ckd mnt module 3: complications
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DESCRIPTION
Who would have thought that declining kidney function could result in anemia and bone disease? Another case study is used to follow Joseph's journey as he tries to lose weight for placement on the kidney transplant list. He experiences CKD complications along the way, including anemia, hypoalbuminemia, hyperkalemia, metabolic acidosis, and bone disease. See how NKDEP's Your Kidney Test Results and individual nutrient handouts can be used as part of self-management education.TRANSCRIPT
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Module 3: Complications
Complications May Increase as Kidney Function Declines
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1. Use laboratory parameters to assess anemia in
chronic kidney disease (CKD)
2. Associate increased risk for hyperkalemia with
hyperglycemia and metabolic acidosis in CKD
3. Use and interpret laboratory parameters to assess
hypoalbuminemia in CKD
4. Use and interpret laboratory parameters to assess
metabolic acidosis in CKD
5. Use and interpret laboratory parameters to assess
CKD bone disorders
Participants will be able to:
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Fewer functioning nephrons may mean:
− Inadequate erythropoietin (anemia)
− Accumulation of potassium (K)
− Accumulation of hydrogen ion (metabolic acidosis)
− Inadequate activation of vitamin D (bone disease)
− Accumulation of phosphorus (P)
− Accumulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines
Toxins build up in the blood.
Complications increase as kidney function declines
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Complications may increase as estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) decreases
Reference: Adapted from USRDS 2010 Annual Data Report (NIDDK, 2010)
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Joseph is a 40-year-old man with numerous medical
issues, including morbid obesity and type 2
diabetes.
His eGFR is 21 mL/min/1.73 m2 at initial visit.
His urine protein-to-creatinine ratio (Up/Uc) is 6.6
grams/day.
Let’s meet Joseph
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Date Weight (lb) Blood pressure A1C Urine protein/urine creatinine (g/day)
2/16 310 140/82 10.5 6.6
4/6 306 128/80 9.0
5/20 299 135/80 8.0 5.6
6/22 296 128/83
7/29 293 127/80 7.7 3.0
Test Reference 2/16 4/6 6/22 7/29WBC 4.8-10.8 10.6 10.2 12.6 H 11.8 HRBC 4.7-6.1 3.83 L 3.7 L 3.82 L 3.93 LHGB 14-18 10.5 L 10.3 L 10.6 L 10.9 LHCT 42-52 30.3 L 29.9 L 30.8 L 31.6 LMCV 80-94 80.6 80.9 80.7 80.2MCH 28-32 27.8 L 27.9 L 27.8 L 27.8 LMCHC 32-36 34.6 34.5 34.5 34.6RDW 11.5-14.5 14.5 14.8 H 14.6 H 15.1 HPLT 140-440 398 335 332 377
Joseph: The man with many complications
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Joseph: The man with many complications
Test Reference 2/16 4/6 5/20 6/22 7/29Glucose 70. -100 301 174 H 103 H 174 H 157 HBUN 7-18 72 H 58 H 69 H 88 H 87 HCreatinine 0.8-1.3 3.5 H 3.4 H 3.5 H 4.0 H 4.6 HeGFR > 60 21 22 21 18 15Sodium 135-145 136 140 139 136 138Potassium 3.5- 5.0 5.0 4.7 5.3 H 5.5 H 4.9 Chloride 101-111 108 110 111 104 108CO2 21-32 20.2 L 23.8 18.0 L 16.2 L 18.5 LPhosphorus 2.5-4.9 4.8 4.2 5.2 H 5.3 HCalcium 8.5-10.0 7.4 L 8.3 L 8.1 L 8.0 L 8.1 LAlbumin 3.5-5.0 3.1 L 3.0 L 3.2 L 3.3 L 3.5 Cholesterol 0-200 155 - - - -Triglyceride 30-200 214 - - - -HDL 35 26 - - - -LDL 0-170 86.2 - - - -
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Anemia
Hyperkalemia
Hypoalbuminemia
− Marker for malnutrition and/or inflammation
Metabolic acidosis
Mineral and bone disorders
Topics
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You may want to download this PDF to use with this module.
Reference: http://www.nkdep.nih.gov/resources/nkdep-kidney-test-results-508.pdf
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ANEMIA
Anemia may start early in the course of CKD due to inadequate erythropoietin synthesis
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Anemia may develop as eGFR declines
Reference: Adapted from USRDS Annual Data Report (NIDDK, 2009)
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Anemia may develop as a result of inadequate
erythropoietin synthesis.
May develop early and worsens as CKD progresses.
May develop earlier in people with diabetes.
May involve inadequate iron intake or impaired iron
absorption as well.
Anemia is a complication of CKD
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Joseph’s anemia worsened as eGFR declined; treatment improved Hgb levels
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Decreased responsiveness to erythropoietin
Uremia
Chronic inflammation
Severe hyperparathyroidism
Folate deficiency
Additional factors for anemia in CKD
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Observational data show association with:
Coronary artery disease
Hospitalization for cardiac disease
Death from congestive heart failure
All-cause mortality
Left ventricular hypertrophy
Anemia in CKD is associated with morbidity and mortality
Reference: Toto. Kidney Int 2003; 64(suppl 87):S20–S23.
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Renal tissue hypoxia triggers erythropoietin
production.
Erythropoietin stimulates erythrocyte (red blood cell)
synthesis in bone marrow.
Hemoglobin is the primary iron-containing protein in
erythrocytes that transports and delivers oxygen to
tissues.
Both erythropoietin and iron are required to produce
hemoglobin (Hgb) and correct hypoxia.
Kidneys act as oxygen sensors in the body
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Iron transport and storage
Reference: http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/hemochromatosis/training/pathophysiology/iron_cycle_popup.htm
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Increased absorption with:
− Decreased iron stores (ferritin)
− Increased erythropoiesis
− Anemia (low hemoglobin)
− Hypoxia
− Absence of inflammatory cytokines
Reduced absorption with:
− Inflammation or infection
Many factors influence iron absorption
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Both a spontaneous decrease in intake and aversion
to foods with protein may occur as eGFR declines.
Hepcidin may accumulate in CKD.
− Hepcidin is the hormone that controls iron levels.
− This hormone regulates iron absorption in the gut and
mobilization of stored iron.
Inflammation may reduce absorption of iron.
Additional factors for inadequate iron in CKD
References: Kopple et al. Kidney Int 2000; 57(4):1688–1703; Young et al. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2009;4(8):1384–1387.
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Serum iron
− Measures ferric iron (Fe+3)
− Decreases with iron deficiency and inflammation
Total iron-binding capacity (TIBC)
− TIBC measures serum transferrin after saturation of all
available binding sites with iron.
Tends to be increased with iron deficiency
Tends to be decreased with chronic inflammation
− More than 400 g/dL indicates storage iron depletion.
Assessing iron status
Reference: http://www.cdc.gov/nutritionreport/report.html
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Transferrin saturation (TSAT)
− Transferrin transports iron
− Ratio of serum iron/TIBC x 100 = TSAT
− Early functional iron deficiency: < 16% may indicate
iron-deficiency anemia in general population (IOM)
Ferritin
− Storage iron
− Acute phase reactant (acute & chronic inflammation)
− Depleted stores: < 12 ng/mL may indicate iron
depletion in general population (Institute of Medicine)
Assessing iron status
Reference: http://www.cdc.gov/nutritionreport/pdf/nutrition_report.pdf
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Complete blood count (CBC)
− Hemoglobin (Hgb)
Iron indices
− Transferrin saturation
Iron available for erythropoiesis
− Ferritin
Storage iron
Anemia of CKD is usually normochromic and
normocytic.
Laboratory assessment for anemia in CKD
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Iron supplementation
− Oral
− Intravenous (parenteral)
Possible oxidant
Erythropoiesis-stimulating agents (ESAs)
− Injectable
Possible interventions to treat anemia in CKD
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A 325 mg dose of:
− Ferrous fumarate has 108 mg elemental iron.
− Ferrous sulfate has 65 mg elemental iron.
− Ferrous gluconate has 35 mg elemental iron.
Absorption: Ferrous+2 iron > ferric+3 iron
Amount of elemental iron differs between oral iron supplements
Reference: http://www.anemia.org A Physician’s Guide to Oral Iron Supplementation. Nov 2008.
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Food reduces iron absorption by 40–66%.
Amount absorbed decreases as dose increases.
Multiple doses may be needed.
CDC recommends 50–60 mg elemental iron twice
daily for nonpregnant adults.
Fewer side effects occur with extended release
forms, but less is absorbed.
Oral iron supplements are poorly absorbed
Reference: http://www.anemia.org A Physician’s Guide to Oral Iron Supplementation. Nov 2008.
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More than 25% of people experience side effects:
− Nausea
− Vomiting
− Constipation
− Diarrhea
− Dark-colored stools
− Abdominal distress
About 20% of people discontinue supplements due
to side effects.
Oral iron supplements have gastrointestinal side effects
Reference: http://www.anemia.org A Physician’s Guide to Oral Iron Supplementation. Nov 2008.
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Tips on oral iron supplements
Reference: http://www.anemia.org A Physician’s Guide to Oral Iron Supplementation. Nov 2008.
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Calcium supplements may be prescribed with meals
to bind dietary phosphorus.
− Calcium may interfere with iron absorption.
Indications of when to take iron supplements:
− Iron absorption is increased when supplement is taken
between meals and separate from phosphate binders.
− If person is already taking multiple medications,
supplement increases complexity of regimen.
Take iron supplement separate from calcium-based phosphate binders
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Free iron is toxic.
Parenteral iron is transported on iron-carbohydrate
complexes:
− Dextran (may increase risk of anaphylaxis)
− Sucrose
− Gluconate
− Oligosaccharide
Carbohydrates may “shield” body from oxidation,
allowing safe delivery of the iron.
Parenteral iron may be used, more common in dialysis
Reference: Zager, Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2006; 1(suppl 1):S24–S31.
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Iron is a potent oxidant.
Parenteral iron may injure renal tubules.
Iron may increase risk of infection.
Parenteral iron may suppress phagocytosis of
bacteria.
Risks with parenteral iron
References: Zager et al. Kidney Int 2004; 66(1):144–156; Zager, Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2006; 1(suppl 1):S24–S31;
Hörl, J Am Soc Nephrol 2007; 18(2):382–393.
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Genetically engineered forms of erythropoietin
Injectable medication
Approved in 1989 to treat anemia in end-stage renal
disease (ESRD)
Must advise patient of risks and benefits
Erythropoiesis-stimulating agents (ESAs) are available
Reference:http://www.fda.gov/drugs/drugsafety/postmarketdrugsafetyinformationforpatientsandproviders/ucm200297.htm
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Therapy may include ESAs to increase red blood cell
production and prevent need for transfusion. ESAs may be
beneficial, although their exact role is still being defined.
FDA black box warning for ESAs was released as a result of
recent trials which showed an increased risk for stroke,
blood clot, heart attack, and death when ESAs were
prescribed to achieve higher Hgb goals (> 12 g/dL).
FDA requires a Medication Guide explaining the risks and
benefits of ESAs be provided to all patients receiving ESAs.
Treating the anemia of CKD with ESAs
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40-year-old male with DM 2 since 1997
His eGFR is 21 at initial visit
Severe kidney damage
− Heavy proteinuria
Urine protein/urine creatinine ratio = 6.6 g/day
All protein lost in the urine, not just albumin
Morbidly obese
− BMI 45.8 (initial), height 69”
− Going to weight-loss classes at endocrinologist’s office
Referred due to history of hyperkalemia
− Instructed at nephrologist’s office on potassium restriction
Joseph is trying to lose weight to get on kidney transplant list, wants to walk more
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Food and beverage intake
Two meals/day. Working on eating lower potassium foods. Breakfast: 3 eggs, 1–2 slices dry toast, sugar-free beverage. Supper: fast foods. Cut out iced tea, added regular lemon-lime pop or diet cola. Eating more rice, noodles, and fewer potatoes. Snacks on salted jerky or corn chips.
Medications FeSO4 325 mg BID ordered, not taking, on “too many medications”; lisinopril 80 mg, knows this makes potassium higher. Endocrinologist stopped pioglitazone and glyburide; now 50 units glargine at bedtime. Reports postprandials < 150, were 200–300. Started 0.25 mcg calcitriol last month.
Diet order/ experience
1,700–2,000 Kcal, 96 g protein (per endocrinologist where he attends weight-loss classes); potassium restriction instruction at nephrologist’s office. No sodium restriction per patient and wife.
Physical activity Played football in high school. Not active now. Lives at high altitude. Short of breath when walked down hall to office. Very fatigued, wants to walk more.
Height & weight Height 69”, weight 310#, down 25 # since Sept. BMI = 45.8.
Assessment (2/16)
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Biochemical data
eGFR 21, Up/Uc 6.6, K 5.0, Hgb 10.5, TSAT 19, ferritin 134. A1C 10.5. 25(OH)D 9, intact parathyroid hormone (iPTH) 207, Ca 7.4 (corrected 8.1), P 4.8, Alb 3.1.
Personal history
40-year-old male, studying criminology at the university. No tobacco or alcohol use.
Patient history Patient’s chief nutrition complaint: “Miserable” due to too few calories in current diet. Dislikes limiting potassium. DM 2 for over 13 years. Blood pressure 142/80 today.
Social history Wife is trying to lose weight too. Both attend university; up late with homework. Easier to grab fast food. Wife is struggling with potassium restriction; she tries to eat what he eats.
Assessment (2/16) Continued
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Inadequate iron intake is related to non-
adherence to iron supplementation, as evidenced by
not taking FeSO4 and TSAT level.
Nutrition-related knowledge deficit is related to
lack of knowledge about need for sodium restriction
evidenced by fast food intake, salted snacks.
Diagnoses
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Nutrition education: Role of kidney disease in anemia;
why treating anemia may help with ability to exercise for
weight loss; need for FeSO4; may be prescribed ESAs in
the future; role of sodium in controlling blood pressure
and CKD. Gave him NKDEP’s Sodium handout and used
Your Kidney Test Results to show lab results.
Goal: Take 325 mg FeSO4 with breakfast and supper as
prescribed. Begin reading Nutrition Facts for sodium
information. Choose foods with less sodium.
Collaborate with other providers in regard to his CKD.
Intervention
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Joseph developed anemia; he was treated with oral iron and ESAs
Iron Studies
Reference Anemia 2/16 5/22
% Sat > 20% < 16% 19 20
Ferritin 80–270mcg/L
< 12 mcg/L
134 134
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Monitor hemoglobin levels (CBC)
Assess iron status prior to use of supplements
− Transferrin saturation
− Ferritin
May need iron supplementation
− May be most effective between meals
May receive ESAs
May receive parenteral iron
Summary: Anemia of CKD
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HYPERKALEMIA
Potassium excretion is regulated by the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system
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Serum potassium may increase as eGFR decreases
Reference: Adapted from USRDS Annual Data Report (NIDDK, 2009)
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Potassium balance
− Transcellular shifts
Hyperkalemia
− Serum K ≥ 5.0 mEq/L
− Interventions
Topics
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Joseph’s diet and medications play a role in his hyperkalemia, but it’s not the entire story
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Serum potassium levels affect muscle functioning
Hypokalemia
− Cardiac arrhythmias
− Muscle weakness
− Glucose intolerance
Hyperkalemia
− Cardiac arrhythmias
− Muscle weakness
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The reference range for serum potassium level is
3.5–5.0 mEq/L.
Susceptibility to hyperkalemia depends on calcium
level and other factors determining transmembrane
potential.
Cardiac arrhythmias and cardiac arrest are possible
if severe hyperkalemia is not recognized and
treated.
Hyperkalemia is potentially life threatening
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About 85% of dietary potassium is absorbed.
Proximal tubules reabsorb 70–80% of K.
Potassium secretion occurs in distal tubule and
collecting duct and may be an “adaptation” to high
intake.
A small amount may be excreted in the feces.
Potassium balance involves the kidneys
Reference: Gennari & Segal, Kidney Int 2002; 62(1):1–9.
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Activation of RAAS increases potassium excretion via
aldosterone.
Medications that inhibit RAAS increase risk for
hyperkalemia.
Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) affects potassium excretion
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98% of potassium is intracellular.
− 75% in muscles
2% is extracellular (65–70 mEq).
Transcellular electrical potential generated by
sodium-potassium exchange is responsible for
voltage gradient across cell membranes.
Gradient difference is needed for muscle and nerve
function.
K shifts between intracellular and extracellular compartments
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Insulin concentration and hyperglycemia
− Insulin moves potassium into cells.
− Insulin deficiency may lead to hyperkalemia.
Acid-base status
− Metabolic acidosis (excessive hydrogen ion in plasma)
may drive potassium out of cells, as hydrogen ion is
buffered intracellularly.
Factors affecting potassium shifts between compartments
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Control hyperglycemia with adequate insulin.
− Potassium follows glucose into the cells.
Treating acidosis may lower serum potassium.
− Treatment may allow continued use of blood pressure
medications that help lower urine albumin.
− Dietary protein may play a role here.
Treating hyperglycemia and acidemia may lower serum potassium
Reference: Palmer, N Engl J Med 2004; 351(6):585–592
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Impaired K excretion
− ACEi
− ARBs
− K+-sparing diuretics
− Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
− Tacrolimus or cyclosporine (anti-rejection medication
for transplant)
Medication-induced hyperkalemia is a concern in CKD
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Specific level of eGFR does not determine need for
potassium restriction.
Restrict dietary potassium to help achieve and
maintain safe level.
Level of potassium restriction should be
individualized.
Potassium restriction is not indicated in the absence of hyperkalemia
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Metabolic acidosis may result in K moving out of the
cells to maintain electroneutrality.
His nephrologist changed medications:
− Stopped the angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor
(ACEi), and is trying an angiotensin receptor blocker (ARB)
− Added loop diuretic
− Added sodium bicarbonate as base to treat the low serum
bicarbonate
Joseph’s potassium may be elevated due to transcellular shifts
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Treating metabolic acidosis may have helped lower Joseph’s serum potassium
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Food/beverage intake
Still eating 3 eggs, 1–2 slices of dry white toast. Added “small” lunch―regular burger, apple. Dinner: green beans, rice, small piece of meat. Fewer fast foods and salted snacks. Drinking diet beverage with potassium acesulfame in office.
Diet experience Using recipes from cooking classes. Still hard to follow K restriction. Very happy weight < 300#. Wife is helping with Na restriction.
Physical activity Walking 10–15 minutes/day with wife; less shortness of breath
Height & weight Height 69”, weight 296#
Biochemical data eGFR 18 (stable), Up/Ucr 5.6 (), K 5.5 (), CO2 16.2 (), Hgb 10.6 (improved), iron studies next month. Ca 8.0 (corrected 8.5), P 5.2. Vitamin D and intact parathyroid hormone (iPTH) drawn today.
Patient history Darbopoeitin injections continue. Saw nephrologist last week. Lisinopril discontinued; added losartan 50 mg, furosemide 80 mg and sodium bicarbonate 650 mg BID. Blood pressure 138/85 today. Has dental appointment tomorrow for tooth extraction.
Reassessment (6/30) Met goals: Taking FeSO4 BID. No GI upset. Feels less fatigue, trying to walk more. Iron studies pending. Choosing foods with less sodium.
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Altered nutrition-related laboratory value:
elevated K due to reduced renal excretion,
medication, and acidosis.
Decreased need for dietary phosphorus related
to reduced renal excretion and enhanced absorption
with use of active vitamin D (calcitriol) evidenced by
elevated serum level.
Diagnosis
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Used Your Kidney Test Results to show improved
hemoglobin.
Reviewed dietary potassium; sodium bicarbonate may help
lower serum level.
Started discussing phosphorus, binders and calcitriol.
Gave him Phosphorus and How to Read a Food Label
handouts.
Goals: Read ingredient lists for added phosphorus and
potassium. Choose foods without added P and K. Take new
medications as prescribed.
Intervention: Nutrition education
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HYPOALBUMINEMIA
Serum albumin is a marker for nutritional status and inflammation
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Serum albumin
Hypoalbuminemia
− Inflammation
− Poor oral intake
Metabolic acidosis and hypoalbuminemia
Topics
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Joseph’s hypoalbuminemia improved with various interventions
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Very little albumin crosses glomerular basement
membrane normally.
Most is reabsorbed by the tubule.
Damaged kidneys allow albumin to cross the
filtration barrier into the urine.
The level of albumin in the urine may exceed
tubule’s capacity to reabsorb the protein.
Review: Renal handling of albumin
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Maintains oncotic pressure and blood volume
Acts as buffer
Binds (some examples):
− Calcium, magnesium
− Hormones
− Vitamins (e.g., A, riboflavin, B6, C, and folate)
− Medications (e.g., furosemide)
Serum albumin is a marker for nutritional status and
inflammation
Serum albumin
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Serum albumin ≥ 4.0 g/dL at initiation of dialysis is
associated with reduced mortality risk.
Only 11% of new dialysis patients had serum
albumin ≥ 4.0 g/dL (1999–2005).
Serum albumin level at dialysis initiation is an independent risk factor for mortality
Reference: Adapted from Kaysen et al. J Renal Nutr 2008; 18(4):323–331.
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Inflammation
− Acute or chronic, e.g., foot ulcer, infected tooth
Albuminuria
Metabolic acidosis
Insulin resistance
Spontaneous decrease in intake in CKD, particularly
for foods high in protein
Hypoalbuminemia in CKD is multifactorial
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Low serum albumin in CKD is associated with inflammation
Reference: Eustace et al. Kidney Int 2004; 65(3):1031–1040.
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Joseph’s weight loss and lower sodium intake may have helped improve albumin
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Dental extraction and treating metabolic acidosis may have helped improve
Joseph’s albumin
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Reassessment (7/29)Met goal: Reading labels for phosphorus and potassium. Dislikes diuretic, plans when to take; if he has class, takes later in the day.
Note: Improved fluid balance with diuretic also may have affected albumin level.
Diet experience Feeling more confident with sodium, potassium, and calorie restrictions. Surprised about all the added phosphorus in foods.
Medications Nephrologist added calcium acetate 667 mg with meals 2 weeks ago. Glad he knew why he had to take it.
Physical activity
Not walking as often (summer term).
Height & weight Height 69”, weight 293#, down 3# since last month.
Labs eGFR 18 (stable), K 4.9 (improved), CO2 18.5 (low but improved), P 5.3 (), Ca 8.1, (corrected 8.5), 25(OH)D 25, iPTH 130; Alb 3.5, was 3.3 last month.
Patient history Dentist extracted 2 teeth last month, no problems chewing. Blood pressure 136/85. Tearful when discussing eGFR, possible need for dialysis before getting on transplant list. Still not ready to make decision about dialysis option.
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Altered nutrient-related laboratory value:
Elevated phosphorus; just started phosphorus-
binding medication 2 weeks ago.
NCP diagnosis
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Nutrition education: Used Your Kidney Test Results to
re-explain why nephrologist is discussing dialysis
options. Discussed diet requirements for different
treatment options.
Goals: Continue sodium, potassium, phosphorus
restrictions. Continue medications as prescribed,
including calcium acetate with meals (phosphorus
binder).
Intervention
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Reduce inflammation, treat infections
Serum albumin ≥ 4.0 g/dL at initiation of dialysis
associated with lower risk of mortality
Control blood pressure to slow progression
Provide adequate protein and calories
Treat metabolic acidosis
− Eating less protein may reduce acid load.
− Physician may prescribe medication to treat.
Summary: Hypoalbuminemia in CKD
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METABOLIC ACIDOSIS
A serum bicarbonate level < 22 mEq/L may indicate metabolic acidosis
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Serum bicarbonate may decrease as eGFR decreases
Reference: Adapted from USRDS Annual Data Report (NIDDK, 2009)
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Metabolic acidosis (chronic)
Possible adverse effects of metabolic acidosis
Interventions
Topics
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Acid production exceeds acid loss
CO2 + H2O HCO3 + H+
The reference range for serum HCO3 is
21–28 mEq/L.
Maintaining normal serum HCO3 may be beneficial.
Metabolic acidosis = excessive hydrogen ions in the blood
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Tubules reabsorb filtered HCO3 and synthesize HCO3
to neutralize acid load.
− About 80–85% is reabsorbed within the proximal
tubules.
Patients with CKD have fewer functioning nephrons.
− Less hydrogen ion (acid) is excreted.
− Capacity to reabsorb and synthesize HCO3 is reduced.
− Condition may lead to chronic metabolic acidosis.
Kidney tubules help maintain normal acid-base balance
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Accelerates muscle degradation
Reduces albumin synthesis
Exacerbates pre-existing bone disease
May impair glucose tolerance due to interference
with insulin actions
May accelerate CKD progression
May stimulate inflammation
Chronic metabolic acidosis
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Endogenous acid production correlates to animal
protein intake, primarily due to the catabolism of
sulfur-containing amino acids.
Fruit and vegetables are not sources of acid load.
Reducing dietary protein may result in increasing
bicarbonate levels.
Animal protein may be a source of acid load
References: Remer & Manz, J Am Diet Assoc 1995; 95(7):791–797; Gennari et al. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2006; 1(1):52–57
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Adequate, not excessive, intake of animal protein
Supplemental base may be prescribed to balance
the acid
Sodium bicarbonate may be prescribed,
650 mg tablet has 179 mg sodium
Re-emphasize dietary salt restriction, if used
May require higher dose of diuretic
Interventions for chronic metabolic acidosis
Reference: Kraut & Madias, Nat Rev Nephrol 2010; 6(5):274–285
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Treating metabolic acidosis may have helped improve Joseph’s albumin
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Serum bicarbonate (HCO3) level < 22 mEq/L may
indicate metabolic acidosis.
Animal protein may increase acid load.
Reducing protein may increase serum HCO3.
Supplemental base may be prescribed to treat.
Sodium bicarbonate will increase sodium intake.
Review salt restriction, if prescribed.
Treatment may improve serum albumin levels.
Summary: Metabolic acidosis
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CKD MINERAL AND BONE DISORDERS
Kidneys fail to maintain serum calcium and phosphorus levels
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CKD bone disorders
Vitamin D
Phosphorus
Calcium
Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
Fibroblastic growth factor-23 (FGF-23)
Topics
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Lower serum calcium, higher serum phosphorus may be seen as eGFR declines
Reference: Adapted from USRDS Annual Data Report (NIDDK, 2009)
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Systemic disorder of mineral and bone metabolism
due to CKD is identified by:
− Abnormalities of calcium, phosphorus, PTH, or vitamin
D metabolism
− Abnormalities in bone turnover, mineralization,
volume, linear growth, or strength
− Vascular or other soft-tissue calcification
CKD mineral and bone disorders
Reference: Kidney International (suppl 113), 2009
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Joseph’s kidneys failed to maintain serum calcium and phosphorus levels
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High bone turnover disease
− Also known as secondary hyperparathyroidism
Low bone turnover disease
− Adynamic
May be seen more frequently with diabetes
− Osteomalacia
Mixed bone disease
− Features of both high and low types
A range of bone disorders occur in CKD
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Bone biopsy is the gold standard for diagnosing bone disease in CKD
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Serum levels of calcium, phosphorus, intact
parathyroid hormone (iPTH), and alkaline phosphatase
(alk phos) vary by type of bone disease.
− Secondary hyperparathyroidism may see:
Elevated Ca, P, iPTH, alk phos
− Adynamic bone disease may see:
Normal or elevated Ca and P; normal to low iPTH and
alk phos
− Osteomalacia may see:
Elevated Ca; normal or elevated P, iPTH, alk phos
Laboratory indicators in bone disease
Reference: Martin & Gozalez, J Am Soc Nephrol 2007; 18(3):875–885.
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1,25(OH)2 D
Calcium
Phosphorus
Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
Fibroblastic growth factor-23 (FGF-23)
Bone disease results from complex interactions
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7-dehydrocholesterol
D2
Ergocalciferol(plants)
D3
Cholecalciferol (animals)
Ultraviolet B
D3
Liver
25(OH)D
Kidneys
1,25(OH)2 D(Calcitriol)
1-alpha-hydroxylase
25-hydroxylase
Major form in circulation, used to assess status
The kidneys activate vitamin D
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The major circulating form of vitamin D is 25(OH)D.
The “adequate” level is > 20 ng/mL
(> 50 nmol/L).
Levels for CKD have not been established.
25(OH)D is used to assess vitamin D status
Reference: Institute of Medicine (November 2010)
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Kidneys
− 1-alpha-hydroxylase enzyme in tubules stimulates
conversion of 25(OH)D to 1,25 (OH)2 D
− 1,25 (OH)2 D enhances tubular calcium reabsorption
Intestines
− 1,25 (OH)2 D increases calcium absorption and
increases phosphorus absorption
Bone formation
− 1,25 (OH)2 D increases calcium deposition
Calcitriol helps maintain serum calcium levels
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Calcium-sensing receptors are located in the
parathyroid gland.
Low serum calcium stimulates PTH secretion from
the parathyroid.
PTH stimulates the 1-alpha-hydroxylase enzyme in
the tubule increasing 1,25(OH)2D which enhances
calcium absorption.
PTH increases calcium resorption from bone.
Parathyroid hormone helps maintain serum calcium levels
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PTH reduces phosphorus reabsorption and increases
phosphorus excretion by tubule.
Serum phosphorus may remain in the normal range
as a result of higher PTH levels.
PTH stimulates phosphorus excretion
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Normal serum level is thought to be < 65 pg/dL.
Levels vary by kidney function and type of bone
disease.
iPTH is not standardized, and levels may not be
comparable.
Intact PTH (iPTH) may be used to monitor PTH levels
Reference: Martin & Gozalez, J Am Soc Nephrol 2007; 18(3):875–885.
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FGF-23 is produced by bone osteoclasts and
osteoblasts and is stimulated by high serum
phosphorus levels.
FGF-23 inhibits 1,25(OH)2D formation, which
decreases intestinal P absorption.
FGF-23 increases urinary phosphorus excretion.
Serum phosphorus is within “normal range.”
FGF-23 may maintain serum phosphorus levels
Reference: Ramon et al. Eur J Endocrinol 2010; 162(1):1–10.
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CKD-MBD: Complex interactions involving numerous systems
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Normal serum level: 8.5–10.2 mg/dL
40% transported on albumin
If hypoalbuminemia, use corrected calcium
Corrected calcium (mg/dL) =
serum calcium (mg/d) + 0.8(4.0 – serum albumin g/dL)
Correct calcium for albumin level
Reference: http://www.mdcalc.com/calcium-correction-for-hypoalbuminemia
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Serum Ca 8.0
Serum albumin 3.0
Corrected calcium (mg/dL) = serum calcium (mg/dL)
+ 0.8(4.0 – serum albumin g/dL)
Corrected calcium = 8.0 + 0.8 (4.0 – 3.0) = 8.8
Example of calculation to correct calcium
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Activity: Corrected calcium
Serum calcium
Serum albumin
Corrected calcium
7.4 2.3 -
8.1 2.9 -
8.3 3.0 -
Corrected calcium (mg/dL) =
serum calcium (mg/dL) + 0.8(4.0 – serum albumin g/dL)
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Phosphorus restriction
Adequate, not excessive protein
Phosphorus-binding medication
− Usually calcium-based salts in CKD
Vitamin D (CKD) and vitamin D analogs
Interventions for bone disease in CKD
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Phosphorus absorption differs between food sources.
− Food additives > animal sources > plant sources
Reducing dietary protein reduces phosphorus.
Phosphorus food additives can be identified by
reading ingredient list for phosphorus.
− Limit or avoid these foods.
Phosphorus in plants is not well absorbed due to
phytates (last ones to limit).
Dietary phosphorus restriction may be beneficial
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Calcium carbonate
− 40% elemental calcium
− 1,250 mg tablet = 500 mg elemental calcium
Calcium acetate
− 25% elemental calcium
− 667 mg capsule = 169 mg elemental calcium
Calcium citrate
− NOT RECOMMENDED for CKD because of risk for
increased aluminum absorption.
Calcium-based phosphorus binders
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Sevalemer bicarbonate
− Resin
− May also help lower low-density lipoprotein (LDL), increase
HCO3 level
− Expensive
Lanthanum carbonate
− Rare earth metal
− Expensive
Aluminum hydroxide
− Not recommended, used rarely
Other phosphorus binders are commonly used in dialysis
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CKD
− Ergocalciferol
50,000 IU weekly
− Cholecalciferol
End-stage renal disease (ESRD)
− Calcitriol (risk for hypercalcemia and
hyperphosphatemia)
− Vitamin D analogs
Alfacalcidol (1-hydroxyvitamin D3)
Doxercalciferol (1-hydroxyvitamin D2)
Paricalcitol (19-nor-1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3)
Vitamin D supplements
Reference: Palmer et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2009; October 7(4);CD008175.
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- Normal Levels Notes
Calcium 8.5–10.2 mg/dL If hypoalbuminemia, use corrected calcium Corrected Ca = serum Ca + 0.8(4.0 – serum albumin)
Phosphorus 2.7–4.6 mg/dL Phosphorus restriction• Adequate protein, not excessive intake
Phosphorus-binding medication with meals• Calcium based • Non-calcium based
25(OH)D > 20 ng/mL Ergocalciferol (D2)Cholecalficerol (D3)
iPTH < 65 pg/dL Assess levelVitamin D suppresses PTHPhosphorus restriction
Bone disease results from complex interactions
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Using corrected calcium makes a difference when assessing Joseph’s Ca levels
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As vitamin D increased, iPTH decreased
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Supplemental vitamin D may increase phosphorus absorption
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Vitamin D may lower iPTH.
Vitamin D increases calcium absorption and may be
discontinued with hypercalcemia.
Vitamin D increases phosphorus absorption and may
be discontinued with hyperphosphatemia.
Active vitamin D increases risk for hypercalcemia and hyperphosphatemia
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Different types of renal bone diseases
− High turnover, low turnover, mixed
25(OH)D and iPTH levels
− Inversely related to each other
Serum phosphorus normal until advanced CKD
− May need dietary phosphorus restriction
− May need phosphate binders with meals
Summary: Bone disease in CKD
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Anemia (inadequate erythropoietin)
− Monitor hemoglobin, transferrin saturation, ferritin
− May be treated with oral or parenteral iron;
erythropoietic-stimulating agents
− Take oral iron supplements at different times than
phosphate-binding medications
Hyperkalemia
− May involve dietary intake, use of medications that
block the RAAS, and transcellular shifts
− Limit dietary potassium when serum level elevated
Take-home messages: Complications increase as kidney function declines
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Hypoalbuminemia
− Marker indicates nutritional status and inflammation.
− Serum albumin > 4.0 g/dL at times of initiation of dialysis
reduces risk of mortality.
− Treating metabolic acidosis may improve serum albumin.
Metabolic acidosis
− Maintaining normal serum HCO3 > 22 mEq/L may be
beneficial.
− Animal protein may be a source of metabolic acid.
− Condition may be treated with base such as sodium
bicarbonate.
Take-home messages: Complications increase as kidney function declines
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Mineral and bone disorders
− Inadequate activation of Vitamin D
Check 25(OH)D
May be treated with supplemental vitamin D
− Increases both calcium and phosphorus absorption
− May be discontinued with hypercalcemia,
hyperphosphatemia
− Accumulation of phosphorus
iPTH and FGF-23 enhance excretion
May need phosphorus restriction
May need phosphate binders with meals
Take-home messages: Complications increase as kidney function declines
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You may find this helpful when you counsel patients
Reference: http://nkdep.nih.gov/resources/nkdep-kidney-test-results-508.pdf
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You may find this guide helpful
Reference: http://www.nkdep.nih.gov/resources/nkdep-ckd-amt-guide-508.pdf
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If you think you are overwhelmed…consider the
person with CKD!
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This professional development opportunity was created by the National Kidney Disease Education Program (NKDEP), an initiative of the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases of the National Institutes of Health. With the goal of reducing the burden of chronic kidney disease (CKD), especially among communities most impacted by the disease, NKDEP works in collaboration with a range of government, nonprofit, and health care organizations to:
• raise awareness among people at risk for CKD about the need for testing;
• educate people with CKD about how to manage their disease;
• provide information, training, and tools to help health care providers better detect and treat CKD; and
• support changes in the laboratory community that yield more accurate, reliable, and accessible test results.
To learn more about NKDEP, please visit: http://www.nkdep.nih.gov. For additional materials from NIDDK, please visit: http://www.niddk.nih.gov.
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Theresa A. Kuracina, M.S., R.D., C.D.E., L.N.
Ms. Kuracina is the lead author of the American Dietetic Association’s CKD Nutrition Management Training Certificate Program and NKDEP’s nutrition resources for managing patients with CKD.Ms. Kuracina has more than 20 years of experience in clinical dietetics with the Indian Health Service (IHS). She is a senior clinical consultant with the National Kidney Disease Education Program (NKDEP) at the National Institutes of Health. She also serves as a diabetes dietitian and coordinator for a diabetes self-management education program at the IHS Albuquerque Indian Health Center in New Mexico, a role in which she routinely counsels patients who have CKD.
Meet our Presenters
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Andrew S. Narva, M.D., F.A.C.P.
Dr. Narva is the director of the National Kidney Disease Education Program (NKDEP) at the National Institutes of Health (NIH). Prior to joining NIH in 2006, he served for 15 years as the Chief Clinical Consultant for Nephrology for the Indian Health Service (IHS). Via telemedicine from NIH, he continues to provide care for IHS patients who have chronic kidney disease. A highly recognized nephrologist and public servant, Dr. Narva has served as a member of the Medical Review Board of ESRD Network 15 and as chair of the Minority Outreach Committee of the National Kidney Foundation (NKF). He serves on the NKF Kidney Disease Outcomes Quality Initiative Work Group on Diabetes in Chronic Diabetes and is a member of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure 8 Expert Panel.
Meet our Presenters
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American Dietetic Association. International Dietetics and Nutrition Terminology (IDNT) Reference Manual. Standardized Language for the Nutrition Care Process. 3rd ed. Chicago, IL: American Dietetic Association; 2011.
A physician’s guide to oral iron supplements. National Anemia Action Council website. http://www.anemia.org/professionals/feature-articles/content.php?contentid=306§ionid=15 November 2008. Accessed June 14, 2011.
Besarab A, Coyne DW. Iron supplementation to treat anemia in patients with chronic kidney disease. Nature Reviews Nephrology. 2010;6(12):699–710.
Drueke TB, Locatelli F, Clyne N, et al. Normalization of hemoglobin levels in patients with chronic kidney disease and anemia. New England Journal of Medicine. 2006;355(20):2071–2084.
References: Anemia
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FDA Drug Safety Communication: Erythropoiesis-stimulating agents (ESAs): Procrit, Epogen and Aranesp. U.S. Food and Drug Administration website. http://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DrugSafety/PostmarketDrugSafetyInformationforPatientsandProviders/ucm200297.htm . February 26, 2010. Accessed September 8, 2011.
FDA Drug Safety Communication: Modified dosing recommendations to improve the safe use of erythropoiesis-stimulating agents (ESAs) in chronic kidney disease. U.S. Food and Drug Administration website. http://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DrugSafety/ucm259639.htm . June 24, 2011. Accessed September 7, 2011.
Fleming RE, Bacon BR. Orchestration of iron homeostasis. New England Journal of Medicine. 2005;352(17):1741–1744.
Ganz, T. Molecular control of iron transport. Journal of the American Society of Nephrology. 2007;18(2):394–400.
References: Anemia
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Ganz T, Nemeth E. Iron imports. IV. Hepcidin and regulation of body iron metabolism. American Journal of Physiology Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology. 2006;290(2):G199–G203.
Hörl WH. Clinical aspects of iron use in the anemia of kidney disease. Journal of the American Society of Nephrology. 2007;18(2):382–393.
Institute of Medicine. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press; 2001. Institute of Medicine website. http://iom.edu/Reports/2001/Dietary-Reference-Intakes-for-Vitamin-A-Vitamin-K-Arsenic-Boron-Chromium-Copper-Iodine-Iron-Manganese-Molybdenum-Nickel-Silicon-Vanadium-and-Zinc.aspx. Accessed August 31, 2011.
References: Anemia
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Kopple JD, Greene T, Chumlea WC, et al. Relationship between nutritional status and the glomerular filtration rate: results from the MDRD Study. Kidney International. 2000;57(4):1688–1703.
Kovedsky CP. Iron and clinical outcomes in dialysis and non-dialysis-dependent chronic kidney disease patients. Advances in Chronic Kidney Disease. 2009;16(2):109–116.
National Kidney Disease Education Program. Your kidney test results. Revised September 2011. NIH publication 11–7407. National Kidney Disease Education Program website. http://nkdep.nih.gov/resources/nkdep-kidney-test-results-508.pdf. Accessed September 8, 2011.
National report on biochemical indicators of diet and nutrition in the U.S. population 1999–2002. U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention website. http://www.cdc.gov/nutritionreport/part_3.html. July 2008. Accessed June 14, 2011.
References: Anemia
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Normal iron absorption and storage. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention website. http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/hemochromatosis/training/pathophysiology/iron_cycle_popup.htm . Updated September 23, 2010. Accessed June 14, 2011.
Singh AK. Does TREAT give the boot to ESAs in the treatment of CKD anemia? Journal of the American Society of Nephrology. 2010;21(1):2–6.
Singh AK, Szczech L, Tang KL, et al. Correction of anemia with epoetin alfa in chronic kidney disease. New England Journal of Medicine. 2006;355(20):2085–2098.
Strippoli GFM, Craig JC, Manno C, Schena FP. Hemoglobin targets for the anemia of chronic kidney disease: a meta-analysis of randomized, control trials. Journal of the American Society of Nephrology. 2004;15(12):3154–3165.
References: Anemia
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Toto RD. Anemia of chronic disease: past, present, future. Kidney International. 2003;64(suppl 87):S20–S23.
U.S. Renal Data System. USRDS 2010 Annual Data Report: Atlas of Chronic Kidney Disease and End-Stage Renal Disease in the United States. Bethesda, MD: National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases; 2010. United States Renal Data System website. http://www.usrds.org/adr.htm. Accessed August 31, 2011.
U.S. Renal Data System. USRDS 2009 Annual Data Report: Atlas of Chronic Kidney Disease and End-Stage Renal Disease in the United States. Bethesda, MD: National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases; 2009. United States Renal Data System website. http://www.usrds.org/adr.htm. Accessed August 31, 2011.
References: Anemia
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Young B, Zaritsky J. Hepcidin for clinicians. Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology. 2009;4(8):1384–1387.
Zager RA, Johnson ACM, Hanson SY. Parenteral iron nephrotoxicity: potential mechanisms and consequences. Kidney International. 2004;66(1):144–156.
Zager RA. Parenteral iron compounds: potent oxidants but mainstays of anemia management in chronic renal disease. Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology. 2006;1(suppl 1):S24–S31.
References: Anemia
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Gennari FJ, Segal AS. Hyperkalemia: an adaptive response in chronic renal insufficiency. Kidney International. 2002;62(1):1–9.
Institute of Medicine. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press; 2004. Institute of Medicine website. http://iom.edu/Reports/2004/Dietary-Reference-Intakes-Water-Potassium-Sodium-Chloride-and-Sulfate.aspx. Accessed June 13, 2011.
Palmer BF. Managing hyperkalemia caused by inhibitors of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system. New England Journal of Medicine. 2004; 351(6):585–592.
Schaefer TJ, Wolford RW. Disorders of potassium. Emergency Medicine Clinics of North America. 2005;23(3):723–747.
References: Hyperkalemia
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U.S. Renal Data System. USRDS 2009 Annual Data Report: Atlas of Chronic Kidney Disease and End-Stage Renal Disease in the United States. Bethesda, MD: National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases; 2009. United States Renal Data System website. http://www.usrds.org/adr.htm . Accessed August 31, 2011.
References: Hyperkalemia
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Bailey JL. Metabolic acidosis: an unrecognized cause of morbidity in the patient with chronic kidney disease. Kidney International. 2005;68(suppl 96):S15–S23.
Birn H, Christensen EI. Renal albumin absorption in physiology and pathology. Kidney International. 2006;69(3):440–449.
Eustace JA, Astor B, Muntner PM, Ikizler TA, Coresh J. Prevalence of acidosis and inflammation and their association with low serum albumin in chronic kidney disease. Kidney International. 2004;65(3):1031–1040.
Kaysen GA, Johansen KL, Cheng S, Jin C, Chertow GM. Trends and outcomes associated with serum albumin concentration among incident dialysis patients in the United States. Journal of Renal Nutrition. 2008;18(4):323–331.
References: Hypoalbuminemia
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Kopple JD, Kalantar-Zadeh K, Mehrotra R. Risks of chronic metabolic acidosis in patients with chronic kidney disease. Kidney International. 2005;67(suppl 95):S21–S27.
References: Hypoalbuminemia
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Bailey JL. Metabolic acidosis: an unrecognized cause of morbidity in the patient with chronic kidney disease. Kidney International. 2005;68(suppl 96):S15–S23.
de Brito-Ashurst I, Varagunam M, Raftery MJ, Yaqoob MM. Bicarbonate supplementation slows progression of CKD and improves nutritional status. Journal of the American Society of Nephrology. 2009;20(9):2075–2084.
Gennari FJ, Hood VL, Greene T, Wang X, Levey AS. Effect of dietary protein intake on total serum CO2 concentration in chronic kidney disease: Modification of Diet in Renal Disease study findings. Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology. 2006;1(1):52–57.
Kraut JA, Madias NE. Metabolic acidosis: pathophysiology, diagnosis and management. Nature Reviews Nephrology. 2010;6(5):274–285.
References: Metabolic Acidosis
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Remer T, Manz F. Potential renal acid load of foods and its influence on urine pH. Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 1995; 95(7):791–797.
U.S. Renal Data System. USRDS 2009 Annual Data Report: Atlas of Chronic Kidney Disease and End-Stage Renal Disease in the United States. Bethesda, MD: National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases; 2009. United States Renal Data System website. http://www.usrds.org/adr.htm . Accessed August 31, 2011.
References: Metabolic Acidosis
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Dietary supplements fact sheet: vitamin D. Office of Dietary Supplements, National Institutes of Health website. http://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/VitaminD/. Reviewed June 24, 2011. Accessed August 31, 2011.
Doorenbos CRC, van den Born J, Navis G, de Borst MH. Possible renoprotection by vitamin D in chronic renal disease: beyond mineral metabolism. Nature Reviews Nephrology. 2009;5(12):691–700.
Emmett M. A comparison of clinically useful phosphorus binders for patients with chronic kidney failure. Kidney International. 2004;66(suppl 90):S25–S32.
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References: Mineral and Bone Disorders
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Felsenfeld AJ, Rodriguez M, Aguilera-Tejero, E. Dynamics of parathyroid hormone secretion in health and secondary hyperparathyroidism. Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology. 2007;2(6):1283–1305.
Institute of Medicine. Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium and Vitamin D. Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press; 2010. Institute of Medicine website. http://www.iom.edu/Reports/2010/Dietary-Reference-Intakes-for-Calcium-and-Vitamin-D.aspx. November 2010; updated May 9, 2011. Accessed June 14, 2011
Kalantar-Zadeh K, Gutekunst L, Mehrotra R, et al. Understanding sources of dietary phosphorus in the treatment of patients with chronic kidney disease. Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology. 2010;5(3):519–530.
References: Mineral and Bone Disorders
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Liu S, Quarles LD. How fibroblastic growth factor 23 works. Journal of the American Society of Nephrology. 2007;18(6):1637–1647.
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References: Mineral and Bone Disorders
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National Kidney and Urologic Diseases Information Clearinghouse. Chronic kidney disease—Mineral and bone disorder. February 2009. NIH publication 09–4630. National Kidney and Urological Diseases Information Clearinghouse website. http://www.kidney.niddk.nih.gov/kudiseases/pubs/CKD_Mineral_Bone . Accessed June 14, 2011.
National Kidney Disease Education Program. Chronic kidney disease (CKD) and diet: assessment, management and treatment. Treating CKD patients who are not on dialysis. An overview guide for dietitians. Revised September 2011. National Kidney Disease Education Program website. http://nkdep.nih.gov/resources/nkdep-ckd-amt-guide-508.pdf. Accessed September 8, 2011.
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References: Mineral and Bone Disorders
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Palmer SC, Hayen A, Macaskill P, et al. Serum levels of phosphorus, parathyroid hormone, and calcium and risks of death and cardiovascular disease in individuals with chronic kidney disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of the American Medical Association. 2011;305(11):1119–1127.
Prentice A, Goldberg GR, Schoenmakers I. Vitamin D across the lifecycle: physiology and biomarkers. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2008;88(2):500S–506S.
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References: Mineral and Bone Disorders
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U.S. Renal Data System. USRDS 2009 Annual Data Report: Atlas of Chronic Kidney Disease and End-Stage Renal Disease in the United States. Bethesda, MD: National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases; 2009. United States Renal Data System website. http://www.usrds.org/adr.htm . Accessed August 31, 2011.
References: Mineral and Bone Disorders