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Reading Focus• How did peace create problems for the Allies?

• How did the Cold War conflict worsen in the late 1940s?

• What were some of the early Cold War confrontations?

• How did the arms race begin in the 1950s and early 1960s?

• How did the Cold War contribute to conflict around the world?

• How did the superpowers attempt to achieve arms control during the Cold War?

Main IdeaOnce partners in war, the Soviet Union and the other former Allies found it much more difficult to cooperate in peace. The result was an era of conflict and confrontation called the Cold War.

Beginnings of the Cold War

• In World War II the Allies worked together to defeat the Axis • At war’s end, shattered European nations needed to be dealt with • This task placed a great strain on the alliance

• Much of Germany in ruins when war ended, May 1945

• Allies needed to establish system to govern and rebuild nation

Occupying Germany• Allies began to plan

Germany’s future before war’s end

• Agreed on major issues at Potsdam

• Agreed to divide into four zones of occupation

Four Zones• Soviet Union to control

one-third

• Remaining two-thirds controlled by rest of Allies

• Also divided capital of Berlin into four occupation zones

Capital Divided

The Problems of Peace

Trials and Reparations• Military courts tried more than two hundred Nazi, military officials• Several dozen sentenced to death for roles in Holocaust, war crimes• Allies also agreed on plan for Germany to pay reparations for destruction caused by

war; in form of currency, industrial equipment• Soviet Union got largest share; had suffered greatest destruction

Ridding Germany of Nazis• Allies also worked together to establish plan to rid Germany of any remnants of Nazi

Party, Nazi beliefs• Brought former Nazi, military leaders to justice for crimes committed during war at

Nuremberg trials in Nuremberg, Germany; 1945–1949

Beyond Germany• Allies agreed on Germany, what to do with rest of Europe more difficult• Even before war ended, major Allied powers in conflict over Eastern Europe• Eastern Europe bordered Soviet Union, was occupied by Soviet forces

Growing Tensions• American, British leaders believed Stalin planned to establish pro-Soviet Communist

governments throughout Eastern Europe and beyond• Growing tensions between Allies about to lead to another conflict

Buffer Zone• Soviet leaders had been invaded by Germany in both wars• Wanted buffer zone of friendly governments to guard against another attack• Stalin promised to respect Eastern Europeans’ right to choose governments

Eastern Europe

As communism spread throughout Eastern Europe, tension between the Soviet Union and the western democracies continued to grow.

The relationship between the Soviet Union and the Western nations continued to worsen after the war. Soon the United States and the Soviet Union entered an era of tension and hostility, which became known as the Cold War.

• Cold War more than military rivalry

• Struggle for power, control between two nations with very different approaches

• Conflict between communism, capitalist democracy

The Struggle Begins

The Conflict Worsens

• Backed by Soviet troops, pro-Soviet Communist governments established in Eastern Europe

• Only Yugoslavia avoided Soviet domination, although it was led by Communist dictator

Pro-Soviet Governments

• March 1946, former British Prime Minister Winston Churchill gave speech in U.S.

• Churchill used image of iron curtain to describe the division of Europe as result of Soviet actions

• Said this was serious threat to peace

Iron Curtain• Tension worsened by Soviet failure to

remove troops from northern Iran

• January 1946, President Truman warned “Another war is in the making.”

• February 1946, Stalin stated publicly he believed war between East, West bound to happen

Another Possible War

More Tension

The democratic nations of the West soon faced a test of their resolve to contain the Communist East.

• Early 1947, Soviet backed Communists threatened governments of Greece, Turkey

• President Truman announced Truman Doctrine—pledge to provide economic, military aid to oppose spread of communism

• Congress agreed to send aid to Greece, Turkey

The Truman Doctrine• Because of post-war economies,

Truman believed more European countries might turn to communism

• U.S. launched massive program of economic aid

• Marshall Plan provided $13 billion for rebuilding Europe

• Plan helped Western Europe make rapid recovery from war, preserved political stability

The Marshall Plan

The West Resists

• Truman Doctrine, Marshall Plan demonstrated West’s Cold War policy, containment• Containment involved resisting Soviet aggression in order to contain spread of

communism• Confrontations between East, West soon became increasingly severe

• Division of Germany, Berlin originally meant to be temporary

• 1947, Western leaders began planning creation of independent democratic German nation

• Also planned democratic government in West Berlin

Crisis in Berlin• June 1948, Soviets blocked off land,

rail, water routes into West Berlin to force West to leave Berlin

• Western leaders organized Berlin airlift to supply Berlin by air

• Airlift successful; Soviets called off blockade May, 1949

West Berlin Blockade

Cold War Confrontations

New Nations and Alliances

Germany and NATO

• At end of Berlin crisis, western zones of Germany formed Federal Republic of Germany, or West Germany

• Soviet zone became German Democratic Republic, or East Germany

• U.S., Canada, most Western European countries joined in military alliance—North Atlantic Treaty Organization, NATO—designed to counter Soviet power in Europe

• 1955, Soviet Union, Communist nations of Eastern Europe formed own alliance, Warsaw Pact

Division of Korea• Allies gained control of Korea after Japan’s World War II surrender• Soviet Union, U.S. agreed to temporarily divide country in half• Soviets established Communist government in north; U.S. supported non-

Communist regime in south

MacArthur at Inchon• UN formed military force; troops from 17 nations sent to Korea• North Koreans nearly conquered south within matter of months• American general Douglas MacArthur, UN forces landed behind enemy lines at

Inchon; tipped balance back in favor of UN forces

Eisenhower’s Warning• June 1950, North Koreans attacked South Korea • U.S. asked United Nations to approve use of force to stop invasion• Eisenhower: “We’ll have a dozen Koreas soon if we don’t take a firm stand.”

War in Korea

Push Back• UN forces pushed North Koreans out

of south• Drove deep into North Korea near

Chinese border

Stalemate• 1951, war settled into stalemate• Battle lines lay about where they had

been before North Korea’s initial invasion

War Shifts Again

• War shifted again when Communist Chinese came to aid of North Korea

• Drove UN forces out of north

End of War• 1953, both sides agreed to armistice;

war over• Little changed during war• North remained Communist state;

South, ally of West

UN Responds

The U.S. technological advantage was short-lived. Less than one year later the Soviets tested their own hydrogen bomb.

During the 1950s and early 1960s nuclear war seemed to draw ever closer as the Soviet Union and the United States raced to develop powerful new weapons. This rivalry between the world’s two superpowers became increasingly tense—and dangerous.

• 1949, Soviets successfully tested atomic bomb

• Great military advantage of U.S. over Soviet Union gone

• U.S. sought to develop even more powerful weapons

The Nuclear Arms Race

The Arms Race Begins

• Atomic bombs used energy created by splitting atoms

• Nuclear fusion—larger explosion

• 1952, U.S. tested first fusion-powered hydrogen bomb, vaporizing island on which tested

Hydrogen Bomb

Strategy of Deterrence• Deterrence, development of or maintenance of military power to prevent attack• Two superpowers locked in arms race to gain advantage in weapons• U.S. had more weapons, but nuclear attack by either side would lead to terrible

destruction

Change in Tactics• Both sides forced to change military tactics• Could no longer rely on conventional forces, like troops, tanks• U.S., Soviets increased stockpiles of nuclear weapons• Nuclear weapons central to deterrence

In October 1957 the arms race took another leap forward with the Soviet Union’s successful launch of Sputnik.

• Sputnik, history’s first artificial satellite—object orbiting earth

• Soviet military technology now feared to be in the lead

• U.S. government established National Aeronautics and Space Administration, NASA

• Agency would eventually return United States to forefront of space research

Sputnik• Growing threat of nuclear war• Significant impact on people • Built bomb shelters to help protect

from nuclear explosion• Schools led air-raid drills to prepare

for possible Soviet attack• Books, movies, comic books had

plots centered on dangers of radiation, nuclear war

Public Fears

Soviet Union Launches Sputnik

Red Scare

Cold War led to so-called Red Scare in U.S. • Many Americans feared possible Communist influence in U.S.

government

• U.S. Senator Joseph McCarthy

– Prompted congressional committee in effort to expose Communists in American film industry, government, late 1940s, early 1950s

– Accused many innocent people of Communist activities

The Korean War showed that Cold War rivalry could lead to conflict far from the United States or the Soviet Union. During the Cold War, this rivalry led to struggles for influence in countries around the world.

• End World War II, France tried to reestablish control over Southeast Asia

• Communist rebels in Vietnam fought back, forcing French to give up control

War in Southeast Asia

• Peace agreement temporarily divided Vietnam in half

• Communists controlled North, anti-Communist regime ruled South

Vietnam Divided

• U.S. supported South Vietnam, when revolution broke out sent military troops

• Eventually North Vietnamese fought alongside rebels

• War dragged on until mid–1970s

American Support

Cold War Around the World

Crossing Over• After Communist East Germany, democratic West Germany formed in 1949, tens of

thousands of East Germans crossed from East to West Berlin• Some wanted to live in free nation, other simply wanted to find work

Communist Brutality• Barrier, Berlin Wall, heavily guarded• Anyone attempting to cross risked being shot by East German guards• Succeeded in slowing flight of East Germans, became symbol of Communist system

brutality

Berlin Wall• By 1961, up to 1,000 per day made daily trip between homes in East Germany, jobs

in West Berlin• To stop exodus, East Germany erected barrier between two halves of city

Another Crisis in Berlin

• 1959, rebels led by Fidel Castro overthrew Cuba’s dictator• Installed Communist government• Centrally planned economy, close ties with Soviets• Actions worried United States; Cuba near Florida coast• Cuba’s alliance with Soviet Union brought Cold War close to American territory

• U.S. government secretly trained invasion force to overthrow Castro

• April 1961, force came ashore at Cuba’s Bay of Pigs

• American officials believed invasion would start uprising against Castro

• Instead invaders quickly defeated

Bay of Pigs• 1962, Cuban missile crisis, two week

confrontation between U.S., Soviet Union over installation of nuclear missiles in Cuba

• After standoff missiles removed; U.S. agreed to remove missiles from Turkey, not attack Cuba

Cuban Missile Crisis

Communism in Cuba

Suez Canal• 1956, Egypt angered West by taking over Suez Canal• Britain, France, Israel attacked Egypt; Soviet Union would take Egypt’s side• U.S. demanded Western allies halt attack; conflict came to end

Angola• 1975, Angola won independence from Portugal• U.S., Soviet Union supported opposing sides in ensuing civil war which lasted until

1991

The Congo• Ending of European colonial rule in Africa brought superpower involvement• 1960 Belgium ended control of Congo; U.S., other western countries supported

military dictator Joseph Mobutu as good ally against Soviet Union

Other Cold War Conflicts

While relations between East and West were largely hostile throughout the Cold War, some attempts at cooperation were made.

• Eisenhower proposed open skies treaty with Soviet Union

• Each side could fly over other’s territory, gather accurate weapons information

• With accurate information, neither side would have to imagine worst about enemy

• Soviets rejected proposal

Early Arms Control• Soviet leaders proposed total nuclear

disarmament• United States rejected idea• President Kennedy favored limited

nuclear weapons tests• Cuban missile crisis convinced both

sides important to make arms control progress

• 1963 U.S., Soviets agreed on Test Ban Treaty

Test Ban Treaty

Attempts at Arms Control

SALT I• U.S. President Richard Nixon sought détente, reduced tension between

superpowers; started negotiations called Strategic Arms Limitations Talks• SALT I talks led to agreements limiting nuclear weapons held by each side

SALT II• Vulnerability important element of principle of deterrence• Two sides began new round of talks called SALT II• Talks resulted in arms control treaty in 1979: never ratified by U.S. Senate

ABM Treaty• Also led to Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty, preventing development of weapons

designed to shoot down nuclear missiles• Meant to ensure each side remained vulnerable to other’s nuclear weapons

SALT I and SALT II

Reagan Presidency• Reagan took aggressive position

against Soviet Union• Wanted to develop missile defense

system

INF Treaty• 1988, two countries ratified

Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty

• Called for elimination of certain types of missiles

Arms Reduction Talks• Idea of system seemed to violate spirit

of ABM Treaty• Began arms reduction talks with Soviet

leader Gorbachev

Improving Relations• After many years of conflict,

relationship between U.S., Soviet Union began to improve

The 1980s

• Western Europe faced challenging future after World War II• At end of war, much of Western Europe lay in ruins• Property, farmland destroyed; national economies collapsed; millions displaced

from homes; seemed on brink of chaos• Chaos did not come, thanks in large part to Marshall Plan

• With American aid, Western Europe’s factories produced more in 1950s than before war

• West Germany became major economic power

• Growth strong in other countries

Economic Growth• Availability of jobs attracted

immigrants from former colonies• Created strain as Europeans struggled

to adapt to newcomers, their cultures

Influx of Immigrants

Western Europe

World War II had changed Europe’s place in the world. The continent was no longer the center of world power; instead, the United States and the Soviet Union were centers of power.

• European nations began to end longstanding rivalries, work for common good

• NATO unified many nations in strong military alliance with U.S., Canada

Alliances

• Many Western European nations moved toward economic unity

• Cooperation begun in coal, steel industries, and development of atomic energy

Economic Unity

• Broader efforts to develop single regional market, free of trade barriers

• Goal to create single market to rival United States

Markets

Alliances and Economic Unity

The Common Market

European Economic Community • 1957, six European nations founded European Economic

Community; also known as Common Market

• 1960, seven other European countries formed rival European Free Trade Association

• True economic unity in Europe still years in future

Stalin-era economic and political restrictions loosened, but country remained Communist. Individual freedoms limited, still hostile stance against the West.

The challenges facing the Soviet Union and the Eastern European nations under its control were even more overwhelming than those facing Western Europe. Like Western Europe, however, the region soon began to recover.

• Tens of millions killed in war• Heavy damage to cities and farms• Soviet dictator Joseph Stalin

determined to rebuild quickly• Soviet Union had command economy

The Postwar Soviet Union

Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union

• Government controls all economic decisions

• Goods at prewar levels by 1953• Nikita Krushchev became leader of

Soviet Union, undertook effort to “de-Stalinize” Soviet Union

Command Economy

• Soviet crackdowns did not end protests in Eastern Europe

• 1980, Polish electrician Lech Walesa led hundreds of thousands of workers in anti-government protest movement, called Solidarity

• Poland’s Communist government used martial law to suppress movement, could not destroy it

Solidarity• Changes after Stalin’s death led

Eastern Europeans to hope for end of Soviet domination

• Soviet leaders made it clear reforms were limited

• Used or threatened force to crush public protests in many countries, assert control

• Troops put down revolts in East Germany (1953), Poland (1956), Hungary (1956), Czechoslovakia (1968)

Many Changes

Revolts in Eastern Europe

Soviet Economy Faltered• Soviet economy performed well after war, began to falter in 1960s• By 1980s, Soviet Union faced crisis; command economy system inefficient• Production goals with little regard for wants, needs of marketplace

New Concepts• Proposed two radical concepts—glasnost, perestroika• Glasnost, “openness,” willingness to discuss Soviet problems openly• Perestroika, “restructuring,” reform of Soviet economic, political system

Gorbachev• Goals stressed heavy industry, neglecting needed consumer goods• As result most sectors of Soviet economy ceased to grow• 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev came to power, saw need for change

Glasnost and Perestroika

Policy Reversal• Gorbachev knew Soviet Union could not afford to prop up Communist governments

of Eastern Europe

• Began to pull Soviet troops out of region, urged local leaders to adopt reforms

• Reversed decades of Soviet policy in Eastern Europe

Reforms• Gorbachev pushed through number of major reforms

• Aggressively pursued arms control agreements with U.S.

• Also reduced central planning of Soviet economy, introduced some free market mechanisms

• Eastern Europeans longed for freedom, did not wait for reform• 1989, revolution spread; citizens overthrew Soviet-backed leaders• Gorbachev, no longer wanting to control Eastern Europe, did not interfere• Most revolutions were peaceful• Solidarity forced elections in Poland; Lech Walesa elected president

• Czechoslovakia had Velvet Revolution—so called because it was peaceful

• Pushed communists out of power• Only bloodshed in Romania, where

some military forces remained loyal to Communist dictator

Czechoslovakia, Romania• Most dramatic changes took place in

East Germany• Berlin Wall opened November 1989• Strongest symbol of Soviet repression,

Cold War, finally fell• Less than year later, East, West

Germany reunified as single nation

East Germany

Revolutions in Eastern Europe

The fall of the Berlin Wall and the collapse of Soviet-backed regimes in Eastern Europe showed the dramatic crumbling of Soviet power.

• Soviet Union consisted of 15 separate republics

• Some had been independent nations before World War II and long wanted freedom

• 1990, Lithuania declared independence; appeared other republics planned same

• Not clear if Soviets had will, power to stop movement

Soviet Union Collapses• August 1991, hard-line Communists

tried to end Gorbachev’s reforms in coup

• Effort failed due to opposition of Boris Yeltsin, leader of republic of Russia

• Yeltsin favored more radical changes than Gorbachev

• Did not want to see hard-liners take over Soviet Union

Government in Crisis

The Breakup of the Soviet Union

• Twelve republics united in loose confederation, Commonwealth of Independent States

• Mighty Soviet Union, once one to two most powerful countries in world, no longer existed

• Cold War finally over after more than 40 years of tension, conflict

End of Soviet Union• Although coup failed, Gorbachev’s

power largely gone

• Republic after republic declared independence

• By end of 1991, Soviet government had ceased to function

Gorbachev’s Power Gone

Failed Coup

More Freedom• Yeltsin began to allow private ownership of businesses, land• Business owners, workers able to take advantage of economic opportunities• However, lost guarantee of government-backed job, other government supports

Economic Change• Soviet Union fell; communism ended in former Soviet republics• In largest republic, Russia, Boris Yeltsin began campaign to alter economy’s basic

structure• Goal to make economy function like capitalist system

Mixed Results

Early results of Russia’s reforms mixed • Some entrepreneurs prospered, most ordinary Russians did

not

• Prices rose sharply– Many Russians could not afford to buys goods in stores

– Some questioned benefits of market reform

• Early 2000s, Russia rebounded somewhat from economic crises; still, path from communism to capitalism not easy