.  

 Maseeh College of Engineering and Computer Science 

 

 

 

 

Civil and Environmental Engineering  

 Departmental Style Guide 

Version 2.1 

 

 

December 2014  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

ii

Acknowledgements 

 

The writing guide is largely the work of Cheri Woods‐Edwin, who has assisted the Civil and 

Environmental Engineering (CEE) Department in the falls of 2011 and 2012 in courses CE 111 

and CE 315. She undertook writing this style guide during the 2011‐2012 academic year. Dr. 

Susan Conrad, professor in Linguistics at PSU, contributed very informative writing study guides 

that are included in the appendices. Dr. Conrad has worked with several CEE courses, CE 321, 

CE 341 and CE 494, offering suggestions and workshops on improving writing skills. Dr. Scott 

Wells has been responsible for compiling and producing this document. In addition CEE 

Department faculty and staff have offered editorial comments and suggestions since the 

original document was written in July 2012. 

 

The revised edition was edited by Georgette Dashiell M.S., who has assisted the Civil and 

Environmental Engineering (CEE) Department since fall 2013. This revision was created in 

winter and spring of 2014.  

 

Editorial comments and updates were made by Scott Wells in December 2014 in response to 

comments from students in CE 315 Fall term 2014. 

   

iii

Contents  

CONTENTS ........................................................................................................................................................ III 

1  PUNCTUATION .......................................................................................................................................... 1 

1.1  COMMAS ............................................................................................................................................................ 1 

1.1.1   Serial commas ........................................................................................................................................ 1 

1.1.2  Semicolons instead of commas .............................................................................................................. 1 

1.1.3  Comma use with dependent and independent clauses .......................................................................... 1 

1.1.4  Appositives with or without commas ..................................................................................................... 2 

1.1.5  Introductory phrases and commas ........................................................................................................ 2 

1.1.6  Comma use in quoted material .............................................................................................................. 3 

1.1.7  Comma use with parentheses and brackets .......................................................................................... 3 

1.2  QUOTATION MARKS .............................................................................................................................................. 3 

1.2.1  Basic quotation mark use....................................................................................................................... 3 

1.2.2  Single quotation marks .......................................................................................................................... 3 

1.2.3  Quotation marks and punctuation ......................................................................................................... 3 

1.2.4  Omission of quotation marks ................................................................................................................. 4 

1.2.5  Block quotes ........................................................................................................................................... 4 

1.3  PARENTHESES ...................................................................................................................................................... 4 

1.4  BRACKETS ........................................................................................................................................................... 5 

1.5  SEMICOLONS ....................................................................................................................................................... 5 

1.5.1  Basic semicolon use ............................................................................................................................... 5 

1.5.2  Semicolon use in lists or series ............................................................................................................... 5 

1.6  COLONS ............................................................................................................................................................. 6 

1.6.1  Basic colon use ....................................................................................................................................... 6 

1.6.2  Colons and capitalization ....................................................................................................................... 6 

1.6.3  Colon use with parenthesis or brackets ................................................................................................. 7 

1.6.4  Improper colon use ................................................................................................................................ 7 

1.7  ELLIPSES ............................................................................................................................................................. 7 

1.8  HYPHENS AND DASHES .......................................................................................................................................... 7 

1.8.1  Compounds and Hyphens ...................................................................................................................... 8 

2  STYLE ....................................................................................................................................................... 10 

2.1  CAPITALIZATION ................................................................................................................................................. 10 

2.1.1  Letters as shapes .................................................................................................................................. 10 

2.1.2  Names .................................................................................................................................................. 10 

2.1.3  Personal titles ...................................................................................................................................... 10 

2.1.4  Academic degrees and departments ................................................................................................... 10 

2.1.5  Points on a compass and regional terms ............................................................................................. 11 

2.1.6  Time periods and events ...................................................................................................................... 11 

2.1.7  Capitals for emphasis ........................................................................................................................... 11 

2.2  TITLES OF WORKS ............................................................................................................................................... 11 

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2.2.1  Capitalization ....................................................................................................................................... 11 

2.2.2  Hyphenation......................................................................................................................................... 12 

2.2.3  Italics and quotation marks in titles ..................................................................................................... 12 

2.3  ITALICS ............................................................................................................................................................. 13 

2.4  NUMBERS ......................................................................................................................................................... 13 

2.4.1  Scientific contexts ................................................................................................................................ 13 

2.4.2  Percentage and decimals ..................................................................................................................... 13 

2.4.3  Money .................................................................................................................................................. 14 

2.4.4  Time ..................................................................................................................................................... 14 

2.4.5  Plurals and punctuation of numbers .................................................................................................... 15 

2.4.6  Punctuation and numbers .................................................................................................................... 15 

2.5  COMMON ACADEMIC ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................................................................... 15 

3  GRAMMAR AND SENTENCE STRUCTURE ................................................................................................... 16 

3.1  COMMA SPLICES AND RUN‐ON SENTENCES .............................................................................................................. 16 

3.2  VERBS .............................................................................................................................................................. 16 

3.2.1  Active vs. passive voice ........................................................................................................................ 16 

3.2.2  Verb tense agreements ........................................................................................................................ 17 

3.2.3  Present tense use with past documents or concepts ........................................................................... 17 

3.2.4  Verb tense in quotes ............................................................................................................................ 17 

3.3  SUBJECT VERB AGREEMENT .................................................................................................................................. 18 

3.3.1  Basic subject verb agreement .............................................................................................................. 18 

3.3.2  Multiple subjects .................................................................................................................................. 18 

3.3.3  Either… or/neither… nor  subject verb agreement ............................................................................... 18 

3.3.4  Determining singular and plural verbs with units and measurements ................................................ 18 

3.3.5  Collective nouns ................................................................................................................................... 19 

3.3.6  Indefinite pronouns .............................................................................................................................. 19 

3.3.7  There is/there are ................................................................................................................................ 20 

3.4  PLURALS AND POSSESSIVES ................................................................................................................................... 20 

3.4.1  Plurals: The general rule ...................................................................................................................... 20 

3.4.2  Plurals and proper nouns ..................................................................................................................... 20 

3.4.3  Alternative plurals ................................................................................................................................ 20 

3.4.4  Singular form as plural ......................................................................................................................... 20 

3.4.5  Italicized words .................................................................................................................................... 21 

3.4.6  Words in quotation marks ................................................................................................................... 21 

3.4.7  Possessives: The general rule ............................................................................................................... 21 

3.5  PARALLELISM IN LISTS OR SERIES ............................................................................................................................ 22 

3.6  ARTICLES “A,” “AN,” AND “THE” ........................................................................................................................... 22 

3.6.1  “The” used for proper noun ................................................................................................................. 23 

4  HOW TO FORMAT A REPORT .................................................................................................................... 24 

4.1  PAPER AND SPACING ........................................................................................................................................... 24 

4.2  ALIGNMENT AND INDENTATION ............................................................................................................................. 24 

4.3  PAGE NUMBERING .............................................................................................................................................. 24 

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4.4  FONTS AND STYLES.............................................................................................................................................. 25 

4.5  HEADINGS ......................................................................................................................................................... 25 

4.6  DECIMAL NUMBERING SYSTEM .............................................................................................................................. 26 

4.7  FIGURES AND TABLES ........................................................................................................................................... 26 

4.8  QUOTATIONS..................................................................................................................................................... 27 

4.9  EQUATIONS AND FORMULAE ................................................................................................................................. 27 

5  COMPONENTS OF A REPORT .................................................................................................................... 28 

5.1  SECTIONS WITHIN A REPORT ................................................................................................................................. 28 

5.1.2  Title page ............................................................................................................................................. 28 

5.1.3  Abstract ................................................................................................................................................ 29 

5.1.4  Disclaimer ............................................................................................................................................ 29 

5.1.5  Acknowledgements .............................................................................................................................. 29 

5.1.6  Contents ............................................................................................................................................... 29 

5.1.7  Figures and tables ................................................................................................................................ 30 

5.1.8  Symbols ................................................................................................................................................ 30 

5.1.9  Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 30 

5.1.10  Main sections .................................................................................................................................. 31 

5.1.11  Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................... 31 

5.1.12  Recommendations .......................................................................................................................... 31 

5.1.13  References ....................................................................................................................................... 31 

5.1.14  Appendixes ...................................................................................................................................... 32 

6  CITATIONS ............................................................................................................................................... 33 

6.1  IN TEXT CITATIONS .............................................................................................................................................. 33 

6.2  REFERENCE LIST.................................................................................................................................................. 34 

6.2.1  Authors ................................................................................................................................................ 34 

6.2.2  Journal References ............................................................................................................................... 34 

6.2.3  Books .................................................................................................................................................... 34 

6.2.4  Reports ................................................................................................................................................. 35 

6.2.5  Web pages ........................................................................................................................................... 35 

6.2.6  Theses and dissertations ...................................................................................................................... 35 

6.2.7  Conferences and symposiums .............................................................................................................. 35 

7  CONFUSING AND MISSPELLED WORDS ..................................................................................................... 37 

7.1  CONFUSING WORDS ............................................................................................................................................ 37 

7.2  COMMONLY MISSPELLED WORDS ........................................................................................................................... 39 

8   REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................................. 42 

APPENDIX A – DEVELOPING WRITING JUDGMENT: ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE ................................................. 43 

APPENDIX B – WRITING TIPS FOR LAB REPORTS AND TECH MEMOS .................................................................. 46 

APPENDIX C – REVISING AND EDITING FOR PRECISION AND CLARITY ................................................................. 53 

vi

Preface  

Throughout this revised edition of the text you will notice references to the Chicago Manual of 

Style 16th Edition (2010) as CMS followed by the entry number. Hence, the reference CMS 6.19 

refers not to a page number in the text but to the entry discussing this writing style guide. This 

convention allows the reader to refer to any edition of the CMS based on the rule rather than a 

page number that often changes between editions. 

 

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1  Punctuation  

 

 

1.1  Commas 

1.1.1   Serial commas 

Serial commas are used to separate three or more elements in a sentence. Example: The 

building is two stories tall, has a red facade, and looks to be presently vacant. (CMS 6.18) 

 

1.1.2  Semicolons instead of commas 

Semicolons (;) should be use when the list of elements is long and/or complex, or contains 

internal commas. Example:  

When deciding on your thesis statement, you should carefully consider and 

understand the expectations of your instructor, which is usually defined in your 

syllabus; you should narrow down your focus to help you identify helpful 

resources, such as books or journal articles, to back up your thesis; and you 

should make sure your thesis is a clearly written as possible in order to engage 

your reader in the introduction.  

(CMS 6.19) See also: Semicolon use in lists or series 

 

1.1.3 Comma use with dependent and independent clauses  

A dependent clause is a part of a sentence that cannot be a complete sentence on its own. 

Therefore, a comma must be used to separate the incomplete clause from the complete (or 

independent) clause when the incomplete clause comes first. An independent clause is a part of 

a sentence that can stand alone as a complete sentence. Usually, a dependent clause gives the 

reader a little more information about or enhances the independent clause. 

 

Example of an unnecessary comma: The dam was removed, because it was no longer cost 

effective. If this incomplete clause came first, a comma would be necessary. Example of a 

necessary comma: Because it was no longer cost effective, the dam was removed. This is a 

necessary comma because the sentence begins with a dependent clause and needs a link to the 

independent clause that follows. 

 

 

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Sentences that have joined two independent clauses together almost always do so with a 

conjunction such as “for,” “and,” “nor,” “but,” “or,” “yet,” “so” (use the acronym FANBOYS to 

help you remember the conjunctions). A comma must be used to separate the independent 

clauses.  

 

Comma proceeding a main clause  Comma joining two independent clauses 

If the sun ever comes out, we will go down to 

the lake and have a nice swim. 

We all wanted to go to the lake, but we had to 

wait for the sun to come out first. 

Although the house had many windows, the 

best view of the mountain was from the upstairs 

bedroom window. 

The view of the mountain peak was clear from 

the upstairs window, but you could not see 

anything from the downstairs window. (CMS 

6.32) 

 

1.1.4  Appositives with or without commas 

Appositives are a word, phrase, abbreviation, or clause that provides additional information in a 

sentence. If the appositive is restrictive, it means that additional information provided is 

essential to the noun it belongs to. In this case, no comma use is needed. However, if the 

appositive is non‐restrictive, it means that it can be omitted or deleted, and the sentence 

remains intact. In this case, a comma is required. (CMS 6.23) 

 

Restrictive appositives  Non‐restrictive appositives 

Forensic Engineer Sam Smith was meticulous in 

his methods of discovering the cause of the roof 

collapse.  

This sentence implies that there is more than one 

engineer so “Sam” is essential to identifying 

which “forensic engineer.” 

Forensic Engineer, Sam Smith, was meticulous in 

his methods of discovering the cause of the roof 

collapse. 

This sentence implies the author is providing 

additional information, the engineer’s name, but 

the sentence would still make sense if the name 

were omitted. 

 

1.1.5  Introductory phrases and commas 

Commas are used after introductory phrases that introduce the independent clause of a 

sentence. For more information see CMS 6.35‐6.36. Examples: 

After finding the error in the equation, the students were able to complete the problem 

successfully. 

However, you will have to retake the class in the fall if you do not pass. 

In addition to affirming our hypothesis, the results lead us to develop further 

hypotheses for future research. 

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1.1.6  Comma use in quoted material 

When using a short quote in‐text to support an argument, the quoted material is either 

introduced by a comma (short quote) or by a colon (long quote). However, quotes introduced 

by the certain conjunctions such as “that” or “whether” do not need a comma. (CMS 6.53) See 

also: Block quotes and Colons 

 

Comma use with short quote  Comma use with long quote  Comma use with conjunction 

Sean Booth wrote, “I am quite 

into the idea engineering being 

beautiful.” 

In his book, Basin and Range, 

John McPhee writes, “At any 

location on Earth, as the rock 

record goes down into time and 

out into earlier geographies, it 

touches upon tens of hundreds 

of stories, where in the face of 

the earth often changed…” 

Karl Von Terzaghi, the father of 

soil mechanics, once said that 

“Unfortunately, soils are made 

by nature and not by man, and 

the products of nature are 

always complex…As soon as we 

pass from steel  and concrete to 

earth, the omnipotence of 

theory ceases to exist.” 

 

1.1.7  Comma use with parentheses and brackets 

The general rule when using a comma with a bracketed or parenthetical statement is that the 

comma should fall outside of the parenthesis or brackets. Example: Her performance, though 

solid (and often emotional), seemed disconnected. (CMS 6.53) See also: Parentheses and 

Brackets 

 

1.2  Quotation marks 

1.2.1  Basic quotation mark use 

Quotation marks should be used to identify quoted or spoken words of others. Material taken 

directly from books, magazines, journal articles, movies, transcripts, oral interviews, or other 

sources should be put in quotation marks. Please note: There are many rules about how to 

properly use quotation marks. Please refer to CMS 6.9–6.11, 13.9–13.47 for more details. 

 

1.2.2  Single quotation marks 

Single quotation marks are used for a quotation within a quotation. Example: “I remember the 

day that my mother used Martin Luther King’s famous ‘I have a dream’ line inspired me to set 

goals for the future.”  

 

1.2.3  Quotation marks and punctuation 

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Use the following table to decide what punctuation goes within the quotation marks and what 

punctuation should be placed outside of the quotation marks.  

 

 

 

 

Punctuation within quotations  Punctuation outside of quotations 

Commas, periods, question marks (if part of the 

quote), exclamation points (if part of the quote), 

and single quotation marks.  

Colons, semicolons, question marks (if not part of 

the direct quote), and exclamation points (if not 

part of the direct quote).  

 

1.2.4  Omission of quotation marks 

Quotation marks are omitted when using block quotes and epigraphs. Epigraphs are 

inscriptions or quoted materials usually located at the beginning of a book or the beginning of a 

chapter. Example:  

Scientists dream about doing great things. Engineers do them. 

              — James A. Michener 

1.2.5  Block quotes 

Quotes that run eight lines or longer should be put into the block quote format. When using the 

block quotes, the use of actual quotation marks is unnecessary as the indentation of the block 

serves as the quotation. If the paragraph continues after the block quote, the text should not be 

indented. 

 

In the book The Elements of Style by Strunk and White, the authors argue that qualifiers such as the 

words rather, very, little, and others are: 

 

the leeches that infest the pond of prose, sucking the blood of words. 

The constant use of the adjective little (except to indicate size) is 

particularly debilitating; we should all try to do a little better, we 

should all be very watchful of this rule, for it us a rather important 

one, and we are pretty sure to violate it now and then. 

 

Notice that the authors use the much‐despised qualifiers in the above quote in order to make a point 

that the words are unnecessary and take away from the overall voice of the sentence or sentences. 

 

1.3  Parentheses  

Use parentheses ( ) to set off material that is less closely related to the rest of the sentence. 

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When a sentence contains parenthetical expression, it is punctuated as if the expression were 

absent. The only exception to this is when the parenthetical expression is a question or uses an 

exclamation mark. (CMS 6 .92) 

 

 

 

Parenthetical expression  Parenthetical expression with punctuation 

Alyssa’s journal article on extreme water events 

was finally free of errors (after spending some 

time in the editing department) and was printed 

in the current issue of Nature. 

 

With tears in his eyes (and why would I doubt 

that these tears were genuine?), the structural 

engineer admitted his mistake. 

 

1.4  Brackets 

The main use of brackets ([ ]) is to insert material into text that was not written by the original 

author. Brackets are also used to insert material to clarify ambiguity or to replace missing or 

illegible words in a quotation. Brackets should follow the same rules for punctuation as 

parentheses. (CMS 6.97, 12.26, 13.57‐61)  See also: Parentheses 

 

Inserted material  Clarification  Missing or illegible words 

“Many G.E.’s [geotechnical 

engineers] work to mitigate 

damage from landslides.” 

When the engineer picked up a 

rusty pipe, he exclaimed, “This 

[the pipe] is the culprit!” 

When the forensic engineer 

walked into the … [illegible] 

warehouse, he found the 

windows shattered and the roof 

collapsed. 

 

1.5  Semicolons 

1.5.1  Basic semicolon use 

When considering whether or not to use a semicolon in your writing, consider this general rule: 

a semicolon is stronger than a comma, but weaker than a period. It is also used between two 

independent clauses in lieu of a conjunction. Example: I often wandered around the house at 

night; the silence was my best friend. Semicolons should be used sparingly. The word 

“however” with a semicolon can be used to link a sentence together only if the independent 

clauses are associated with each other. Example: The sun was behind the clouds; however, my 

shoes didn’t match is an incorrect use of a semicolon. (CMS 6.54)  

 

1.5.2  Semicolon use in lists or series 

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Semicolon use in a list or series, especially when that list already contains other forms of 

punctuation, clarifies and unclutters the list for the reader. (CMS 6.58) Please note: The use of 

the em‐dash can also be used in sentences containing a high use of commas to provide clarity. 

See also: Hyphens and dashes 

 

Original sentence  Same sentence using semicolons for clarity 

In my lifetime, I have lived in Los Angeles, 

California, Portland, Oregon, and Seattle, 

Washington. 

In my lifetime, I have lived in Los Angeles, 

California; Portland, Oregon; and Seattle, 

Washington. 

The contractor, in order to build the door frame, 

went to the local hardware store to buy a 

hammer and saw, stopped by Parr Lumber, which 

was inconveniently located ten miles away, to 

purchase 2x4’s, and ended up at Home Depot, 

which was full of people, and picked up several 

packages of screws that he forgot to pick up at 

the hardware store. 

The contractor, in order to build a door frame, 

went to the local hardware store to buy a 

hammer and saw; stopped by Parr Lumber—

which was inconveniently located ten miles 

away—to purchase 2x4’s; and ended up at Home 

Depot, which was full of people, and picked up 

several packages of screws that he forgot to pick 

up at the hardware store. 

 

1.6  Colons 

1.6.1  Basic colon use 

The basic use of the colon is to introduce a specific element or a series of elements. Example: 

The students wanted to do three things before graduation: go to the prom, take the SAT, and 

apply to college. (CMS 6.59) See also: Introductory phrases and commas 

 

1.6.2  Colons and capitalization 

Consider the following rules when deciding whether to capitalize a letter following a colon: 

When using a colon within a sentence, capitalize the letter following the colon only if it 

is a proper name. 

If a colon introduces two or more sentences, capitalize the letter following the colon. 

 

Colon use within a sentence  Colon introducing two or more sentences 

Making pizza involves three steps: kneading the 

dough, adding the ingredients, and baking it in 

an oven. 

Or 

The three boys divided the tasks among them: 

Sam mowed the lawn, Jake pulled weeds, and 

John, an environmental engineer, was faced with 

a tough decision: Should he keep his design 

“green” by using bamboo and other sustainable 

products? Or should he stay go with a more cost 

effective, but less environmentally friendly 

design? (CMS 6.61) 

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Jackson swept the sidewalk. (CMS 6.61) 

 

1.6.3  Colon use with parenthesis or brackets 

The colon should always follow any material placed in parentheses or brackets. Example: A 

change had come over the girls (my sisters): they had ceased arguing and were getting along 

nicely. (CMS 6.70) See also: Parentheses 

 

1.6.4  Improper colon use 

Do not use a colon after expressions such as “namely” or “for example.” (CMS 6.43) 

 

Incorrect: The store carried three important 

building items, namely: lumber, nails, and hinges. 

Incorrect: We all thought the math test was easy. 

For example: the questions were all single‐digit 

addition problems. 

Correct: The store carried three important 

building items, namely, lumber, nails, and hinges. 

Correct: We all thought the math test was easy. 

For example, the questions were all single‐digit 

addition problems. 

 

1.7  Ellipses 

Ellipses (…) are used to show an omitted word or phrase within quotes and are important to 

use in quotations to make sure the work being quoted is not misrepresented. Ellipses are not 

needed to start a quote or after the last word of a quote. Consult CMS 13.48‐13.56 for more 

information. 

 

Original  We hold these truths to be self‐evident, that all men are created equal, that they 

are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these 

are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. ~ Declaration of Independence 

With omissions   We hold these truths to be self‐evident, that all men… are endowed… with certain 

unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. 

~ Declaration of Independence 

 

1.8  Hyphens and dashes 

Hyphens and dashes play specific roles in writing. Refer to the chart below for more details. 

 

Hyphens (‐) 

CMS 6.75‐6.77, 6.75‐6.91 

En dash (–) 

CMS 6.78–6.81 

Em dash (—) 

CMS 6.82–6.89 

A hyphen is used when 

hyphenating words or page 

The en dash is approximately 

the size of a capital N. 

The em dash is approximately 

the size of a capital M and is 

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breaks. 

A hyphen is found on the 

keyboard in two places: 

Between the number 0 

and the +/= button 

An en dash can be created by 

pressing: 

MAC: option and dash  

PC: Control, numeric 

hyphen (not the hyphen 

between 0 and =, but 

the hyphen on a 

number key)  

twice the size of an en dash. 

An em dash can be created by 

pressing: 

MAC: option, shift, 

dash  

PC: Control, alt, 

numeric hyphen (not 

the hyphen between 0 

and =, but the hyphen 

on a number key) 

A hyphen is used for compound 

words. 

A green‐eyed monster 

vs. a monster with green 

eyes. 

It’s a dog‐eat‐dog 

world. 

The location of the party 

quickly spread word‐of‐

mouth. 

An en dash signifies the word 

“through” in certain sentence 

constructions: 

From 11:00 a.m.–2:00 

p.m. admission was half 

off of the regular price. 

I read pages 341–355. 

An em dash is commonly used 

in place of a colon or 

parenthesis.  

The three groups—the 

architects, the environmental 

engineers, and the contractor—

all created and executed a well‐

designed, environmentally 

friendly renovation. 

A hyphen is used to separate 

numbers, such as in the 

following: 

Telephone numbers 

Social Security numbers 

ISBN numbers 

An en dash is used to indicate 

something is ongoing, like a 

publication, or a person’s life. 

Madonna (1958–) will be 

celebrating her 60th birthday in 

2018. 

An em dash is used for 

emphasis. 

The work was hard—so hard 

that only a few could handle it. 

Other uses: a hyphen can be 

used for compound numbers, to 

divide words at the end of a 

line, with certain prefixes, and 

to avoid confusion or the 

awkward combinations of 

letters. 

Other uses: an en dash is often 

used in place of a hyphen, as a 

minus sign, and to link a college 

with a city if the college has 

multiple campuses. 

Other uses: 2‐em dash is used 

to represent a missing word in a 

sentence. A 3‐em dash is used 

to represent the same author in 

a bibliography. 

 1.8.1  Compounds and Hyphens  

Adjectives 

When two 

adjectives 

function like a 

Adverbs 

Adverbs ending 

in  

–ly do not take a 

Nouns 

Many compound 

nouns are 

combined or 

Multiword 

compounds  

Compound words 

that take on 

Confusing words 

In English, there 

are a few words 

that need to use a 

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single adjective 

and are used 

before a noun to 

modify a noun, 

the adjectives 

should be 

hyphenated  

hyphen  closed, but there 

are a few that are 

open 

multiple hyphens  hyphen to avoid 

confusion, to avoid 

doubling a vowel, 

or to avoid tripling 

a consonant 

The blue‐bellied 

lizard vs. The 

lizard with a blue 

belly 

The local blue 

lizard would not 

be hyphenated 

since ‘local’ and 

‘blue’ do not 

function as one 

adjective. 

The brightly 

colored 

parachute fell 

from the sky. 

Combined 

Firefly 

Blackberry 

Keyboard 

Open 

High school 

Blood pressure 

Notary public 

 

Mayor‐elect 

Attorney‐at‐Law 

Jack‐in‐the‐Box 

Mother‐in‐Law 

Back‐to‐back 

re‐cover vs. recover

re‐creation vs. 

recreation 

re‐form vs. reform 

 

anti‐administration

de‐emphasize 

co‐opt 

 

shell‐like 

 

For further information refer to CMS 7.77‐7.85. CMS also provides a comprehensive listing of 

compounds according to type, compounds formed with specific terms, and words formed with 

prefixes. A dictionary by Merriam‐Webster or The Oxford English Dictionary are also good 

sources to consult for hyphenation.   

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2  Style  

 

 

2.1  Capitalization 

2.1.1  Letters as shapes 

When using a letter as a shape, always use as a capital (e.g. S curve, L‐shape). (CMS 7.63, 295) 

 

2.1.2  Names 

Personal names should always be capitalized, including initials. A period should always follow 

each initial with a space. Last names with particles (e.g. de, du, van, von) or hyphenated should 

be capitalized according to how the person gives their name. An exception to this rule is if the 

name begins a sentence, then it must be capitalized. For more information on capitalizing 

foreign names, consult CMS 8.3‐8.7, 312‐317. 

    Booker T. Washington       Leonardo da Vinci 

    W. E. B. DuBois        Page duBois 

    Alfonso D'Amato        Mao Tse‐tung 

 

2.1.3  Personal titles  

The general rule of capitalizing titles is that if they come immediately before the name they are 

capitalized (e.g. President Obama, Senator Kennedy, Reverend Billy Graham, General Grant, 

Professor Phillips). Titles are lowercased if they come after a name or are used in place of a 

name. Examples: Barack Obama was elected as president in 2008. My calculus professor is 

informative and helpful. For more information on capitalizing titles see CMS 8.18‐8.32. 

 

2.1.4  Academic degrees and departments 

Names of degrees and fellowships are lowercased when referred to generally (e.g. She is 

working on her civil engineering bachelor's degree.). When degrees and fellowships are used as 

part of a title, they should be capitalized (e.g. George Rush, Doctor of Philosophy). 

Abbreviations for degrees should be capitalized (e.g. PhD, MBA, BS). For more abbreviations see 

CMS 15.21. 

 

The words “civil engineering” should only be capitalized when used in reference to a specific 

department (e.g. Portland State’s Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering). Please 

11 | P a g e

do not capitalize when used in general (e.g. I want to be a civil engineer).   

 

2.1.5  Points on a compass and regional terms 

If referring to a general direction or location, the terms “north,” “northwest,” etc. should be 

lowercased (e.g. We're heading south on I‐5). If the term refers to a geographic location (e.g. 

Pacific Northwest), it can be capitalized. For more examples see CMS 8.52. 

 

2.1.6  Time periods and events 

Time  Periods represented numerically are always 

lowercased unless part of a proper name. 

Descriptions accompanying the names are also 

lowercased unless proper names. 

twenty‐first century 

the eighties 

Twentieth Century Fox 

the colonial period 

Victorian era   

imperial Rome 

modern times 

Cultural  Periods that represent a historic or prehistoric era 

should be capitalized. 

the Dark Ages 

the Renaissance 

the Common Era 

the Jazz Age 

the Stone Age 

the Roaring Twenties 

Events  Historical events should be capitalized. More recent 

events that are still recognized through generic 

terms should be lowercased. 

the New Deal 

the civil rights movement 

the Great Depression 

the Industrial Revolution 

the cold war 

September 11 (or 9/11) 

For more examples see CMS 8.70‐8.78, 8.85. 

 

2.1.7  Capitals for emphasis 

Words are never capitalized for emphasis in English. If in doubt, do not capitalize it. 

 

2.2  Titles of works  

2.2.1  Capitalization 

There are two styles of capitalizing titles: headline style and sentence style. Titles should never 

be written in all caps. When writing out a title in a sentence, use headline style. Sentence style 

should only be used in citations or bibliographies. 

  

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Style  Example 

Headline style is when all major words in the title are 

capitalized. Unimportant words are often lowercased 

unless it is the first word in the title or subtitle or the 

last word of the title. Examples of unimportant words 

are: the, a, an, and, or, but, for, with, as, of, in, with, to, 

on, etc. Headline style should always be used in the 

written text of a paper or report. 

To Engineer is Human: The Role of 

Failure is Successful Design 

The Simple Science of Flight 

Sustainable Energy—Without the Hot Air 

Sentence style is when all words in the title, except the 

first word of the title and subtitle, are not capitalized. 

This style is used in some citation styles such as APA 

and other science style guides. Consult the appropriate 

citation style guide to know which system of 

capitalizing should be used for your citations. 

To engineer is human: The role of failure 

is successful design 

The simple science of flight 

Sustainable energy—Without the hot air 

 

2.2.2  Hyphenation 

If a title is hyphened, the standard rule is to capitalize the first part of the hyphenated word 

unless the second word is a proper noun or adjective (e.g. A Twenty‐first Century Look at 

Engineering or Non‐English Speakers in the Engineering Classroom). For additional rules consult 

CMS 8.169‐8.170. 

 

2.2.3  Italics and quotation marks in titles 

Whether titles take italics or quotation marks depends on how long the work is. Longer works 

like books have their titles italicized. Shorter works like articles have their titles surrounded in 

quotation marks. Example: We read the book The Simple Science of Flight and the article “BP Oil 

Spill Containment Ideas” in class. Below is a table that lists the different types of works and 

whether their titles should be italicized or in quotation marks. (Note: Titles of websites do not 

receive italics or quotation marks but should be capitalized.) (CMS 8.161‐8.165) 

 

Italics  Quotation marks 

Books/Plays 

Journals 

Anthologies 

Movies/Documentaries 

Magazines* 

Newspapers* 

Paintings/Statues 

Legal documents 

Chapters 

Articles 

Entries in anthologies

Episodes/Clips 

Dissertations/Theses 

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Government documents

 *A “the” preceding a magazine 

or newspaper title should not 

be capitalized or italicized as 

part of the title (e.g. 

theWashington Post, not The 

Washington Post. 

 

2.3  Italics  

The purpose of italics is to show emphasis or that a word is not a part of the English language. 

Emphasis: Italicizing for emphasis should be used sparingly (if at all). It is best used 

when emphasis is needed to prevent confusion. (CMS 7.49) 

Foreign words: Words from other languages that are not familiar to English speakers 

should be italicized. (CMS 7.49) 

 

2.4  Numbers 

Numbers should be spelled out in writing if they are whole numbers from one to one hundred, 

round numbers, or begin a sentence. The exception to this rule is if the number represents a 

quantity or measurement. Consult the rest of this section for more information and CMS 9.2‐

9.17. 

*Other style guides follow different guidelines regarding numbers, but all style guides follow 

the convention of spelling out numbers below ten (ie: six feet, seven blocks etc…).  Above all, 

strive for consistency. 

2.4.1  Scientific contexts 

When a number is used to express a unit of measurement in a scientific or technical report, it 

should always be represented numerically followed by an abbreviation of the unit. 

      70 km      12.4 L      160 V 

      7'8"      20˚C      19 g 

*When writing a paper or report, be consistent when dealing with numbers.  

Incorrect: 6 feet, seven”, two x four 

Correct: six feet, 7”, two by four or 2 x 4 

 

2.4.2  Percentage and decimals 

Percentages should always be written out numerically and followed by the symbol % (e.g. I got 

an 88% on the test.). Decimal fractions should have a zero placed before the decimal unless the 

quantity represented will always be less than 1.00 (in tables the zeros before decimals can be 

14 | P a g e

omitted). For example, The average was 0.945. The police officer confiscated a .22‐caliber rifle. 

For more information consult CMS 9.18‐9.20. 

 

 

 

2.4.3  Money 

Money should be represented numerically and the correct currency symbol (e.g. $45 or £4.65). 

It is preferred that large round sums of money are presented with a mix of numerals and 

spelled‐out words (e.g. $8.3 billion). If another currency uses the $ symbol, identify the 

currency as not being American (e.g. $400 in Canadian dollars or Can$400). For more 

information consult CMS 9.21‐9.26. 

 

2.4.4  Time 

Times of 

day 

Times of day are best represented numerically (e.g. 10:12 a.m.) Some style guides 

prefer that “12:00 a.m.” and “12:00 p.m.” are never used but are written out as 

“midnight” and “noon” to prevent confusion. Additional information can be found in 

CMS 9.38‐9.43. 

Days  Days are always represented numerically if they are accompanied by a month. In the 

U.S. the standard order for dates is month‐date‐year (e.g. September 7, 2010 or 

9/7/2010). (CMS 9.32) 

Years  Years should always be presented numerically unless they start a sentence (e.g. The 

Empire State Building was completed in 1931. Nineteen Seventy‐Two was the year the 

Empire State Building was surpassed by the World Trade Center.) It is recommended 

that you do not start a sentence with a year when possible. It is not recommended 

that years be abbreviated in writing (e.g. the class of ’12). (CMS 9.31) 

Decades  Decades should either be spelled out or represented numerically (e.g. the seventies or 

the 1970s, note that there is no apostrophe between the year and the s). The first two 

decades of a century can be difficult to represent. Calling the first decade (2000‐2009) 

“the aughts” or the second decade (2010‐2019) “the teens” sounds odd in formal 

writing and representing them as 2000s (referring to the whole century) and 2010s can 

be confusing. It is best to use the terms the first decade and the second decade. (CMS 

9.34) 

Centuries  Centuries can be spelled out or represented numerically (e.g. 1900s or nineteen 

hundreds or twentieth century). Some centuries are more clearly presented when 

spelled out (i.e. twenty‐first century or third century). (CMS 9.33)   

Eras  Eras should always be designated with either BCE (“before the common era”) or CE 

(“of the common era”) or their equivalents of BC (“before Christ”) or AD (anno Domini, 

“in the year of the Lord”). BCE or BC always follow the date (e.g. 100 BCE), and CE or 

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AD always precede the date (e.g. AD 1187). (CMS 9.35) 

 

2.4.5  Plurals and punctuation of numbers 

Plurals in numbers are formed the same way as other words in English (e.g. The cashier needed 

twenties.). Plurals are formed with numerals by adding an s (e.g. 1980s). (CMS 9.54) 

 

 

2.4.6  Punctuation and numbers 

Units and 

measurements 

Numbers over one thousand take a comma every three spaces. In scientific writing 

the comma can be omitted if there are only four digits. (CMS 9.55) 

1,498 or 1498 (make sure the reader will not mistake this for a year) 

63,876 

3,984,674 

Time  Years do not take commas unless the year is over four digits long (e.g. The earliest 

human artifact may date back to 43,000 BCE.). (CMS 9.55) 

 

2.5  Common academic abbreviations 

ca. is used to show that the date given is 

approximate. The Latin translation means 

“around.” 

etc. is used to show that list of items goes on to 

contain similar items already listed. The Latin 

translation means “and so forth.” 

e.g. is an abbreviation translated from the Latin 

that means "for example." 

et al. is used at the end of a list of multiple 

authors when all the names cannot be given. The 

Latin translation means "and others." 

ibid. is used in citations to tell the reader to 

consult the previous source listed. The Latin 

translation means "in the same place." 

i.e. is an abbreviation translated from the Latin 

that means "that is." 

 

 

   

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3  Grammar and sentence structure  

 

 

3.1  Comma splices and run‐on sentences 

A comma splice is when two sentences (independent clauses) are joined together by a comma 

(e.g. Paul needs to complete his lab report, Mary needs to clean up the work station). This is 

incorrect because commas cannot join two sentences. A run‐on sentence is when two 

sentences run together without the proper punctuation (e.g. Paul needs to complete his lab 

report Mary needs to clean up the work station). Comma splices and run‐on sentences can be 

correct one of four ways: 

 

Period  Paul needs to complete his water resources lab report. Mary needs to edit her 

journal article on extreme events.  

Comma with a 

conjunction 

Paul needs to complete his water resources lab report, and Mary needs to edit her 

journal article on extreme events. 

See also: Comma use with dependent and independent clauses 

Semicolon  Paul needs to complete his  water resources lab report; Mary needs to edit her 

journal article on extreme events.  

See also: Semicolons 

Rewrite  While Paul completes his water resources lab report, Mary needs to edit her 

journal article on extreme events.  

See also: Comma use with dependent and independent clauses 

 

3.2  Verbs 

3.2.1  Active vs. passive voice 

Active voice is when the subject of the verb is doing the action of the verb. Passive voice is 

when the subject of the sentence is not doing the action of the verb.  

 

Use the active voice versus the passive voice whenever possible. Passive voice often contains 

Passive voice  Active voice 

It is believed by many that climate change is a 

legitimate scientific fact.  

Many believed that climate change is a 

legitimate scientific fact. 

The light bulb was invented by Thomas Edison.  Thomas Edison invented the light bulb. 

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the verb “to be” in various forms. See the chart below: 

 

 

Present tense  Past tense  Perfect form  Progressive form 

I am   I was  I have been  I am being 

You are  You were  You have been  You are being 

He/she/it is  He/she/it was  He/she/it has been  He/she/it is being 

We are  We were  We have been  We are being 

You (all) are  You (all) were  You (all) have been  You (all) are being 

They are  They were  They have been  They are being 

 

However, it is important to realize that there are occasions where it is fine to use the passive 

voice. For example, if you are expressing an example where a person or subject is acted upon, 

instead of the one doing the action (see examples above), the passive voice is permissible. 

Example: the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) had been warned that there was illegal 

dumping of chemicals by XXX Corporation, or The chief engineer had been removed from the job 

after the building collapsed due to negligence. 

 

3.2.2  Verb tense agreements 

In academic writing, it is important to use consistent verb tense throughout the paper. See 

chart below: 

 

Incorrect verb tense agreement  Correct verb tense agreement 

I am hungry, so I baked a cake to eat.  I was hungry, so I baked a cake to eat. 

I am hungry, so I am baking a cake to eat. 

 

3.2.3  Present tense use with past documents or concepts 

Do not write about long‐past events and long‐dead people in the present tense. However, 

when discussing literature, a theory, or other types of prose, the present tense can be used 

even though the text was written in the past. In his essay, “Atchafalaya”, author John McPhee 

engages his readers with vivid descriptions of the Army Corps of Engineers’ attempt to control 

the Mississippi River.   

 

We may also write about theoretical concepts in the present tense. For example, soil is a 

natural material. Fluids are incompressible or compressible. 

 

3.2.4  Verb tense in quotes 

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When using exact quotations from outside sources in your paper, do not change the tense of 

verbs in quoted passages. The purpose of the quotation marks in a quote is to denote that you 

are using the exact words of the source.  

  

 

3.3  Subject verb agreement 

3.3.1  Basic subject verb agreement 

In English, singular subjects take singular verbs and plural subjects take plural verbs. 

 

Singular subjects and verbs  Plural subjects and verbs 

He is walking the dog. 

The book was sitting on the coffee table. 

They are walking the dog. 

The library books are due in three weeks. 

 

3.3.2  Multiple subjects 

When there are two or more subjects, the verb is usually plural (e.g. Mark and Alice got 

married last summer). However, when two subjects can be considered a unit, they can take a 

singular verb (e.g. Peanut butter and jelly is my favorite sandwich). 

 

3.3.3  Either… or/neither… nor  subject verb agreement 

Subjects that are joined by “either… or” or “neither… nor” take singular subjects if both subjects 

are singular or plural subjects if both subjects are plural. If one subject is singular and one is 

plural, the verb will agree with the subject that it is closest to. 

 

Singular subjects  Either your academic counselor or your professor is able to answer your 

question. 

Plural subjects  Either academic counselors or professors are to inform students of the changes 

made to registering for classes. 

Mixed subjects  Neither the professor nor the students were held responsible for the fire in the 

lab. 

Neither the students nor the professor was held responsible for the fire in the 

lab. 

 

3.3.4  Determining singular and plural verbs with units and measurements 

Subjects that are units and measurements should be treated plural if each of the units or 

measurements is being referred to separately. If the unit or measurement is being referred to 

as a whole, it should take a singular verb. 

 

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Units referred to 

separately, plural verbs 

One‐third of the pencils were broken. 

Ten pounds of cherries were divided between the four of us. 

Units referred to as a 

whole, singular verbs 

One‐third of the cake was eaten. 

Ten pounds of cherries was resting in the large bucket. 

 

3.3.5  Collective nouns 

Collective nouns are nouns that refer to groups. Whether or not these nouns take singular or 

plural subjects depends on whether the noun is being referred to as a collective unit or as 

individual parts. 

 

Singular  The assembly is scheduled to vote later this month. 

The class is taking a test. 

Plural  The assembly are divided on how to vote. 

The class are working on their individual projects. 

 

3.3.6  Indefinite pronouns 

Indefinite pronouns can take either singular or plural verbs or sometimes both depending on 

the sentence. For the pronouns that can take either verb, look at the pronoun’s antecedent 

(what the pronoun is referring to). Below is a table that breaks down which indefinite pronouns 

take singular verbs and which take plural verbs. 

 

Take singular verbs  Take plural verbs  Take singular or plural verbs 

anybody 

anyone 

anything 

each 

either 

every 

everybody 

everyone 

everything 

many a 

neither 

nobody 

nothing 

one 

somebody 

someone 

both 

few 

many 

others 

several 

all 

any 

more 

most 

none 

some 

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Singular verbs  Everyone in the class needs to turn in their forensic engineering case 

studies by December 18. 

Plural verbs  Many of us in the class believe in the theory of relativity. 

Singular or plural verbs  All of the measurements have been taken. 

All of the cake was eaten. 

 

3.3.7  There is/there are 

“There” and “here” can never be the subjects of a sentence in English. The subject of the 

sentence is always the person or thing doing the action of the verb. With sentences that start 

with “there” or “here” the subject can often be found after the verb. When the correct subject 

is found, follow the correct subject verb agreement rules listed previously in this section. 

There is a fly buzzing around the classroom 

Here are your next three homework assignments. 

 

3.4  Plurals and possessives 

3.4.1  Plurals: The general rule 

In most cases, adding s to the end of a noun indicates the noun is pluralized. However, there 

are exceptions to the general rule (CMS 5.14–5.21, 7.5–7.14):  

If a noun ends in ch, j, s, sh, x, or z the noun is pluralized by adding –es.  

If a noun ends in –y, the noun is pluralized with –ies.  

If a noun ends in o, it can either take an –s or an –es.  

If a noun ends in y and a consonant, add an –ies. If a noun ending in y is proper or is 

preceded by a vowel, add an –s. 

Some plural endings are irregular and follow no specific rule. Example: child/children, 

fish/fish. 

 

3.4.2  Plurals and proper nouns 

Adding an –s or –es pluralizes capitalized nouns and proper nouns. Example: Italians, Joneses. 

(CMS 7.8) 

 

3.4.3  Alternative plurals 

In rare instances, there are two plural endings for the same word. Merriam‐Webster’s 

Dictionary will provide two options. CMS opts to choose the first definition. Example: zero, 

millennia, indexes. (CMS 7.6) 

 

3.4.4  Singular form as plural 

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If a noun ends in an unpronounced s or x, the noun is usually left in its singular form. (CMS 7.10) 

 

 

 

 

3.4.5  Italicized words 

When using the plural construction on terms that are italicized, such as book titles and 

newspapers, the –s is usually not italicized. However, a title already pluralized can remain 

unchanged. (CMS 7.11) 

 

3.4.6  Words in quotation marks 

A plural ending should never follow the quotation marks; it should go within the quotation 

mark. Example: How many more “good morning’s” can we expect to hear today? (CMS 7.12) 

 

3.4.7  Possessives: The general rule 

In most cases, adding an apostrophe and the letter s to a noun indicates the noun is a 

possessive. However, there are exceptions to the general rule (CMS 7.19‐7.21): 

The possessive forms of plural nouns only require an apostrophe. Example: The 

engineers’ final reports.  

Nouns that are plural in form, but singular in meaning, take on an apostrophe only for 

the possessive form. Example: The United States’ economic situation is hitting 

everyone’s pocket book. 

Nouns that are two‐syllable and end with an “eez” sound should only take the 

apostrophe for the possessive form. Example: Xerxes’ armies were well prepared for the 

upcoming battle. 

Nouns that end in an unpronounced s should only take the apostrophe for the 

possessive form. Example: King Francois’ attempts to marry the English princess failed 

miserably. 

When using the phrase For…sake, only take the apostrophe for the possessive form. 

Example: For goodness’ sake. 

When in doubt, refer to the general rule of omitting the possessive s on words ending in 

s. 

The possessive form of two nouns making up a single unit for one entity is to add the ’s 

to the last noun. Example: My mother and father’s house.  

The possessive form of two nouns making up a single unit for separate entities is to add 

the ’s to both nouns. Example: Portland’s and Seattle’s education systems are similar.  

 

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3.5  Parallelism in lists or series 

Parallelism in lists is when all items in a list are in the same format. 

 

 

Not 

parallel 

In all her years, she had never seen such a 

beautiful sunrise, eaten so much food, or 

laughed. 

 

 

This list is not parallel because the first 

two items in the list (“seen such a 

beautiful sunrise” and “eaten so much 

food”) start with a verb followed by a 

description. The last item (“laughed”) is 

only a verb. 

Parallel  In all her years, she had never seen such a 

beautiful sunrise, eaten so much food, or 

laughed so hard. 

 

Not 

parallel 

The campus bookstore sells: books, backpack, 

sweaters, and travel mugs. 

 

 

This list is not parallel because “books,” 

“sweaters,” and “travel mugs” are all 

plural. “Backpack” is not. Not all items 

in a list need to be parallel if the plural 

amount is not needed (e.g. I need a 

backpack, pencils, and erasers for 

school.) 

Parallel  The campus bookstore sells: books, backpacks, 

sweaters, and travel mugs. 

 

Not 

parallel 

Mark loves to hike, skiing, and snowboards. 

 

 

This list is not parallel because none of 

the items in the list are in the same 

form. 

Parallel  Mark loves to hike, ski, and snowboard. 

Or 

Mark loves hiking, skiing, and snowboarding. 

 

 

3.6  Articles “a,” “an,” and “the” 

English has three articles: “a,” “an,” and “the.” “The” is used to identify specific nouns and is 

called a definite article. “A” and “an” are used to refer to a non‐specific noun, called an 

indefinite article. “An” is only used before words that start with a vowel or vowel sound (e.g. 

The word “hour” starts with a coincident h, but when saying the word aloud, the first sound 

made is actually aw, a vowel sound.). Example: We were an hour late for the party. (For more 

on articles see CMS 5.69‐5.78 or refer to the Purdue Online Writing Lab website.) 

 

We should watch the  “The” is referring to a specific movie. The speaker and person addressed 

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movie.  have already picked a movie and now need to watch this specific movie. 

We should watch a movie  “A” is referring to any movie. The speaker and person addressed need to 

decide which movie to watch out of a lot of movies.   

 

3.6.1  “The” used for proper noun 

“The” should always be used before proper nouns like titles of works, places, and specific 

events. 

My dad reads the American Society of Civil Engineer’s magazine Civil Engineering. 

We visited the Seattle Space Needle on a class fieldtrip. 

My brother is studying the after‐effects of Hurricane Katrina. 

   

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4  How to format a report  

 

 

The formatting of any document should always be consistent. Creating a template to use for all 

of your reports can save time. Microsoft Word (and other word processing programs) allows 

you to create Styles, which save your font, font size, and paragraph alignment settings. You can 

save the setting for different levels of headers and normal text. Styles are easy to use because 

you can apply the setting to a section of text easily with one click of a button without having to 

remember all of the different settings you used. Using Styles also allows Word to create content 

pages easily and can save your settings for margins, line spacing, and page numbers. Click on 

the Help button in your word processing program for assistant with creating templates, Styles, 

and content pages. (This chapter is an adaptation of the information provided in Winckel and 

Hart’s Report Writing Style Guide for Engineering Students through the University of South 

Australia.) 

 

4.1  Paper and spacing 

Use letter size paper (8.5"x11") with 1"  margins 

Line spacing should be double spaced.  

When you are printing a document, double‐sided printing is preferred even though 

some may prefer single‐sided. 

Each new section should start on a new page. 

 

4.2  Alignment and indentation 

All text should be aligned left. Full justification is preferred for formal documentation 

and theses. 

Each new paragraph should be indented unless extra space is given between paragraphs 

(extra space between paragraphs is not recommended if lines are double spaced). 

Indentation should be used for equations, bullet‐pointed lists, and lists of headings. 

Block quotes should be indented 1.5" on both the left and right. 

Figures and tables can be centered. 

 

4.3  Page numbering 

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Page numbers should be placed in the upper right‐hand corner along with the student’s 

last name (e.g. Smith 3). 

The title page should not be numbered.  

Introductory material like the contents page is usually giving lowercase Roman numbers 

(e.g. i, ii, iii).  

The body of the report is given Arabic numerals (e.g. 1, 2, 3).  

Appendixes can be numbered internally (e.g. A1, A2, A3 for Appendix A; B1, B2, B3 for 

Appendix B, etc.). See also: Appendixes 

Consult the help menu in your word processing program for questions on how to set up 

page numbering. 

 

4.4  Fonts and styles 

Do not use any fancy fonts. Use traditional fonts like Times New Roman, Garamond, or 

Arial. You can use a separate font for headers. 

Size 11 and 12 are standard font sizes for the text of a report. 

Size 11 or 10 can be used for block quotes. See also: Block quotes 

Only use italics if emphasis is needed. Do not use underlining or bold because it distracts 

the reader. 

 

4.5  Headings 

Headings should be clearly established through different sizing and weights in fonts. 

Below is a table of recommended font sizes and weights for the different levels of 

headers. 

 

Heading  Point Size  Style  Example 

First  16  bold  Contents

2   Recycling benefits Second  14  bold  2.1   Environmental benefits 

Third  12  bold  2.1.1   Cost analysis

Fourth  12  bold and italics  2.1.1.1  Treatment facilities 

 

Some writers also use the decimal numbering system to help differentiate the different 

levels of headings. 

Bold and italics can be used in headings if necessary. 

The best headings are 

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Summaries not questions 

Not too brief (e.g. Results) 

Not too long (e.g. Equipment used at the Waste Management main facility)  

Not judgmental (e.g. Poor methodologies) 

 

4.6  Decimal numbering system 

Decimal numbering starts at the introduction and ends at the references. (This style 

guide uses the decimal numbering system in each of its sections and starts with ‘1’ for 

the introduction and ‘8’ for the reference section.) 

Three levels of headings are recommended, but four can be used if necessary. (Do not 

use the fourth level if it is only needed once.) 

Decimal points should only be used between the numbers, not after (e.g. 2.2) 

Decimal numbering may not make a document easier to read in shorter reports or in 

reports with many subheadings. If this is the case with your report, leave out the 

decimal numbering. 

 

4.7  Figures and tables 

Figures are diagrams, charts, graphs, pictures, and maps. Tables are rows and columns 

of data. 

An em‐dash (—) should be used in tables to show no data. 

All figures and tables should be labeled in bold and numbered consecutively by either 

figure or table (i.e. Figure 1, Figure 2, Table 1, Table 2). Figures are labeled on the 

bottom, and tables are labeled on the top. 

Figures and tables can also be labeled according to section (e.g. Table 5 as the third 

table in section 3 would be labeled Table 3.3). 

Each figure and table should be given a descriptive caption to explain what the figure or 

table shows. 

It is good practice to Microsoft Word’s “Insert Caption” tool to label figure and tables. If 

you do this, it will be easy to create list of figures and tables in the content section. 

You must refer to each figure and table in your text (e.g. “see Figure 8”). Avoid using 

“see table below” or “see figure above” because they can be vague.  One helpful feature 

is to use the “Cross‐Reference” option in Word to dynamically link the figure or table 

caption/number.  This will save you significant time if you have to reorder figures or 

tables in a lengthy report. 

All figures and tables copied or adapted from another source need to be cited. 

Extra space can be given between figures and tables and the rest of the text. 

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4.8  Quotations  

See also: Quotation marks, Brackets, or Ellipses 

 

4.9  Equations and formulae 

Equations should be numbered using Arabic numbers in parentheses aligned along the 

right margin. For example, 

(a + b)1 = a + b           (3) 

 

When listing more than one equations, the equal signs (=) should be aligned. For 

example, 

(a + b)1 = a + b           (3) 

(a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2         (4) 

 

Equations should be referred to in the text either through their number, e.g. (3), or as 

Eq. with the given number. 

 

   

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5  Components of a report  

 

 

This chapter is an adaptation of the information provided in Winckel and Hart’s Report Writing 

Style Guide for Engineering Students through the University of South Australia. 

 

5.1  Sections within a report 

 

Preliminaries  Title page 

Abstract 

Disclaimer 

Acknowledgements* 

Contents 

Figures* 

Tables* 

Symbols* 

Text of report  Introduction 

Main sections organized under 

appropriate headings and 

subheadings 

Conclusion 

Recommendations* 

References 

Supplements  Appendixes* 

 

*Indicates optional section 

 

5.1.2  Title page 

The title page should usually provide the following information (see your professor for exact 

requirements): 

Title of the report 

Your name 

Name of the professor  

Title of course (e.g. CE 212) 

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Date of submission 

 

5.1.3  Abstract 

An abstract is a summary of the report. Learning to write a clear abstract is important because 

it allows anyone doing research to understand what the report is about without having to read 

the whole report. A good abstract will address the following questions: 

Why?    What problem is being addressing in the report? 

How?     What method/approach was used? 

What?    What are the important results or findings? 

So what?  What are the implications of the findings? 

 

5.1.4  Disclaimer 

A disclaimer tells the reader that the work that follows is your own and not someone else’s. A 

disclaimer is usually followed by the author’s signature (or signatures if there is more than one 

author). The following is an example disclaimer: 

 

I declare the following to be my own work, unless otherwise 

referenced, as defined by the University’s policy on plagiarism. 

 

In the Civil and Environmental Engineering Department, we often use the 

following disclaimer in our capstone design course: 

 

This project has been conducted by students in the Department of 

Civil and Environmental Engineering at Portland State University 

and has not been performed by licensed engineers.  

 

Faculty will alert students when disclaimers are required. 

 

5.1.5  Acknowledgements 

Acknowledgements are not required but should be included if assistance by someone else 

needs to be acknowledged. Acknowledgements are often used to thank colleagues or 

assistants.   

 

5.1.6  Contents 

The contents page is a list of all of the headings and subheadings within the report and includes 

page numbers. Preliminary pages do not need to be included in the contents page, and the 

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contents page should never be included. Differentiation between the different levels of 

headings should be clear at a glance (see the contents page for this document as an example). 

Refer to the help feature in your word processor to help you create a contents page. 

 

5.1.7  Figures and tables 

The figures and tables page is a list of the figures and tables used in the report (this page is only 

needed if there are more than three figures or tables given). The heading of the page should be 

“Figures and tables” with the subheading of “Figures” and “Tables” for each group.  The figures 

and tables page should include the figure or table number, the caption, and the page number.  

 

If you are using WORD, the list of figures and tables is automatically generated by the program 

if you have added captions using WORD. To insert a caption in WORD, use References/Insert 

Caption. To generate the List of Figures and Tables, use References/Insert Table of Figures (next 

to Insert Caption). 

 

  

5.1.8  Symbols 

If many symbols are used in the report, it is helpful for the reader to have a symbols page that 

lists the symbol along with the unit of measurement it represents and the quantity of 

measurement. For example, 

 

Symbol  Unit  Quantity 

kg  kilogram  mass 

s  second  time 

 

5.1.9  Introduction 

Figures and tables 

 

Figures 

Figure 1  Increase in recycling 2009‐2010             4 

Figure 2  Future projections of waste deposited in landfills        5 

 

Tables 

Table 1   Amount of garbage per U.S. city            3 

Table 2   Trends of recycled products              6 

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The purpose of the introduction is to give the reader necessary background information. This 

information can include: 

Overview of previous research 

Different methodologies 

Explanation of the problem 

Explanation of the research 

Limits of the current research 

Outline of the report 

 

5.1.10 Main sections  

The main sections of the report are where the research is covered and explained to the reader. 

These sections should be well organized and documented. Figures and tables can be used as 

supporting evidence. There are two main types of reports: analytical and scientific. Analytical 

reports focus more on reviewing and analyzing the available literature and other evidence. 

These types of reports should be organized logically based around the report’s objective. 

Scientific reports are based on research and should contain the following four sections: 

Methods/procedures used (should include materials or equipment used) 

Data collected 

Results (compare to previous studies) 

Discussion or analysis of results 

 

5.1.11  Conclusion 

The conclusion should summarize the main findings of the report. It can refer to the 

importance, applications, limitations, and benefits of the results, but no new information 

should ever be presented in the conclusion. 

 

5.1.12  Recommendations 

Recommendations should be included when it is important for the research to be acted upon. 

The recommendations can include strategies, procedures, techniques, or suggestions for 

further research. 

 

5.1.13  References 

The references page is a list of all sources that have been cited within the report. The sources 

should be listed in alphabetical order by author’s last name. The heading for the page should be 

References. See also: Citations 

 

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5.1.14  Appendixes 

The appendixes include extra information that was not included in the main section of the 

report. Most appendix material is too large or too technical to have been included in the main 

section of the report, but it should always support the report or provide additional information. 

See also: Page numbering 

 

 

 

 

 

   

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6  Citations  

 

 

The following citations follow the format set by the American Society of Civil Engineers website. 

This citation style might not be correct for all reports or the format requested by certain 

professors. It is always best to check with the professor to find out which citation style he or 

she prefers. If a citation format is not available for one of your sources, consult The Chicago 

Manual of Style. 

 

You may want to consider using software to manage or create your references. The PSU Library 

has a good guide to citation management tools available to you, see 

http://guides.library.pdx.edu/managecitations  

 

 

6.1  In text citations 

In text citations are the citations given within the report to show the reader where a quote, 

paraphrase, summary, or some other form of information came from. The citation should 

include the author’s last name, year the work was published, and the page number (if available) 

within parentheses. If the author’s name is given in the text, just include the year in the 

citation. 

 

“By the turn of the twentieth century, visions for an extensive industrial 

expansion of Toronto began to take hold” (Desfor, Vesalon, and Laidley, 2012). 

 

In his article, Whibley (2012) states, “But beautiful design must be matched with 

desired functionality to appeal to a mass market.” 

 

Note: The above quotes are taken from the sources given as example citations under Books and Web pages. 

 

In cases of multiple authors for an in‐text citation we follow the following guidelines: 

 

Wells (2007) developed a model that…         Single author 

Wells and Berger (2007) developed a model that…   2 authors 

Wells et al. (2007) developed a model that…   3 or more authors (use one name + et al.) 

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6.2  Reference list 

 

6.2.1  Authors 

Presentation of names  Only author’s last names and the initial of their first name (and middle 

name if given) should be listed in a citation. First names are initialed to 

prevent gender bias. Titles, such as PhD, should be left out. 

Listing  All sources listed on a reference page should be listed in alphabetical order 

by author’s last name. 

No author given  If no author name is provided, list the source under its title. For sources 

where an organization is listed as the author, give the organization’s name 

in place of the author’s. 

More than one author  When listing multiple authors, keep listing authors in last name, first name 

order. See also: Common academic abbreviations 

 

Two or more authors:             Davis, T. M., Rodriguez, A., Smith, J. and Li, C. 

 

In some cases, when there are more than 6 authors, you can often find the 

use of the primary author + et al. in the reference list. 

 

6.2.2  Journal References 

Author last name, first name initial. (year). “Title of Article.” Title of journal, volume 

number(issue number), page number range. Chicago Manual of Style capitalizes the title of the 

journal article, as well as the journal name. 

 

VanderSteen, J. (2011). “Adaptive Engineering.” Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society, 

131(2), 134‐143. 

 

But the ASCE reference format requires that all journals be capitalized and abbreviated. Journal 

article titles are not capitalized except the first letter of the first word.  

 

Stahl, D. C., Wolfe, R. W., and Begel, M. (2004). “Improved analysis of timber rivet 

connections.” J. Struct. Eng., 130(8), 1272‐1279. 

 

Hence, make sure you capitalize journals. 

 

6.2.3  Books 

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According to Chicago Manual of Style, book citations are rendered as such: Author last name, 

first name initial. (year). “Title of Chapter.”* Title of book, first initial of editor and editor’s last 

name, ed.†, publisher’s name, city of publication, state of publications, page number range.‡ 

 

Desfor, G., Vesalon, L. and Laidley, J. (2011). “Establishing the Toronto Water Commission.” 

Reshaping Toronto’s Waterfront, Desfor, G. and Laidley, J., eds, Toronto, University of Toronto 

Press, Canada, 49‐74 

  

According to the ASCE Style, books are cited as such: 

Zadeh, L. A. (1981). “Possibility theory and soft data analysis.” Mathematical frontiers of the 

social and policy sciences, L. Cobb and R. M. Thrall, eds., Westview, Boulder, CO, 69‐129 

 

* If more than one chapter in the book was referenced, leave out the chapter title. 

† ed. stands for “editor”; eds. stands for “editors.” Not all books will have editors. 

‡ The page range is only needed if only one chapter of the book was used. If information was taken throughout the 

book, no page number needs to be cited on the reference page. 

 

6.2.4  Reports 

Reports should be formatted the same as books. See also: Books 

 

6.2.5  Web pages 

Author last name, first name initial. (year). “Title of web page.” Title of website, URL (month 

date, year accessed). 

 

Whibley, T. (2012). “Q ball in the corner pocket: Is the Nexus Q a scratch?” Engineering, 

<http://www.engineering.com/> (Jul. 12, 2012). 

 

6.2.6  Theses and dissertations 

Author last name, first name initial. (year). “Title of thesis/dissertation.” Type of 

thesis/dissertation, university where thesis/dissertation was presented, city of university, state 

abbreviation. 

 

Werner Gladhill, K. (2011). "Exploring traffic safety and urban form in Portland, Oregon.” M.S. 

thesis, Portland State Univ., Portland, OR. 

 

6.2.7  Conferences and symposiums 

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Author last name, first name initial. (year). “Title of paper/presentation.” Name of 

conference/symposium, sponsoring organization, city, state abbreviation, page number range. 

 

Garrett, D. L. (2003). “Coupled analysis of floating production systems.” Proc., Int. Symp. on 

Deep Mooring Systems, ASCE, Reston, VA, 152‐167. 

 

 

 

   

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7  Confusing and misspelled words  

 

 

7.1  Confusing words 

These words are often confused with each other when writing. Look at the definitions below to 

make sure you are using the right one. 

Accept To take or receive  Except With the exclusion of 

Access The ability to enter or approach with 

permission 

Excess Exceeding something else in amount or 

degree 

Adapt To make suitable to requirements or 

conditions 

Adept Very skilled; proficient; expert 

Advice The information that is given to someone 

else (noun) 

Advise The act of giving information (verb) 

Affect The act of influence (verb)  Effect The result of influence (noun) 

Alley A narrow path  Ally Another nation with similar goals 

All ready The preparations are complete  Already The event happened previously 

All together Happening as a unit in time or place  Altogether The entire or whole part 

Anecdote A short story  Antidote The cure to a poison 

Angel A heavenly spirit  Angle The relationship between two lines that 

join at one end 

Anyway Regardless; in any case  Any way Any direction available 

 

Bazaar An open market  Bizarre Weird; strange 

Beside By the side of  Besides  Except; as well 

Biannual Twice a year  Biennial Once every other year 

Bibliography A list of sources used or 

recommended in the back of the book 

Biography A written piece of history on a person 

Breath Air that is inhaled and exhaled (noun)  Breathe The act of inhaling and exhaling (verb) 

 

Command To give orders to  Commend To acknowledge for an 

accomplishment; to recommend; to entrust to 

care for 

Confidant Someone who can be trusted to keep 

secrets 

Confident The appearance of knowing what one 

is doing 

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Conscience A sense of right and wrong  Conscious Being aware of one’s surroundings 

Cooperation Working together with other 

people 

Corporation A large group of people gathered in a 

business or union 

Costume Clothes that are worn to represent a 

famous character or time period 

Custom A behavior or tradition of a group of 

people 

 

Decent Good; dressed modestly  Descent To move from a higher place to a lower 

place 

Desert A dry, waterless land  Dessert What is served after dinner 

Device Something created for a purpose; a design  Devise To create a plan 

 

Emigrate To leave one’s country to find a new 

home 

Immigrate To enter a new country with the 

purpose of calling it home 

Eminent Noticeable; conspicuous  Imminent Immediate; near at hand 

Empire The land and people controlled by a 

nation or ruling authority 

Umpire A person who enforces rules at a sporting 

event 

Envelop To enclose; surround on all sides  Envelope A paper container used to mail a letter 

Expand To open up; to increase in size or scope  Expend To spend 

 

Farther Use when referring to a physical distance  Further Use for a figurative distance 

Fewer Use when referring to countable objects  Less than Use for mass quantities or amounts 

that cannot be individually counted 

Foreword Introductory comments at the 

beginning of a book 

Forward To continue moving in a front facing 

direction; looking toward the future 

Formally For a certain occasion  Formerly At an earlier time 

 

 

Later An event that will happen in the future  Latter Refers to the second of two listed items 

Lay To set something down  Lie To move yourself into a reclined position 

Lend The act of letting someone use something 

with the intent of it being returned 

Loan The act of giving someone money with the 

intent of it being returned 

Loose Something that is not attached or 

constrained 

Lose To have lost something 

 

Massage The manipulation of muscles for 

relaxation 

Message Information that is relayed from one 

person to another 

Moral The truth or lesson learned from a story or 

situation 

Morale The emotional and mental state of a 

person or group 

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Of Used to show possession, cause, motivation, 

or reason 

Off Use when moving from one position to 

another 

 

Pastor A person who leads a church  Pasture A grassy field for grazing cattle 

Perfect Without fault or defect  Prefect An official usually in the military, 

government, or at a school 

Personal Relating to a specific person  Personnel Employees of a business or 

organization 

Picture A photograph  Pitcher Someone who throws a ball; a container 

used to carry liquid 

Precede To be of higher rank or importance; to 

go in front of; to be earlier than 

Proceed To continue an action; to come from 

something 

Preposition A word in English that is paired with 

a noun to show relationship 

Proposition A proposal made for consideration   

 

Quiet Minimal or no noise  Quite to a fairly certain extent.  

 

Recent Having just happened; not far in the past  Resent The feeling of ill will toward a person or 

circumstance 

 

Than Use when comparing two items that are not 

time related 

Then Use when referring to time 

Thorough Detailed; complete  Through To move from one point to another 

 

7.2  Commonly misspelled words 

 

A 

Absorption 

Accessible 

Accidentally 

According 

Accumulate 

Achievement 

Acoustics 

Acquire 

Adequate 

Although 

Amateur 

Analysis 

Analytical 

Analyze 

Apparatus 

Approximate 

Assess 

Averse 

B 

Basis 

Believe 

Brief 

Bureaucracy 

C 

Calendar 

Careful 

Ceiling 

Challenge 

Changeable 

Characteristic 

Circuit 

Climate 

Comparative 

Comparison 

Congratulate 

Consensus 

Consequently 

Continuous 

Control 

Controlled 

Corporation 

Correlate 

Crisis 

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Criticism 

Criticize 

Curriculum 

D 

Decide 

Decision 

Decisive 

Deferred 

Definite 

Dependent 

Descend 

Difference 

Dilemma 

Disappearance 

Disastrous 

Discipline 

Disease 

Dispensable 

Dissident 

Dissipate 

Distinguish 

During 

E 

Efficiency 

Efficient 

Eighth 

Eightieth 

Electrician 

Eligibility 

Eliminate 

Endurance 

Enforceable 

Entirely 

Environment 

Equipped 

Equivalent 

Erroneous 

Especially 

Exacerbate 

Exceed 

Excel 

Excessive 

Exhaust 

F 

Facilities 

Fascinate 

Feasible 

Fulfill 

Fundamental 

G 

Government 

Grammar 

Grateful 

Grievous 

Guarantee 

Guard 

Guidance 

H 

Haphazard 

Hazard 

Height 

Hierarchy 

Hindrance 

Hydraulic 

Hygiene 

I 

Icicle 

Idiosyncrasy 

Immediately 

Incident 

Inconvenience 

Incredible 

Indestructible 

Inferred 

Information 

Initial 

Initiative 

Innocuous 

Intelligence 

Intercede 

Interest 

Interfere 

Intermittent 

Interrupt 

Irrelevant 

J 

Jeopardize 

Judgment 

K 

Knowledge 

L 

Legitimate 

Length 

License 

Liquefy 

M 

Maintain 

Maintenance 

Manageable 

Maneuver 

Manufacturer 

Mathematics 

Meant 

Mileage 

Miscellaneous 

Molecule 

N 

Necessary 

Neither 

Neutron 

Nickel 

Noticeable 

Nowadays 

O 

Obedience 

Obstacle 

Occasion 

Occurred 

Occurrence 

Omission 

Omit 

Omitted 

Opinion 

Opportunity 

Origin 

P 

Pamphlet 

Parallel 

Partial 

Participate 

Peculiar 

Penetrate 

Perceive 

Perform 

Performance 

Permanent 

Permissible 

Permitted 

Perpendicular 

Perseverance 

Persistent 

Persuade 

Petition 

Physical 

Planning 

Plateau 

Plausible 

Possession 

Possibility 

Possible 

Practically 

Practice 

Precede 

Precedence 

Precisely 

Predecessor 

Preference 

Preferred 

Prevalent 

Primitive 

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Probability 

Procedure 

Proceed 

Professor 

Prominent 

Pronounce 

Q 

Quantity 

Quarantine 

Questionnaire 

Quizzes 

R 

Realistically 

Realize 

Recede 

Receipt 

Receivable 

Recommend 

Reference 

Referred 

Relegate 

Relevant 

Relieve 

Remittance 

Replaceable 

Representative 

Resemblance 

Resistance 

Responsibility 

S 

Safety 

Satisfaction 

Scarcity 

Scene 

Scheme 

Scholarly 

Scissors 

Secede 

Seize 

Sense 

Separate 

Serviceable 

Several 

Significance 

Similar 

Simultaneity 

Simultaneous 

Sincerely 

Spatial 

Special 

Specifically 

Specimen 

Sponsor 

Spontaneous 

Statistics 

Stopped 

Strategy 

Strength 

Strenuous 

Strictly 

Subordinate 

Substantial 

Subtle 

Succeed 

Success 

Succession 

Successive 

Sufficient 

Supersede 

Supplement 

Susceptible 

Synchronous 

Systematically 

T 

Technical 

Temperature 

Temporarily 

Tendency 

Tentative 

Therefore 

Transferred 

Typical 

U 

Undoubtedly 

Unique 

Unison 

Unmanageable 

Unnecessary 

Until 

Usable 

Usage 

Usually 

Utilize 

V 

Vague 

Valuable 

Variety 

Visible 

W 

Withdrawal 

Y 

Yield 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

   

42 | P a g e

 

 

8   References  

 

American Society for Civil Engineers, < http://www.asce.org> (Jul. 12, 2012).  

 

Chicago Manual of Style (CMS). (2010) 16th ed., University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL 

 

Merriam‐Webster, < http://www.merriam‐webster.com/> (Jul. 12, 2012). 

 

Purdue Online Writing Lab. < http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/section/2/ > (Jul. 13, 2012). 

 

Random House Webster’s grammar, usage, and punctuation. (2008). Random House, New York, 

NY 

 

Winckel, A. and Hart, B. (2002). Report writing style guide for engineering students. 4th ed. 

Behrend, M. and Kokkin, B. eds, Mawson Lakes, South Australia 

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Appendix A – Developing Writing Judgment: Active and 

Passive Voice  

DEVELOPING WRITING JUDGMENT: ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE Susan Conrad, Professor, Department of Applied Linguistics, conrads@pdx.edu

Civil Engineering Writing Project: cewriting.ling.pdx.edu

Why learn about active and passive voice for engineering writing? In class, I will describe several differences between practitioner and student writing that I have found in my study of civil engineering writing. One of the biggest differences concerns the choice between active and passive voice. Experienced practitioners use more active voice sentences, usually resulting in clearer, more concise and precise writing. Many students have been told to use passive voice. While you need to follow faculty guidelines in school, you also need to develop judgment as a professional. If you learn about these verb “voices” now, you can help yourself write more clearly, help clients understand your ideas more easily, and perhaps even help your firm avoid liability problems.

PART A: MAKE SURE YOU KNOW THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE.

Active: The subject of the sentence (the thing before the verb) is an agent (the “doer” of the action, even if it is not animate). The object (the thing after the verb) has the action done to it. This is the most direct, common expression of action in English.

Active Voice Example Subject (agent) Object (receiver of action)

We calculated a factor of safety greater than… we a factor of safety This report documents the hydraulic analysis… this report the hydraulic analysis Firm XYZ has completed an investigation of…. Firm XYZ an investigation

Passive: The subject of the sentence (the thing before the verb) has the action done to it, or it can be a meaningless “it.” There is usually no agent, or the agent might occur after the verb.

Passive Voice Example Subject (receiver of the action) A factor of safety was calculated… a factor of safety The hydraulic analysis is documented in this report. the hydraulic analysis An investigation has been completed… an investigation It was noticed that there were several cracks… it [refers to nothing]

Neither: Many English verbs are neither active nor passive. These verbs usually express a “linking” or “existing” relationship between the subject and whatever comes after the verb.

Example: Several historic residences are adjacent to the bridge and approach roadway. Exercise 1. Identify each underlined verb as active, passive, or neither. 1. After concurrence by [OrganizationName] on the number and type of further inspections, the study

team collected supplemental information through…

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2. The I-62 Red River Bridges are two of the four bridges included in Bundle 333 of the Oregon Bridge Delivery Program. The I-62 Blue River over-crossing bridges are addressed in a separate report.

PART B. LEARN GUIDELINES FOR CHOOSING BETWEEN ACTIVE AND PASSIVE.

The choice should be about the subject of the sentence, not the verb. Do you want the agent as the subject?

Use active voice when… a) the responsibility for recommendations, analyses, assumptions, or observations needs to be

clear. (In engineering practice, this is virtually always.) If responsibility is unclear, you are more likely to confuse your readers and increase your firm’s liability.

b) you establish the agent of a sequence of actions at the beginning of the sequence. For example, descriptions of methods often start by establishing the agent (usually we or a firm name) and then change to passive voice.

c) you are emphasizing a client-consultant relationship. d) there is no good reason to use passive voice, or passive voice makes information imprecise or

hard to follow.

Use passive voice when… e) the agent is unknown or unimportant, as in descriptions of project locations or geology. f) the receiver of the action is the topic of interest and you have already established the agent (e.g.

many descriptions of methods after a first sentence that establishes the agent). g) the receiver of the action is “known” information that has been explained previously. By putting it

first in the sentence, you follow a logical order of information for readers: first “known” information, then new information. The agent can be stated after the verb: “...was designed by Firm XYZ.”

Exercise 2. Identify each of the underlined items as active or passive and tell why the choice is effective. Choose from a-g above; more than one reason might apply to each. 3. Due to slope stability considerations, we recommend that hillside excavation and wall construction be

completed during the dry season…

4. On August 15 and 19, 2003, we drilled five exploratory borings with a portable drill rig using solid stem auger techniques. An additional boring was drilled September 18, 2003, northwest of the intersection using a trailer-mounted drill rig. These borings were drilled to provide data for retaining wall and signal pole foundation design. The boreholes were drilled to depths ranging from ±2 to 6 m.

5. a) At your request, we visited the site of…

b) Per your request, Firm XYZ has completed an investigation of…

6. Our analysis assumes the drilled shafts will be constructed using reinforced concrete with…

7. The project is located at the junction of I-290 and Hwy 444…

PART C. CHOOSE ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE WISELY.

Exercise 3. Decide whether each of the following passives is effective. If not, revise the sentence to use active voice or a linking verb, and make any other changes needed for clarity and grammar.

8. Based on Firm ABC’s findings, the slide is believed to be an earthflow/slump type movement…

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9. Excavation is assumed to be able to be completed without temporary retention…

10. According to the Bridge Engineering Baseline Report, this 184' long bridge was constructed in 1952…

11. According to Dr. Larry Simpson from a personal interview, the assumption was made that the weakest soil in that area is silty sand…

12. [OrganizationName] is recommended to use caution when using Winkler’s model with high loading conditions. [Sentence in a report written to the named organization]

13. References found relating to the compaction of soils where the nature of the clay mineral changed after drying compared to using soils without initial drying was not clearly found.

Warning: Do not just apply a strategy of using “we” or a name without thinking. What is wrong with the following sentences?

14. As requested, we are glad to submit this written report presenting a geotechnical design recommendation for a retaining wall on…

15. We obtained lumber costs from CompanyName1 in the CityName Metropolitan Area. We determined the costs of the piers by contacting CompanyName2. We include prices that are effective as of May 27, 2010.

In order to provide a deck that was easy to build, we decided to use CompanyName2 Brand Piers for the footings. We…

16. Firm ABC has completed our investigation of.... [Firm ABC did the investigation and wrote this memo]

Partial support for this material was provided by the National Science Foundation’s Course, Curriculum, and Laboratory Improvement Program under Award No. 0837776. All opinions, findings, and recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.

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Appendix B – Writing Tips for Lab Reports and Tech Memos  

Writing Tips for Lab Reports & Tech Memos Susan Conrad, Professor, Department of Applied Linguistics, conrads@pdx.edu

Civil Engineering Writing Project: cewriting.ling.pdx.edu Lab reports can be valuable practice for communicating as a professional engineer – if you pay attention to your writing. The goal for writing in engineering: Precise, accurate communication that covers all the needed information, has no unnecessary information, and contains no distracting grammatical errors. Your writing should…

have only one interpretation for each sentence (the interpretation you intended). allow your audience to find information easily, read quickly, comprehend each idea clearly, and follow

links between ideas smoothly. be produced efficiently. Read and revise each paper you write before submitting it.

Read over WHAT YOU WROTE (not what you know you meant). Try reading your sentences aloud. Will a reader unfamiliar with your work understand your meaning? Revise to make the meaning more precise.

Read for the items in this list of tips. Try the techniques listed for revising. Look over the last paper that was returned to you. Proof read your new paper for the same errors you

made last time. You learn nothing if you repeatedly make the same mistakes – and both university faculty and supervisors in a workplace will notice.

When a paper is returned to you…

read all the comments and corrections carefully, and ask about any you do not understand. save it to look at again before you hand in your next report. Revising for effective organization and sequencing of information should come first. See instructions from your professor.

TIPS FOR EFFECTIVE WORDS AND SENTENCES

TIP 1. CHOOSE PRECISE, ACCURATE WORDS. Do not use words that are casually used in conversation for a general meaning. Engineering writing

requires precision. Do not pick words because you think they “sound academic.” Pick words for precise and accurate

meaning. A) Replace inaccurate, vague words with precise, specific words. Avoid writing like this. Instead, try these techniques. Explanation

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…the A36 is the best bet out of the materials tested.

The data were then evaluated using the stress-strain relationship in order to find out the different properties of the material.

Use more specific words

…the A36 is the preferred material for… ...the A36 sample conforms most closely to the expected behavior of…

…in order to investigate the… or …in order to determine the…

A “best bet” is a vague term from conversation. Lab reports do not ask for “bets.” The revisions make the meaning more specific.

“Find out” can mean to discover, to confirm, to expose, to look up in a book, etc. The revisions make the action more specific.

…at really low temperatures the energy required for fracture was…

In this laboratory, a number of the mechanical properties for …

Refer to specific quantities

Below Xo c, the energy required for fracture was…

In this laboratory, three mechanical properties for…

A “really low” temperature to you may not be low to someone else. Specifying the temperature leaves no room for misinterpretation.

“A number” could be 1, 10, 105… Specifying the number leaves nothing to your reader’s imagination.

The data don’t necessarily match the known value for properties of steel and aluminum.

Delete unnecessary words.

The data do not match the known values…

“Necessarily” makes no sense and confuses the reader. Do some of the data “unnecessarily” match the value? Words that add no meaning should be omitted.

It is my opinion that the friction angles in the sandy layers are low…

Refer to standards or expected measures.

The friction angles in the sandy layers were low relative to expected values… [continued with further explanation]

Your analysis should not be an “opinion.” Instead, tell the reader the evidence you are using for your interpretation. Often you can make a comparison with an accepted standard or measurement.

B) Use “you” and “your” only if you are speaking directly to your reader (not likely in a lab report for a professor!). Avoid writing like this. Instead, try these techniques. Explanation

Replace “your” with “the”

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The standard deviation is a measure of the variation of a set of data points. The closer to zero the less variation your measurements have.

…The closer the standard deviation is to zero, the less variation the measurements have.

“Your measurements” means your reader’s measurements. The revision with “the” makes the statement a generalization.

The graph will allow you to calculate the modulus of rupture, which was found…

Change the verb to passive voice if you are describing your own procedures.

The modulus of rupture was calculated from the graph…

Your reader is not doing calculations, so “you” is used inaccurately. Passive is an appropriate choice for procedures because readers know that the student writing the report did the procedures. Many professors – including Dr. Dusicka – recommend using passive voice rather than the pronoun “I” (“I calculated the modulus…”).

Practitioners use “you” and “we” to refer directly to their clients and themselves – e.g., “As you requested, we completed an investigation of….” There the client-consultant relationship is emphasized.

C) Revise garbled or nonsensical sentences so they convey clear, precise meanings. Instead, revise for meaning. You may need Avoid writing like this. to think more thoroughly about what you mean.

The experiment generally reinforced established properties of concrete. This reality was true for a variety of reasons… [Referring to reasons why object measurements varied among group members in lab 1.]

The results of the experiment were consistent with properties of concrete (Mamlouk and Zaniewski 2006). The variation in group members’ measurements can be attributed to three factors.

The original sentence is nonsensical. No experiment reinforces the properties of concrete! The revision makes the meaning clear and provides the reference. The original sentence is a ridiculous generalization (“reality was true”). The

49 | P a g e

revision conveys specific information about the lab.

TIP 2. USE RELATIVELY SHORT SENTENCES THAT READERS CAN EASILY FOLLOW. Avoid long, convoluted sentences. Instead, shorten sentences. Try these techniques. Explanation

Figure 3 and Figure 4 shows one of the steel coupons after and before testing and necking can be shown between the two reflective tapes. An assumption was made to figure out the true stress by trying to figure out where does the cross-sectional area start to decrease, and from there an equation has been made to figure out the true stress.

Separate ideas into independent sentences.

…two reflective tapes. The stress was calculated from nominal cross-sectional dimensions with the assumption that the cross-sectional area did not change. True stress was calculated by measuring the decrease in the cross-sectional area at the point of failure.

Too much information is stuffed into the single original sentence. It is impossible to follow all the different ideas. The revision divides the information into different sentences about the different stress calculations.

As shown in the graph below, where all three diagrams have been put in one graph together, it could be recognized that the subject of the first and second test are most likely to be ductile…

Refer to figures, tables, and samples by number. Replace passive voice with active voice.

As shown in Figure 1, samples 1 and 2 exhibited ductile behavior…

The original sentence uses many words to describe the figures and samples when all they need is a simple name (as in the revision). The revision changes an awkward passive (“it could be recognized”) to an inanimate subject + active voice: “samples 1 and 2 exhibited….”

Although it is easy to describe a material in words, when it comes to real data, variety in materials, variety in test condition, human error and machine error are factors that can spread the data wide

Put lists of items at the end of a sentence. Use precise terms. Under field conditions, four factors interfere with consistent measurement: variety in materials, variety in test condition, human error, and machine

In English, most readers find sentences hard to understand if long lists occur before the main verb. Writers also tend to make errors in sentences with very complex lists before the verb. The revision uses a

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enough to make the judgment not as it is easy in theory.

error… [Explain variation and error further.]

simple sentence to introduce a list of the four factors. Notice that the revision also deletes unnecessary words (“real data”) and uses more precise terms (“interfere with consistent measurement”).

TIP 3. USE THIS OR THAT ONLY WHEN THE REFERENCE IS CLEAR. Avoid ambiguous this or that. Restate using this/that + noun (this what?) Explanation

In this laboratory, mechanical properties for two portland cement concrete mixes were obtained and compared. This was done with compression and flexure strength tests. Coupon 7 and Coupon 13 displayed an equal amount of elongation (42.0%), which was greater than that of Coupon 3 (9.6%). This also proves that greater ductility was displayed in Coupon 7 and Coupon 13.

Place a noun after “this” or “that.” …were obtained and compared. This comparison was conducted using compression and flexure strength tests. …which was greater than that of Coupon 3 (9.6%). These results indicate that Coupons 7 and 13 were more ductile material than Coupon 3.

In the original sentences, “this” is confusing. There is no noun in the preceding sentences for “this” to refer to. The revisions add a noun to make the ideas clear.

The difference in weight was due to human error. The pan at the bottom of the sieves was dropped while being measured. The material was swept back into the pan and measured. That is likely the cause of the increase in weight.

If it is not easy to add a single noun, rethink the logical steps in your ideas and change your sentences.

…was dropped while being measured. When the material was swept back into the pan and measured, dirt from the floor had been added. That additional dirt was likely the cause of the increase in weight.

The original sentence skips a step of information (the fact that there was extra material on the floor). The revision adds the missing step, and it then becomes easy to add a noun after “that.”

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TIP 4. FOLLOW ANY SPECIFIC REQUIREMENTS GIVEN BY THE PROFESSOR (OR IN PROFESSIONAL

PRACTICE, BY YOUR CLIENT). For many lab reports, CEE faculty ask that you avoid use of it, my, I and we. Avoid use of these words. Instead, try these techniques.

While the sample was shaken for 5 minutes, it is possible an additional 5 minute interval would have resulted in a more standard distribution of gradation. Data were then compiled for both the coarse and fine samples and rendered in a gradation curve. It was assumed that the samples were homogenous prior to testing.

Rewrite the sentence with the end as the subject. Use passive voice.

The sample was shaken for 5 minutes. A more standard distribution may have been achieved if the sample had been shaken for an additional 5 minute interval. … [continue by explaining why] Data were then compiled for both the coarse and fine samples and rendered in a gradation curve. The samples were assumed to be homogenous prior to testing.

Two strain values were found for each position of the pin on the beam. The average was then found. My calculated strains are displayed. My data don’t match the known value for properties of steel and aluminum.

Replace “my” with “the”

Two strain values were found for each position of the pin on the beam. The average was then calculated. The resulting strains are displayed. The results do not correlate with the expected values for steel and aluminum… [and provide a reference].

While doing the calculations for part 1; finding the theoretical values for strain, I obtained a better concept of how the equations are applied in experimental situations.

Reword “I” statements with…..

The calculations for part 1 of the laboratory illustrated the applicability of the theoretical equations for strain in experimental situations.

In part 2 of the lab we used a calibrator to find the diameter and thread length of three different sized bolts.

In Methods sections, replace “we” with a passive voice sentence.

In part 2 of the lab, a calibrator was used to find the diameter…

Conclusion: In this experiment, we can see the accuracy and precision in measuring….

In Conclusions, replace “I” or “we” by referring to the results.

Conclusion: The results of this experiment demonstrated accuracy and precision in measuring.

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In Conclusions, replace “I” or “we” by reordering the sentences and using passives.

Conclusion: In this experiment, accuracy and precision in measurement were demonstrated…. [continue by explaining how]

Prepared by Dr. Susan Conrad, PSU Department of Applied Linguistics, in collaboration with Dr. Peter Dusicka. For more information or permission to copy, e-mail Susan Conrad: ConradS@pdx.edu.

Partial support for this material was provided by the National Science Foundation’s Course, Curriculum, and Laboratory Improvement Program under Award No. 0837776. Partial support for this

material was provided by the National Science Foundation’s Course, Curriculum, and Laboratory Improvement Program under Award No. 0837776. All opinions, findings, and recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.

  

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Appendix C – Revising and Editing for Precision and Clarity 

REVISING AND EDITING FOR PRECISION AND CLARITY Susan Conrad, Professor, Department of Applied Linguistics

240 East Hall, conrads@pdx.edu

The goal for writing in engineering: Precise, accurate communication that covers all the needed information, has no unnecessary information, and contains no distracting grammatical errors. Your writing should…

have only one interpretation for each sentence (the interpretation you intended). allow your audience to find information easily, read quickly, and comprehend each idea clearly. be produced efficiently. Before you revise a paper for the problems in today’s workshop, you should work on content and organization. (That requires a different workshop.) How were the problems for today’s workshop chosen?

They are much more common in 400-level PSU student reports than in practitioner reports. Many of them result in multiple interpretations, or they slow readers’ comprehension. Some of them would cause serious liability issues for any firm that you work for. At best, they annoy your readers and undermine your credibility. They are all within your grasp to fix if you put in a little time.

PART I. AREAS OF FOCUS FOR TODAY’S WORKSHOP

Problem 1: Dangling, Unclear Modifiers or Too Many Modifiers in One Sentence Ineffective Sentences Written by Students

1. After conversations with Jim Wheeler of the Geology Department, the 100yr flood event will likely have a flowrate of approximately 2700 ft3/s…

2. Based on the annual water balance, during the months of November through April there will be a consistent outflow due to storm events.

3. See the hand calculations included in the appendices which indicate that for these soil properties and applied loads the factor of safety for bearing capacity is in excess of 42 clearly indicating that the ultimate strength limit state will not be a controlling issue.

4. The construction cost increases starting with prefabricated carbon steel storage tanks with construction costs including just the cost of the footing and installation, then to the bolt-together which would require footing construction as well as unskilled labor to put the plates together, and finally to the weld-together which would require footing construction and skilled labor to weld the metal plates together.

Find the problem: (1) Read what is on the paper, not what you know you meant. (2) Identify subjects for introductory modifiers.

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(3) Identify all the sentence parts beyond a simple subject-verb-object. If you can’t keep track, neither will your readers.

Solutions: (1) Revise the sentence to make an introductory modifier have a subject or be next to the

subject it modifies. (2) Write more than one sentence. More Effective Examples from Practitioner Reports

1. Based on the observation of standing water in the roadside ditches during the winter, we anticipate that the perched water table approaches the ground surface during the wet winter months.

2. After concurrence by OrganizationName on the number and type of further inspections, the study team collected supplemental information through…

3. …the critical design condition will be an empty wet well and a water table at ±El. 219 (±4 feet below new grade). This condition is equivalent to a buoyancy pressure at the base of ±1,380 psf. Therefore, we anticipate the critical loading condition will be uplift on the pump station, rather than bearing capacity. A cast-in-place concrete base would help provide some resistance to uplift forces.

Revise the ineffective sentences written by students. Check your answers against the suggested answers at the end of these materials.

Problem 2: Use of Passive Voice When the Agent of the Action Is Important Ineffective Sentences Written by Students

1. Pedestrian activity was noted near the intersection of X Ave, Y Ave, and Z Ave. The width and unusual geometry of Z Ave made pedestrian crossings difficult. It was recommended that some form of pedestrian improvement was necessary to increase the safety of crossings.

2. According to Dr. Larry Simpson from a personal interview, the assumption was made that the weakest soil in that area is silty sand…

Make sure you recognize active and passive voice.

Active: We calculated a factor of safety greater than… This report documents the hydraulic analysis… Firm XYZ has completed an investigation of….

Passive: A factor of safety was calculated… The hydraulic analysis is documented in this report. An investigation has been completed… It was noticed that there were several cracks…

Neither: Several historic residences are adjacent to the bridge and approach roadway. Guidelines for choosing between active and passive

Use active voice when…

passives obscure meaning or make the responsibility for recommendations, assumptions, or observations unclear. If it’s unclear who is responsible, your client will be confused. In a legal case, your firm will likely be held liable.

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the agent of the action needs to be to establish. For example, descriptions of methods often start by establishing the agent (usually we or a firm name).

you are emphasizing a client-consultant relationship (especially in letters and memos). there is no good reason to use passive voice. your firm has a policy for active voice whenever possible.

Use passive voice when…

the agent is unknown or unimportant, as in descriptions of project locations or geology. the receiver of the action is the topic of interest (e.g. in descriptions of methods, especially after

the first sentence). the receiver of the action is “given” information that has been explained previously. By putting it

first in the sentence, you follow a logical order of information for readers: first “given” information, then new information.

it is your firm’s (or your instructor’s) policy. Analyze effective active and passive voice choices from practitioner reports Tell whether the underlined parts are active or passive voice. Then tell why the choice is effective. Check your answers against the suggested answers at the end of these materials.

1. Due to slope stability considerations, we recommend that hillside excavation and wall construction be completed during the dry season…

2. On August 15 and 19, 2003, we drilled five exploratory borings with a portable drill rig using solid stem auger techniques. An additional boring was drilled September 18, 2003, northwest of the intersection using a trailer-mounted drill rig. These borings were drilled to provide data for retaining wall and signal pole foundation design. The boreholes were drilled to depths ranging from ±2 to 6 m.

3. Our analysis assumes the drilled shafts will be constructed using reinforced concrete with…

4. At your request, we visited the site of… [from a memo]

Per your request, Firm XYZ has completed an investigation of… [from a letter report]

5. The project is located at the junction of I-404 and Hwy 222…

6. According to the Bridge Engineering Baseline Report, this 184' long bridge was constructed in 1952…

Now revise the ineffective sentences written by students. Check your answers against the suggested answers at the end of these materials.

Problem 3: Use of Absolutes, Superlatives and Other Untrue, Dangerous Words Ineffective Choices Written by Students

1. This is the best design option.

2. …the optimal location…

3. This is the only position that could guarantee all portions of the bridge would remain…

4. To insure that the proposed design would be safe… Solutions: (1) Use words precisely. Avoid absolutes (e.g. always, unique, only), superlatives (e.g. best,

worst), and words that make you sound like an insurance company (e.g. insure, ensure, guarantee). It is highly unlikely these words convey your true intended meaning.

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(2) In a firm, ask if the professional liability insurer distributed a list of words to avoid. (3) Recognize that two words are never truly synonyms. For example, calculate, estimate,

and determine all have different meanings. Choose words for precise meaning in a particular context. (Some firms avoid determine in most contexts.)

(4) When necessary, restructure sentences to convey a more precise meaning. Alternative, more effective choices 1. preferred: the preferred option, the preferred alternative

2. better: to better control for…, …is better-suited to….

3. reduce: To reduce the risk of differential settlement, we…

4. The primary benefits of this design over other viable options considered are…

5. To mitigate the potential effect of…

and many other non-absolute words and sentence structures.

Now revise the ineffective choices written by students. Check your answers against the suggested answers at the end of these materials.

PART II. PROBLEMS YOU CAN CORRECT ON YOUR OWN If you are not confident about any of the following problems, try these references:

A Guide to Writing as an Engineer (written by Beer and McMurrey, published by John Wiley & Sons, 2005) – chapters 2 and 3

Professional Communications: A Handbook for Civil Engineers (written by H. Silyn-Roberts, published by ASCE Press, 2005) – chapter 17

Purdue’s Online Writing Lab (http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/) - Mechanics, Punctuation, and Grammar sections

A writing handbook by any major publishing house (e.g. Prentice Hall Reference Guide to Grammar and Usage). Be forewarned that such handbooks are fine for the mechanics of writing, such as punctuation, but they are not written to address the specific concerns of civil engineers.

A. Use of complex, confusing structures when simple alternatives are more effective. Simpler alternative More complex alternative that often causes confusion repeat the noun or rephrase sentence the former…the latter write two full phrases or sentences respectively and as well as and or a new sentence with in addition not only…but also Practice revising these sentences. 1. …for the round storage tanks. Therefore, between these or the rectangular tanks the latter design is

recommended.

2. Deck purlins and girders are a minimum of 3’ x 6’ and 2 ½’ x 5 ½’, respectively.

3. To insure that the proposed design would not only be safe but also usable well into the future the spread footing was evaluated for….

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B. Vague, wordy expressions. Practice revising these sentences to eliminate the wordy expressions. 1. The rainwater cistern was designed with the thought in mind that the size be determined from the

amount of focus that is going to be put on the rainwater catchment approach.

2. With proper care and maintenance the filters have potentially a long useful life of 5+ years.

C. Lists of items that do not have parallel structure. Practice revising these lists. It might be necessary to create new sentences. 1. Through education and proper use, this water treatment system is a viable solution for treatment of

water for total coliforms, fecal coliforms, streptococcus, E. coli and reduce turbidity.

2. Research into existing topography, hydrology including historical flood levels, sightlines and priority specimen locations, geotechnical properties of the soil and availability of construction access to sites along the creek would all be necessary.

D. Unclear reference with demonstratives (this, that, these, those). Practice revising these sentences. 1. Facilities to accommodate a bikeway in the form of a bicycle boulevard were included at 125th St. in

all design alternatives. This primarily took the form of restricting motor vehicle movements across…

2. Rapid sand filter design is based on a declining rate filter. This will eliminate severe fluctuations in the water height above the filtration bed and will not require the addition of a pump for backwashing.

For revisions, most of these sentences need a noun added after this. Think “this what?” Name it. If it is not easy to name, revise more extensively. E. Use of casual, conversational meanings of words rather than precise meanings. Practice revising these sentences. 1. The project area is dominated by light industry and commerce. At the same time, the project is

located a few blocks from residential areas.

2. The stream site has a drainage area of around 27 mi2 ….

3. It’s our feeling that…

4. A lot of driveways close to the intersection…

Also watch for slang (hot topic, big deal, etc.). F. Improper use of commas and periods.

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Joining sentences with a comma (the “comma splice”): 1. The glulam option is also cost effective, lumber is a local resource and relatively inexpensive as well

as easy to fabricate. Confusing use of commas with descriptors before a noun (often numbers): 2. During this investigation three, four inch, boreholes were hand augered to refusal. No commas after long introductory clauses and phrases (5 words or longer – use a comma): 3. If the elevations are found to be different this graph will be slightly different. G. Commonly misused words. it’s vs its: This location will not effectively serve it’s intended purpose… effect vs affect: The larger affect will likely be the geometric changes… H. Sloppy proofreading. Can you find the mistakes? 1. The questions that will to be addressed are the size, shape, and material for the storage facilities, the

quantity of pipe needing repair and the quantity of new piping needed.

2. The larges tank has a volume of 9121 gallons, the base slab is 11x11 feet and the height is 10 feet.

3. On the positive side of his project the soil capacity requirements are not as high as for the…

4. The Filtron system seem to fit the components that…

Proofreading Suggestions Always take the time to proofread. Even if you give your paper to a colleague or friend to proof, you should proof it first. Otherwise, you run the risk of appearing sloppy, uncaring, untrained, and disrespectful of others’ time. Thorough proofreading usually requires the following:

taking at least a short break before you begin proofing so you bring a fresh eye to the paper. reading a printed paper, not reading from the computer monitor. a technique to make you read every word; for example, you can read aloud, point to every word as

you read it, or start at the end of the paper and read sentences in their reverse order. multiple readings to catch different types of mistakes. For example, read once for parallel structure

in all lists, then read again for proper sentence punctuation, then again for demonstrative reference, etc. If you are working in a team, give each team member something to proof in the final report.

paying attention. Don’t let your mind wander.

GENERAL TIPS FOR IMPROVING YOUR WRITING 1. When you read over what you have written, read what is on the page, not what you know you meant.

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2. When drafts are returned to you by an instructor or senior engineer, analyze the marks and comments: What is the function of the change? Why does it matter? Ask if you can’t understand. (Most changes are not just your supervisor’s personal style; they have functions.)

3. For each new paper, do at least one round of editing specifically to catch the mistakes that were corrected in your last paper. Don’t make the same mistakes over and over; it wastes your time and the time of your instructor or the senior engineer who reviews your work.

4. Think of writing as a process, not just a product. a. Draft the paper (or your part of it). b. Revise for content and organization. c. Then revise to improve grammar and language. Repeat steps b & c as needed to improve

accuracy, precision, conciseness, and clarity. d. Edit for further accuracy in punctuation, vocabulary, and grammar usage. e. Proofread.

5. Have colleagues review your drafts. Review their drafts. For any documents whose audience includes non-engineers (e.g. proposals), have a non-engineer friend give you feedback.

Partial support for this material was provided by the National Science Foundation’s Course, Curriculum, and Laboratory Improvement Program under Award No. 0837776. All opinions, findings, and recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.

Suggested Answers to Revision Exercises 

 

Problem 1:  Dangling, Unclear Modifiers or Too Many Modifiers in One Sentence 

 

1.  After conversations with Jim Wheeler of the Geology Department, we anticipate the 100yr flood 

event will likely have a flowrate of approximately 2700 ft3/s… 

2.  Based on the annual water balance, we expect a consistent outflow during the months of November 

through April due to storm events. 

3.  For these soil properties and applied loads the factor of safety for bearing capacity is in excess of 42 

(see Appendix A), indicating that the ultimate strength limit state will not be a controlling issue 

4.  The construction cost increases for each of the alternatives presented above.  The cost for the 

prefabricated carbon steel storage tank alternative includes only the cost of the footing and 

installation. The bold‐together alternative requires footing construction and unskilled labor to put 

the plates together.  The  weld‐together option requires footing construction and skilled labor to 

weld the metal plates together. 

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Problem 2:  Use of Passive Voice When the Agent of the Action Is Important 

 

1.  The study team observed pedestrian activity near the intersection of X Ave, Y Ave, and Z Ave [more 

details ‐ for how long? at what time of day? etc.] .  The width and unusual geometry of Z Ave made 

pedestrian crossings difficult. [More specifics – what kind of difficulty was observed?]  We therefore 

recommend some form of crossing improvement to increase the safety of pedestrians.     

2.  According to Dr. Larry Simpson from a personal interview, the weakest soil in that area is silty sand…   

 

 

Analyze effective active and passive voice choices from practitioner reports 

1.  Due to slope stability considerations, we recommend that hillside excavation and wall construction 

be completed during the dry season…  Active voice.  Effective because the responsibility for the 

recommend is made very clear. 

2.  On August 15 and 19, 2003, we drilled five exploratory borings with a portable drill rig using solid 

stem auger techniques.  An additional boring was drilled September 18, 2003, northwest of the 

intersection using a trailer‐mounted drill rig.  These borings were drilled to provide data for 

retaining wall and signal pole foundation design.  The boreholes were drilled to depths ranging from 

±2 to 6 m. 

“We drilled” = active voice.  The others are passive voice.  The first sentence establishes the firm’s 

responsibility for the drilling.  After the first sentence, the borings themselves are the topic of 

interest and are “given” information established by the first sentences.  The agent does not need to 

be restated because it was established in the first sentence.  

3.  Our analysis assumes the drilled shafts will be constructed using reinforced concrete with… 

  “assumes” = active voice.  Effective because it makes clear who is responsible (“our” = belonging to 

the firm).  “Will be constructed” = passive voice.  Effective because the agent of this future action is 

unknown. 

4.  At your request, we visited the site of…           [from a memo]  Active voice. Effective for establishing 

responsibility and emphasizing the client‐consultant relationship. 

  Per your request, Firm XYZ has completed an investigation of…      [from a letter report] 

  Active voice. Effective for establishing responsibility and emphasizing the client‐consultant 

relationship though less impersonally than using “we have completed...” 

5.  The project is located at the junction of I‐404 and Hwy 222…  Passive voice. Effective because the 

agent is irrelevant or unknown. (Who knows who originally located the intersection where it is?) 

6.  According to the Bridge Engineering Baseline Report, this 184' long bridge was constructed in 1952…  

Passive voice.  Effective for 3 reasons: (1) the bridge is the topic of interest (2) the bridge has already 

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been mentioned and is there fore “given” information (3) the agent (the builder of the bridge) is 

irrelevant or unknown.  

 

Problem 3: Use of Absolutes, Superlatives and Other Untrue, Dangerous Words  

 

1.  This is the best design option.    the preferred design option 

2.  …the optimal location…         the preferred location 

3.  This is the only position that could guarantee all portions of the bridge would remain…  Of the three 

alternatives, this position has the greatest likelihood of keeping the bridge above water... 

4.  To insure that the proposed design would be safe…  To mitigate safety concerns [about what?], the 

preposed design... 

 

 

 

PART II.  PROBLEMS YOU CAN CORRECT ON YOUR OWN 

 

 

 

A.  Use of complex, confusing structures when simple alternatives are more effective. 

 

Practice revising these sentences. 

1.  …for the round storage tanks.  Therefore, between the two options, the rectangular tanks...  

2.  Deck purlins are a minimum of 3’ x 6’.  Girders are a minimum of  2 ½’ x 5 ½’. 

3.  To evaluate the proposed design for safety and utility well into the future, the spread footing was 

analyzed for…. 

 

B.  Vague, wordy expressions. 

 

Practice revising these sentences to eliminate the wordy expressions. 

1.  The rainwater cistern was designed with the thought in mind that the size be determined from the 

amount of focus that is going to be put on the rainwater catchment approach. 

The rainwater cistern was designed to meet the maximum size determined in the catchment analysis.  

[The writers’ idea is difficult to understand; you might have a very different revision, but it should be 

concise and unambiguous.] 

2.  According to the manufacturer, with proper care and maintenance the filters function for 5 or more 

years. 

 

C.  Lists of items that do not have parallel structure. 

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Practice revising these lists. It might be necessary to create new sentences. 

1.  Through education and proper use, this system is a viable solution for treatment of water for total 

coliforms, fecal coliforms, streptococcus, and E. coli. It will also reduce turbidity.   

2.  Research will be necessary in several areas:  existing topography;  hydrology, including historical 

flood levels; sightlines; priority specimen locations, geotechnical properties of the soil; and 

availability of construction access to sites along the creek.     

 

 

D.  Unclear reference with demonstratives (this, that, these, those). 

 

Practice revising these sentences. 

1.  Facilities to accommodate a bikeway in the form of a bicycle boulevard were included at 125th St. in 

all design alternatives.  These facilities primarily took the form of restricting motor vehicle 

movements across…  [“Facilities” may not be the appropriate term here and a larger revision is 

necessary.] 

2.  Rapid sand filter design is based on a declining rate filter. This design will eliminate severe 

fluctuations in the water height above the filtration bed and will not require the addition of a pump 

for backwashing.  

 

E.  Use of casual, conversational meanings of words rather than precise meanings. 

 

Practice revising these sentences. 

1.  The project area is dominated by light industry and commerce.  However, residential areas begin 

three blocks to the north and west.  

2.   The stream site has a drainage area of approximately 27 mi2 …. 

3.  It’s our feeling that…  We estimate... or According to our analysis... or many other possibilities but 

probably not just a “feeling,” which implies no analysis. 

4.  A lot of driveways close to the intersection…  Fifteen driveways are within __ feet of the 

intersection. [specify the number of feet] 

 

F.  Improper use of commas and periods. 

 

Joining sentences with a comma (the “comma splice”): 

1.  The glulam option is also cost effective; lumber is a local resource and relatively inexpensive and 

easy to fabricate.  Other alternatives:  a period + capital letter L, or connect with “because.” 

 

Confusing use of commas with descriptors before a noun (often numbers): 

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2.  During this investigation three  four inch, boreholes were hand augered to refusal. No comma after 

three 

 

No commas after long introductory clauses and phrases (5 words or longer – use a comma): 

3.  If the elevations are found to be different, this graph will be slightly different. 

 

G.  Commonly misused words.  

 

it’s vs its:  This location will not effectively serve its intended purpose… 

      it’s = it is 

      its = possessive 

effect vs affect:  The larger effect will likely be the geometric changes… 

      When used as a noun, “affect” means  

 

H.  Sloppy proofreading.  

 

Can you find the mistakes? 

1.  The questions that will to be addressed are the size, shape, and material for the storage facilities, 

the quantity of pipe needing repair and the quantity of new piping needed.   

2.  The larges tank has a volume of 9121 gallons, the base slab is 11x11 feet and the height is 10 feet. 

3.  On the positive side of his project the soil capacity requirements are not as high as for the… 

4.  The Filtron system seem to fit the components that…