Class 5B. a.s. 2006-07 - REVISION

From the Stuarts to the 18th century

THE YEARS AFTER ELIZABETH I TUDOR (+1603)

• No heirs – Tudors dynasty to an end

The STUARTS SET IN

• James I (already James VI of Scotland, son of Mary Stuart)) (1603 – 1625) (monarch of Divine right – He thought he represented God on earth (divine right). Strong contrasts with Parliament summoned only when money was needed–

GUNPOWDER PLOT (Guy Fawks )(a Catholic sympathiser) tried to blow up Parliament and the King)with gunpowder, Nowadays the event is remembered with fireworks

Charles I ( 1625-49) His absolute power clashed against the changes the country had undergone (wealth of the nation from nobility to landed gentry and to middle classes).

Parliament wanted to control finances. When Parliament refused to give Charles money he dissolved it and ruled as an absolute monarch from 1629 to 1640.

1649: the King is arrested and executed

roundheadscavaliers

1642 – The tensions between Parliament and the king led to a Civil War or Cavaliers (Royalists) against Roundheads (Puritans – led by O. Cromwell. Short-haired. Long hair was sinful).

Parliament’s supporters: gentry, small landowners, artisans and Puritans

King’s supporters: mainly nobility

1647-49: the King is arrested and executed

1649-1658 Republic / Monarchy awas abolished (Commonwealth, whose leader – Lord Protector – was O. Cromwell)

O. Cromwell

1658-1660 – Years of transition. The Republic had not proved effective as an alternative to Monarchy so people nostalgically turned to Monarchy and called back from exile the son of the beheaded Charles I. This is called RESTORATION.

1660-1685 – Charles II ruled quite successfully thanks to the support of Tories - supported by Cavaliers , landed gentry, and Whigs (supported by urban middle classes)

Two calamities broke out: 1) great plague (100,000 dead people 2) great fire

James II (1685-1688) had Catholic sympathies (in contrast with the Protestant trend of the nation). When he tried to impose Catholicism he was forced to abdicate, an event which is known as Glorious Revolution (non-violent). The Crown was offered to William of Orange and Mary (protestant) . A contract between P. and Monarch was created – the Bill of Rights of 1689 – By this Act the king

•could no longer raise taxes

•form an army

•suspend laws

without Parliament’s consent

James II

Mary and William of Orange

N.B. This is seen as the starting point of Constitutional Monarchy (the elected Members of Parliament – representatives of people – are the real sovereign of the country. The king accepts it.

END OF DIVINE RIGHT OF KINGS

1702 – Mary’s (of Orange) younger sister succeeded to the throne as William and Mary died without children.

1707 –ACT OF UNION

Scotland and England are united and ruled by one Parliament.

Scotland loses its own Parliament in return for representation in the English Parliament and a share in English prosperity.

The Puritans

Movement which arose within the Church of England and wanted to go beyond the Elizabethan settlement of 1559 (compromise between Rome and Protestants)

Man - Large dark hat witth buckle (fibbia, fermaglio),doublet (giubba), red sash around the waist (fascia, sciarpa) boots, spurs, falling collar, gloves, sword.Woman - shaped bodice (corsetto) , falling collar and cuffs, apron

1. They rejected any spiritual intermediary between God and believers

2. The only authority accepted was the Bible, God spoke in each man’s individual conscience

3. They insisted on extreme austerity in priests’ vestments, ornaments, altars

4. They regarded any sort of entertainment (dancing, theatre) as vain as it diverted people from spiritual devotion --- closing of theatres in 1642.

5. They regarded hardworking as a way to be saved and purified (Calvinist theory ---- men born as sinners)

The Puritans’ main ideals were the following:

PURITANS, PRESBITERIANS AND DISSENTERS

•They originated during Elizabeth’s reign and were radical, more radical than Protestant Reformers who were considered too close to the Catholic Church in structure

•They didn’t accept hierarchy

•They had strict moral principles (no entertainment, no pleasures etc)

•During the reign of Charles I they refused to support the laws in favour of Catholics, some of which to finance wars against Puritan Scotland

The Puritans were very influential in politics. Actually from the Civil War (1649) to Restoration a Puritan Government ruled England

They were active within the Church of England until the Restoration. They flourished in the newly colonized North America and it exerted its influence in the birth of the novel. That’s why D. Defoe’s ‘Robinson Crusoe’ with his austere life and work ethic is remembered as a ‘Puritan hero’

N.B. The term Puritan is also used in a broader sense to refer to attitudes and values considered characteristic of the Puritans

Quakers, non-Conformists, Separatists, who formed after the Restoration - are considered Puritans for their strict way of life

Religious makeup of BRITAIN in the XVII century

ANGLICAN CHURCH = hierarchical, founded by Henry VIII after the break with the corrupted Roman Church. It became a symbol of the country’s independence.

CATHOLIC CHURCH = the followers of the Catholic Church were few. They had rejected the Reformation and truly hoped that the Catholic faith could be re-established

PURITANS, PRESBITERIANS AND DISSENTERS

Literature during the Restoration Age (from 1660)

Poetry

Key poets of the time: Andrew Marvell (1621-78) (to his Coy mistress)

John Milton (Paradise lost) = allegorical commentary on the failure of the English revolution

Comedy

After Restoration the theatres were re-opened and a new kind of drama flourished, based on lighter topics . From tragedy to Comedy of manners.

New lifestyle: no more austerity but appearance counted (elaborate wigs and clothes. Pastimes included libertinism (adultery) gambling and fighting duels, good food and heavy drinking.

William Congreve was the main representative of this trend (The old Bachelor)

Andrew Marvell (1621-78) (to his Coy mistress)

Religious/philosophical poetry similar to the one of the metaphisical poets, based on conceits, puns of words, philosophical thoughts

John Milton - 1608-1674

He expressed support for the parliamentary cause in the civil war. He was appointed foreign secretary in Cromwell’s government.

Became blind and so was assisted by his assistant.

With the Restoration he was punished for his support of Parliament (fine + imprisonment)

The Fall of the Rebel Angels by Peter Breughel

Gustave Doré –depiction of Satan

Paradise lostMasterpiece, ambitious difficult work.

Main theme: the Fall of Adam and Eve in 12 cantos.

Central theme: the Fall of man in the Garden of Eden caused by Eve’s free will or foreseen as part of God’s plan for his eventual salvation?

The political dimension of the ‘Paradise lost’

It can be regarded as a political allegory of recent English history. The rebellion of Satan (ex God’d favourite Angel Lucifer) can be paralelled to the Puritans’ rebellion against king Charles I which led to the Civil war and the establishment of the Commonwealth.

1702 – Mary’s (of Orange) younger sister succeeded to the throne (Anne) as William and Mary died without children.

1714 Queen Anne died George I HANOVER became king called from Germany (to prevent Catholic successor of James II to get the throne. He was not loved – unpopular - by the English, he didn’t even know the language , attached to Germany ---- need for a Prime Minister (Robert Walpole, in power for more than 20 years)

Augustan Age ( from Roman Emperor Augustus -- great political stability)

George II (until 1760) –III HANOVER

England expanded her colonial possessions

Outbreak of the Seven Years’ war (for colonial supremacy) against France (1756) which brought a victory and more colonies -- (control over Quebec in Canada and India)

New modern concept of political culture:

• the political life was administered by modern social classes (artisans, merchants, educated midddle classes)

•Spread of newspapers – Origins of journalism

•Exchange of political views in public meeting places ( coffee-houses)

•New spirit of the time which spread all over Europe -- Enlightenment (use of reason

•Origins of political parties (Whigs – supporters of Parliament, more liberal / vs / Tories – conservative, ex Royalists in favour of Divine right of Monarchs + defense of Church)

Coffee house

Main principles of the ENLIGHTENMENT•SAPERE AUDE = have the courage to use your own reason. Think and act correctly

•EQUALITY -All men are equal. In front of the law they must be granted equal treatment, in respect of their rationality

•TOLERANCE towards other beliefs and lifestyles

•ATHEISM (tendency)

•BELIEF IN reason and progress

All these principles culminated in the French Revolution

Influence of these principles over literature and art

•ORDER and HARMONY / Restraint and sobriety prevailed

Thirty houses make up the Royal Crescent -1767 -(Bath). Like a half-Colosseum, this structure uses a gigantic order of Ionic columns

Influence of the Enlightenment principles in SCIENCE

ISAAC NEWTON (1642 –1727)

He studied the laws of cosmos and found out the force of gravity in the Solar System (which keeps planets in their orbits) and the laws of the fall of bodies.

He saw GRAVITY as the only cause of the good working of the solar system. GOD was seen as the FIRST CAUSE.

After he set the universe in motion there was no longer need for Divine intervention.

THE NOVEL

The rise of the novel can be considered the most inportant event of the 18th century as its main concern was REAL LIFE

Definition: ‘fictitious prose narrative or tale presenting a picture of real life’

CAUSES that contributed to the rise of the novel

•RATIONALISM (Descartes + Locke) --- TRUTH could be reached only through INDIVIDUAL EXPERIENCE. TRUTH is independent of tradition, past thought or history (previously literature was based on mythology)

•PURITANISM stressed the importance of hard work and daily activity to reach salvation (virtuous life)

•SPREAD of journalism (based on facts - newspapers) and books. The rich Middle class was ready to read a lot, especially women, interested in stories reflecting their own passions (no longer chivalry or fantastic tales). They asked for fact-based writings (diaries, travel journeys, biographies, letters)

•Influence of DON QUIXOTE (Cervantes)

• comic treatment of chivalry

• Published in episodes

MAIN NOVELISTS OF THE TIME (18 th century)

DANIEL DEFOE (Robinson Crusoe).

Founder of the novel but also pamphleteer and satyrist. He wrote for the middle classes. His father wanted him to become a minister of the Church of England but he preferred travelling as a merchant around Europe and started being interested in politics.

‘The shortest way with the dissenters’ (pamphlet). For his irony against the Anglican attitude towards Nonconformists (the ones who did not want to conform to the rules of the A. C.) he was arrested. Once released he started working for the Whigs.

At the age of 60 he wrote ‘Robinson Crusoe’ based on memories of his sea voyages and castaways.

ROBINSON CRUSOE

Adventure story of a shipwreck lasted 28 years before being rescued

Story divided into three parts:

1. Crusoe leaves his father’s home and after a series of adventures he finds himself in Brazil where he becomes a plantation owner. From there he sets off for Africa to provide slaves for the plantation. During the voyage he is shipwrecked on a desert island . He is the only survivor

1. Diary-like form. He’s master of the island and he has to face difficulties using intelligence. He meets a savage (Friday), teaches him Christianity and the English language and culture.

2. Rescue and journey back to England with Friday as his servant.

Robinson Crusoe: stylistic features

• 1st person narrator as if it were an autobiography.

• Realistic, matter-of-fact style , full of details as if it had really happened. Only actions are recounted, no introspection or feelings. There are just a few reflections about the Puritan’s idea of redemption (hard work + self reliance + faith in God overcomes all difficulties)

INTERPRETATIONS

Economic allegory: Myth of the self-made man / merchant capitalism (businessman who slowly builds himself an empire). The mini-civilisation he creates mirrors the society he comes from (house with a fence, stock of food supplies, prosperity, work routine). He regards it as his property.

Religious allegory: from original sin to salvation. How? Thanks to the Puritan values above mentioned. This is different from the Catholic view ( man asks God for salvation). Man, according to Puritan values, relies only upon his strength and his own labour

IMPERIALISTIC ALLEGORY

Superiority of the white over the savage Friday, who must be civilized and converted to Christianity. Robinson becomes Lord and Master of the island descpite the fact that Friday was there before.

JONATHAN SWIFT (satyrist)

Born and educated in Ireland. Priest of the Anglican Church.

‘A modest proposal’ (for preventing the children of poor people in Ireland from being a burden to their parents and country ..) He suggests stewing, roasting, baking or boiling young children and serve them as delicious food to landlords….. This will diminish the number of Papists among us ..

Gulliver’s travels

Highly imaginative, fantastic, a classic for children ???

Simple language, plain style. Pleasant. He used to read it to his servants as evidence of simplicity.

Gulliver is a matter-of-fact man and tells us of his journey with plenty of details.

Best-seller of his time (10,000 copies were sold in only three weeks)

LILLIPUT (small-sized people) --- symbolizes pettiness and provincialism of politicians. They take advantage of Gulliver’s big size only to destroy their enemies

Gulliver quenching the Firein the Royal Quarters of the Empress

Gulliver's Watch

BROABDINGNAG’s people are big, disgusting and repulsive. They lack spirituality. They consider him as a pernicious being (having a very harmful effect or influence).

He is criticizing human vanity

LAPUTANS live on islands floating in the air, which might refer to abstract thinking . Attack against people who do not have connection with real life, e.g. the ambition of conquering new lands / colonies

HOUYHNHNMS are wise horses who rule over a kind of sub-human race (yahoos).

The humans are paralelled to the Yahoos so that we realize that under a façade of civilization mankind is actually violent and vicious. In vain Gulliver tries to convince the HOUYHNHNMS that the race he belongs to is not like the Yahoos.

Gulliver meets the houuyhnhms

yahoos

SUMMING UP

We can say that Gulliver’s travels is a moral and political satire or simply a mysantropy (attack on human race, man’s vice and virtues

--- narrow-mindedness, vanity, hypocrisy and cruelty )

Gulliver Explains European Politics

Samuel Richardson (Pamela -- a collection of model letters to be used in correspondence, epistolary form.They also include suggestions to young servant women on how to avoid being seduced by their employers. Pamela is a young maid who is able to resist the attempts of becoming her employer’s lover. In the end she makes him really fall in love with her so that she can marry him )

Elisa di Rivaombrosa took Richardson’s Pamela as a model

Laurence Sterne (Tristram Shandy – autobiography - Anti-novel for its lack of traditional plot and many time-shifts and digressions. Agaist the conventions of the traditional novel. The lack of linearity makes it very difficult to summarise the plot. It anticipates the tecniques of postmodern fiction)