDd place athermometer in it. Th€n add small pieces o{ ice.When the water and pitcher have been cooled to thedewpoint, small drops oI water {orm on the outsideof the pitcher. The temperature indicated on thethermometer when the drops begin to form on theoutside of the pitcher is the dewpoint

In other words, iJ the air in the room were cooledto the temperature shown on the tieroom.ter itwould be saturated with water vapo}. If the momcontinued to grow colder, some o{ the water vaporwould condense out in rhe form of water.

On a weather map, the dewpoint is alwavs foundnext to the prevailing temperatu.e. The difierencebetween temperature and d€wpoint is calledspr€ad-

If the spread is small, and cooling of the air islikely, Iog or clouds may be expected.

Another way you may measule the amount ofmoisture in tle atmosphele is by relative humidity.When air is saturated, we say that it has 100 per

cent relative humidity.Completely dry.air (which is never forurd, how-

everl woLrld have a relative humidiiy of zero.I{ we are told that the relative humiditv is 50 per

cent, it means that the atmospherc at a given temper_ature and pressure is holding hau the water vapor itcould contain under tlte €xisting conditions

ID the atmospherc, when a parcel o{ air has beencooled to and beyond the original dewpoint, thewater vapor in the air condenses and foms cloudsor fog.

This cooling process is caus€d mainly by:a) Convection, This is a rising current of air' As theair dses, it expands and cools considerablv.b) Radiation. After sunset, the ground loses its heatrapidly. The loss oI heat is partially detenined bvthe nature of the ground. For example, rocks and

7-l l

sand lose their heat more npidly than wooded areas

c) Adveclioh. This is lhe in6ow of warm ah over acold su ace; for instance, air otr the Gulf Streamflowing over the I-abrador curleDt.

r at a'rruuFog may be defined ss a cloud on the ground ltolten forms at night as a result of the air cooling byits contact with the ground to such an extent that theail becomes saturat€d. That is, it won't hold anv

Ground fog. This type of fog forms on a sur{aceair-cooled during the night. It 6rst app€als in val-leys and deprcssions as isolated patches or, if th€terrain is level, where saturation of air is greatest.Patches o{ fog join to iorm a layer which deep€nsuntil an hour or two after sunrise.

Adv€ction fog. This log develops principally inwinter or early spring as e result of moist ai! drift-ing over colder eround or snow.

Upslope fog. This fog develops in uphill winds. Itis a cloud resting on a slope or hill top.

A pilot may exp€ct fog when temperature anddewpoint arc only a few degrees apart. Fog is alsolikely in a widespreed area of prccipitation.

7-13

cr0|JDsCtouds are to the aviator what tracks are to the

Just as the hunter knows by its tracks what animalhas passed and when, so the aviator, by studying thectouds, should be able to tell what unseen changeshave taken place in the atmosphere to lolm thoseclouds.

Atthough a very elaborate classification of cloudshas been compiled, it is su$cient lor the pilot to clas-sify them accoding 10 their shape or form and alti-tude. The 2 types of clouds to remember arel

1. SbatiJorm2. CumuliJom

The 3 levels at which clouds lorm are classfied sim-ply as:

1. Hieh2. Middle3. Low

Cumulus and stratus are gen€rally lowleYelclouds. Altoctrmulus and altostratus are middl€'levelclouds. Ciuus, cirrocumulus and cirrostratus arehigh-l€vel clouds.

On the low level, we also find nimbostratus, whichis a stmtus cloud foming in rain or snow, and stmto-cumulus, which is a wa!'l' fon o{ stratus. Cumulo-nimbus clouds are also found on this lev€I.

Cilfus, cinosbatus and cinocumulus are the

-F-:_:-

.Gff i

t, !:=.-->c<-,-;-'- ,

hiehest ctouds in the sky. Because of th€ height atwhich -they {orrn they are always composed of icecrystals. Their pres€nce in the sky often means badweather is coming.

Altocumulus clouds, in the middle layer in thesky, are composed primadly oI water. Th€y are ofienassociated with stonns, sometimes with thunder-storms. AltostEtus clouds, on the sane level, areconposed of ice and water. nain or snow may beexpected wh€n they are present.

Statocrmulus. stratus and nimboshatus are thelow layers of cloud. They are composeu ur water' lnnear-{reezing temperatues, stratocumulus clouds aredangemus to an aviator because the water in themmay accumulate on his airytane in the forrn of iceStratus are the lowest of all the clouds. They actuatlylook like fog in the sky. When present, they may beaccompanied by a drizzling rain. Nimbostatus cloudsindicat€ persistent ruin or snow.

Cmulus clouds do not belong to the layer type o{cloud forrns. They develop upwards, sometimesmassing to geat heights. In good weather they donot mass vertically but float as separate woollytufis. When they begin to mass and develop upwards,Iorming towering crmulus, it is a sign that you mayexpect changing weather.

As they tow€I upwards, they hay develop intocumulonimbus which produc€ showers and ihunder-

7-14

3. Brok€n. 'men from 5/10 to 9/10

4. Overcast. When more than 9/10

storms. They are then known as ,,thunderheads.',Terms used by meteorologists to descdbe th€

cloud conditions of the sky are:1. Cl€ar. WIen there are no clouds present, or lessthan 1/10 of the sky is cloud-covered_2- Scattered. When from 1/10 to S/I0 o{ the sky is

of the sky is

of the sky is

rtrF aD

Clouds arc the basis on which you derermme meceiling for flyine. The ceiling is tle distance in feetfrcm the ground to the base oI ihe towest ctoudcovering more than 4,.'10 of the sky. I{ there are noclouds below 10,000 feet, the c€iling is unlimiteat.The ceilinc is also unlimited i{ Iess than hatf the skyis c'oud-cov"red belor I0,000 feer.

- If weather conditions reduce vetical visibility io

less than 50 feet, the ceiling is zero.

SCATT'I!D

IROK'N

STABITITYW€ather chanses which occur dep€nd to a v€ry larc€extent upon whether the ail over a given region oft}le earth is in a stable or unstable condition. Wlenair is stable and dry, we may normally expect a pe-riod of good weather. In unstable air, we frequentlyhav€ thunderstorms and the high velocity windsusually associated vith them.

Generally speaking, we can determine whetherwe have a stable o! unstable ail condition by mea-suring the Iate at which the temperature decreaseswith altitude (the lapse mte).

At this point it is necessary to consider how thetemperature of a parcel oI air is affected by verricat

As you already bave been totd, when a parcel olLrnsalurated air rises it cools because ol expansionat the mte of about 514 desrees Fahrenheft per1.000 feet. This }ate of cooling is called the dryadiabatic laps€ rale.

Another point to consider is that iI a parcel of airhas the same temperature as the surounding par-cels its weight will be equal to that of the suround-

7-15

ing air. I1, on the other hand, an air parcel rs warmerthan its neighboring parcels it will weigh less thanthe adjacent air.

Parcels that are warmer than other parcels aroundthem are buoyant and will rise. Parcels colder thanthose oI thei.r eDvironment weish mole and will sink.

A rising parcel of air continues to rise only as longas it is warmer than the surrounding air. When ithas ris€n and cooled to the temperature of the sur-rounding air it stops dsine.

If the t€mperature of the sunounding air de-npidly with altiiude (a hich lapse

Iate) than that o{ the rising parcel of air, the latterwill rise more rapidly and to considerable altitude.

W}len this happens, vertical currents arc likelyand the air is said to be in an unstable condition.

On the other hand, if the temperaturc of the sur-rounding air does not decrease as mpidty withaltitude as that of a rising parcel o{ air, the latterwill rise slowly and to no considenble height. Inthis cas€, vertical currents are unlikely and theatmosphere is said to be in a stable condition.

UNSTABLE AIR CONDIIION SIABLE AIR CONDITION

7-16

AIR MASSES

Pressure, humidity and tempenture diflerences inthe atmosphere are what cause weath€r. But thepicture is not complete without a knowledge of t}Iecharacteristics of the laree masses of air which sur-

When an extremely large parcel of the atmosphereis fairly uniform in temperature, humidity and pres-sure, it is called an air mass. An air mass is usuallylarge, sometimes covering 1,000,000 squarc miles.

Air masses usually are not stationary. They moveas single bodies, away from their sources o{ origin.

AM ERICAIINORTH

ORIGIN TIM EAlc.lc, C.n.dr ord lhr.osfiour ih. y..r

Gr.., B..in .nd l. , wthr.r .nd tpring

l. lv. uhr.d sr.r.. w.rn.r l.t, of r..r

Ncnh P.do. O...r lhroulh.ur ih. y.dr

N.dh afllnri. o...r rhrou.h.ur rh. y.dr

Sdrsd.r. S.. Ihrou.h.ur rh. y..r

cux .f [.ri.o ond th,ourh.ur rh. y..r

tr.d.-wrnd b.h b.tw..n winr.r !nd .drty,prins

They arc afiected by the surfaces ove! which tteypass. Tropical air masses moving towards the polesare cooled- Polar air masses moving towards theequator are heated. When diy air masses move overa body of water their humidty increases.

Just as mig.atory birds tend to follow customarypa(hs of f l i8ht wirh lhe changinC :pasonsJ so airmasses tend to move along thet customary roures ardifierent seasons of the year. For example, coldpolar coDtinental air odeinates in northeh Canadaand mo!es sourheastward af fos. Norrh A"ner ica.

AIR MASSES*/TIt

I IAM E

An air mass whose tehperature in its lower layersis higher than that of the ground over which it passesis a warm air masB.

7.17

An ail mass \rhose tempemture in its lower layersis lower than that of the ground over which it passesis a cold air mass.

AIR MA55 CHARACTERISIICSCold Air Mcs3a. Turbulent air near the $oundb. Good visibiliiyc. CtmuliJorm ctoudsd. Showers, thunderstorms, hail, snow flunies

FROIITSWe have learned that air masses nove across theearth's suface. The zones in which cotd ard wannair masses collide are known as frontal zones, orfronts. They may be warrn fronts or cold fronts.The impact of these air masses often results inextensive disturbances of the atmosphere.

We know that cold air is heavier than warm alr.Therefore a movins cold air mass, whe]l ft meers avarm atu mass, pushes under the warme! air andlifts it to hishq levels. When the cold air mass con-

a. Smooth air near the Croundb. Poor visibllityc. StFtiform cloudsd. Drizzle, mist, dew

tinu€s to exert this displacing influence aeainst thewarm atu mass, the iront is called a cold front.

When a warm air mass is moving towards a cotdair rnass and continues to push back and displace it,the ftont is call€d a wann Ircnt.

Som€times, cold and warm air masses Lave prop-edies very much alike. When these masses meet. afront may not develop. Instead, the two air massesmerg€ with each other and do not necessarily bring

COLD FRONT

IVARM FRONT

7-t I

6fQ *

At every airport throughout the United States hourlyweather repolts are available to the flyer. These re-po s arc gathered by the U. S. Department of Com-merce Weath€r Bureau lrom all paris of the countryand are sent out over a teletype network to everyairport on the circuit.

lbe rcport consists of the following items: TimeoI obseNation, celting, sky condition, visibility, cur-rent weather. obstructions to vision, barom€tric se:level pressue, temperaturc, dewpoint, wind diec-tion and velocity, altimet€r setting, remarks.

Here dre 3 3ompl€ wsothor reporlton d certcin ofternoon:

rt:8

tt

c w@ lo lr( - 085/15/69 | 7/919FqtgrvrD trrc Ir ttRtt rt

sPI, rro@Fn- 7470 !,/ 'ILIXA

Clr t0 ClD E

6!', 1OA tEF- 06r/18/14t\5/978 '

7-19

And now we'll trqnslote lhem for you

fltat oa3ttvAfloN

tacoND otgEtva oll

CG i3 tho tymbol for Chic.Eo, lllinoi.r C i!.onrd.r weoth.r; l ir moo3ur.d.eitins;60 ir4ooo-fool .eilins, @/@ is high overcori {abov€ 9,750 to€r) o'd tower broken .toud, (!l6.000 feei);4 is 4 mile. vi.ibilirr I i3 rhundordo?m, X- is tishl 3mote, O85 i, b€rom€r,i€teai€vsl pressurs of | 008.5 millibdr3, 75 ir t€mpersrur€; 69 i. dewpoint, t 7 i3 wind touth,7 mil6r per ho'rr;97Q ir oltim.t.r.ofii||g 29.79 Inche!; ,,fqr vivid trng nw rhru no,, is onobbrevidred v..don of "frequenr vivid lighhins northwer rh.ougl northeqlr.,,

Iwl i3 rho 3ymbol for Woiernon, tllinois; Spt, is lp€€iol roport (du€ ro .h.ns. of rignifi.an.oin w€clher); M i3 m.Gur.d ceilingr 30 ir ceiling oI 3,OOO fesh (} is broten ctoud::RW- is l;ght r.in.howe.;74 is tempe.orur6, TO i. dewpoint, |r' S it wind norrh-nonheor.5 miler per hourr "lrng.ld to.ld 6,, is o condenscd forrn of,,tighrning ctoud ro ctoud.ost.,,

r/A3r orSlwATtoN

BN i3 rho symbol for Burlington, lowo; Spl l! tpociot .eporr (duo ro rignificonr chdng. fromeorli€r roporr); ,lO is h€ighr of !.c[srod clouds (4,OOO f€d); 0 i! icsr|lr.d ctoud3, 4 ii 4 ,rilesvi3ibiliry; GF- i3light giound fogr O8l ir bcromerri. 3.oJevet pr.ssure of toog.l mittiborsl78 it temporotore, 74 ir d.wpoinrr +\ 5 is s;ind norrh-norrhwBr, 5 mit6t plr hour 978i. oltihet.r 3lning of 29.78 inch6r.

7-20

By studymg these rcpolts for t}le stations alonghis line of flight and checkins them wiih the ;eathermap which is available at the airyo{ from which heis preparine to depa{, a pilot is able to forecast theteather to be expected en route.

f'or instance, if the spread between temperatureand dewpoint at his destination is small, and he isflying late in th€ day, he may encounter Iog on hisardval. (The sround cools rapidly at night and coolsthe air.) On the other hand, if he is due to arriveearlier in the day he may find that the spread has in-cleased because the atu has been heated by the wa]nground. If he is flying frcn an area o{ hilgh pre$ueto a destination where the pressure is low, he inay

t

find that the velocity of th€ winds has increased.The weather map will show him in which directioncold or wan fronts are moving and a glance at theweather repots from stations in the path oI the fmntwill indicate what is happening in those areas.

Forecasting the weather is a tull-time job for amet€orologist- Though it is not necessary for a pilotto be an expert meteorologist, h€ will find that aworking knowledee of reather and forecasting theweather pays ofi handsonely by inueasing his con-fidence aDd making his flyinc pleasant and safe.

When a pilot starts out on a flight, ther€ are 3words which should always be uppenost in hismind. They are "Know Your Weather."

Forecasling wecther is o full-time iob

l€.oure mon do.t nol ioke lo the o|f nolurolly. llke o blrd, he hd. hqd to rolve

more probleh. th6n the prlnclpcl one oI llndlng q way fo ny. When he rlrer

from rh. ground, hlr body Ir almorr lmmedtdlely dfie.led In o mdnncr it ror.ly

erperlen.er on eorth. Ar.oon or he bsglnr to mov. oround ln lh. tky hl. bodt

Ir luble4.d to trlll orh.r rltuollonr cnd condltlon. for whl.h lt b not noturolly

prepdred. * For theie red.onr, d 0yer'r body murl b€ unuluolly srrong and

rugt€d. In oddlrlon, hc musl know how to avold or mlnlmlze hormtul or

dltlrer.lng erperlences In fllght. A per5on who intsndt to lly connot leorn roo

.orly how to prepore hli body lor movlng rhrough the olr ot hlgh spesdr. * In

the tollowlng pq!.., you wlll l€orn whqr hoppcn! ro your body olofr ond how

bori lo condlrlon yourrell for rhe nylng you hope to do.

r f , tHts sECtrolr . . .

Flylng ond the lnner m.nConditionr for Which rhe Humon lody Wo3n1 8lih-Vorths Wcishh of Ah'o6ph€rk Pr$rsre ot

Diff.r.nt Alritud$-Whoi Altirude Doe6 io Thc Ai. W. &F he-PhF.'(.ol Efi€cr! of Oxygen Lock-

Two Woy5 ro Avoid Anoxio-Go5 Trcuble5 ot Hish Ahitudd-lbw to l^inihize ll'em-Whot

Hoppem in lhc Middlo Ecr during A$cnr ond D6tc.rr-Ixficr.rr€ blrw€ln Po.itivc ,,.c.l.rotion

lP$itive G) ond Nesdrive Accelerotion lN.gorivc G)-Th.ir R6pccrive PhFkol E{ecb-Whot

Governs You S€nse of Boldnce in Hisht-How to Inprorc Night V3ioo

Firrt AidIt3 Generol Obiectiyci-lmportonc. of Afiddi.s to Liost Scrbt6 Problds FiBr-How to Stop

Bleedins-How ro Prevenl Infection-Woy3 of Relieving Poin-Whot to Do Aboul Fro.turca-How to

Treof Burni-Symplomr o.d Treorhent of Shock-Synptoft ond Tr.orn.nt of fro6rbne-Artinciol

Respirotion-How to Corry Iniured Perioni-Donseri of Exho6l GGes ond How to Proiect Yourself

;f Yor, Dct.ll Then

Phydcql Fltnesr qnd Requlromenlr for FMngSome R.osons Why Flyer5l'{usf 8e E peciolly Fit-Ihe Army's Risotour PhFicol Eromimfio. tor

Flight Troining-Compiling Youf edi.ol Hi5ro.I-lmporron.e of Po5turc-D.tdilr of Exominoiion-

Stondord3 of Heisht ond Weisht for Vorious Po3ltion3 in AAF-Five Woys ro Sofesuord Your

Vi3ion-Proper Core of Teeth-Whol Coftprire3 on Ad.quote Diet

Flylng SctetyPilot ErroB Whi.h Couse Moit Accidehts-How lr{oioriry of A.cidents Hoppen-The Seruible Pilot'i

Attitudo toword3 Sof.ty-Who he Shoulder Hohesi li ond Doe3-Proper Core ond U5e of rhe

Porochutc-ltcm3 of Emors.ncy Equipment the Wise Pilor Will Hove on Hond

8- l

' FtYll{G

Your Eody in Fl isht\.:clort in a sky battle often depends on how hieh] ou can fi]. frequently on how fast ) ou can fly. Forir)at reason. our planes must bc more powerful thanlle enemr's. X[oreo\rer, our pilots musi bo able to Co.r,qher into the blue and flr more clcverly than theirio€i The]'must fect as stong. think as clearty, andse€ as keenl] at 35.000 {eet as they do ai sea level.

l-et man Nas built to live on the ground. Hls bodys .or equipped to make up for the drop in armos-phenc pressure and temperature chanses vhich€<e place as he clirnbs into the air. If he is nor pro-Iecred against them, they can crtpple his ability tofl1 md eren thrcaten his lifc. He needs specialkno$Ledge. too. to minimize the tenilic strain on his

AND THE II{I{ER MAl{

body when he darts and dives through the sky ar aspeed oI 6 or ? miles a minute.

Atmospheric pressure. as you learn rvhen youstudy aerodynamics and meteorology, is the weightof the air. At sea level, it weighs about 15 pounds persquare inch. At 18,000 feet, it is only half as heavyiai 33,500 feet, one-fourth as heavy.

This concems us because it directty atTects theamount of oxygen we get. Our bodies need oxygenjusi as an internal combustion engine does. Withouti1. ihe eneine won r run and we can r t ivc

The ah we breathe always contains ihe same reta-tive amount of oxygen 21per cent. But when we goup in an airplane and the atmosphe c pressu.e soesdown, the pressure of oxygen in the a drops, toc.

a-2This is pe ectly logical. T$'enty-one pel cent of 15pounds per square inch is Drore than 21 per cent 017% pounds per square inch.

The latter 6gure, you remcmber, is the weisht ofair (atmospheic pressure) at 18,000 feei.

Norv. at ground level . r l -e pr"- .ur" ot oxlgen in

the air is suficient to supply \ihat our bodies need.For peak hentat and physical emciency. $,e Dusrkeep our blood saturated s.ith oxygen to the exrentof 95 per cent. When the parlial pressure oi i.hatlife-siving gas drops, the percenlage o{ t in the btooddecliDes also. The elTect is to lower our efrciency.

masks sinilarl). equipped. Most are still, io a largeextent- experjmental. They are not Iidely used.

The other \ray. and a FrLrch nore practical one, isro i r . r ras. ,hp pe'( .n l"r . of o\y8pn in rhe air youbreathe as you climb. Oxygen masks and apparaiusacconrplish this and that is why they have become soimportant to a!iation in receni. yeam.

WHEN WE I{EED OXYGEI{...At first, we don t notice oxygen lack. In fact. oddlrenoughi we generall! feel exceptionallt' good. Alnosiinmediately, however, an oppositc efiect appear-c. Wecan't see as wel| We think less clearll and react moreslolvly. This condition is called o\]gen ,*ant, or

Anoxia increases in severiiy as the bod\. sets lesand less oxygen. Unless the loss is madr up. ourrninds become dull, lve lose our memorl'. and ourhuscular conrml is poor. Ar 20.000 feer. sreat phr sical weakness sets in. We mar hale tirs of laughingor crying. Extreme fatigue and sleepiness come onAl, . !e 20.000 f , ot . r . o.r peop e 1, , . - .ons.ro r .nF..and death may follorv.

Th, ro arp 2 qar. ur \Flp:n! rou avn d an"r ia rni l t r t rde f ly i re Onr

- to

"dju.r ' r . r ' r . .pherr" pre.-

sure artificially, keeping it about thc same ar highahiiudes as it is on the ground. This has been done inpressurized cabins, and in flying suits and brcathing

GAS TR(lUBLESAnoiher unpleasant efiect of ibcr.ascd allilude ahdlowered atmospheric pressure on thc bodr cadnot bcofiset artifrcially except in a prcssurize.l cabin o.some such device That is the pain, sohelimes acure.which body sases cause when they expand Nithinthe stomach, intcstines, sinuses and Diddle ear. Asoutside pressure decreases l.hcse gases iend toircrcas. in \o luI e. l r le a l ,a l l "on. and cd., :n pdrnwhen they can't be released-

You cannot control this tendency entirely bur youcan do much to reduce its ellecis. Don't chew sumbefore making a high altitudc flight. You sNallow toomuch ai!. Avoid gas-producing f@ds, such as beaDs.cabbage, and carbonatcd beverages.

Not only do body gases expand \rhcn atmosphcic

, , - - l -

pressure decreasesj but gascs in solution in the bloodand olher fluids tend io escape and forn bubbles.This reaction is similar to what happens shen your lkp rhe cap of f a bo| | le " i

.oda. Whrle rh" cap i . or ,the dissolved sas (carbon dioxide) renuins ih solu-tion. Wlen you remove thc cap you rcduce the pres,sure and bubblcs quickly foh.

At altitudes of 30.000 feet or more, the nitrogen inyour body fluids forms bubbles, which appear in the

8-3

joints and iissues. Thcy mar give you a great dcal olpain in the joints (a condition called thc bcnds). atcel . rg nf r , .ghr on )our. l - - . r . rhrn, * o. pdrn ryour throat! or an itchin8 o. irritation of the skin.Sometimes these conditions arc callcd aero-eDbolisn.Remember that the more rapidly you clnnb, thchigher you go, i.he loneer you stay. the coldcr youget, and the more you cxercise at great hcights. themore likely Iou are to have these unplcasant feelinss.

I I ISIDT T| lEMIDDLE EAR.

A third effect o{ increased altitude on the body usu-ally results only in discomforl, but hay be exiremclypainful. It occurs because of pressurc ehanges *'ithinthe middl€ ear. The middle ear is an air-fflled bonyspace behind your ear drud. A slitlike canal. calledthe Eustachian tube, connects ii $'iih your throat.

As ihe air in the middlc ear expands it pushes onthe ear drum and makes your ear {eel full. At ihier-vals, while you're gaining altitude in a plane. thcair slips out of the middle ear throueh the EustachiaDIube. Wh.n that happens you he"r a c l rck. The pr" :sure is then equal between the middle ear and thcoutside atmospheie.

When your plane descends, howevcr. you have tomake an efiort to opeD the Eustachian tube yourself.You can do it by swallowing, yawning. or pinchingyour nose and blowing gently with your mouth shut.This proccss is called clearing your ears. It lets theoutside air into the middle ear and equal;zes ihc

But when you have a head cold, the lining of theEustachian tube is always ss.ollen- It then becomesdimcult or impossible to clear your eals in the waywe've descdbed. Yet. i{ you don't clear them whenyou arc losing altitude in an airplane, you may rup-ture your ear drums. Therefore, don't dy when youhave a cold. I{ you have to fly, stay low and clinband descend gnduaily.

Your sinuses prcsent a problem similar to that ofthe niddle ear in oisht. They seldom give you troubleunless you have a cold. Then, however, pressurechanges on the sinuses cause great pain. That isanother impotant reason for not flying under such

8.4

P(lSITIltE A1{D 1{EGATIVE

into your head during negative acceleration, whichproduces n€getive G. Using the roller coaster exam-ple again, this is the force vhich affects you when thecar races over the top of a s€ and starls down. Yousuddenly feel that you have no weight at all and aieabout to fly off into space.

A flyer experiences this sensation, only to a muchcrcater decree, when he does a sudden push-down oroutside tuln. As the blood is driven into his head, itthrobs with pain; his eyes i€el gritty and bulging.He may se€ rcd or even lose his sight completely(redding out) for a brief tirae.

A person can stand a great deal more positive t}lannegative acceleration. That is because his body ismorc elastic and can make a lot more room lor asudden excess of blood than his head can. Flyershave been knoNn to expelience forces up to +12Gand still live but negative acceleration which resultsin forces gieater than 3C is often {atal.

Whenever you changc the speed of an airplane orits direction, new {orces aci upon your body. Themore sudden or sharp the maneuver, the grcater theetrect o{ these forces.

You've ridden on a roller coaster. Bemember whenit rcached the botton o{ a dip and stated up? You{elt as if you'd go sht through the floor. The lorcethat was acting on you then is the same one whichaffectva flyer when he makes a sharp inside tuin orpulls out of a power dive. It resuits from positiveaccel€ration and is called positive G. The letter Gstands for gravity.

On the ground, at rest, your veight exactly equalsthe force of Cravity exefied upon it. The symbolcommonly used to represent this force is +1G.

However, in an inside turn or pull-out, the cen-tifugal forc€ pushing you against the floor of theplane Creatly increases your weight in relation toCravity. Sometimes it becomes several times as muchas it normally is.

When this happens the blood is tuawn ftom yourhead towards your feet. Its efiect, varying with theamount of positive G, ranges from sliehtly impairedhearing and less efficiency at the controls to a da.k-ening of vision or, for a short time, complete loss ofsighl (blackin8 oul) and even loss ol consciousness.

Blood suqes in th€ opposite direction and rushes

E-5

Y(lUR SEl{SE ( lF BAI-AI{CEDo you know what gives you a sense o{ balance inflieht? Part of it, of course, comes from seeing whereyou are in relation to gound and sky. Then, thereis the feeling you have in your muscles and tendonswhen you tum or move up and down in the air.You've heard someone say, after descending rapidlyin an elevator. I Ihink I lef i my 5romacl^ up rhere:That person had no doubt he was movine downward.though he couldn't see it happen. By similar sensa-tions while flying, pilots know just about how theyare moving in rctation to the ground. They call itflying by the seat of their pants. That's where rheyusually leel the gessure changes.

i

I

H(l l l t l T( l IMPR(lVE I{IGHT t| ISI( l I IPilots must often fly at nighi. Naturally thet visionisn't nearly as Cood then as it is in the daytime. Butthey are able to improve it considerably in severalways rvhich you n'ill ffnd it fun to try youNeu.

FiNt, accustom your eyes to darkness by stayingin a dark room or wearing red goggles for hau anhour before going out into the night.

Once you're ouidoo$ in the dark, don't lookdirectly at the things you wish to see. but sliehtlyto one side of ihem. Yciu have a night blind spot atthe center of your eye. Thc ofi,center parts o{ it arebeiler able io see an object at night and det€ct its

Eat {oods. such as eegs, butt.r, carrots, spinach,and ereens. which are rich in Vitamin A, essential to

' iEqually important toryour sense of balance. hor-

ever. ic rhe lablr i r th or inner ear. Thr" or8an cor-sists of 3 small circular tubes, called the semrcircularcanals, which are fitled with a liquid. Whenever youmove your head, the liquid moves too. It ihe! pressesagainst ihe walls of the tubes and causes the brainto receive signals indicating your body is rotating ina certain direction. If you whirl around in one direc-tion and suddenty stop, you feel as i{ you wererevolving in the opposite direciion. That's becauserh. f lJ id in tho5c circular rub"s or your innrr Fdr issrill moving. For a momeni or two, it gives your blaina false impression. When such impulses are repearedmany inres, as happens on a tossing ship or plane,pe$ons ailected often become scasick or airsick.

good night vision. Piiots who fly in the dark do thesethings. In addition, they keep their planes as dimlytighted as possible at night. They read instrumcnrs,maps, and charts mpidly, or with one eye sxur.Finally, they wear their oxygen masks {rom theground up on night flights.

8-5

Eveiy airylane should contain a ffrst-aid kit. Everyflyer should know the principles of fiIst aid. Learnthe Red Cross liNt-aid methods. If an accident occursand someone is injured, be prepared.

The ceneral objectives o{ frrst aid arc to:1. Stop bleeding.2. Sustain breathing.3, Relieve pain.

5. Prevent infection.Attend to the most serious soblems fiIst. If bleed-

ing is occurring, stop it. II breathing has stopped,give artificial respiration. If bones are broken, splintthem before you move th€ injured person.

--t<:\ I\\'-_r-

To Srop Bla.dins:1. Cover wound wilh a sterile dressing and apply

2. If this does not stop the bleeding, elevate the part.3. If these measures fail, apply a toumiquet in themiddle o{ tle upper arm or middle of the thish. Youmust rclease the tourniquet every 15 minutes for atleast a few seconds, depending upon the amount ofbleeding.

lo Prevont lnf..tion:1. Apply coat oI iodine to sma cuts and scratches.2. Sprinkte sulfa powder into la€er wounds.3. Cover wound with sterile dre*sing.

To Reli€ve Pcin:If pain is severc, inject morphine if available.l. First pairt tle skin with iodine.2. Then thrust needle throush the skin.3. Slowly inject contents o{ the tube of morphine.Morphine relieves pain, decreases shock, and facil;ta[es movine the iniured. However, never give mor-phine to anyone who is unconscious, to a person witha head injury, or to one who is breathing less than12 times a minute.

1. Don't move a person with a broken bone unlessabsotutely necessary.2. Splint the broken limb, using boads, poles, orrolled-up blankets or rewspapers.3. I{ the broken bone prctudes thmugh the skin,

8-7stop the bl€eding, sp nkle suua powder into thewound, and cover with a sterile dressing.4. Inj€ct morphine, if available.5. Do not atrempt to set the bone.

BurniL Apply bodc ointment, suua ointrnent, or otherbu.n ointment to a stedle drcssing.2. Apply the dressing to the buln.3. For severe burns give morphine, if available.4. Don't open blisters.

ShockShock follows severe inju es, especialty fracturesand burns. The danger signs ar€ pale and clammyskin, shallow brcathing, and sometimes nausea andvomiting.1. Stop the bleeding.2. Ke€p patient warm with blankets, but avoid exces-

3. Put patient on his back wiih head slightly lowerthan fe€t.4. Give him pule oxygen to breathe, iJ available.5. Inject morphine, if availabl€.

Frorrbite1. Fingers, to€s, eals, cheeks, chin, and nose are mostcommonly afiected.2. Numbness, stiftness and whitish discolorauon arethe frrst slTnptoms.3. Wrinkle your face. If it is numb, frostbite is begin-ntns. Warm cold spots with yoru bare hands.4._ If ftostbite occurs, warm the affected part gladu_ally against warm parts oI your body such as your

5. Nevel warm a fmstbitten pa rapidly.6. Do not rub a fmstbitten part.7. Keep it dry. Don't put it in water, kerosene o, anyother liquid.8. Cover with a stedle dressing.9. If blisters develop, do not open them.

WHAI PIANES ARE THESE?

8-8

Un(on3.iou!nerr or N€or Uncons.iousne!!Oxysen lack, carbon monoxide poisonins, aod injurvto ihe head are important causes lf breathing hasstopped, begin artiffcial respiratioD immediatelv:

1. Lay the pati€nt on his bely with one arm bent atelbo\\', face resting on hand and othe! arm extended

2. Open his mouth and remove all {oreign substanccssuch as false teeth and ch€wing Cum.3. Give him pure oxygen to breaihe, if available

4. Kneel astrid€ patieni's thighs with your kneesabout even with his. Plac€ palms of your handsaeainst small of patient's back with your little fingerover the lowest rib.5. With youi arms stifi, swing your body forwardslo$ly so that your weight is gradually applied overpatient's back. This shoutd tak€ about 3 seconds.

6. Release your hands with sudden snap and swingbackward to rcmove all pressurc frcm patient. A{terabout 2 seconds repeai this opemtion. Continue forat leasi 2 hours or until normal bt€athing has beeun.

7. K€ep patient warm.8. Do not give morphin€.

Dcng€rou. GcseiExhaust gas€s are poisonous. They contain carbonnonoxide, which is particularly hazardous, and thehazad ingeases at altitudes above sround level.Headaches, nausea, shortness of heath, dizziness,dimming of vision, unconsciousness and €ven deathnay occur when it is bleath€d. Although carbonmonoxide has no odor, you should suspect itspresence whenever you smell €xhaust gases in theairylane. If you detect exhaust gases or any other

fumes while in flight, you should protect yourseuby wearing your oxygen mask and breathing pureoxygen.

WHAT PIANE5 ARE THESE?

Tronsbortcrion of woundedI{ it becomes necessary to move an injured person,improvise a litter with 2 poles and a patu of jackets.

Turn the sleeves inside out and insert the polesthrough them. Then button jackets over the outsideof the poles. You can obtain additional support byusing boards or cardboard inside the jackets. Youcan also improvise litters with poles and blankets.

8-9

AI{D REOUIREMEl{TS FOR FLYIl{GA careful history is compiled of all the diseases,

operations, and injud€s which you have had. Certainones oI ihese are disqualifying. A Ftight Surgeon,who is fall1iliar with the physical requirementslhich flying nDposes. then will give you a physical

Your posture must be good. Physical tmining andregutar exercise will help you attain this. Bad postuie1\'hich is no: correctible will disqualify you.. Your body wiil be examired carefully from headto foot. The Flight Surseon and his assistants {il1record you pulse and blood pressure and observetheir rcsponse io exercise. Poor physical conditionui l l .horv l r . " l l In rhis le.r . Thpr u, l l .xamine )oureyes by a va ety of tests because eood lision, includ-ine color vision, is oI extreme importance to all nyers.You. nose, ears, teeth, throat. hcart, lungs, and abdo-men will be examined with equal thoroughness. Theyrvitl make an x-ray picture of your chcst and tesr asample of your blood in the laboratory. Only themost fit will be permitted to fty. Your neNous systernand your psychologic reactions must stand up underexacting iests, for ehotional stability is one of thepdmary requirehents for emcient and safe nying.

The physical requirements for flight tninine in themilitary air services are most demanding and strin-eeni. You will understand lhe reason if you lookinto rhe pilot's cabin of one of our heavy bombersand notice the hundred,odd instruments-controls,switches, levers, dials, and Cages-that line th. $'alls,ceilins, and floor. Then imagine you are dlessed in aheavy flight suii, boots and mitiens, or in electricallyheated clothine, with a parachute strapped on yourback. An oxygen mask with a built-in microphonccoverc your {ace. Your eyes peer through Soggles.Your ears are trying to hear messages coming throughthe eaiphones amid the roar of four 1000 ho$epo{ereneines. Imaeinej moreover, that you are 6 or 7 milcsabove the ground, vith the atmospheric pressurereduc.d by thlee-fourths and the outsid. tempera-ture 60 to ?0 degrees below zero. Only pe$ons in thebest possible physical condition can {unction efr cientlyin such an environment.

Many perso'ns are now being accepted {or militaryservice *'ho rvould have been rejected previouslybecause of physical defects. However, these men can-not rcceive advanced training, especially flisht train-ine, unless they can pass the rigorous physical exam-ination required of all flyers. The Army's physicalrequirements for Rying are rieidly pres$ibed. Unlessyou can meet them, you can't fly.

8- loIn addition you hust con{orm to certain standards

of heieht and weight in ordei to fly in the Army AirForces. Your height must not be less than 60 ihchesor morc thaD ?6, youi weight not over 200 pounds.Here are the heisht aDd weight requircments forleading positions in the AAtr':

EXAMIt{AI l0t{FOR

Pilot, dider pllot,

fighln pilol

E0mhrdin (8.26)

Flighl nuae

HEIGHT in inchos WElGtlT inpouidsMin. lllal. Min. Ma[

| ]4 200

64 It 100

64 t2 114 u0

00 105

68 105 140

50 t2 10t t80

There are several conditions ihat afiect the dcvel-opment and mainienance of a desimble level ofphysical titness. We have already emphasized theihportance o{ rcgular participaiion in a physicaltraining progmm. Other faciors that influence phys-ical litness {avorably or advemely and are or parucu-lar significance to flyeft are care of the eyes, careof the teeth, and nubition.

Good eyesight is always an asset. When you arefy ing rr r" rore lhan an d"set. Keen, . la€r r i . ion isind-p"n""ble. You ran .areCUard your v is:on,n

1. Protect your eyes from infection. Infection maybe introduced from dirty fingen or dirty towels. Orit may come from an intemal source, such as infecredtonsils. Have a periodic hedical examinatioD.

2. Eat an adequate diet. cood eyesieht is depend-ent upon good nutrition. Vitamin A and riboflavinhelp protect your eyes tuom infection. Vftamin A isalso impo{ant for night vision.

3. Protect your eyes from injury. Wear prorectivegoggles in laboratodes when you are engaged inactivities such as grinding, chipping, sandblasting.or pourine hot metals.

4. Have a periodic eye examination by a physician.If ninor troubles develop, the doctor u'i[ detect thcmearly and help you corect them.

5. Use your eycs properly. Use adequate lightineand proper posture while readins or working. Thesemeasues will help consenre your vision by pievent-

Good teeth and eood health go hand in hand. Goodnutdtion depends upon good teeth, for wiihout themyou camot chew properly the foods you need. Morc-over, Sood teeih depend upon good nutrition. Theninerals you obtain flom an adequaie diet sirengthcnyour ieeth and help protect them from decay. Cavi-ties and infections in and around your teeth maycause you to lose them. They may also cause trcub1ein oiher parts of the body. Take care of your teeth byeating an adequate diet, keepine your moulh clean,and by makins peiodic visits to your dentist.

What constitutes an adequatc diet? Man F x'narhe eats. An adequate diet is one which furnishes youwrrh Frough fual lo " lc ' l yoJr body \ cn, rsJ raquir-ments. It's one with the necessary amounts and va -ety of proteins, {ats, carbohydrates, minerals, vita-mins, and water to satisfy the body's nceds {orSros'th and repair. .{n adequate diet helps ke€p youat the peak of health. An inadequate dier impai$youl emciency and lowers your resistance.

It is impoitant to €at 3 complete and vaded mealsa day. The common practice o{ skippins break{asrrcbs you of energy when you need it and makes itmore difficult to satisfu your body's nutriiionalrequirements. SoIt drinks and candy cannot substi-tute for food. They provide you wiih temporaryenergy but coDtain none of the protective food essen-tiats or viiamins. Get your vitamins in the food youeat. Vitamin pills are a poor substitute.

A Sood breakiast consists oI {ruit, cereal, eggs ormeat, and brcad, butter, and milk. Your Iuch anddinner should contain a portion of fish, meat, cheese,eges or fowl; vegetables or fruits; agreen or yellow leafy vegetable; and milk. These{oods are basic. Add to them, if you 1ike, with orherdishes such as desserts and cofiee, but don't n€glectthe fundamentals.

8-t I

FlYIl{ E $AFTIYFlyine is an exacting, serious business. It demands allyour knowledge, attention, etroft, judgment and ski[I{ you Cive it any less t}an your best it exacts a highp ce for your misiakes.

Relatively few airplane accidents occur as a resuttof matedel failurc; that is, failure oI the ensne orsone other palt of the plane. The vast majodry oIthem result from pilot failure. Between 70 and 80per cent of all accidents are attributable to one ormore of the folowins Iaults on the part of the pitot:

Bad JudgmentPoor Physical Condition

Half of alt accidents happen durins landing. One_third are divided amons take-otr, forced landins, andtaxiing accidents, rhich occui $,ith abour equal fre-quency. The rest are the result o{ spins or stals,collision $'ith other ancra{t, and collision wit} otherobjecis such as buildings or mouniains.

In about four-fifths of alt accidents no one is hu .Least dangeious ar€ the tatiing and landine acci_denrs. Those causeo by spin. and sratt . , on the orherhand, although less frequent, are most dangerous.

Safety in flight depends upon you. There are stand_ard practices, rules and rcgulations, which hetp de_Ieat these €nemies of safety. They onty poinr the way.Flying is as safe or as daagerous as you make it.

IYERY SEI{SIBI.E PIIOT IUITT:

2. Abide by the rule5.

3. keep .orsrdn y on rhe ol€rr,

a. Uie.onridercd iudem€hr.

5. K€eF phyii.dlly fir.

Three salety aids which shoutd never beneglected arc the seat belt, the shoutder har-ness, and the parachure. The seat belt andshoulder hamess have 2 purposes:

1. To keep you in the airplane.

2. To protect you in case of a crash.

Fasten both of them durinc all takeofis andlandrngs. dur ine acrobaric. . and when f ly insin gusty air.

I l l4

8-r2

SiialdlnTanaeooThe shoulder hamess helps protect you in case of acrash or rough tandine. It consists of 2 stmps whichattach to the back of the seat. come over the shoul-den, and fasten to the buckle of the safety belt inftont. Unlocked, it p€rmits freedom o{ novement;locked, it prevents the wearer irom being thrownforwald on crash impact. In us€, the shoulder harnesshelps proteci your head, neck, shoulders and chestIrom injur.t'. Experienced pilots say the routine wear-ing of the shoutder harness has prevented seriousinjurie: and saved many lives.

?ana&*

Cqryint rh. P.E.hur.+

The parachute is one oI the best {orms of life insur-ance. Never go up in t}le air with one without in-spectins it. Remember. you may have to jump withitl Make sure thc pcord pins are not bent and thatthe seal is not brcken. See that the comels of thepack are neatly stowed, that the 6 or 8 opening

Be sure that it fits properly- Handle it care-fully, keepins it clean, dry, and away from oil andacid. Never fly without it, for you can'r rell lvhenunexpected trouble s.i[ deve]op in the air. Plan inadvance for possible emergencies and decide howyou will aci in each. It js usually better to make an

WRONC RIGHT

WRONG RIGHT

8-t3eDergency landing than to bail out, if you have theairytane under control and if you can find a favorableplace to land. If fire occurs during flight or if someother emergency {orces you to bail out, {ollow this

t. Slow the airplane as much as possible.2. Release safety belt and shoulder harness.3. Open the canopy.4. Dive out and down, head 6rst, keeping feettogether.5. Wait 5 to 10 seconds, then pull the ripcord-6. Tutn your body to face in the direction of drift.Lcarn how

'o do rhrs by hanipulat ing Ihe r i .ers

?. Prepare for landing by placins your feet togetheraDd slishtly bending your knees so that you will landon the balls of youl feet.8. Just before impact pull sharply down on the risers.9. At the moment of impact {all forward or sidewardinto a tumbling rcll to take up the shock. The Rol1and Fall exercise in Section 4 provides excellentpractice in this landing technique.

'\"

8-r4Em€rgency Equiplnent

These are essential:

WHAT PLANE5

A wise pilot makes cedain he is prepared for emer-gencies belore he takes off on any flight. A Iew sinpleitehs may make a great deal of difierence. In addi-tion, the AAF has desisned kits of speciai value toflycm forced to land in desert, jungle, Archc regrons,or in the ocean. You will 6nd how importani certainitems are il you need them and don't have them.

l . Fi .e ext insuisher.

2. smol lhcnd dx.

3. Mdlches in woterpfoof .onto iner.

4. First-did kit.

5. Comp.ss.

6. Po<ket-knife.

7. Glove..

8. Conle€n of dr inking woier.

9. Emergency rdl ions.

Mosquito netling (in s'rmmer).

Sleepins bos ( in winter).

\

.{

ve

IA

@

St)v,rry

o@

GROUI{D WORK

there is o greor deol nore ro flying rhon sifiing ot rhe conrrots of on

. i rp lone. And the pi lor who lB thoroughty fomit ior wirh ground

operot lons i ! .b le to h.ndle his lh ip more in iet t igentty in on emergen.y

or in cohbct. * For eyery plsne In rhe oir rhere musr be o crew on rhe

ground to supply it wlth fuel .nd oil, inspe.t ir regutorty, dnd keep ir In

good mechoni.ol .ondition. lr need3 solrdble fletds on whi.h ro tond ond

roke of f . Those f ie lds musr be selected wirh exper ienced.ore ( tnd d

speclol knowledge of the requirement i . They husr be totd our dnd bui t r

to provide the greatest efficien.y ond s6tery, rhe besr ovoitobte

foci l i r ies, Mdny perrons of wldely vor ied ski l15 ond rrointng.re needed

to oper.te rhe ol.lields ofrer rhey ore buitr. rhough rheir durte3 ore

similor whelher they ore or smoll civilion fields, t.rge municipot ones,

or Army dir bqsei , Aids of hony klnds ro suide cnd inform rhe opprod.hing

Oyer must be dvoil.ble ond kepr in order. tn the event of d.cidenr,

there musr be f i re- f ighr ing equlpment or hcnd ond.rosh.rews who

know how to operore l r ipeedi ly !nd wel l . * rh is se.r ton of your monuol

provldes you wlth a ydluoble inslghr inro rhe mony ord imporr.nr

der. i l ! ot select ing, bui ld lng, dnd operortns cn oir t ietd.

sEcttot l

r l r tHts sECtrolr . . .

Airfield5

Der.riprions of Clo3r l, ll, lll, ond IV Airffelds-Points to Consider in

Loy Out RunwoF-Vorious Su ocinsi Used to Moke Runwoys ond

Grodet, A{orking5-How to Loy Out Toxi Stripr

Airtield Aids lo AirmenWind Dire.tion Mdrkers-How Ob+rucllons Are Pointed-Airfield lighh: Rotolins Eeocon; Boundory;

Ob3truction; Rlnwoyr Wind Tee ond Wind Cone Lishli, Floodlighrs ond Others

Selecting on Airfleld Site-fiow to

Toxi Srripr-Runwoy Lengths,

HongorsDetolk of Vorioursize HongoR-How to Siock Plond in One-Adyontoges of o T-fype Horyor

Alrfield Per3onnel

Dulie3 of Operolio.t Of{icer or Anport llonoger-His Stoff-Dirpotcher'3 Duties-Who he Weother

Officer Does-The Tower ond lls Operdio.-Duties of Recorder-Lishr Gun Sisnok-Troffi.

Pqriehi-Dutiee oI Engineerins Ofilcer-PeBons Supedied by Engineeri.g Offi.er:Techni.ol

Inspedorr Line Ch ief; Flishr Chief; Crew Chief; Hons o. Chief; the Crew- I O Connondments Which Aidield

Vkito6 or Servicemen /'16r Obey-How lo Pork Aircroft-How lo Tie Them Down-Toxi Sisnok

Airplone InspeclionsPreflisht lnipeclion - Do ily Inspe€tion- Afierflishr Inspeclio.- 25-Hour, so-tlou.. dnd 1 oo-Hour

Inrpections-Engine Chonge Inlpection-25-Hour Afte. E.gin. Chonge Inspedion-Doily Flight

Inlpe.lion for SmollAnplone-How to Check: Propeller, Engine, Londins Geor; Winss; Toil Control

Surfoces, F6eloge-Worm-Up-How to Refuel ond Cleon Aircrolr-How to S€ryi<e Airfield Fo.illties

Form5

CAA Fohr for Service dnd Overhoul-Ahy Form | (Pilot Fillr Out) ond Fo.m lA (C.ew Chief Fills

Out)-Foh 60A (for Airplone), Form 608 (for Ensine), ond Form 61 (for Propeller)-Fo.m 4l B-

The Red Tqg-Whot Pilor Mut Check Eefore Toling Off

Crdsh Procedures

MembeB of Crosh Crew-Whol Crosh Truck Contoins-Whot o Crorh Crew Member Should Khow

About: Hk Anfield qnd Suiiounding Counlryside; Approoching o Croshed Plonej Locotins the Po s of

o PloneJ Gettins into o Crorhed Plone

Flre Fighiing

Types of Equipmeht-lnporlont Pointr to Remembe. When Fighting on Airplone Fire-Whot to Do

When Renoving Dohosed Ancroft

9- l

CTASS IAIRFIELDS1- Can accohmodate sroll aircmft, usually p!i-vaiely owned.

\-./ 2. Have one or more landing strips between 1,800and 2.500 feet lohgr at least 300 feet wide.

3. May or may not have a small adminisirationbuildiDs aDd a small hansar.

4. Should have 1 wind direction indicator and afence to enclose rhe airfield propelty. If there isto be night {lying, they should have ar aideld

. beacon and bounda.y, obstNction, and runwaylights.

ctAss il AtRFtEtDs1. Can accomodaie aircmfi of moderate size.

2. Have runways between 2,500 and 3,500 feetlong, 500 feei lvide.

3. Have 2 or more hansals if there de larsenumbe$ of arcrafi at ihe airfield.

4. Maintain aids to aviation such as weatler nr-formation, shop wo.k facilities, and additionallighting facilities for night flying.

the Clvll Acronourki Admlnlttrarlon

diYldei o l r t ie ld! Inro 4 alcs!ot :

CLASS III AIRFIELDS1. Are found at iDtemediate points oq maiD lineairways and on shaller "feeder line" airsays

2. Crn :ccommodale larse trsnsporl p'anes.

3. Have several paved ruways, 3,500 to 4,500feet loDg-

4. Have o ail tlaffic tower equlpped vith 2-wayradio ald lisht gu signs!, landins area flood-lighting, instrMent approach system, and spe-cial iDsiruments for determining weather.

CLASS |tl AIRFIELDS1. Are found at large cities and at junctionpoints along the airways systems.

2- Can aacommodate twin and 4-engine au-

3. Have several runways, 4j500 leet long and

4. Mainrajn largp hangars ro house and repajr

5- Have administation building with offices forairline companies, Airvays Trafrc Control, and

6. Have passenger facilities such as lestaumnisaqd automobile parking lots.

7. Usualy have a separate set of buildings andhangars Ior Army air.raft.

o

o

o

In sele.ting on oirf ield sife,here ore the points lo aonsider:

A shall airficlcl should contain between 150 and 200acres. Ncarby areas, wiihout obstructions, should bealailablc h case air traflic gDws and you Nish roexpand the airfield at a later daie.

It niust be casy to go to and flom an ai ield by auto-Drobile. bus. and other mcans.

3. Ob3tru. l iohsThese are objccts that block the approach zoDes ofaD airfield. Thcre are nalural obstruclions likc hillsa.d trees, or man-made obstNctions such as build-mss. leleg.aph poles and wires, srnoke stacks, and

Note: An approach zone staris at thc bolLndar\.ofan airfield and coDiinues 2 miles be).ond each landing str jp. At the st f ip i t is 500 feet Nider 2 mres ourit is .2.500 feet \cide.

Ipproach zones musl bc ctear of all objecrs \rhichNould obslfuct an airplane coming irto the airfield

cIfi

at a 20 to-l giide that is, 20 feei lors'ard to every 1foot oI descent {rom a point 2 Jbiles out. For Class II,III. and IV airfrelds. this elide ratio is 30 to 1, or 30Icet foNrard to clery 1 foot of descent.

4. Ierroin ond Soi lAh airficld must drain quickly after a rarn.Choose:a. An area not so ffat Nater cannot run ol} ii easily.b. An area hish enough in relerence to the rcst ofthe lerraiD to drain naturally.Grarel and sand) soi1s absorb water lik. sponges.Thcrefore. i1 can be trapped and drained lrom under-neath. Clal soils repel $ater. Accordingly, aifieldsbuilt on clar must be gradcd so that $,aicr will dmin

If I'ou selecl an airffeld sit€ with good terrain andsoi l condi t ions. Iou $i l l sare lhe cost of expensiredrainage st stems.

RunNavs arc laid out accordine to prevailing wind

APPROACH ZONI '-"'ilAPPROA'H ZONI

tAss 2,3,4 AtnFtEtDS 55O Ft. I

.TA5' I AIRFTELD '5O

FI.

yES! !

----r-: -- - : - '- -- --- - ---- - - -------- t*=->-

6. Diston.e From Olher Airfields

The center of oDe airfrcld should not be closer than

6 niles to the ceDter of another. This is a matler ol

safety. Otherwisc, ttallic of one ai ield interlercs

with tramc of thc other.

9-4

diFcl.ions, detemined {rom local wealher history.a. P.oximity of eleciric polver, telephoDc, gas, waier,

b. -{lailabilitl of coDstmciion materials such as sood

c. Prevnlence of ground fogs, or smoke brown rnrorhe licinitl o{ tlie aDfield.

s\'JXN\-

WHICH OF THESE AIRFIELDs WOULD YOU RECOMMEND?

_-...5\\

.E

9-5

thE

#=hRUNWAYS AND TAXI STRIPS

A slNoll RUI{WAY It lAlD OUt ll'l IHEDtltcllolt oP tttvarltNo wDtD5.

a l;coxb ruNwaY ErftEr |l u|o at ic||ta|roltS to tE attlt, tN tH! aHA?l of a "r':

Where land slopes too abruptly in the center of afield, build L-shaped runways around ihe slope.

Where land slopes at both ends of a field, buildT-shaped runways.

Wlen ai$elds are expanded to include more run-$a]'s. slopes or declivities must be frlled in. It is bet,

ol tt tt latD tN tHa Dntc olt oF tHtxrxr faotT tlloult{t tttva[rl.c wrND,

ter, of course, to Ald an airfield site you can expand\a'ithout the need of extensive construction work.

Runways and landins area should not have a gradeof more than 1y2 per cent. Steep grades are hard tojudge when landing, especiauy at nisht.

Water should drain off the runways immediatelyand away from buildines and hanears.

9-6

Runwoy SurfccesDirt runways are muddy and slushy in winler tnne,dusty in summer. They become bumpy and rutted.Taxiing aircraft throw pebbles and small stonesinto the propclle4, causine nicks and holes.

Small airficlds use Srass runways and landing areassuccesslully s.here there is Dot heavy traffic at thetield and where grass is kept up well, especially dur-ing rainy months.

Class I airfields do not need paved runuays orpav€d taxi strips, but $hcre it is posslble. buildthem. They are:1. Easy to keep lrec of $atcr and snolv2. Easy on the plane and its landing sear3. Easy on propellers.

Here are various i.ypes of suriacnig used in run-ways and taxi strips:

1. Sand clay

IMPORTANT FACIS IO

2. Gravel3. Oyster shell4. Bituhihous soil stabilization5. Cement soil stabilization6. Macadam7. Sand asphalt8. Lime rock

10. Asphaltic concrete11. Bituhinous sudace tieatmenis, and others.

Idxi Str ipsTaxi si.rips should lead easily and naturally Iromhangars to the ends of the run$.a]s. Lay them out insuch a rvay that taxiing aircraft will not intederewilh incoming and outgoing tramc or with otherplanes taxiing on and ofi the iield. Where possible,

KNOW ABOUT R.UNWAYS

IN LOCALIIIEs HIGH ABOVE sEA IIVII IUNWAYS IIU5IAE LONOER.''IIAI IS IIIGAUsE

'HEIIIIGHCT Y@ GO IHE

MORE RARIFIED IHE AITAOSII{EIE IECOI'ES. CON5E.OUENIIY, IT' LIFTING EIFECI ON TXI WINGI Islt't.YOUN PLANE THEN NEEDs GNEATEI SP"O. AND IONEROOtn tN WE|CH TO ACHTEVE tl, tN ORDET TO

AT AN AITITUDE OF 5,OOO FEET, FOR EXAAIPLE, ANUNWAY WHICI{ AI SCA LEVEI WAsADEOUAT€IY LONG AI I ,3OO FIEIMU5T HAVE A MINIMUII I OF 2,5IO FEET,

tuNwAys ARE MARKTD NtAl TltElt IOUNDA E5 WtrH XU tatS VtStAlt FtOt tHE Att. tttE NUNllEiIHAVE A SPECIAL IAEANINC, IHEY INDICATI THE CO'I?AI5 BTAIING OF TI{E TUNWAY, ItIINUs II5 IAST DIGII.

EXA PIT:IHIS RUNWAY HAS A

'OMPAss I'ATING

IE'WEEN TO ANO 20 DEGREES.

{S RUNWAY HAS A COM'ASS BEAn|NG f)BETWEEN I2O AND I IO DCGTEIS

'

AIRFIELD AIDS TO AIRMEI{

wtND Dttral toN rvratxt13

crRcuMtrnrilcE0t Ttilr(

HHGfiT 0r T i t(SUPP()NT

Mork;ns of Obstru(t;onsObstNctions are paintcd |hroughoui theirhcjsht with alternate bands of internarionatohnse and white, chrome yellow and black,or chrone t ellor. and shite. At night rheyarc marked rvith rd lights.

=: II EIGHT ()T TAIIX

9-7

Lighr5Where there is nieht flying at a ffeld there musr becertain lights to guide pilots or to wam them o{ ob-siructions. These liehts are kept bumine from hauan huLr afrar sunqer 1o hdlt dn hour be ore sunriseand at all times when visibility is poor.

1. Airfield Rotating B€acon. This is a 36-inch rotat-ing beacon, capable of giving light fxom 2 sides. It isusually mounted on the aifield administration build-ing or on a beacon to$'er where it can be seen tuomali sides.

2. Iloundary Lights. The airfield boundary ismarked with white lights.

3. Obstruction Lights. Obstructions are markedwith red lights. FlashiDg red beacons are placed atthe top of very hish objects while smaller rcd liehts,set up at so-foot inteNals, clearly show the outlinesof the obstruction.

4. Runway Lights. Runways are outlined by 2 paral-lel mws of lights. The lights across the landine stdpat the approach end of each runway are green.

5. Wind Tee and Wind Cone Lights. \{ind tees havegreen liehts which can be seen from the ai!. Windcones, too, are Iighted by rcflecioN in such a mannerthat pilots overhead can see them. In the center ofthe sind cone lighiing assembly is an obstructionlieht.

6. Floodtights, At laryer airfields, floodlighis illumi-nate landing areas and hangar aprons. They musithrow a unifoml light \\.ithout shadow. Frun, ure a,r,shadows look like hollows in the ground- The lightsmust not glare or they will blind pilots momentalily.

?. Other Lights. Auxiliary range lights, appmachlights, and laxi suidance lighls assist a pilot in find-ing a ffeld or in taxiing. once he is on it, but they arenot lound at all 6elds.

Another aid to the pilot is the airport cod€ b€aconl"rnd at larec teld". This beaco, f laJr*. a ere.nliehi in code so that the pilot can tell *.hich airffeldhe is approaching or passing over. Large airfieldshave a call letter desisnation. These letiers aremarked on airways maps.

Aiffields r!hich have standard lishting facilitiesare marked "LF" on airxays maps.

9-8

o

The rdrse Hongdr

U.ed ar Clas. I I I and Clas" lV air f ic lds, rh. larse

Provides space {or laree numbers of snall air-

Houses such equipment as cranes, pulleys. laddeN,and other devices used in servicing aircraft.

Allows ground crews to work in freedom andsa{ety.

But it is costly and dimculi to build.

The smdl ler Honsor

This is usually found at Class I and Class II airfieldsalthoueh larger airfields sometimes p.efer sclcralsmall hangars to one or tlvo big .nes.

It can house several small planes. It also can bebui l t at a reasonable co"r , for r r n" ' ds no .rp.n. i \efoundations, trusses, or large doo$.

Sevenl small hangars ar€ less of a ffre hazardthan one or t\lo big hangars.

You can stack sma1l airoaft in hansars of moder-ate size in such a rnanner that 100 or niore ale housedin one buildihg. Stacking consists of tilting them ontheh noses $'ith the fuselages at an ansle of about80 degees with thc hangar floor. You niust exercisecar" in doins rhis, how.v. f . so that propel lers, en-gines, and bracings are not damaged.

T-type HdnEor

At small fields the T-type hangar is most pmciical.It is a series of individual garaees for small ailoaft.Each garage dovetails into ihe nexi. T-type hanearscan be extended indefinitely as more aircraft needhousing facilities. Since they are built to frt aircraftcontours, you must back the aircra{i into them.(See illusiration)

1. Each airplane is housed individuatly.2. Equipment and personal possessions can be keptin the hangar space.3. The pilot rentins the space can lock his garagervhen his plane is housed there or while he is flying.

HANGARS

1tr.' ! i : l l : r . , . . , . , . . . . . , . . . . . . . - , .

anflElD

9-9

AIRFIE LDPERSON I{ ET

Operorion5 Ofiicer or Airlield Monoser

One person is jn charge of an airfreld. At an Annybase he is .alled lhe Operations Omcei; at civilianarrtields he is called ihe Airport Manaeer or Superin-tendent. He is responsible forl

l. Pfoper clearance of aircrait.2. Issuing orders pertainins to local flying and thelLrnctroning of the airlleld.3. Couect seNicing and maintenance of aircraftbased at the air'lield or stopping there..1. Saier] and discipline at the Eirfreld.

-q.t an! liDe. wilhih his discrction, hc niay close the6eld lor ill lng or lorbid any planc or pilot to leave

His ofiice is in thc opcrations or admnristralionburlding of the airlield. At Army bases it is calledthc operations ofrce.

Om.e StofrThe person in charge of an ai$eld has a sta1T ofpeople. nrcluding one or more assistants, to help himtake care of operai.ional functions.

This slafl:1. -{cts in his placc whcn he is absent.I K.-p" t r" .k ol \ " f rous for1,r" u.ed i r f ry 'nB.3. Takes care of correspondence..r. flaintains frles.5. Helps prcparc rcpolts.

fhe Dispolcher

-Ll lhe dispatch dcsk a pilot gets all information abouthis ibtcndcd flight and Iills oui his clearabce forh. Inchar-se of this desk is a Dispatcher. He usually has

3. Advise the tower (sec below) of the pilot's flight

(A fiight plan is ihc essential inlormation oi an jn-

tendcd flight.)4. Transmit the fli8ht pian to Airrvays Trafrc ControlNhcD a pilor flies betond the local area.5. Kcep a 6le of pilots' clearances.6. Keep an inde\ of Notlces to Airnien up to date.7. Hale a(ailable lhe lalesi regional aDd seciionalmaps. radio lacilill chafts and periodicals of inleresi.

8. Keep a dcparture aDd arrival board. usually ablackboard that lisls the departurc and arrival tiDesof al l a i rcraf t conr ins into and going out of theIocal flying area.

The Weofher Omcer

At the weather omce a pilot gels all inlormationabout realher condilions both at the ai$eld and inother areas. In charge of this omce is a Weather Om-cer or s'eather expert. He has a staf o{ pcoplc whoare fahi l iar \ r i th n,eteorology.

The Weather Omcer:1. Advises the pilot of weather conditions along hisproposed route and at his dcstination.2. If weather conditiorN arc favorable, enters allNeathcr infolmation along the proposed route on thepilot s clearance form.3. Maintains a detailed $'cather map that shows een-cral Neather conditions throuehout the country.L Kceps a file of vcathcr sequences received from

5. Maintains a chart showins winds at difierent ali.i-rudps. Tl^ is . " cal led a Wirds Alof t Charr

The Weather Oflicer recei\-es his informauon rrom:1. The United States Weatler Bureau at 6 hour in-tenals. This information is put down on the weather

2. Teletypc weather sequences obtained hourly fromweather reportine stations.3. Pilois who ha!,e just landed.

ohe or mole assistants.Thc Dispatcher's duties are tol

1 Help each pilot Iill out his clearancerecll!.2. Present this foN to the Operaiionscheck and approval.

Ofrcer lor

9-l o

Air Trofiic Tower Per.onnelAir traffic on a 6eld is directcd {rom the air tralictower. Responsible for the operation of the i.o$'erarc tne Tower Operator and the Recorder.

The Tower

This is usurlly a shgle room of about 1:0square leei, rvith NindoNs on all sid.s h isbuill on iop of a high platfo.rn of on onc oithe anfield buildnrgs f.om $hich !h. enllfelield and thc ai. spac. abo\e it can bevicwed without obstfuclioh. Ar smallef ar.-ficlds, lvhere pilols 1lr onl) in good (eadrer.

a raised, open platform is sufficieni ior a

The Tower Operdtor1. Dirccts all air traftic ffying jn the local area ol theairfrcld and all pilots taxiing on the ground.2. Advises by radio or lisht sun signal whelh.r rt Nsafc to land or lake o1I. what run\lat-s 10 use. ands'hat taxi strips 1lr use.3. Gives inlormation such as altiiude ol ajrport,a l in, . r . f snlr ' r 'g. $ i rd d ' rFcl ion and l r ' .e.

.1. Helps pilots with radio check. and ans$'ers ques-tions il ihe) pertain to the {light.5. Looks out for thc salciy of aircra{t on the freld bt'carefullt superrisins tramc.6. Stops all airc.aft molcrlent on the lield andprelenis all plaDcs Irom landing rvhen an accideDtoccufs of wh.n a distressed ailplane lnakes an emer-

$hen a pi lot is Ni lh in I mi ies of a f ie ld he mustfol lo$ al l to\er inslrucl ions, unl€ss he l i rst adl isesthe to$er operator of h is in lent ions ani l obtainsappro\ a l of th€m.

The Tower Recorder

1. Keeps a cont inuous record oi a l l p lades ar iv jneand cicpart ing nom lhe l ie ld.2. Inlorms -\ir$a\s Trailic Control of departureln.s oi aircrall fl] iDg bcl-ond the 1ocal area.il. Recei\ ej n om -{irNal s Tralic Control the anival1i , res ol a i rcfaf t f l t ' rng i r l to the area.l. .L.si:ts the ToNer Operalor whcrcvcr possible.

Iroffi. Potterns

Nhen a pjlor is h sjsht of nn aiflield hc adviscs thcto\er b! radLo. i h j ; aprroach. Ai . that t ime hc ma] 'be 3iren landnlg jDslrucl ions. U not. hc c i rc les theic ld. a lnals 1o the l€f1 unless othcrvise instructed.unrLl he i j r l ld on \rhich runwa]. to land. In hDdine,he iollos s thc trafiic paltem illustrated below:

li ah lifplane rs Dot equipped $'irh radio its pilot. . r . r ' h l , . . ' . . , u, ,1 l , " . , . r \p. . srFArl . -h . r -n- i i r " , r ' | , , - '1u J"\ i ,u$lpdgp r l . r " . is-Da) he rocks h:s ri urgs or dips the nosc of his airplane.Il he recerle-r n(] sisnrl he circles, 6nds the dilection.,i lhe siDd bt lookin.g !t thc airlield wind indicator,and lands on lhe appropriate run$'ay.

. . . : . . -J

I

LANO

9-12

The Engine€rirg OmcerAt Am). airfietds there is an Engineerjng Officer: atcivilian fields the Airpot Manager usually takes careoi eDgincering duties.The Engineering Omcer is responsibte fc,r:1. Mainienancc of all hanears and machinc shops.2. Maintenance of the airficld, inctuding ruqwaysand liehts.3. Inspcction aDd ovcrhaut of aircraft.4. Dutr assignments of rnaintenance creNs.5. Proper kecping of forms used in the servicing andovcrhaul of aircraft.

Here ore lO aornmondmentsyou mltst alsays observe at an ai$eld:

1. Do hot so on the tanding area unless youare authorized ro go there or are conducredthefe by a flyo or ailffeld atrendani.

2. Do not drive an autohobitc on thc tandingarea wjthout permission,

3. Never shoke on the apron or ivithin s0feet of any airplane.

4, Do noi start or warm up an airytane rvhenhangars. shops. orhe! buitdines. or personsare in the path of the plopelter srream.

5. Do noi start or narh up an airylane whenit faces another airplane.

6- Whcn you service ailchft with fuel,ground all tanks ro discharge static et.c_

; . Do n^r lupl an " , rp 'anF whi lp l \ . ensin-

8. When an airplane js sraried or fueled,rnake sure an attendani stands by with afire €xtinguisher_

9. Do not hove a propetler unnecessauyand at all iimes staad alray trom ii. A rjro_peller is as daneerous as a buzz-salv.

l0 when Jou r .p hetD,ns ro more Fn " i r_plane, do lot take hotd of the hiddle ofsnuts or braces, Nddcr, or other s.eakplaces. The stlong ptaces are ar ihe cn.ls oithe braces and atong the fuselagc. Weakpraccs geneully are har.ked on an ailptane.

Uncler the supervision of rhe Ensineedne Omcer are:Technical Inspector: Who inspects aircrarr ro makeslLre they are airworthy.Hc sees that periodic inspections are made.Line Chief: Who sup€Nises maiirtcnance oI aircraftat a field or tactical unit.He sees that aI1 lorms arc filled out.Flight Chief: Who supeNises maintelance cre\lsworkins on a single flighr.He chccks aircratt bef.,re they are rcturncd 1(,

Crerv Chief: Who is thc tead mcchanic for thc inspec_r iun. Larn enrn.e and spr\ i , . :ng ot unc o. ,norF a.rplanes. He lills oul all mainrcnance fonr,s.Hangar Chief: Who is in chafse of the upkcep oIhan8-ars and their tools and equipment.'I'he Cr€w: Who are mechanics and helpers assignedto a crew chief. They inspect, seNice, ctean and re_

Duries of ServicomenWhen you are on an airEeld, either as an observer oras a serviceman, you musl be carcful at a1l 1imes.Your life, the lives of serviceincn and pilots, rhecondition ol aircraft and equipment, depend upon\\hat you do and how you do it.

Porking AirocfrPark aircra{t lar enough apart so rhere is no dangeroJ colljsion whcn they are moved. Set brakes or ptaccchocks under rhe sheeis. Ir is good practice to useborh brakes and chocks. Aircrafr must be parkectonly in areas desisnated by the Operations Officeror Airpolt Manager.

If thcre is more tlan a 20-niite Nind, tic dos.naircaft, espcciall]. light airc.att. which are nor rn

This is liow you 1ie down an airptane:r. Dile a stake inro the sround h front, be],ond theend of each ning, and behind tho tait.2. Atiach a rope {rom each stake ro a sLrons pornlon the plane. Do not tie rop€s too tigh ].as mois-rure may cause them to shr ink.3. Lock control sufacos by inserrins wooden clampsto hold theD in neutral. Lash the controt stick or'$heel and rudder. If rou use a clamp, attach a ropelrom the claDp to the door i"o remtnd the pitot toremove the clamps before takeoff..1. Cover aircraft whenever possibtc.

Toxi SignotsWhen n pilot taxies a plane near buildings or parkedarrcrart. aD assistant hust srand by io help him_ Usethese staDdard hand laxi sienatsl

9-t I

Light Gun Signol3Ai.craft not equipped Nith radio hLrst be ouecreolroD the io$er by ]tsht gun signa1s.,A. ljsht gun is a.ound. open c] tinder about 11, feet lons. \snn a ie-flcctor at one end. lThen the Tower Operator pointsthe open end of rhe light gun at an airplane, the pilotsees eilher a red or green light.

In the daylime, the pilot ackno$nedges these sig-nals bl movins thc ailerons or ruddcr o{ his planc.At Dight he can signal the tower with his landinstiehts.

Nlghr SlgnEl.. . , Alrpl.n.r ro row.r

Ur. on. i.rh ol ldndins lislB rod.lnoyl.ds. 3isndl. lbn srcu

Bli in! ldndi.gllght n6E.lurn oi nood l ighr{ . , . i l .n,Turd or i..d tight.! , . , if 6fi.

"G6n. I'n d&Ed lo l.nd."

-Ft :hin! gen tishr 'En.

"Fl..hinr EJ lilht i.tt. r. r. durn ro th. tinC',

"R.d lishl3.y. don't lcnd "l'v. hqd in .Rn lishr

Lcndins lishB on.hov d.riF ro l.nd

HAND SIGNALS F(lR TAXIING' I {ClE

SICNALs,I IETCTIIED IY AAF REGUIATION 62.T0.

DA'EO 2 AU6U5I I"3, TEPLACE AII IORMET TAXI i IGNALS.

t l lEY wlLL lE U5a0 lY CRIWS OF AAF. U!N, USMC. RAF, . l

TCAF. AND TN.

I A FIAGmAN with <he<k-ered f log wi l l meet oiF.rof i on dny lcnding.po<ewhere the n. lsre of t raf f icdemdnd5 i t . He wi l l d i re. tlhe pi lot loword the ior it ignclmon who wi l l 3tondwi lh both orhs exlendedful l l€nsrh obove his heod.

.f

-

ffi

x

COME AHEAD

t. rlgnll tuh3, ngnoln.. will bd.kcn"com. Afi.ld wirfi h.rd on rh.!dn. iid. o3 rh. wins ro t. Si.ughr.rounc, d.d Foinr wirfi .rh.' hond .t

0

bTHE SIGNALMAN wi l l dned tot i ins

fron d posi t ion foNord of lhe lef t

wing l ip of the oirPlone, where thepi lot <on.ee him eo3i ly ol l th€ t ime

r*-"....tj

9-r3

IOWING. Left wing t ip s ignolmon gives ol l s ignols to rroctor dr iv€r.

START ENGINEFn, 3isnal . , tme€.n<y

iop_.,rhenpoinr one hondr.ned. Rorora orher hond.

CUT ENGINES

PUIL CHOCK5

5tow DowN atl ctEAR (o.x.)

/Vhere i l luminot ion Fermirs, s igndlhon wi l l move in l ighted oreo ond u5etbove signols. Out of l ighted oreo, he wi l l u3e f loshl ighrt or , i f ovoi ldbte,.u. i te words. Al l 3 igncl5 iome os obove er.ept "Emergen.y 5rop," whi(h

' i l l be given by.ro55ing l ighrs in f .onr of fo<e.

STOP EMERGENCY STOP

INSERT CHOCXS

SLOW DOWN

SPECTIONS

50-hour Inspe.r ion

This is Dade betwecn the 40th and 60ih flyins houlsof the airplane, and clcry 10 to 60 flyiDg hours rhcre-alrer. Al l par l" ar . .nrpa.red ro - . : rh ) drp inSood condiiion and workine properly and to makesure that the prescribed mainiennncc has bccn doDe.

loo-hour Inspedion

This is madc during every second 50 hour in-cpectionand consists of maintenance operations in addition iorhose $hich the 5O,hour inspcction requires.

Engine Chqnge tnspedion

-tirplane engiDes hust bc reDroved ft,. ovcrhaul afterfroln 1.000 ro 5.000 hl iDg hours, depeidinlt upon ihenakc of the eDsnre Sp.cillcatioDs lor this orerhaulcome vi th the anplane.

z5-hour After Engine ChqngeThis is a thoroush inspection {hich is nade beiNeen20 and 30 flI iDg hol[s altcr the ensinc charse.

Spe<iol Insp€.t ions

At specified intervals pres.ribed inspectlons andopcrations must be made.

E!er] anplaDe Drusl be inspected at ccrtain nrtcNals.\ 1 p, . r . s. . . . . l - . \ . . \ . r F r . . - - l - .n

afe out i ined here. The Cn iL , \eronautLcs , \drnr ista-t ion r .qul fe: s i : : i lar ones. (For delai ls. - .ee \ \ 'ar De-paftnr.nt Techr ical l l6nual t -115. -1. j fp laDe h: fec-t ion Guid. . )

Prenight lhspedion

This is made the l i rst th ing in the morning. belorean airplaDe is i lown. I t coDsists of a l isual chcck ofcontrc,ls. lucl s.\stcm. and cnginc intruments. allco(1mss lcore nss). luel and oi l caps.

Doi ly Insp€ct ion

This ij a detailed. visual inspection given to everyairplan-" each day. unless the plane is iD storage oruDdergoing repairs.

Afre|l)ight Inspe(tion

llade after each flight, this is a chcck of thc airplane's

sencral condition and includcs corrcctioD of anymechanical difrculty.

2s-hour Inspe. l ion

This DNpection of an airylane is Drade everl 20 io 30flvrng hours. It in.ludes a check of weaf and icaraDd releals any deterioralion at an early stage-

No airplane can reDain hore than l month \rithout.r 2i+our inspcction, rcgardless oI flvine tine, unlessi1 is in sroragc o. undcrgonrg orerhaul.

Wcrnings$Ihen an airplane is uridogoirg repansor ltas soh. pa missing. thc crc$' chiclplaces a red lag on lhe ronlol colLurn ofsome prominenl place hside rh. cockpit$,her. the pilot Nill be srue lo se€ ii Thiscard t--lls rvhat repans are b€ing urd.f-rak.n or *hat paft is missnrg.

9- l5

N0NYADEHT

The daity flight inspection detaited here foltoNs iheCivil Aeronautics Adninistralion s Dailr'Flighr In-spection Record. Ar!1y servicemen follo\s the poinlsoutlined in the War Depaltnent s Technical VanualTM 1-.{15, Airplane Inspection Guide. You can useeither in making a dailli inspecrion of anr airplane.

L The Propel ler

a. Inspect propeller blades for pits, cracks. and nicks.Run your hand over thc edges of the propeller ro6nd cracks and nicks. cralel throrvn up Jrom theuheels often causes propeller damagc.b. Inspp.r hubs and arracl i rs pa.rr for der- , . r" . r .ght-

SPECT

c. Check propeller for track. Do this by starting thepropeller and watching it rotate {rcm one side. If itis in track, it witl make one continuous circle as it\\hirls through the ai!. If i1 js out of tmck, it willmake 2 dislinci lines.

2. Ensine

a. Inspect engine co\rling for cracks and secudty-The co\ling is the hood or cover that goes over an

b. Remove corvling and inspect cngine to see i{ thereare ant cracks in the tnoior mount. By pushing gent-ll asainst the motor, you can discover cracks. Checkexhaust stacks and collector fing for cracks and se-curitr. Old exhaust stacks develop cracks and holes.c. Hale man in cockpit mole carburetor heat "ON.and OFF." Put l.our finger up the vent to see if thevahe works. Lubrjcate if necessary.

d. Chcck spark plug termlnal assenlblies for cleanli-ncss and tightDess.

e. Inspect ignition wiring and harncss for security of

f. Clean main fucl,line straine$. Check sedimentbo\'l and hose lcading to borvl. In winter. check tosc. if there is ice in the hose.g. Drain smau quantity of fuel Irom boltom drainancl in.pFcl j ' .

h. Check fuel and oil systcms for leaks. vent open-inss, surplus oil.

i. Check fuel and oil supply. You can check the oitlust as you do in an automobilc.j. Check all bolis and Duts on ensine and nount. Seethat cotter keys are on bolts and that safety wire is

k. Tum propeler; check compression of cylinders.i. Check throttle to see if all connections are sccure.

tUhlers on dirpldhe i . in d repdir 3hop.r is . ror .d i r mu.t be inrpe.ted.l lhe end of eo.h ddy. This is o requned i.fery pr6..urion,

th6 doily inrp..rion outlin€d in rhit .e.ri.h ir Gonfin€d io rhe tioi-t6h, of emdl l , r inslo€nqihe lype of . i rp l .ne. t r i t rhe t inJ ofoirptoneyou 9en6rdlly ree ot CAP oirneHi.

r/ r' r/ r/

worning

Make sure that th. strilch is OFF'\rhcn rou touch the propellef. But do n.rllusl it ever then. fof a brokc. \rne hasrhe saDc.ilecr as rnrnine rhc s*,ilch -ON.,.Reason, the ig.iiion arrangcm€nts ot anrn plaDe are bascd ob the disconnecrslstem,

r't/

3. ronding Geor

a. Inspect tires for defects and prcper inflation.

b. Inspect rvheels Ior cracks aDd distortion and hubcaps foi security.

c. Inspect shock-absorber units.Ifthe shock absorberhas a shock cord, inspect to see if lt has deiedorated.d. Inspect strut-retainine bolis and flttings lor se-

e. Tn"pect brace qires for ten. ion and : .cur i ty.

a. Inspect wing covering for damage, buckled ribs,and end bo*s. Check the winss both top and bottom.In Right. an airplane is lifted mosily {rom the top ofthe lLinss and therelore this is th€ir most impotantsu.lace. Test fabric by tapping. I{ it rcsists yourtapping it is in good condition. If it is rotten it willgile !vay. Check wines by sightlng along thc topsurface fiom the $.iDgtips.

b. Inspect attachment fittings for security.

c. Check struts {or secudty oI terminal connections.You can do this by close visual inspection and bygcntly rocking the wines and watching to see howfirn the braces are.

d. Check ailerons and aileron hinees and controls.By looking at them carefully and by movrng rneailerons gently, you can tell if they ale in good orderand rvorking properly.

5. Toil Control Surfd.€sa. Inspect covefing for damage, bucklcd ribs. andbruised cdges. Be sure to look undcrneath the tailsurtaces as well as above.

b. In.pcct ar iachmenr f i t t ing. tor securrr l .c- Check struts and brace wires, especially the ter-minal conneciions. Check above and below.d. Check control surface hinges. See i{ they workeasily. See if there is much play in them. Check cot-

9-17

e. Inspect control cable, pulleys. Lubricate if neces-

f. Check stabilizer adjustment.

e. Check tail $hccl assembly. If it is dahaged itmight be pushcd up against the rudder. Lubricate i{

a. Inspect covering for damaee and distodion. cctdown on your hands and knecs and look underneaththe fuselage.

b. Tn"pecr conrroj colurn ""s"mbly

( . rnk) ror hee-dor ot morement. r c l r r i ry of dr lachmrnrs.c. Inspect rudder pcdal assembly and control system(cables and pulle}.s) for freedom of hovcment and

d. Check fire extinguisher and first aid kit. See thatthe fire extinguisher is full of fiuid- You can find thisout by shaking it.

e. Check proper functioning of lighting sl.steb.f. Inspect safetl behs.

e. Clean aU \indo1vs.

\ote: Before an airylane is flown it should be pre-flishted. Thar is. the engine is wamed up until itreaches takeoff temperatLrre. While it is beinewarmed. chcck the instruments. Preflieht also in-cludes visual jnspection outlined in this seciion.a. Make sure that chocks are under whcels.b. Warn up and check ensine operation-c. Test magnetos and all tanks.d. Check engine controls.

e. Chcck position Df carbureior ai preheater.f. Check opcration o{ carburetor mixture controt.g. Check radio equipment.

h. Check: Oil temperature, oil pressure, rym, amounrof fucl, amount o{ oil.i. Check idlins rym.

CAP Codets mvst not do this unlessthey hove had previous experience,or ftqve been giyen speciql instruction.

9-t8

Cleonins Air.rofr

Clean aircrafl regularly to preserve the surfacesand to improve their appearancc. Whilc you arccleaning an airyIane you can check breaks in ibs,de{ormations in metal structures, tears in fabric,excess play in fittings or controls.

Refuel ins the Airplone

When you refill an airplane with fuel or oil, be care-tul to:

1. Walk, stand, and sit in ihc right place. Ai.oaftare desiened to take conccntrated loads in oDly a fewplaces. Learn where those places are.2. Fill fucl and oi1 tanks onl) to rated capacil).3. Use thc proper erade of fuel, oI therc can be serious da|nase. (L 2 M planes use 73 octaDe gasolineonly, or thc next higher grade in enlereencr'.)1- Grcund (electdcally) the tanks before fillins thenl

5. Replace iank caps securelr.6. Find oLrt the arnount of fuel in a taDk alwa\s b!measudng with a clean stick. Gages can be nrong.

a

Servi . ing Air f i e ld Foci l i t ies

Hangars, {uel pumps and other airport facilities mustb" "erv ' .ed a. $. l l ! . a i rcrat l . A Bood ser! ic"man:

1. Keeps the hangar in ordeily condition.

2. Maintains Srounds. This includes repairing fences,cleadng a\ral. rubbish, and sihilar work.

3. Kno$s how t.r operate and care for equipmentsuch as fuel trucks. pits or pumps, oil pumps! irac-tors, and other machinery.,1. Helps maintain ihe landing area. This work in-cludes bro\ing grass. removing snowj repairing softor roush spots. and examining hard-surfaced run-Na]s. iaxi strips and aprons for nails or otner rrre-desfo! jns objects.

5. Replaces lvorn out airport lights.

6. Knoss ho$ to do ordinary jobs such as changing1ires. clcding and adjusting spark plugs, and clcan-

i. Kno\rs fire prelention methods, where the 6reexringuishers are, and hoiv to use them.8. Kno\ts 6rst aid.

WAR.NING!

brdfuai,fk"f/ryf'/"'a fu"/ 02 /buc/€ "

fZArZ A

IHIS IS A DA|GINOUS PRACTICE!

F(lRMSEach airplane carries a set of forms. These {or1N tellthe conplete story of each flight: who the pilot andpasscngcrs ivere, where 1.hcy fle$-, the amount oIIuel the plane used, and uhat seNicing was done.

CAP airfields generally use the Civil AeronauticsAdmiDistration's forDs lor the service and ovcrhaulof aircra{t. The Aircralt and Engine Logbooks, rhePeriodic Aircralt Inspcction Report, and other {onnsare alailable ai all civil airfrelds. If Army aircmfiare used. Fonns 1 aDd 1A must be kept. Army forms

Form IThe piloi fllls out this form. Before takcofi ne wnresnr as nuch of the data as he can. F'o! inslancc: hisname. name of passenger or passengeN. slation. durj.,desrination. Upon landing and before leaving thecockpil, he fi]ls in the the ent es.

9-r 9

Before takeolT. a pilot must check to see if the air-plane is propcrly seiviced. He must also cheek cei-tain instruments in it. Here is a check list used inthe liaison type of airplane:1. Check flyins controls for {ree movement.2. Check sas, oil, and "S" on Form 1A.3. See that Cas valve is "ON."4. Check opention of both maenetos. Minimum srarrcrprn 2,050.5. Check to see that engine insiruments ivork propcr-ly.6. Check "TRIM TAB" control position.7. Check altitudc contml. Place on "RICH" position.8. Check carburetor heater control. Place on "COLD"

The pilot should then take a careful look aroundthe cockpit to see iI everything is in order

Whdt o Pi lot Ms3l Check

9-20

FLIGHT REPORT

*-:::::'1"':;"";l'.*:1"#:

i-,*".-" jl--!-ier jEs 7r^#*w"***o--

.T

trt :tt

tr8 : 52

il-t-_**+to*.'Cifr i+H'F"T

Form lAThe crew chie{ 6lls out this form and places it in thecockpit. On it he lists the amount of fuel and oilin t}le airplane, the totat number of hours flown, ar]dthe hou6 flown that day. If th€re is any weakness inthe airplane, he marks a red diagonal unde. StatusToday. Under this circumstance the airplane cannotbe flown unless the pilot siens the space marked Ex-ceptional Release. When a major defeci exists andthe airylane caDot be flown, a red cross is markedin this space. If t}le pilot notices any weakness wh€nhe is flying, he makes a note of it under Remarks.

/- tlyable bul not i. perfe.r .ondition.

-+- Airplone nusl NOt be f lown!

Olher FormsForm 60A. Technical Instruction Cohpliance Rec-ord, for the airplane.

Form 608. Technical Instruction CoDpliance Rcc-ord, for the engine.

These forms ale used when some technical chaneei . "nade in ar ai-p ane. or $hpn an ensine is u!pr-hauled.

Form 61. Pmpelier Historical Record. It sho$'swhen a propeller has been installed and {'hen it is

Form 4lB. This gives all infonnation about eachairplane. Every inspection and rvhen it rvas made,what has been done or not done, najor overhauls,defects, and a1l other data are listed on this {orm. Theenginee ng staff keeps it up day by day.

9-21

CRASH PROCEDUREg AND FIRE FIGHIING

When an airplane oash€s at an aideld, tue mEt becontroUed and injured ailmen must be rescued withgreat speed. To do these things quickly, d airnetdmust have at least 1 crash truck parked ne& @hangar aplon, ready for ist3nt duty, and a weu-

A crash crew contaiG:

1. Crew Chief. He directs the @w or helps whenquick acnon is necessary,

2. Drirer. H€ drives the tluck anil ope.ares the fire-

3, Hand-linemen. They opersre the hard lines, or

ho*s, th.ough which fue-exringuishing agenrs aresprayed. The.e are usually 2 hanil-linehen ro a crcw.

4. Rescuenen. They remov€ injured air qews fromdanEged aircrafi. There are usuauy 2 rc*uemento a oew, but where it is impossibl€ ro have 2 xr€rthe dew chief seNes as one oI the r€*uemen,

The crash truck ha.

1, A Crash Kit, This includes equipment used iobreak into airoaft and b re$u€ work,

2. A FircrAid Kit.

3. Fire-Fighting Equipment. This includes tanks oftue-fishting ag€nts, which sr€ explained mder meheading Fire Fighting,

fhe critical period, porticulorly for endongered qircrews,is the lirst 60 seconds sfler o fire hos broken out.

9-22

IF

Fir3t Aid.

Fire f i9ht ins.

-

YOU ARE ASSIGN ED TO A

CRASH CREW, YOU 5HOULD LEARN

AS MUCH A5 PO55I BLE ABOUT:

The oirUeld ond surrounding co{,ntryside.

Approo.hing d . roshed pldne.

Lo.qr ion of d i rp ldne ports.

Gert ing into o crd!hed plone.

L

2.

3.

5.

In proceeding to ond fron <rcahes,

wcl .h out for o i rcrofr thor mav sr i l l be

roxi ing. l6nding or taking of f . One

o.. idenr or o r i rne is

rhe Air l le ld ond Sur.ounding CounlrysideYoLir Cash oe\r should have a map o{ the airfieldand the coLrntr] suuounding it. This nap should in-clude roads. rirers. streams, hi s and mountains, in-lohration as to tlpe of country (such as woodcd orbrush] ) . and landnarks, botlr large and small.

If 1ou are a member of that crew, you should maketrequent trips into the country surounding the air-fie1d so that 1ou rvill knorv it thoroushly. Duringthese trips, mark on the map a]I possible ways ofreaching anr particular point. Your crew should havepractice runs to predetermined locations.

Approo.hins rhe Crcsh

When you anivc at ihc scene of a crash, you must:1. Remove all members of the air crew. If thccrashed plane is alire, do this as quickly as possible.If there is no dangcr of ffie, use great care and takeall the tinic necessary to avoid ageravating the in-iuries of those hurt.2. Look for injured members of the cre$'\'ho havcjuhped or parachuted.3. Remove all nearby vchicles md airoaft.4. Open Crash Kit ed place in a spot easy ro rcacn.

9-23

WHAT PLANES

Locot ion of Airplone PcrtsA De.rber of a oash cres' must know how i.o gctinro a ddraged airplane, lvhat parts of the airplaneare most dangerous! and rvhere luel lines are so marhe can cur them off quickly.

To kDoN these things. he hust be familiar vithparts o{ air$aft. in particular:

1. llarerials used in aircralt.

2. Posilioh ol gasoline md oil tanks.3. Fuel vah es. Fuel lire selector (alles

L Elecirical systems.

5. Openings.

ti. Controls.

7. Special {asteners.8. Landing gear.

L Batteries.

10. Engines.

11. Crew positions in larger aircraft.The only way to learn about aircraft is to get jn

them and study thefu parts, read about them, and*atch lvhile fhey ar€ being dismantled.

Gett ins In lo o Crcshed Airplone (Nor ARre)One of the rescuemen ente$ the airylane. The otherh" lps h.r ' ror rhe ou'- ide He s"r . ;1 651. Doors or escape hatches or, if that is impossibte, by2. Breakine plexiglas or safety elass. As a Iast resort,

3. Cuts a hole in the fuselaee.

Hc must be caieful not to cut through cables orconnections that will increase the tue hazard. Hemakes a cut alone 3 sides of a rectangle and opensthe rectangle like a hinged door.

Inside rhe AirptoneOnce inside the airplane the rescueman:

1. Detcrmines condition oI crew.

2. Cuts ofi fuel selector switches, booster and trans-

3. Rcmoves hazardous matedals such as flares orlight pistols.

4. Relcases air crciv ftom safety be1ts. He docs norcut alvat safety belts unless absolutely llrcssary.UDsnapping thcm is easier and causes tess damage.

5. Removes cre* fron airplane carefully, especiallyif thel' are badly injured. Once out of the airplane,he rnores injured mehbers of the crew a safe dis-tance from the \creckage and gives prompt inedical

Other Ed<tofs in Crdshes1. Ground (electrically) aircraft as soo! as possr-bie.

2. Plue hoken Cas tanks with a soft .ivooden plue,putty or adhesive tape.

3. \'Uatch out for sparks. Do not wear nailed shoesas they will give ofi sparks when theytact with metal. Rubber shoes are pre{erable.

ARE THESE?

9-24

Fire FighringFire-f ighLine equipmpnr includas ran] j 's ol .1. Foam. A mixtrre of a powder and water that pro-duces a {rcthy mass of bubbles. When this mass isplay€d on a fire, it {orrns a blanket that excludesoxygen and chokes out the flames.2. Carbon dioxid€ (CO"). This is dischaqed as aheavy gas that smotheN the flames. Like foam, ttcuts off the fire's oxygen supply.3. Carbon tetrachloride, A hea\,x' liquid that quicklyfoms a spray. It is used like carbon dioxide. Carbontetrachloride is effective in temperatures belowfreezine.4. Water. This is dirccted at flames through high-presstrreJ gun-type nozzles, or applied as IogJikespmy. A straisht blast oI water extinguishes the tueand at the same time sweeps away gasoline vapors-A wide {og steam cools the air around a buiningairylane and the su ace of the airplane. It is excel-lent for coverine r€scue men who are attempting toget inside buming wrcckage.

Here are some important points about fire ffghting:1. Attack with the wind.2. Don't ddve fire back into the cockpit.3. Direct foam along edses of burning liquid andallow it to work back until the liquid is covercd.

AIM AT BASE ( lF FIRE4. Direct carbon dioxide and carboD tetrachiolide atthe base o{ the flame. Use large amounis in mass

5. Sweep flames froDl side to side with high-pressurcwater and slowly drive back.6. Don't mix water and foam, ior the {oam will dis-sipate and be useless.7. Cool gas tanks with a spray of water. Heat willexpand and burst them if they are full.8. Do not direct high-pressure waier sireams at luelburnine in tanks, Ior they will spread the bumingfue1.9. Watch our for flash-backs. Sometimes when a frreis out, a spark or heat combustion will re-ignite poolso{ {uel.

Removing Domoged Air.rcftDo not move a crashed airplane uniil you put out allffres aDd rerrove fuel. Moving might cause a short-circuit in a broken wire and stait a 6re o! cause anexplosion. fhe only time an airplane should be movedduring rescue work is in an emereency, r'hen it isnecessary to extract a member of the cre\,

Before you remove a darnaged airplane, be sure

1. See that removal is coordinated ivith an AiI Forcerepresentative if the airylane is Army property.2- Tum all switches to the "OFF" position3. Disconnect batteries.4. Reinove fLiel. You can pump it from airyiane tanks, l i "^-r l - i - i^

" t , , - l i " , , -L

5. Blanl<et completely with foam any Iuel on thegfound.6. Remove all flares and signals.

If you cannot remove the airplane frcm the sceneof the accident at oncel1. Anchor it securely-2. Place a guard over it to protect onlookers fromffrcs that might start up again and to stop any

After an airplane is removed:1. Look over the entirc area of the crash {or fueland oil that might have seeped into low areas.2. Carefully burn all fuel on the sround.

the.ulminorlon ot everyrhlng yoylGon ledrn obour oviorton comes when you

Glimb into dn .irplon€ dnd srortto ny ilro a definire desrtnorion. Bur your

knowledse ot Rylng wlll be rheGninsr6sr unlesr you know how to find your woy

over the {oce of the edrth. IH! lcleice of findins your wcy from one pt.ce on

the eorlh to qnorher by o d,6slred roure is colled novigorton. *rhts iedion o{

your manual expldlns rhe fundlmenrclc of ceriol novlqdrion ond discus5es

.errdin oid5 whl.h" when.tused.orrect ly, help you novigore.n oirptane. Among

thele oldi, the oeron.uflcgf ch.rr i5 mosr l|nporr.nr. lr ti dtro etrenri!t rhor

you know how ro exp/e' rime o..uidtely, ond know rhe retartonlhtp berween

tlme ond dilronce. ltln/6rder ro be oble ro ny lhe lhorresr dtsrdnce berween

rwo polnr3 on rhe gttlh'5 5ur{.ce rhroush d conlron y shifrins mdss of oir,

you musr -"sre.

rfe ure of your ndvigorion old5. Remember obove o etse to u5e

rhem .orefully a'l{ d..urdrely.

/

f 1r THIS SECrtOi l . . .

Introduation to Nqvigotion

Novisotion os You Akeody Know lt-Noviqoting oi Seo-Novigoting in the Air-Querrionr ro Aek

YouBelf Eefore Eesihnins o Trip by Air-Selecting the Shoden. Q!i<ken, Sofed Roure

Mops ond Chdrts

Whol o Mop k-How /v{op MokeB Put Cuded Sorfocer o Flot Pdper-The Lofrberr Conlormol

Seciionol Chdd Thot Aviotors Use-B$t Feoiur.t of ll-S<ole of o Lombert Conforhol-How

Thi3 Chort Helps in Aeriol Novigoiion-Finding Your Position in Terms of Inierse.tins Sneeb-How

eridion! ond Porollek of Lotitode R$€mble Them-How Meridions Are Nunbered-How

Porollel5 of Lotitude Are Numbered-Expr*tins o Pdirion by Lotirude ond Longitlde-Divhions

of o Degree-Locoting Your Exoct Potition on on Aeronouti(ol Chorl-How to find Plocet on the

Ground When You've Lo.dted Them on o Chort-Chod Symbols for Teroin Fedtures-Contour Lines-

Chdrt Symbok for: Woter Feotures; Culturol Feorure3, Aimeldt, Lishtr ond Beocons; Rodio Srorionsr

Obstruclions-lmportonce of Hoving on Up+o-Dote Chort

Dlrec?lon, Di3iqn.e ond Time

How to ly\eosure Di3lon.es on o Chod-Meosurins o True CooRe-How to Use the Prokoctor-

Deiermining Whoi Quodront Your CouRe k In-Exploining the Mqsneti< Conpo$-How to Deterhine

Composs Coor3e-Relotion of Sunt Po$d9e to Time-The Eorth ! 24 Time Zoner-Why Airnen

M6t Erpre$ Time in HouB ond Tifre Zone-The 24-Hour Clock-How io E:pre* lime in Terhs of

Another Time Zone-lnterhotionol Dote Line-Sunret Toble5 ond How to Ute Them-How ro U5e

the D3 Novisotion Computer

Elemenfory Nqvig.lion

How An Cuiieih Afie.t on Airpldnel Co!6e-How

to Delermine Your Cohpo$ Heodins, True Heodins,

ond WhI to Drow o Wind Tr iongle-How

ond Mognet ic Heodins-A Proct i .o lProblem in

Hor do iou naligate? Holv do you lind your wayIron one place on the earth to another? Answer thequestion ] ou$elf. When you go from home io school1ou lo l lorv the same street lou hale fo l lowed elersiDce lou slarled going to school. That street helpslou find rour Nat. The stre€t srgns on everY cornertell }'ou that \'ou are on the right street. You recog-r . .ze Lrr l .ar parh. acro"s ldcant 1or5. YoL dre na!r-sating eleN da!. and these familiar landmarks helpIou f ind l our Nal .

\l'hen the captain of a boat starts out across theocean for Europe or China or rvhereler he ma1' bebound. he has to navigate to get where he \yants rogo. There are no street signs in the middle of theocean to help him. There are Do paihq acoss vacani

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lots. And there are currents in the ocean that causehis boat to drifi.

But boats ooss oceans every day. They don't getlost because the capiain and his crew have ways o{navieating. They use the stals and ihe sun and theyknolv hol\ the ocean curents are afiecting theirboat. They have certain aids that they use to replac€lhe strepr s isrs The) know where ibe} are goin8 asthe] cross the ocean just as you do vhen you go toschool each day. because ihey are.just as familiar\rith thef aids as liou are with yours.

In the air you have a dilTerent prcblem. You arestill tr)ing to get from one place to another and youhave to use aids to do it. The difierence lies in thetype of aids )ou use. The airman (anyone who gies

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is called an aihan) uses some of the aids you usein traveling around on the ground, and he uses someof the aids the ship captain uses in traveling overthe ocean. But he also has some additional ones.

Here is somethirg to remember- Distance ish talways measured in miles. In the air. distance ismeasured in terms of time-hours and minutes. Thequickest way to get to a destination is the short€st.

Be sure to choose the sa{est ivay to )our destina-tion. If you select a dangerous route you mal' nerei

The airman uses a combination of aids. Beioreyou can do this you must know the best lvay ofusing these aids. There are ihree things youmust ihink aboui before starline on any air trip.

1. What is the shoiest way to get to your

2. Whai is ihe quickest way to get io youi

3. Above all, Nhat js the saJest \ray to get to

It takes some thinking to figure out the shortest.quickest. and safcst way to go to a particularplace, but you hust do it: Doni staft uiil ]ouhave thought it over carefullr.

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Set there. Pick the safest way you kno$'. II there isa railroad tunnel through a mountain bet$'een youand school, you might save time by going to and fromschool through the tunnel. Bui the trains don't ai-ways run on time, and if you start throush the tunnel

,ou might get caught in ihe middle- It is sa{er. to goa.ound the hill. Therefore, you do so- It takes a littlemore time and it is a geater distance, but you knowit is a safer way to get there.

When you are in the air you don't have io $'orryabout tunnels, but you do have to worry about otherobstacles. When you plan a flight you must avoidmountains and go around bad weather. It may takeyou longer to get to you! destination, but you willbe moie sure of eetting therc.

You plan your flight wiih the aids you have. A{teryou have done this intelligently, you start usingthose aids. But beforc you can use any aid you rnustknow what it is and how it can serve you best. Let'sdiscuss ihese aids oDe at a time. First, you must knowshat a chart is and hos' to use it.

I O-3

A map is a represeniation of a portion oI the earth,ssurlace on a sheet of paper. The earth's su*ac€ iscurved. The paper is flat. It is difficult to take a por-tion of a globe and flatten it and still keep things inthet righi rclation to each other.

You can appre€iate this bettel if you recall whathappens when you take half an orange peel and pressii flat. It splits ai the edges and creases in the center-

But the map makers have ngued out ways oIflattening a globe without greatly distorting the out-lines of ihe continents or coast lines. Since this isn,ta course in mathematics you don't have to learn howto build these maps. You only have to leam how to

A map which is prepa.€d {or navigation is calleda chart. A chart that is prepaled {or aedal naviga-

tion is called an aeronautical chat. Since you arestudyine aerial navigation you will use aemnauticalcharts only. The most common one is the Lamb€rtConformal sectional chart.

The Lambe Conlormal chart shows the sulfac€of the earth as i{ it werc the surface of a cone- Thatis the way its makers construct this type o{ chart.The cone intersects the globe along two lines, calledthe standard parallels. The standard parallels are33 degrees and 45 degrees north latitude, and a state-ment of that fact is printed in the upper right-handcomer of the cha . The ar€a between these paraltelsis represented with a minirnum of distortion on theLambert Conformal-that's the important value o{ihis cha.t.

Lcmbert Conforncl Chorl

Why do most aimen use the Lambert ConlormalChart? They have many reasoDs. Here are a iew:

Thi. l. th. wdt n.p h.k E hqr or. podlon

of t$. .urved .u.1... ol d gloh. l. th. ll.l

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1. It closely resembles the earih as you see it ona Clobe. The m€ridians point toward t}le pole on thischart just as th€y do on the elob€. Look atyour chat.Compare the me dians oD the right side oI thechaft with the edge oI it. They arc not palalel.

lte parallels bf latitud€ are spaced equally onthis chart, just as th€y are on the globe, and slightlycurved, too. Look at you chart. See how the parallel

at the top of it cuNes in compadson with the straieht

2. You can use the scale at the bottom o{ thechart to measure distances anywhere on it, becauseit is a constant scale.

3. If you &aw a straight line between two pointson this chart, that line reprcsents the shortest dis-tance between those two points on the glound.

4. This chart has little distortion. the land areasand water areas all appear on it in correct propor-tion. (Comparc aerial photo and chart below.)

Because the chart approximates the correci pro-portion and tocation o{ featurcs on ihe ea h, you canrccognize landmarks irom the air. This makes itideal for the type of work the ainan has to do.

The particular type of LImb€It ConJormal whichyou will use in this couNe is a sectional chart. Thischart is so constucted that 1 inch on it is equal toapprcximately 8 miles on the surface of the eadh.Actually, the scale is l inch on the cha{ to 500,000inches on the earth's surface. That's nearly 8 miles.The scale of a chart is always p nted in the upperrisht-hand colner. Always check the scale you are

.tc5

Why should you always use the Lambet Conformal construct.d to this scale? Becausc the scaieis large enough to make the landma.ks show upplainly, yet small enough so that it cove$ a large

In your CAPC cou$e this is the only chart youwiU us€, so always check th€ scale al the upp€rdghl-hand corner to make sure you hav€ th€proper one.

The chaft is an aid to aerial navigation because:1. It helps you find your position.2. It helps you find the distance between any two

3. It helps you ffnd direction.Each of these advantages is impoitant all by itsellso they are discussed sepaiately.

AEIONAUIICAI CHARI

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When you are trying to locate a friend in a strangetown you usually go into a drug store and reach himby telcphone. You try to explain s.here 1ou are sohe can tell you how to get to his home You tell him.{or instancc, that you are in Jones' drug sto.e. If hedoesn't know where Jones' drus store is. ]'ou hase toeive him better directions. What do Iou do? You soout to the corner and Iook at the street sign. The signtells you that you are on the corner oI 22nd Streetand 5th Avenue. When yoLr eive ].our friend thisinformation he knows exactly rvhere ]ou are andtells you in detail how to get from there to his home.

YJhy does he know where the corne! of22nd Streetand 5th Avenue is when he doesn't kno\' \\'hereJones' drug store is? Because there is onlt- onecorn€r in the whole city where 5th A\_enue crosses22nd Street. In most towns the stieets run no h and

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south. east and Nest. If they are parallel to a iiveror some prominent landmark and are numbered fromthat point. it is easy to tell where 22nd Street is. Itis 22 blocks from the river. Stleets running at rightangles to one another actually {orm a system of co-ordinates. By naning tlvo streets that intersec!, youname a dennite corne!.

The captain of the boat wants to know where he isall the time, just as you want to know where youare all the time. He can't look up at a street sign.It isn't sufrcient for him to know that he is in theAtlantic Ocean betiveen the United States andEurope. He has to know his exact location in theocean. By using the available aids he finds the geo-

Sraphical position o{ his boat and expresses thatposition by coodinates. These coordiDaies are diI-ferent from the ones rpresented by intersectingstrects but, like them, they are found by ihe mtei-.ecr ion of rwo l 'ne. rurning al r iSht argle. .

lvhen you eo into the air you have thc same prob-lem as the caplain of the boat. It isn't sumcicnt {or

Iou to know that you are some$here between theMississippi River and the Allesheny Mountains. Youwant to know exactly wherc you are. You can find

lour position over a definite landmark by referring1l) your chart. Express this position by using thcIatilude and longitude syst€m of coordinat€s.

This isn't hatd to do. Just as a river may be thestarting point for nuhberine the streets in a tosn.there is a starting point {or nuhbefing the meridiansand another for nurnbe ng the parallels of lalitude.

IO NGIIUDI

Green$'ich. England is the spot where the nuDber-ine of meddians begins.

Stafiing with the meridian which passes throughthis point, we measure lonsitude. For this purpose,each half of the earth is divided into 180 paits- Eachpart is called a degree and is designated by thesign '. From the Green$'ich me dian westwad tothe meridian exactly opposite it on the other side ofthe earth there are 180 dcsrces and frcm the Green-Nich meridian eastward to that sane point there are130 degrees. Meridians are dra$'n thrcugh each ofthese degrees, and ihey are called degrees of longi-tude.

There are 180 deerees of west longitude and 180degrees of east longitude. Since Grcens'ich is thestarting point for numbering these meridians, youexp.ess your posiiion by saying, for instmce, that

I ou are 45 degrees wesi of Crcenwich, or you are at.15 degrees Nest longitude.

NoN let s considei the other coordinate, latitude.

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The distance along any meridian between either poleand the equator is dividcd into 90 parts. These partsare also called degrees. On a globe or chart they areindicated by lines parallel to the equator. Since theequator is theb starting point, they are nuhberedf.om there to thc pole- No matter Nherc you areon the earth )ou arc on a parallelof latitudc, whichis $hat this coordinate is called. You can tell the

parallel you are on by couniing the number ofdegrees it is north or south o{ the equator. Il you arenorth o{ the equator, you des$ibe the point as beineso many degrees north. If you are south of theequaior! you desc be it as being so many degrees

The entire ea{h is thus divided into a system ofcoordinates just ]ike a well-planned town. Theme dians run north and south and the pamllels of

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latitude run east and west. Fihd shich he.jdian youare oni then find Nhich parallcl of latitudc crossesihat meridian at your position. ADy placc you maybc has a mcridian and a parallel of latitude runninsthrough it. Therefore, you can alwavs express lourposition in dcgrees of latitudc and lonsitucle.

A degree is further dilided into 60 parls. Each pafris callcd a minutc- There are 60 Drinutes in 1 des.ce.The deerees are broken dowD this lar su juu ea,Lexpress your posilion rorc accuralell. B]- cxpress-ing your position in dcgrees aDd n,inulcs ol larirudeand longitude you can come wiihin 1 mile of bfineexacdy accurate. If 1ou measure these coordjnarescarefully you may cxpress lour position elen nr(feexactly within a half mile or. e|en a quarter of a

Measure lalitude and longitude carefully. Toread your longitude, Iay a ruler o. some straight-edeed instrument north and south over rour positionon the chart. Be su.e the ruler is exactl]. north andsouth, parallel to the nearest meridian. NoN,.eadyour longitude where the ruier oosses 2 parallels of

MEASU RINGTONGITUD E

latitude. To 6nd you latitude, use a pair oI divide$to Deasure along the ruter. Measure up to you!position ftom the parallel below it. Then, measu.e ofithat distance along t}le nearest me dian and readyour latitude. rthat you've done is to find whichmeridie and which parailel of latitude inrelsecr ar

Remember. an expression of yol,r pos x,n oy co-ordinates doesnt hean a thing Lrnlcss it js cxact.In fact- carelessness is misleadinq and dangerous.

No$ that )or.r know how to cxpress your posilionb! latiiude and lonsitudc. horv do you ffnd yourposition from the air so rou can use this knowlcdge?Your chart describes landnrarks such as mountains,rivers, towns and roads. Recognize a landmark diiectll' beneaih you. fiDd this landmark on lourchart. Then, describe its posiiion in latitude |ndloneitude. Thc coordinates of your posirion are thesahe as those of the landmark because you are d!

Your chari doesn't have a picture of a towD. arailroad, a mountain, or a wate! tower, horveter.

M EASURINGLATITUDE

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Thcre a|e symi.:ols on your chart that reserrble butdo not picture the landmarks represented. They areexasserated in size so you can easily find theDr on

rou. chaft. You hust leam \\'hat each symbol rep-reseDts. once you have learned these symbols youNill recognize the synbol for a torvn ot a certainsizc. for inslance, and identily the town from theair. You will .ccognize the symbol for an airfield andiheh ideDlily rhe airneld from the air. There aremanl landmarks $hich you will scc {rom the ai!that ar. not shoNn on youf chart. If everl' landmark$ere indicated on ii, thc chart would be all clutteredup. Ir contains only the information thai is most use-

Look al \ our chart-

le i io in ond Woter feotures

The l'irsl thing ]'ou notice is the colors. Thc colorsar. !arious shades of green and bro$n. These colorstel l lou hoN high the lerrajn is above sea ]eve]. Re-, , ' , mbcr .J, \ "o lor repre=ents an al t : tude ranq" fl0n0 ippr. For :nnrnce. rhe darker .h.de of sreenrepresenls altitudcs from sea lerel through 999 feet.A location shoNn in rhis shade Dray be anl heightIrom 1 to 1000 Ieet.

The next most prominent feature of the chart isits conlour lines. A conlour represents an imaginar!line on the ground drawn through eve{ point which

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is the same height abovc sea level. The va ed curvesof the conrour line rcveal the shapes o{ ridges, val-leys, canyons, blu{Is, and other details.

Any contour is the inteneciion of an imaginaryhodzontal plane with the su#ace of the terain. Fig-ures 1 and 2 illustrate this. A sandpile 5 feet hiehstands on a pavement. An imaginary plane passesthrough the sandpile at a heighi of 2 {eet. You areseeing it {rom the side and from above. As you lookdown on the sandpile, you can readily see howcontour lines are {ormed-

Bodre. of water arp ea.y to.ee f-on r l^e air . Tb.yare accurately represented on yrur chart as to shape

Wqfer Feotures

lorse River ond Shedtn

Many man-madc {eatures caD be scen aDd recognizedfrom the air. These features a.e called cultural

Towns and cities are rh€ most proDrinent .ultural

Oniy the more prominent paved roads are sholrnon your chart- When you sce an unpared road fromthe air it does not seem to hale the slne clean. gra!'appearance of a paved road.

Railroads are more dimcult io see froh u,e arthan mads. They usually look like dak ribbom. and

Cit ie5 dnd lowns

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Highwoys qnd Rdilroqd5

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the rails themselles are seldom visibte.lliscellaeous cuhural fearur.s are als,ays sholvn

Features lrhi.h present a menace to aj. travet arcahval's sho*a in red.

Prominent tansmission lines nmy rcpresenr ahaa.d to at tamci therefore. they are shorvn in red.

PiFelines are iDpoirant because you can sce fronlthe air rhe !ight-of-Na)- scars made ior rhen,.

Derricks dd oil srorase tanks are represented bl.s1-rnbols placed approxihatel): ove! rhe area coverealbt rhe denicks or tanks. The slrbol does not telllou hoN hanj' there are. however.

Foresl Ronser Stor ion

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Obslru.tion3(Heishr.bove ground)

Army, Novy, or Morine Field

Deporfnenl of Codmer.e

Mo'ked Auriliory Field

seoplone Bq.e (wirh romp, beoch6nd hondl ins loci l i t ie.)

Anchordge (wi lh r€fuGl ins ondusuol horbor fo( i l i t io.)

An(horose (wirh limiredfo. i l i t ie3)

Airlields are shorvn in red because they are of prime

inLportance to the airman. Their altitude above sea

lelcl is printed in slanths red figures.

The letters LF near an ai leld nrean that ii has

lishtine facilities and it is sa{e to land thcre at night

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Lights ond aeocons

Lighis and beacons are sho$'n in red on your chartbecause they are important aids to naligation. Thereare several lypes of beaconsl

1. Rotating beacons are spaccd about 10 or 15milcs apart and {om a light line that coDnects pfin-cipal cilies and toqns. They sweep a beam of lightib a circle 6 times every minute.

2. The stationary beacon flashes in one position

3. Some beacons have red code lishis i.hat llashij timcs pcr nlinute. Thc codc is markcd on 5ourchart under the beacon slmbol. You can see the codeuhen iou cross lhe light line or fly parallel 1.o it.

$'heq the flashing code lisht is sreen it meansthcrc is an airlield there with night iandins {acilities.

There are sereral combinations o{ Iights and

Roloting Beo.on

lwxfi no3hlns .cd. b.occn)

Flo5hing Code Beocon

Morine Novigot ion Lighl

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Rodio Sldtions

There are various types of radio staiions and voucan usc ihem all to help you find your position. Mosi

airplanes have equipment thai witi help yotl do this

On ] our chart the symbols {or radio stations are also

in rcd becausc of their importancc.

| "!'o$ uuo I Non Didionor roJi6 8.o6"

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Fon Mork6r Beo.on{wrrfi iiiniin.ofi .n irrncr)

Rodio Slolion(wirh ..ll |.rbr .nd rnqu€nly)

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o* @D Rodio Finder srorion(whh cdll |.fi.r. .nd ,6qu.ncy)

O ( i i * -0" 1; Mqrine Rodio Beo.onRsi \ toi 5.m / (wxh rr.qu.ncy cnd rd.nrifl(cii.i

Proninenl Tronsmi.s ion l ine

Mosnel ic Vor iqt ion

An obstruction likely to be dangercus to ail tramcis malked on the chart by a red in!'eried V and anumeral representing the height of the oDstucuon.Remernbcr, ihis numeral tells you how high rhe ob-struction is above the elevation oI the ground. I{ theground elevation is 4.000 fi. and the obstruction isliarked 1,000 ft., that mcans it is 5,000 ft. above sealevel .

A restricted area is an area over i,",hich you mustmarntain a certain minimurn altil.udc. The liguresho$'n on the chari tells you the minimum altitude

An airspace reservation is an area over rvhichflight is forbidden.

You must l€arn what all these slmbols repre-sent and thcn be able to recogniz€ the landmarksand navigation aids from the air.

Some prominent landmarks change from time totime. Lakes are formed by newly built dans. Newroads are built. Towns change in size. The chartmakers have to kecp your chart up-ro-datc, andthey do their best. But they can'i publish a nes,charias often as landmarks change because it is too expen-sive. They do tell you when your chart was pub-lished, howcver. The date of publication is printedin red in ihe Iower left-hand corner. -A.lways use themosl recent char{ ayailable.

You now know how to erpress any posiiion bylatitude and longitude, and you know whar the chartsymbols represent. It is important that you kno$,ihis- But when you leave your departure point youmust also know how {ar your destination is. yourchatt helps l.ou determine distan4€.

Dislon(e

You rneasure distances in miles on your chart, andthe mile Iou use has 5,280 ft. jn it. This is a statutemile. There is a scale on the bottom of your chartthat helps rou measure distances. Use this scaleanlrrhere on the chart. but be sure to measure dis-tances accuratel].

A big adlantage 1l) you in rleasuring distances onan aeronautical chart is the fact that you fly fromone place straisht to another. You don't follo\l thetujsts and turns of a highrvay. Just measure rhestraight line between departure and destnatron.

Nolv that !'ou knoN how to use your chart, youhave hastcred the usc of one of the aids to a,r navLgation. This is the single mosi important aid youha\-e and you must use it accurately.

Diredion

To get to your deslination you musi also know \(hichdirection to take.

(B.driis3 dr. hoen.ri. or rh.3r.ricn)

lo- t3

You don't wody aboul the direction you are tralel-ing when you travel on the eround, because you onlyhale to follow a street or a road, read the signs andfollo{ the aFows. Direction is taken care of fo! you.The roads lead io where you want to go, so you fol-

The captain and crew of the boat don'i have anyroads 1o follow across t}le oceans, so they must usesome other Dcars o{ taking the ght direction. The}'use a compass, which is a dilection-findjng instru-

The ailman has a problem similar to ihat of thecaptain of the boai. He can't fly down a highway.readiDg a ows and signs. So the aiman uses a com-

froh lrue north, True noth is the direciioD {roman! point to the gcographic Noith Pole.

You remember that every circle has 360 degrees.A circle indicating all directions is called a compassrose. There are compass roses on the chart you areusing.

\\}en planniog Iour flight you tust draw a linebet\reen the points of depariure and destination.This line is called youi lrue course. To measure thedirection of this course you use a protractor, whichjs hau a compass rose.

pass also. He calls the direction between his depar-ture and destination his course.

How do you measuie your course? The airmanexpresses direction in deelees measured ctockwise

Place the index of the plotractor over a meridianand along a line you want to measure. Read the di-iection of the line wherc the meridian cuts the pro-tractor. If your cou6e is easteily, read the figure onthe p.otractor as it is. If your course is westerly, add

tGl4

180 degrees to the roading you get on your protmc-tor- Always use the meddian hau way betNeen yourdeparture and destination points on which io meas-ure the course bet\.e.n those places.

Remember: Always add 180 degrees to the read-ing of your protrflctor wh€n you have a westerly

Pick out any position oD your cha{ and expressthat position by latitude and ionsitude. From thatposition dnw Iines in several dilections. Stading atNorth, which is 0o, measure the dircction these linesare pointing Irom your position. Express these direc-tions or courses in de$ees from 0'to 360., clockwise

\\'henever you rcmember this

The first quarter (or quadfant) .is the 0' 90,qradrant: the second, the 90"-180' quadmnt; thejrid. the 180'-270'quadranti the fourth, the

270' 360' quadrant. I{ your course line is in rhefirst quadrant the course angle cannot exceed 90._If it is in the second quadrant the ansle musr bebetq'een 90' and 180'. If the course line is iD thethird quadrant the angle must be between 180. and270'. If the course Inre is in the fouirh quadrant, thecourse ansle must be beiNeen 2?0" and 3600.

Keep this diasram in mind. You can elance at acourse liDe. deternine \\hich quadianl ii is iD, andestrmate the approximate course angle. This willhelp roLr

" l$rnare I - fs. , , r i . rak. . In Inea,u-,nc

The conpass that airmen use is a magnetic com-pass. Its principle and purpose are described inSection 6. \Yhat Xlakes an Ai$lane Fly." It is anaccuate and dependable instrument in the hands ofthe pilot or naligalor Nho knoivs how to use it. Burit is subject to t\!o tlpcs of enors:

1 Flisht errors.2. Inherent errors.

Flisht eroN are not discussed in this section, burare described in Section 6.

Innerent errors must ahvalis be considercd. Thel

1. Variation.2. Deviation.

Va ation is causcd by the fact thai the needl. o{the magnetic compass points io the earth's magneticpole. Unfo{unately the masnetic north pole of theearth is not in the same place as the geographicNo{h Pole-

You have just learned to measure your coursefrcm tru. north. Your compass, however, gives direc-

I O-15

a,

I

a

a

I

I

U. S. ConDoss Vcriot;ons

tioD iroD DFgDetic north. The angle or dilTefeDcebelNeen these two directions fron ]our posiiion is.alled variatioD. Because of the wal thc earth ishade. this variatjon is dillerent at difiereDt placeson tlic carth.

Find the amount of vadaiion of your flight areaon your chart. This is shown by hcavy dashed lines.call-"d isosonic lines, x'hich connect poiDis ol equal!a- : ,o. . I i yo: cr .s. ,everal s r .h l inFr in onnflisht, ligure lhe averaee amouni of vadation and

VadatioD is either easterly o! westerl)'. Appl!variation to your true cou$e. Add westerlv lalia-

ljqs slLb!_rg€l_9e9lc_t_I9!eug. rrue course cor-rected lor variatioh is called magnetic course.

Deyiation is the conrpass crrol caused by thenearby maenctic sourccs in the airpiane, such as theproximitr of iron pafts and the elect cal cunent inthe radio or electdcal s)stem. You Ni11.6nd theamount of deviation of your compass on a cardinstalled on the insirument panel. Ii is called a

Apply dcliaiion, as ii is indicated on the compasscard, to your magnetic course. Magnetic .ou$e cor-rected for deviaiion is called compass course.

,{ cornpass course is ihe course $'hich you muststeer in oder to compensate {or ihe two inhercnt

True course -

lariation - hagnetic course.

tr{agnelic course i deviation : compass course.Here is an example:You! t.ue course is 2?5'. Va ation o{ your fligLt

area is ?'E. Your compass card indicaies {or thenearest beadng (270') : M to C, +1.

True Course. . . . . . . . . . . . . .275"Var iat ion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . J"

Masnet ic course . . . . . . . . . . . .268"Deviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . +1"

Compass course . . . . . . . . . .. 269"

ro-16

From ear ly days man ncasurM r i rne b\ . . \ar . . : r :g

and not ing the Dovcr l lent o l the sun acr i . . : l t .krHpdru\ , a"rckirru 1, B-. , . , ' .r t . .haduw mnvPd a- | - .n . rWe now know, of coursc. ihat rhe ap!,r t f r : : ; r : , r . -ment of the suD is caused b| rhe f ( , : r l i f : laround its axis. Bul sinc. ineamund us. rve shal l prctcnd hL-.e rhar i , . ; : . : - : . -1. .

Thcp"r iod of rm- r " p r l . i .

r:r! ro:ati.n is calied a day. A day in this sense in-.lulei b(,rh rhe time oI daylighl and darkness. It isdr l(lid !r1. :1 hours. Each hour is further divided::.tr :rurute; and seconds.

,fr ar\ llace oh the earth when the sun is highestL. : I i Cai l l l r ip across the sky i t is nooh or mid-day| 12 Li.h.k). TNelle hours before, $,hen the sun $.ase\ai:l\ opposjt-p. on thc orher side of the ea4h, their,y .tarted for. this particulai ptace. Twelve hoursair.r !rid-da\'. ihe slur, having completed a circle, is

again exactly opposite the spot o{ which we arcspeaking. It is now midnight there and a new day

.{11 people on the same meridian, regardless of thelalitude of thei. position, have the same time. Theyha\e noon and therefore every other hour of t}|e dayat the sane rime. But remember, this is true onlyof people on rhe same meddiaD.

For instance, when it is 12 o'clock in West PalmBeach. Fla . rhe clocks in Charleston, S- C., E e, Pa.,and in Pau]'Sound, Northem Onta o, also indicate12 o clock. That is because these places all are locat€dalong the neridian o{ 80' $.esi longitude.

On rhe other hand, when it is noon for the people\\ ho iive on the meridian of 80" sest longiiude, ac-cordrng 1() the position of the sun ii is not yet noon

for those rvho live at 82" west longitude. That'sbecause it takes t}le sun a certain amount of tiDeto travel the additional 2 degrees.

Holv long does it take thc sun to travet this dis_tance? It cohpletes a circle in 24 hours. Eycry circtehas 360 dcgrees. Therefore, the sun travets 15 de-crpF. ui longlude erery horr and I dpgree p\ery

lo- lz

Accordinely, it will iake 8 minutes for the sun tocover the 2 degrees o{ distance between 80' and 82'west longitude. When it's noon at 80,' west it is 8minutes be{ore noon at 82' west.

According to the movement of the sun. no rwoplaces east or lvest of each other have the same iime.For practical ieasons i1{'as d€cided to esrablish timezones. These are large areas within Nhich all peopleset their watches to the same ljme. They use thetime o{ the meddian passine through the middie o{their zone. This meridian is called the standardmeridian of the respective time zone and the inreihat is used in the entire zone is called standard{ ime. I t i : ato known var iou: l } as zone t imc, meantime, and ciYil tim€.

Twenty-four time zones were established, eachzone covedng 15 degrees of longitudc. excepr whcrclocal s uatioDs such as the position of staie bordershad to be considered.

0flitc zoNES

K**

I O-18

These 1i,ne zoncs arc ccntcrcd on 24 slandardmp', , r , r ' b srnnD S wI l rhp ,"p" 'Jr"n r ,J - : r cthroush Grcenrvich, EmglaDd. This is rhe z€ro merid-

People on the ground travcl at comparatively 1owspeeds and only occasionally cmss lhe borders oftimc zones. Whenever ihey cross thc boder of a timezone in an easterly .lircction the! must set therrwalches t holrr ahead. This is because the sun travclsfrom cast to sest, while they are nDving in thc op-positc direciion. When they cross thc border of atirre zone jb a westcrly dircction ih-"v set their$arch

" b-k I ho rr . f " r ther "r" .ar . \ rn! up $i n

Airhen, travelins at high speeds, frequently crosssevefal time zones on a single trip. Thcreforc it isparticularly imporlant fof them t.r understand and

bc able to exprcss time accurately. They ah'ays mustbc conscious of which time zone thcy are in. Whenthey exprcss their time they must not only give i.hehour bLrt also the lime zone.

To avoid misuhde$tanding and to simpli{y com-inunications, airmen do not express time as a.m. andp.m. They usc the z4-hour clock. On this clock themoning houls are numbered as usual but thehours frorn noon to midnighr aie numbeied from1;l to 24. Moreover, tle alrernoon and evening hours

arc spoken of as thirtccn hundred, fou{een hundfed,

Ncter al lcmpl lo solve a t ime prohlem in lourhead. Atways do it on paper.

Here is the way to do it:What is 12:42 Eastern Standard Time in Pacilic

Standad Time? EST is based on 75 west longitude,the standard meridian of the easiern time zone. PSTi. I l ) . .d un 120 wF-r lon8 tud.. Th" di f ier .nre inlongitudc between thern is 45 dcgrees. Thereforc. thedifference between Eastcrn Standard Time and

Pa.r f i . Srand"rd T,r , , . ' " or 3 hour. S:ni . you15'

l rn i xprp\rrne lh i 'np or an pd5lerr r ' _- zun. :nterms of a tlne zone further uest you must set yourqatch back 3 houn.

12:,12 EST minus 3 hours equals 09:42 PST.Here is another example:What is 15:10 Ceniml Standard Time in creen-

wich Standard Time?CST is based on 90'west lonsitude. crcenwich

Srandard TimF i . basd "n

0". Th" orf f " rer ce inloneitude between these standad meridians is 90

qndeqrFe-. Th" drf l . r "n.e ra r ime j - - or 6 hourr .

15, '15110 CST plus 6 hours equals 21:10 GST. Re-

membe., in this case you hust sei your watch ahcad.You are ffsurins lime in a timc zone east o{ yours.

Clocks havc bcen set ahead t hour in maDy timezon,- bc, au"" ol rhe war ' l hrs $a' d"n. lu :nr . .a"uthe amount of dayliltht in a normal $'ork day. It iscallcd war tim€. lt creates some cohplicalion inyour time pmblems but not a scdous onc. To changewar ljme to siandard tnnc, subtract t houi.

lGl9

The apparent movement of the sun around the earthnot only creates day and night and the 24 hours oft}le day, as you have just leamed, but it also causesthe days to change.

When ihe sun is over the Grcenwich meridian it isnoon ih€re. For an instant o{ time, and only for thatinstant, it is t}le same date all over the world-

In ihe next instmt a new day is bom at the In-tenational Date Lin€, which is the 180th meridian(east or west).

As the sun moves on, see (in the center drawinson this page) what happens t hour later.

Remember: When you cross the InternaiionalDate Line in a westerly direction you must add 1day. When you cross it in an easterly dircction, youmut subtnct 1 day.

I O-20

sl|l{stT TABttseast of the standard meridian in this tihe

For example: Find the sunset time torMay 20 at 33'00'N latitude and 94'30' Wlongitude.

1. Enter the top or bottom scale with theproper date, May 20.

2. Move v€rtically down or up to the cuNefor your latitude,33"00'. Since this exactlatitude is .ot sho]m on the chart, you mustestimate its approximate position betweenthe 30' and 35" lines of latitude.

3. Move horizontally to the le{t and rcadthe local standard time on the vetical scaleat th€ side 18155.

4. To find the coDect zone or standard tih€

F

b:

.e

lvhen you start on a trip in an airptane it E

impodani for you to know Nhen you $iliardve at your destination- You vill alrvaystry to get there before the sun soes downso you can land beiore it gets dark. Thereare tables prepared to help you lind thetime of sunset at your destination.

This is how you use them:1. Enter the top or bottom scale with the

2. Move vertically dorvn or up to the cuN€ ior

3. Move horizontally to the right or teft and rcadthe local standard time of sunset on the vetical

scales at the side. The tables gi\'e you the time o{sunset at any standard meddian.

,1- To find the exact zone iime of sunset {or anyiocation not on a standard meridian, add I minuiesf('r'each degree vcst of the standad neridian inthis lime zone and subtract 4 minutes lor each degree

of sunset, add 4 minutes for each degree your destina-tion is wesi of the standard meridian. Your longiiudeis 4"30'west o{ the standard 90th meridian (CentraiStandard Time). There{ore, 4% X 4 (18 minutes)is added to 18;55 to eet the time of sunset-19r13Central Standard Time. If you have sar time onyour Natch, when the sun sets at your destinationthe waich wiU read 20113 CWT (Central War Tine).

Always try to reach your destination befor€ the

sun goes down, so you *'on't have lo make a nighttanding.

You hare been given enough aids now to stadsome elementary navigation. You know how to fnd

tG2l

and measure location, direction ud dist&ce on youchart. You know what the symbols mean. and r-ouundersrand t imc. Elementary navigat ion E a .om-bination of these aids.

How ro use the Nqvigofion compurer, TYPE ll-4Your D-4 navigation comput€t, which is also givento every Aviation Cadet at the start of his flighttraining, is a simpl€ gadget but it saves a lot of timeand trouble. It helps you solve time-distance prob-lems, figure true airspeed ftom indicated airspeed,correct your altimeter rcadings, and change statutemiles to nautical miles and kilon€tels. It has scalespiinted on both sides.

The TinlDi.ronce Sid.r

Set the (MPH) aEow to 15 on the outer scal€.That ffgure, in this insiance, represenLs 150 miles.Now, look below the 6gure 30 on th€ outer scale.Immediately below it is 12. That represents 120 min-

utes. Below 12 is 2:00, representing 2 hours.Suppose, to take another example, you know how

far you've flolm and how tong it has taken you todo it, but you don't know what your groundspeed is.

On the time-distance side of your computer theouter, stationary scale, when you're using it to worka tihe-distance problem, rcpr€sents distance. (It islike a slide rute in that the ffgures have no decimalpoint. For instance, the figure 15 can represent .15,1.5, 150, 1500, etc.) The inner, rDovable disk has tworcws oI figures and markings. For timedistanceprobl€ms, they both represent time. The larae arrow,marked MPH, is at the 1-hour mark. (Note that, in

the spaces between ffeu.€s arc dividedinto 10 r'artsj in other cases, into 5 pa!ts.)

Here's how you work a prcblem in time and dis-tance: Suppose, for exanpte, the distance betweenyour point of departure and destination js 300 miles.You groundspeed is 150 mph. How lonc will it taketo get to your destination? OI cou$e, you can fuurethis in your head. But work it on the compuler.

Let us say you have fiown 240 miles in 1r, hN.To ffnd your sroundspeed, s€t the ffsure I (repre-

sentins 90 minutes, or 116 hn.) on the inner scaleopposite 24 (repr€s€ntinc 240 miles) on the outerscale. Opposite the MPH arrow is your groudspe€d,160 mph.

"a'**'[L

CgMPUTER

1 *"- "*" . _ i

n"-l--"d

'i!tt't'

ro-22Allilude Coneclion

The time-distance side of your computer has anotheruse. In t}Ie section of this manual called What MakesAn Air?lane Fly, you arc told how chanses in barc-mei c pressure and temperature can make an altim-eter read inconectly. On the time-distance side ofthe D-4 coDputer you can 6nd corrected or tluealtitude from the altitude which the altimeter ind!cates. To do this, set the 6gure for indicated altitudeagainst the 6gure for temperature at flight level inthe window of the computer.

Chqnsins rhe SGole of Mile3

OD the time-distance side of the computer, you cansolve still anoiher kind of problem. For instance,you can change nautical miles to statute miles orkilomete$, and vice versa. You do this with the helpof the three small arrows on the edge o{ the com-puter's movable disk. The kilometer anow, markedKM, is right beside the large MPH anow. Thenauticai (NAUT.) and statuie (STAT.) alrows areleft and right of 35 on the same scale.

Here's an example: 100 nautical miles equal howmany statute miles or kilometers?

Set the NAUT. auow to the figure 10 (for 100) ontle outer scale, whics, in this kind o{ problem, againrepresents dislance. You find how many statute milesthG equals by looking above the STAT. arrow. Itpoints hallvay between 11 aDd 12 on the outer scale.Call it 11.i ard read it as 115. The KM arrow, mean-while. poinls at a spot a little morc than 2 linesbelond 18 on the oute! scale. Call it 18.25 or 182%.

To sum up, 100 nautical miles equal 115 statutemiles or 18214 kilometers.

For example, we'll assume your indicated altitudeis 10,000 ft. md the tempemturc is 20o.

To find your correct altitude, first set the 6gue 10on the Press. Alt. scale opposite -20 on the AirTemp- scale in the computer's vindow. Now, lookabove the ligure 10 on the edge of the movable disk.You rcad 94 on the outer scale. In altitude corectionproblehs, both these scales represent feet. The figu.e10 stands for 10,000 ft.; the fuure 94 represents9400 ft. In this particular ploblem, that is your truealtitude. The temperatu.e of 20' at 10,000 ft. islower than normal; therefore your true altitude isless than the altimeter indicates.

Let's try another exampl€: Your indicated altitud€is 8000 ft. and the temperature js +20". To find yourtrue altitude, set 8 on the Press. Alt. scale opposite+20 on the Air Temp. scale. Now, look above theffgure 8 (for 8000 it.) on the edse of the movabledisk. You read 86 (8600 ft.). In this exampl€, theactual temperaturc at 8000 {t. is above normal forthat altitude. Accordingly, you true altitude isgr€ter than the altimeter indicates.

rh. AiEpGed Side:

The airspeed side oi your D-4 computer helps you

figure true airspeed f.om indicated airspeed. The

oute., stationary scale represents calitrated aiBpeed.For youi purposes, this is the same as indicated air-speed. The pressure altitude scale, which for yourpu.poses is the same as iDdicated altitude, is on theinne., movable disk. You read true airspeed in the

computer's window.

This is how you work a problem on the airspeed

side of the computer:

4-:{d#

" r { oosNft

i . i " -^ -*" . -nc

X "- "'*, , ̂ .,

r'- .'i

Bwer o. True A-5. S..1.

Time, speed. di5t6nce. qnd direct ion

When you are driving your car down a highlLay

lour direction is determincd {or you by thc road. andyour speedomctcr ielis you hou fast you are going.Y. t , " l r f " l lou ,h" r"ad In l " a j . y, , ' ar- i , Jshi i t i rg c l .ment. I t is constanl ly novinA a, 'u, \ourairspeed indicator only 1el1s you how fast you aremovDS r l - -

'sh ' nol hu$ fa. l lou rre mo! insover the ground.

Your problcm is likc that of dossing a rrver in aboat. Thc lratcr in thc river is hoving dowbstream.Thc novcment of the water is called a cuuent You{ant to go straighl across ihe river. Bui. il you pointyour boat directly at the opposite shore thc currcntcarries you downstream. Thcre arc two forces actingon the boat. Thc oars arc pushine it foN'ard and thecuffent is cauying it sidcways.

tG23

Suppose your indicated akspeed is 160 mph, youialtitude is 10,000 it., and the temperatue is 0o. Youwant to find you. true airspeed.

Set your altitude (10 on the Prcssure Altitudescale) against 160 on t}Ie outer scale. Now, in thewindow, opposite a temperature rcading of 0' on theAir Temp. scale, read your true airspeed, 187 mph.

On the same side oI the computert you see aDensity Altitude scale and another air temperatuiescale. These apply only to ce -ain problems involvingexireme altitudes and high speeds, which are notrequired in your course.

In the air' t'ou are ih a curcnt al1 the time. Il youlcare Sour departurc point wi ih your airplaneheaded dircctly to$ards your destination, you willarrjle therc oriy il there is no lvjhd. But there isal\ays a lviId. The air is never con,pleicly calm.So there wi l l be t$o lorces acl ing on your plancjust as there rvefe lwo lorccs acting on thc boat.

Wilh a boat in a stream, you find that y.,u can eo\ l ra ight across i f you head upstream at a.er la inanslc B! sclecting just th-" right angle you can ..tr!pensale completely for the eflect of lhe curreni,shich is l r ] ing b push you downslrearn.

In plannins a flisht, your problcm is similar. Youhusl f;nd out hov niuch you havc to hcad into ihcrvind in ordcr to counteract its ellect. You do this\rith the heip of a vector diagrah, commonly catleda $ind trianslc. A vector is a line represenllbg hoih

tG24

dbection and force.By dnwing this simple triangle you can 6eu!e out

just how much you must h€ad into the wind in orderto travel over the ground in the direction you wantto go.

Suppose you want to fly lrom Altus Airyort, Okla.,to Midway Field at Clinton, Okla., a distance of 62miles. Your airplane, we'll say, cruises at an airsp€edlof 100 mil€s per hour.

First, draw a line on your aercnautical chart coF-necting the two points. This is your ltue course andyou find, by measuring, that it is 22". The varaationin your flight area, as the chart iDdicates, is 11' E.Let's assume that the deviation given on your com-pass card is f4'. lherefore, your compa.ss courseis 15o. It is ffgurcd this v,/ay:

True corfse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - .22"Var iat ion (E) . . . . . . . . . . . . . -11'

Masnet ic couNe - . . . . . . - - . - . .11'Deviat ion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .+4'

Compass course . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15'These co$ections have taken care of your compass

errols, but iI you v/ere to hold a couise at 15' youwould get from Altus to Clinton only in a dead calm.This, as you know, is never possible. The air is al-

By getting in touch with the Weather Station, youlearn that there is a wind of 20 miles p€r hour frcm325". lhe purpose of the wind trisngle is to 6nd outhow to correcl your course to compensate for thiswind. Since speed is always given in miles p€r hour,always draw a wind t iangte on the basis o{ I hour,no matter how long or short the tdp. Also, you must

select a pmctical scale to represent miles per houron the diagram you are going to draw and use thatscdle thrcughout the problem.

Or a piece of papr of suitable s;e to illustrateyour problem, draw a vertical line representingNorth-South. (Figure 1.) Print an N at the top of it.

Atong this line, s€lect a point representing youiplace of departure. Frcm this point, draw a line inthe di"ection of 22o. This represents your true cou$e. . . the line oD youi chart b€tween points of depar-

WHAT PLANES ARE IHESE?

ture and destination. Label the liner TC-22'.(Fieure 2.)

Now, thmueh the same point, dlaw a line from325'. This is your vind line. Label it W-325".(Fieure 3.)

Note that you have to draw the wind line throughyour starting pbint. This is important. To emphasizeit, dmw an auowhead at the €nd o{ the line, to pointout the direction into which the wind is blowing.Because the wind is moving in that direction, itsforce acts in that direction, too.

lG25

Your wind line now shows only the direction ofthewind. You must next indicate its velocity. Using thescale you have chosen, measuie ofi 20 miles (velocitype! hour) along the wind line, beeinning at the point

representing your place o{ departurc. B€ sur€ tomeasure in the direc{ion the wind is blowing.

Haiing made a point on this line to represent 20miles per hour, maik it W, for it is called the windpoint. Your diagram now shows both the dircction

l0-26

and velocity of the wind for a period of t hour.(Figure 4.)

Next, measure ofi 100 miles accordina o yourscale. This is your true airspeed for t hour. Frompoint W, ffnd wher€ this line inte$ects the line ofyour true course. W}Ien you have determined that

point, mark it GS and draw a dashed line from Wto GS. (Figure 5.) This line represents yuur uueair"peed. Th"refore. label i r TAS-I0omph.

Your wiDd triangle is now coDplete, and youcan read on it what you want to k!ow:

The angle betwcen your tue ai$peed line andyour true course line is the amount you are goingto have io corect your course to couDteract the force

WHAT PLANE5 ARE THESE?

to-27N

of the wind. Accordingty, it is called the wind cor-rection angle. Measure it with your Fotractor andyou will find it is 10". (Ficure 6.)

You previously found that your compass courseis 15'. Your wind triahsle shows you that the windcorrection angle is 10'. Do you add or subtract thisangle?

In retation to the direction oI your course in thisproblem the wind blows from the left. In order tocounteract its efiect, you therefore must corect rothe left, just as you must head a boat upsrream rocounteract the river curent. menever you corectto the left, you must subtmct your wind conecuonansle. Therefore:

Compass couNe . . . . . . . . . . . . .15Wind correct ion angle. . . . . . . 10'

Lompacr hFadrng , , , . . , , , . . . . !As you see, compass heading is your true course

conected for variation, deviation, md wind. Youhave found that in order to make eood the desiredtiue course of 22'the magnetic compass of yourplane will have to read 5".

The result is the same no matter in what orderyou apply these correciions. So far, we have gonef.om true course to magnetic coulse, irom magneticcou$e to compass course, and tuom compass courseto compass headins. Often, it is bore practical tomake these couectioN in the followins order:

Apply the wind conection angle to )'our truecou$e and get your true heading. Apply variation tothe tNe heading to get magnetic heading. Conectmagnetic heading for deviation and set compassheadine.

In your problem, this would work out in the fol-

True course . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22'Wind co eciion angle . .. . . . 10

True headins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I t' Vadat ion (E) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11"

Magnel ic heading . . . . . . . . . . . . L-Deviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . +4"

Lompass neaomgYou see, the rcsult is the same. Note that a course

conected for wind is called a heading.R€membert W}len the wind is moving you to the

right, always correct to the left. Wlen the wind is

moviDg you to the left, always correct to the dght.Whcn"v"r you cor.Fcl tu thr lef i , i t

- a minrs cor-

rection. Whenever you correct to the ight, it is a

On the vind trianele which you drew, the distancelrcm your starting point to the point GS represenisJour eroundsp"pd. Thal. )ou rcmembpr, js youractual speed over the ground. Measure it at yourscale and you {ind it is 88 miles per hour. This meansthat. because of the $ind, though you are flyins at atrue airspeed of 100 miles per hour, you are travelingover the ground at a speed of only 88 niles per hour.

In a wind triangle, the groundspe€d is alwaysfound along the tru€ course line and th€ true head-ing is the direct ion ol lhe l rue airspeed l ine.

Remember: In speaking of wind triangles a keyNo.d is true. \\ten lou draw one, always use truecourse and true airspeed.

You previously measured on your chat the dis-tmce flom Altus Airport to Midway I'ield and foundit to be 62 miles. You. {ind triangle shows you yourgroundspeed is 88 miles per hour. To ffnd out howlong your trip \siil take, consull your Dg computer.

Set the black s)inter at your groundspeed, 88miles per hour. No\r read the number of minutesunder the disbnce, 62 miles. You find it is about 42minutes. Accodingly, if you take oiT lrom Altus Air-polt at 10100 CWT, you can corectly estimate thatyou will arive at Midway Field at 10:42 CWT.

If you know hotr' to r€ad your chart, if youundersland time, if you can draw a wind t angle,and if you know how to operale your computer,you have learled elementarJ_ aerial navigation.

lo-28

THE END

-----2

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a Gutot to altoxauttcll occuta oxt. Sehs sdEl ot l.€.od.c, oarond coir, ] io No.hcro.,

Allcl^lt tbtNttita^ o nAl{UAt. S[.lb, lf, t *k A,ff1o CoL!., &!,i[o, T.r, l ra2. p,i(. rc, nohd.

allctltt SttHouattta. ,jr yar r Diyii4 N.rio.ot affidt A$ddi... w.{,h!i.n D. a., ,rar, ,.,, o* *"*

lll N^Ytcltlox. fi..b.d s zjr fi.r@i, L.e .d c., rLt ydt t9,t3. $3.oo.

Alt r.AYIGAT|OX tot ttcLxlt!. S@n G. L!nb- rh r{d's W. r|-|.y t\,brdi{ Co. N., ydk 1943.,t.50.

A tllor's lattololoet. Chort" Gr.ho, XotriE L V.,Nodr.trd ald C6. N., yd|. Irtt. a2,5O.

artott YOU ttt. ?..d. ltrrb.. toh-rd! rr.d.,i. r- ^

iddt ba c-s. rf, rorf6, t. ..d l6-ph W. ptjlipr.H.dr Holr ond c.- N.r y4tc ttt3, 5275.

c|Yrr arl lrcur'arrox3. P.d 60. cirl a*..dic io.'d, w.J*arrq D.c- rt43. l.ro. tord.r 116 sop.rhr.id.nr of Docuh.nr,Gov.hn..r Prhfiiil ofir., w.tttnlb. o. cl

ltalrxl^lY SCtrOO! actrxc! tol tllt Atl ACr. C||dt j ( r,.n lt |r.ett . Co, N.] yort, t9a2.,.7?,

raafltxli Ot tla-artcSt AIIONAUI|CS tot tcH tCHOOaa. lh. nErlon Co_ r., ydt 1942. {,96.

HUIAN GaOGTAIHY lX tHt Att lct. G@r!. T. r.lu. tlE rtudton Co- fa.r yd! r9t2. t.6r,

otttl oN ot atlcla traotitt. A^.cr.w_Hir ioot co" N.v yr! l9a3-,.9o

tHtslcll ScttNat Ix tH! att act. J. G.lt6nrd, a. n" pdr., dd I tL t.F . o6i an co., N.v york. 19,t2, 5.3o

tllxcltlls Ot Alt liAVtOAtlOt. Ben A Shi.tdj. M.Gr.y-ltit !€t Cq r.., ydt t913, !1.30,

tltNctttts ot rltctt. t d a.stf.td* l.Grdw-fiil lct co" r{.v yrti 19a3. !],aa.

lcllNa! Oi tll-fLlcHl AttONAUtla! tot HtcH iCltOOIS. ltr l o.milcn Co, t.v yd*, tr/12. g1.32.

SOGll! StlrDlIS aol rHa Att AOa, Ho[ lodt.h rh. ll.d .n Cd, N., york, 1942, t.60.

aunmllY Ot U. t, Clvll AtI laCUlAIONg. c. S Srotu.l ordoy fliehr Co., (c.$t Cir,l o., 1943. t,50,

tllcllllS, loulal flAttll^l ON AVllrtOX. tor A4.td Coury S.ietr, tor A.g.t.., C.[r,, I9,tO. prk. rc, nohd,

tHl AII Wt alvl tX. csr!. t R..n.r ond Hub.n B{u.r.li. t ..miiton Co,, N.v york, tr,(2. t.36.

lH! alrtoll. cfidrt.r K ar.y. Th. t{.cmilon c." N.* ydt6 ] t,t3. 0.36.

rHt SxYt! tHt lt{tt. chort.! Gitb.d H.I ond Rudotph a, r,{.,t|.. fut.hd woe.ol! co., N.r yorh ]9,13. a2.oo.

Ylalrll,llY UxllnnlD. Eh.n G. Ven.,. Wi[io6 rto.row od C.., N.v york, tr,t2. t3.50.