1Introduction

Jan Marie Fritz

International Clinical Sociology presents the art and science of clinical sociologists around the world. This is not the first volume to look at the global development of the specialization. It is, however, the first to present basic clinical sociology diagrams and models as well as detailed histories of clinical sociology in a number of locales and a wide range of interventions discussed in light of a region or countrys economic, social, political, or disciplinary history.

Defining Clinical Sociology

Clinical sociology is a creative, humanistic, and multidisciplinary specialization that seeks to improve life situations for individuals and collectivities. Clinical sociologists work with client systems to assess situations and avoid, reduce, or eliminate problems through a combination of analysis and intervention. Clinical analysis is the critical assessment of beliefs, policies, or practices, with an interest in improving the situation. Intervention is based on continuing analysis; it is the creation of new systems as well as the change of existing systems and can include a focus on prevention or promotion (e.g., preventing environmental racism or promoting community sustainability).

Clinical sociologists have different areas of expertise, such as health promotion, organizational development, social conflict, or cultural competence, and they work in many capacities. They are, for instance, university professors (full-time or part-time) who are consultants or advisers, community organizers, sociothera-pists, mediators, focus group facilitators, social policy implementers, action researchers, managers, and organizational analysts. The clinical sociologists who have an organizational focus may be interested in helping organizations in the public s ector (government and nonprofit organizations) or for-profit enterprises that are publicly or privately owned.

Clinical sociologists usually have training in more than one discipline and a great deal of experience in working with intervention teams whose members have a variety of backgrounds. Because of this, clinical sociologists use a range of theoretical approaches (e.g., grounded, standpoint, multicultural-liberationist,

1J. M. Fritz (ed.), International Clinical Sociology. Springer 2008

2 J. M. Fritz

psychoanalytic, systems, land ethic, conflict, social constructionism, symbolic interaction, critical, and/or social exchange) and frequently integrate them in their work. If clinical sociologists conduct research or collaborate with researchers, they also have exposure to or use a range of research methods.

Clinical Sociology in Its Global Context

Clinical sociology is as old as the field of sociology, and its roots are found in many parts of the world. For instance, the clinical sociology specialization often is traced back to the fourteenth-century work of the Arab scholar and statesperson Abd-al-Rahman ibn Khaldun (13321406). Ibn Khaldun provided numerous clinical observations based on his varied work experiences such as secretary of state to the rule of Morocco and chief judge of Egypt.

Auguste Comte (17981857), Emile Durkheim (18581917), and Karl Marx (18181883) are among those who frequently are mentioned as precursors to the field. Comte, the French scholar who coined the term sociology, believed that the scientific study of societies would provide the basis for social action. Emile Durkheims work on the relation between levels of influence (e.g., social in relation to individual factors) led Alvin Gouldner (1965) to write that more than any other classical sociologist (Durkheim) used a clinical model. Karl Marx, as Alfred McClung Lee noted in 1979, brought to his written work the grasp of human affairs only possible through extensive involvement in praxis, social action, agitation, and social organization.

Clinical sociology has developed in a number of countries including the United States, France, Canada, and Italy. If one focuses on the use of the words clinical sociology, the specialization has its longest history in the United States and has resulted in many English-language publications directly linked to the specialization. The American clinical sociologists emphasize intervention, designed a certification process, and have a commission that can accredit clinical as well as applied sociol-ogy programs. French is the language of many of the current international clinical sociology conferences, and many publications clearly linked to clinical sociology have appeared in Quebec, Canada, and France. The French clinical sociologists emphasize clinical analysis and frequently focus on the relationship between psychology and sociology. They have a solid international network and have done an excellent job of attracting psychologists and professionals in other fields to their network. During the last fifteen years, Italians have hosted clinical sociology conferences and workshops, published clinical sociology books and articles, offered a graduate program in clinical sociology, and established associations of clinical sociologists.

Clinical sociology also is found in other parts of the world. Of particular interest would be developments in Greece, Brazil, Mexico, Japan, Malaysia, and South Africa. In South Africa, for example, one universitys sociology department put a sociological clinic in place and another sociology department developed a graduate

1 Introduction 3

specialization in counseling. Mexico, Brazil, France, Canada, Italy and Greece are among those countries that have hosted international clinical sociology conferences.

The international development of clinical sociology is supported primarily by two organizations. The clinical sociology division of the International Sociological Association (ISA) was organized in 1982 at the ISA world congress in Mexico City. The other major influence is the clinical sociology section of the Association Internationale des Sociologues de la Langue Francaise (International Association of French Language Sociologists).

It is clear that a global clinical sociology has emerged. While there is a common core, there are differences. In some countries there is more of an interest in analysis and providing advice rather than in undertaking intervention. There are practitioners working at all levels of intervention (e.g., individual through global), but some areas of intervention (e.g., health or organizations) may be more of a focus in one country rather than in another. In some countries, individuals and their approaches are clearly labeled as clinical sociology, while in other countries the label is not used very frequently. Finally, it should be mentioned that while scholar-practitioners in the United States, Quebec and France have had important roles in the develop-ment of clinical sociology, there are now a number of other national influences that will help shape the future of this global specialization.

The Organization of This Volume

Chapters 1 and 2 are both introductory chapters with Chapter 2 outlining some of the basic concepts, diagrams and models in the field. Chapter 2 also includes details about rights-based intervention and the influences on actions of individuals and collectivities.

The introductory chapters are followed by the two main parts of the volume. Part I, Selected Regional Histories, discusses the history of clinical sociology in four areas. The chapters in this part of the book are presented in order of the continuing use of the term clinical sociology. In Chapter 3, I discuss the history of clinical sociol-ogy in the United States, where the term clinical sociology was first used in the late 1920s and early 1930s by a physician, and the sociologists Louis Wirth and Ernest Burgess. In Chapter 4, Jacques Rheaume discusses the history of clinical sociology in Quebec. The term clinical sociology first appeared in Quebec in the 1950s in the work of sociologist Fernand Dumont and those affiliated with Laval University. In Chapter 5, Vincent de Gaulejac discusses the history of clinical sociology in France, where the term clinical sociology was first used in 1963 by Jacques Van Bockstaele, Maria Van Bockstaele, and two of their colleagues. Chapter 5 traces the continuous development of clinical sociology beginning with the 1980s and connects this devel-opment to the work of Emile Durkeim, Marcel Mauss, and Georges Gurvitch. In Chapter 6, Yuji Noguchi discusses the history of clinical sociology in Japan. The term clinical sociology was introduced in a continuing way in 1993, although earlier refer-ences to clinical sociology were made in 1954 and 1985.

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The second part of the book, Clinical Sociology Applications, provides examples of interventions and analyses by clinical sociologists from eight countries. Chapter 7 is placed first because it covers important conceptsmultilevel system intervention, cultural competency, empowerment, theoretical analysis, and redefinition of the situ-ationthat are basic not only for clinical sociologists who work as mediators, but also for the specialization in general.

The next three chapters deal with issues of individual health and illness. In Chapter 8, Sarah Brabant examines three problems with the psychological model of bereavement and the shift to a sociological perspective. She follows this discussion with illustrations from her clinical practice in Louisiana working with bereaved individuals and as a consultant to Healing House. In Chapter 9, Anastasia-Valentine Rigas and Andriani Papadaki discuss drug problems in Greece and note that sociology seems vital in clinical work with individuals whose psychological problems are linked to social factors. In Chapter 10, Robert Svigny explores the patients personal experience of schizophrenia in the context of a changing Chinese society and discusses some important aspects of clinical sociology including his idea of an implicit sociology.

Chapters 11 to 14 cover a variety of interventions. In Chapter 11, Giuseppe Gargano contributes to the definition of clinical sociology and then discusses the Casa di Giona (House of Giona), a therapeutic house for adults that is a project of the Italian Association of Clinical Sociology. Chapter 12 is written by Jacques Van Bockstaele, Maria Van Bockstaele, Jacques Malbos, Martine Godard-Plasman, and Nathalie Van Bockstaele-Theilhaber. The Van Bockstaeles have developed, over the last thirty years, a technical instrumentsocioanalysisthat they use in their work with organizations in France. In Chapter 13, Janet Mancini Billson covers many aspects of focus groups and details her work with international clients such as the World Bank Group, the United Nations, and the European Commission. In Chapter 14, A. Halim Wan and P. Melati Wan discuss the training of grassroots leaders in multiethnic Malaysian communities. The authors identify different kinds of intervention (promotion, prevention, conflict resolution, rehabilitation), provide a great deal of information about ethnic relations in Malaysia, and outline what they have identified as the 20 tasks that must be undertaken by anyone mediating a com-munitys intergroup disputes.

Chapters 15 to 17 focus on national and global issues. In Chapter 15, Elvia Taracena discusses, from a clinical sociological point of view, the survival culture of street children. She and her colleagues have been concerned with the topic of street children for fifteen years and discuss here the proliferation of belts of mis-ery. In Chapter 16, Selene Herculano and Tania Pacheco provide an excellent socioenvironmental introduction to Brazil, outline the struggle against environ-mental racism in the country, and emphasize the need to work towards a just and democratic planet. In Chapter 17, Walda Katz-Fishman and Jerome Scott discuss the development and activities of Project South, a leadership institute that is based in the southern United States and dedicated to the elimination of poverty and genocide.

1 Introduction 5

A list of the 22 contributors is provided at the end of the volume. Each authors current affiliations, accomplishments and contact information is provided.

References

Gouldner, A. (1965). Explorations in applied social science. Social Problems 3, 169181. Reprinted in A. Gouldner & S. M. Miller (eds.), Applied Sociology (pp. 522). New York: Free Press.

Lee, A. M. (1979). The Services of Clinical Sociology. American Behavioral Scientist. 22/4, 487511.

Selected Readings in International Clinical Sociology

The following list of basic readings in the area of clinical sociology was developed with two objectives in mind: (1) include publications that are basic in the different countries, and (2) include publications that mention clinical sociology in the title. Readings that are less well known, do not mention clinical sociology in the title, or cover specialized areas of application are not included in this short list.

Alinsky, S. (1934). A sociological technique in clinical criminology. Proceedings of the Sixty-Fourth Annual Congress of the American Prison Association, (pp. 167178). New York: American Prison Association.

Bruhn, J. G., and Rebach, H. M. (1996). Clinical Sociology: An Agenda for Action. New York: Springer.

Clark, E. J., Fritz, J. M., and Rieker, P. P. (1990). Clinical Sociological Perspectives on Illness and Loss: The Linkage of Theory and Practice. Philadelphia: Charles Press.

Clinical Sociology Review and Sociological Practice. CD-ROM. Available from Dragonfly Press, Grand Ledge, Michigan.

Enriquez, E. (1992). Remarques terminales vers une sociologie clinique dinspiration psychana-lytique [Final Remarks Toward a Clinical Sociology with Psychoanalytic Inspiration]. Lorganisation en analyse. Fevrier. Paris: P.U.F.

Enriquez, E. (1997). Lapproche clinique: gense et dveloppement en France et en Europe de lOuest [The clinical approach: genesis and development in Western Europe]. International Sociology, 12, 151164.

Enriquez, E., Houle, G., Rhaume, J., and Svigny, R. (1993). Lanalyse clinique dans les sciences humaines [Clinical Analysis in Human Sciences]. Montreal: ditions Saint-Martin.

Fritz, J. M. (1985). The Clinical Sociology Handbook. New York: Garland.Fritz, J. M. (1991). The emergence of American clinical sociology. In: H. Rebach and J. Bruhn

(eds.), Handbook of Clinical Sociology (pp. 1732). New York: Plenum.Fritz, J. M. (2005). The scholar-practitioners: the development of clinical sociology in the U.S. In: A.

J. Blasi (ed.), Diverse Histories of American Sociology (pp. 4056). Leiden and Boston: Brill.Fritz, J. M. (ed.). (2006). The Clinical Sociology Resource Book (6th ed.). Washington, DC:

American Sociological Association Teaching Resources Center and the Clinical Sociology Division (RC46) of the International Sociological Association.

Gaulejac, V. de, and Roy S. (eds.). (1993). Sociologie clinique [Clinical Sociology]. Paris: Descle de Brouwer.

Giorgino, E. (1998). Per un ridefinizione del lavoro professionale in sociologia [For a Redefinition of Professional Work in Sociology]. Sociologia e Professione, 29, 823.

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Glassner, B., and Freedman, J.A. (1979). Clinical Sociology. New York: Longman.Lee, A. M. (1944). Sociology, clinical. In: H. P. Fairchild (ed.), Dictionary of Sociology (p. 303).

New York: Philosophical Library.Lehnerer, M. (2003). Careers in Clinical Sociology. Washington, DC: American Sociological

Association.Luison, L. (ed.). (1998). Introduzione alla Sociologia Clinica: Teorie, Metodi e Tecniche di

Intervento [Introduction to Clinical SociologyTheory, Methods and Intervention Tech-niques]. Milano: FrancoAngeli.

Noguchi, Y., and Ohmura, E. (eds.). (2001). Rinshou-Shakaigaku no Jissen [The Practice and Experience of Clinical Sociology]. Tokyo: Yuhikaku Publishing. (In Japanese.)

Ohmura, E. (ed.). (2000). Rinshou-Shakaigaku wo Manabu Hito no Tameni [For the People Studying Clinical Sociology]. Kyoto: Sekaishisousha. (In Japanese.)

Ohmura, E., and Noguchi, Y. (eds.). (2000). Rinshou-Shakaigaku no Susume [Introduction to Clinical Sociology]. Tokyo: Yuhikaku Publishing. (In Japanese.)

Rebach, H. M., and Bruhn, J. G. (1991). Handbook of Clinical Sociology. New York: Plenum.Rheaume, J. (1997). The project of clinical sociology in Quebec. International Sociology, 12,

165174.Svigny, R. (1996). The clinical approach in the social sciences. International Sociology, 12,

135150.Svigny, R., Rheaume, J., Houle, G., and Enriquez, E. (1993). LAnalyse Clinique dans les

Sciences Humaines [Clinical Analysis in the Human Sciences]. Montreal: Editions Saint-Martin.

Svigny, R., Weng Y., Yang, Z., Loignon, C. and Wang, J. (in press). Jingshenbingxue kangfu: youguan lingchuang shehuixue de tansuo [Psychiatric rehabilitation: a clinical sociology approach]. In: W. Yongzen, R. P. Liberman, and X. Yingqing (eds.), Jingshenfenliezhen Kangfu Caozuo Shouce [A Handbook of Rehabilitation for Patients With Schizophrenia]. Beijing: Peoples Medical Publishing House.

Straus, R. A. (1999). Using Sociology: An Introduction from the Applied and Clinical Perspectives (3rd ed.). New York: Rowman and Littlefield.

Tosi, M., and Battisti, F. (eds.). (1995). Sociologia Clinica e Sistemi Socio-Sanitari: Dalle Premesse Epistemologiche allo Studio di Casi e Interventi [Clinical Sociology and Public Health Systems]. Milano: FrancoAngeli.

Van Bockstaele, J., and Van Bockstaele, M. (2004). La Socianalyse: Imaginer-Coopter [Socioanalysis: Imagining and Co-opting]. Paris: Edition Economica/Anthropos.

Van Bockstaele, J., Van Bockstaele, M., Barrot, C., and Magny, C. (1963). Travaux de Sociologie Clinique [Clinical Sociology Work]. LAnne Sociologique. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.

Wan, A. H. (2004). The Crowning of Sociology: The Genesis of Clinical Sociology. Unpublished manuscript.

Wirth, L. (1931). Clinical sociology. American Journal of Sociology, 37, 4966.