classification and depositional environments of quaternary...

Classification and depositional environments of Quaternary

pedogenic gypsum crusts (gypcrete) from east of the

Fayum Depression, Egypt

Mahmoud A.M. Aref

Geology Department, Faculty of Science, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt

Received 17 July 2001; accepted 20 March 2002

Abstract

The eastern boundary of the Fayum Depression (45 m below sea level) is bounded by a 99-m-high hill (inselberg of Girza)

that slopes gently eastward towards the Nile Valley. The inselberg and the surrounding plain are encrusted with 50–130-cm-

thick gypsum crusts that exhibit well-defined pedogenic horizons. Also, east of the Nile Valley, the Qattamia plateau is

encrusted with gypsum crusts that form 50-m-wide ‘pavements’ that are scattered at different levels. The gypsum crusts range in

thickness from 20 to 50 cm, and do not form characteristic vertical horizons. The individual gypcrete pavements exhibit massive

mottled or powdery structure. Using structural, fabric and textural criteria, three main types of crusts are distinguished: (1)

Eluvial horizon—massive to spongy-like powdery gypsum crusts, found at the land surface and consisting of gravels and sands

cemented with gypsum; (2) Illuvial horizon A—massive indurated gypsum crusts that consist dominantly of white gypsum with

horizontal and sub-vertical black gypsum veinlets; (3) Illuvial horizon B—massive mottled gypsum crusts that consist of

carbonate or shale fragments floating in gypsum cement. Petrographically, the gypsum crusts in the Girza and Qattamia areas

comprise a varying abundance of microcrystalline, fine lenticular, coarse lenticular, porphyroblastic, prismatic or poikilotopic

gypsum. Lenticular and microcrystalline gypsum crystals are usually observed filling rhizotubules in all crusts. The origin of the

gypsum crusts is related to pedogenic processes which involved the leaching of gypsum from the underlying, or adjoining,

gypsiferous shale or marl layers and the subsequent displacive crystallization of gypsum in the upper soil horizon. Cycles of

wetting (rain fall) and drying are believed to account for the dissolution and translocation of gypsum from the upper eluvial

horizon and its recrystallization as microcrystalline and fine lenticular gypsum in the illuvial horizon A. The poikilotopic

gypsum crystals in the illuvial horizon B reflect the abundance of gypsum-enriched groundwater in the phreatic zone. The

dominant processes of gypsum growth are by displacive and/or inclusive crystallization, reflecting formation in pedogenic

setting. The existence of gypsum crusts capping the inselberg and the surrounding plain of Girza area resist eastward deepening

of the Fayum Depression. On the other hand, the gypsum crusts on the surface of the Qattamia plateau favor the development of

relief inversion due to the removal of the surrounding soft materials. Therefore, the gypsum crusts provide useful paleoclimatic

and geomorphic indicators to the study areas.

D 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Quaternary gypcrete; Petrography; Pedogenesis; Geomorphology; Egypt

0037-0738/02/$ - see front matter D 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

PII: S0037 -0738 (02 )00162 -8

E-mail address: [email protected] (M.A.M Aref).

www.elsevier.com/locate/sedgeo

Sedimentary Geology 155 (2003) 87–108

1. Introduction

Gypsum crusts have been reported from all the

continents, including Antarctica and are found in

many arid regions, generally where throughout the

year mean monthly potential evaporation exceeds

mean monthly precipitation (Watson, 1985). Gypsum

crusts and soils are defined as surficial and penesurfi-

cial accumulations that have the following specifica-

tion (Watson, 1985): (1) a minimum thickness of 0.1

m, (2) a minimum gypsum content of about 15% by

weight (D’Hoore, 1964), and (3) a gypsum content at

least 5% greater than the underlying rocks (Buringh,

1968). If the soil contains less than 15% gypsum it is

classified as gypsiferous soil. Watson (1985) also

grouped the consolidated gypsum, together with

weakly cemented and powdery gypsum accumula-

tions under the term gypsum crusts.

In Egypt, there are extensive literatures on duri-

crusts composed of calcite (calcrete), e.g. the Red Sea

region (El Aref et al., 1985, 1986); El Bahariya–El

Farafra oases (Abu Khadra et al., 1987; El-Sayed,

1995); and the coastal ridges of the Mediterranean Sea

(El Shahat et al., 1987; Rashed, 1998), silica (silcrete)

(El Aref and Lotfy, 1985; El Aref et al., 1987; El-

Sayed, 2002), and iron oxides (laterite, ferricrete) (El

Aref et al., 1990). However, nothing was mentioned

on surface crusts of pedogenic origin composed of

gypsum (gypcrete, gypsite or croute gypseuse zonee).

This in spite of the fact that gypseous soils and

gypsiferous beds are widespread in the semiarid and

arid climate of Egypt.

In the present study, a clear distinction between

chemical evaporite sediments and weathering residue

is needed. The familiar evaporite is that produced by

brines concentration of marine, meteoric, ground-

water or thermal water due to heating or cooling

and is accumulated by chemical, biological or phys-

ical processes. On the other hand, gypsum crust is a

significant pedologic and geomorphologic features

that is produced by terrestrial processes within the

zone of weathering in which gypsum has dominantly

accumulated in and/or replaced a pre-existing soil,

rock or weathered materials, to give a substance

which may ultimately develop into an indurated

mass (Goudie, 1973). Processes of dissolution and

recrystallization in the gypsum crusts usually pro-

duce gypsum textures that are very similar to that in

the chemical evaporite sediments. However, the

gypsum crusts may exist at different topographic

elevations and slopes and have distinctive vertical

horizons that are absent in the chemical evaporite

sediments.

The purpose of the present work is to investigate

gypsum crusts (gypcrete) in two locations in the north

central part of Egypt; Girza area and Qattamia area

(Fig. 1). This work is based on stratigraphic, geo-

morphic and micropetrographic criteria of the gypsum

crusts, which helped in interpretation of the processes

involved in the evolution and diagenesis of the vari-

ous gypsum crusts. Finally, genetic and depositional

models of gypcrete formation are achieved which

provide valuable paleotopographic, paleoclimatic

and paleoenvironmental information on the Quater-

nary epoch in the study areas.

2. Geologic setting and geomorphology

In spite of the fact that the carbonate rocks

(Cretaceous and later sediments) constitute about

450,000 km2, about one-half the total surface area

of Egypt (Fig. 1), the gypsum crusts are recorded

only capping the Middle Eocene carbonate rocks that

are interbedded with thick gypsiferous shale beds in

the north central part of Egypt. In Girza area, the

gypsum crusts are capping different stratigraphic

formations (Fig. 2), the oldest of which is the Middle

Eocene Ravine beds (Gehannam Formation) that

consist of gypsiferous shale, marl, limestone and

sandstone (Strougo and Haggag, 1984). The Ravine

beds form the inselberg of Girza (Gebel Gerzah) that

reach a height of 99 m and overlooking the Fayum

Depression that reach a depth up to 45 m below sea

level at Lake Qarun. Near the top part of the

inselberg of Girza, the gypcrete is recorded capping

and cementing the Late Pliocene gravels and sand-

stone of Umm Raqaba Formation. The latter is

derived mainly from the nearby Eocene and Oligo-

cene rocks (Hamdan, 1992). The eastern flank of

Gebel Gerzah is sloping gently to 45 m near the

cultivated land of the Nile Valley, where the gypcrete

cap and cement the early late Pleistocene polygenetic

gravels of the Abbasia Formation (Fig. 2) that are

mainly derived from the basement rocks of the Red

Sea region (Said, 1981).

M.A.M. Aref / Sedimentary Geology 155 (2003) 87–10888

Said (1981) point to the occurrence of gypseous

paleosoil on top of the Abbasia Formation in the

western bank of the Nile Valley and termed it as

‘Gerza Formation’. According to Said (1981), the

gypseous soil is of early late Pleistocene in age

which indicate deposition at an interval of aridity

that extends from the end of Acheulian to the

Mousterian–Aterian times, an interval which extend

for about 40,000 years. On the other hand Beadnell

(1905) and Abdallah and El-Kadi (1974) believed

that the gypseous deposits of Girza is post-Upper

Pliocene in age.

Fig. 1. Location map of Girza and Qattamia areas.

M.A.M. Aref / Sedimentary Geology 155 (2003) 87–108 89

Fig. 2. (A) Geologic map of Girza area, Nile Valley, Egypt (modified after Conoco Coral Egypt, 1989). (B) Distribution of the different gypsum

crusts in Girza area.


Around the inselberg of Girza, the gypsum crusts

are capping the plain surface of the Nile sediments

from the height of 40 m to almost every rock types

near the cultivated land of the Nile Valley (Fig. 2A).

On the other hand, the Qattamia area forms an

elevated plateau ( < 120 m in height), which is dis-

sected by several steep-sided wadis. In the north and

west the plateau slopes gently, whereas the southwest-

ern part is dissected by the steep quarry cliffs of the

cement companies. The Qattamia plateau consists of

the highest formations of the Middle Eocene (Wadi

Garaw Formation) and the Upper Eocene (Wadi Hof

Formation). The Wadi Garaw Formation consists of

variegated gypsiferous clay, marl and sandy marl with

few shell banks near the top (Strougo and Abd-Allah,

1990). Wadi Hof Formation is lithologically similar to

Wadi Garaw Formation, but contains much sandier

layers with a common sandy dolomitic intervals. The

gypsum crusts are recorded at different levels on the

plateau surface as well as on the gentler slope sides of

the wadis.

The precise age determination of the gypsum crusts

in the Qattamia area are not treated before as most

workers are directed to the stratigraphy and Paleon-

tology of the Eocene in the Qattamia and Helwan

areas. However, because the gypsum crusts are found

as surficial deposits restricted only to the gypsiferous

clay of the Middle Eocene Wadi Garaw Formation

and are not recorded to the east, where the Oligocene

and Miocene sediments are widespread, therefore they

may be equated with the nearest gypsum crusts of

Girza area, which cap the datable early late Pleisto-

cene gravels of the Abbasia Formation. Here, a post

early Late Pleistocene age is the most probable age of

gypsum crusts in the Qattamia area.

3. Gypsum crusts (gypcrete)

3.1. Field occurrence and distribution

In Girza area, the gypsum crusts are continuously

covering all the land area between the Fayum Depres-

sion and the Nile Valley (Fig. 2A), giving the surface

the appearance of possessing an extensive pavement.

The gypsum crusts rest directly upon soft gypsiferous

shale beds interbedded with thin fractured limestone

in the Girza inselberg, thus preserving the paleoto-

pography from wind erosion and weathering. They

also mantle the pediment slopes of the inselberg as

well as the plain area between the Fayum Depression

and the Nile Valley (Fig. 2). They rest over Pliocene

carbonate and gravels as well as Pleistocene gravels.

The gypsum crusts commonly create the mesa and

butte landscapes around the Fayum Depression, where

they cap the less durable, soft, thick (15 m) gypsif-

erous shale beds (Fig. 3A). The gypsum crusts are of

not uniform thickness, they are thinner ( < 50 cm) at

the summit of the inselberg and near the cultivated

land of the Nile Valley, whereas they are thicker (130

cm) at the lower pediment slope of the inselberg (Fig.

2B). The gypsum crusts are whitish, grayish or

brownish in color that are present as cementing

materials to gravels, sands, shale or carbonate frag-

ments. At the elevation of 40 m, small channels, of

northward orientation, are cutting the gypsiferous

shale layers. The channels are composed of fine

laminated sand that enclose < 30 cm in size locally

derived fragments from the gypsum crusts (Fig. 3B

and C). The channels as well as the surrounding

gypsiferous shale are encrusted with a powdery gyp-

sum crust rich in quartz pebbles.

In the Qattamia area, the gypsum crusts are sporadi-

cally distributed on the surface of the plateau. The

gypsum crusts cap gypsiferous shale or marl or even

limestone in either topographic highs or lows, thus

preserving the old land surface from wind erosion and

weathering. Sometimes, the land area that is covered

with gypsum crusts form slightly higher relief, when

erosion has preferentially removed the surrounding

soft material. The gypsum crusts are generally of white

or turbid color that is usually cement shale and/or

carbonate fragments from the underlying bedrock.

The top 10 cm of the gypsum crusts in Girza and

Qattamia areas is composed of powdery soft materi-

als, due to climatic dehydration, that may be mixed

with lag gravels on the top of the inselberg of Girza or

covered with windblown sandy materials elsewhere.

The bed exposures of the crusts on the inselberg are

persistently covered with a few millimeters encrusta-

tion of black desert varnish.

3.2. Classification

On the basis of stratigraphic, structural and textural

criteria, three main types of gypsum crusts have been


identified, these are from top to base: (1) massive

powdery gypcrete; (2) massive indurated gypcrete, and

(3) massive mottled gypcrete. The first type is a sur-

face gypsum crusts that are persistently found on the

top part of all land areas in Girza either covering the

massive indurated gypcrete, or the massive mottled

Fig. 3. (A) Gypsum crusts (arrows) cap the gypsiferous shale and marl beds forming mesa and buttes landforms that overlook the Fayum

Depression. (B) A channel filled with laminated sand and locally derived boulder gypcrete fragments (arrows) that cut the gypsiferous shale layer.

Both are mantled with younger gypcrete horizon. (C) Close-up of (B), showing boulders of gypcrete fragments filling small channel in gypsiferous

shale layer. (D) Powdery gypsum cement polygenetic gravels and forming a floating pattern. (E) Horizontal and subvertical dark gypsum veinlets

(arrows) in themiddle gypsum crust. GS: gypsiferous shale, GF: gypcrete fragment, GH: gypcrete horizon, GC: gypsum cement, S: laminated sand.


gypcrete or even over the bedrock directly (Fig. 2B).

The second type is recorded only at and near the lower

pediment slope of the Girza inselberg. The third type is

recorded in a wide plain in Girza and Qattamia areas

directly over the thick (15 m) gypsiferous shale or marl

beds, that may be separated with brecciated limestone

fragments (Fig. 2B). It is worth to mention that the

contacts between these gypsum crusts or between the

gypsum crusts and the underlying bedrock are usually

gradational, with about 10 cm transitional zone.

3.2.1. Massive powdery gypcrete

This horizons range from 15 to 40 cm thick crusts,

which contain 30% to 60% (by weight) gypsum. The

gypsum is white in color, massive or porous, powdery

that cement polygenetic gravels and sands to form a

matrix supported conglomerate (Fig. 3D). Probably

due to weathering process and the removal of some of

gypsum from this horizon to subsurface crusts, the

crust is vuggy and loose. Further weathering of this

crust leads to the concentration of lag gravels at the

surface that indicate an original thicker crust than that

is present today. Similar scattered gravely material on

hilltops or on broad plains of surface crusts has been

previously described by Cooke (1970) and Watson

(1988). They interpreted their occurrence as upward

migration of pebbles and cobbles through surficial

materials as a result of either volumetric changes in

the deposits during wetting and drying cycles or due

to erosion of finer materials.

Fig. 4. (A) Gypsum cement carbonate and shale fragments and forming a mottled pattern. (B) The massive mottled gypcrete horizon mantle

brecciated and uncracked carbonate bedrock. The breccia fragments increase in size downwards and have their longest dimension parallel to the

bedding. Note the scattered lag gravels on top of the gypsum crust. (C) Gypsum vein composed of dark brown and white laminae that has a

sharp contact with carbonate rock. (D) Irregularly shaped gypsum nodules scattered within marl layer and may result from filling of rootlet

hollows. GC: gypsum cement, Cr: carbonate or shale fragments.


3.2.2. Massive indurated gypcrete

This horizon is much thicker than the surface crust;

it is 30–70 cm thick crust, very hard, and resist to

erosion. It has a gypsum content varying from 60% to

90% (by weight). It ranges in color from white, gray,

dark gray to light brown, without any apparent sedi-

mentary structures. The crust is usually cut with 0.1–

7-cm-thick, black to dark gray gypsum veins that take

a horizontal, vertical or even oblique orientation (Fig.

3E). Upon quarrying, this horizon is cracked at the

weak planes of the gypsum veins into 20–50 cm

spheriodal masses.

3.2.3. Massive mottled gypcrete

This horizon ranges from 15- to 50-cm-thick

crusts, with gypsum content ranging from 50% to

Fig. 5. Variation in the frequency of micropetrographical features with depth through measured sections in Girza and Qattamia areas.


60% (by weight). The gypsum is white in color that

cement brick-like carbonate or shale fragments (Fig.

4A), ranging in size from a few millimeters near the

top to several centimeters near the bottom (Fig. 4B),

that render the whole crust a yellowish or greenish

coloration. The carbonate and shale fragments are

oriented with their long dimension parallel to the

bedding and may be densely aggregated or are widely

scattered. Therefore, the thickness of the gypsum

cement varies widely within the same crust. Dark

brown to black gypsum veins are also distributed in

this horizon (Fig. 4C).

The bedrock below the massive mottled gypcrete is

either gypsiferous shale or marl that is soft without

any apparent structures, or is composed of brecciated

carbonate. The shale or marl layers contain irregularly

Fig. 6. Comparison of the abundance of the micropetrographical features in the different gypcrete horizons of Girza and Qattamia areas.


shaped, < 2 cm gypsum nodules (Fig. 4D). The

carbonate fragments range from few centimeters

below the gypsum crusts to large (about 70 cm)

fragments to uncracked bedrock towards the bottom

(Fig. 4B). Sometimes, the cracks are filled with satin-

spar gypsum veins with a thickness up to 2 cm.

3.3. Petrography

Examination of thin sections from the different

gypsum crusts reveals that there are several types of

gypsum crystals. The petrographic terminology

employed to describe the micromorphology of gypsum

crystals is that provided by Watson (1985), which is

later accepted by Watson (1988), El-Sayed (1993,

2000) and Hartley and May (1998). The observed

forms of gypsum are microcrystalline gypsum, fine

and coarse lenticular gypsum, prismatic gypsum, por-

phyroblastic gypsum, poikilotopic gypsum and fibrous

gypsum. It is important to point out that these terms are

solely descriptive without any genetic implication as

that made in the familiar evaporites (e.g. Holliday,

Fig. 7. (A) Displacive growth of large lenticular gypsum between floating quartz grains that are surrounded with thin clay coat, Crossed Nicols.

(B) A thin clay coating to quartz and displacive gypsum crystals on the right hand side and a clear zone without clay coating on the left hand side

is most probably related to infiltrating meteoric water carrying clayey materials, Crossed Nicols. (C) A closely packed random prismatic gypsum

that are forming granular texture, with a scattered carbonate material, Crossed Nicols. (D) Porphyroblastic gypsum with interpenetrating

boundaries probably due to preferential growth of gypsum, Crossed Nicols. (E) Aggressive replacement of the large lenticular gypsum along one

side of the crystals with fine lenticular gypsum, Crossed Nicols. (F) A nodular structure of microcrystalline gypsum within coarse lenticular

gypsum most probably resulted from filling of rootlet hollows, Crossed Nicols. (G) Replacement of the porphyroblastic gypsum with prismatic

anhydrite due to climatic dehydration, Crossed Nicols. GL: large lenticular gypsum, GP: porphyroblastic gypsum, qz: quartz grains, Cl: clay

coating, gl: fine lenticular gypsum, gm: microcrystalline gypsum, An: prismatic anhydrite, GR: granular gypsum.


1970). Also, the presence of these forms of gypsum

crystals is not restricted to a certain gypsum crust, but

varies widely from horizon to horizon (Figs. 5 and 6).

Exception to this is the occurrence of poikilotopic

gypsum, which is restricted only to the lower massive

mottled gypcrete horizon.

Regardless of the extent of mineralogical and

textural alterations due to diagenesis, the main com-

ponents of the gypcrete horizons may be conventially

described in two categories: the host sediments and

the cementing gypsum materials.

3.3.1. Massive powdery gypcrete

In a decreasing order of abundance, the gypsum

crystals are represented by the following morpholo-

gies: lenticular, prismatic, porphyroblastic and micro-

crystalline. The non-evaporite component is

represented only with quartz (Figs. 5 and 6). The

lenticular gypsum crystals are coarse in size

(600� 2400 Am) and displacively grown with ran-

dom orientation between quartz grains (Fig. 7A).

Sometimes the lenticular gypsum crystals as well as

the host (detrital) quartz grains are lined with thin coat

of clay (Fig. 7B) that may be related to soil process.

The granular gypsum is composed of euhedral to

anhedral crystals, 400–800 Am in size, which are

scattered between quartz grains (Fig. 7C). The por-

phyroblasts of gypsum have a size ranging from 700

to 2000 Am. They have irregular interpenetrated

boundaries, sometimes with a smooth stylolitic pattern

(Fig. 7D). All types of gypsum crystals are slightly

corroded and engulfed with < 10 Am in size micro-

crystalline and fine lenticular gypsum crystals, that are

present as patches between the large crystals (Fig. 7E).

Also, the fine gypsum crystals are forming circular to

elliptical nodular structures between the large size

gypsum crystals (Fig. 7F) and may result from filling

of rootlet hollows after decay of the rootlet structure.

Similar elongated nodular structure is described by

Sanz-Rubio et al. (1999) and is interpreted as a

product of pedogenic process. Due to climatic dehy-

dration, the gypsum crystals in this horizon are usually

Fig. 7 (continued).


replaced with < 30 Am long, felted and prismatic

anhydrite crystals (Fig. 7G) that increase in intensity

toward the bed exposure, forming 10-cm-thick white

powdery anhydrite crust.

3.3.2. Massive indurated gypcrete

This horizon consists of higher gypsum content

(60–90%) than the overlying and underlying horizons

(Fig. 6). The overlying transitional boundary of this

horizon contains few quartz from the overlying hori-

zon and the underlying transitional boundary contains

few to slightly dense amount of carbonate or shale

fragments from the underlying horizon. The crystal

forms of gypsum are represented in a decreasing

abundance by microcrystalline gypsum, coarse lentic-

ular gypsum, fine lenticular gypsum and porphyro-

blasts of gypsum with a few cross cutting gypsum

veins. Some of the coarse lenticular gypsum and the

porphyroblastic gypsum exist as floating crystals with

highly corroded crystal boundaries within a ground

mass composed of fine lenticular gypsum and/or

microcrystalline gypsum (Fig. 8A). Corrosion of the

coarse lenticular gypsum and the porphyroblasts of

gypsum starts usually at crystal boundaries (Fig. 8A)

or less commonly restricted to one margin of the

crystals (Fig. 8B). The corrosion starts from minor

Fig. 8. (A) Preferential replacement of the large lenticular gypsum with microcrystalline and fine lenticular gypsum, Crossed Nicols. (B)

Selective ingression of the coarse gypsum crystals with microcrystalline gypsum at certain crystal boundaries, Nicols Crossed. (C) Scattered

vestiges of gypsum in fine lenticular gypsum due to high degree of replacement, Crossed Nicols. (D) Replacement of porphyroblastic gypsum

with fine lenticular gypsum with uncorroded quartz grains due to clay coating (arrows), Crossed Nicols. (E) Thick laminae of microcrystalline

gypsum interlaminated with thin laminae of fine lenticular gypsum, Crossed Nicols. (F) A slightly twisted vein filled with prismatic gypsum and

showing a swollen end of the vein (arrows), Crossed Nicols. (G) Highly twisted gypsum veins filled with fibrous gypsum in a ground mass of

alabastrine gypsum, Crossed Nicols. (H) Nodular structure filled with coarse lenticular gypsum in a ground mass composed of alabastrine

gypsum probably due to filling of rootlet hollows, Crossed Nicols. GL: large lenticular gypsum, GP: porphyroblastic gypsum, qz: quartz grains,

Cl: clay coating, gl: fine lenticular gypsum, gm: microcrystalline gypsum, gv: gypsum vein.


to high serrated crystal boundaries that still preserve

their primary crystal forms (Fig. 8A) to the occurrence

of small ( < 400 Am) vestiges of irregular gypsum

scattered within fine lenticular and/or microcrystalline

gypsum that form a floating pattern (Fig. 8C).

The microcrystalline gypsum ( < 10 Am in size) and

the fine (16� 80 Am) lenticular gypsum form small

and large, circular, elliptical or irregular patches in this

horizon or may form the whole thin sections (Fig. 8B

and C). In all these occurrences, floating quartz grains

and relics of clear gypsum crystals still existed (Fig.

8D). The fine gypsum crystals may form laminations

due to either size differences or due to alternation of

fine lenticular gypsum-rich laminae and microcrystal-

line gypsum-rich laminae (Fig. 8E).

Within the microcrystalline and the fine lenticular

gypsum as well as the large gypsum crystals, up to 60

Am thick veins of granular and fibrous gypsum are

widespread (Fig. 8F). Some of these gypsum veins

have ambiguous morphology as they are irregularly

twisted (Fig. 8G), of variable width ( < 100 Am) and

length ( < 2 cm). Some parts of the veins are swollen

either at the end of the veins (Fig. 8F) or throughout

their extension. Probably, cross-section of these veins

results into the circular or elliptical nodular structure

(Fig. 8H).

3.3.3. Massive mottled gypcrete

The morphologic and petrographic similarities of

this horizon in Girza and Qattamia areas are their

abundance in carbonate and/or shale fragments, pro-

duced by mechanical disintegration of the underlying

middle Eocene limestone and shale, and the presence

of poikilotopic gypsum, a feature which is not

recorded in the overlying horizons (Fig. 6). The

abundance of the other crystal forms of gypsum in

this horizon in Girza and Qattamia areas is varied. In

Girza area, this horizon consists of equal amount of

poikilotopic gypsum and coarse lenticular gypsum;

both are followed by a smaller abundance of micro-

Fig. 8 (continued).


crystalline gypsum and prismatic gypsum (Fig. 6).

Whereas in the Qattamia area, the gypsum crystals are

represented in a decreasing abundance by microcrys-

talline gypsum, coarse lenticular gypsum, fine lentic-

ular gypsum, porphyroblastic, poikilotopic and finally

prismatic gypsum (Fig. 6).

The coarse lenticular gypsum in this facies is much

thinner and longer (200� 2800 Am) than that

recorded in the overlying horizons (Fig. 9A). They

grow displacively within carbonate or shale fragments

(Fig. 9A), or may form smaller (100� 400 Am)

random lenticular crystals. When the lenticular gyp-

sum grow between carbonate or shale fragments (Fig.

9B), they are easily corroded and replaced by micro-

crystalline or fine lenticular gypsum to form a prefer-

ential dissolution features (solutional pitting). The

poikilotopic gypsum are widespread in this horizon

as clear, coarse (up to 4000 Am) crystals, which

encompass fine and coarse carbonate or shale frag-

ments which may exhibit preferred or random orien-

tation within the poikilotopic gypsum crystals (Fig.

9C). Sometimes in the Qattamia area, the gypsum

crystals are aggregated to form circular or elliptical

gypsum nodules that are scattered within the carbo-

nate or shale fragments (Fig. 9D).

4. Discussion

4.1. Source of gypsum

Studies of the distribution of the evaporite deposits

in Egypt show their close proximity to the present

shores of the Mediterranean Sea, Gulf of Suez, Gulf of

Fig. 9. (A) Thin, elongated lenticular gypsum grow displacively in carbonate fragment, Crossed Nicols. (B) The displacively grown large

lenticular gypsum is preferentially replaced with irregular patch of microcrystalline gypsum, Crossed Nicols. (C) Large poikilotopic gypsum

crystals enclose inclusion of carbonate fragments that form preferred orientation, Crossed Nicols. (D) Nodular and elongated-like structures

filled with fine lenticular gypsum in carbonate fragment, Crossed Nicols. GL: large lenticular gypsum, gl: fine lenticular gypsum, gm:

microcrystalline gypsum, GK: poikilotopic gypsum, Cr: carbonate fragments.


Aqaba and Red Sea for the marine sourced evaporites,

and in El Bahariya Oasis, Siwa Depression and

Qattara Depression for the groundwater sourced evap-

orites. In Girza and Qattamia areas, either marine or

groundwater origin for the gypsum crusts is aban-

doned because: (1) The nearest evaporite deposit is

located beyond 120 km to the east. Therefore, an

aeolian transport of gypseous materials eroded from

these deposits is discounted. (2) The possibility that

the Pliocene Sea in Egypt forms saline lakes (Abdal-

lah and El-Kadi, 1974) is disagreed because the

gypsum crusts cap rocks of Pleistocene age or capping

rocks that are not overlaid with Pliocene sediments as

on the plateau surface of the Qattamia area, and (3)

groundwater seepage or surface flooding from the

Nile ( + 20 m) or Lake Qarun (� 45 m) is not accepted

due to the elevation difference between their water

surfaces and the highest gypsum crust (about 99 m in

Girza). Therefore, it is impossible for the water to seep

for 150 m to be evaporated and to form gypcrete.

Despite the existence of gypsum in layers or

horizons, their geomorphic, stratigraphic and petro-

graphic characteristics ruled out deposition from per-

manent or ephemeral saline water body (e.g. lake,

lagoon, saline pan, etc.). The arguments to rule out the

subaqueous environment are: (1) The occurrence of

the gypsum in horizons that mantle the pediment

slope, plain, or topographic depression. (2) Gypsum

crystals are displacive or inclusive, and grow in a near

surface matrix. (3) The absence of bottom-nucleated

crystals, or brine–air or brine column nucleated

crystals. (4) The absence of a common nucleation

surface for the growing gypsum crystals. (5) Inclusion

of host rock materials between or within the gypsum

crystals. (6) Gypsum layers are relatively thin when

compared with subaqueous evaporites. In addition,

another argument that rule out a coastal sabkha setting

is the absence of peritidal to subtidal sediments such

as fine grained to micritic or dolomicritic carbonate,

as well as silty carbonate and carbonate siltstone

(Butler, 1970; West et al., 1979) in the gypsum crusts.

The liable source of gypcrete in the study areas is

the thick beds of the gypsiferous shale or marl, where

the gypsum crusts are localized only either over or in

close proximity to these deposits. Beyond the gypsif-

erous shale or marl beds, where the Cretaceous and

Eocene carbonate crop out, the rocks are capped with

calcrete, silcrete or ferricrete and show numerous karst

features (Philip et al., 1990; El-Sayed, 2002 and

reference therein).

4.2. Origin of the gypsum crusts

The origin of the different gypsum crusts is prob-

lematic. The morphology, textures and structures of

the gypsum crystals in each crust are considered

characteristics of eluvial, illuvial, hydromorphic, sur-

face exhumation or diagenetic processes. Combina-

tion of field, stratigraphic and petrographic char-

acteristics allowed the identification of the origin of

each crust.

The massive powdery gypcrete horizon, the top

most surficial horizon, consists of a mixture of coarse

lenticular gypsum, prismatic gypsum and porphyro-

blasts of gypsum that are displacively grown within

host sands and gravels. These crystal forms of gypsum

are considered characteristics of illuvial subsurface

crusts by Casten-Siedell and Hardie (1984), Watson

(1985, 1988) and Hartley and May (1998). These

gypsum crystals are primary grown by illuvial accre-

tion within a lower soil horizon. Exposure of this

illuvial crust through erosion of the overlying materi-

als brings the gypsum crusts into the upper eluvial soil

zone. During period of rainfall, all these crystals are

subjected to preferential dissolution and are replaced

by microcrystalline gypsum. During period of excess

rainfall, the dissolved gypsum by rain water is trans-

located to a lower soil horizon, leaving the upper

eluvial soil horizon slightly vuggy, and finally lead to

clast-supported conglomeratic patches within the gyp-

sum cemented conglomerate, and also lead to the

concentration of lag gravels on the surface crust.

The massive, porous and powdery nature of the

surface gypsum crust are considered as exhumed

subsurface crust, which is formed by degradation of

subsurface crusts to powdery residue, as a result of

dissolution, leaching and climatic dehydration. Exhu-

mation of the illuvial crusts is often brought by

aeolian erosion of the unconsolidated materials (Wat-

son and Nash, 1997).

The massive indurated gypcrete horizon consists

mainly of microcrystalline gypsum and fine lenticular

gypsum that are corroding and replacing coarse len-

ticular and prismatic gypsum crystals. In this subsur-

face gypsic crust, the gypsum crystals that deposited

at or near the ground surface is dissolved and leached


into this subsurface soil horizon, where it precipitated

rapidly during subsequent desiccation. Concomitant

with this process of illuviation is the degradation of

the large gypsum crystals that are formed as primary

crystals within this subsurface crust into fine gypsum

crystals. Both mechanisms result in the development

of a massive, clast-poor horizon between upper

gravel-rich horizon and a lower carbonate or shale-

rich horizon, similar to the B-horizon described from

mature illuvial saline desert soils of Quaternary age

(Amit and Gerson, 1986; Birkeland and Gerson,

1991), or Miocene age (Hartley and May, 1998).

However, the presence of fibrous and granular gyp-

sum veins of horizontal, oblique or vertical orienta-

tion, of variable widths (1–6 cm) in this horizon may

be related to periodic surface exposure of gypsum

crusts, similar to that interpreted by Hartley and May

(1998). The gypsum veins are probably filled ten-

sional cracks caused by desiccation (Tucker, 1978), or

thermal contraction (Cocurek and Hunter, 1986) from

infiltrating meteoric water highly enriched in gypsum

from dissolution of the overlying gypsum crust. The

gypsum veins are believed to be concomitant with the

formation of the microcrystalline and fine lenticular

gypsum formation, and therefore they are of similar

origin. Therefore, as discussed above, a purely illuvial

origin of this horizon is discounted based on the

presence of gypsum veins due to periodic surface

exposure of this crust.

The massive mottled gypcrete horizon consists of

poikilotopic, coarse lenticular, porphyroblastic, fine

lenticular and microcrystalline gypsum. These crystal

forms suggest an origin as a subsurface gypsic crust

formed by a combination of illuviation (coarse lentic-

ular and porphyroblastic gypsum), hydromorphic

(poikilotopic) and diagenetic (fine lenticular and

microcrystalline gypsum) processes. The consequence

of illuviation, hydromorphic accretion is enigmatic. It

is probably during a lower level of the water table

when coarse lenticular and prismatic gypsum is

formed by illuvial accretion. During high level of

the water table, poikilotopic gypsum is formed in the

lower soil zone in a lower slope location (Watson and

Nash, 1997) from evaporating groundwater, and are

characteristics of hydromorphic subsurface crusts

(Coque, 1962; Watson, 1985, 1988; Watson and Nash,

1997; Hartley and May, 1998). These are in-turn are

followed by corrosion of both illuvial and hydro-

morphic gypsum crystals to microcrystalline and fine

lenticular gypsum by their dissolution and rapid

recrystallization during desiccation.

The nodular and elongated structures that consist

of lenticular (Figs. 8H and 9D) or microcrystalline

gypsum (Fig. 7F) may result from filling of rootlet

hollows by infiltrating meteoric water after decay of

the rootlets. Similar rhizotubules either filled with

gypsum were described from coastal sabkha setting

by Aref et al. (1997), or controlling the growth of

nodular anhydrite has been described by Sanz-Rubio

et al. (1999) from palustrine continental sabkha set-

ting.

4.3. Origin of the gypsum crystals

Petrographic observation of the different gypsum

crusts in Girza and Qattamia areas have shown that

there are several micromorphological forms of gyp-

sum, each of which is not pertinent to a specific

horizon. Exception to this restriction is the occurrence

of poikilotopic gypsum in the massive mottled gyp-

crete horizon. However, it is often difficult to identify

the mode of origin of a particular crust by simply

studying it in a profile. Therefore, it is appropriate to

examine the micromorphological fabrics and crystal-

lization textures, which can be attributed to genetic or

diagenetic processes, which are specific to a certain

environment. This idea is in agreement with Watson

and Nash (1997), who mentioned that the micro-

morphology and chemistry of many crusts provide

the best available information on their origins.

The coarse lenticular gypsum, porphyroblasts of

gypsum and prismatic gypsum crystals which are

dominant in all gypsum crusts (Figs. 5 and 6), with

varying abundance, or that are present as vestiges

within a ground mass composed of microcrystalline

and fine lenticular gypsum (Fig. 8A, B and C) is an

evidence to their precursor primary origin. These

primary crystals are clear, with rarely host rock

inclusion, and grew displacively within a host sedi-

ment composed of clastic or carbonate materials. The

dominance of coarse lenticular gypsum over all crystal

forms indicates: (1) a crystallization from water rich in

organic compounds of terrestrial origin, and (2) the

possible insufficient supply of SO42 � relative to

Ca2 + , which lead to more adsorption of organic

matter and a low growth rate of the C-axis (Cody


and Cody, 1988; Aref, 1998). The granular gypsum is

composed of euhedral and subhedral prismatic crys-

tals that are densely aggregated (Fig. 7C). It may form

in water lacking such organic contaminant, or of a

variable composition.

The origin of porphyroblastic gypsum is problem-

atic, it is presented as large patchy crystals with

interpenetration boundaries (Fig. 7D) that may repre-

sent the discoidal orientation of lenticular gypsum that

has undergone preferential dissolution by infiltrating

meteoric water or may represent the preferential

growth of gypsum according to the available free

spaces. The porphyroblastic gypsum is not an indica-

tor to burial or uplift diagenetic environments after a

precursor anhydrite because the gypsum crusts are in

themselves a surficial feature and the absence of any

anhydrite vestiges within gypsum.

The poikilotopic gypsum that incorporates particles

from the host sediments is grown mainly by inclusive

growth. Such poikilotopic crystals develop when the

crystal growth rate exceeds the maximum rate of

particle displacement (Kastner, 1970). The poikilo-

topic crystals usually precipitate from underground

waters, 1–2 m below the land surface, that are

concentrated by capillary evaporation within a desic-

cated surface of continental sabkha, similar to obser-

vation by Coque (1962), Watson (1985) and Rouchy

et al. (1994).

The fine lenticular gypsum and the microcrystal-

line gypsum are produced by diagenetic processes

from preferential dissolution and leaching of former

gypsum crystals (Fig. 8A, B and C), and the subse-

quent rapid evaporation of these waters during sub-

sequent desiccation resulting into the precipitation of

a fine gypsum matrix. Experimentally, Zen (1965)

found that the solubility of gypsum in pure water is

about 2.0 g CaSO4 l� 1, but in the presence of sodium

chloride, gypsum solubility is raised to 8.0 g CaSO4

l � 1. It is observed that the gypsum crusts of the

Fayum area contain much Na + and Cl � ions when

compared to the Miocene evaporites of the Red Sea

and Mediterranean Sea (Aref et al., 2002). Therefore,

under the influence of infiltrating meteoric water,

which is slightly enriched in Na + and Cl� ions from

leaching of salt from the gypsiferous shale, the former

coarse gypsum crystals are subjected to dissolution

and subsequent rapid crystallization of fine gypsum

crystals during desiccation. The passageways of the

infiltrating meteoric water is evidenced by the occur-

rence of dark brown to black veins in the middle

indurated crusts (Fig. 3E) that are composed of fine

gypsum crystals. This process of gypsum degradation

from large to small crystals without anhydrite stage in-

between is uncommon in the familiar evaporites and is

similar to sparmicritization in calcrete (Kahle, 1977;

Watson and Nash, 1997).

4.4. Age and paleoclimatic implication

It is generally accepted that since the Quaternary,

the onset of arid conditions in the Egyptian Nile

Valley started in 300 ka (Middle Pleistocene) by

deposition of Dandara Formation (Dandara crisis)

(Table 1). This phase was followed by a short wet

phase, which, in turn, shifted to aridification from

about 100 ka (Late Pleistocene) (Paulissen and Ver-

meersch, 1987). El-Asmar (1994) found that at least

four arid climatic phases are presently related to four

groups of eolianites in northern Egypt that is follow-

ing four major transgressive phases. The oldest two

phases (300 and 125 ka) are conformable to the

above-mentioned arid phases. The youngest two arid-

ity phases is that at 90F 15 ka and 5000 years BP

(Table 1). Fontes and Gasse (1989) studied the Hol-

ocene and Late Pleistocene phases in North Africa.

They indicated the presence of a humid phase during

the Holocene dated up to 6000 years BP. This phase

was followed by an arid climatic condition that is

characterized by the occurrence of gypsiferous depos-

its and shows two short wet climatic conditions at

3700 and 3100 years BP.

During the middle and early late Pleistocene,

intense rainfall in Egypt results in the accumulation

of thick locally derived gravels (Abbasia Formation)

(Said, 1981). Because the gypsum crusts mantle the

polygenetic gravels of the Abbasia Formation and also

older Formations, it may be related to the early Late

Pleistocene (125 ka), Late Pleistocene (90 F 15 ka),

or the Late Holocene (5000 years BP) arid episodes

(Table 1). The presence of small channels at the

elevation of 40 m filled with fine sands that enclose

< 30 cm locally derived fragments from all the gyp-

sum crusts (Fig. 3B and C) indicate that the formation

of the gypsum crusts during arid phase should have

been followed by a pluvial period (Table 1). Also, the

numerous dissolution features in the gypcrete horizon


indicate several cycles of wetting and drying. There-

fore, the gypsum crusts may be dated probably to 125

or 90F 15 ka arid episodes, before the youngest

(5000 years BP) aridity phase. The surficial powdery

gypsum crust that mantle the channel and the sur-

rounding rock is probably the youngest gypsum crust

which may be related to the youngest aridity phase

(5000 years BP). However, the formation of gypcrete

should have been started by a wet period, where

rainfalls are sufficient to leach the gypsum from the

gypsiferous sediments to a lower soil zone. The

presence of rhizotubules filled with gypsum (Figs.

7F, 8H and 9D) in the gypsum crusts suggests a

relatively high rainfall.

4.5. Geomorphic implication

The Fayum Depression, about 33 m above sea

level, slopes gently towards Lake (Birket) Qarun, 45

m below sea level at the northwestern side of the

depression. This depression is formed in Plio–Pleis-

tocene time by fluvial activity followed by wind

deflation (Sandford and Arkell, 1929). Since the onset

of aridity during the Late Pleistocene time, the devel-

opment of gypsum crust over the highly gypsiferous

shale and marl beds will protect the land surface from

further wind deflation by consolidating surface layers.

Therefore, the rate of excavation of the depression in

the western side is greater than on the eastern side in

Table 1

Holocene and Pleistocene climatic phases in the Nile Valley and the Mediterranean coast of Egypt


that areas mantled by gypsum crusts. The existence of

gypsum crusts east of the Fayum Depression plays a

major role in the development of the present-day

topography of the Nile–Fayum divide (Fig. 10).

In the Qattamia area, surface gypsum crusts also

play an important role in limiting aeolian deflation of

loose sediments by cementing their surface layers.

When gypsum crusts develop over soft gypsiferous

Fig. 10. Schematic models for accretion of pedogenic gypsum crusts in Girza and Qattamia areas.


shale or marl beds in a topographic depression, this

surface layer contains more gypseous cement than the

surrounding higher rock types. Over a period of time,

consolidation of the surface gypsum crusts and

removal of the surrounding loose materials lead to

the development of relief inversion (Fig. 10), similar

to that described by Watson (1985).

4.6. Depositional environments

The geologic setting, sedimentologic and petro-

graphic criteria of the Quaternary evaporites in Girza

and Qattamia areas suggest that gypsum deposition

occurred in a pedogenic setting. It is suggested that

during wet periods, meteoric water flushes the gypsif-

erous beds, moves down slope and become saturated

with gypsum derived from the gypsiferous beds. Dur-

ing dry periods, the gypsum-rich meteoric water are

drawn to the surface by capillarity (per ascensum

model of Watson, 1985), which lead to gypsum crys-

tallization and crust accretion on the lower slope (Fig.

10). During another wetter period, the surface gypsum

crust is partially dissolved by meteoric water that

moves downward and is mixed with laterally moving

gypsum-rich meteoric water from the gypsiferous beds

which lead to deposition of subsurface gypsic crust (per

descensum model of Watson, 1985). Watson (1985)

argues that the amount of infiltrating water should not

exceed the soil moisture deficit because the soluble

salts cannot be flushed out of the soil zone. If the

amount of rainfall is exceedingly high, the soil moisture

storage capacity is exceeded, where the dissolved

gypsum will be carried into the groundwater zone. If

the infiltration capacity is exceeded, gypsum dissolved

at the surface will be removed in surface runoff

(Watson, 1985). During dry period, when the evapo-

ration rate of the groundwater exceeds the soil moisture

storage capacity, illuvial gypsum will grow displa-

cively (vadose gypsum), or inclusively (phreatic gyp-

sum), below the sediment surface. The growing

gypsum crystals lead to cementation of the host sedi-

ments (carbonate, shale, gravel or sand).

The absence of early diagenetic anhydrite crystals

in the studied gypsum point to a semiarid climate as in

northern Egypt (Ali and West, 1983; Aref, 2000), and

ruled out either arid or hyperarid climate as what

prevailed in the Arabian Gulf (Butler, 1970) or the

Red Sea region (Orszag-Sperber et al., 2001). The

observed epigenetic anhydrite crystals in the upper

surficial gypsum crust usually form thin ( < 10 cm)

white powdery crust, which is much thinner than the

Miocene and Quaternary evaporites of the Gulf of

Suez and Red Sea regions which may reach up to 3 m

in thickness. The variable thicknesses of the anhydrite

crusts may be due to: (1) the fact the gypsum crusts of

the Fayum area are subjected to a shorter period of

aridity relative to the older evaporites of the Gulf of

Suez and Red Sea regions. (2) The existence of the

gypsum crusts in the Fayum area nearer to the fresh

water of the Nile River, where the air moisture is less

saline when compared to the Gulf of Suez and Red

Sea evaporites. The latter are located adjacent to

seawaters where a relatively saline moisture are domi-

nated, which help in the conversion of much gypsum

to anhydrite. Similar effect of saline moisture is

described from the Holocene evaporites of the Gulf

of Aqaba where much epigenetic anhydrite is

observed toward the seaward side than the landward

side (Aref, 1998). (3) The existence of the Fayum area

toward the north where the climate is less arid, with

some periods of rainfall, whereas the Gulf of Suez and

Red Sea evaporites are located to the south, where the

climate is hyperarid, which favor a more conversion

of gypsum to anhydrite.

5. Summary and conclusions

Gypsum crusts (gypcrete) have been recorded

capping the Middle Eocene gypsiferous shale or marl

in Girza and Qattamia areas, as well as on the

Pliocene–early late Pleistocene sediments in Girza

area. In areas devoid of gypsiferous sediments, karst

features and karst facies with or without ‘‘Egyptian

Alabaster; CaCO3’’ are previously recorded in the

Eocene and Cretaceous limestone (Philip et al., 1990

and reference therein). Three horizons of gypcrete

have been identified from top to bottom: (1) massive

powdery gypcrete, (2) massive indurated gypcrete,

and (3) massive mottled gypcrete. The gypsum crusts

are composed of variable abundance of gypsum

crystals such as microcrystalline, fine and coarse

lenticular gypsum, porphyroblastic, prismatic and

fibrous gypsum. Stratigraphic and petrographic crite-

ria indicate that the gypsum crusts are formed through

complex processes of illuviation, hydromorphic, dia-


genetic and surface exhumation. The main source of

gypsum is from underlying or adjoining gypsiferous

shale or marl beds. Meteoric water plays a major role

in leaching the gypsum from the gypsiferous shale or

marl, translocation of the gypsum into favorable sites

of deposition. Evaporation of gypsum-enriched mete-

oric water lead to accretion of gypsum. Furthermore,

the meteoric water lead to dissolution, redistribution

and deposition of the gypsum between the different

crusts. Gypsum is formed mainly in the vadose zone

in the surficial crust. In the middle horizon, fluctuated

water table together with infiltrating meteoric water

governs gypsum dissolution, recrystallization and the

production of clast-poor horizon. In the lower horizon,

gypsum starts deposition in a vadose setting by

illuviation, followed by hydromorphic accretion dur-

ing high level of the water table. The occurrence and

identification of the gypsum crusts in the study areas

are of great importance with regard to paleoclimatol-

ogy, paleohydrology and paleogeomorphology. Pres-

ervation of the gypsum crusts at the surface, which is

greatly susceptible to dissolution, indicates the prev-

alence of arid climate since its formation. The gypsum

crusts also preserve the residual landforms from sub-

sequent severe erosion and weathering.

Acknowledgements

I wish to thank reviewers Prof. J.-M. Rouchy and

Prof. B.L. Valero Garces as well as editor Prof. B.

Sellwood for their reviews and constructive comments

which greatly improved the quality of the manuscript.

Thanks also to Prof. T. Horscroft for his effort. Early

discussions with Prof. M.M. El Aref and Prof. M.I.

El-Sayed are greatly appreciated.

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