Clanga clanga -- (Pallas, 1811)ANIMALIA -- CHORDATA -- AVES -- ACCIPITRIFORMES -- ACCIPITRIDAECommon names: Greater Spotted Eagle; Aguila Moteada; Aigle criard; Spotted Eagle

European Red List AssessmentEuropean Red List Status

EN -- Endangered, (IUCN version 3.1)

Assessment InformationYear published: 2015Date assessed: 2015-03-31Assessor(s): BirdLife InternationalReviewer(s): Symes, A.Compiler(s): Ashpole, J., Burfield, I., Ieronymidou, C., Pople, R., Wheatley, H. & Wright, L.Assessment RationaleEuropean regional assessment: Endangered (EN)EU27 regional assessment: Critically Endangered (CR)

This eagle is undergoing very rapid declines within its European range, and it is therefore classified as Endangered (A2abcde+3bcde+4abcde; C1). Within the EU27 the population is extremely small and decreasing, and it is classified as Critically Endangered (C1; D).

OccurrenceCountries/Territories of OccurrenceNative:Albania; Armenia; Austria; Azerbaijan; Belarus; Bosnia and Herzegovina; Bulgaria; Croatia; Estonia; Finland; France; Georgia; Greece; Hungary; Italy; Latvia; Lithuania; Macedonia, the former Yugoslav Republic of; Moldova; Montenegro; Poland; Romania; Russian Federation; Serbia; Slovakia; Slovenia; Turkey; UkraineVagrant:Belgium; Cyprus; Denmark; Ireland, Rep. of; Luxembourg; Netherlands; Portugal; Spain; Switzerland; United Kingdom; Gibraltar (to UK)

PopulationThe European population is estimated at 770-1,000 pairs, which equates to 1,500-2,100 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 17-33 pairs, which equates to 34-70 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see Supplementary PDF.

TrendIn Europe the population size is estimated to be decreasing by 50-79% in 49.8 years (three generations) and by at least 20% in 33.2 years (two generations). In the EU27 the population is estimated to be decreasing by 25% or more in 16.6 years (one generation). For details of national estimates, see Supplementary PDF.

Habitats and EcologyThis species occurs in lowland wet forests near wetlands, away from human settlements (Tucker and Heath 1994). It nests 5–25 m above ground in tall, usually broad leaf, trees inside the forest, a few 100 m from the edge. Both sexes construct a large platform of sticks with a central cup lined with fresh green sprigs or grass. The nest is often used in successive years and may therefore become very large, although many pairs have two or three nests used alternately. Clutch size normally two but second chick rarely survives due to cainism (Meyburg and Kirwan 2013). It feeds on unretrieved quarry, small mammals, waterbirds, frogs and snakes. It hunts over swamps, wet meadows and, in Europe, over extensively managed agricultural land (A. Lõhmus in litt. 1999); birds soar to c.100 m high when hunting.

It is a migratory species, with birds leaving their breeding grounds in October and November to winter in southern Europe, southern Asia and north-east Africa (Meyburg and Kirwan 2013). They generally return in February and March. Birds migrate on a broad front, tending to pass in singles, twos and threes with the

occasional larger group (Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001). They do not concentrate at bottleneck sites to the extent of many other raptors such as Lesser Spotted Eagle (Clanga pomarina) (Meyburg and Kirwan 2013).Habitats & Altitude

Habitat (level 1 - level 2) Importance OccurrenceForest - Subarctic major breedingForest - Temperate major breedingShrubland - Temperate suitable non-breedingWetlands (inland) - Bogs, Marshes, Swamps, Fens, Peatlands major breedingWetlands (inland) - Bogs, Marshes, Swamps, Fens, Peatlands major non-breedingWetlands (inland) - Permanent Freshwater Lakes (over ha) major non-breedingAltitude 0-1000 m Occasional altitudinal limits

ThreatsThere is strong evidence of hybridisation between this species and C. pomarina (Bergmanis et al. 1997, Lohmus & Vali 2001, Dombrovski 2002, Vali et al. 2010). In some European countries mixed pairs can constitute 50% of pairs of this species (Maciorowski and Mizera 2010) or even more (Vali 2011). It is unclear whether this represents a new phenomenon or a conservation concern, but C. pomarina is far more numerous than C. clanga in the zone of overlap, and the range of C. pomarina appears to be spreading east, further into the range of C. clanga. Other key threats are habitat destruction and disturbance, also poaching and electrocution can be considered important. Suitable habitat mosaics have been lost as a result of afforestation and wetland drainage.

In eastern Europe, agricultural intensification and the abandonment of traditional floodplain management have reduced habitat quality (A. Lõhmus in litt. 1999). Birds are intolerant of permanent human presence in their territories. Forestry operations are a major cause of disturbance. Shooting is a threat in Russia and the Mediterranean (P. D. Round in litt. 1998, P. Mirski in litt. 2012), together with deliberate and accidental poisoning across much of its range.Threats & Impacts

Threat (level 1) Threat (level 2) Impact and StressesAgriculture & aquaculture

Agro-industry farming

Timing Scope Severity ImpactOngoing Minority (<50%) Slow, Significant

DeclinesLow Impact

StressesEcosystem conversion; Ecosystem degradation; Species disturbance

Agriculture & aquaculture

Agro-industry plantations

Timing Scope Severity ImpactOngoing Minority (<50%) Slow, Significant

DeclinesLow Impact

StressesEcosystem degradation; Species disturbance

Agriculture & aquaculture

Small-holder farming

Timing Scope Severity ImpactOngoing Minority (<50%) Slow, Significant

DeclinesLow Impact

StressesEcosystem conversion; Ecosystem degradation; Species disturbance

Biological resource use

Hunting & trapping terrestrial animals (unintentional effects - species is not the target)

Timing Scope Severity ImpactOngoing Unknown Unknown Unknown

StressesSpecies mortality; Species disturbance; Reduced reproductive success

Biological resource use

Logging & wood harvesting (unintentional effects: (large scale) [harvest])

Timing Scope Severity ImpactOngoing Majority (50-90%) Slow, Significant

DeclinesMedium Impact

StressesEcosystem degradation; Species disturbance

Invasive and other problematic species, genes & diseases

American Mink (Neovison vison)

Timing Scope Severity ImpactOngoing Minority (<50%) Unknown Unknown

StressesIndirect ecosystem effects; Competition

Threats & ImpactsThreat (level 1) Threat (level 2) Impact and Stresses

Invasive and other problematic species, genes & diseases

Unspecified species Timing Scope Severity ImpactOngoing Minority (<50%) Unknown Unknown

StressesHybridisation

Natural system modifications

Abstraction of surface water (agricultural use)

Timing Scope Severity ImpactOngoing Majority (50-90%) Slow, Significant

DeclinesMedium Impact

StressesEcosystem degradation; Indirect ecosystem effects; Reduced reproductive success

Natural system modifications

Other ecosystem modifications

Timing Scope Severity ImpactOngoing Minority (<50%) Slow, Significant

DeclinesLow Impact

StressesEcosystem degradation; Indirect ecosystem effects

Residential & commercial development

Commercial & industrial areas

Timing Scope Severity ImpactOngoing Minority (<50%) Slow, Significant

DeclinesLow Impact

StressesEcosystem conversion; Ecosystem degradation

Residential & commercial development

Housing & urban areas

Timing Scope Severity ImpactOngoing Minority (<50%) Slow, Significant

DeclinesLow Impact

StressesEcosystem conversion; Ecosystem degradation

ConservationConservation Actions UnderwayCITES Appendix II. CMS Appendix I and II. EU Birds Directive Annex I. It is legally protected in Belarus, Estonia, France, Greece, Latvia, Poland, Romania and Russia. An International Lesser and Greater Spotted Eagle Working Group has been established and a European action plan was published in 2000 (Meyburg et al. 1999). The first national census was conducted in Belarus during 2000-2002. Research into hybridisation and habitat requirements began in Belarus in 2003. National Action Plans for the species have been produced in Belarus (Dombrovski et al. (2002), Estonia and Ukraine (Domashevsky 2000). Site protection measures have been initiated at key Belarusian, Polish and Estonian sites, including restricting forestry activities at nest sites during the breeding season.

Conservation Actions ProposedSurvey range and population. Establish long-term monitoring schemes to improve understanding of population trends. Improve understanding of breeding habitat requirements. Protect breeding areas from drainage and rising of infrastructure. Maintain traditional wet meadows. Regulate forestry to minimise disturbance and protect potential nesting trees. Investigate potential threat of hybridisation with C. pomarina. Prevent illegal shooting, poisoning and electrocution. Investigate lead poisoning from feeding on quarry. Raise awareness.

BibliographyBergmanis U, Petriná A, Strazds M, Krams I. 1997. Possible case of hybridization of the Lesser Spotted eagle and the Greater Spotted eagle in Eastern Latvia. Putni Daba 3: 2-6.Domashevsky S.V. 2000. National Action Plan for the conservation of the Great Spotted Eagle (Aquila clanga) and Lesser Spotted Eagle (A. pomarina) in Ukraine. In: O. Mykytyuk (ed.), National Action Plans on conservation of globally threatened bird species. pp. 122-132 [in Ukrainian]. SoftART, Kyiv.Dombrovski, V. C. 2002. Hybridization of Lesser and Greater Spotted Eagles - (Aquila pomarina et A. clanga) in Belarus: rules or exception? Subbuteo 5(1): 23-31.Dombrovski, V., Ch.; Tishechkin, A. K.; Ivanovski, V. V. 2002. Belarus' National Action Plan for Greater Spotted Eagle (Aquila clanga).Ferguson-Lees, J.; Christie, D. A. 2001. Raptors of the world. Christopher Helm, London.

BibliographyLõhmus A, Väli Ãœ. 2001. Interbreeding of the Greater Aquila clanga and Lesser Spotted Eagle A. pomarina. Acta Ornithoecologica 4: 377-384.Maciorowski G., Mizera T. 2010. Conservations and studies on Greater Spotted Eagle in Poland - LIFE project. Studia i materiały CEPL w Rogowie. 25: 181-190 (in Polish with English summary).Meyburg, B.U. & Kirwan, G.M. (2013). Greater Spotted Eagle (Clanga clanga). In: del Hoyo, J., Elliott, A., Sargatal, J., Christie, D.A. & de Juana, E. (eds.) (2013). Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. (retrieved from http://www.hbw.com/node/53155 on 16 January 2015).Meyburg, B.-U.; Haraszthy, L.; Strazds, M.; Schäffer, N. 1999. European species action plan for Greater Spotted Eagle (Aquila clanga).Tucker, G.M. & Heath, M.F. (1994) Birds in Europe: their conservation status. Cambridge, UK: BirdLife International (BirdLife Conservation Series no. 3).Väli Ãœ. 2011. Numbers and hybrydization of spotted eagles in Estonia as revealed by country-wide field observations and genetic analysis. Estonian Journal of Ecology 60: 143-154.Väli Ãœ., Dombrovski V., Treinys R., Bergmanis U., Daróczi S., Dravecky M., Ivanovsky V., Lontkowski J., Maciorowski G., Meyburg B.U., Mizera T., Zeitz R., Ellegren H. 2010. Wide-spread hybridization between the Greater Spotted Eagle Aquila clanga and the Lesser Spotted Eagle Aquila pomarina (Aves: Accipitriformes) in Europe. Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 100: 725-736.Lohmus, A. 1998. Numbers of the Greater Spotted Eagle and the Lesser Spotted Eagle in Estonia. Hirundo 11: 24-34.

Map (see overleaf)