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Climate change: a glossary of terms

Climate change 2012

5th Edition

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PrefaceThe IPIECA glossary of climate change terms was firstprinted in June 1999 and defines and explains many ofthe terms used at the climate change negotiations andmore broadly in the field. This fifth edition has beenupdated following the UN Climate Change Conferencein Durban, South Africa in December 2011 (COP 17 andCOP/MOP 7). Some terms have been amended, andnew terms and acronyms have been added.

Climate change: a glossary of terms5th Edition

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Contents

Alphabetical section Page number

A 3

B 13

C 16

D 27

E 30

F 36

G 39

H 43

I 44

J 48

K 49

L 50

M 52

N 55

O 58

P 59

Q 62

R 62

S 65

T 70

U 73

V 76

W 76

Y 77

Summary of terms 82

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CLIMATE CHANGE: A GLOSSARY OF TERMS

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AAUSee ‘Assigned Amount Unit’.

AB32AB32 is the popular reference to the greenhouse gas legis-lation signed into law in California as Assembly Bill 32, theGlobal Warming Solutions Act of 2006 by GovernorArnold Schwarzenegger. The law requires that emissions bereduced to 1990 level by 2020. Reducing greenhouse gasemissions to 1990 levels means cutting approximately 30%from business-as-usual emission levels projected for 2020,or about 15% from the level in 2008. AB32 also refers tothe implementing regulations adopted by the California AirResources Board in 2011, which went into effect in 2012.

AbatementActions resulting in reductions to the degree or intensity ofGHG emissions. Also referred to as mitigation.

AccessionAn act whereby a State becomes a Party to a treatyalready negotiated and signed by other States; has thesame legal effect as ratification.

Activities Implemented Jointly, or AIJ The pilot phase for joint implementation (JI), as defined inArticle 4.2(a) of the Convention, that allowed for projectactivity among developed countries (and their companies)and between developed and developing countries (andtheir companies). AIJ was intended to allow Parties to gainexperience in jointly implemented project activities. Thereis no crediting for AIJ activity during the pilot phase, whichhas been extended indefinitely. (See also ‘JointImplementation’ and ‘Clean Development Mechanism’.)

AdaptationAdjustment in natural or human systems to a new orchanging environment. Adaptation refers to adjustmentsin natural or human systems, intended to reduce vulnera-bility to actual or anticipated climate change and vari-ability or exploit beneficial opportunities.

A

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Adaptation AssessmentThe identification of options to adapt to climate changeand evaluate them in terms of criteria such as availability,benefits, costs, effectiveness, efficiency, and feasibility. In2001, COP 7 established the National Adaptation Plansof Action (NAPAs) programme to provide a process forLeast Developed Countries (LDCs) to identify and prioritizetheir adaptation needs.

Adaptation BenefitsThe avoided damages or the realized benefits followingthe adoption and implementation of adaptation measures.

Adaptation CommitteeThe Adaptation Committee was established by theConference of the Parties as part of the CancunAgreements to promote the implementation of enhancedaction on adaptation in a coherent manner under theConvention through various functions. These functions aredetailed in the Adaptation Framework.

Adaptation CostsCosts of planning, preparing for, facilitating, and imple-menting adaptation measures, including transition costs.

Adaptation FrameworkThe Cancun Agreements include an agreement to promotethe implementation of enhanced action on adaptation,which include, inter alia:(a) Planning, prioritizing and implementing adaptation

actions, including projects and programmes, andactions identified in national and subnational adapta-tion plans and strategies, national adaptationprogrammes of action of the least developed coun-tries, national communications, technology needsassessments and other relevant national planningdocuments;

(b) Impact, vulnerability and adaptation assessments,including assessments of financial needs as well aseconomic, social and environmental evaluation ofadaptation options;

(c) Strengthening institutional capacities and enablingenvironments for adaptation, including for climate-resilient development and vulnerability reduction;

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(d) Building resilience of socio-economic and ecologicalsystems, including through economic diversificationand sustainable management of natural resources;

(e) Enhancing climate change-related disaster risk reduc-tion strategies, taking into consideration the HyogoFramework for Action, where appropriate, early warn-ing systems, risk assessment and management, andsharing and transfer mechanisms such as insurance, atthe local, national, subregional and regional levels, asappropriate;

(f) Measures to enhance understanding, coordinationand cooperation with regard to climate changeinduced displacement, migration and planned reloca-tion, where appropriate, at the national, regional andinternational levels;

(g) Research, development, demonstration, diffusion,deployment and transfer of technologies, practicesand processes, and capacity-building for adaptation,with a view to promoting access to technologies, inparticular in developing country Parties;

(h) Strengthening data, information and knowledgesystems, education and public awareness;

(i) Improving climate-related research and systematicobservation for climate data collection, archiving,analysis and modelling in order to provide decisionmakers at the national and regional levels withimproved climate-related data and information.

Adaptation FundFinances adaptation projects and programmes in devel-oping countries that are Parties to the Kyoto Protocol. TheFund is financed with a 2% share of credits (CERs) fromCDM project activities and can receive funds from othersources.

Adaptive CapacityThe ability of a system to adjust to climate change, vari-ability and extremes to moderate potential damages, totake advantage of opportunities, or to cope with theconsequences.

AdditionalityThe Kyoto Protocol articles on Joint Implementation (Art. 6)and the Clean Development Mechanism (Art. 12) state

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that emissions reduction units (ERUs and CERs) will beawarded to project-based activities provided that theprojects achieve emissions reductions that are ‘additionalto those that otherwise would occur.’

Ad Hoc Group on the Berlin Mandate, or AGBMWorking group established by the first meeting of theConference of the Parties (COP 1) to develop a processaimed at strengthening developed countries’ commitmentsto greenhouse gas reductions in the post-2000 periodthrough the adoption of a protocol or other legal instru-ment. The AGBM process developed the Kyoto Protocol.

Ad Hoc Working Group, or AWGProcess established at COP/MOP-1 (Montreal, 2006) tonegotiate future commitments (beyond 2012) for Annex BParties to the Kyoto Protocol. Parties have agreed thatAWG negotiations should be completed in time to ensurethat there is no gap between the first and second commit-ment periods.

Ad Hoc Working Group on the Durban Platform forEnhanced Action, or ADPThe ADP was established ‘to launch a process to developa protocol, another legal instrument or an agreed outcomewith legal force under the Convention applicable to allParties, through a subsidiary body under the Convention’under decision 1/CP.17. The body has until 2015 to doso.

Adverse Effects/ImpactsAdverse effects or impacts, refers to the potential negativeeffects of human-induced climate change as well as theimpacts resulting from implementation of responsemeasures. Such effects or impacts include, e.g. sea levelrise, changes in precipitation, storms or other weatherpatterns, and reduced demand for fossil fuels or otherenergy intensive products. Impacts of climate change canbe positive as well as negative. (See also ‘Articles 4.8 and4.9’.)

ADPSee ‘Ad-hoc Working Group on the Durban Platform forEnhanced Action’.

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AfforestationThe act or process of establishing a forest on land that hasnot been forested in the past 50 years.

African GroupOne of the five regional groupings commonly used by theUN, and the only one working as an active negotiatinggroup under the UNFCCC. (See Regional Groups.)

AGBMSee ‘Ad-hoc Group on the Berlin Mandate’.

Aggregate ImpactsTotal impacts summed across sectors and/or regions. Theaggregation of impacts requires knowledge of (or assump-tions about) the relative importance of impacts in differentsectors and regions. Measures of aggregate impactsinclude, for example, the total number of people affected,change in net primary productivity, number of systemsundergoing change, or total economic costs.

AIJSee ‘Activities Implemented Jointly’.

Alliance of Small Island States, or AOSISThe Alliance of Small Island States is a coalition of smallisland and low-lying coastal countries that share similardevelopment challenges and concerns about the environ-ment, especially their vulnerability to the adverse effects ofglobal climate change. It functions primarily as an ad hoclobby and negotiating voice for Small Island DevelopingStates (SIDS) within the United Nations system. AOSIS hasa membership of 43 States and observers, drawn from alloceans and regions of the world: Africa, Caribbean,Indian Ocean, Mediterranean, Pacific and South ChinaSea. AOSIS functions on the basis of consultation andconsensus. The Alliance does not have a formal charter,and there is no regular budget, nor a secretariat. (AOSIS’own definition). AOSIS and other UN regional groupingsare informally defined and their structure and definitioncan change. Under the UNFCCC and Kyoto ProtocolAOSIS members are entitled to representation on Bureausestablished under the agreement.

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AllowancesLegally defined units that entitle the holder to emit onetonne of CO2 or CO2-equivalent of other greenhousegases. Under the Kyoto Protocol the units are AAUs, ERUs(from Joint Implementation), CERs (from the CleanDevelopment Mechanism), and RMUs (from LULUCF). Forcompliance, units must be surrendered in amounts equalto actual emissions over the commitment period. Under theKyoto Protocol emissions units may be traded betweencountries, or banked for use in future periods.

Alternative EnergyEnergy derived from non-fossil fuel sources.

AmendmentA modification by the COP to the text of the Convention,or by the MOP to the text of the Kyoto Protocol. If consen-sus cannot be reached, an amendment must receive three-quarters of the votes of all Parties present and castingballots. It then must be ratified by three-quarters of theParties, at which point it enters into effect for those partieswhich have ratified it.

Ancillary Benefits (IPCC definition)The ancillary or side effects of policies aimed exclusively atclimate change mitigation. Policies that address GHGemissions may have a variety of social and economicimpacts, for example on resource use efficiency trans-portation, agriculture, land-use practices, employment andenergy security. Sometimes these benefits are referred to as‘ancillary impacts’, to reflect the fact that in some cases theside effects may be negative. Since few policies are imple-mented for climate change mitigation alone, the term co-benefits is more commonly used. (See also ‘Co-benefits’.)

Annex I CountriesAnnex I to the UNFCCC lists all the countries in theOrganization of Economic Cooperation and Development(OECD) in 1990, plus countries with ‘economies in transi-tion’ (see entry), Central and Eastern Europe (excludingAlbania and most of the former Yugoslavia). By default theother countries are referred to as Non-Annex I countries.Under Article 4.2 (a and b) of the Convention, Annex Icountries commit themselves specifically to the aim of

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returning individually or jointly to their 1990 levels ofGHG emissions by the year 2000.

Annex II CountriesAnnex II to the UNFCCC lists all countries in the OECD in1990. Under Article 4.2 (g) of the Convention, thesecountries are obligated to provide financial resources toassist developing countries comply with their obligationssuch as preparing national reports. Annex II countries arealso expected to promote the transfer of environmentallysound technologies to developing countries.

Annex B CountriesAnnex B in the Kyoto Protocol lists those developed coun-tries that have agreed to a commitment to control theirgreenhouse gas emissions in the period 2008–12, includ-ing those in the OECD, Central and Eastern Europe andthe Russian Federation. The list of Annex B countriescurrently (2007) matches that of Annex I, with the exclu-sion of Turkey.

Anthropogenic EmissionsEmissions of greenhouse gases associated with humanactivities. These include burning of fossil fuels for energy,deforestation, land-use changes and emissions of otherGHGs.

‘Anyway’ TonnesThe emissions reductions achieved from projects thatwould have occurred anyway (irrespective of a country’spolicies to control GHG emissions). Some have arguedthat projects which are profitable would have been imple-mented anyway and, therefore, are not additional andshould not qualify for credits under the CDM or JI.

AOSISSee ‘Alliance of Small Island States.’

APPSee ‘Asia Pacific Partnership’.

AR4See ‘Fourth Assessment Report’.

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AR5See ‘Fifth Assessment Report’.

ARD Activities Afforestation, Reforestation, Deforestation (see separatedefinitions). These are the three land-use change andforestry activities which are included in Article 3.3 of theKyoto Protocol. Net changes resulting from these activitiesare allowed to be used by the Parties in meeting theirGHG obligations under the Protocol in the first commit-ment period (they are required in the second commitmentperiod). They are often referred to together as ARD. ARDActivities are the focus of Ch.4 of the IPCC Special Reporton Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry (LULUCF).

Article 3.9 (Kyoto Protocol)Future commitments for Annex B Parties to the KyotoProtocol are addressed in Article 3.9, which requires thatnegotiation of subsequent commitments (after 2012) byAnnex 1 Parties should begin at least seven years beforethe end of the first commitment period (2006).Implementation of this article led to the formation of theAd Hoc Working Group (AWG) at COP/MOP-1.

Articles 4.8 and 4.9 (UNFCCC)Adverse impacts of climate change, the impact ofmeasures taken to respond to climate change, andcompensation for these impacts is referred to in Articles4.8 and 4.9 of the Convention. This issue is alsoaddressed under Article 3.14 of the Kyoto Protocol. In thenegotiations, discussion of article 4.8 is of particularconcern to small island countries and those non-Annex Icountries whose economies are highly dependent onexporting fossil fuels. Article 4.9 refers specifically to thespecial situations of least developed countries (LDCs).

Articles 5, 7 and 8 (Kyoto Protocol)Issues surrounding the preparation (methodologies),communication and review of national inventories underthe Kyoto Protocol are addressed in Articles 5, 7 and 8respectively. The main aspects of the discussions of thesearticles include establishing appropriate methods (orconsequences for not having methods), how to account forsinks (LULUCF), how adjustments would be made to

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national inventories and monitoring of a country’sprogress against its Kyoto commitment.

Article 6 projectSee ‘Joint Implementation’

Article 6 Supervisory CommitteeSee ‘Joint Implementation Supervisory Committee’.

Article 9 (Kyoto Protocol)Under the Kyoto Protocol the COP/MOP must periodicallyreview the Protocol taking into account the best availableinformation on climate change. Based on the review’sfindings the COP/MOP is expected to take appropriateactions. In the negotiations some Parties have attempted touse the review to argue that the ultimate objectives of theConvention are not being met necessitating deeper cuts orwider participation from Parties. Other Parties believe thatthe review should focus on the progress of Annex 1 Partiesin meeting their obligations on emissions, financing andtechnology transfer. The first review was undertaken atCOP/MOP-2 with others following at regular intervals.

Article 12 ProjectSee ‘Clean Development Mechanism’

Asia Pacific Partnership, or APPA partnership of seven countries, Australia, Canada,China, India, Japan, Republic of Korea, and the USA, thatworked with private sector partners to address cleaneconomic development, energy security, national air pollu-tion and climate change. The partnership establishedeight task forces covering: aluminium; buildings and appli-ances; cement; cleaner use of fossil energy; coal mining;power generation and transmission; power generationand transmission; renewable energy and distributedgeneration; and steel. The programme was concluded in2011.

Assigned AmountUnder the Kyoto Protocol establishes limits on the totalamount of greenhouse gas emissions that each developedcountry may emit in the first commitment period(2008–12). The assigned amount is calculated by multi-

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plying total greenhouse gas emissions in 1990 by 5 (forthe five-year commitment period) and then by the percent-age agreed to as listed in Annex B of the Protocol (e.g.92% for EU Member State, 93% for the USA). Units of theassigned amounts are referred to as AAUs (AssignedAmount Units).

Assigned Amount Unit, or AAUUnder the Kyoto Protocol participating Annex B Partiesare allocated AAUs, each equivalent to one tonne of CO2equivalent emission, in an amount equal to the assignedemissions obligation. For compliance, at the end of thecommitment period, Annex 1 Nations must surrenderAAUs (and other recognized emissions allowances: seeCER and ERU) in an amount equal to their actual coveredemissions over the period. Annex B Parties that have rati-fied the Kyoto Protocol can exchange AAUs through emis-sions trading.

AtmosphereThe envelope of gases surrounding the earth and boundto it by the earth’s gravitational attraction. The atmosphereis divided into layers: the troposphere (from ground levelto between 8–17 km); the stratosphere (up to 50 km); themesosphere (50–90 km); and the thermosphere whichforms the transition zone to outer space.

AttributionClimate varies continually on all time scales. Attribution ofcauses of climate change is the process of establishing themost likely causes for observed changes with somedefined level of confidence. Attribution is complicated bynatural climate variability, by uncertain data regardingactual changes in climate forcing (from greenhousegasses, aerosols, sunlight and volcanoes) over the pastcentury and by uncertainty in climate models regardingthe response to observed changes in forcing. Discussionof attribution is an essential focus of Working Group 1 ofthe Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.

AuctioningOne approach by which emissions allowances could bedistributed by governments to entities covered by emissionsobligations or wishing to participate in emissions trading.

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AWGSee ‘Ad Hoc Working Group’.

BankingParties to the Kyoto Protocol may save excess emissionsallowances or credits from the first commitment periodfor use in subsequent commitment periods (post-2012).

BAPASee ‘Buenos Aires Plan of Action’.

BaselineA projected level of future emissions against which reduc-tions by project activities might be determined, or theemissions that would occur without policy intervention.

BASIC Group of CountriesBrazil, South Africa, India and China formed this bloc toalign negotiating positions on issues of common interestto these countries. They formed this bloc some timeduring the ramp up to COP15 Copenhagen and contin-ued this bloc afterwards. At COP17 Durban, China forthe first time made an intervention representing them-selves as part of BASIC, which differentiated them fromthe G77+China bloc.

BenchmarkingA process to assess relative performance among a groupof peers. Benchmarking is one means to establish allo-cations of emissions allowances.

Berlin MandateDecision of the Parties reached at the first session of theConference of the Parties to the UNFCCC (COP 1) in 1995in Berlin. Governments agreed that the commitments in theConvention were inadequate, and further established termsof reference for a negotiating process to prepare a proto-col or other legal instrument for commitments by Annex 1parties in the post-2000 period. The Mandate wascarried out by the Ad Hoc Group on the Berlin Mandate(AGBM), which negotiated the Kyoto Protocol.

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BINGOSee ‘Business and Industry Non-GovernmentalOrganization’.

BiofuelA fuel produced from organic matter produced byplants. Examples of biofuels include alcohols (fromfermented sugar), black liquor from the paper manufac-turing process, wood and soybean oil.

BiomassThe total dry organic matter or stored energy content ofliving organisms. Biomass can be used for fuel directlyby burning it (e.g. wood), indirectly by fermentation toan alcohol (e.g. sugar) or extraction of combustible oils(e.g. soybeans).

BorrowingThe Kyoto Protocol does not permit borrowing emissionscredits or units from future commitment periods to satisfyobligations in the current commitment period (e.g.2008–12). On the other hand, carrying forward excesscredits is allowed. (See also ‘Banking’.)

Brazilian ProposalA proposal by the delegation of Brazil made in May1997 as part of the negotiations on the Kyoto Protocol.It included a formula to set differentiated emission reduc-tion targets for Parties based on the cumulative contribu-tion of Parties’ historic emissions to the global averagesurface temperature change. While this approach wasnot adopted in the Kyoto Protocol, it continues to bediscussed as a possible means of setting targets forfuture commitment periods.

BTU TaxEnergy tax levied at a rate based on the BTU (BritishThermal Unit) energy content of a fuel.

BubbleArticle 4 of the Kyoto Protocol allows a group of coun-tries to meet their target listed in Annex B jointly byaggregating their total emissions under one ‘bubble’and sharing the burden depending on each individual

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country’s circumstances and agreement within thebubble. The 15 nations that comprised the EU in 1997agreed to aggregate and share their emissions commit-ments under one bubble for the first commitment period.Under Article 4 all Nations under the bubble will bedeemed to satisfy their emissions obligations if they aremet on an aggregate basis; if not, each member will beresponsible for its own compliance under the bubble.Some countries in the EU have taken on greater cuts thanthe 8% in the Kyoto Protocol (e.g. UK –12.5% andGermany –20%), enabling others under the EU bubbleto increase their emissions (e.g. Portugal +27%) duringthe first commitment period.

BudgetSee ‘Assigned Amount’.

Budget PeriodSee ‘Commitment Period’.

Buenos Aires Plan of Action, or BAPAThe Plan of Action agreed by governments at COP 4held in Buenos Aires (November, 1998). The Plan ofAction states the aim to resolve, by COP 6, a list ofoutstanding issues concerning the Convention and theKyoto Protocol, principally on the Kyoto Mechanismsand compliance. The development and transfer of tech-nology, compensation for adverse effects (of climatechange itself and mitigation policies), and the status ofprojects under the Activities Implemented Jointly (AIJ)pilot programme are also included in the Plan of Action.Agreement on the elements of the BAPA was reached atCOP 7 (Marrakech, 2001) and is often referred to as theMarrakech Accords.

Bunker Fuels, or International BunkersA term used to refer to fuels consumed for internationalmarine and air transport. Emissions from bunker fuelsare not currently subject to compliance obligationsunder the Kyoto Protocol, but are reported separately inthe greenhouse gas inventories prepared by Parties.This definition of bunker fuels differs from the generaldefinition of bunker fuels (described as any fuel oil usedby ships.)

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BureauA body responsible for advising the COP President onthe decisions before the COP and its subsidiary bodiesand working groups. Its 10 members are delegateselected by each of five regional groups. The Bureauincludes the COP President, six Vice-Presidents, theChairs of SBI and SBSTA, and a rapporteur. Each of theConvention’s subsidiary bodies also has a Bureau. TheIPCC and its Working Groups also have Bureaux.

Business and Industry Non-GovernmentalOrganization, or BINGOTerm used to describe observers from business andindustry organizations that attend the negotiations. TheSecretariat recognizes BINGOs as one group of stake-holders with observer status. In practice, representativesfrom BINGOs meet frequently during the negotiations todiscuss developments and also meet regularly with Partydelegates and the UNFCCC Secretariat.

CACAM Negotiating coalition of countries of Central Asia andthe Caucasus, Albania, and the Republic of Moldova.

Cancun AgreementsThis refers to the series of decisions made at COP 16Cancun, including amongst others:• Green Climate Fund• Technology Mechanism• Adaptation Framework• Fast-start finance• Forest management reference levels

CapSee ‘Emissions Cap’.

Capacity BuildingA process of constructive interaction between developedand developing countries to help developing countriesbuild the capability and skills needed to achieve envi-ronmentally sound forms of economic development.

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Under current negotiations, capacity building shouldassist developing countries to build, develop, strengthen,enhance and improve their capabilities to achieve theobjective of the Convention and their participation in theKyoto Protocol process.

Carbon Capture and Storage, or CCSCapture of CO2 emitted from large point sources,compression, transportation and injection into under-ground geological formations for long-term storage.

Carbon CycleThe natural processes that govern the exchange ofcarbon (in the form of CO2, carbonates and organiccompounds etc.) among the atmosphere, ocean andterrestrial systems. Major components include photosyn-thesis, respiration and decay between atmospheric andterrestrial systems (approximately 120 billiontonnes/year (gigatonnes); thermodynamic invasion andevasion between the ocean and atmosphere, operationof the carbon pump and mixing in the deep ocean(approx. 90 billion tonnes/year). Deforestation andfossil fuel burning releases approximately 8 Gt into theatmosphere annually. The total carbon in the reservoirsis approximately 2300 Gt in land biota, soil and detri-tus, 600 Gt in the atmosphere and 38,000 Gt in theoceans. (Figures from IPCC Third Assessment Report2001.) Over still longer periods, the geologicalprocesses of outgassing, volcanism, sedimentation andweathering are also important.

Carbon Dioxide, or CO2A naturally occurring gas, it is also produced by naturalprocess such as respiration, decay of vegetation orforest fires, and as a by-product of human activitiesincluding use of fossil fuels and biomass, as well as land-use changes and other industrial processes. It is the prin-cipal anthropogenic greenhouse gas that affects theearth’s temperature. It is the reference gas against whichother GHGs are indexed and therefore has a ‘GlobalWarming Potential’ (see entry) of 1. Carbon dioxideconstitutes approximately 0.038% of the atmosphere.The mass ratio of carbon to carbon dioxide is 12/44.

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Carbon Dioxide Equivalent, or CO2eqA metric that allows the contribution to radiative forcingof climate by different GHGs to be compared with forc-ing from CO2. The Kyoto Protocol utilizes the 100-yearGlobal Warming Potential (as reported in the SecondAssessment Report of the IPCC 1995) to assess relativecontributions GHGs on a mass-weighted basis.

Carbon Dioxide FertilizationEnhancement of plant growth or yield as a result of anincrease in the atmospheric concentration of CO2.

Carbon Disclosure Project, or CDPAn independent not-for-profit organization working todrive greenhouse gas emissions reduction (and sustain-able water) use by business and cities. The CDP requestsclimate change data from leading companies on behalfof roughly 650 institutional investors, to be used byfinancial decision makers in their investment, lendingand insurance analysis.

Carbon IntensityCarbon dioxide emissions per unit of energy oreconomic output.

Carbon LeakageCarbon leakage describes the relocation of GHG emis-sions from a carbon-regulated to a lower or non-carbon-regulated economy due to the additional cost of thatcarbon regulation. Regulation can be for direct emis-sions reduction or by placing a cost on emission viataxation and/or emissions trading. Carbon leakage is apotential consequence of carbon regulation and impliesno net benefit to, or even a deficit in, global GHG emis-sions. Delocalization is the specific process of industrialmigration—in this case particularly energy intensiveindustry moving to areas of low or no carbon regulation.

Carbon MarketA popular term for a trading system through which coun-tries may buy or sell units of greenhouse gas emissions(not just carbon dioxide) in an effort to meet theirnational limits on emissions, either under the KyotoProtocol or under other agreements, such as that among

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member states of the European Union. The term comesfrom the fact that carbon dioxide is the predominantgreenhouse gas and other gases are measured in unitscalled ‘carbon-dioxide equivalents’.

Carbon SequestrationThe storage of carbon or carbon dioxide in the forests,soils, ocean, or underground in depleted oil and gasreservoirs, coal seams and saline aquifers. Examplesinclude: the separation and storage of CO2 from fluegases or the processing of fossil fuels to produce H2; andthe direct removal of CO2 from the atmosphere throughland-use change, afforestation, reforestation, ocean fertil-ization, and agricultural practices to enhance soil carbon.

Carbon SinksNatural or man-made systems that absorb carbon diox-ide from the atmosphere and store them. Trees, plantsand the oceans all absorb CO2 and, therefore, arecarbon sinks.

Carbon TaxA tax placed on carbon emissions. It is similar to a BTUtax, except that the tax rate is based on the fuel’s carboncontent.

CBDSee ‘Convention on Biological Diversity’.

CCSSee ‘Carbon Capture and Storage’.

CDMSee ‘Clean Development Mechanism’.

CDPSee ‘Carbon Disclosure Project’.

CEESee ‘Central and Eastern Europe Group’.

Central and Eastern Europe Group, or CEEOne of the five regional groupings commonly used bythe UN. (See Regional Groups.)

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CERsSee ‘Certified Emission Reductions’.

Certified Emission Reductions, or CERsA CER represents one tonne of CO2-equivalent green-house gas emissions reductions achieved through aClean Development Mechanism project. It can be used tomeet an Annex B Party’s emission commitment or as theunit of trade in greenhouse gas emissions tradingsystems. lCERs are long-term CERs issued for an afforesta-tion or reforestation CDM project, that expire at the endof the crediting period for that project. tCERs are tempo-rary CERs issued for an afforestation or reforestationCDM project, that expire at the end of the commitmentperiod following the one in which they were issued.

CFCsSee ‘Chlorofluorocarbons’.

CGESee ‘Consultative Group of Experts’.

CH4See ‘Methane’.

Chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCsGreenhouse gases covered under the 1987 MontrealProtocol used for refrigeration, air conditioning, pack-aging, insulation, solvents or aerosol propellants.Because they are not destroyed in the lower atmosphere,CFCs mix into the upper atmosphere where, given suit-able conditions, they break down ozone. These gasesare being replaced by other compounds includinghydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) which are notcovered in the Kyoto Protocol (due to their inclusion inthe Montreal Protocol 1992) and hydrofluorocarbons(HFCs), which are greenhouse gases covered under theKyoto Protocol.

CHPSee ‘Cogeneration’.

CITLSee ‘Community Independent Transaction Log’.

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Clean Development Mechanism, or CDMDefined in Article 12 of the Kyoto Protocol, CDMprojects undertaken in developing countries areintended to meet two objectives: (1) to address thesustainable development needs of the host country; and(2) to generate emissions credits that can be used tosatisfy commitments of Annex B Parties and thus increaseflexibility in where government Parties meet their reduc-tion commitments. Projects that limit or reduce green-house gas emissions can earn the investor (governmentor industry) credits if approved by the CDM ExecutiveBoard. A share of the proceeds from the project activi-ties (US $0.10 per CER for first 15,000 tonnes CO2eq;US $0.20 per CER thereafter) is used to cover adminis-tration costs, and 2% of the credits are assessed tocreate an adaptation fund to assist developing countriesthat are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effectsfrom climate change to take action to adapt.

Clean Energy Futures (Australia)Clean Energy Futures is the title of the Act passed by theAustralian Parliament in 2011. The key provision of theAct is a carbon-pricing scheme with a fixed pricingschedule from 2012 to 2015. From 2015 onwards, theAustralian government will set an overall emissions cap.The government will set the cap by issuing a fixednumber of carbon permits each year. Each permit willrepresent one tonne of pollution. According to thegovernment’s Clean Energy Futures plan (July 2011),households and small businesses will have no directobligations under the carbon price. Around 500 of thelargest emitters in Australia will be required to pay fortheir pollution under the carbon pricing mechanism. Acarbon price will not apply to agricultural emissions oremissions from light on-road vehicles. A new ClimateChange Authority will provide independent advice to thegovernment on emission caps, the performance of thecarbon price and other initiatives.

ClimateThe average and statistics of variations of weather in ageographical region. The averaging period is typicallyseveral decades.

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Climate Change (UNFCCC definition)A change of climate which is attributed directly or indi-rectly to human activity that alters the composition of theglobal atmosphere and which is in addition to naturalclimate variability over comparable time periods.

Climate Change Response Act (New Zealand)The Climate Change Response Act enforced the NewZealand Emission Trading Scheme from 2010 onwards.The New Zealand scheme covers emissions of the follow-ing six greenhouse gases: carbon dioxide (CO2),methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), hydrofluorocar-bons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs) and sulphur hexa-fluoride (SF6). It is applied to the sectors forestry, trans-port fuels, electricity production, industrial processes,synthetic gases, agriculture and waste. Participants arerequired to surrender New Zealand Units to theGovernment according to their annual emission. Duringthe transition phase (July 2010 to December 2012) oneNew Zealand unit is required to cover every two metrictonnes of greenhouse gas emissions in a calendar year.Participants will be able to buy emission units from theGovernment for a fixed price of $25. From 2013, oneemission unit is equal to one tonne of emissions, with theprice of an NZU determined in the trading market.

Climate ConventionSee ‘UN Framework Convention on Climate Change’, orUNFCCC.

Climate FeedbacksInteraction between greenhouse gases and importantclimate mechanisms, such as vegetation, water vapour,ice cover, clouds, sea ice and the ocean. Such interac-tions can increase or decrease the warming producedby increased concentrations of greenhouse gases.

Climate ForcingSee ‘Radiative Forcing’.

Climate ModelsLarge and complex mathematical computer programmesused to simulate global climate. They are based on math-ematical equations that seek to represent the physical

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processes that govern the earth-atmosphere system. (See‘General Circulation Models’.)

Climate SensitivityThe change in earth’s average equilibrium surface airtemperature following a doubling of CO2 concentration(e.g from 275 ppm to 550 ppm). This is estimated by theIPCC Fourth Assessment Report as likely to be in therange 2 to 4.5°C with a best estimate of about 3°C. Thephrase ‘Climate Sensitivity’ does not refer to changes inany other climate properties.

Climate SurprisesClimate surprises, also referred to as rapid non-linearclimate change, are large, unexpected and relativelysudden changes in the climate system that may occur inthe future. Hypothesized events under discussion includeshutdown of the meridional overturning circulation(MOC), the rapid release of methane from triggered bymelting tundra or methane hydrates on the seafloor, orsignificant melting of continental scale ice sheets.

Climate SystemMajor interacting components that affect climate; theseinclude the atmosphere, land surface, hydrosphere,cryosphere, and biosphere.

CMPSee ‘Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting ofthe Parties’.

CO2See ‘Carbon Dioxide’.

CO2eqSee ‘Carbon dioxide equivalent’.

Co-benefits (IPCC definition)The benefits of policies that are implemented for variousreasons at the same time—including climate change miti-gation—acknowledging that most policies designed toaddress GHG mitigation also have other, often at leastequally important rationales, e.g. related to objectives ofdevelopment, sustainability and equity. The term co-

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impact is also used in a more generic sense to coverboth positive and negative side of the benefits. (See also‘Ancillary Benefits’.)

CogenerationAlso known as Combined Heat and Power (CHP), this isthe simultaneous production of electricity and processheat from the same fuel, creating a more efficientprocess than generating the two separately.

Combined Cycle Electricity generation where the waste heat of a gas-turbine generator is used to heat water in a boiler todrive a steam-turbine generator, thereby increasing effi-ciency.

Combined Heat and Power, or CHPSee ‘Cogeneration’.

Commitment PeriodTo allow Parties some flexibility in when they meet theirGHG emissions reduction obligations under the KyotoProtocol, the emissions targets apply over a multi-yearperiod (e.g. 2008–12), known as a commitment period.Terms governing subsequent commitment periods aresubject to future negotiation.

Commitment Period ReserveTo prevent Annex B Parties from overselling allocationsfrom their Assigned Amount. Annex B Parties arerequired to maintain a ‘commitment period reserve’ thatis equal to the lower of 90% of their respective assignedamounts, or ‘100% of five times their most recentlyreviewed inventories’.

Committee of the Whole, or COWA committee created by the COP to negotiate text. Itsmembership includes all the members of the COP, but itsformation allows a committee chair to lead the negotia-tions for more than a year. The COP President serves foronly a year. Thus far this approach has only been usedonce, to negotiate the Kyoto Protocol. When the COWcompleted its work, it turned it over to the COP forapproval.

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Common Reporting Format, or CRFStandardized format for reporting estimates of green-house-gas emissions and removals and other relevantinformation by Annex I Parties.

Community Independent Transaction Log, or CITLRecords the issuance, transfer, cancellation, retirementand banking of allowances within the EU ETS.

Compliance Article 18 of the Kyoto Protocol relates to sanctions fornon-compliance. Any binding consequences for non-compliance can only be adopted by an amendment tothe Protocol (amendments can be proposed by any Partyto the Protocol, but require ratification by three-quartersof the Parties to the Protocol). Saudi Arabia hasproposed such an amendment, to legally bind countriesto their targets. COP/MOP 3 in Bali, December 2007will decide whether to submit the proposed amendmentfor ratification.

Compliance CommitteeEstablished to facilitate, promote and enforce compli-ance with the provisions of the Kyoto Protocol. Thecommittee’s representation is spread among variousregions, small-island developing states, Annex I and non-Annex I parties, and functions through a plenary, abureau, and both a facilitative branch and an enforce-ment branch—10 members each. The ComplianceCommittee first met on 1–3 March 2006, and decidedits rules and procedures in November 2006 atCOP/MOP 2 in Montreal.

Conference of the Parties, or COPThe Conference of the Parties (to the UNFCCC) is thesupreme body of the Convention, comprised of countriesthat have ratified or acceded to the UNFCCC. The firstsession of the COP (COP 1) was held in Berlin in 1995,and sessions have been held annually since then.

Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of theParties, or CMP, or COP/MOPThe Conference of Parties to the UNFCCC also serves asthe meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol (CMP),

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the Protocol’s supreme body, but only Parties that haveratified or acceded to the Protocol may participate indeliberations and make decisions.

Conference Room Papers, or CRPs A category of in-session documents containing newproposals or outcomes of in-session work. CRPs are foruse only during the session concerned.

Consultative Group of Experts, or CGE Expert group on national communications from Partiesnot included in Annex I to the Convention, a panel estab-lished to improve the preparation of national communi-cations from developing countries. National communica-tions are an obligation of Parties to the UNFCCC.

Contact GroupContact groups, consisting of representatives of partici-pating Parties, assigned to develop draft text on specificnegotiating topics. Their proposals text is subject to finalapproval by plenary bodies. Contact groups typicallyare created to represent and reconcile varying points ofview expressed by blocks of nations in plenary sessions.Meetings of contact groups are usually open toobservers.

Contraction and ConvergenceSome have promoted the idea of ‘contraction andconvergence’ as a long-term strategy for managingglobal GHG emissions. Contraction refers to a decliningglobal cap which would be set on worldwide emissions,together with a reduction trajectory over many decades.Typically, emissions entitlements would be allocated tonations by a formula that would converge over timetowards equal per capita emission rights. Proponents ofthe system of contraction and convergence argue that itis equitable (being based on population) and that itwould be truly global, involving the participation of allcountries.

Convention on Biological Diversity, or CBDOne of three environmental conventions to arise from theUN ‘Earth Summit’ in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. (See ‘RioConventions’.)

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COPSee ‘Conference of the Parties’.

COP/MOPSee ‘Conference of the Parties serving as the Meeting ofthe Parties’.

COWSee ‘Committee of the Whole’.

Credit for Early ActionSome governments and firms have proposed givingcredit for actions to reduce emissions taken ahead ofimplementation of regulatory constraints.

CRFSee ‘Common Reporting Format’.

CRPsSee ‘Conference Room Papers’.

CSDSee ‘UN Commission on Sustainable Development’.

DAISee ‘Dangerous Anthropogenic Interference’.

Dangerous Anthropogenic Interference, or DAIDangerous GHG concentration. The ultimate objectiveof the UNFCCC is the stabilization of atmospheric GHGconcentrations at a level that would prevent dangeroushuman interference with the climate system. To date,dangerous remains undefined, and no official body hastaken or been assigned responsibility to provide a defi-nition. For now the IPCC has concluded that definingdangerous is a political decision. Any decision overwhat constitutes a dangerous GHG concentration wouldhave major implications for the emissions control poli-cies for all countries, as it would ultimately set anabsolute budget of emissions globally.

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DecisionA formal agreement that (unlike a resolution) leads tobinding actions. It becomes part of the agreed body ofdecisions that direct the work of the COP and UNFCCCSecretariat. Decisions enter into force immediately, arebinding on all Parties and do not require further ratifica-tion, accession or acceptance by Parties.

DeclarationA non-binding political statement made by ministersattending a major meeting (e.g. the Delhi MinisterialDeclaration on climate change and sustainable develop-ment at COP 8).

DeforestationThe removal of forest stands by cutting and burning toprovide land for agricultural purposes, residential orindustrial building sites, roads, etc., or by harvesting thetrees for building materials or fuel.

Demand-side ManagementPolicies and programmes designed to reduce consumerdemand for electricity and other energy sources. Whensuccessful such programmes reduce the need to constructnew power facilities or develop other energy sources.

Demonstrable ProgressParagraph 2 of Article 3 of the Kyoto Protocol states that‘Each Party included in Annex I shall, by 2005, havemade demonstrable progress in achieving its commit-ments under this Protocol.’ There is no consensus yet onthe meaning of the term ‘progress’ (for example, is it anactual reduction in GHG emissions by 2005, the adop-tion of policies and measures which will enable a Partyto meet its Kyoto Commitment by 2012, or in meetingfinancial obligations to developing countries), nor onhow it will be demonstrated. This will be debated againat COP/MOP3.

DesertificationThe progressive destruction or degradation of vegetativecover, especially in arid or semi-arid regions borderingexisting deserts. Overgrazing of rangelands, large-scalecutting of forests and woodlands, drought, burning of

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extensive areas and climate changes all serve to destroyor degrade the vegetation cover.

Designated National Authority, or DNAAn office, ministry, or other official entity appointed bya Party to the Kyoto Protocol to review and give nationalapproval to projects proposed under the CleanDevelopment Mechanism.

Discount RateThe implicit weighting of the present over the future isknown as discounting and the rate at which the weightchanges is the discount rate. The term reflects the pointthat today’s investments generate future wealth.Individuals express preferences about when benefits andcosts are desired and typically, the later a cost or benefitoccurs, the less it matters. One of the major issues ineconomics is ‘what is the appropriate discount rate to useunder various circumstances’. Several values exist includ-ing both public and private rates. Private discount rates,which include profit, are typically higher than publicdiscount rates.

DNASee ‘Designated National Authority’.

Documents Official UNFCCC documents are available to all eitherin hard copy at UNFCCC meetings or on the UNFCCCwebsite. They carry a unique document number andmany are translated into all six UN languages. Theycarry a variety of codes indicating which Convention orKyoto Protocol body is responsible for them and whattype of document they are. (See CRPs, L Docs, and Misc.Docs.) There are also a wide variety of unofficial docu-ments including statements from Parties, preliminarynegotiating texts, and publications from observergroups. These are often difficult to obtain in hard copyand are not available on the UNFCCC website.

Drafting GroupSmall group established by the President or Chair of aConvention body to meet separately and in private toprepare draft text—text which must still be formally

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approved later in a plenary session. Observers gener-ally may not attend drafting group meetings.

Dynamic TargetsEmissions objectives that are adjusted according to apre-agreed metric such as gross domestic product for aneconomy, or production level for an industry; also knownas relative, output-based, intensity or indexed targets.

Earth Summit (1992), or UN Conference onEnvironment and Development, or UNCEDA major conference held in 1992 in Rio de Janeiro atwhich, amongst other things, the UN FrameworkConvention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was signedby more than 150 countries. (See ‘Rio Conventions’.)Since followed by similar summits in 2002 and 2012.

Earth Summit (2002)See ‘World Summit on Sustainable Development(2002)’.

Earth Summit (2012)See ‘UN Conference on Sustainable Development(2012)’.

EASDSee ‘Equitable Access to Sustainable Development’.

EB See ‘Executive Board’.

Economic PotentialThe portion of technological potential for greenhousegas emissions reductions or energy efficiency improve-ments that could be achieved cost-effectively through thecreation of markets, reduction of market failures, orincreased financial and technological transfers. Theachievement of economic potential requires additionalpolicies and measures to break down market barriers.

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Economy in Transition, or EITRefers to Russia and the Eastern European countries thatare in the transition from centrally controlled to marketeconomies. These countries are listed in Annex I of theConvention, but not Annex II.

EcosystemThe interacting system of a biological community and itsnon-living environmental surroundings.

EGTT See ‘Expert Group on Technology Transfer’.

EITSee ‘Economy in Transition’.

EligibilityDiscussion of eligibility relates firstly to the requirementsfor Annex B Parties to be eligible to participate in the useof the three Kyoto Mechanisms and secondly to whether aproject would be eligible to qualify for credit under theCDM. In the first case, Parties are eligible to participate inthe Kyoto Mechanisms if they meet certain requirements.These include: being in compliance with commitmentsunder Articles 5 and 7 and submitting the last availablenational inventory report; having a national system for theestimation of GHG emissions; and having ratified theProtocol. In the second case, eligibility in the CDM refersto the type of technology or project that would qualify forcredit. This may depend on the sustainable developmentcriteria of the host country, the size of the project and thetype of technology used, e.g. nuclear, fossil fuel or renew-able (see ‘Positive and Negative Lists’).

El Niño/La Niña/ENSOAt irregular intervals, but on average about every fouryears, widespread warming of the east-central equatorialPacific sea surface temperature occurs. This warming,which typically lasts for about a year, is called an El Niñoevent. (The term has its origins in a seasonal Christmas-time phenomenon off the South American coast that isprolonged and amplified when the pan-Pacific eventoccurs.) El Niño can be regarded as the warm phase ofa major climate oscillation. During the cold phase, called

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La Niña, the equatorial Pacific sea surface temperature iscooler than normal. The sea surface temperatures areassociated with widespread atmospheric shifts in winds,rainfall etc. Southern Oscillation is the term for thechanges in tropical surface pressure that accompany theEl Niño/La Niña cycle. The events involve strong interac-tion between the ocean and atmosphere, and the termENSO (El Niño/Southern Oscillation) is often used torefer to the phenomenon as a whole. In the Pacific regionthe ENSO cycle produces large coherent changes in trop-ical ocean currents, temperature, trade winds, rainfallpatterns, etc. Through atmospheric teleconnections,ENSO also influences seasonal climate in many otherregions around the globe.

Emissions (UNFCCC definition)The release of greenhouse gases and/or their precursorsinto the atmosphere over a specified area and period oftime.

Emissions CapA mandated restraint, in a scheduled time frame, thatputs a ‘ceiling’ on the total amount of anthropogenicgreenhouse gas (GHG) emissions that can be releasedinto the atmosphere. The Kyoto Protocol mandates capson the GHG emissions released by developed countrieslisted in Annex B.

Emissions PermitThe phrase emissions permit is sometimes used to referto the non-transferable or tradable entitlement bestowedby an administrative authority (intergovernmental orga-nization, central or local government agency) to aregional (country, sub-national) or a sectoral (an individ-ual firm) entity to emit a pollutant within specifiedconstraints. In some settings, an emissions permit isrequired for activities that create emissions, and theoperator responsible for emissions must acquire andsurrender emissions allowances in amount equal toactual emissions.

Emissions Reduction Purchase Agreement, or ERPAA legally binding document signed between the sellerand buyer of allowances from Kyoto Mechanisms, at an

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arranged price for a specified volume over a period oftime. The ERPA may be based on standard formats asthat designed by the International Emissions TradingAssociation (IETA).

Emissions Reduction Unit, or ERUAn ERU represents one tonne of CO2-equivalent green-house gas emissions reductions achieved through a JointImplementation project. It can be used to meet an AnnexB Party’s emission commitment or as the unit of trade ingreenhouse gas emissions trading systems.

Emissions ScenariosA plausible representation of the future development ofemissions of substances that are radiatively active (e.g.greenhouse gases, aerosols), based on a coherent andinternally consistent set of assumptions about drivingforces (such as demographic and socio-economic devel-opment, technological change) and their key relation-ships. Concentration scenarios, derived from emissionsscenarios, are used as input into a climate models tocompute climate projections.

Emissions TradingA market-based approach to achieving environmentalobjectives that allows those reducing GHG emissionsbelow what is required to use or trade the excess reduc-tions to offset emissions at another source inside oroutside the country. In general, trading can occur at thedomestic, international and intra-company levels. Article17 of the Kyoto Protocol, allows Annex B countries toexchange emissions obligations. Domestic implementingregulations determine the extent to which firms andothers may be allowed to participate. International emis-sions trading constitutes one of the Kyoto Mechanisms,designed to provide Annex B countries cost-effective flex-ibility in reducing emissions to achieve their agreedcommitments.

ENGOSee ‘Environmental Non-Governmental Organization’.

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Entry Into Force The point at which an intergovernmental agreementbecomes legally binding—occurring at a pre-stated inter-val after a pre-stated and required number of ratifica-tions by countries has been achieved. The UNFCCCrequired 50 ratifications to enter into force. It now entersinto force for each new Party 90 days after that Partyratifies the Convention.

Environmental Integrity GroupA small negotiating bloc consisting of Switzerland,Mexico, South Korea, and more recently Lichtensteinand Monaco. This group seeks to maintain ‘environmen-tal integrity’ during the negotiations which, for them,means minimizing the trade of hot air and the use ofsinks to meet Annex B commitments. In practice thegroup seeks to assure that one of their members will beincluded in contact groups or representative delibera-tions on these topics.

Environmental Non-Governmental Organization,or ENGOThe term used to describe observers from environmentalgroups that attend the negotiations. The ENGOs meetregularly during the negotiations to discuss develop-ments and to meet with Party representatives and theUNFCCC Secretariat.

Equitable Access to Sustainable Development, or EASDA term arising leading up to the Durban COP 17 nego-tiations, referring to the need to quantify the differingneeds and responsibilities of countries to sustainabledevelopment in light of greenhouse gas emissions. Aworkshop was held on this in 2012.

ERUSee ‘Emissions Reduction Unit’.

EU Burden-sharing (see ‘Bubble’)The agreement reached among the 15 states that weremembers of the EU in 1997 to jointly fulfil their commit-ments, as allowed by Article 4 of the Kyoto Protocol. TheEU burden-sharing reallocated emission levels to eachcountry, from the homogeneous 8% reduction of the

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Protocol’s Annex B. In practice if the EU meets its emis-sions obligations under the Kyoto Protocol, each of itsmember states will be deemed to have met their commit-ments. If the EU fails to achieve its overall target thenmembers states will be accountable for emissions underthe burden sharing agreement.

EU ETSSee ‘European Union Emissions Trading Scheme’.

EUASee ‘European Union Allowance’.

European Union Allowance, or EUAEmissions allowances distributed to installations by theirrespective governments under the EU ETS. Eachallowance corresponds to one tonne of CO2 that can beemitted during the scheme’s commitment period.

European Union Emissions Trading Scheme, or EU ETSEmissions trading programme covering large CO2 emit-ting installations within the European Union. Each coun-try within the European Union has a National AllocationPlan which provides installations in covered sectors withan allocation of tradeable allowances for their CO2 emis-sions, and may also allow for auctioning of allowances.

Executive Board of the CDM, or EBThe 10-member EB supervises the CDM, under theauthority and guidance of the COP/MOP and is respon-sible for approving new methodologies, accreditingthird-party validators and verifiers, approving projectsand ultimately issuing carbon credits for CDM projects.

Expert Group on Technology Transfer, or EGTTEstablished at COP 7 with the objective of enhancing theimplementation of Article 4.5 of the Convention, byanalysing and identifying ways to facilitate and advancetechnology transfer activities under the Convention. TheEGTT’s mandate has now ended, and at COP 17, aTechnology Mechanism was agreed (see TechnologyMechanism).

The EGTT’s mandate was reviewed at COP 12.Agreement was not reached on the future mechanism for

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enhancing technology transfer and the EGTT’s life wasextended for a year. COP 13’s agenda will include thefuture of the EGTT.

Expert Review TeamsGroups of experts, nominated by Parties, who reviewnational reports submitted by Annex I Parties to theUNFCCC, and the Kyoto Protocol.

External CostUsed to define the economic costs arising from anyhuman activity, when the agent responsible for the activ-ity does not take full account of the impacts on others oftheir actions. Various stakeholders may hold differingviews as to how such impacts should be weighted.

ExternalitySee ‘External Cost’.

FAOSee ‘Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN’.

FCCCSee ‘UN Framework Convention on Climate Change(UNFCCC)’.

Fifth Assessment Report, or AR5The fifth in a series of Intergovernmental Panel onClimate Change Assessment Reports which assesses theexisting scientific literature on climate change. Theassessment process will consist of three Working Groups(WG), issuing three WG reports and a Synthesis Report,to be completed in 2013/2014: • WG I: The Physical Science Basis—mid September

2013• WG II: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability—

mid March 2014• WG III: Mitigation of Climate Change—early April

2014• AR5 Synthesis Report (SYR)—October 2014

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Financial MechanismDeveloped country Parties (Annex II Parties) are requiredto provide new and additional financial resources toassist developing country Parties implement theConvention. To facilitate this, the Convention establisheda financial mechanism to distribute funds to developingcountry Parties. The financial mechanism is operated bythe Global Environment Facility (GEF) under guidancefrom the COP.

Flexibility MechanismsSee ‘Kyoto Mechanisms’.

Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN, or FAOUnited Nations organization providing a source ofknowledge and information, which leads internationalefforts against hunger.

Fourth Assessment Report, or AR4The fourth in a series of Intergovernmental Panel onClimate Change Assessment Reports which assesses theexisting scientific literature on climate change. Thereport was finalized in 2007 and consists of three mainsections: The Physical Science Basis; Impacts,Adaptation and Vulnerability; and Mitigation of ClimateChange. There is also a short Synthesis Report whichdraws together the findings from the three main reports.Each report contains a short Summary for Policy Makersand Technical Summary.

ForestKey to the identification of Kyoto lands is a definition offorest that is consistent for all Parties. This definition iscritical to the accounting of sources and sinks under theKyoto Protocol (Articles 3.3 and 3.4). There are manydefinitions of forest, based on land-use status (adminis-trative/cultural records) or a minimum threshold ofcanopy cover and/or tree height. None, however, werespecifically designed for carbon accounting as requiredunder the Protocol. This definition and the implications ofusing different definitions are addressed in detail inChapter 3 of the IPCC Special Report on LULUCF. TheIPCC 2006 Guidelines for National GHG Inventoriesprovide a broad, non-prescriptive definition of forest

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lands, but leave it to individual countries to decide whichof their lands they will designate as forest.

Forest ManagementForest management is the application of biological,physical, quantitative, managerial, social and policyprinciples to the regeneration, tending, utilization andconversion of forests to meet specified goals and objec-tives while maintaining forest productivity. Managementintensity spans the range from wilderness set-asides toshort-rotation woody cropping systems. Forest manage-ment encompasses the full cycle of regeneration, tend-ing, protection, harvest, utilization and access. (FromIPCC Special Report on LULUCF.)

Fossil FuelsCarbon-based fuels that have accumulated in geologicaldeposits over very long periods, including coal, oil andnatural gas.

Friends of the ChairDelegates called upon by the Chair (who takes intoaccount the need for political balance among variousinterests) to assist in carrying out specific tasks.

Fuel CellAn electrochemical device that combines hydrogen andoxygen to produce electricity, heat and water. Thesource of hydrogen can be either pure hydrogen or anumber of other fuels (such as methanol or other hydro-carbons) which are first converted to hydrogen andCO2.

Fuel SwitchingSupplying energy services using different fuels. Oftenused to refer to actions that reduce CO2 emissions fromelectric utilities by switching from coal to natural gas.

Fugitive Fuel Emissions Greenhouse-gas emissions as by-products or waste orloss in the process of fuel production, storage, or trans-port, such as methane given off during oil and gasdrilling and refining, or leakage of natural gas frompipelines.

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Full-cost PricingThe pricing of commercial goods, such as electricpower, that includes in the final prices faced by the enduser not only the private costs of inputs, but also the costsof externalities created by their production and use.

FungibilityFungibility refers to the possibility that one unit/product,or a unit of a currency, can be exchanged for, orreplaced by another. The Kyoto Protocol’s proceduresmake AAUs, CERs and ERUs fungible.

G77/China, or Group of 77 and ChinaOriginally 77, now more than 130 developing countriesthat act as a major negotiating bloc. The G77 andChina are also referred to as non-Annex I countries inthe context of the UNFCCC.

G8, or Group of EightForum of the heads of state of Canada, France,Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia, United Kingdom andUnited States. The group undertakes policy research,holds conferences and meets at an annual summit. TheGleneagles Plan of Action on Climate Change, CleanEnergy and Sustainable Development was launched atthe 2005 summit (see also ‘Gleneagles Plan of Action’).

GCF See ‘Green Climate Fund’.

GCMsSee ‘General Circulation Models’.

GCOSSee ‘Global Climate Observing System’.

GEFSee ‘Global Environment Facility’.

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Geo-engineeringThe deliberate, large-scale manipulation of the planet’senvironment as a potential option to stabilize the climatesystem by directly managing the energy balance of theEarth, thereby overcoming the enhanced greenhouseeffect.

General Circulation Models, or GCMsLarge and complex computer programmes that attemptto mathematically simulate global climate. They arebased on mathematical equations that seek to representthe physical processes that govern the earth-atmospheresystem. (See ‘Climate Models’.)

GGFRSee ‘Global Gas Flaring Reduction Partnership’

GHGs See ‘Greenhouse Gases’.

GISSee ‘Green Investment Scheme’.

Gleneagles Plan of ActionA set of measures, launched at the 2005 G8 Summit inGleneagles, Scotland, to address climate change, cleanenergy and sustainable development. The Plan of Actionbuilds on and supports existing efforts on energy effi-ciency improvement, reducing emissions from trans-portation, developing cleaner fuels, renewable energy,promoting R&D and financing of projects. The G8 isworking with the IEA and other international bodies toachieve these goals (see also G8).

Global Climate Observing System, or GCOSAn international system established in 1992 to ensurethat the observations and information needed to addressclimate change issues are obtained and made availableto all users.

Global Environment Facility, or GEFA jointly funded programme established by developedcountries at the time of the Rio Summit to meet theirobligations under various international environmental

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treaties. GEF serves as the interim operating entity of thefinancial mechanism for the UNFCCC, but is beingreplaced by the Green Climate Fund. It provides funds tocomplement traditional development assistance bycovering the additional or ‘agreed incremental costs’incurred by non-Annex I countries, when a national,regional or global development project also targetsglobal environmental objectives such as those whichaddress biodiversity.

Global Gas Flaring Reduction partnership, or GGFRThe World Bank’s GGFR public-private partnership waslaunched at the World Summit on SustainableDevelopment in Johannesburg in 2002. GGFR supportsthe efforts of oil producing countries and companies toincrease the use of associated natural gas and thusreduce flaring and venting, which wastes valuableresources and damages the environment.

Global WarmingThe observed increase in global average surface temper-ature. Often (poorly) used as a synonym for ‘climatechange’, which is a more accurate definition of thewider impacts of greenhouse gases on the climate

Global Warming Potential, or GWPA time dependent index used to compare the radiativeforcing, on a mass basis, of an impulse of a specificgreenhouse gas relative to that of CO2. Gases includedin the Kyoto Protocol are weighted in the first commit-ment period according to their GWP over a 100-yeartime horizon as published in the 1995 SecondAssessment Report of the IPCC. In the 2001 TAR, thevalues were updated slightly, so that a kilogram ofmethane for example has a radiative force of about 23times greater than that of a kilogram of CO2. The GWPof CO2 is defined as 1, thus methane has a GWP of 23over the 100-year time horizon.

GrandfatheringA method used to allocate emissions credits to compa-nies or other legal entities, typically based on theirhistorical emission levels. Alternative emissions creditallocation methods include benchmarking (based on effi-

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ciency standards) and auctioning where allowanceshave to be paid for.

Green Climate Fund, or GCFCOP 16 Cancun created the Green Climate Fund (GCF),designated to be the new operating entity of theConvention’s financial mechanism, to be governed by aboard of 24 members from across the regions. Partiesagreed to set up a Transitional Committee tasked withthe Fund’s detailed design, and established a StandingCommittee to assist the COP with respect to the financialmechanism. Final details of the fund are to be agreed byCOP 18.

Green Investment Scheme, or GISProposal that revenues earned by countries through thesale of ‘hot air’ are invested in projects that provide envi-ronmental benefits such as additional emission reduc-tions, capacity building, education or socialprogrammes that would support future reductions.Designed to ally concerns over the environmentalintegrity of ‘hot air’.

Greenhouse EffectThe trapping of heat by naturally occurring (watervapour, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, methane andozone) and synthetic (CFCs, SF6, HFCs, PFCs) atmos-pheric gases that absorb infrared radiation. The naturalgreenhouse effect keeps the earth about 30° C (55° F)warmer than if these gases did not exist.

Greenhouse Gases, or GHGsGases in the earth’s atmosphere that absorb and re-emitinfra-red radiation. These gases occur through bothnatural and human-influenced processes. The majorGHG is water vapour. Other primary GHGs includecarbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, methane, ozone andCFCs.

Group of 77 and ChinaSee ‘G77/China‘.

Group of EightSee ‘G8’.

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GRULAC Group of Latin American and Caribbean States—one ofthe five regional groupings commonly used by the UN.(See Regional Groups.)

GWPSee ‘Global Warming Potential’.

HFCsSee ‘Hydrofluorocarbons’.

Heat-Island EffectLocalized warming produced in cities due to the densityof infrastructure, such as pavement, buildings and roadsthat retain heat. This effect can influence temperaturereadings obtained from nearby weather stations. In itsFourth Assessment Report, the IPCC concluded that theheat island effect had negligible impact on global aver-age temperatures.

Hot AirA few countries, notably Russia and the Ukraine, haveemissions allocations under the Kyoto Protocol thatappear to be well in excess of their anticipated emis-sions in the first commitment period (as a result ofeconomic downturn since the baseline year of 1990).The potentially excess allocation is referred to as hot air.Under the Kyoto Protocol first commitment period, itcould be traded with other Parties.

Hydrofluorocarbons, or HFCsAmong the greenhouse gases controlled in the KyotoProtocol ‘basket of gases’. They are produced commer-cially as a substitute for Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) andHydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs). HFCs are largelyused in refrigeration and insulating foam. Their GlobalWarming Potentials over a 100-year time horizon rangefrom 12 to 1200 times that of CO2, depending on theHFC. (See ‘Global Warming Potential’.)

H

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ICAOSee ‘International Civil Aviation Organization’.

ICCInternational Chamber of Commerce—the world busi-ness organization (www.iccwbo.org). ICC acts as theconvenor of the business and industry meetings atUNFCCC and Kyoto Protocol meetings. It also developsposition statements.

IDRSee ‘In-depth Review’.

IEASee ‘International Energy Agency’.

IEA Greenhouse Gas R&D ProgrammeAn international collaborative research programmestudying technologies to reduce greenhouse gas emis-sions. The programme is funded by its members whichincludes member countries, the European Commission,OPEC, and industry sponsors.

IGOSee ‘Intergovernmental Organization’.

IMOSee ‘International Maritime Organization’.

Impact ModelsComputer programmes used to estimate the impact of aspecific climate change on natural, social or economicsystems.

ImplementationActions undertaken by governments to translate interna-tional accords into domestic law and policy. It includesthose events and activities that occur after the issuing ofauthoritative public policy directives, which include theeffort to administer and the substantive impacts onpeople and events. It is important to distinguish between

I

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the legal implementation of international commitments(in national law and regulations) and the effective imple-mentation (measures that induce changes in the behav-iour of target groups).

Implementation CostsCosts involved in the implementation of mitigation options.These costs are associated with the necessary institutionalchanges, information requirements, market size, opportu-nities for technology gain and learning, and economicincentives needed (grants, subsidies, and taxes).

In-depth Review, or IDR A process by which an Annex I Party’s implementation ofthe Convention and/or the Kyoto Protocol is technicallyassessed by international teams of experts.

Informal Consultations, or Informal Contact GroupA group of delegates instructed by the President or aChair to meet in private to discuss a specific matter in aneffort to consolidate different views, reach a compro-mise, and produce an agreed proposal, often in the formof a written text. Observers generally may not attendinformal consultations unless specifically permitted bythe Chair.

Informal informalsAn ‘informal informal’ is a more recent arrangement,used at COP 16 Cancun and COP 17 Durban, wherethe private meeting has no formal chair but is organizedby a facilitator to accomplish similar objectives as aninformal contact group.

Integrated AssessmentA method of analysis that combines results and modelsfrom the physical, biological, economic, and socialsciences, and the interactions between these compo-nents, in a consistent framework, to evaluate the statusand the consequences of environmental change and thepolicy responses to it.

Intensity TargetsA dynamic target expressed by the ratio of emissionsover gross domestic product or unit of output.

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Intergovernmental Organization, or IGOOrganizations constituted of governments. Examplesinclude The World Bank, the Organization of EconomicCooperation and Development (OECD), the InternationalCivil Aviation Organization (ICAO). The Conventionallows accreditation of these IGOs to attend the negoti-ating sessions.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, or IPCCPanel established in 1988 by governments under theauspices of the World Meteorological Organization andthe UN Environment Programme. It prepares assess-ments, reports and guidelines on: the science of climatechange and its potential environmental, economic andsocial impacts; technological developments; possiblenational and international responses to climate change;and cross-cutting issues. It is currently organized into 3Working Groups which address: I) Science; II) Impacts,Adaptation and Vulnerability; and III) Mitigation. Thereis also a Task Force to develop methodologies for GHGinventories.

International BunkersSee ‘Bunker fuels’.

International Civil Aviation Organization, or ICAOAn agency of the United Nations, codifies the principlesand techniques of international air navigation andfosters the planning and development of international airtransport.

International Energy Agency, or IEAParis-based organization formed in 1973, it now has amembership of 25 countries (OECD members). The IEA’soriginal purpose was to manage future oil supply short-falls. They have also agreed to share energy informa-tion, to coordinate their energy policies and to cooper-ate in the development of energy programmes. Todaythe core mission of the IEA remains unchanged, but ithas extended its activities to include providing energystatistics and other information and analysis worldwide,as well as reporting regularly on the energy policies ofits Member States and those of selected non-Members.Through a variety of implementing agreements, the IEA

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is also a focal point for sharing information on emergingenergy technology.

International Maritime Organization, or IMOThe IMO promotes cooperation among governments andthe shipping industry to improve maritime safety and toprevent marine pollution.

International Transaction Log, or ITLThe central registry, linked to both national registries andCITL, used to record the issue, international transfer andcancellation of emissions allowances during the Kyotocommitment period. It also ensures each party registry iscompliant with the Kyoto Protocol on each transaction.

InventoriesCountries are required to submit regularly an inventory oftheir GHG emissions. The IPCC has provided guidanceon how to estimate and report on anthropogenic GHGemissions and removals, using a standardized tabularreporting format for six major sectors: energy; industrialprocesses; solvents and other product use; agriculture;land-use change and forestry; and waste. In addition toa sector-by-sector approach of summing carbon dioxideemissions from fossil fuel combustion, the IPCC method-ology specifies that, as a check, a top-down approach beused to calculate emissions based on national fuelconsumption data. A range of companies and associa-tions are also preparing GHG inventories and themethodologies to calculate them. A number of factorsneed to be considered when designing a corporate GHGinventory including: emissions factors versus directmeasurements; boundary definition around operations;the inclusion of emissions from contractors; and material-ity. Certain sources of emissions, such as bunker fuels,are intentionally excluded from inventories for now.

IPCCSee ‘Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change‘.

IPCC Special Report on Emissions ScenariosA report issued in 2000 which defined widely usedemissions scenarios at the time, and for the FourthAssessment Report. (See ‘SRES Scenarios’.)

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ITLSee ‘International Transaction Log’.

JISee ‘Joint Implementation’.

JISCSee ‘Joint Implementation Supervisory Committee)’.

JLGSee ‘Joint Liaison Group’.

Joint Implementation, or JIJointly implemented projects that limit or reduce emis-sions or enhance sinks are permitted among developedcountries under Article 6 of the Kyoto Protocol. JI activityis also permitted in Article 4.2(a) of the Convention,between all Parties. As defined in the Kyoto Protocol JIallows developed countries, or companies from thosecountries, to cooperate on projects to reduce green-house gas emissions and share the emissions reductionunits (ERUs). As JI occurs between Annex B countries(who have emissions caps), no new emissions units aregenerated (unlike the case with projects under the CleanDevelopment Mechanism). JI can be viewed as an invest-ment for ERUs swap. There is a two-track procedure forapproval of JI projects. Track 1 applies if both Partiesare in compliance with their Kyoto Protocol obligations,in which case JI projects are approved by the govern-ments involved. Track 2 applies if one or both Parties areout of compliance, in which case the JI project must bereviewed by an accredited independent agency, using aprocess similar to that used for the Clean DevelopmentMechanism.

Joint Implementation Supervisory Committee, or JISCResponsible for implementing JI. The JISC has 10members from Parties to the Kyoto Protocol and theseare comprised of three Annex B Parties, three non-Annex B Parties, three EIT and one SIDS. Parties thatmeet the predefined eligibility requirements follow a

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simplified procedure for the transfer and/or acquisitionof ERUs—known as Track 1. Parties that do not meetthese requirements have to undergo a verification proce-dure by the JISC—known as Track 2.

Joint Liaison Group, or JLGA group comprised of representatives of UNFCCC,Convention on Biological Diversity, and UN Conventionto Combat Desertification Secretariats set up to explorecommon activities to confront problems related toclimate change, biodiversity, and desertification.

JUSSCANNZ An acronym representing a grouping of the non-EUindustrialized countries. It included Japan, USA,Switzerland, Canada, Australia, Norway and NewZealand, which met to discuss joint positions during thenegotiation of the Kyoto Protocol. After ratification of theKyoto Protocol, JUSSCANNZ evolved into the UmbrellaGroup (see ‘Umbrella Group’).

Kyoto BasketUnder the Kyoto Protocol’s first commitment period,Parties committed to control emissions of a ‘basket’ of sixGHGs—carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, HFCs,PFCs and SF6. The arrangement is meant to give the flex-ibility which would enable a Party to increase emissionsof any gas in the ‘basket’ provided commensurate reduc-tions were made in another gas in the ‘basket’. AtCOP 17 Durban, a seventh GHG, NF3, was agreed tobe added to the second commitment period of the KyotoProtocol.

Kyoto LandsThe Kyoto Protocol describes land use, land-use changeand forestry activities that require or allow the net GHGemissions from sinks to be accounted for by Parties inmeeting their emission reduction commitments. The landson which these activities take place are designated asKyoto Lands.

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Kyoto Mechanisms(formerly known as Flexibility Mechanisms)Procedures that allow Annex 1 Parties to meet theircommitments under the Kyoto Protocol based on actionsoutside their own borders. As potentially market-basedmechanisms they have the potential to reduce theeconomic impacts of greenhouse gas emission-reductionrequirements. They include Joint Implementation(Article 6), the Clean Development Mechanisms(Article 12) and Emissions Trading (Article 17).

Kyoto ProtocolThe Protocol, drafted during the Berlin Mandate process,that requires countries listed in its Annex B (developednations) to meet differentiated reduction targets for theiremissions of a ‘basket’ of greenhouse gases (see ‘KyotoBasket’). Separate commitment periods set the levels ofthose reductions, the countries involved, and the baseyear. It was adopted by all Parties to the UNFCCC inKyoto, Japan, in December 1997 and entered into forceon 16 February 2005. However, the United States neverratified Kyoto and Canada subsequently withdrew inDecember 2011. The second commitment period, begin-ning 2013, will also not see Japan or Russia take reduc-tion targets, leaving only European and Australasiandeveloped countries with Kyoto targets.

L Docs In-session documents that contain draft reports and textsfor adoption by the COP or its subsidiary bodies.Usually such documents are available in all six UNlanguages.

lCERsSee ‘Certified Emission Reductions’.

LDCsSee ‘Least Developed Countries’.

LDCFSee ‘Least Developed Country Fund’.

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Leakage, or Carbon LeakageCarbon leakage occurs when regulations designed toreduce carbon emissions in one region result in the emit-ting activity moving to a region outside of the jurisdic-tion. Under the Kyoto Protocol, it refers to the portion ofreductions in greenhouse-gas emissions by Annex BParties that may reappear in other countries not boundby emission limits. For example, restrictions in devel-oped countries may shift investment in emission-intensiveactivities to developing countries.

Least Developed Countries, or LDCsAn informal group of countries defined using a numberof parameters including per capita GDP. Under currentproposals, Least Developed Countries and Small IslandDeveloping States would gain special consideration foradaptation and Convention funding, technology trans-fer, capacity building and the CDM.

Least developed country Expert Group, or LEGA panel of 12 experts which provides advice to LDCs onthe preparation and implementation of national adapta-tion programmes of action (NAPAs)—plans for address-ing the urgent and immediate needs of those countries toadapt to climate change.

Least Developed Country Fund, or LDCFA fund established to assist LDCs in developing andimplementing their National Adaptation Programmes ofAction (NAPAs). It is administered by the GlobalEnvironment Facility (GEF). (See ‘NAPAs’ and ‘GEF’.)

LEGSee ‘Least Developed Country Expert Group’.

Liability Liability relates to the consequences falling on partiesinvolved in a transaction that were the result of over-sell-ing of some party’s Assigned Amount. A number ofoptions have been proposed, for example: the (over)seller is liable and would pay the penalty for non-compli-ance; the buyer is liable and the trade would beunwound, returning the AAUs to the overseller; or otherhybrid options where liability is shared. The requirement

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for a commitment period reserve (see entry) hasaddressed many of these concerns.

LinkingA procedure to allow transaction between emissionstrading systems in different entities, or to allow for theuse of allowances from offset projects.

Lock-in Technologies and PracticesTechnologies and practices that have market advantagesarising from existing institutions, services, infrastructure,and available resources; they are very difficult to changebecause of their widespread use and the presence ofassociated infrastructure and socio-cultural patterns.

Long-term Certified Emission Reductions, or lCERsSee ‘Certified Emission Reductions’.

LULUCFLand Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry—see ‘ARDActivities’ and ‘Kyoto Lands’.

Market BarriersConditions that prevent or impede the diffusion of cost-effective technologies or practices that would mitigategreenhouse gas emissions.

Market ImpactsImpacts that are linked to market transactions anddirectly affect Gross Domestic Product (a country’snational accounts)—for example, changes in the supplyand price of agricultural goods. (See also ‘Non-marketImpacts’.)

Market PotentialThe portion of the economic potential for greenhousegas emissions reductions or energy-efficiency improve-ments that could be achieved under forecast marketconditions, assuming no new policies and measures.(See also ‘Economic Potential’, ‘Socio-economicPotential’, and ‘Technological potential’.)

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Market-based IncentivesMeasures intended to use price mechanisms (e.g. taxesand tradable permits) to reduce greenhouse gas emis-sions.

Marrakech AccordsAgreements reached at COP 7 which set rules for ‘oper-ating’ the more complex provisions of the KyotoProtocol. The accords include details for establishing agreenhouse-gas emissions trading system; implementingand monitoring the Protocol’s Clean DevelopmentMechanism; and setting up and operating three funds tosupport efforts to adapt to climate change.

MDGsSee ‘Millennium Development Goals’.

MeetingA formal gathering that occurs during a ‘session’. Eachsession of the COP, for example, is divided into anumber of meetings. A meeting is generally scheduledfrom 10 a.m. to 1 p.m. or from 3 p.m. to 6 p.m.

Meridional Overturning Circulation, or MOCThe global density-driven circulation of the oceans.Wind-driven surface currents (such as the Gulf Stream)head polewards from the equatorial Atlantic Ocean,cooling all the while and eventually sinking at high lati-tudes (forming North Atlantic Deep Water). Extensivemixing therefore takes place between the ocean basins,reducing differences between them and making theEarth’s ocean a global system. The state of the circula-tion has a large impact on the climate of the Earth.Previously this circulation was referred to as thermoha-line circulation, or THC, derived from thermo- for heatand -haline for salt, which together determine the densityof sea water.

Methane, or CH4One of the basket of greenhouse gases controlled underthe Kyoto Protocol, it has a relatively short atmosphericlifetime of 10 ±2 years. Primary sources of methane arelandfills, coal mines, paddy fields, natural gas systemsand livestock. The Global Warming Potential of

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methane, over a 100-year time horizon, has beenrevised upwards from the SAR (1995) value of 21 to,currently, 25 in the AR4 (2007). (See ‘Global WarmingPotential’.)

Methane RecoveryMethod by which methane emissions from, for example,coal mines or waste sites, are captured and then re-usedeither through cost-effective management methods orthrough power generation.

Miscellaneous Documents, or Misc. DocsOfficial documents that contain written submissions fromParties, and on occasion observers, on topics on theUNFCCC or Kyoto Protocol meeting agendas. To facili-tate discussion, Miscellaneous Documents are madeavailable on the UNFCCC website before meetings.

Millennium Development Goals, or MDGsA set of 8 goals agreed at the United NationsMillennium Summit in 2000. Nearly 190 countries havesigned up to these goals contain 18 targets which coun-tries aim to meet by 2015.

MitigationActions resulting in reductions to the degree or intensityof GHG emissions. Also referred to as abatement.

Mitigative CapacityThe ability of the social, political, and economic struc-tures and conditions to undertake effective mitigation.

MOCSee ‘Meridional overturning circulation’.

Montreal ProtocolInternational agreement under UNEP which entered intoforce in January 1989 to phase out the use of ozone-depleting compounds such as CFCs, halons, methyl chlo-roform, carbon tetrachloride, HCFCs and methylbromide.

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N2OSee ‘Nitrous Oxide‘.

NAPSee ‘National Allocation Plan’.

NAPASee ‘National Adaptation Plan of Action’

National Action PlansPlans submitted to the Conference of the Parties (COP)by all Parties outlining the steps that they have adoptedto limit their anthropogenic GHG emissions. Countriesmust submit these plans as a condition of participating inthe Convention and, subsequently, must communicatetheir progress to the COP regularly. The National ActionPlans form part of the National Communications whichinclude the national inventory of greenhouse gas (GHG)sources and sinks.

National Adaptation Plan of Action, or NAPAIn 2001, COP 7 established the National AdaptationPlans of Action (NAPAs) programme to provide aprocess for Least Developed Countries (LDCs) to identifyand prioritize their adaptation needs.

National Allocation Plan, or NAPUnder the EU ETS, EU Member States produce anational allocation plan detailing the implementation ofthe scheme at the domestic level by sector and facility.

National CommunicationA document submitted in accordance with theConvention (and the Protocol) by which a Party informsother Parties of activities undertaken to address climatechange. Most developed countries have now submittedtheir fourth national communications; most developingcountries have completed their first national communica-tion and are in the process of preparing their second.

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National RegistryEach Annex B Party to the Kyoto Protocol has to estab-lish a national registry to account for the holding ofallowances by the Party, as well as by any entities autho-rised by the Party to hold them. It also contains accountsfor setting units aside for compliance purposes (retire-ment) and removing units from the system (cancellation).Transfers and acquisitions between account holders orbetween Parties will take place through these nationalregistries. National registries are linked to the ITL whichmonitors the transfer of allowances between registries.

NF3See ‘Nitrogen Trifluoride’

NGOSee ‘Non-Governmental Organization’.

Nitrogen Trifluoride, or NF3The seventh gas, added to the original Kyoto Protocolbasket of six gases, under the second commitmentperiod.

Nitrous Oxide, or N2OOne of the basket of greenhouse gases controlled underthe Kyoto Protocol, it is generated by burning fossil fuelsand the manufacture of fertilizer. Its Global WarmingPotential, over a 100-year time horizon, was revisedfrom the SAR (1995) value of 310 to 296 in the TAR(2001), however, the SAR value is to be used for the firstcommitment period of the Kyoto Protocol. (See ‘GlobalWarming Potential’.)

No RegretsActions which result in greenhouse gas limitations andabatement, and which also make good environmentaland economic sense in their own right.

Non-Annex I PartiesThe countries that have ratified or acceded to theUNFCCC that are not included in Annex I of theConvention. In practice most Non-Annex I Parties aredeveloping countries.

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Non-Annex B PartiesThe countries that are not included in the Annex B list ofdeveloped nations in the Kyoto Protocol.

No-lose TargetsA proposed approach to develop non-binding targetsthat would allow a country to sell allowances if its emis-sions are below a target, but does not oblige it to buyallowances if emissions are above. Also known as one-way targets.

Non-Governmental Organization, or NGONGOs can include registered non-profit organizationsand associations from business and industry, environ-mental groups, cities and municipalities, academics,and social and activist organizations. Under the UN,NGOs must be accredited to observe its activities and,to do so, they must meet certain qualifications. IPIECAhas UN ECOSOC Category II Non-GovernmentalOrganization consultative status.

Non-market ImpactsImpacts that affect ecosystems or human welfare, butthat are not directly linked to market transactions—forexample, an increased risk of premature death. (Seealso ‘Market Impacts’.)

Non-paper An in-session document issued informally to facilitatenegotiations. A non-paper does not have an officialdocument symbol.

Non-Party A state that has not ratified the Convention but attendsmeetings as an observer.

North/SouthFollowing the end of the cold war, it has been suggestedthat the most important geopolitical axis is now betweenthe North, or developed countries, and the South, or devel-oping countries. At the UNFCCC negotiations developingcountries coordinate under the banner of the G77 + China,which includes a number of sub-groups such as AOSIS, theAfrican Group and the group of Latin American countries.

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ObserversAgencies, non-governmental organizations, andGovernments not Parties to the Convention which arepermitted to attend, but not vote, at meetings of the COPand its subsidiary bodies. Observers may include theUnited Nations specialized agencies; other intergovern-mental organizations (IGOs) such as the InternationalAtomic Energy Agency; and accredited non-governmen-tal organizations (NGOs).

OECDSee ‘Organisation for Economic Co-operation andDevelopment’.

OPECSee ‘Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries’.

Operational EntitiesArticle 12 of the Kyoto Protocol calls for the creation ofoperational entities that are responsible for validatingproposed CDM project activity as well as verifying andcertifying the emissions reductions or removalsachieved. They are accountable to the Executive Boardand ultimately the CMP.

Opportunity CostThe cost of an economic activity forgone by the choiceof another activity.

Organisation for Economic Co-operation andDevelopment, or OECDAn international organization of thirty countries thataccept the principles of representative democracy and afree market economy.

Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries, orOPECA grouping of oil producing and exporting countrieswho aim to co-ordinate policy and stabilize the supplyand price of oil to the international market.

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OzoneOzone (O3) is a greenhouse gas, but not one of thebasket of gases controlled by the UNFCCC and KyotoProtocol. In the troposphere, or lower part of the atmos-phere, O3 can be a constituent of smog. It is created natu-rally and also by reactions in the atmosphere involvinggases resulting from human activities, including NOx, ornitrogen oxides, from motor vehicles and power plants.The Montreal Protocol seeks to control chemicals whichdestroy ozone in the stratosphere (upper part of theatmosphere) where ozone absorbs ultra-violet radiation.

PAMsSee ‘Policies and Measures’.

Party A state (or regional economic integration organizationsuch as the European Union) that agrees to be bound bya treaty and for which the treaty has entered into force.

Perfluorocarbons, or PFCsOne of the basket of greenhouse gases controlled underthe Kyoto Protocol. They are a by-product of aluminiumsmelting. They also are the replacement for CFCs inmanufacturing semiconductors. The Global WarmingPotential of PFCs ranges from 6,500–9,200 over a 100-year time horizon. (See ‘Global Warming Potential’.)

PFCsSee ‘Perfluorocarbons’.

PlenaryA formal meeting of the entire COP or one of itssubsidiary bodies. Formal decisions or conclusions mayonly be taken during plenary sessions.

Policies and Measures, or PAMsIn UNFCCC parlance, policies are actions that can betaken and/or mandated by a government—often inconjunction with business and industry within its owncountry, as well as with other countries—to accelerate

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the application and use of successful measures to curbgreenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Measures are tech-nologies, processes and practices used to implementpolicies, which, if employed, would reduce GHG emis-sions below anticipated future levels. Examples mightinclude carbon or other energy taxes, standardized fuelefficiency standards for automobiles, etc. ‘Common andcoordinated’ or ‘harmonized’ policies would refer tothose adopted jointly by Parties. (This could be byregion, such as the EU, or by countries comprising agiven classification, for example, all Annex I nations.)

Positive and Negative ListsSome countries have argued that listing the types ofprojects that would qualify for CDM credit wouldsimplify the decision making process for potential projectparticipants. It has been proposed that the lists ofprojects could either be negative i.e. exclude specifictechnologies (e.g. nuclear or large scale hydro) or bepositive i.e. include specific technologies or activitiessuch as renewable energy or energy efficiency projects.

PPPSee ‘Purchasing Power Parity’.

Precautionary PrincipleAn accepted approach to environmental policy-makingwhich requires caution in the face of unknown risk. TheUNFCCC (Article 3.3) states: Parties should take precau-tionary measures to anticipate, prevent or minimize thecauses of climate change and mitigate its adverseeffects. Where there are threats of serious or irreversibledamage, lack of full scientific certainty should not beused as a reason for postponing such measures takinginto account that policies and measures to deal withclimate change should be cost-effective so as to ensureglobal benefits at the lowest possible cost.

President The official, usually the Minister of Environment, of themember government or region hosting the COP, electedby the Parties to preside over the COP.

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Price CapA cap set on the price of traded emissions allowances.Sources have access to an unlimited supply ofallowances at the price cap. Also known as a safetyvalve.

‘Primary Market’ and ‘Secondary Market’ Trading In commodities and financial exchanges, buyers andsellers who trade directly with each other constitute the‘primary market’, while buying and selling through theexchange facilities represent the ‘secondary market.’

Project BoundaryAs defined in the CDM text, the project boundary shallencompass all anthropogenic emissions by sources ofGHGs under the control of the project participants thatare significant and reasonably attributable to the CDMproject activity. The same considerations apply in thedevelopment of corporate inventories or project invento-ries for other applications.

Protocol An international agreement linked to an existing conven-tion, but as a separate and additional agreement whichmust be signed and ratified by the Parties to the conven-tion concerned. Protocols typically strengthen a conven-tion by adding new, more detailed commitments.

Public ParticipationArticle 12 of the Kyoto Protocol does not mention public(or NGO) participation in the CDM project approvalprocess, but CDM procedure allows for stakeholderinput during the project review period.

Purchasing Power Parity, or PPPEstimates of Gross Domestic Product based on thepurchasing power of currencies rather than on currentexchange rates. Such estimates are a blend of extrapo-lated and regression-based numbers, using the results ofthe International Comparison Program. PPP estimatestend to lower per capita GDPs in industrialized countriesand raise per capita GDPs in developing countries.

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QELROsSee ‘Quantified Emissions Limitations and ReductionsObjectives’.

Quantified Emissions Limitations and ReductionsObjectives, or QELROsThe greenhouse gas emissions reduction commitmentsmade by countries, typically the developed countrieslisted in Annex B of the Protocol. (See also ‘Targets andTimetables’.)

Radiative ForcingA change in the balance between incoming solar radia-tion and outgoing infra-red and short-wave radiation.Without any radiative forcing, solar radiation absorbedby the earth would continue to be approximately equalto the infra-red radiation emitted from the earth. Theaddition of greenhouse gases absorbs an increased frac-tion of the infra-red radiation in the atmosphere, re-radi-ating it and creating a warming influence. RadiativeForcing is computed as the change in flux at the top ofthe troposphere, compared to pre-industrial atmosphericconditions.

Ratification Formal approval, often by a Parliament or other nationallegislature, of a convention, protocol, or treaty, enablinga country to become a Party. Ratification is a separateprocess that occurs after a country has signed an agree-ment. The instrument of ratification must be depositedwith a ‘depositary’ (in the case of the UNFCCC, the UNSecretary-General) to start the countdown to becoming aParty (in the case of the Convention, the countdown is90 days).

ReforestationThe act or process of re-establishing a forest on land thathad been deforested in the last 50 years.

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Regional groupsDefined in line with UN common practice—alliances ofcountries, in most cases sharing the same geographicregion, which meet privately to discuss issues and nomi-nate bureau members and other officials for activitiesunder the Convention. The five regional groups areAfrica, Asia, Central and Eastern Europe (CEE), LatinAmerica and the Caribbean (GRULAC), and the WesternEuropean and Others Group (WEOG).

Registries, or Registry Systems Under the UNFCCC, these are electronic databases thatwill track and record all transactions under a mecha-nism, for example the Kyoto Protocol’s greenhouse gasemissions trading system, or the Clean DevelopmentMechanism.

Removal Unit, or RMUA Kyoto Protocol unit equal to 1 metric tonne of carbondioxide equivalent. RMUs are generated in Annex BParties by LULUCF activities that absorb carbon dioxide.Annex B Parties can use RMUs to help meet their KyotoProtocol commitments.

RenewablesEnergy sources that are constantly renewed by naturalprocess. These include non-carbon technologies such assolar energy, hydropower, geothermal, marine and windas well as technologies based on biomass. Life cycleanalyses are required to assess the extent to which suchbiomass-based technologies may limit net carbon emis-sions.

Research and Systematic Observation An obligation of Parties to the UNFCCC; they are calledupon to promote and cooperate in research and system-atic observation of the climate system, and called uponto aid developing countries to do so.

ReservationAn exception or concern noted for the record by a Partyin the course of accepting a decision of the COP. Noreservations are allowed to the Convention itself, or tothe Protocol.

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ReservoirA component or components of the climate system wherea greenhouse gas or a precursor of a greenhouse gas isstored (UNFCCC definition). The oceans, soils andforests are all carbon reservoirs.

Review of Commitments Regular scrutiny by Convention Parties of the adequacyof the treaty’s Article 4.2 (a) and (b) outlining developedcountry commitments to limit greenhouse-gas emissions.The first review took place at COP 1 and led to a find-ing that progress was not ‘adequate’—and so to negoti-ations that led to the Kyoto Protocol, which has morestringent commitments for developed countries.

RINGOs, or Research and Independent OrganizationNGOsA coalition of organizations that participate in theUNFCCC process and meet for information exchange.

Rio+10See ‘World Summit on Sustainable Development(2002)’.

Rio+20See ‘UN Conference on Sustainable Development(2012)’

Rio ConventionsThree environmental conventions, two of which wereadopted at the 1992 ‘Earth Summit’ in Rio de Janeiro:the United Nations Framework Convention on ClimateChange (UNFCCC), and the Convention on Biodiversity(CBD), while the third, the United Nations Convention toCombat Desertification (UNCCD), stemmed from Agenda21 and was adopted in 1994. Through a Joint LiaisonGroup, the secretariats of the three conventions take stepsto coordinate activities to achieve common progress.

Rio SummitSee ‘Earth Summit (1992)’.

RMUSee ‘Removal Unit’.

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Roster of Experts Experts nominated by Parties to the UNFCCC to aid theSecretariat in work related to review of national reportsof Annex I Parties, preparation of reports on adaptationtechnology, the transfer of technology to developingcountries, and the development of know-how on mitigat-ing and adapting to climate change.

Rules of ProcedureThe parliamentary rules that govern the procedures ofthe COP, covering such matters as decision-making andparticipation. The COP has not yet formally adoptedrules of procedure, but all except one (on voting) arecurrently being ‘applied.’

Safety ValveSee ‘Price Cap’.

SARSee ‘Second Assessment Report’.

SBISee ‘Subsidiary Body for Implementation’.

SBSTASee ‘Subsidiary Body for Scientific and TechnologicalAdvice’.

SCCFSee ‘Special Climate Change Fund’.

Second Assessment Report, or SARPublished by the IPCC in 1995 the SAR provided acomprehensive overview of the state of knowledge onclimate change at that time. The Kyoto Protocol indexesthe contribution of various greenhouse gasses accordingto the 100-year Global Warming Potentials published inthe SAR.

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Secretariat of the UN Framework Convention onClimate ChangeUnited Nations administrative and clerical staff, basedin Bonn, Germany, assigned the responsibility of provid-ing technical and logistical support for the UNFCCC.

SF6See ‘Sulphur Hexafluoride’.

Sectoral ApproachMitigation actions, such as emissions caps and intensitytargets, applied to an entire sector. Proponents ofsectoral approaches suggest that they limit the competi-tive distortions within an industry that may occur when asector operates in a number of countries with differenti-ated national actions on climate change.

SeepageThe escape of injected CO2 from a storage reservoirduring CCS operations.

SessionA set of ‘meetings’ held by the UNFCCC. Two sessionsare held each year, although Parties may agree to holdan inter-sessional if the work plan cannot be completedduring the biannual sessions.

SIDSSee ‘Small Island Developing States’.

Sinks (UNFCCC definition)Any process or activity or mechanism which removes agreenhouse gas or a precursor from the atmosphere.

Small Island Developing States, or SIDSSmall Island Developing States is a subset of AOSIS inthat it includes only developing country islands (AOSISalso includes some low-lying countries). This group isconsidered to be especially vulnerable to the impacts ofclimate change. Under current proposals, Small IslandDeveloping States and LDCs would gain special consid-eration for adaptation/convention funding, technologytransfer, capacity building and the CDM. SIDS, and

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other UN regional groupings, are informally definedand their structure and definition can change.

Social CostCost of an activity that includes the value of all theresources used in its provision. Some of these are pricedand others are not. Non-priced resources are referred toas externalities. It is the sum of the costs of these exter-nalities and the priced resources that makes up thesocial cost. Decisions on social cost are value-weightedand require public policy decisions.

Socio-economic PotentialThe socio-economic potential represents the level ofgreenhouse gas mitigation that would be approached byovercoming social and cultural obstacles to the use oftechnologies that are cost effective. (See also ‘EconomicPotential’, ‘Market Potential’ and ‘Technology Potential’.)

SOGESee ‘Symposium of Government Experts’.

Source (UNFCCC definition)Any process or activity which releases a greenhouse gasor a precursor GHG to the atmosphere.

SO2 TradingSee ‘Sulphur Dioxide Trading’.

Special Climate Change Fund, or SCCFThe SCCF was established by the Marrakech Accords tofund projects on adaptation, technology transfer, capac-ity building, and economic diversification in developingnations. It is administered by the GEF and should becomplementary to the other financial mechanisms of theUNFCCC and Kyoto Protocol.

Spill-over EffectsUnintended economic impacts caused by actions takento cut greenhouse gas emissions. For example, emissionsreduction policies in developed countries could lowerdemand for oil and thus international oil prices, leadingto a lost source of revenue and economic problems fordeveloping countries.

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SPMSee ‘Summary for Policy Makers’.

Square brackets Typographical symbols [ — ] placed around text undernegotiation to indicate that the language enclosed isbeing discussed but has not yet been agreed upon.

SRES ScenariosEmissions scenarios developed in the IPCC SpecialReport on Emissions Scenarios (2000) and used, amongothers, as a basis for the climate projections in the IPCCWGI contribution to the TAR and AR4. These scenariosextend to 2100 and do not include additional climateinitiatives or implementation of the UNFCCC or KyotoProtocol.

StabilizationThe achievement of stabilization of atmospheric concen-trations of one or more greenhouse gases (e.g. carbondioxide or a CO2-equivalent basket of greenhousegases).

Stern ReviewStudy commissioned by the UK Chancellor of theExchequer in which Sir Nicholas Stern examined theeconomics of climate change. Nicholas Stern presentedhis findings at the second Dialogue workshop.

Subsidiary Body for Implementation, or SBIEstablished as a permanent standing body of theUNFCCC, the SBI develops recommendations to assistthe Conference of the Parties in assessing and reviewingthe implementation of the Convention.

Subsidiary Body for Scientific and TechnologicalAdvice, or SBSTAEstablished as a permanent standing body of theUNFCCC, SBSTA serves as the link between the policy-oriented needs of the COP and the scientific, technicaland technological assessments and information providedby various external groups, such as theIntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.

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Sulphur Dioxide (or SO2) TradingTo mitigate the US acid rain problem in a cost-efficientmanner, the US government, under its Clean Air Act,mandated an SO2 emissions trading programme. Thistrading system is often cited as the model for an inter-national Emissions Trading Programme proposed underthe Kyoto Protocol to curb the world’s anthropogenicgreenhouse gas emissions.

Sulphur Hexafluoride, or SF6One of the greenhouse gases controlled under the KyotoProtocol. It is largely used in heavy industry to insulatehigh-voltage equipment and to assist in the manufactur-ing of cable-cooling systems. Its Global WarmingPotential is 22,800 times that of CO2 over 100 yearsaccording to AR4 (See ‘Global Warming Potential’).

Summary for Policy Makers, or SPMThe IPCC Special Reports, and each of the four mainsections of the Assessment Reports (Working Groups I, II,III and the Synthesis Report), include a short Summaryfor Policy Makers as well as Technical Summaries. SPMsrequire word-by-word review and approval by membergovernments of the IPCC.

SupplementarityThe Kyoto Protocol states that Emissions Trading andJoint Implementation activities are to be supplemental todomestic actions (e.g. energy taxes, fuel efficiency stan-dards, etc.) taken by developed countries to reduce theirgreenhouse gas emissions. Thee agreements implement-ing the Kyoto Protocol have left the definition of supple-mentarity vague.

Sustainable DevelopmentOften described as development that meets the needs ofthe present without compromising the ability of futuregenerations to meet their own needs. The term describesdevelopment with an equitable balance between envi-ronmental, social and economic objectives.

Symposium of Government Experts, or SOGEA seminar held in May 2006 to allow Parties toexchange information on existing and possible future

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actions to support commitments under the UNFCCC andKyoto Protocol. The symposium was held without preju-dice to future negotiations but marked the start of theprocess to determine future commitment periods tofollow the Kyoto Protocol’s first commitment period.

TARSee ‘Third Assessment Report’.

Targets and Timetables A target is the reduction of a specific percentage ofgreenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (e.g. 6%) from a baseyear (e.g. ‘below 1990 levels’) to be achieved by a setdate, or timetable (e.g. 2008–12). For example, underthe Kyoto Protocol’s formula, the EU has agreed toreduce its GHG emissions to 8% below 1990 levels bythe 2008–12 commitment period. These targets andtimetables are, in effect, a cap on the total amount ofGHG emissions that can be emitted by a country orregion in a given time period. (See also ‘QELROs’.)

tCERsTemporary CERs. See ‘Certified Emission Reductions’.

Technological PotentialThe amount of mitigation that a technology can achievewithout taking cost or other barriers into account.

Technology Executive Committee, or TECThe Technology Executive Committee provides supportand advice for the Climate Technology Centre andNetwork (CTCN). At the time of writing, the precise roleof the TEC in relation to governance of the CTCN hadnot been agreed. However, its mandate includes:• analysis and synthesis;• policy recommendations;• facilitation;• linkage with other institutional arrangements;• engagement with stakeholders; and• and information and knowledge sharing.

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Technology MechanismAt COP 16, a Technology Mechanism was created forthe transfer and development of technology betweencountries, with the details of the mechanism to be fleshedout at subsequent meetings. The mechanism comprises aTechnology Executive Committee (TEC) and ClimateTechnology Centre and Network (CTCN) (see separatedescriptions). At the time of writing, the precise role ofthe TEC in relation to governance of the CTCN had notbeen agreed.

Technology Transfer/Technology CooperationA process of constructive interaction with local, nationaland international partners to select and apply appropriatetechnology systems to achieve economic development. Itincludes both ‘hard’ (equipment) and ‘soft’ technology(software, management assistance, training). In Article4.5 of the Convention, developed country Parties (inparticular those in the OECD) commit to take steps topromote, facilitate and finance as appropriate, access toenvironmentally sound technologies in developing coun-tries to enable them to implement the provisions of theConvention. While recognizing the important role of theprivate sector in technology transfer and the need toenhance the enabling environment for investment in devel-oping countries, much of the emphasis in discussions is onthe role that developed country governments should playin providing financial resources and technology to devel-oping countries. (See ‘Technology Mechanism’.)

Technology Transfer Information Clearing House, or TT:ClearWeb-based technology information clearing house devel-oped by the UNFCCC secretariat to improve access to,and quality of, information on the development and trans-fer of environmentally sound technologies.

Temporary Certified Emission Reductions, or tCERsSee ‘Certified Emission Reductions’.

THCSee ‘Meridional Overturning Circulation’.

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Thermohaline Circulation, or THCSee ‘Meridional Overturning Circulation’.

Third Assessment Report, or TARThe third in a series of Assessment Reports prepared bythe Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change whichreview the existing scientific literature on the subject.Published in 2001, it contains three main sections:Science; Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability; andMitigation as well as a Synthesis Report, which drawsupon the three main sections and other IPCC SpecialReports to answer nine policy-relevant scientific andtechnical questions (asked by UNFCCC SBSTA andrefined by the IPCC Plenary).

Total CostSee ‘Social Cost’.

Trace GasA minor constituent of the atmosphere. The most impor-tant trace gases relevant to the greenhouse effect arecarbon dioxide, ozone, methane, nitrous oxide, CFCs,HFCs HCFCs, PFCs, and SF6. Other trace gases with lessimportance include, ammonia, nitric acid, ethylene,sulphur dioxide, nitric oxide, methyl chloride, carbonmonoxide and carbon tetrachloride. Some trace gases,especially sulphur dioxide, contribute to aerosol forma-tion, which has a cooling effect on the climate system.

Trade Union Non-Governmental Organization, orTUNGOThis constituency, recognized by the United NationsFramework Convention on Climate Change, describesthe observers representing the trade union, or labourunion, movement.

TT:ClearSee ‘Technology Transfer Information Clearing House’.

TUNGOSee ‘Trade Union Non-Governmental Organization’.

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Umbrella GroupA set of non-EU developed countries who occasionallyact as a negotiating bloc on specific issues. This groupevolved from the JUSSCANNZ grouping, and includesAustralia, Canada, Iceland, Japan, New Zealand,Norway, the Russian Federation, Ukraine and the UnitedStates.

UN Commission on Sustainable Development (2012),or CSDThe Commission oversees the implementation ofAgenda 21, the action plan adopted at the Rio Summitwhich is a blueprint for environmentally sustainabledevelopment for the 21st century. The CSD consists ofrepresentatives from more than 50 nations. It also moni-tors progress made by governments and UN agencies inreaching their commitments to the UNFCCC.

UN Conference on Environment and Development(1992), or UNCEDSee ‘Earth Summit (1992)’.

UN Conference on Sustainable Development (2012), orUNCSDA special meeting in 2012 which highlighted the twenti-eth anniversary of the Rio Summit (see ‘Earth Summit(1992)’). The meeting was held in Rio de Janeiro.

UN Conference on Trade and Development, or UNCTADEstablished in 1964 by the UN General Assembly,UNCTAD is the principal organ of the UN GeneralAssembly in the field of trade and development. Its maingoals are to maximize trade, investment and developmentopportunities of developing countries. UNCTAD pursues itsgoals through research, policy analysis, IGO delibera-tions, technical cooperation and interaction with the busi-ness sector. UNCTAD has had a long-standing programmethat is examining international emissions trading. Since1991 it has produced publications on key parameters suchas cost-efficiency, equity, monitoring certification andenforcement, and legal and institutional aspects.

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UN Convention to Combat Desertification, or UNCCDOne of the three conventions to stem from the Rio deJaneiro ‘Earth Summit’ in 1992. (See ‘Rio Conventions’.)

UN Development Programme, or UNDPThe purpose of UNDP is to assist countries (particularlythose with a low per capita income) to achieve sustain-able development. UNDP focuses on poverty elimina-tion, environmental regeneration, job creation and theadvancement of women. It also assists in promotingsound governance and market development. Its work isachieved with a core budget of about US $800M usedto fund projects in developing countries. UNDP is amanaging partner of the Global Environment Facility,along with UNEP and the World Bank.

UN Environment Programme, or UNEPThe UN agency, established in 1972, to coordinate theenvironmental activities of the UN. It aims to help reinforceand integrate the large number of separate environmentalefforts by intergovernmental, non-governmental, nationaland regional bodies. UNEP has fostered the development ofthe UNFCCC and the Convention on Biological Diversity.

UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, or UNFCCCA treaty signed at the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiroby more than 150 countries. Its ultimate objective is the‘stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in theatmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthro-pogenic [human-induced] interference with the climatesystem’. While no legally binding level of emissions is set,the treaty states an aim by Annex I countries to return theseemissions to 1990 levels by the year 2000. The treaty tookeffect in March 1994 upon the ratification of more than 50countries; over 180 nations have now ratified. In March1995, the UNFCCC held the first session of the Conferenceof the Parties (COP) the supreme body of the Convention inBerlin. Its Secretariat is based in Bonn, Germany.

UN Industrial Development Organization, or UNIDOThe organization’s primary objective is the promotionand acceleration of industrial development in develop-ing countries and countries with economies in transition.

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UN Regional GroupsUnder the UN system, countries are divided into fiveinformally defined Groups: Africa; Latin America; Asia;Russia and Central and Eastern Europe; and the WesternEurope and Others Group (WEOG—including the USA,Japan, Australia, New Zealand and Canada). ManyUNFCCC functions, including the Bureau, the CDMExecutive Board, and the Kyoto Protocol ComplianceCommittee, have equal representation from the UNRegional Groups, plus one SIDS representative.

UNCCD See ‘UN Convention to Combat Desertification’.

UNCEDSee ‘Earth Summit (1992)’.

UNCSDSee ‘UN Conference on Sustainable Development(2012)’.

UNCTADSee ‘UN Conference on Trade and Development’.

UNDPSee ‘UN Development Programme’.

UNEPSee ‘UN Environment Programme’.

UNFCCCSee ‘UN Framework Convention on Climate Change’.

UNIDO See ‘UN Industrial Development Organization’.

Uniform Report FormatA standard format through which Parties submit infor-mation on activities implemented jointly under theConvention.

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Voluntary CommitmentsA draft article considered during the negotiation of theKyoto Protocol that would have permitted developingcountries to voluntarily adhere to legally binding emis-sions targets. The proposed language was dropped inthe final phase of the negotiations. At COP 11(Montreal, 2005), Russia introduced a proposal onvoluntary commitments which has been on the COPagenda ever since.

VulnerabilityThe degree to which a system is susceptible to, or unableto cope with, adverse effects of climate change, includ-ing climate variability and extremes. Vulnerability is afunction of the character, magnitude, and rate of climatechange and variation to which a system is exposed, itssensitivity, and its adaptive capacity.

WEOGSee ‘Western European and Others Group’.

Western European and Others Group, or WEOGOne of the five regional groupings commonly used bythe UN. ‘Others’ include Australia, Canada, NewZealand, Turkey and the United States. (See ‘RegionalGroups’.)

WHOSee ‘World Health Organization’.

WMOSee ‘World Meteorological Organization’.

World Health Organization, or WHOA specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) thatacts as a coordinating authority on international publichealth.

V

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World Meteorological Organization, or WMOAn intergovernmental organization with a membershipof 188 Member States and Territories, which is now partof the UN.

World Summit on Sustainable Development (2002),or WSSDA special meeting of the UN General Assembly in 2002which highlighted the tenth anniversary of the RioSummit (see ‘Earth Summit’). The meeting was held inSouth Africa. The Millennium Development Goals(MDGs) were one of the major outcomes of this meeting.

WSSDSee ‘World Summit on Sustainable Development(2002)’.

Youth Non-Governmental Organization, or YOUNGOA constituency, recognized by the United NationsFramework Convention on Climate Change, thatdescribes the observers representing youth movements.

Y

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Additional terms (Record below any new definitions established since thepublication of this Glossary.)

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Summary of termsAAU

AB32

Abatement

Accession

Activities Implemented Jointly, or AIJ

Adaptation

Adaptation Assessment

Adaptation Benefits

Adaptation Committee

Adaptation Costs

Adaptation Framework

Adaptation Fund

Adaptive Capacity

Additionality

Ad Hoc Group on the Berlin Mandate, or AGBM

Ad Hoc Working Group, or AWG

Ad Hoc Working Group on the Durban Platform for EnhancedAction, or ADP

Adverse Effects/Impacts

ADP

Afforestation

African Group

AGBM

Aggregate Impacts

AIJ

Alliance of Small Island States, or AOSIS

Allowances

Alternative Energy

Amendment

Ancillary Benefits (IPCC definition)

Annex I Countries

Annex II Countries

Annex B Countries

Anthropogenic Emissions

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‘Anyway’ Tonnes

AOSIS

APP

AR4

AR5

ARD Activities

Article 3.9 (Kyoto Protocol)

Articles 4.8 and 4.9 (UNFCCC)

Articles 5, 7 and 8 (Kyoto Protocol)

Article 6 Project

Article 6 Supervisory Committee

Article 9 (Kyoto Protocol)

Article 12 Project

Asia Pacific Partnership, or APP

Assigned Amount

Assigned Amount Unit, or AAU

Atmosphere

Attribution

Auctioning

AWG

Banking

BAPA

Baseline

BASIC Group of Countries

Benchmarking

Berlin Mandate

BINGO

Biofuel

Biomass

Borrowing

Brazilian Proposal

BTU Tax

Bubble

Budget

Budget Period

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Buenos Aires Plan of Action, or BAPA

Bunker Fuels, or International Bunkers

Bureau

Business and Industry Non-Governmental Organization, or BINGO

CACAM

Cancun Agreements

Cap

Capacity Building

Carbon Capture and Storage, or CCS

Carbon Cycle

Carbon Dioxide, or CO2

Carbon Dioxide Equivalent, or CO2eq

Carbon Dioxide Fertilization

Carbon Disclosure Project, or CDP

Carbon Intensity

Carbon Leakage

Carbon Market

Carbon Sequestration

Carbon Sinks

Carbon Tax

CBD

CCS

CDM

CDP

CEE

Central and Eastern Europe Group, or CEE

CERs

Certified Emission Reductions, or CERs

CFCs

CGE

CH4

Chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs

CHP

CITL

Clean Development Mechanism, or CDM

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Clean Energy Futures (Australia)

Climate

Climate Change (UNFCCC definition)

Climate Change Response Act (New Zealand)

Climate Convention

Climate Feedbacks

Climate Forcing

Climate Models

Climate Sensitivity

Climate Surprises

Climate System

CMP

CO2

CO2eq

Co-benefits (IPCC definition)

Cogeneration

Combined Cycle

Combined Heat and Power, or CHP

Commitment Period

Commitment Period Reserve

Committee of the Whole, or COW

Common Reporting Format, or CRF

Community Independent Transaction Log, or CITL

Compliance

Compliance Committee

Conference of the Parties, or COP

Conference of the Parties serving as the Meeting of the Parties,or CMP, or COP/MOP

Conference Room Papers, or CRPs

Consultative Group of Experts, or CGE

Contact Group

Contraction and Convergence

Convention on Biological Diversity, or CBD

COP

COP/MOP

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COW

Credit for Early Action

CRF

CRPs

CSD

DAI

Dangerous Anthropogenic Interference, or DAI

Decision

Declaration

Deforestation

Demand-side Management

Demonstrable Progress

Desertification

Designated National Authority, or DNA

Discount Rate

DNA

Documents

Drafting Group

Dynamic Targets

Earth Summit (1992), or UN Conference on Environment andDevelopment, or UNCED

Earth Summit (2002)

Earth Summit (2012)

EASD

EB

Economic Potential

Economy in Transition, or EIT

Ecosystem

EGTT

EIT

Eligibility

El Niño/La Niña/ENSO

Emissions (UNFCCC definition)

Emissions Cap

Emissions Permit

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Emissions Reduction Purchase Agreement, or ERPA

Emissions Reduction Unit, or ERU

Emissions Scenarios

Emissions Trading

ENGO

Entry Into Force

Environmental Integrity Group

Environmental Non-Governmental Organization, or ENGO

Equitable Access to Sustainable Development, or EASD

ERU

EU Burden-sharing

EU ETS

EUA

European Union Allowance, or EUA

European Union Emissions Trading Scheme, or EU ETS

Executive Board of the CDM, or EB

Expert Group on Technology Transfer, or EGTT

Expert Review Teams

External Cost

Externality

FAO

FCCC

Fifth Assessment Report, or AR5

Financial Mechanism

Flexibility Mechanisms

Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN, or FAO

Fourth Assessment Report, or AR4

Forest

Forest Management

Fossil Fuels

Friends of the Chair

Fuel Cell

Fuel Switching

Fugitive Fuel Emissions

Full-cost Pricing

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Fungibility

G77/China, or Group of 77 and China

G8, or Group of Eight

GCF

GCMs

GCOS

GEF

Geo-engineering

General Circulation Models, or GCMs

GGFR

GHGs

GIS

Gleneagles Plan of Action

Global Climate Observing System, or GCOS

Global Environment Facility, or GEF

Global Gas Flaring Reduction partnership, or GGFR

Global Warming

Global Warming Potential, or GWP

Grandfathering

Green Climate Fund, or GCF

Green Investment Scheme, or GIS

Greenhouse Effect

Greenhouse Gases, or GHGs

Group of 77 and China

Group of Eight

GRULAC

GWP

HFCs

Heat-Island Effect

Hot Air

Hydrofluorocarbons, or HFCs

ICAO

ICC

IDR

IEA

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IEA Greenhouse Gas R&D Programme

IGO

IMO

Impact Models

Implementation

Implementation Costs

In-depth Review, or IDR

Informal Consultations, or Informal Contact Group

Informal informals

Integrated Assessment

Intensity Targets

Intergovernmental Organization, or IGO

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, or IPCC

International Bunkers

International Civil Aviation Organization, or ICAO

International Energy Agency, or IEA

International Maritime Organization, or IMO

International Transaction Log, or ITL

Inventories

IPCC

IPCC Special Report on Emissions Scenarios

ITL

JI

JISC

JLG

Joint Implementation, or JI

Joint Implementation Supervisory Committee, or JISC

Joint Liaison Group, or JLG

JUSSCANNZ

Kyoto Basket

Kyoto Lands

Kyoto Mechanisms

Kyoto Protocol

L Docs

lCERs

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LDCs

LDCF

Leakage, or Carbon Leakage

Least Developed Countries, or LDCs

Least Developed Country Expert Group, or LEG

Least Developed Country Fund, or LDCF

LEG

Liability

Linking

Lock-in Technologies and Practices

Long-term Certified Emission Reductions, or lCERs

LULUCF

Market Barriers

Market Impacts

Market Potential

Market-based Incentives

Marrakech Accords

MDGs

Meeting

Meridional Overturning Circulation, or MOC

Methane, or CH4

Methane Recovery

Miscellaneous Documents, or Misc. Docs

Millennium Development Goals, or MDGs

Mitigation

Mitigative Capacity

MOC

Montreal Protocol

N2O

NAP

NAPA

National Action Plans

National Adaptation Plan of Action, or NAPA

National Allocation Plan, or NAP

National Communication

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National Registry

NF3

NGO

Nitrogen Trifluoride, or NF3

Nitrous Oxide, or N2O

No Regrets

Non-Annex I Parties

Non-Annex B Parties

No-lose Targets

Non-Governmental Organization, or NGO

Non-market Impacts

Non-Paper

Non-Party

North/South

Observers

OECD

OPEC

Operational Entities

Opportunity Cost

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, or OECD

Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries, or OPEC

Ozone

PAMs

Party

Perfluorocarbons, or PFCs

PFCs

Plenary

Policies and Measures, or PAMs

Positive and Negative Lists

PPP

Precautionary Principle

President

Price Cap

‘Primary Market’ and ‘Secondary Market’ Trading

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Project Boundary

Protocol

Public Participation

Purchasing Power Parity, or PPP

QELROs

Quantified Emissions Limitations and Reductions Objectives, orQELROs

Radiative Forcing

Ratification

Reforestation

Regional Groups

Registries, or Registry Systems

Removal Unit, or RMU

Renewables

Research and Systematic Observation

Reservation

Reservoir

Review of Commitments

RINGOs, or Research and Independent Organization NGOs

Rio+10

Rio+20

Rio Conventions

Rio Summit

RMU

Roster of Experts

Rules of Procedure

Safety Valve

SAR

SBI

SBSTA

SCCF

Second Assessment Report, or SAR

Secretariat of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change

SF6

Sectoral Approach

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Seepage

Session

SIDS

Sinks (UNFCCC definition)

Small Island Developing States, or SIDS

Social Cost

Socio-economic Potential

SOGE

Source (UNFCCC definition)

SO2 Trading

Special Climate Change Fund, or SCCF

Spill-over Effects

SPM

Square Brackets

SRES Scenarios

Stabilization

Stern Review

Subsidiary Body for Implementation, or SBI

Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice, or SBSTA

Sulphur Dioxide (or SO2) Trading

Sulphur Hexafluoride, or SF6

Summary for Policy Makers, or SPM

Supplementarity

Sustainable Development

Symposium of Government Experts, or SOGE

TAR

Targets and Timetables

tCERs

Technological Potential

Technology Executive Committee, or TEC

Technology Mechanism

Technology Transfer/Technology Cooperation

Technology Transfer Information Clearing House, or TT:Clear

Temporary Certified Emission Reductions, or tCERs

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Thermohaline Circulation, or THC

Third Assessment Report, or TAR

Total Cost

Trace Gas

Trade Union Non-Governmental Organization, or TUNGO

TT:Clear

TUNGO

Umbrella Group

UN Commission on Sustainable Development (2012), or CSD

UN Conference on Environment and Development (1992), or UNCED

UN Conference on Sustainable Development (2012), or UNCSD

UN Conference on Trade and Development, or UNCTAD

UN Convention to Combat Desertification, or UNCCD

UN Development Programme, or UNDP

UN Environment Programme, or UNEP

UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, or UNFCCC

UN Industrial Development Organization, or UNIDO

UN Regional Groups

UNCCD

UNCED

UNCSD

UNCTAD

UNDP

UNEP

UNFCCC

UNIDO

Uniform Report Format

Voluntary Commitments

Vulnerability

WEOG

Western European and Others Group, or WEOG

WHO

WMO

World Health Organization, or WHO

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World Summit on Sustainable Development (2002), or WSSD

WSSD

Youth Non-Governmental Organization, or YOUNGO

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