clive archer international organizations
TRANSCRIPT
International Organizations Third edir ion lt lt- ~ bullbull ~
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JIIIIry 2001
This rhaplct is by no means a compreherwivc survey of the literature ir is bound t() he selecrive not JUSI because a full aceOunt wnuld be indigesdblr for rhr reader but aISO bccause of the lirnitations on rhe author Thiacutes mealU that materiill is dmwn from that originally wdtten in the majoI European langnages wieh English and American literature domlmmt It does M(
mean that matetial written in other languages 1s oiacute lirde value dearly this is nor che case Becaust cf (he intetnati()nal uarure of tne politiacuteciexclJ sc1ence cornmunity imponant contributmos originalJy written in say Romanian or Chille~e will rmrrnaUy filter through wirl ttamlat10n iexclnto English or une of the orher European anguages Desplte tbis probahility thc readec sh~iexclld note (har linguistiy(onuraims fhe fWWrt of publishing ond what mlghr be called the eultU1iquest imperialism of che Iluropean IInd Nonh American lit aU mean that ideas foom rhe Third Wodd 6ght an uphill barde lO be wideIy dissernioMeO iu prior Sn tbis chapee is boUlld tuacute have a buih-in cultural ru(i$ however rareful the author may wve becn
REJIJSTS
Realist virwl of iorernational organiutiacuteons ronsider them to be pan of the iostirurionalil-ed te1ariouship between srares and govemmenu ibey have a state-crntric view tlf the polirical world and llave lirrle Interes io lNGOs Thclr maio concern is how imemaciooal telariorm can heS be man~
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ruher than how tbe syiexcltem may be reformea or improved A good SUInmuy of realiexclst wriretS is roo [hey Me in COrnmon shareQ assumptions aOOut the primacy of sures as inrernadooal oceoa the separauumlon of donwtic ami iacutemernational poIltics and who describe che laner in terms of ananhy Md a conCOmltanr lbiquiroUi srruggle foc power and securiexclry (Guacute[firhiexcl 1992 21 n extooob rend ro refer back ro (he wridngs of Thllcydides in Anoacuteenr Greece Machiavelli in medieval haly and Thomas HobbeJl living through (he sevemecnth century English civil war - all thtee wriring ln times of tutmoil and srrife - a~ express]ng the basic wiexcl~dom of Realisr thoUSht (Jaebon and S~renkn 1999 70-6 Viotti and Kaupiexcl 1999 57-60) In (he mooern era che tndJtional realiu writers Iacuteti1ve iexclliso reflected ttoubled time1i
Tbe ttruliJitmtJ realiSlJ
These WTirers had thetr Intdllaquo(ual rones in the 1930s the Second World War ami (he Cold War and are somerimes known as che powe~ polirks schoill lhey are represeoted tere by RH Can and Genrg Schwar~enberger jo Brirato aoo by Reinhold Niebuhr and Hans Morgenrhau in (he USA Therr srardng poinr was rhe exi5cence of che prC$ent state sysrem in which there is no common authotity over and ahoye fhe sovereign starc aOO where rhere is international anarchy io me senrre of a lack of govcrnmem iexcllr he internadorud leve JU $tared (his viewpoim has conrequeoces for rheiJ appreciation of the role oiacute inrernational organizatiom in intentare relations
EH (aHS wiexclitings reflect (he disiHusionment with che League of Narions in the 1930s over in - m rather irs members failute tO prevenr (he invll510ns of AbyJiexclsinia (Ethiopia) and Manchuria arnI wirh the conquesrs ~ the Nazi and t3sltisr srares iexcln Eutope He oonidcred that it was misguided ro suppost (hu a more rntional ana mote moral mocle of cQnducring inremate telarioos such as by Ulit of rile League aud [he PCIJ would necessarJIy have 1ed w a more Stlrisfactory world order e~ptcjiexclally if it were nor baselt on tite tealities oE existing power darionllhips 1he League aod (he strUCture it purported ro ~Iphold was only ti srrong as thOtt cnuoshycries willing O mppott it JU the mos powetful Lcaguc supponets (Fmoce and rhe IJnitelt Kingdom) found iexclln jncreasing numbee of States (Gennany Japan ltaly) rllngN agaiacutenst rhe wgue sySten1 aoo as the USA mi he USSR wefe eirher llnwilling or unavailable ro help Brirajn tlnd Fmocc cQmpromised their Sllppolaquo uf tbe u-ague ro keep he woIves from lheiacuter owo doon Indeed Catr was prepered ro support such policiC as che Munieb Agreemem oE Sepremlxt 1938 (lIt whkh Aricain and Femec effecshytive1y handecl over CzechOlil0vakia lO Hiclers Germany) as the neofesr llpproacb jo recent yeats ro (he scrdemem of 11 major inrernational iS$ue by II pfOCeoure of peace(ul change and as a recognirion of the preponderance oE frerman powef in cenuaJ Ellcope (Cac[ 1939 282) Furthecroore he condllded cbat [bcre were two major shoctcomings in imernatioual
moraliry a moraliry on which the Leaaue of Natious WIlS supposedly based Firsr rhere was discdmination in the internlltional cQromunicy between rhe way in which the cases oE cerrain mumries were rreatelt Jbere was fert cxample a differem anirude by the British IInd French governments [ti
Greelte (Ir Abyssinia being aeflaquokecl rhe former was unruceptable the lauee case (lnly regrettable Second there was rhe tailure ro secure general accepshyronce of [he posrulare chu che gond of (he whole taus precedence OVtf rhe good of che parr (Cacr 1946 166) Wichout such accepmnces ir WIlS hara ro imagine an organizatiun sach as the Lcaguc worklng unless iexclf were based un (he oVtlWhe1ming predomJnlilflCc oC power of JU suppotters Carrs ecophtiiiexcl un powcr does not mean thar he iettisoned che role ufmorality io iOternacimw atTain He recommended a judiciou5 blend of morality and power though comparerl with the natiooal arder in the intetnational order rhe role of power 1S grearer and tha[ of momlity te5s (Carr 1946 168) Indeed Knutsen (1992 268) considers wirh much jusrificariCfn that Carr was not a realise but draws upon the ROt15seaucan tradidon uf 5UCiiacutell thoughr and gives a dialecdcal accounr oE rhe evfliution oiacute ImernadonaJ Re1arions Though chis may be so his wrirings reflC(( much tealiu moughr of lhe inter-war perlad
The ffilljor work of Georg Schwarrenbefgcr PMPtr PoIiJia (1941) aOO took dw failure of the leaguc aud rhe inrerwar system as a pOint uf depar~ tute On the questiou of coUectivt secunty rhe rock f)1l which the Lengue of Nadoos was built Schwarzeoberger remarked referring tO hilattru pacrs uE mutual assisuncc
The Vtry nero fQr [[eafieN uE rhis $on ptoved char League members eirhet assumed that che s~tcm of [he Covenant wouLd be inadequatc inopcrative ur [QQ slow ro be of use or that the omer members u ehe League would nor honour rheir obligatiolS under che Covenanr 1hus hey offeacuter the most opeo refuwrion thar can be imagjnecl of the solutiou enviuged by the drafcers of che CovenaQt in a world imbucd with century~otd uaditions ofpuacuteWer pelitieso
(Schwanenberget 1941 152)
Dunng the latter pan of che 19Kls ~UppotteN of che League had turned their imeresr from the central quesdon of peace aoo securuumly to rhe more petipheral aras of dIiquest( erooomic and social adviries of che League and (lE agencies such as (he ILO Such iexcliexcln intere is show~ Lord Cecil in che conclllsiexclon ro his autobiography publish~ in (he same year as Schwarzenbergers book Schwarzenbetger was nar convincelt by the fuieh placed in such functionallirucs
Organizadf)Jl$ of a telthoical commerdal ami profC$iional kiMgt such Il$
dlf Imemadonal Postal Unjan (he Raok of lnterrunional SetrIemenn wrute slave conrrol oc dre lntetparWtcoetlott) Union ate within a sysrem
118 Witi1lgr 011 le1IIJuumlmalllrFa1lizatiOlu
of power polities limieed ro cbat sphere of internadonal reladons whieh is irrelevant from rhe standpoinr ofhigh politics
(Schwarzenberger 1941 388)
Writing dnring uncertain times Schwarzenberger was not aiming to adopr a merely negative srance Indeed he desired inrernational relations to be based on a community spirir and founded on the rule of law bur he thought rhat norhing was more dangerous to chis objffrive than che belief ehae half~way houses like che League of Nacions or limiced plans roe economie co-opemtion are adequate ro bring aboue chis vital tmn5formation (Schwarzenberger 1941 11) Internacional order and the rule oflaw in intershystace relations presupposed national communicies based on justiee freedom trurh and love Christian virmes ro which Schwarzenberger recommended We5tern smres return (Schwarzenberger 1941 434)
A strong Christian element is also to be found in he works of the American wricer Reinhold Niebuhr who nevercheless is ro be counted amongst rhe realist school Niebuhr contrasted growth in mans technical achievement with the lack of advance in politieal areas
Oue problem is thar rechnies have esmblished a rudimentary world community bur have not imegmred it organically momlly oc polidcally They have created a community of mutual dependence but not one of mutual trust and respecto
(Niebuhr 1948 379)
Niebuhr examined the case fur world government nodng cbat almosr all the arguments for it reseed on the presupposition that che desirabiliry of world order proves rhe actainabiliry of world government (Niebuhr 1948 380) He identified lWO faulrs which undermined arguments fur world government governments are not creared by fiar but need a communiry for rheie base and governments bave only limiced efficacy in integrating a communiey (Niebuhr 1948 380) Given the absence of such a communiry of interest in the world Niebuhr preferred che imperfffdons of the Chatter of che Unired Nations ro an internarional organization ehat would attempr world federation bur would accomplish something a lot less specraculat However he did nore thar the internacional cornmuniry i5 not tocally lacking in social rissue (Niebuhr 1948 386) He listed ffonomic incerdependence fear of mutual annihiladon and moral obligarion as unifying factors in the modern world Pitted against rhese were rhe economic disparities in rhe world rhe negarive effect of fear of destruccion and rhe lack of common convicrions on panicular issues in shon rhe forces which are operaring to integrare rhe world communiry are limired (Niebuhr 1948 388) Wriring during rhe inicial nighr-frost of the Cold War he rempered his realisrie view of the world wirh an apprffiation rhar satisfacdon with che Starus quo is in itself dangerous we mighr also gradually esrablish a genuine sense of
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communiry with oue fue however small No marrer how stubbornly we resisr Russian pressures we should still have a marginal sense of communiry with rhe Sovier Union (Niebuhr 1948 388) For this reason Niebuhr placed emphasis on international organizations such as rhe UN nor 3l being nascent world government but in the Securiry Council as being a bridge of a sort between the segments of a divided world (Niebuhr 1948 382) The Chrisrian Niebuhr recognized rhat whilst individuals may be moral [he morairy of groups i5 much inferior ir may be possible though it is never easy ro esrablish JUSt relarions between individnals within a group purely by moral and rational suasion and accommodation In inrer-group relations this is practicalIy an impossibiliry (Niebuhr 1936 xxii-xxiii) Mankind mighr dream of peace and brorherhoexl but has to content itself with a more modesr goal a sociery in which cbere will be enollgh justice and in which coercion will be sufficiently non-violenr ro prevenr his common eoteeprise from issuing ioto complete disaster (Niebuhr 1936 22)
Perhaps the most famous member of the fower polirics or realist school is Hans Morgenthau author of the classic PolifiCJ am01lg Natos (Moegenrhall 1960) Hrst published in 1948 Morgenthau was a German-boro internashycional lawyer who emigrated in 1937 ro rbe Unired Scates where his post-war work had a deep influence on ioternational relations thinking and peactice Alchough he did nor specificaUy dfore any book to the problems of internacional organizadons his works were so broad as ro envelop the general problems of relations between sraee5 and rhe specific questions of intersmre organjzarions TIte rhree major elements that typify Morgenrhaus writings (and the realist school generally) are
bull the beliefs thar nation srates are rhe mosr importanr actors in internashyrional relarions
bull rhar rbere is a clear disrinction between domestic and international polities bull and that international relariacuteons i5 predominanrly about the struggle fue
power and peace (Vasquez 1979 211)
These basic tenets are reflected in Morgemhaus ereatment of jnterna~ rional organizations which are seen purely as interstate institutions importam in so far as chey are wed in the search for power oc in solving the problem ofpeace
A crucial senrence in PoitiCJ amog NafiJls poims to a central idea io Morgenthaus work The main signposc thar helps polirical realism to find irs way through the landscape of internacional poliries i5 the concepr of interest defined in terms of power (Morgenthau 1960 5) Thns Internacional policics like aU polities is a struggle foe power (Morgenthau 1960 27) and When we speak of power we mean mans control over the minds and acrions of orher men (Morgenrhau 1960 28) Furthermore AH politics domesric and internacional reveals [hree basic patterns rhat is aH
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policical phenomena can be reduced ro one of duee ~ic rype5 A political pollcy seeks eithet 00 keep power ro Jnireot power Uf tu demonsrrare power (Motgeruhau 1960 39) These policies are seen in rhree forros (he pnlirics of status 100 (he politics of impedalirn and che polides of prestiA-c Moqiexclenmau then eVMUamptcJ narional power and timitlltlons on ir in the fuClll of balance of power intemarional mornlity and world public opillion and inremarional law He considered world politics in rhe mid-rwemieth century and rhe problem of peace He examined attemprs ro ob1lliin peare rhroacuteuiexcliexclh limicatJon (diwrmamenr collective seeudty judicial settlemeru peaceful change inrermuionaJ governmem) through ttansfOrmarion (inw drber 11 world Hace Ol a wodol commnnity) aM tbrough m-ommodatien by dip1omacy In rus wmk Morgemhau tewhcd en rhe role of intemationaJ organizatlmu ellpeciaHy in rus senioos en imecnadonal law on peace rhrough limitatton aud on wodd communit)
Morgemruw sttessed rbotr OH rhe bauacutes of inccmadonallaw there has been builr au impostng edifice consisring of tltousands of wadcs huodreds of deuumlsions uf intetmriou~l rrlbunals and innumentble dedsions of domestic roUtlS 1besc lcgulared relatIacuteom between stares arose from
the mulriplicity aud VliriC[) of incernllrional (omans which are tbe rewlr of modern communiauioos internat100al exchange of goods and secvkes and the greur numbtr of Internarional Otganiutiacuteons 10 whicb lOOSt
nadmUi have co-operated for rhe furrherarue ef their commou intereso (MOfgentluu 1960 277)
Whilst mosr internatlww1 UacutetW has been respettccl Moxgemhau rcmarked dIar when miel are vielatetl tbey are fiot 1I1ways cnrooced and rhat even wheo enfonement is uudel~n ir 1s nor alway~ roccrjve Memioning [he Briand-KeHogg Pace the Coveoant of the League of Nations al1d rhe UN Charter he comidered that
fhese inmuments are iexclndeed of doubrhll efficacy laquo(har is [bey are frequendy violared) and lomerimes even of doubtful validity (rhat IS they are ofren oot emorced in case of violation) fhey are bowever flOr typical of [he tradicional rules of imernarjonallaw
MOfgeoduu 1960 277)
lo the sectioo en ioternauacuteooal govemmem Morgeotlmu nored th$r since (he sean of tbe nintteenrh cen(ucy tlich of rbe lIuee wor1d wars (lhe Napoleonilt War tbe Fim anO Second World WaN) hud betn foUowed by an attempr ro euabJisb imernatlona1 governmem ~he Hoiy AlIiance lhe League oC Natiacuteoos aud che United Nations TIle ritn tWO arremprs rouodered becawe uf rhe varied interesrs of stales iBvolved in particular because of disagreemems abour tbe snlfUS qoo lhey wete sUPfll$ed tu be Sllpporting According (() Morgembllu
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cont1iexclu betwccn lIJe Btitish aod French conceprioru and polides did not howcver wreck (he Leugue of Nadons as rhe coufHcc brrween Great Brirajn llnd Ruuia hud the HoIy AlIianee Ir racher led ro a creepiug paralysis in the polirkaJ acfivitJ($ of elle Leugue and ro lu inahiUry ro take determined ardon iexcliexclgail1llc rhrears ro iocetlational ordet aud peare
(Morgenthau 1960 469)
The League coold oruy be iexcld te bave tXerdsed goverumerml functioos tU the 3tt$ of che maififeoanoe of illcernational order and peace in the tIltc
insNlnlaquo$ when eicher he interests of dte grear powers among in members were not affected or tbe common interests of the most influentiacuteal amonA rberu seemed ro requite ir (Motgenrhnu 1960 471)
The United Nadons was also seen by Morgenthau as ~ing based bn
unsure foundations bur fur a differenr rCJSon than for [he League after the Seltond World War [he vicrorious powers first created MI inrernacional governmenr for rhe purpose of IDaiacutencallling tbe srarus quo and alter tbat proposcd to agree upon me status quo However Since such aglaquoement has never existed during rhe Jife pan of tbe Uuited Nations rhe interruuJonal government of [he United NorioM as envisiged by the Citarter has temaiacutened a dltM Imer (Morgenthau 1960 493-4) He teterred lO a pantlysed Selturuuml) Council wirh che GtnetiUacute AssembIy and Secrtaiacutery-General of [be UN borh displayiog weakness (Morgenthan 10 492-3) and wirh tbe whole orguni~ utten acbltving liule rnough (Morgentbau 19tiO 496) Iu his view
The comribmion the Unind Nntiolls can make ro [he preservadon of peace then would lie tr1 fIlking advaotage (lf the oppormniry (hat (be coexisleuce of [he two bloc$ in the same inremariorual organizadon provides iexcl(Ir che unobrmsiexclve resumption of the techniques of tmditional dipJomacy
(MOlgenthau 196) 497)
In enminlng tite possibility of creadng a world community based on a t1lfl8t of iutematlonal organizations such as UNESCO and che ruhet spedaJ~ iud agencies Mursenrhau made he poinr [hae rhe creation of $uch a romrnuniry presupposes al least he mitigacion ampnd minlmiziltlOH cf iuter~ narional conflku so (ruu the interesu UOJrlug membus of different natlOIlS may outweigh me inrerests reparnting tbem (MotAcnchau 1960 536) On rhe UN agencies Morgemhliu (oruidered thar
che comriblltions imerna[Jonal functiOflll agencies make ro he weHmiddot bring of members- of all natious frule lnto tbe background Wh$t Irands brfore the eyes of alI IUC (he immense polixka conflicrs (ha divide tbe great oariollS of the Eanh and dUCQren he welJ-being of rhe- loser if not his very exisrelle
(Morgenrhau 1960 528)
122 Writings Q11 ifftmlailJltdlorganiza1om
In summary Hans MOfgentbau accepted chile inrernationaI orgllniexcllAtAacuteons have a place in intematinnal re1ations dlOUgb he was cardUl not ro QW1tate eheie imJXIrrance in [he match foe powet and peace in rbe worId He SltlW rbei comribution as beinp moJes (lf)(j as part of de geueral intercou~e hetween sraces and [heie gt1vernmcnts and be rve no real consideration ro internashyrional non-governmental oeganizations iexcliexclurthermore funcriacuteonalin(ernational organizacions whibt teCognited as bcing useful were nor given any pardcshyula role in snlvin~ the probkm of peaee Hven the Unired Natiacuteon~ WJ~ only given credence In dlis context as tbe new serring foc the old tethnic-iexclues uf diplomacy Morgenthau 1960 497)
TIte real1sr or po_r polirics schools view of inrernational orgMization is Open ro (hree truljoc (fiLieiuDS Ficst ir could be dairned rhar froro a moral viewpoim he power politks SdlOOl is gready lacking as il accepts too tasily the status que iu intern3tional politics and does nm allow iuternacional organizacions a posirive role io oeating a better wodd Howevct this js to fOrger chat in the writings of a number of cbe realisc schoo - Carr Schwanenberger 300 Niebuht - dlEtC Js a moral and oflen Christian 1lSpecL Hans Morgentltau WIllI use as CQuterned with the moral aspecrs of polidcs as were his contemporuies who rejtftoo the power politics prKepts The deptb of his concern can be sceo in his buok Tnh rmd Pouer Emraquo JI a DttttJe 1960-70 (Morgentltau 1910)
Second tbe whole tealisr school rypified by rhe works of Morgcuthao can be challenged exactIy 00 its major daim name1y Jts teiexcl1Ilism To what extent does (he $chool ofCet a useful descripdon and explanation of lnterna~ uonal reladens Valtiexclquez (979) has oudined how internacional relations anides published pnor to 1970 were dominated by rbe re-tlist paradigm yet their bYPQtbescs provtd 00 he inacrumie and even dld less weU than oonshyreglist h)pQrheses in tbeic prtdictive power Such findiogs tend to undermine me sneogth of wbat has becn the dominam internarional relashytions scboal in Western llCIldemia and suggest that alternadve paradigms shyfoc example tbe Maolsr aud me trnnsnadonal - shtuld be glven more tlme aOO comideratlon This questiOlling of tbe power pOlitkgt schoos work mus then libio mise doubts abonr their rathel dismissive rreatment oE iotemashytional organiwtlons as oong marginal in intemational reJatiQflS
Indeed OOe of the major uiticisms of me chools rceatrnenr of 10laquot011shydonal orgliohiexclitioru bas beelJ iu emphasis 00 high pJiicics tbe qUt5tlOO of peace and Wiexclir 00 che ncglen of low politics SlKh as economk cechnlcal and cultural relatioos lnrern9tionlil organizarioos are secn juSt as iustrushyrnents of policy fur lItates inrernational non-gQvernmental urgaulzarions are hardly oon~iexcldered Nowadays a neglect of econoroiiexcl relatioos and lNGOs seems atl eveu greatet Qmission
lo deenee of his acritudlt it should be rernemhered that most of lhe power polirics wridngs occurred before he ma$$ive exparuioo oiacute lNGOs froro the 1960s onW1llrds The scbool is roorecl in tbe reaction to rbe infir~ micy uf tbe Western democmcies when faeed by Hitler and Mwsolini in lite
WitaacuteKl O iJlt1tatioflal organiUiexclfiqm 123
1930s and i[ found its feet in tbe immooiare fIIl1r- war Cold Wac periodo Ir is riterclOre undentandable cbal ir stces~ high puliexcltic~ and is andpathcrk (O
inrernarional otganiutions wbich were Ken tu be conrtec(ed with [he discredited League oiacute Natiacuteons 4nd 1u inteUeaual sllpporten O wim the original intemioos of rbe United NatlooS bcore these were sulernatecl by Grei1( Power dmension
Neo-naIacutells
TIle Output of me realim tlagged in chc 1970s rogerher witb [he giobtll power of the United States aOO in the [ace 01 nCwapproache ltO the srudy of intemarional rdacions The neo~functiexcl()llalist and interdependencc braoches of refurrnisr approaches (sce nexr section) seemed tO have tuen iacutemu account rhe rise in uamnational non~stare elemenl5 in international relatiumr and rhe imponancc of economic factors in relaLlonS actoss internadonal frontien
By [he 19805 another brand of realinn - the neo-realim - had Jigcsted rhe ncw clcments in intcmattonal relllti)n~ and reasltiexclerted some mmiliar aspects Pcrhaps jn ralQrtIC to tbe reer~iexclon ro naditlonal seturiacutety thinking by the Reagan administtation in thr Unired States these authbrl tended ro stress the conflictnal nuure of jntemarional affuirs tbat this rnnfljet Wu prtmarily between nation iexcltates in the modern world and that power and security was a prime nmsiderarion in human morivafIacuteons (Gtlpin 1984 227) lhe new ciernent jo rheir writing is a manet of S(1l1 debate (Baldwjn 1993 Kegley 199 Keobane 1986amp) bu( rbey bad in common ti de~ire for more intellectual rigour in theit work [han eme of the old retlshyises a willingness ro deal wirh telltions in 11 wodd where US hegemony was in qllestioll and a pttparedness tu include econurnj( fumiddotton io tbeir cakulashydons
How then did the oeo-realisrs rccae imeroarjonal organizatioru 00 the wbole (bey vicwed [hero witb tbe same jaundiced eye as did Morgemhau Imernational QCRinhatiooll were SCen as instrumencs of atate policy at most COrnmoo lorurns Their role ns independenc actors in [he iuteroatinnal syttem was not somechiog thl1 most uf the neo-r~lisu readUy anepted lndeed [beir doyen Keuneth Walu furcefuUy reasserter the pn~idoo oiacute th sovereign Stolte in internarional poli rics
fO a theory that demal the central role oiacute states will be nttded fmir if non~tate KtOrs develoi ro me poim oiacute rivaJling or SllrpRUing che great pOWCfS nor just a iacuteew uf tle minot on~ Tbey sbow 00 ign ofdoiog diexcliexclu
(WaI I98Go 89)
Waltt like others such as Gilpin (1981) Wall nmcerned wirh intetnashytianal pnlitics srructured by rh uneven distributinn of pOWCl lnternational instiexcltuttoilS therefore ftflecred rhe realities of [bL~ ~iexcltuation aod rhe major intematinna organizarioo5 llorliexcl as cbe U uited Nations Ol rhe Bretton
124 Writings JIJ iflJm1UtirmalIilgJ1liza1iofll
Woods iostitudons conld be eXpampted lO bear he imprinr of rhe maln bege~ monic power (in t~e CtlSes rhe Uoitw Srores) lf rbey rrled m brmk away from duacutes snaicjacker ~ as dlrl rhe otueraI Asscmbly of (he uumlN in he 197)s - fhey would find dxemselves lgtide-rnlCked by tIUt power
Tbe neo-reaiJSts accepred [har hegemoni( JXlwer could aru1 woukl decline bm wCfC les$ abJe ro deal wuumlh he consequences of rhis decline 00 rhe srruc~ tllrt1i uf iuternari01lal reJatious How mishr [bey (induding iowtnadolUll orgBnizatlolls) change aCrer hegcmony lt was ro thiiacutel (udtion rbar Roben Keobane uddressea himself He firiexclt wmited ehar Realism is patdcu1arly weak in accoundng foc ehange espc(iiexclJly where rhe sources of that chanse he in rhe wodd JOlirical economy oc in rhe domesdc srructures of smtes (Keohanc 1986b 1)9) He then referred ro his own eadie wooo un mrnpln interuependence for iospiradon CKeohnlle 1986b 160) He saw rbe (d lo $upplemenr though nor replace JeltlliSf wricings wiexclrh theoeiEs and be sHtSSCJ rhe importance of smdying inrerruuional inslitu[ioru which in particular would oeal wirh the question of how co-operation can cake place io wotW polidcs without hegemony (Keohane 19A4 14) By the early 1990s Koohllne fOUM a synthesis in elle iosriturionalist argument thal oormws e1ement5 ftcm hoth liberalism and teiexcltlil111 (Keohane 1993 271) Thi assumed (har sutes were rhe principal Qaors in world politics and acrm in rheir own self-inrerests hoth traditional eenli~t tenen Reiative capahilides - how power weaith etc was distributed berween the various nares - was impotcunt and S(Rtt5 had m rely on rheir own jUrlQns ro ensure rehuive gatos fmm coopetatioo From the Jiberal side Krohanes insrirutiQruUacuteism borrows 11 greater empbasis un the role of inrernatiunal jfl$rlIIriacuteoru in changing COnceiexclllons oftdf-interese (Keohane 1993)
During [he period from about 1945 ro 196S iexclntetna[ional imuacuterutions werc shaped by [he prevaHing American hegcmony Keohane identified as a problem the ledme in reronrces dllll lIacutele tilliced States governmellr had beeo wiUing ro devore tU the roainreoance of chis system (especially tU economic a~pect) siacutence he mid-1960s As US hegemony dedined rhere would be sn increased need for intematiooal ftgtgimes - scrs of rules norms and insrimrions ~ so [hat states could rub aJong mgether Keohane saw the regimes lefr by American hegemooy as a good scanillg poinr for future coshyopecatiiexclO and thought thar [hese should be adapred tu roCCt [he needs of (he new sicuation (J 984 244~ 6) This woulo ar leas[ make co--operatioo possible provide information foc all abotlr pnlicies inteor1ons aoO VIllues and woutd creare a depeudabiUry in intemational relarioni (Keohane 1993 259)
Keohanes wOrk has bccn critiacutecized by che more staunch feO-realistl Joseph GriecO 0993 301-38) provided a compreheruivc refundon of Koohanes leanings ro a more liberal positioo and rherehy advances a classic sratement of neo-fcalist conceros He admirs bar iU$riacuterurionalism has made imponam cOfluiburioru ir lIDs shuwo bow the dflilrchicaJ SlfUCture of iexclntershynationaJ rdarioru has Cfillted the problem of chenins fo lmerruuional
wnlngs 1m nf1hJUQrlai O1ffdl1lzamJ1U 1)
cooperario1 Setond ie has focusm on how lnternatlonal instirutions help srares manage thar problem and les symptoms Thioo they have caused che neo~realistS 00 look more carefully ar rhe relarive gains problem ihis is (he case where states are less concerned wirh rhe absolure gailll than with theit gaios ser aside [hose of orher srares which are seen as porenriaL riVus In other words le is beuer to agree tO an ums contml Healy allowing yOlJf
iexclrare ro build duee extra missiles and youe 0l1JXiuent lO build two exrra missiles rhan tu tolerate a situatiou wbere you can build five more missiacuteleiexcl (a better absolute gajn titan rhe [hree) bU your rival cnn buHd iexclnen (they have a stronger relJirive 81ljn mmpued wirh the arms control iexclreiexcliexclty outcotne) FinaJly neo-tClllim have had (O re-assess cher views of rhe signifkauce of intetnatlonal instirucions in rhe sysrem
This view of inrernarionaJ irutirutions entompasres the oeo-rett1ist IJndersranding of (he role of imernarjonaI uumltganizatioos in the international ~ystem As mendonw he realins view thero as insftumenrs oC rhe sovereign litates Neo-reaJisc$ have rehued rhis undersrandiog by poruuying tbem as refleecias che hegemony of the mese J70wcrful membe1l They can airo provide forums wirh [he poremjJi1 to be SOmewhaacutet more efficient than trnditional diplomacy or iHeguLu mnferences though a danget comes wheo they try ro he ilCroCS in ffieir own right Tbe successol1 of rhe tradimiddot donal realius such as WaltZ (1979 70-U and Mcaubeimet (1990) saw rhe EUlOpean Uo1on ptedecessor che Europeall COrnmunities me) as flour~ ishing because of rhe bipolar diviolioo of Europe by rhe USA and he Soviet Unl00 dudng the Cold War The txpecrarion was fhar with rhe end of che Cold War the Be pooject wnuld nor advance bur rache sink ioro disuse T1lltlugh the EC fiued n nurnher nf c-rlses in rhe early 1990s ir dld transfotm irsetf iexclmo the EUnlpean Unjon (EU) wich ao Boonomk and Monetary Union (EMU) 11nd a Common Foreign and Security Poky Grieco (1993 331) expIained rhis in tetms of $tates mnstitnting rollaoorariacuteve rules for a commen interese with the wCllker stares reying to consrrucr rules rhnt aUow them effenive volee opportuniries to ameLiotate tbeir dOJrunation by srronger partners Tite weaket states - sueb as Bdgium Portugal ot even France in rhe EU - wefe trying ro bind cbe stmoger Gcrmany in his (middotIl-~e lmo a form of relationship that avoids dominatioIL Crlieco (l993 335) admirtetl thaL realism hll-~ JIDC offered aIl explaoarion fm che tendeo(y uf sram tu undcrrake their coopemrion rhrough iftrituriOJiexclaited instirutions
This chaUenge has buo taken by those who nave ioaeasingly sought tO
liacutenk a fiiexclidy reaJlsr uudetstanding of wodd polides with domestic pulirles in the lcadifl8 stace actors An tlCamplc 15 Joho Richarelss Study of che regulation of dte inremarinnnl vlatioo marken in which he daims tO
refine rhe ffalm understamUugs of power io iexclmernarional bargaining 0999 33 BasiOlUy uationaJ po1iriciexclan~ Ut$te and susmin International inuJtudons induding intefflaacuteuacuteonal nrganiacutezations ro maxlmise domesshyti poliriud advamuumlge ltRicharda 1999 9) His conrendnn is har
l-V H~giexcl iexcllJJ ltifffltIltlUImal lIfglaquonlMiffIU1fJ
internatIacuteonal iusti[U[ious wiH be created whcn they are politicaUy effishyoacuteenr (mat is inrrease eleuoral support) Cor natiooa poHticians (Richards 1999 3) Rithards rejeces a loHective goods approach tO intctrtatlomuacute iuscirmiollgt (such a~ that ofZacher and SumID 1996) that See$ such insti~ clltiom al cHrrecdng lhe working$ oiacute che market internuJonally antl rherefore produciug econQmic benefirs all n1l1Od However he alro tejelttS rhe hard realist approach that daims rhat instltl1tions including internashycional organizatium merely reOeltt the power tap4biHtles in rhe international system altiexcl in Kra~nermiddots statement mar srronger Haces have simply done what they hiexcllve plea~edmiddot 0991 337) Richard srill claims rhat international imtitutlons iexcllre the iacutenstroments of stateS Because $ueb inscirucions as the internationill organiradons (hat regulate mtetoational rravel definc property rights internatiacuteonal1y they alter che marketplace leaving gains for sorne and losscs fur others This beJng ro [he building of such iexclnstirutiollS inrernationally is oound lO trigger a fiexclerce domestic political batdc (Richardll 1999 9) Thus whac happens ro and in internashytional otganizadons can be usoo by domestk politkians ro maxiacutemize eheir OWIl dmnestic advanrage This is a view that may attrac( supporr within the Ulliacuteted Srarcs though may be less reSOllant in sorne of the smaller and weaker ~tales
A similar view hdu bcen takco by the liberal intergovernmcotalistll who havt examined the European Union (EU) Moravcsik (1993 1998) has pcimoo (raquoIr tbar governrncmal strtttegies withiacuten tbe SU havc becn domi~ naced by preferences and power Cooperatiun and integration wete rhus seen as usefu strateampies if tbey furtltered a governmenrs control over its domesric alfalrs and agenda Moravcsik rhm ste$ the EU as a succc5sful imecgovernshytnelUal regime desigued ti) manage (conomt intetdcpendence rhrough negotiated poticy ctM1tdinatioo (1993 474)
The neo-res1i$tS have becn auacked OH many ground~ not leaJIt fO provIacuteltilng no WVIoce on toe works of che old realuumlt ($Ce AshJcy 1984) Like their reatist predecessors (he predicdve powcr of rheir work hal betn dlUacutelenged particulady their inabiUty (O foreste the eod uf the OJld War tand oiacute the Suviet Union (Scholte 1993 8) Scholre also cuacutetlcizs fhem fur nO addressing global iexclssucs $uch as welfnre questiorn ano poUucfon thar domishynate the world uf rbe late tweorieth and eurly twenry~first cenruries This questioos rbe descnpttve ability oiacute the oeo-realisu tS what (hey descdbe an) more (C$isritmiddot tllan thett realiacutest predelaquoSSOrs They have on rhe wbole OOen as unintere$laquod M cheir predece$sms in rIacute1f ro1e of interoatinnal ofRaniurioos The main exceptlon undl the 1990s wu Robert KeltiexclIacutellilne whose earLier worb en intetdependence stcved hun well no rIacutelar Sfilre Evel hee the critidsm can be made rha his view is b41skaHy conservative and was concerncd iexcljede iexcleh the incerests of (he Thiacuterd World Sorne of rhe Wrltel1l no economic coopshyeratino and integrauon fU tlle 1990s a(cepted many ol the nco-realiu assumptiacuteons aoout natiQna1 UlrettU$ ln Illternatllmal o~iratlon The) bave brought 00 the OeM a more refmed vlew oE rhe relatioacuternhip between govern-
Wrltingr tffl inttntaJumal ~ruZaJlflf1 ti I
menn and inrernarional orgHnizatioru and have Ieft behiod he Cnld War reain empoosis 00 the mijitruy ilSpet-ts ofpower
REFORMISTS
Tile n-alist wciters despite theit diftering valuatioos of the worth of cenain intematlonal organizstiltms have in rornrnon a state-centrk approoen ro intershyoational reiatWIlS 1bough liOIlle were CQnremed tbiacutelt govemITlents shoold renect more he (iacutenevitably) good lntentions uf their dtizens in inrerruttonmiddotd affiUfl or rbar world otgmizarions shoukI have more power (O detll wjth warlikt ()t reoegade Stares tOOr nus of artentioo is the internacional govem~ mental otganhtaacutetIDn (lOO) A nociceable devclopmenr in internariona reladons literawn inu the Second Wodd War has been (he movement away [rom mis 5tate-centred view towards ooe tIacutelat admits the impoarune of intematioroal atmiddotWrs iexcliexcltha than tite sovereign SUte 1bese indude lGOs in tbeir 0JIffi right (rnrlwr than as meeting places or inmumenn of thcir rnember tare) lNGOs trnnsaatJoual otgllnizatloru polirical group5 aod individual dtizeru Although many pl1blkadmlS just desctibe tbese new phenomena whkh llaVe herome more aniV in rhe last iacuteotty years [nere 15 a1so iI prescriptive erement to sorne oiacute [he writings They ttnd te prescribe incrmsed non-srare Jrtivity in inremashydonal relatiom ase a way uf underpinning claset relations berWfetl stattS ami socieries or undermining houlle anitudes by guvemmenrs (WeiS$ and Gordenker 1996 WlIlerrs 19~ Gordenker and WcillS 1998) Whilr this general reformist viewpoint is similar to reall~t approaches in aooopting the importafl(e uf the srate relatjons in incernational polit1cS ir does no( aoept eiexclrher fhe monopo1y oE rhe state in tbe sysrem or mar litatfS are unimry talional actors In surnrnary tbe leey aJlpeltrs of a reformist ilppftmdl to intetnational rclashytions indudes n number oE rbe folJowing
1 ihe belieE in reason in human nature and in progres$ [he [requency and level of war can be redocoo fur example
2 Inrernauumlonal relatioru can be moperative rather toon confIirtrW 3 Though seates are imponam in inrernarionaJ Ielations rhey are IJoOt [he
only aCtofS 4 ampates are Q)t ulUacuterary iexclI(tors wirh their dedsion inrematiacuteonally reflecting
intemal divisions aoJ interests They dv nve therefore neccssarHy muimize the interesrs oE che stare
~ The internacional s1gttem espl(bHy pires of iexclt comairu the elemenrl uf international society ano relies on a wriety oE international institutiollS indudjng inrernadonat Otgltlniution
The refurmist approach to the srudy (lf intemntional reladons hase conse~ quences fOl [be roruiderafIacuteon of interniexcltrnmal Otiexcliexclalization~ ano has made a notieabJe conuibwion to the lit(llIr~lre on the subjctt especiall) since [he 19508 Hnwever there is a bockgtotlnd ro the aboye idea~ char can be ICen in
j 01 Wnlmg 1m l1f1eOkllttmal urgJmuJugtnJ
me esdier writifl8~ of Grmiw Ladre Hentbam 3nd l(uiexclc (Jwkson aoo amprensen 1999 108-11 VlOtrl and Kaupi 199t) 200-4) Ao undet1randing of che curren refutmtst appruache1 ro inttmational otganiUitioos um be helped by reiacuteerente ro SOUlt of the WI1tets on internacional law wnich wiIJ mrm one section beLow
lnlernatIacutetmall8wyers
Mueh of rhe lirerarure abour mrernatioual organwoou$ 1$ descriptivc ltiren detiing with several organizacions aM giving purricuw eutpha$is te tite League ofNarioas and UN sometimes dealing with one organiacutezadoo swn lIS NATO me OAU Of rhe EU Leading woru in trus area 1m those of the intetshynariooal lawyers who give particular ronsidemcion ro rhe cowlimtiacuteoru of international organizaoons thei legal penonaliries aoo institucional probshykm Indecd ic was pmbably lhe P~ ltgtfuw ar amplinburgh Universiry J lorimer who fin coined the e~ionmiddotiexclnrernatiooal organization in 1B67
Contributions (Q cbe study of internarionai organizacions llave been made by Britisb legal exptm and bisfOrians 50ch as Zirnmern in his iexclrudy The Uacute4g~ JI NaJimn an4 the RMk of LnJiexcl (ZJmmem 19gt9) and J1 Buacuteerlys comparison of rhe newly emerged Unuumled Narions wirh rhe suurwre aod aims of lbe then dying Ieague Brierly demonnrated a strong preferenn~ for fbe inrrusioo of international law iOfO etonomk ilnd sndal affpjn gttl dat rbe generic grievances of sures ma) be removed (Btier1y t946 9n Hersrh laurerpliCht published Tbt Dwefpment ()f lntmwlftmal lJw by rhe Permanml CfJkrl el l1iImJ4lifJNiexcl-1 jllJtia in 1934 and [his was later marched in [he Ullired States by Judge Manle) O Hudseos Intmwt]iexclmal TribltllfJuacute PaJI
qniexclJ Plfum (944) WilfrEd ]ellki [be ugai Advlscr to che lLO CUIIribured noe jU$ 00 chilE organizarIacuteon (Jenks 1962a) but abo mote genernl wodcs 00 iarematiol181 orgaruzarions (leaks 1945a 1945tl 1962tl) 1 le stressed (he need [O IDaH) [he craf[ of tbe imernational lawyer wuumlh rhe Pludence uf che polirician tO develop an effective s)stem of incernadonaJ orgafiUBtion
Institutional developmeru 15 primarily cbe responsibiliry of staCesmaDshyship ir muS[ be gnided aud cootrolled b) a [fue appreciarion of political forces Tbe greaccst oflegal uadirions is still to be crearEd irs cexmre wiU be largely ltlefermined b) rhe qnaliry of [he crafesmanship which inrernatlonal lawyers place sr the disposal of sracesmen during me next geaeration
(Jenks 1945a 71-2)
laltor imernarional insrituriom cexebooks were pmvided by rwo Europcan intemalional lawyels Henry Schelmelll Professor of law at lIte Univeaiey of Amsreroam restricted himself tuacute inrernacional instuumluttonal law wbicb by roncerning irself wirh [he srrucmre and functions of inrershy
~h~ bullmiddotff~ V_middot ~f_lt~V_
fliUional organiexclttttlonstries ro explllin [he present developmem and ro promote he harmonious growth of lnafniexclldQual organization (Schermcfs 1972 2) He Jodt wim rhe partidpants in lmernadonstl orgllniexcl~lltion8 tbe general roles ror their crgaru and me activities of these Orgllus from prirruuHy a legal viewpoinr A similar approacb was adopted by rhc Bririsb iacutenternat1oniexcll1 leglll eJtpen D W Bower( whOie book Tht 14W QI lnlmwIacutePMJ lmtiJlflilJrll (970) placed grearer emphasis on pflrtkular insrishymtions - he Lcague thc UN and in spedalized ageucies che regional organizarions rile juriacutedical iacutens(iexclmdons - as weU as dealing wirh general questions such as t-he internattoual pcrsouaUt) of che organizarions and their impac( on (he doctrine of (he rovereigll equalit) of srare5 Por a blend of sociology bistoty and luretnarioOllJ lpw che work of Paul Reurer Professor uf lmernatioual Iilw pe Pileis Univcrsit) is UB$urpassed In Inml14tionaJ bmitllfiom (1958) he examined che phenomeoon ol imemashyt10nal orgaruzadon rather tban jUS( the orgilnizations and insdtutiun~ auJ thererore speut sorne time on the uature of imernariolllll ~je[) [he erigias aud foundarions of iuternational institutioll$ lS weU iexcll$ rhe posiacutediexclm of Staeeg in international society
Sorne post-Cold Wllr studies nave moved uWily from wruu tllto regllrded as csoretic descriptions of che 111w (Kn aud Djehl 1998 3) aud have insread examinEd intetnatiomJ I1lws iacuteofluence on poLirIacutelal behavior (Ku ampnd Diehl1998 3) One of rhe buses of tluch au IIpproach iN chat imtornashytionaJ organiUltions nOIl-governmenral orgllnirpriOfl$- multithltiJllUl corporations aud even privare IndividuaJiexcliexcl have come ro pliexcly Illl iexclIlcrelljiexcling role in intematioual rclations and accordingly international legal tules have evolved co engage rhese oew accors (Ku and Olebl 1998 3) Tnternarional lllv is seco both as au operatillJ system and a normative system for internariacuteona relarionll Algt the fotmet it 5eu the genernJ proshyceclures and iacutensticudons toe the conduce of incern11ltlonal relatiolls lt provides che framewotk fu estllbllshing rules lInd UOI11lS oodilles be parilmcters of interaction ancl provides (he ptocedures Ilnd furums ror re~lvlng disputes among those taking part in tnese intecllCtiacuteOO$ (Ku and Diehl 1998 6~7) As a nOttnative S)stem iuternatiouallaw giexclves rorm ro lhe aspiradOlu anu vlllues oE the partkipants of the system (Jr) is 11 proJuct oiacute the struttlltes Ind processes thar make up rbe opernting ~ystem rTt1 tllkes on a principaU) legislativc chamcret by mandating particular valueg IlnJ ditetting speciiacutek chllnges in sure bebaviQr (Ku Ilnd Diehl 1998 7) Mote tradiciunal appr03Lhel tO lnternatlonallaw rendlaquol tO de~(ribe che role 01 imelllatiuuaJ otgauJutiotu as pan of the opcradng sySLCm Legal texu pllblishcd in he laSt decade Ot so of (be rwcnrierh centUry looked lncteasingl) ae the position of inrernatlonal urganilations middotw
nor leas [hose oiacute the UN system - in a nurmanve framewnrk especiaHy in functional areas such as human righn (AJston 1995 he envilOumenr (Kin 199M) [be global commnm (Jo)ner and Manell 1998) and wOlneiexcluacute issues (Berkovith 1999 Wrighe 1993 1)~g8)
130 Writingi (f1I iexclktnati~nal I11glttftiZAtitlrlJ
Intecnationallawyers have airo given exteosive comideration ti particular instimtions The League Qf NatJons attlacted special attention as lawyen played an imporunt role jn J~ dmfting and as it had as tU aims che pmmotion of international c(K)perntion aoo the achievement of iexclnrcrna~ tionru pcace and eturity
by the ficm establishment nf the undersrnndings of imemauacuteonal law as tbe actual rule of condun among Governmenrs aOO by the maintemtnce of jnstice and a scrupulous mpect for all treaty obligations in the dcl~middot ings uforganised peoples wirh one another
(Preamble to tbe Covenant)
Furtbermoce the central pan uf che CQvenant dealing with the keeping of peace (Anide 12-16) OOopted a legalisck approoch in delining nn OCt of wu against all Ieapue membecs as being rewtt to war in disrtgaru of Anides 12 13 or 15 (Attide 16 (1raquo) In other wottb the cardina15in W$$
tbe breakiacuteng of rhe legal gretment mOOe wirh otner stares Imernational lawyeM in pIlrtkuar were ooncerned wirh how Iacutenlernarional IacuteiexcllW might be agreed judged ane enforced in lhe jnter-war perIDd lhey turned much of their atrention to the anivities oC che Permnnem Coun of Intemational Justice arul lhe league of Natlon5 Judge Hcrt(h TaureIp3cbc foc eurtlrle ronsldetetl rhat aH Jntemlltional dispures were justiciable and thus open (O
soludon by [he judicial process in internacional law He considered tbe League tu be useful 5tep in the development oE inrernational law and be sanctions 1I1lowcd Cor in Anide 16 of [he CoveOilnt as marking tbe fitn step towws he collective enEonement uf internacional law (Laurerpacht 1970 9)
The league hOO iexcles advocates among orher lega writers AlCred Zimmern wriring io 1938 set Lhe Leagues activjties and institurions against che backshydtop of the gathering 5tOrm io Europe He still found much ro ~y lor ir it had rkveloped 2ru1 expanded tbe old iquestiplomaric ystem bad enrouragro wshyoperation in many ateIlS ane $r leur represeotecl iexcllfi artempt to ellminate WIlr even duting a period of whar Zrmmern caHed cmhquukes (Limmero 1939 491-509) Lord Robert Cedl one oC the fuunders of rhe League as weU as a lawyer and Conservative poHdcim admined when wming ln 1941 rbe Cailure of the orgamzation in preventing aggressive powers Neverdreless he hoped that iexclt would be reformulaced after bosrilities with a CI)ll of confederariacutean uf European tates the cenual objecr of which should be the preservatl(m uf the European peat e Peace in cbe test oE the world would Jepeod pretty weU on tbe then jusr~eltiexclsting Covenant wirh sorne small changes Cecil did admit rhat another piece of rnachinety couid do Iittle unless [he peoples allJ govemmeots cea11y tgtlt che enforcemenr nf law ann mainrenance of pealte as me firtr and grearen nadonal Jmereus (erH 1941middot 349-51)
The hopes of (hore ho yearned fur legal soludnns tO intemartonal
WrjlingJ 1m inffll7lltJfriexclftai rltgmiwtitln-iexcl 131
dt1putes dearly dcdined a~ the UN Charter wjth iacute~ emphasis on politica1 solutions to what were palideal disputes tepiacelti tbe optimist1c legal (otmula~ uf the League Covemutt The UN Chancr was not to be without tes Internationa Jegal romrnentaluts Indeed tWO early stllndard books on rhe UN are by diJtinguished lawyers Kelsen (l950) and Goodrich ti al (969) though the hmer have admitteu that when iexclnterpreting [he ltlwrter
since rhe responsibiliry for interpretadon is VC$ted in Ofgan~ and memben alike che process is more iexcliexclkely to be politia than judishyoacutealDeciexclsiltm~ rend to renea lhe enmmon intetesu of members in achieviug cerratn results
(Goodrich If JI 1969 15)
Other legal commentators have placed emphllSis 00 [he role of jtlterna~ tional orgaoJutions in tbe development of particular aspects of innl11iexcl1tional ew ami again haltle secn tbe rleyelopment uf the rules aon notms of internashytiOfliacutell society ~ howeyer imperfeltmiddott - in tbese cases Examples are Kratochwil (1989) who who has written generally ou the 1mbject Jaebon (l997) and Thomas IInd Meyer (19J7) on the world tradins sysrern Kiss 11M Shelttm (1991) on Iacutentern8ljoual envttunmenral law aud Human Rights Watch 09921999) and Bianchi (997)on human r1ghu iSIuc
lnternaonalgotJt1tmenlfgwfINIJJlue
Anorber AmcriC3llegaI aurhority ayde Eagleton gave the Unired Nations a critJcal though romewhat undmtaning appreciarioll ~mmmiexclng np its dilemma thus Ir (he Uniled Natioru cannor do more than ir ha~ the ampult liacutees with rhe Memhccs wbo marle it and opcrllte it and who j[ SfflIW slaquon preret the tootb aOO the fang ro internationallaw and order (Eagletoo 1948 552)
Eagieron placea the record (lf che Uoited Nations in thc context of irs predecessors in the hisroey of rhe gttlwth ofinternational govemmem and of iu legal and politica background He examined pmposals to achieve the inrernational government thff the UN ailed tu rt1tCh bm condueed chet fI chaogc in he attimdes oC Stares aud their pcoples JS neerkd fipiexclt (Fagl~too 194$ 583) Eagletons wnrk uuderlioed tbe point made by Evan Ltmm in his ntemd1ifma1 A~lIaacutetJ (977) that with (he existence of the UN and its lSSfJ(lated agencies many of che wodds prohlems are Ilor wirhout jmtiexcltu~ tions exercising authority over them The powers uf (his mnge of organizadon cau bc queHioned as Ciexcl1n chejr standing in relnion tn thcir rovereign state membera bur rheir exisrence in tne ptlStmiddotwiexcliexcl[ world ~ aud tbcir grnwth (rom their niacuteneteemh-cenrury hesinnings is a reality
Thi$ inrerese in [he 8rQwth of iorernariona[ governme(l( i tleithet new nor resrricted m the legal pmCeMion Oue uf the earlier publicauumlnru on tbe subject was by the writer leonard Woolf who Walt a fOllude uf the Fahian
132 WriJil1gJ (IfI htfmtaJIacutefmal argmitAJium
Socilaquoy che reformiu discusston group witbiu rhe British Ltbout Parry Wtiting in 1916 he omllned dJe exrenr m which imerllliootlal govem~ mene had been lKcepted rhroogh diplomade garfteaacutengs rhe use of public and privQce JmefOatwllru unions and che iocrtlSe iexcln commodify ugreemellts aad he PU forward plans roe che further teguJation of JmeroadOllal OCrltty lf war is (( be prevemed he elaimed states musr submir Q mUte intetuashy[jonal conrrol alld governmenr in their poJiticnl and udrninl1litrative rdadoru (laquooolf 1916 nB) He udvanred a Fabiao Cornmirree plan for nte Stipranaciacuteonal AudlOrlty cllat wiIl Preven War eiemenrs of whih fOllnd their way into (he Lea8ue Covenane aml whieh inhJt iexcliexcllid teCtJlllmended rhe estab1ishment of an Inrernatloclal High Grua an lntemadooai Coundl of sutes represenrnrives ami JO IOtelThldonal Seltreurjlil Woolf and his Fabiao coUeagues hoped dlar wirh rhis machiuery legal justiciable disputes wouM be 5ubmined ro rhe Cona Of a similar tribunal and orher dispmes ro the Couocil foc senlemenr with che patries rn he dispute ccnsmilned from warlike actjon fue a period of a year Provision was ro be rnade fur sancrions which ali sutes shoold pm inro open1rion lind al agfCltd tO make common cause even ro he exren( oC war against any constiruent Srue which violates thi$ uacuterndamentai llgreement (laquooolf 1916 233)
Woolf mgetIacuteltr wuumlh juriiexclu iexcluch IIS Hersrb Lauterpadu and Alfred Zimmern and British poliricaJ wrIacuterers like Pbiiexclip Nod-Baker LJrd Ceei and Gilbert Murlliy represented bmh [he praccuumlal and intdlectual mpponen ni lhe League of Natiacuteom in the interwar peuacuteod wbo were ouacuteen daified as iexcldealisrs or neo~rotiam Hedley Bul 0966 ~2 5) r1esnibed the rennal Grotlan assumption (named after (he seventeenrhshycentury lesal wtiter lIugo Grotiu$) as being rhat of the solidariry OI
porential solidariry oI (he SUtes comprising imemarlonal sociery wirh respect ro che enfurcemem of [he Law and Grodws basic crjredon of juse WI bt-ing fought in order ro enforee rjghrs a fimiofl dearly edwed in tbe Pabirin Comm1rrfts The Snpmnatlonat AuthorlEY rhll will Prevenr War BuH criricized rhe way ibis group lost sighr of intemarional polirics in rhelI preoccuparion wirh 10eroational1aw international otganization and intfoiexclniexcliexclriQnlll saciery
10 deallng wirh imefIUldonal marnti~y which rhey were indined ro confn$( wirh internarional law they eon[ribu[ed only a narrow and llflcririal rlaquorimdr whkh eKalred [he jnternational inreresr over tllujoual iexcllIrert~r~ (bnt wirhorlr asking bow rhe former was ro be detershyminel) mtlltiexcltimrimwl rdorm over revolurJon as [he meaflS of ll3lliCcndinA lhe soriely of sovereiNn states (bur without considering wfteher SUtCS cOllld OCcOIlIC [he agents of rheir owo ~rincriofl) and respcu fue legaliry oler [be neoo foc chaoAe (bur wirhour fdciflg up ro r~ mer that rh~ in(~rnadooal legal sys[em as (hey construed ir could nOl aecommodate change)
(BuU 1972 36)
Wrllingr on inlmralirmal ()fganiUJliofU 133
This J5 a teUing enough asseSSffiem of che idealim views includill8 [heir writings (tri imernarional oeganiurions HOWelef [he background of [he groop $hould be remerobeted they represellteJ a genemtion devastawd by the Finl World War ud whiacutecb wa~ used ro national suciery (early twenderh-teocut adtaio) lhat had henelired through institutional chal1ge and in whiacutech the rule of law had not preduJed remrro The k-gtgue of Natioo5 che Permanenc Coun of Illternuional J1L~tjce (PCI]) and [he 110 wen for rhem part of 1 Great Expedment to we Lord Cecil~ phrale
Wrirets in the last guarter of the twentieth century picked up and develshyopoo many of he omions current in rhe aoove Jirerawre aud srr~ed how iacutenrematiunal ioceocourse had heen governoo by a body of laws nl1~ lind feguladons ano by insdturions indlldifl8 internatiotlal organizatioO$ Though they llave kcpr rhe analogy with the domescic government of cirishyzens thef have preferred rhe terro internacional governancc demoosrrating thar such a system docs nOl hnve che son of enrorcemem powers expected of naticnal govetnmencs Notions of global governarue huve becn corered above whete tefereoce has heen made tU tbe idea of an imernarional regime (Pp 108-10) Thi5 concept helped bdng internacional olgsobacions iexclmo rhe wider titerarure abom inrernadonal cooperedon 11M governance in a srate of anat(by rneaning an absence of interOlltional governmenr with signifkant er[orcemem powers
In the early and mid~1990s IiHendon was agam wrned ro che manageshymenr of che internlitional environmem in rhe wake of the UN Confetence on Environment and Development (UNCED) al Riacuteo de Janeiro BnuiL gtlhe environmem seemed ro be a classk caudidste fur global governance pardy becl1use ir was glob-al and partly because of the range of instlwdons involved in iexcltS managemem In the words of Josepb Nye etTective intet~ narional envitonmental instltudoru thu$ helped w overcome sorne Ol (he rypical narional bordenecks tbar hiacutender cootrunated meusures to revene rbe frighrening trends of global environmental degradaLion llnd improve rhe possibiluumly of susrainable develo[lmenr of OUt plaller (Nye 1995 x) The assumprion of Keohane tt al was that whlle StateS may have difnculry ad~tessiexclng jmernationaacutel erlvitorlmemaL problems coopenuion betweeo governmen[$ couid hring dividends Eff(Xtlve intetnstiooaj 111stitutions wete needed which may take rhe form of internacional orgauuations rcgimes Ol informal conventlons They were seen in che woros of Maurlce Strong (Secretary-Cener-iexcliexcl ofUNCED)Ul rhe bllsic framework for 11 world sysrem of governance whkh iexcls imItJdve to rhe effective functionmg uf our global rocieey (1990 211 l2) The aim was pragmlltlC to see whetber rhe intemational josrjmrioos coveriug the environment had made a posirive difference especially in rhe polltiad iexcleid
Case rudJes were presenred (bar exploroo the impact oiacute inrenwiotl$l insriturions witb [hree conditions essenrja lor effecuumlve acrioo on the enlirOumem high levell of gownlflmtl bullmam a hospitable 1lIiIraiexcltttal t1Iy~
rrmmml suiliexcloacuteem poIiuacuten U1d ddltiniJtY(JJM CiJpacity in national
134 Wrftln[f 111 iexclttntntiona organiufif)lfJ
governments (Keohane tt al 199 11) The case s(Jdies Weuroe seen in rerms of agendiexclt selting internacional pnliacutecies and national policy ttJpon$($ (Keohane iacutef al 1995) The three authors wtJe aware of the strong influeDce of stare powers in iexclnrernadnnal institurions and of rbeie meagre result5 in sorne areas Nevetthees~ they set down three ronditions uoder whicn inrer ootional institutions can alrer (he bchavior of state actors and in turn improye environmenral qualiry (Keobane ti a 199 19) These afe
1 gnvernmencal concern has ro be higo enough [Q pmmpt the 1lte ufscarce mources lO tllckle tht problem
2 roere haiexcl 00 be a contllcrual enviroruncfit where ~tnttS make (rediMe coounitrnttlts and make iexcllOO keep lglremerll$ rhar incorporare joiotly enacted rules withour debflitadng fuAtof ftte-riding ur cheuting by othet1l
3 states should haw the pnlitical and adminimadve capaciry to make the domestk adjusrtnents necessruy ro implemenr international norms principies and rules (Krohane et al 1995 19-20)
TOe empha~iexcls -in chis view nf glotm govemance is on rhe relncionship becween rhe internuional anQ tIte Illlt10naL
Pan oE gJobtl govemsnce - ai noted in Chapte1 3 - are lnrernntional regimt$_ Thcampe are set- of implidt o explkir principies norms rule and del ision making proctdures arounrl which actors eJCpelttadons converge in a given area of internacional relatious (Krasner 1983 2) [1tey are subSu of irttetnational sodcey and its imtitlnions Imemational reglmes which are oft~o speciacutealitecl auangemenu limicer by function oc gengraphicaJ area are amngemcnts hat BoYe1n cooperative behaviour intetnatioOldly Thee are thus mure wiJely Jrawn than internatiunal organizations The latcer accurdifl8 ro one of the most profific wrltcrs on the $ubject Oran YounS 0989 1994) can boeh stimulate the process of regime formation nnd can htlp implement thei provisiuns (Young 1994 164)
Funuitrltdlisu
An eady bff~1c with the trmJtional view of international organizations based un the state-centriacuter mudel cm be seen in Leonard Woolfs book [ttltmatiltraquoldl
Grni-17111I Alrhough srilJ primarily coruemed wich interamptate relations and the questiolll of peace and secudry a sizeable BCniacuteon o( lis wriring5 rover governlnenral tlaquohoical and economk co-operatioo and INGOs
Ve are accustnmed to regard the wodJ as neady diided iexclnto compartshymenU caUed states or nationLBut chis vjion oiacute thewodd divided into iacutesolated compllrtmenrs is nor a cme reflection of fiu 15 as they exisc in a urge pottion of the etlnh [orlay
(Wnolf 19l6 216-17)
Writtng( (111 hmmatiacute(lrul f8grllliulinnJ 13
Snch a step pladng gre-iexcllter emphasis on non-star ime~natiacuteonal rtloshytions wa~ taken furrher in duo writln8~ o( me Romanian-bom aothor David Mitrany Mitrany ideas known iexclas the functiondisr appooruh lO
internuional politics were inspired by his early Iife io dIe Ba1kans He (ouoo much imelletruaI sdmuiatinn ofter coming ro Lundon in 1912 olld working together with Lennanl Woolf among otlters in the Ieagne uf Nations Society [he labour Pattys Advisory Commiuee on [nternational Arrairs and the Fabiexclan Socieey His (WO malor eacly worlca wcrc Tin PrtlgftlJ of lt1tmutt(IIId GtM1NmAnt (first pnbl~hed in 1932 rcprinted in Mitrany ([915araquo) and A WorklNx Pem Sylttm (fiCSt published jn 1943 rcpobHshcd jn 19(6) though he abu made a 1mbstamial nmtribudon in anides unril bis dearh in 1975 Many uf his writings tQgethcr with an amobiacuteographical piecc and In inuoouctjon are guhered fogefher in Tht Funcfuumlmal TwJry of Prdilia (Mitran) 1975) In his t932 work he omHued the nlnereenrh(intury growth iacuten intertwtJonal govenmcnt ajong similar lines as Woolf
The ninereenth cenrmy prodwed that amazing growrh in che mattrial equipment of (iiiiudon whifh weldcd the wodd togaher into (me organk whoiacutee making eaclt people a partner in tire Iacuteitte uf al The outwatd CXpelsiacuteon nf that change WQ5 the ~rance nf WQrld-wide popular movements and the making nf innumerabJe privare md public imernatjonal agItemenrs
(Mitrany 1915a~ 89)
Mitrany WiacuteI$ concerned thar (he rise of the fllidon-state and the insiexcl~tence of new statcs on che doctrine uf lluvereign equality when (bey were dlldy weaker and smalJer tban the Grear Powers hindered internacional lt0shy
operation in for example the cconomic lphere HowCer he 1lW rbar the fnne ofevents wu working agaiexcln~t sta~ism
No maeter what rhe size and shape of rhe particular community lo funcrions are such thar rhey haye to be organized and the fOrres and (crors now iexcllt work no longer have llny rroe telarion tlt) rhe uld pnlitkaJ divisions wirhin or withuJ( rile state The new functiom imposed upon our puliria instiacutetutions art compelllng 11 complete recomt(Ucrion of tile technique of govemmellt on a purely practical oosis 1 teach that rondU$ion by ming at the Illltset noto what is rlte iexclden form for an imtrnadonal $odetyiexcl but mher what are 1tS C$sential ftmctions
(Mitrany 1915a 99)
He claimed hat C$$cntially the nims of intemalional governmcnt were no diffcrent from dlo~e (lf municipal gnvernmenr w aCaJt equality bcfore the iexclaw for aH rnemben of the cnrnmuni(y and ro lrumote sodal jUlltict To expen [O achieve rhe first aim in inrernatlfllltliexcl sodely whefe 5talCS wcre
l ju WrJll1Jgs en mlWnal101tJf (iexcl(gamufJf)lJJ
nei[her eqna nor unchangiug uuiu would be unreascnwtc Ir woold be far more prncriC1iL ro cmnpromise rhis aim and CSLablish a League of Nations in which Grea( pQVeri woulcl he dirlltdy representelt Secondary Jitates woulcl have group representiexcliexclrioo afld malter ~tatet w()ulcl have panel repmentatioo At the same time sfCortdary bodie$ would be ser up in varJous pam of che world 11$ orgnns (lf regionJI grouptngs of Jitares artd (hese bodies woulJ be connected with and subordInare tO the new CCOtta League organs They wouiJ aleo be iexcliexclbie ro clesl wiacuteth problems mOle teaclily especially as the unanimity of aH srares would not be needed [Ol a senlemem
These suggesdom are noe (he novel aspeltts oE Mitran)$ work They are imponam in changing (he emphasjs away from the tighu of amptate wwards rhe dude oc lit ICllSt (he actlvJries of Hates Still the conccto was wth Ilrrllnging relnrioru netween snm~s In a paper $ubmitrecl ro che 8drish foceign Office in 1941 and in hi~ study A Wking Peaa Symm (966) Mirrnny wncenrrated on how che (unctioru of gOYernment might be cnrried OUt more exptdiriously He rtcognhed chllr withio liberal 1emocrati( stare~ [he Une berween whirh futCtions are Cflrried Out by pubtic and by privare aclioll was shifriog lIod that rhi5 line unde (he prel5ure u( (rt_ih social Ileeds and demands musr be Jeft free co move with rhem A similar demamuiacuteon existed in che terrirorial spbete interlla~ dooally wme (uncdons (eJ railway systems) could best be organized cOlltinenroUy some intercontinentnll) (e8 shippillg) alld some univcnaUy (eg aviation) However there would be no need for rigid patteros exccpe perbaps io tbe exercise of negadve (unctlons -- those related ro securi[y wberc more fotmal sacle lnstltuclOns WQuld be needeJ In (he field o( positive (unctiacuteoru (dw$C tdatecl ro economic eultunl and sodal affairs) he climensions ocgans and powers of any organiorion would be deler~ miacutened by the nature oiacute the funccton and would be fairly flexible Mitrany fmfSaw tbe tStliblisbment o( functional bodies wirh auronomous ta~ks and powers which wonld do thingl joiacutently Tbis wuulcllink aucborlry tu a specific activiacutery (hUi breaking llway foom the tradicional link between authocieyand a ltIacuteeftnire ~erritory Murany 1966 125) 11iacutes move wcmlcl avoicl he sreritity uf many of rhe wartjmt suggesdons fue posr-war (ecltrn~ tions O connitudonal innovariacuteon in rhe United Nacions whlch f~eteoacute 00 he opposidon oiacute sovereign sraee reiiexcltance Mitrnny hoped rhat che number uf internarional agencies (hat had exisred before the Serend Wodd War augmenteltIacute by the A11ied board durJng rhe war lrsdf wuuld u~rve u tbe ba~lS foc (he network oiacute inremarional gOvernrnent He quoud wlrb obviow appruval the wurd$ of an Amerltlln scholar J Payson Wild Jr 00 the varlOUS warrime experiments
The Hues between domesuc anltIacute iexclnrernational actlvlty ate blurred ancl nadonal adminisuatlve agencies of the Powecs concerned Smneshytimes engnge in domestk busint-1s and at orber rimes extend theit
Wrilings Ofl hllenJdUacuteoN1J org411iatiofJJ 137
(unctioru ioro rhe uumluernarionul sphere The resuh is o conglomerashydOn o( intermnional bwrd aocl domestic staf( whose dlties Illrermiacutengle Adminisrrnr1ve offtcers o( narional lmirs deal direcdy wirh rheir opposire numbers in orher S[1l[es WirhOlU benefit o( diplo maric intermediaries and simlllmneously perEorm borh nacional and intemational tasks So fu no attempt has been made en estab1ish iexcliexcl
super~State
(Mitrany 1 6 167)
Mitranyll villion is oE a world in wruch che functiollS of ~etyday $odal 1Jfe - transport healrb care rommunicatioos agticlllture industrial developmenr sciendfic developmenr and so on - are no Jonger assidl1ou$-ly carried en witbin rhe confines oE each sovereign iexcliexcltflte but ate underuJen across fmmiers on a tegionai cominental oc univetsal bflliiiexcliexcl These acrivjw des would be overseen by international Ofganizatioru which wOIJld be more like boards oE managemenr Tbe functional agencies of rhe UN (che no WHOgt FAUacute etc) already underrake urn ro~opetative t$Sks fIli do sorne non-governmental groupings of spedalisrs (League of Red eron Sndedell World Srout Movement etc) However tbe Une berween what has been done imernationaHy aOO dome$tkally bas tuen drnwn very much ro [he beneflc oE che latter and international activitid bave tuen riddted with politicel dispureoJ rnany oE which have liule ro do wlth me good manegemem of the (unction iexclnvolved Mirranys laquoheme would fiexcludually lOwtt rhe liue ro aUow more functioos ta be Citded OUt at rhe level where they wOrk more efficieruly and woukl proide managemenr of tbere funcshytions ra[her [han poHdclI1 interference Not onty would his develQpmeof beuefit (he general social welfure of the world ir would abo hcIl (O salve rile problem o( plaCe and security The LHliputian ties o( internacional fuucrionru co-operarion would piacuteo clown me giam of conflict weakenlog [he urge ro destruction and warfare by rhe promise of consmlctJoo and cashyexistence
The (unctional approach does nor focus solely on iorergovernmenral organizacion buc aUows for a network 01 spedaliuxl agencies roany uf which could be non-governmentaL Ir difftr in emphllSi5 ftoro che mainshystream craditionalis[ wricings and Mitrany~ work praaged a move away from internare relations 10 wotld politics Whilst the functiooaJ alpoolUh does not oReod against lh sentimem 01 nationaJity )t the pride oE sovereignty (Mitrany 1965 139) lhere is no doubl chat ir is meant lO weaken the i~por(Jloce and power of the middle roan berween rile indi vidual and a world communiry che sovereign scnre The feeling o( solidarlty enrounged by functionallinks 1s nor between states but beween people or assoclatioos of individuals Each of us is ill fuer a bundle of funCflonaJ loyalties so dWt tO build a wodd communiey upoo sueh a concepdoo is merely to a(eM artd consolidare ir also betwetn societies and grollps Micrany 15 14n
138 Wriling5 fin illttrnatiQJIa1 (ffanizatio1ts
Such IIn imaginative appruach tu wodd problems aud be mundiUlc hard~ working iexclapolitical role lt implieamp fOr interuational organizadons has its fiexclruIrs To ctiexclddu Mitranys functionalism as being impronica JS IUlfalr hoth because internlltionru functiornd links hllve grown espedaUy since the S~ World Warj and blaquoarue M1tranys approach is a gradual one he did OOE expeCt ir ro be adopted overnighr Even so ir cioes have certllin 11mbiexclshyuow a~pets which shOllld be criticany eDmined
Piexclrsr de5pite rhe refere-nce to possible regional fimnionalunmgement8 Mitranys pJans ron counter ro rhe notion of aU-embraciug regional organi utJoru such as the Europcan Communities now E~n Uninn (Mitrany 1975b 53-78) Whibt these organwdons roay Hnk their iexclamhotity ro a speoacuteftc activky $ueh as the conditloO foc running (he coal iexclaud steel indusshytries nr the agriculture of the EUs member states they sta hold w the rrnditinnal1ink betw~n authodry arul a definirt territory The cooJ and sr~l polkies or tite Common Agticultural Policy uf the BU are nor extended to tbe industries and fumen of other non-member countries who mar wish lO participate in theit ochemes Vet il can be argued toar ir is prccisdy in these iexclirnited geographicill blocs that flIlCtiOruJ arrnnscments are besr executed wirh limitations un mernhetship To wnrk propedy chemes must encompuss denned aras with a good deal jn common - the flexibility of Mitranys proposal wIQutd 500n break dOWIl )l the tnembers WlJuld have $O little in cornmon in fo cxampie the runnill8 of agriculture tbat coshyopetation would be dif(kulr or lloo-proouctiacuteve Furrhermore rhfmiddotse regional atrangemenpiexcl overcorne the problems of dedding the meaning hQundaries and consequtIlCCS of any particular function (Melaren 1985 142)
Second Mitrany did not really envisagc any piexclHejcal control of the futlCtiooal des between COllntdes mus distinguishing him frorn [he more traditionaliacutest approach lO inrernational orgaruwcions lle was hopeM dw the pmblems of roshyurdillltion between ronctionalagencies could be worked out as they lllOOe
To prescribe fOI the suke of [iexcladicional ne3tleSS somtthing more dennite han the guidancc and supervision of eg the Ecooomk Md Social Couooacutel W(lU1J be ro duron he whole conetprion from [he niftJo impollC upon them (funct-lonal bodiesJ a co-otdination authoriry with anyrhing Iike comrolling scuus w(luId be ro move again roWllrd$ that JiacutecumuJarion of power ar the centre
(Mitrany 196~ 143)
Thus [he institmions uf (he Eutopean ClJmmunitic~ - the Counoacutel uf Milli~iacuteers rhe Commission che Courr of Justicc rhe European Padiamenl dre Economic md Social Comlllittce - were al analnema fO Mitmny They werc juu miacuterrnring the poluacuteical COflffOh of lhe nation state ar iexcliexcl pa-n-continenullcvel anU according to Mirrany Continental unious w(luld have a more real chance thau individual suteS to pnletise the aurarky thae makes or division Mitrany 19(Kiacute 2n This may u((end
Witi1lf1 rm imernatilmalllrgaraquoiutifJ11J 139
agains[ lhe funcrJonalisu hope (r iexcliexcl universal apprOlltIacutel tu proble[Jls but (he abhorrence of policial imtitutions is lItrange wIacutelen [he funriona agenoacutees will aftee iln be mllkJng poHtkal decisions -- declsions roncetning lile aurhontative allocafion uf resources No only will iflfetnashytional functiunal transpon organizations established accordlng to Mittany have (O decide that cerEain areas wiH bt weU served by railways and Wds orhers llOt iexcliexclorne ports bujjt up others ieft to tlceay sume airlines expanded whlle rnbers are allowed ro fOllUact blt deeisiow wilI have ta be made on how w diexcl~tribu(e 5carce re~ources betwccn fo example iacutenvemtlent in transpon ur building more hospitals or restfllcturing rhe srecl Jndustty thwughour (he area eovered by [he orgalliurions Thee arc paHdeal declsiQw ln a period of economk growth and plenry [hdr potitshykal niexcliexcltute may be le5S obviou as resources are avaiuble for almost eVery plan advanced by world 01 regional shjpping aviation heaJth or sree1 O1ganizatioos Otherwit there mn$t sllrdy he a system by which scarce mrnurce$ are aUocaced Tbis problem was flJed squardy by Mitr1ny successors iexcln the neofunctionalin school (dealr wIacuteth in the SC(tiOH tbat follows) but ir doell seem ftoro Mirranys writings fhat the world of funcshytioollJi~m is a wodd of IlnUmiacuteted resounes (Melaren 1985 146)_
A third problem in Mimuys approach i~ brought out in a eommtnt by lniacutes Claude The functiacuteonal theory uf imemariruwl nrgaruzarions 1S ultimateJy eoncernen wirh the usue of polJtiacuteeal and military srniexclggJe functionalism tneats (he promotion of we1fue as au illdirecf approach tu rlx prevenrion of warfare (Claude 1968 31--5) Mitran quoted Oaude wirh appmval implyiog rha fulletionalism would ind~ mllk( a positive contribllt1on (albeit inilitecdy) CE (he ptCveurron of war fhis profOiSitiort is open (O $(Ieral criticisms Given the level uf arrnrunems in the worJd and the porential fQf cunflict the contriburron ro pettcc made by funcrioruuacute acrjvities miexclay come too late A youth group exthange betwtn rhe USA and China ma) bode we11 fOf
tbe furure OOt wlll be uf link use if (he respective parrus are beaten ro meir destinarions by intercominental baliiacutestic missiles funhermore the pmmotion of wtlfare may inctease internatioual conflicr by i~asiacuteng expettacions Espedally if social and ecounmic changes are bmugh[ aboue by imernational runctioual 3Jencies developing muntrie poliacuterical I~derships may fJnd ir increasingly cliiHcult to meet lheir poplllatIDn~ demands fot more economic benefJts fur a ampirer distribution uf benefits or in sorne ta$(-S fOf Ol)tool uf the social consequences of laquootlumic Rrowth Imernal sttili aod unrest may chen ~iIJ over into inrernacional eontlicr Finally Miacutetrany daiffi$ that rhe Nncshyrional approach ciocumveuts ideological aOO racial diviID05 as it ltloes territorial frontiacuteers (Mitrany 1975a 226) There ls guod evidellce tiJat the opposite has been happening thae the exlsting runctiuual organimfIacuteom slch $$ tiNEKO WHO and lID hllve been riddkd with ideulogical and racial (or al lea~t Norrh-Somh) diviions wruch h~ve teflected pnlirical argnments outside he olganizarimlS bu have ncvenheless adverscly aHewod their ba~ic work (Ghebali 1986 l tR-lt6 1mber 1989)
iexclIV WHURg) W~ mltTlWilm tIampmJlaiWN
NetrfJl1iKJiOalisls
Tbc move away foom rhe srate-cenrric vjew of JlItert1arlOlal organizarion Started by WOllf and Mirany was ccetiacuteeued io rht immedijlre posr-wur perjod by social stientim applyiacuteog asJltu of functionll1(st ~heory to European nd Atiacuteantlc in~limti()m This utw fUllCtionaliu approach showed paruumlcrnsr interesc in che European Communities (Ee later nuropean Union EU)) whjch arme iu iexclhe wake of che amphuman Plan In Mily 1950 Roben Schuman rhe Frenrh Foreign Minisrer advauroo (he idea cha( West Eucopean srarcs should establish a High Authority wlrh powers ro admillshyimr theit eoai aOO stecl induscrie~ Negorjatioru on rhe detalS of chis plan led t() the signing of che Treaty cf Pariacutes in Apdiacute 1951 by FraIlee Wen Gemuny Iraly rhe Neiexclherlands Bdgium sed Luxembourg (rhe Six) Tbls gave substanre tO (he idea lbat funcrional aiexcltivicy oould be ITlltllfIged across fcomien by IUl organizadon ove and above the govemmenrs of che member sraces a supmnational amhority The idea was wldened ro cover iexclm expanded unge of etooomk activiry when he Silo esrablished rhe Bt1fOpean Ecooomk Communicy (EEC) widl the Treaty of tome in MAtch J957 An Aromic Energy Communiacutety (Euratom) was eHablished sr che sume time However ~he element of upranationiexcliexclliry was dilurelt in the High AllthoritY-s successor (rhe Commission of rhe EEe) having only Iimited deciuacuteOIl-makin8 powers anJ having mosdy the task of proposing acdon ro tbe representarives of he rnember states situumlng in (he Coulliil of Ministe13 Despire his otber Community hutitutions contsined the gerrn of supranadonaHry rhe Courr of Jllstke empJoymg Coromunity nuhe [han nacional laws a Ruropean Padiument wbkh WlS eventually electelt by ditect eleedons amoog a Communiry-wide electorate voting for Cummunity-hased parties aad 1Jueresr groups represendng mrmetSgt consumen traJe unions aruJ blliiness on a Commuiexcliexclity tatber than a nnional basis
Tht$eacute tnmwauumloos in WeBtem Europe uiggeteJ a spate uf 1 iexclretamre primaril) in he lJnireJ Sures whieh examined tbe nurure unrl purpose of the Commuuity iustituions The Jominam staacutend amongst this writing was chat of the neo-(uncrlonalisrs sJCcifically Ern~1t Haas Lean lindbetg and J05eph Nye whose works are of importance io the uudy of internacional organizacions In ronrruc tO Mitrany the OCW fuoctiooalistli tended Br (iexclrOc tuacute iexclimir rbeie study 10 developmems in Wcscetn Europe (HtIaSs ~nJhe Naion Stte (964) bcing a nruiceable exeepdon) especially the OC alshyrhough later cornparimns were tnade wirh rbe growch ofccmmon lIlltirkets iexcln Mica East Eurupe aoo Larin America On che whole the neo-fumtiooaiscs had rerreated foom Mitranys world view
fhe neo-funcrionaljgrs aiso realized rhe dilemma faeed by Mitrliny in eelihng wirh politica dcdsicms ane did nor fllnch in introducin~ a merhod of making necessary chOtees ar he imernarif)llItI leve Indeed rhis wa~ rhe kernel uf rheir ideagt lhlll 1I0l ouly sperifie functionamp would be farried OUt ar rbe subrollrinentill rarher (han (he nacional leve bul thil( lhe decisions wnrernillg (hese functioos would be made at thaf level shy
6- v n_m_ ~olo_~~W_
with imponant cOnsequences for those groups imetesred in the decisiacuteons and iexcliexclIso liffecting orher arcas of poliey Por example supprne the Ecooomk Cual and Steel Community (BeSe) required (har che sreel lodustry be orgaoized as a West Europeao endty insfead of a numher uf narional industries a1l commled by differenl ccgularions aod rbar a suprauariona surhoriry be crcared ro decide on the policy Coc che ranniog of tbe Wcsr EUlopean sfeel induStries lo ronsequeoce those involvea in say rhe French steel industIl would switch tbeir attentioo away from Parili where policy was previowly rnade ro BroS$CIacutei wbcre ECSC poliey is mude Purthermore CommwIlty ntber dUlo nadonl poliey on ueel eould spiU ovet into ereadng a Community po1iey ror cool tnmspOH IUld Othet asrod~ ared acdvities As rhe numbe oC functiacuteooal policies decided at a Commuoity rnthet than a natkmllllevd expanded so the need for political actioo at this higher level would gfOw aod thc political sysrerol of the couutries involved would becomc inexorably iexclmcnwincd lhis was the logk of rhe innovator of he $chumao Plan idea Jean Monnet wM considered rhar rhe establishment of a c001 and srec1 community foUowed by similar organitations dealing wirh otbcr Cuncrional areas - agricultute transpon nade defence - would be lreps on [he way ro building Europe The eOO would be jln economiClllly aod politicaUy integmred Rurope lo Monneriexcl scbeme a federal West Furopeao state The means would be fuoctlonal bu with a political contento
In his study of fbe ECSC Rrnst Haas examiooo this s(rlltegy and a1so dmned polldcai inregradon in its ideal typc u beiug rhe process whereby political iexclcroo in severa distinct nadooal ~tings are petsuacltd to shjft thet lnyaltielJ expecrations liod pOlidcal iexcll(tiacutevides eoWjlrd jl new centre whose insdwtions possess or derrumd jutisdktion over me pit-existiog lIatiof19l $tates (Uaas 1958 16) ihis oew cemre would be che powelshyhouse managing rhe political ptoblems oC fuoctio1llll coopeaacutedon [he Uigh Audwrity of tbe ECSC and be indrurion of me EBe The policical actcniexcl invoJved would be rhose elites leading the poliacutetical groups habirually colCerned wirh public decision-making and wooJd indooe trade uoioacuten offishydaIs busiue5$ ami Hade representatives higher civil servann and activeacute poHttdam As tlltSiacute eliteS rutneU theit aacutetrendon ro rhe ojOW policical centre chey would find tha Community pelky in olle area nm be uwde tea oo1y if che task iuelf iexcls expanded CHus 1961 368) by way of a spillover of actiVity lIltO anocllet policy atea Evenrually Communiy policy~makiog would take uvet from S(ale policy~making jo alI rhe crucial BreaS and the new centre would emerge as being potenrially more powerful dma the member srares governmenu wbich had been drained of lheir mOS( meruoshyingful polidcal ucdvides
1( this stage ir can be quetied whetbet Haas was describing an inremashylional organizadun or il poremia1 federal mlte Io discumng tms quesrjon in his book on Elle EC-S( Haas cooduJed dllU Tbe hruHnct of federal as agaiacutenst middotimergovernmemaf powers lIeeacutems tU point to che coodusioo tbat in
142 WtitingJ on mtertlatilJtJA orgamZ41iom
alJ maneo relating ro the romine regularion of rhe commOTI ~et the High Authority is independent of government (HIlaS 195R 55-gt He al50 voiced rhe opinion rhu Supranadonaliry in snueturnl ferms tberefure means the exisreuce of govemmental a~lthorirjes dlloer tuacute Ihe archetype of fdeNrhm rhan any past inrernati(mal organizar ion buc not yet ideutiacutecal Wlth it Oiaas 1)158 59) However this $upnmttionaity in pNctice has deve10ped into a hybrid in which neither the federal no the intergovernshymentai reooency has deady triumphed a-bas 19511 527) Ir is aloo denr lbat the original Coo1 and Sreel Communicy was mueh mote functional~ Wlcrnl than the lateacutet Economic (ommunicy and untiacutel the mid~19805 the unified aud expanded Communuumly romw to play Jown the elemenU o( supranatlonality iu tavour of 1ts Jiacuteltergovemmenul insutution rhe Conndl u( MiuiMm This aud othet dtVe1opmems led Haas to lcconsidcr his origshyinal view of Community inrtitutioos
In the 1968 pre3ce ro Tuacute Uniting of Ellropt (which was wIacutetten in 1958) Haas alrtady identified factors that had dllngro rhe nattlc of me European Communiries experimem in che previous ten yeacs He observed tlur during this period vario~ spiU-OVet aOO adaptive ptcKeues s(ill had nO( resulted in la pulitically united Encope and in an~werjiexclg the question what went wtlJug he outliued fuur considetdtions Fitst (he new funaiurutlJsu had filiJed w di$tinguisb between background variahle cOlditioos prevamng at rhe time when cbe Comrnnnity WU$ csnbJished and new upiratiuns and expectations that had develnped Jhe esntbliacuteshment thar had ron counrer ro the Community spitit Second the imptet o( niexcltlonaUsm had becn undereshytimawl Third Eactors within me Commuruty had becn nressed ro he dccrimenr of those coming from the outside world PintUacutely me massive transCormation oE Western socie[y raking place indepeudent o( EutoptHl integratiacuteon aIso hacl been underestimaretl (HIlaS 1968 xiv--xv)
Haass definidon of imegralion alsu bccame wmewhar more negative I1lOre stlilte-centric than bis original 195R emlhasis un nationaJ llt(on shifting their loyaJties expecratiacute(ms and poJitical activities toward a new centre By 1970 Haas considered the study ofregionallntlgrurion to be concerned
wich explaining how aud why sUtes eease to be whoUy $overeign how ~md why they volunucily mingle metgt and mix with rhcir neighbours $O as to lose che facruru attributes of sovereignty while acyuiring ncw techniqucs me resolving conilirt between themselvell
(Haa~ 1970 610)
By 1975 Haas eonsidcred regional integmtion theoty oiJsolete in Wesrern Eurupe and obsolescenr - though still urerol _ in tite teSt o( the worId (Haas 1975 l) By 1976 he had arded out n maioI reintetpuEation of uew-fuuctlonaJist lhoory as it applied to rhe Ee The definahle outcome of integtation in Wenem Eutope was secn either in ttaditiorW federaHsc temu - a Wen Enrnpean (ederal state ereated out uf yenrs of fun~-tiexclonal
Writings M ifllernuJlfJmiexcl1 (JFfIiutian 143
rutivity whkh had lcd lO J trnmrer of poliduumlll acnvity away rom (he natlon ~tates tOwarJs a new srrunure - or ltlS the imtitutiooltlUdng uf some intermMiate iexcliexcltage such as rhe present status qno whcreby atlthonty is dimlbnrro unequally between several centres Wilh tire old nation states losing their previous Ituthoriey but with no new JiacutedeOl government in ptO$~ pect Whihr the original aspecrs of the EC - rhe cuuoms union aOO (he Common Agricultura Poliey _ have tllaquoorne entrenched the spillover inm orhe policy area~ had nor occurred by Ihe mid-1970s as che neo-furutiooa1ists liad ptedicred Also common polides liad becn Jevelopetl in differem o(8ashyIliratiuns - che OFCD the summit of indurmiatiooo counrrics the Group of Ten - tarher than within the liC lhe problem according lO Bus W1IS
rurhulerue whereby rhose iuvolved io polirirs haJ found rhemselves in a littting ofgreat social complexiry where rhe nnmber of atrorr is very large and each pursues a variety uf objectives whirh are murually incompatible lmt ucn is also unsure of che ultlde-ofamp between the objectjves He continued Tnis conditiQn imJgtlics the erosion o( such interorganizarional patteacutern~ oC comensus reciacuteprocity and no(mative tegularity as may havr CXlSted eadicrEveryrhiug is up fO( grallS (Hus 1976 179) HilaS sllggested thu iu the EC polioacuteeamp and (he institutioru devised ro lmpleshymeacuteut thero iacuteU~trnre rhe attempc ro deal with lhe turbulence nather tllan achieve regional politkal inteSradon (ibid 180 original emphasis)
A similar hiacuteft lttway fmm the earHer llSp1rauumlons iiexcliexcl ICen in rhe work~ Q( Lindberg aud Nye Lindbeg wlrose book 1he Pattirai DJMmict o EroJMn Ecrmomic IntegTatia (13) had fullowed on dosely from Hws work was hy 1966 showiog tbar moves wwaros inregration wirhin the Be (ooid cause Stress within (he system l1Jtfl inCftllq the barrien to fimher integration (lJnJberg 1966 254) Togcrher with lkheingold in 1970 he desctibcJ an EC wbich had noc deveJopeJ joro a federal structute haJ difereot ltvels of integrariacuteon fut different functions and was sdl susceptible tIJ UJsis lt was ao unprecedemed but curiousy amblguoos plurruistic syttem there seem tO be no satisfrutory modcls or ronceptli in che sociaJ scienee VQ(abulary to adequa[ely define ie (Lindberg and Scheingold 1970 306) In a anide Joseph Nye coruiacutedered thac Jespite rhese and otber revisioos the neo-Euncrional approodl srjlJ embodies 11 nurober of fault tbu re1lcct jrs origins in [he 1950s (Nye 1970 767) He proposed a nUml)(l OC changes scating rhe derendent variable lels ambiguoUlUumly adding more politiul ruwn reformufating rhe Hst oF integration condiuons and pethapli mOSf
significantly drOlping che ideas ufa single path fmm qWlsi~full(tiexclonallasks tuacute politica1 uuion by meamiexcl oF 5piUove( (Nye 1970 767 He conduded rha[ shnn oF dramadc chaugc the prospect9 (or common markets or microregiorud cennomie organiutions leading in rhe shon ron (of dendes) to fedewt1nn oc m1me sOtt oE polidcal union capable of tlU indept1Ldent dcferue and foreign paliey do not seem very high (Nye 1970 1129)
There hiexclas been a long jotJJney trom the functiorudisl-fecleral nope5 of Jean Monoet back jn 1950 but it has seen the evolution of nm only the
144 WitingJ on inlernafuacutemal ttrganizafifmJ
Communiry insrirurions and policies bur aIso neo-functionalist thinking The Iogic of inregrarion gave way ro coping wich rhe crises inseirutions mixing federalisc and intecgovernmental elemenrs were replaced by a Western Europe in which instirucional tidiness is best forgorten (Haas 1976 211) and the federal elemenrs seemed ac mosc dormam The hopes of che 1950s had been replaced by rhe uncerrainties of che 1970s and the early 19805
Wirh rhe launching in 1985 of rhe idea of creating a Single European Markec wuumlhin rhe EC by rhe end of 1992 che signing of rhe Single European Acr in 1986 (which exrended EC comperence aud changed irs inscitucional balance) and che sectlement of a uumber of Common Agriculcural Policy problems in February 1988 che Iogic of inregration seemed ro be revived
Wriring in 1990 Keohane and Hoffmann resrored and refined che neomiddot funcrionalisr norion of spillover advanced by Errut H9al They were sceprical char rhe rheory of spillover could explain the ECs irucirurional developments of che late 1980s buc saw it aCling posicively in orher ways for example rhrough che incenrives ro institutional change given byenlargeshymenc of EC membenhip in rhe early 19805 (Keohane and Hoffmann 1990 289-90) They saw che pcocess cominuing and barring Clrasrrophic excernal fucrors were moderately oprimisric abour rhe Communirys furure prospecrs (Keohane and Hoffmann 1990 296)
This view was raken up by Tranholm-Mikkelsen (991) and Holland (993) borh of whom saw che revival of rhe Communicy agenda in rhe Maasrrichr Trealy - wich irs blueprinr for a move ro economic and monetary union - as being a revival of the neo-functionalism Drher wrirers on European incegration at chis time adapted che basic notions of neoshyfunccionalism bU[ broughr in extra fucrors Majone (1994) agreed char che EU had seen an upgrading of common inreresn but placed an emphasis on public choice policy ro explain particular Ouccomes Marks et aJ (996) saw a much more complex relarionship berween che Communiry and domestic decision-making leve Though rhe srare was srill very important ir no 10nger monopolizes European level policy-making or rhe aggregarion of domesric interescs 0996 346) Insread rhey idenrified rhe growrh of mulrishyleve governance wirhin che EU
Indeed rhese developmenrs in neo-funcrionalisr wrirings on international organizarions poim up sorne of the criticism~ of che schooL Firsr despice rhe besr efforrs of Ibas Schmitter and Nye it remains a rheory overwhelmingly dominaroo by an inreresr in rhe EC and larer rhe European Union In 1964 Haas and Schmirrer rried to extend sorne of che lessons uf econumic union in Westeru Europe ru Larin America Drawing on Haass 1968 preface ro The Uniring of Europe rhey discerned nine variables four relared ro background condirions (similariey in power of memben rares of rransaction pluttllism in member seares complememing elices) rwo referring ro condirions ar rhe time of economic union (similarity of governmenral purpase powers of che ecunumic uniun) and rhree ro process coudi[ions (decision-making sryle
W[J U UWltU 15
rransacrions rate rhe adaptabiliry of governmenrs) (Haas aIld Schmitcer 1964 711-19) They looked ar rhe chances of policicizarion chat is the possibilicy chat lhe acmrs seek m resolve rheir problems so as ro upgrade common inrerests and in rhe process delegare more amhoricy m che centre (Haas aIld Schmitcer 1964 707) Nye in his article Comparing Common Markecs (1970) rried ro modify che Europo-cemric narure of the neo~ funccionalis[ approach and drew on a wide range of cases of economic imegracion Larin America Cenrral America rhe Caribbean Eastern Europe and East Africa as weH as EFTA and che EC He concluded [har
The original neo-funcrionalist model was close m irs ongms in the straregies of European inregrationisrs in che 1950s and thru mighc be seen as a rempting and misleading guide for policy in orher aceas The revised neo-functionalist model is not somethiug ro be imiraced bU is simply a rool fur making comparisons We wanr ro know whac differshyence ir makes if a group of seates form a common market
(Nye 1970 830)
Though by rhe end of che 1980s rhere were few places ro be found outside Europe thac were forming common markets rhe formacion of he Norrh American Free Trade Atea (NAFTA) and rhe renewal of economic cooperarion in Latin America and Sourh-Basc Asia during rhe 1990s provided different models from the more poliricized EU These seemed ro challenge some of the basic assumptions of rhe neo-funcrionalistS aIld perhaps give some weighc ro Nyes scepcicism ciced above
Second i[ is clear chac che neo--funccionalisrs have had trouble wirh che insticudonal formacs They have rerreaced from being functional federalist almose back co Micranys eclecric approach rowards institudons They have also accepced [he durability of rhe nadon state in resisring che logic of inreshygration and have soughr compromise formulas which at leasr continued ro place emphasis on non-srare accivicies even if insticutions above che stare (supranarional) were seen to be susceptible to stare inrerference
A chird Cliricism concerns the gtOH of non-srare acrors favoured by rhe neo-functionalists They have consraudy emphasized [he imporrance of polirical acrivisrs the elites of inrerest groups and rechnocrats This may have parrially blinded chem ro a weakness in rhe ECEU rhar could have affecced neo-functionalisms earUer proguuscicarions from being fulfilled its insticurions cannoc draw on rhe day-ro-day polirical resources available tO the narional policical acrors This has led tO a gap mosr noriceable in che newer members berween perceprions of che EU by the represemarional elice and rhose of rhe ordinary vorer or consumer Whilsc some earlier srudies of opinion in the EC did inelude opinion pons rhese ofren dealt wirh easy questions (showing ones EuropeaIl idenriry) 01 soft options (whether rhere should be say a more acrive EC industrial policy) With the firH expansion of rhe EC in 1973 and rhe first major oil price iucrCdse
146 Writi~5 cm lI1lMfatleuromal orgfll1iutl1ltl
whi(h coinoacutedemally happenoo a yeat liexclater Euttiexclpean voren werc faeed increasingly wirh mu(h harder options inflation versus employment tlnde union righu againsr consumer inrerests The poISibllity was thar bcing a good European might mean aHowiog sorne other COUlltry5 ruuionals to explott ones fish or oH The crearion oiacute a Single Enropean Marker within the Ee by the end of [992 and rhe move rowards a single curteney from 1999 by eleven theo (wdve of rhe HU member litares bmught he activi~ ties of the VOlon do~er lO the wodd of tite coosnmer or worker However chis seem iexclf anything to have iocreased rhe alienariacuteon of voten from rhe institntions aM acrivilies of rhe EU The 2000 election for rne Europeao Parliamenr shnwed the lowest tnroour yer in sllfh direct elections ano Enrobarometer opini()fi poUs have demonstrnred a msative trend in public opinion on che EU rnropaeuintknmmdgl0epoebc-b531p3npdO Ir may be thar a oumbcr uf interest groups llave switched rhrir expecta6ons and poJiexclcical activirics tuwatds the 00 bllt many of the ordinary European V(l(fS seemed ro have failed ro trans[er th~ir lnyalties tu he Union
In surnmaty the neo-functlona1ists mok np Mitranys srudy of rhe a-lashydons betwren group~ and individllals in oHferent sures il5 wellas che sta(cs representativtltl They tried ro gtapple witb the queuit)O (lf political control uf such iostirurionalized funcrional re1ation5hips aod ro undrrstand how ir would affrct rhe oatnre uf tiJe nation state They arremptrd to define the statuS of [hese newfy creatoo insutution5 tnough rhry wete out always fvlped by devdopments in che ECfEU which WWl rhe focus of rheir studies Tbdr works have demun~trared rhat the EU imututioos are by 110 mratlS juse ordinary imerg()vcrnmenral ones lh~y have al) provideo a mirror ()f the hircof) of (Yents in Westetn Europe in pankultH - moviog flom unitios aod poJitkal dynruniqgt through ~rress oy$ and anguish to obsolesceuce tllrbulent fudds and back to mooerace optimism and a new dynamism
TrotJJ(l(iacutecnaUJI
Anorher Americao writer whose work dealt wirh che question oiacute integrntion is KarJ Deursch Alrhough not a neo-fotlcrionalilit his tranmctional appwmh nali dealt with sorne iOmmoo ~hemes He has been umrerned with more rhan imergovermneuul relation~ aod indeed hM str~iexcl reJations berweeo peopIes nitherthan just rhe elites favonred by manyneo-fuflctionalists Deursch concerned himltelF with m( absrnce or presence of significan orga~ oized preplttrations fol war or large-snde iolence between int~rnatiexclona1 policical commuoities It was [he secutity rommullttles lhat had elimirutted war and [he expectation o[ wat whhin rheir ixmndaries whicn Dentamph and his PrincctOll coUeagues exarnined in PeliriuJ Cfml1NJNlily dIId M NarJh lt14Jtlaquo Atia (1957) A SClttlriLy community WWl defined as a gronp of people wnich has become ~inte8rated~ io rhe sense that thete is real iacutelSSnr+ ance that (he members of that rommunity will not fight ellch oeher
Wriil1g1 (raquo1 iacutelMfatlortal tJrgaiadlMm 147
physkally but will se~tle their disputes in liOffie otber way (Deutsch 1957 5)lt loregration does not necessarily mean rhe me~ging oF peoples ot governshymental units intn a ~ogle unie an idea explicir in fooerahsr rhinking Otud implicir in much funrtionalist wtiting Jnstesd two $otS uf integrared secu~ rit communities ar~ hJemified the amalgamarelt where pteviousiy independent unlts have bcen rormaly merged lnro a larger unit wich a iexclommotl guvernment (eg tlle US) ano the pJuralisric where srparate gnvertUlleJlUl Illlioraio their iexclrgaJ indepeodence (eg uacutenada amI rhe US) In stlldying a nllmbcr of cases of anempred or octual intesratioo io tbe Nortn American and WCSt European area Dtunch conduded rhat tIacutelere werc iexclweive conditions essential fnr the rurcts of ao amalgruruued teeutity (Ommuniry and thM rhree wen nec~ry fm it5 plutalisdc COUnrfrpilrt
The1e three conslsted of rhe compaiacuteibiliry oiacute marer valU($ relevant to
politiclll decision-making tbe capacity o( the participariacuteng plt)htinl Imitl or ~mmem~ ro respood tu each othcrS oetdl messages and llaions quickly adeqwuely and without rtsort ro vlolence aad rne mutual predicrability n bchavior (Delltsch 19H 66--7) In Deutschs work emphasis was placed 00 cornmunkauun brlweEn potidca uoIacutets increased trnns1Ctions between them (such fL polirinl exchangcs toUfl(m trade and rratl~pott) brought increases in mutual dciexcl)Cl(enmiddotc fue s cummnnity ro be created (his high level of trnnsactrons must be accomgtauied by mutual responsiveness o that thr demand o( each side 00 he other mn rccdve adequate and sympatheric treatroent llthis wouk not ooiy predude the need [01 aggressive action lO acbi(Ye ends bm would aJso build up 11 feeLing u( UUSt and seturiry in che edationship
Deuucb does not have an obse~uacuteon with imernattomtl orgaoiexclZ8rion~ although his 1957 book iacutes in [he eM collcetned with the ctelltiacuteon of UCCIlshy
tity community in the NATO area rhere ate few tcferences to internatlOnal nrganiuuons Many o( the Cll5C studj( are ser io tbe pcriud before (be postshywar expansioll uf such organlurions and almost all deal ieh bilareral relatIacuteonshj~ O(utschs work has coosequences for the lUudy o( ioternuiona organizatIacuteoos govemmental ano non-goveromCotaj iO[~rnational otiianiza~ tioos can be created as a re~ult uf a plnraliacutes[ic secuciry nmunuoit) lne integracion of whkh may evtotuaUy become iacutennirurjonalized iexclu nuppened reo the ampandinaviiexclm states creand (he Nordic Counci1 There run abo be forrns of instirUti(lnalued communiratlons berween socieries wnich prOldde the transactions and undersrandinli rhat help create ji securi[y community DeUtsch wrote
li the way tu iexclnregrarion domestic or internarionat i$ through rhe achievemem of a srose of community tnut undergirdS insrirurjtms thm ir seems likely [har ao iorreased sense of cotlloounlry would hrlp to snellgtbcn whatever instirutioos - supranatiooal or internacional - are aLreAdy Oltraring
([)euriKh 1957 7--8)
ltgt -_ bullbullbullbull _- _
Demsc-hs work was mken funher in a vnluffie ediretl io 1998 by AdLer and Bllenen (l998) (lLat docs pay sorne attention to ioternariorutl otgilniushydoos Indecd their volume contairu chapters thar rekr ro rhe oseeacute NATO the EU the UN the GnU Cooperarion Cowxil (GCC) aod rhc Assodation uf Soud Eat Asian Niexclttlons (ASEAN) They daim that imetshyruHiomuacute organiexclzauumlons aud iexclnstitutiacutem~ played al lmporum role in elKiltlraging more inteo$ive and extensive ioteracrioos octwttn states rhrough theit uwt-huildiug propenies (Bnrnetr and Adler 1998 418) They lht six corulusions of this snuerneor
bull By moniroting srares agreemenu tntcmatiuacutelwl orpuuacutezatiexcloo~ give them he cooftdente tuacute cooperare io (he ahsencc of trUSt
bull Jnternational O1ganizarions allow Hi1tC$ to discover new areas of muuwl intetellls Tu ponimlar [hey cenoacute ro link panicular areai
bull Inrcmational organizatiom can hdp shape $fllre pracdces by liCtting down nOfOU Ihat define what is acnptablc
bull The iIKTeaiing nwnber of internacionaJ orgamrutions emuuragC$ muldshylatetalim
bull They dIlO eruourage smres lua societies to see rhelll$Clvcs as pan of a resion
bull 1ntildeey can abo shape lhe identiry of rheir memben (Banlett aod Adler 1998 418-20)
The aurhms cWmed char cheir stuJit$ demonmared rhe exrent 10 whkh social cnmmunicadons beomes insrimtioualileJ aOO embedded in lnreroashytional oC8linbatlooslt and in turU how (hese organizatioru express an inreot to dcvelop trUSt end mmwl identificarion (Batnm and AdJer 1998 418) TIe work on sccurity (mmnunidcs is pelhapS at ir strongcu whcn dealing wim the esrablishetl Westcrn democracies rbough llamen and Adlers work shows rhar it may hilve a wider urility
lnlerJciexclnmdcme
Furrhcr emphasi on the growrh JO cnlnsaccions berween l()Cicries can be seen in the worts of Keohane 11l1d Nye who were m che forefront of the iexclnrerocJXndcnce school in rhe lJoited Srnnt fhey puacuteirued our (he conseshyquences of the innease in tldrunarioualucdolU ro che study uf iexclnternncional rdarions Thcit statcing iexclgtoint was sLlnuuarized chus
TraM1latlowJ relations are nolaquo new alrhough che growth of tmnsna~ tklOal orgnnizarion in me twentieth centuty has been specracunr Ye-r our nmremioo iso nor ooly rlur rhe srate-centrk paradigm )$ inade~
quare bur also thar it igt becoming progttSsively more inadequate as changes io inrernational relauumloos take place
(Keohane and Nye 1971 xxv)
The) llsred five omsequemes uf this growth uf inEematiooal inrcracrions ana organizarJ(tIls fur inrerstate politks (1) rhe promntiun of attirude change amongsr driacuterens (2) ao innease io inrernacional pluralism the linkjng of nntiooal Interese groups in tnmsnational strtlCtures usuaHy involving transruttionaI organizations fOI rhe putpoampe of (04)minatioo ltKtohAne and Nyc 1971 xviii) whiacutech has heen lhe basis for much noo~(Jncdontllist wriexcling (3) me cmdon lf dependence and inrerdependcofe IS often associacuteshyarea with intetnilriorutl cranspormrioo and iexclnance Keclune and Nye 1971 xix (4) creating new insrruments fut iexclnfluence for use by sOJne governments over ()(bers (Keuhane aOO Nye 1971 xx) 1100 lt5) dJe emergence cE auronomous acrors wirh priwre ntildelreign policia thar roa) deliberarely oppose Oiacute impinge on Sla(e polides (Krohilne and Nye 1911 xvii)
In a late book (1977) Keohane and Nye dcah with che questioo of imershydependem-e in world poliacutetics io greatet depth Iorecclependencc $lnce tbe Second Wm1d War has- onen cesulted from increasetl ttaosnadonal atciviries and iexcli divided ioto twO sorrs sensltlviry iacutemerdcpeodence (dte muIy effecrs of dULOges jo tranS1lCrJons oc ~()ciacuteetiexcles or govetrunents) md vulnembHhy interdependence where he acrors Hahllhy tc suffet eO$n iacutemposed by extemal evenc~ js (aken inro accoum (Koonane ana Nyc 1977 12-13) In COntrast ro tbe reaisr view of world poHrk Keohane and Nye pm totward che idea type of complcllt imerdependence which chey claimed soroetimes comes dosee ro realiacutety chan does realism (Keohanc attd Nye 1971 23) aod whieh has three nuio characretl$tks it allows fo mulnple rhallne1smiddot- imershyStatC tiansgovernmental and trilnsnationa- conneltring sncieries there i an abserue of hierarchy ilmonS the rnany questions ac inle hetween iexcliexcltates with military securiry no 10nger dominntlng lUly agenda and Millnu-y force 15 not used by governments toward orher governmenu within me laquogion or on [he lssutS where complex intetdcpendence prevaiacutels (Keorutne aoo Nye 1971 25)
These dltee condidons are said by KCQhane aOO Nye to typify fairly weJJ 5Ome LIlAUe$ of global economk md ecological interdependence ami come dose ro chamcrerizing rhe emite relarionship hetWetn sorne cnuntdes (KeolWne and Nye 1911 25) Complex ilterdepcndente glVel rise ro oacuteininctive poliacutetical processes a sute $ goals wiacutell vary by mue arca with mmsgoYernmeotul puumllitics making goab difficut ro define as ttansgovern~ menrnl llClaquo()$ (fof cxample mtfUsrers of agr1cuJmre inte11igente agencies nariona wcather bureaux) pursue their own aims Jhe followiog facwn are reLevant iriexcl eilch issue area
bull iexclhe resourc-es of a Ncue fur thaI particular area are most relevaot radre Ihan the stares overull military ~tre-ngth
bull international nrganizatinm and uansnntional actors wHl be fruloipula[ed as malnr instrumenrs oiacute mue poHcy
bull rhe agenda of issUC$ wi11 be fOrmulated hyebltUlgcs in the power dirmi~ burlon wirhin [he issue alaquollS by rhe pururinn (lf internarional regimes
150 Writings lIlt inttn1atiQrJ41 ergdniutirll1J
by changes jn rhe importance of ttaflstlational acwtS and by linkage froro orher issues
bull linkage between 1sllor$ will be mote difficult for strong naces to undetshyrah ir[orce 1$ downgraded
ft whiJsr linkage by we$k srares rhrough internacional organuumlarions seu agendas helps coalition-wrming and provides arenas for the political acdvity oC weaker states which can use the choice of organizarional forurn [or an issue and rhe mobiliZlition of votes as a politiul resource
(Keohane and Nye 1977 37)
Thm Keuacutehane and Nt gavc inremarjonal organizaciOfls an iroporran[ role in thde compfex interdependence model of world politics a model which whilst not uSlaquo (O explaitt aIl world politics was one which rhey daitned to hllve iacutenfrtasing releYJ1nce in IIlarge and growing area 1ntildeey used an intetnUional organizadon mooel as one of the explanations ror internashytioua regime change that js che lthange in the sets of goveming flrrangernems affening relatioruhips oC interdependence In tMs C$e intershynadonal oJsanisaciolls refeued ro multilevd Iinkage norms and insritutions (Keohane and Nye 1977 54) which once euablished are harJ (O enlAlicate BeCllue o( this rhey may Stand in the way of swes using thdr capabHities In ordec 00 chauge regimes Instead powet outcomCl will be more aJfectcU by votlng power (in the UN General AssemWy for example) ability ro futtl) coalidoos llnd 00 control elite networks (ruch as that founo io clte institushydougt of the European Commnnities) Whilst the complclt illternadorull organizarion mode1 was only Ofle oiacute fOur aJvaucecl by Keohane and Nye ro explain regiffie chAoge tbey Jiu expeomiddott jr to contribute to such chaIlSC in a world where complex interdependence (onditions pertain
1he rontribmions by Keohane and Nye demonstra(e hoth the roncero pf American wtilets iexcln inremationru relariWl in the 1970$ with altemacives to
tite srare-centric model and their wiluumlngness tO draw from more rhan one approach bringiexclng rogether elementogt from che more tradidonal appnJaChes with economic models and non-stare-cenuic dements TIleir Wi)rk does however have certain weaknesle$ Perhaps the mon serious is the use of rhe cerro imerdependence and iexclrs djvisiacuteon iexclnro ~n~itivity and vuinerability imerdependence Anepting rhar inltldeperulence meUlS mutool dependeoce (and [hjs leado to discussiou a~ w how mutual maoy relationihips are) che phrase scnsiuacuteviry imcrdcpendenre scarccly wflrmnu thc use uf the term interdependcnce fhe fault lies wJth che authou loose definiuOfl of depen~ iquestcnce as a oiexcltate (lf being detetmined oc $ignificaruly affected by externa fwces The induskm 0(signi6candy atkcted w~aken5 me urillry uf me cerm so tlme che nOr1on oiacute scusltivity inrtgtrdependence seems ro refer ro any nociceshyaMe cffeltr of ooe srate and society 00 anorher A person may Ix- significandy affectcd by taking drog$ wlthout Ix-ing dependen on chem David Baldwin showcd that mis use of rhe cerro interdependence ran conrrary to the striaer
Writingt ()I inf~_Ji(J1ia ~lfizaJJom 151
lUlderstlllldings (lf the concept fuund in MirhiaveUi Montesquieu and Ronsseall as weU 115 in che works uf twentieth-cemury wrlteI$ such as Norman Angell Francis D(laisi -and Ramsay Muir (ampIdwm 1980 7-9) He snuested the U$C of rhe rerms mutnal influence mutual responsivrness ot mutual scrlitivity insread ofscnsirivity inrerdependeruemiddot (Baldwin 1980 19)
A second cuacutericism uf Keohanc and Nyes books aso concems eheie termishynology In dealing wirh rransnational influentes They [ump tngerheraH types of teiations in whieb non~8overnrnental actOrs participare chus makiflA rhe componenrs of cheir new paradigm shifting aud poorIy defined (Wagoct 1974 440-1) Wagner questioned whetber their work simply demonstrated a shifr in interesr to new areas of intetnational polidts shyespedally elttmomic ones - ana whethcr [he world hM reaUy changed or whether we have iexclUSt overlookcd sorne things a1l along (Wagner 1974 441) The atent of imerdependence wa~ also chaHenged by Waltiquest (1970) anJ Rosecratlce el al (977) in che US and by Lirrle Bnd McKinlay (1978) and Strllivan (978) in rhe Briti~h Uteramre
DespiLe any falling$ Keohlllle and Nye provided insighrs ioto ttamlflashydonal polltics they shifted atrention away fcom p~lrely govcrnmental actOts in inff$rate relarions and they poiutm OUt he impMrance of intetnational organlziexcliexclxions in the intetdepcndence oc at lcast rnurual responsiveness of =
rbe rdormist view of both international celBtiOO1l and iuternational orga- nizar1ons has always provided an rutemative lO the more conservativc cealist approach Ir tended ro be dominated jn the pre-wu petiod by internauacuteonal lawyen and ideaJists but sinee hc Second World War has laoched on to the changell in world poUtics 6tst jn the economic ficld and then in Europe thar have Mn more difficulty to explain in ICliIHst term~ It has sten intcrna~ rionnl organizarions as mlans to manage trends such as iucftI$(d economl( intlrdlpcndcoC( bar hll5 also illtceplcU rhat these organizations mar necorne impoftllm aCtoriexcl (lO che wodd st$ge lhemselves and can cettainiy Iacute)(cnrne involved iexclO changing rhe preferences o( governmeflts
RADICALS
Writers covered in this sccrion iCe rhe intcrnadonal sysrem flOt so much as being domlnlltcd by states bn( more by diUerent divisions 01 its peoplcs Thi$ is noe to Sfly fhat chey ignore surtes They cOflsider them elthet w be ks tmportant chan the iquestjjsions of diUS tit wealth or merely ro refI~ct these othcr factors ot w be roadblo(ks to unky in (he fare Qf mote impomllt chalmiddot renga Power ls seefl as belnamp cxercised by eh( wealthy II1ld privileged and open to cha1Jeuge Change in the system is possibl( but onty through srrll8ge or by an awakenjug pf peoples tQ rhetr real sitllatlon Most iexclnter~ natimal organization~ are thus regarded as (eflccrioos of the currcnt unsruisracwry stare uf aiacuteTairs though $fJme more activist orgauhatioos mar llave potential as vehicles or (hange
This SIoacuteCElOn has betn sub-middotdivided imo rhree gthe fUS( are the econ01nk srructuralists and indude Marxists and Third Wocld wruumlers cririclll of rhe cutrem imernruionallyuem They haacuteve in common a belief mar che polltshyiexclcal srructUres of me world halle leeo wbloned mainiexcly by eltonomic fiiexclctors and rhAr mere has bren an intiacuteJUIllity builr imo the presen sytem lhe recood are the cruumliral app~es who5e radicalilifl1 is mure of the iacutemellec~ cual SOrt They rejeCf - Uf at 19$[ question - Jhatly of rhe usumpcions utlderlying be lIiews ofhe world tepresented by the realists and refotmers Finally mere are the globalim Theit perspective ls planerary ana theiacuter rnain conrtrn h fM rhc survival uf Earth Agilln they challcnge che mme statemiddotbuled approaches of both realjsts and reformers
Stnuturaluacutet lIiews
Ihe srructuralist appmiexclch rO (he swcly of inrematioOlIl relations differs In imporrant wars tO thoee of me realists and refotmuu tbough ir has some elemeou in comroon with mands ofb04h schools As roany of (he neo-realistsshyemphasite (he power scructure of wudd potities this sectiacuteon willlimir jwgtlf ro (hose writers roncerned wich the impacr 00 me political S)Srem of rhe wodds ccooomic strucrure Unliacuteke che ttalist approach the erooomk srrucruralisrs are OOr jUSt concemed with swtts io wodd polilla and rhelr economic and poIitkal differencC$ but alw with the divisioru within f1tld berween SoOCieties (WiIIeas 1990 263) They are [heretOre romerncd witl the rifi berween riel iexclmd poor within scares and rhar herwtto udl and poor glohally This leads ro an interese lO trulSlUirional reladoru as well as in inrergo~romenmt links Th(f have this in corrunon wim refPrtllist views bm diexclfier foom chem in (he emphast~ placeoacute on rhe structures of world pollics beinc formuared by eltooomic fiexcliexclcmn In rhis selttion attentioo wilt be given te MarxiS[ wtlletS lIud sume Thir1 Wodd view$ - partiuilarly (hose of rhe cependency sdlOOf and rhe developmemalj~[II - who have made a cootribution quite separare from rhat of rhe Muxiacutesr uadidon
Marxill laquoewl
There is no one Marxisr interptetariacuteon of me role of imerniexcliexcltional Olganiza~ cions in world politics Sur Manis[ approschf3 have certain elements in common and form a di~dnctive 5ch001 of rhough[ about lnrernartonal telamiddot tions generaHy and therefore ahotu international ocganizadoos These appmaches are based 00 du writiflgS of Karl Marx (l818~) in coshyoperarioo witb Fuacutewrich Engels (1820-95) with perhaps tbe gtearest later conrribution being maJe by VL Lenin kader of (he 1917 fo1shevik revolushydon in Rurna They are cf importanee pany becau1e ehey ficm tlle 00515 for mmmuniSt [hinking and (hm mey have an anactunenr m rhe Soviet Unian whieh WIlS be suongc1t commnuist stare unrII 1991 and EO rhe Peoples Republic of China COlUT1UnJSl sinee 1949 Apan ftom lbis ManiS( beliefs
had a irmng inpur mm Wescern imdleltrual cruoking and conunue ro iruoan some viewi abom wodd politics in rhe Third Wodd
Neither Marx no Mancisrs took rhe stare ro be (he curtency of iacutenteInashy(iexclonal relations Unlike (he realist viewpoints chey did fiO( coruider interactions blaquoween soveteigu ltates to be ofovettidi importance UnHke tbe funcrionalists aud other modem Westetn views rbar srress non-stare actocs Marxiexclsts in particular emphasized cbus relatlonships born wiexclrhin nates and IiCOOSS Stare boundaries Indeed ie is diffku[r ro talle only of a MaIXIacutest view of inrernatiooal re1atioll5 lec ttltme of iorernarional orgnniza~ UumlOOy as rhis separares ene particular aspecr of human behavinur tor MIlIXIsr rrearment divorcing ir from the undedying relleCS of Marxlc beliefs Man-ism provides a framcwok of undemanding by whkh ir iacutes daimed ~ociery pan lind vresen can be explaioed and che furure development of mankiexclnd determined
According ro Maf1 relariooshipamp between people and the futm~ mar insdmdooallzed rhose relatienshfpamp depended on rhe economic $truCtUR of soday fhe way rhat productlon was organized He traced the history of dvilixed maokind through five hiuorical staBes - AAjade mdenr feudal capttalin and socialin - which have ditTereru dominant methods of produc~ tioll leadiog 10 a complirared arrnngement of $OCiety ioto various ordetS 11 manifuld graduadon of sociru tank (Marx llnd Boge1s 1965 40) amph form of sorlef has coutained rhe conflictual divisiQl$ which help [Q tranuacuteorm the narun of rhat $Ocjeey coRrradicrioru in the mode ofpcoducfIacuteon placed srrain nn rhe existing social nrder sharpeniug rhe divide berween economic founshydatinn of sociery and a mpld aansIacuteonnlltion of in SOpel1Ullcture in legal polidcal and re1igious it1$tirutioos Thus by 11 confronration of da$~ Conrramiddot dkeions one historlraJ form of soc1ery wus transfocmcd into a bigher stage uf social devdopmem the history of aH hitherto existing ~ociexclety is the histoty uf dass struggles (MaDI Illld Bngets 15 39) Marx and Bnsels were parriculady conceroed wich capita1i$t sociery - ac its Oeyday during theiacuter Uves - and its tmnsrormarion iexcluto ampocis1iu sodety Wlthln rrus form of SoOCiety rOete would be no division of laboU4 and no eWses Illld no SUtes no elCpropnation of labours 5urplus vruue I1nd (bus no private property 00 exploira(ion of ene clilllS ny iexcliexcloother with 00 need fue war
For Marx and fingeJs C1ass then and noiexcl fllltions or sutea are rhe bade units in hurO) llIIIl che struggle between clAssts Jnstead oiacute infeutliltl contlict ocrupies rhe centre of acrention (Berki 1971 R1iexcl From me nlneteenth celUUf onwards rhis struggle -n in Marxisr cerros has been primarUy between [his capicalist dass ([he OOurgeoisic) aOO the bbouring dw (me proletariat) AA (he trarurormatlon fmm capltalisr SoOCIety [O ~OCialiexclMl ro comrounism rook p~e (he superstruerutt of bourgtOis SoOCilaquoy - religioo national divisiacuteon boutgmis politicnl insrirudnns rhe SOlte - woold be swept flway and in Engtls pmse rhe gOlcrotnent nf persons is replaced by [he udminlsuacion of things Fetter 19 (47) with me itEte relegated lO the mmeum iexclngemer Wlth lile spinshyning wheel Qnd [he bronze axe (Feuer 1969 433)
154 WrituacutetKiexclI mJenl4tiorJal rngmZtlJilm
Mux saw the European SUtes of his own rime as being rntans by which the ruBng dass (011amp oppress the work~ng clw by using (he agentl of tht 5tare such as the iudidary the poliee the army and rhe church he (xrerual Ilctlvities of the stare wete also determined by its Chtss namre MeanwhiJe rrmllnat]onat Rlations of a more meaningfuL kind WQuld bt creared by trade rhe movement of capital and incteaiitd romac[ and llOIacuteldarity betwten the prolerariat of vanoulS nations riacuteidefd rhe internacional nriexclaniutions of which Marx and Engels hnd dire(t experiena- wtfe the Fi~t Internatiomd and for Engels the Secund lntemarional both of which atttmpted lO orgashynJxe the represemarives of wruking people aiexclros fronden Onc~ agaJn this stteAAe$ the Marxist empbois on transnarional dass relutions rnther than on intentate relarionships
Whibt Soviet writlngs on international organizatinn1 wtte falrly desulshytory in Scalins reigu 0924-53) rhey did lmerIy hernld rbe move towams peaceful co-existerne arul roreshadowffi the lartf rnrhe[ restrktive view of Imch organi2Atinm hy Soviet commentators
In the post-Second Wodd War period and In patticular in the post-Stalin era Soviet liternmre on international organiuttions bl(lSsomed This has reflected Soviet membership oC ma1ly 1osiexcl-1945 organixations the emershygence of a socialist bloc of sta[C$ and tbe incre-ase in the mlmber of Sowcreign s[ates all flUtontilde demaruHng a more sophisricared Soviet view of lnter~llate reLadoru than che survivalism of Stalins period Uuring rhe lare 19805 i( auo ret1ected the new thinking iacutemroduced by Gorbachev
StalintI suIXessor KrU$hchev developed a revised view of internacional relaCtons which gave a positio1l ro the emerging Third Wnrhl (Tbe Third Wotld was then taken to mean rhotle IItates thar had emerged ftom colo~ nialiacutesm In effect rhe terrn later induded tbe stares of Latin America Africa - exclnding the rhen apaftbeid stnre of South Africa - the Middle Rasr Oceaniacutea and South Asia) Peace(ul co-exiuence between oda1ist and (apltaJisr states WM $til comidered nece1sary but this diacuted noc predude the ideologiacutecal stmggle between rhe two campsmiddot iexclndeed lhe Soviet inter~ national lawyer GI Ihnkiacuten wrote pearcfut cocx15tence of sutes represeonng che tWO differeor rodal sysems is a slccific form uf dass struggie beween socialism and calitllllsm (Osakwe 1972 37) The Soviet Union abo deveJoped relatlons wirh rbe newly emerging exshycoloniaJ cOllntdeJ and Soviet writiog had tu take ~ount of this developmem There wru a recognirion of a third group of stattli between rhe capitalist aud the communlsr that of poteorially friendly indtptomiddot deut $tarem io Europe and Asia such as India Egypt Indnnesia and Yugoslavia which would filrm a tone of peace Although the rebtions wiacuteth rhe capitaliacutest sures sriacuteH remaioecl embedded in pelteful coshyexluencc rhere was an emphasis by postmiddotStalinist Soviet writets on the da eJement in lile telatiomhil - that is rhe wntact with progressive elements in Weste1l sodeey smh as che Jabonr mnvement Ncither diexcld peaceful co-exiucuce rule OUt ~upport o[ middotjUSt wars of nationallibcrildon
WIacuteJIacute11gs tm iacutenUrllUtional WjatlJZtiacutelJlff 155
iexclndeed ir was seen lt a strategy fo wodd reloludon Fiacutenally (he rrlashyfIacuteonhips berween the Sovier Union and East Eumpean countries vere deerned ro be based on sociali internationalism posmlating a haemony of natinnal and commllnity interests and mndllding thar jnde~ndeuce and sovereioiexclnty of a soctalist uate means aoove aH indepltndencc from capitalism (Red Star 1 December 18)
Tunkin underljned traditional Soviet thiacutenking rllar the mngtrltllenl imrrllment of an ioretnational urganization (fne example the Chaner oiacute the UN) was all-impottant in derermining tIte enene rrun the otganizauumlon bad an international legal pcntildeonaliry rhar iexcl5 a standing in internacional 1l1w 5imilar tu titar of a sovereigo staxe Examining lhe question of the antonomOllS wiU oiacute international nrganitatioll Tunldn allowed thl1 they need not jmt act as agtnts for member stares
In imernatiunal ptacrke trellties conduded by jntcrl~ational mSaniacutezashytinns take their speciaJ piare as treacies by wbkh internationsl organimtiom aequire righu and take upon themselves cerrain obligiexcllshytioos Intctnat10nal organizatiou are created by Hares hey are broughr iexclnto being by states but the actloacuteos of imcmational organi7ashydoos are nlt)( in any way de facto or de jure ro be tqt1sred lO the actions of scates
(Osakwe J972 23)
Thi did nor mean than M internadonal organiacuteiariexclon was an entity indeshypendem of its memher us[es as any powers (har they hacl were delegated by [he members In Jine wirh che ampwiet doctrine of peareful co-exiacutesteme Tunkin placed Uress pn (he nature and rhe membership of an international organiacuteution dlOSe which drew their membersbip from commlmi1t c1Ipishytalist and TIiexclird World tares could expcct tu be genel1llly mognized as having an incernarional personaliacutery He wrote
TIte namre of tontemporary international prganiurions is lO a very great exttm derefmined by [he existerue of Haces beJonging ro differem wcio-economk systems and the ioevitable muggle between them Thar is why pcaceful crexislence is now the bl-sic condition of rh~ dfVC1iexclpshyment ufgeneral interoational ntganization
(Osltuumlltwlt 1972 289)
Mor07JN Clt1ntrlbuterl sorne extra points Fintildet be iududed JNGOs in his stndy He wrote dlQt lotetnational orgaruulions have as iI rol 8t least three member coumries TheM may be government$ offidJ orgilnlzarions or 0CInshy
guvernmental organizatiow (Morowv 1977 30) In a 11Iter seccion m NGo thcy were ldencifred as che la~ group of inrerrulttonal organiuttiolls wim two aspccn rbar concttntd socuIacuteiacuteIgtt commemarors tbe NGOriexcl auirude towards the preservarion of pealaquo wkh the Wnrld Feieradon ofTrade Unions
6 _ 0
rhe Wodd Fedemion oE Democratk Youth and otber meiexclllbtrs oiacute tbe Sovittshybacked World Peace (ounaacutel gaining special mentioo and the specialiuJ chataCrer of sorne NGOs itl(h as rhe ruerrutriunal Couocil of Scientifu Unions and che Scienrifk OJmmiuee on Antnrctk Research MOrlrLOv memioned how NGOs can belp emblish a social dimate citillg their contti shybution ro (he setdemenr of a number of internacional confHcu swh as dlilr in Vietnam He aOO dealr wirh the role of che NGOs io cbe UN aud che consuJshyrative srarus [hey llave witn lGOs saying du[ smdems of internariooal affitjoiexcl
in [he socjalisr councrics m critieal of many asplaquots of (his system fur the eoruulrarive StatuS amogemenrs stiU fall shon of wha( [he deveJopmenc of modern inretnatlonal relarions in fac[ catls fur (Morozov 1977 43) Tbe specialized namre ufNGOs Wamp1 atttibuted by M((2OV tu
tht increased Jnfiuence of the pubic at large un roreign polky [he grearer iexclmpat of public opininn in imernatiunal reladuns and [he greater importante uf me ideological fiexclUtot 10 $ucb relations Accoum should abo be raen of che proccsses of cconomic developmenr and [he coosequenc~ of [he scienrific and rechnological tevolutioo which has also led ro a greatet number of speoacutealized NGOs
(Morozov 1977 42)
Second Morozov wridog jo d~ late 197amp made moU pos-irive refershyencelgt (O [he role oiacute Trurd Wodd SUtes in imemaciooa otganimrions He noted rbar rbe emetgtoce oiacute ti large oumbe of Oung natiooal stares h8ve kd fO che emetgcnce of intetnarJonal Drganizadons among develcpi08 ecuoshytries (Mororov 1977 29) aod claimed hat partkiparion in (hese organh311oos is part uf he process uf consolidating their sovereigocy and ruuional jndependenu~ aod of wlviog cheir pressing ecoOfJmic anJ orher pmbemsmiddot (Morozov 1177 31)
Finally Momzov developed the puint made by fimkin aOOut he limited llalUre of ioternationaJ organiurjQn$ - ~econd-dllSS ffitrnbers nf the inrershynarloual sysrem as opposed tu rhe firsr-diexcllSS members SQvereJgn stateiexcl by reretcme tO theit dedsioos There bave resulted froro che inrelllctioo of politicuJ euroorces within the organil1ldons and
Thecombined will uf chcse lGOs i5 disuumlnc[ from [he wllls of theuuml indishyvidual members io in eflSenlte and ln in narure The v1ilflous wills in thb case are nor agsregued arirhmetically each one exim indepenshydendy ur oside a homogeneQu~ socio-political gOUP wirbin whose frarnework (hey can be combjlled
(Murozov 1977 34)
AfLer lhe comiog ro powet ofMikhail Gorbachev in the Soviet Union io 19Bgt a Ihaoge rook place jo $oVJIl policies rowards imeroadonal relations irutuding international organi1ations and [his has been reflecred in new
~ M-- bull 6_V_
Soviet writings un [he subJect Gorbachev inttoducetl a owjor review of [he fureign poljcy uf the Soviet Union (har marchcd rhe inremiry of his dmncslic refotmS He encouraged new rhinking- based on a revjeJ vlew of che world siruation Peaceful co-existence wirh iexclhe capiralisr tirares WlCgt no looger seeo a~ being a spetjfic fum of dass srruggle as Tunkin had written bUI 35 being in the commoo intecesu oiacute all countriCl Ir WIi$ predishycued on the neOO fin surviva of (he human nce which in ShakhfUlZOlrQvmiddot$ word$ must ofCOUIse take fim place Lighe 1988 297gt- Thjs ml$or rhar a new COIKeuropt of seGldty had ro he adopreJ hy che Soviers rhar oiacute common security which wa5 based un sume of he ideas of -che Palme Comminion (see he1ow) Greater emphasis wu given ro arms control and dlsarmament agreemenrs wirh the Wesr 11nd to co-opttation in international uffuirs whilst Soviet intervention io che Third Wodd enbed and milirary 5UppOtC 1m [he East European communisr govcfomentS WlS withdrawn
Soviet wdcings on inremurionilJ relations both offidal and academic came to mirror Gorhachevs new rhJnkiog bur eho lilete iexcl$ evety sigo chut rbese id~ were dmwu no only from rhe Wesr but alw Uacutenm Moscow mink-tanks slleh as lMEMO th~ JflSIirure of World Eronomy and Inremlfona Relacions) Liacuteght 1988 29~n Gorbschev aun his forngn minisrer FQllard Shevaronadre gave rhe academiacuten a Breen light for funher diSClViiacuteon ud debare (Shevaronadre 1990 23) As II reampul srudies examlned he role of che Uniacutered Nariacuteons as sn ugem for peoce (Kolyrev 1990 12-19 NesrerenkQ 1990 65 Petoovsky 1990 42--3) and rhe mte of inrernational or811nizadons in environmental mliLffers IiLnd disurmamenc qutsdmuuml Chodsulkwsky 1988j NikitiM 1989 123-32 Roginko 1989 133-43) and internarionallaw was teassesred (Sutier 1989~ 363-75)
Once che Sovier Union collapsed many of me wrifetS losr rhe main point of political reference A nwllber Iefi academc orhets adapted thelt ideas ro WCtem oues and a few remnioed as policy rulviseni ro che new Russian goVefrutJenL However cornmunism as M imellectually dominant organiuog rotce wlch pnliiisJ dour had djsappeared in Russia togerllef with much uf the persptr1ve ir provided - wben seen thmugh me unen distotdng leos uf tbe Sovier lfulon - oiacute inrernatiooaJ relatlons and inremariooal organhattnru
Chinese Marxisr wrirers have iexclargeIy reflected rhe views of the leadershyship in Chinll sioce [he coming ro power of rhe Commun1sr Patty in 1949 Undl (he 1970$ communist China was elduded from almon aH iotttllJishytional of811nizIiLtIOns and ie is flot surpriamping tha whae lirde writing tbete WUtl on the st1bje(r Wal fairly dismiacutesampive usuaUy consisdng uf coudemnaM tinos of (he UN fnf its action tn Korea aud rhe security allianes fot teir hegernonic narure Chjnese Marxisr rhinking hiacuteu divided (he modem wotld jnro three groups ihe Birsr World consisred of rile fWQ imperialist superpowers namely he USA ano the USSR The Second World was made up uf otbet areaa uf advamed industrilllired cnuntries primariacutely EUfape aod Japa which were opea ro donunariou by lite Sllperpowers bu( which could $tan a dialogue wirh rhe Thiacuterd World Theu (here was rhe Third
158 Writings OtJ internationdl organizatioru
Wodcl iexcltreI( coruisting of the Afro-Asiacutean-Lario Americltlu sta tes supported in their muggte aAainSt Picsr World imperialism by Chinls This viexclew of the wmId colouted tyJst Chiacutenese wridngs on iacuteoternatiollill oeganharions Tbe $uperJowers were seen as cynical lTlllnipubtors Qf inrernarionaJ jnsti~ tutions Mao Tre~tuog wOre of US poliey towards such insdfutions Ir mam use or them when it neOOS rhem and kicks them 3way when ir does flot (Society (or Anglo-Chinese Underuanding 1979 42) US-domioated pill-~ such amp$ SEATO and imperialist groupiacutengs like rhe Alliance tor PfOgre~( wttt detided Spedal viuiot was saved roc the Warsaw freaty Orgaoizatiun whieh in one aetide was described as Soviet sodal~ imperialisms mol fur aggression (Ming Sung circd Jn Chen 1979 194) fhe Soviet Union was aceuseQ of trying tu manipulate che Pan and negnshydate wlth Wesrem eouorries rhmugh the Enropean Scltwiry Conferenee tn consolidare irs begemonic status in Basrern Enrope at the same time iexcliexcll dividiog Wes(ern Europe squeezing Out the USA ro as ro muSte way (0(
iu expansion and infilrmrion into Westem Europe (Ming Sung clted in Chen 1979 197)
Chinese writecs Fegatded tbe Ntildegttood Worid espedally Western Europe as being a pen force io telmS of imperialism which Ww tdponeed to the lhird World wich diaJogu as io the Jmueacute Convention berweoen tIacute1e European Commnnitiacutees and AF~ican Carib~an and Paciuacutet srUe5
Furrhermore the defensive $spects of NATO were sttessed and with growing European cohcsion the trend iexclS IJkely to ~ towatds a fuoce in which the American elemenr is seen as 1 temporary neceuity eventual1y to be phased out (Sodety fur Anglo-Chioese Undetstanding 1979 90)
lthe countries of the Third World were setn as coostirotiog rbe mluumln force comb$dng imperiaJi~m colonialism and hegemonJsm reEerring nor only to the vestiges of Wesr Etl-OOptan foloniiexcliexclJism bOl abo to US iexclnpetlshyalism and gwwiog Soviet soci$l~imperiacutea1ism Tbe Third Wodd eQuld hdp tn exclude the gre$t powers ny baoding cogecher io such otganizatinos aiexcl tht DAU aod rhey could work ro correct unequiexcliexcl nade and eeonomk reladons with che sUpetpowers through UN iexcliexclgeucies and eonferences such as UNCTAD and UNaos Abo rtlW material ancl exporting orgllnizations liexclke OPEC rbe Incernadonal Bauxilaquo Association ancl the Onion of Banana Bxporting Counuies were proised a ehanging (he old interntlrional eumomic Ome and banerlog che biggest roarerJal plunderers in rile world rhe United Srates and (he Soviet Uoleo (Ptking Rt1Jiew 26 Septtmbtr 1975 cited in Cheo 1979 309)
111e poverty oiacute ehinne study of intetnatlenal erganhuions no dounr caused by the lack of Chinese membership of such etganizacions unril the 197amp and the turmoit ef the Cultural Revulution eiexcliexclme ro an enel by the 1980s Jnstead oere was a more reaHs( viexclew (lE rbe worlcl iexclf one S~shytimes coucbed In Manlst terms In Chlnese univenittes there was a growtb io detailed studies of iutemationalntgsnizations aod the nuropean Union
WritingI un inlmullPmnl vrgrsrtilpiill1J 159
Tbird Wwld vlewJ
Many Third Wodd Afro-Asian aoo Latin Atrusican) writers 00 jntemsw
tional organizaion have adopte a structtulIist framework and are particufarly nm(etnecl abour how insdtutions can be wcd as tools of exploitadon uf rhe nitd World aud how $ome cau be used lIS agenrs of libenuion They llave nor been induded in the ~ettiexcloo un Marxist viltws (or three feamm nOI al of them are Mandst thIJM who are Manisr place particular stresS on (he posicion oF thE l1lIacuterd World and as ThJrd Worlcl eitizens they have through theit own experience unother pe~cdve rhan [Mt of writers from industri$lized srates
Yash 18ndon (1978 377) has identjfied thNf nuacuterd World penfIXrives en inrernational Olganizatiolls Fim [here is that or the bourgeois Of perry natiunalisrs who are in power in mos[ Third World statcs and who are progressive in [errru of anti-impcrialism but are rraniollary ro the C1tccnr WC they would sooner mau thcir pcaee with imperialism rhan iluwnder power (e the masses and peasancs This group uses ineernational orgllniexclm~ tions ro pur presrure 0lI imperialisc states in order to extntCt concession5 from them and appease tbe masses in their own coontries TIley see che UN as an opportunity to parley witb their entwhiacutele impecild masters t a presumed kvd uf equa1iry (Tandoo 1978 365) Thc scltond pcrspective is rhat ofthe reaIly backward regimes of thl Thitd Wodd such un Taiwiexcliexcln and Jotdan or whnm intemarional orguniacutelattnnS are of margJna1 signifieance [)t they prefet tu dea wirh impcrialism iquestirt(tiy The rhird petSPCCrive idenrified by landOll is that uf rhe masses vi thc TIlird World for wbom toterntlunaJ orgmilAriom are petiphewl fin liS Jong as hey rontinue fO reflect the muing balanlte uf clas$ forces in hvour uf impeuacuteJism (fandon J 978 378) Sioce the ene of he 196amp rorces representing thu third group have bccome lnott prominent in world polido in che form of liberarioo groop1 lttCn as tbe PLO and whilst chese have f)tgten interested in galnin8 telaquolgnJtlon rOt rhemshyselves at the UN and the spedaliled agcodes rhey are not depeuden 00 these or8ani1Jlton~ rndecd Tandoo romioeted (hat fo che revoludonary snnggles in SOUfh~E3SC A~a and AfrJctI iOfernattonal otgilnizalJons are tOO peripheml to be of much $ignilJeaoce (Tandon )9713 377)
Tancloo providcd n inrere~tiog history of the Jevelopment uf the anrishycolonialist forees in che Third Wruld sinee 1945 bur hi~ clivi~iexcl()H iexcloro he three perspenives is roo stark leaving aside rhe leil important backWllro regimes be has basiclllly grO~lped tbe Third World leadershp joto the revoshylutionaries who have Uttle netd (or imernatiooa otgllnizatiooll and those who llave suumlpped into refOrmism and have beco duped iot() bdieving (hat they elln ehaoge chelr c1ependeoce 00 industtia1i1Cd nBfiexclmL~ lhrough intemadonal organiwtions Thjs seems to undelsrare me use or ~mh organishyzations by revolutionllry groups - especiiexcliexcllIy che PLO anel tlle SoUthem African liberadon OtgllOiexcl7arionS - whieb have made substaotial use oiacute [he UN me Arah League ano the OAU tO sustain rhe polirical aspeets of theit effOrt5 1t alS(l uverestimatcs the extent tu whieh the Third World countries
J UU wnlmgl 1111 JTiUrllamm41 ergtIttJ1I0fll
have any iUwinru about imetnariooal Qrganizarioos such a~ UNC1~D
Furchermorc the identificador of 800d revolutionaries and falten refurmislS i~ tuller impliexclstjc~ rhe maIur sponrot of the UNs New Ecooomic Order l wruch Tandon hal roudemned as rhe Old Economic Order with a diffefent rltetoric WIIS the Algetian radinu governmenr of Boumediemu rhe PLO irself ha heen dependem on a numlgttr of bnurgeWs Arab goveromenrs foc financial 00 diploJUlltic suppon and ro Tandoos duumlertion that PQr narlonallibemwn movemenn guided by a proktatlan idoology such liS rhose in Chifliexcl1 lIlud Vietnam iruemarionaJ organlwtlona WtU of no 1J5e can be- added the re5ervarion until chey carne (O power Whiht ir took some twenty years belote communist Qtill1 made use nf suth organiutions the unified communiSl Stale ol Vietnam was quick fO cake up it position in the UN ro ask [Ol aid thtough UN agencies liS well as w become ji membet of he CMEA (Comecon)
Third Wodd commemscOt1l on world politics have emphasized the nature uf rheir atea$ potirical ecoOoacutemtc Ilud culmral relatloosluumlp wilh rhe iHdllsrriexcl~ alixed Nonh TitilO is iOO$t Oflltl rypified aiexcliexcl bciug OHe of ueo-folonialism _ COntrol of che Third Wtltld by lhe Nortb by indirecl means ratlet (han by direa colonial tule and of Kf)IomIacute( dRptwJmry (o dtpmdemjiexcliexcl) lntetnationaiacute rdsdOOi bcrween sures are sublumed ro relations between claue$ world wide Ixtween on rhe one lIand the expluacuteiting impetialist capitetists in rhe northcm iru1usuialized couotries 2100 rhcir middle-ltlass collaboratotS in the 50Uthem SUtes aud on the othet band he exploiced masses rhe proleuriat ol [he $Ourhern contJnems The Lurcr gmupS have been 1I1iide ecooomkaUy dependent on [he furmer so char hey lIre in rhe wuacutetds uf the Bruiliiln T Dos SantOS in a situadon jn which the economy of a cetuin group of counshytrles is condiacutedoned by rhe develOplllent aad expansion of aoother ecouomy lO which thcit own 15 subjecred (Bodenheimer 1971 327)
The uOOerdeveloped tounrries depend uacuten [be developed ror their capital nd ercperdse they find key sectors of ehdr eroooroy conrrolled from OUtsJde rhey act as a SOUfce of raw marerials lIS ji lthetip source of labour arul as a rnarket fur mllnuf8ccurers from Euttipe ]apan and North America As thejr living standards were deterrniud by rhe vicissinWeS of the Northern~ dominated wodd marker the relationship was Otle uf unequa exchange (he [esule of which was a world experiencing woequal developmenr with a developed rieh indwtriaJiud capiralisr Notthern centre and d poor underdeveklpedgt agciculrutitlly backwarn eXFloired periphery in che 50mb The dependem 80mh has been divided berween rhe ptedominanr undemeshyveloped area~ lUld a few Cenfres of deve10prnenr wirh their ttade culrural rraffie and polidcal linL to [he deveJoped North - rhe depeOOem develop~ memo omlinea by EH Cardosa (1974) allodlt~r Bruiliall Mmir Amiu (977) rejC(ted the prosptltt of aH antonomous capitalist development in [he Third Work the oew bourgeaisJe of Lacin Ametica Africa and Asia were in allianec with capitalisrs from rhe Nnnh and rhe mato $OUrce of finance ror lmported equipmem was fmm the expon of raw materials to rhe indu~rial
5 ~ _~ smiddot_middot~~
iexclred smes Amin (1977 1-21) SllW rhe can made ror a New Imernational Ecooomic Order (NIEO) by Third World leaders at rbe UN UNCTAD aod che Vilrlous North-Sourh dialogues as an nrtempt LO iexclnerease the price of chelr ntw mattIial exporrs obraio more lmpotted technol08Y snd chus finance a new srage of develQpmenr He saw this ti placing the Thitd World more in the gttp of the neo-co1onialist sysrem and iostmd recommended 11
more self~rcuumlanr development wlrh murrud assismnce between Third World sures a reducdon in [ade wirh rhe induuialized wotld and Chlll a loos~ ening of dependenre Amin lJke TaOOon had Jittle fairh in presenc imtrnruional organizaciexclon Il tools foc fasbiooing a more independent Tbiacuten Wotd His sU88tl1cion of grearer mUtual ilSlgtistaoce between ThUd WorId uate~ implied somtthing more sophillticated than a numbtr of bilateral arrmgements As rbe present orgauizarions used fu iexclncm~Thjrd World cnshyoperation (che OAU he Atab League ASEAN) are domitllued by jusr dl()llC govetnmenrg chM accept lhe eowse coodemned by Amio _ the NIEO ami greater jmegrndon iexcluro rhe world economic sysrem ~hen Amia solutloil involves like-minded deveJoping counrries or more like1y political changes leading ro such indigenous intemuional orgilniwrions
Other Trufd Wodd wdten have plllCtXl emphasls on grearer use 01 exisring insdtutions lOO can broadJy be deKfibed lIS Wopmenraluli huI Prebisch an Argentinian econOmigf has not only studied the que5iaacuteon uf ecooomic dependency but his ideas llave been used as the baJiexclis for che wotk of cwo miexclljoc iexcliexcluemariOOiexcll1 organizadons rhe UN Enmomic Commission fa utin Ameriea (ECLA) and UNCfAD Iu his smdy of Briliacutesh-Argerl(inian trading relntioflS Prebisch bad idenrified rhe unequRl tecrns ol Hade between he favoured (ndusrrislized s(ate of tbe centre and he les privj~ leged llOIl-indumialiacutewl periphery Prebisch unlike rhe dependencia gtChool of Amiacuten Dos Sancos and Cardosa believed thu this inequaLity could be overcome by political acrinn by trade pre[ereonces fuvouring the pedphery by eoo1ruooiacutery agreemenrs by intelnatiacuteowll aid and by more foreiga imvestment in che ~riphery It was thele remedies thiexcllr Prebiacutesch eneouraged when he WiIS Executive SecrCrary of ECLA from 1955 lO 1963 aOO Secrewy-Genernl ofUNCTAD ftoro 14 ro 196tL In~d rhe amoum of aid the periphery needed in omer to overeome their Unfuvoluable rrnde balance became known io UNCTAD clrcles as [he Prebiexclsch Giexcllp
The distinguished Afiican aC1ldentie Aji Mazn1i has wricren un the plighr Qf (bar conciflfnt aod j~ role in pmem~day interruUIDllfl1 afmits He soughr ro answer rhe quesdon Now rlw Imperial Order is eoming ro an end who is going tO keep rhe peaee in Aampica and tu examine he concept of Pax AfrlclllUl the African s ambidoo ro be his OWh palaman The JXIliacutecillJS and se[f~8overnment ufAfriea depended on the nodan ofan African self which Mauui discusseJ in decaH He considered how this 1ndepen~ denre might be threarened by the politicaI and cultural fragmenMion of the contillenr Ellld eronomieally by deperulence on Europe He quoted Kwame Nkntmah finr President uf Ghaniexcll on rhe Europe-Jn ECOntunir Communiry
162 Wilihgr rm intd1JatirmallJrganizatimu
ihe ireaty of Romemarks the advent of oeoKolonitJism [n Afriacuteen snd bears unqutSrlonably the marks of Freneh neo-colonuumlllism (Murui 1967 93) He moduded from tM that Wlut AfrlOlns tbelaquofore neecletl was II
renerru authotity of cheir owa tI) ((lordilJlte fheir eltonomk and policicat deCena- sgain5t trus rnreat (Mamtiexcl 1961 93)
Given this theme it is not surprising tlwt Mazrui ser srore by rhe OAU bU[ he was realistic in bis judgement
In relatioos betwlaquon African statts lIOflesr step rowards Pu Africana was taken when rhe Organiution oiacute Aftlaquolln Uniey set up in Commissiacuteon ofMediauacuteoo Conci1illtion aud Arhitmion
Anormr OAU Commissioo of relevance fot Fax AftlOlna ls che Defence Cornmission Sor me Defeme Commlnion 1w se Car been among che lean effecdve QfPan-Aiacutericun ins(kndons Afrka mar indeed aspire to be her owu ptlliceman bur she does nO seem ready as yel to par the price iacutem it
(Mauui 19612[3)
Mazrui oudined the varicd backgrounds of [he lemen oiacute newly illdepenshydent Africa and thdr radical and revolmionary ideas and it is pethaps swprising rhat the insrirutions rhey created fur me coutinenf wete so mnservative with [he p05sible exceprion oiacute the OAUs Natiomtl Libetttion Comminee Mazrui no[ed thac Africa srill has the problem of how othet powetS respond tu its behaviour and [har forcigo iotmsilm in AJtica continued Indetd the I990s proved tO be a dC(ade of disusrer for AfrieR The debiacute burden contimlld while Ilome states collapsed lnro civil war ami others took to iutenoendoo in thejr ueighbonrs affairs Outslde interference from borh Enrope and North Amecica euodoned One of rhe fcw brlghr spots was the end of apallhcid in South Africa and the peaceful transitioo ro majoriry mJe lo al thiexcl~ tn quote Juliacuteus Nyerere rhe ampcmer pre~iexcldenl of Tan1ania The OAU exists outr ror tbe prorecdoo of (he Afrinllt Head~ oiacute State (cited io AlilgapPltl 1998 1 ) The relarive optimism of Maztui has giveu way ro Afriam writers examining sorne of me disrnrbing details of inaction by [be OAU and regtonal orgauiacutezatJuns nlCh as ECOWAS beiog used as doaks fu the machinations oE regional hegemou$ suth as Nigcria (Mibe 1m 61-9(1)
Radha Sinha$ problem--ortented undy Food iexcllfId PIWt11y (1976) has an IItgent message Sinha a former consultaot of the FAO prodnced an iofuacuterrned aUllyiexcljiexcl of the world$ food problem stress1Og in paniacutecular the maldistribution of food and other resources Noting he profO$ab of UNCTAD with heit muld-rommodJty approach and buffer nocks provjshySiOfli he commented rhe grearesr weakness oE the UNCTAD scheme js les Hkdy politlca1 unilcceptablliry ro me developed (ountdes parriculady che USA (Sinhil 1916 114) a propheey that has proved to he cortect He identitled a more aggresslve attitnde by Third World sutes e5pedally
WrilirrgJ on i1tternatiflii1l rHgarrtzatitmlt 163shy
after the uH prite cise of 197314 when the developing coonuies tried to maximize their own market powers by formin cartcls such as rhe Intematimlal BaurdtC Association the Intemuional Coundl of Copper Expotcing Countries aud the Intema[ional Tin Agrcrmenr He gave n qualified wekome ro the Lomeacute Convention betwcen the European (omrounities anJ cenain African Padfic and Caribbean Haces Writing in 1976 he commented
The receot cbange in rhe luirudes of tite tiche countries is largely due tu the incIeasing miliuncy of the Third World countries lt is almost ertalll utar the magnitude offuture cnnc~sions in me coune ofGAIT aud UNCTAD IV Ilegotiarioos wiU deperu mainly on (he continued solidariry uf the devdoping counlrtes
(Siha 1976 116)
Sinha was pardy correct as tbe solidatity cf rhe Tbird Workl states cracked se the induurialized wodd withheld funher Con(eampSJoru but ir was able tO do so because market condidons swung against che primaty producen
In his condusion Sinha called ror a IIDre1 shttting of wnrld t($nmes and power if confrontarion was ro he avoidOO He feared that the ffa of roshyoptradon berween [ieh and pool conntries hiid ((lT1e to an end and that batde lines were being drawn Instead he advOOIreltI majnr concessions from the dcher coumries on trnde lInd aid issues and a1so a ma~lt te$ltUcrnring of the incematiotlill organization~ aoo negoacutetiating ffiarhinery in order tu provide a much gtC2ter say fm me poorer countries in internatiooal tJ1lde invesrment and mooetaiexcly armngemenrs (SiMa 1976 132) GAn 1BRD aud IMF have been the presenoe of [he ri h with voting weighted m faacutevour of rhe OECD countries and Sinha re(()ffimended thlll GATr aoo UNCiAD be merged inro an Intemacional irade Organization (ITO) and che creatlon of a Third World permanent secrctariat iexclnvolved in all trade and aia negoriarioru Thoogh less radical than Amin Sinha aIso recomrnrnded gttter coshyoperation berween developing coulltries and an eoo ro their inkrtotity complex with instead a sense of m~ttnal sdiacute-e$teem and trust being devel~ oped (Sinha 1976 ch 10) Litde that h~ happened during the 19905 woo1d have encouraged Sinha The World iratle Organiaadon has emerged as the presenoe of the dlVelupeJ tares and lw brushed aside many of thc mucerns cf UNCTAD Debr ha~ edged on ro dlt wudd iexclagenda but mainly at the beheS[
of a non-governmental organization )ubiacutelec 2000 nd the promi$e~ of the main financill jnsrirutluru lO pursue dcbc-rclicf produred but a thiniexclmfl
In aH Third WQrld commenrarors have provided a vatied and lively approruh fOwards tne problems uf intetniexclational organizarions Their emphasis has niltntaHy beCl Qn tbe use of wurld lmtirutions to change the econornic condidon or the Southern cominents As this enndition is likely to worscn in the near filrtltf further more lJica conrtibutions on the rule oC
-- --- ~- __ _~- __- imernatIacuteonal orgaoilarions in Nonh-Smuh relarJons tOiexclghf be apected from rhe Third Worid A1ternaciveJy wrirers (mm rhat ares rmy jW ltIacuteespUacutet rm imergovemmemal orgaoizarions ar lealaquo Mee rhem $O Hrrle
Cfili~ald~heJ
Critica approadvs lO the nudy uf intetnadonal relations are (hose har rejee( the dominating vleW1iexcli repr=med by tbe realist and reformistS as oudined aboye In paHicular rhey reglUd realists as apologisu for the currem con6gutltion of power 10 (he wiexcldd sytem and considet [har rhe refOnntstS are elrher unable ro undersraoo he fUe llamee )( (hi sysrem oc ille UDwiUing to accepc rilar ir needs more rhan mooest refotlllS TIlOugh they may sympalhi-ze wirh rhe agenda of some Marxists aud Third World wt1cers chey do [lO( llave rhe hisrockal certaimy of the former not rarely do they have the experience and perspective of ehe larter TItey view intenUishy(jnl1ill nrganiutions wirh a jaundiced eye as these are mainly the lll$tmmenfS of rhose who dominare rhe syuem This section COlllaios an wcoum nf three approaches tmt of the critical rheorlsti- of kmintsc wrirshy[1185 ulld pose~mooernismlt
Cri(~1 herJrY The approach of critical theory 10 JnrematlonaJ o(ganizatiooll iSi determtoed by their wider world-view which in itsclf is explaiiexclwd by tbeir llame One of the leading exponents Roben Cox said [har ie is cririca1 in cne Jensc rha h srands apan 100m che prevailiog order of rhe wOlld and asks how tb$t oroer came iexcllPouc Ir does nor r-ake existing irucimtioM lIl1KI JIQwer relaclons rOl granred bu c311s them iacutemo queuion Ir 1S diexclrlaquoced ro rhe social itnd JIQiirshyical complex as a wItole rarhet (hall he stparate pirtt IUthet than subdiide and Imic an examination of a problem it looks al the wger pkturc of whkh rhe problem is jwt oue part and trio rO wJdeThwod the processeS uf change ill which botIt pans ulld whole ure involved laquo(ox 1993 277~S)
Ai a thoory cridQiIacute theory rejeen tbe daims of posicivism of an external Nulity and to be mue-free ror critkal rheorIacutests koowledge ti nor moraUy IleUc1ll1 ic is more che result of the social background of tbose Wt hold ir Given this ctitkal tbeory alJows foc a normarive choice in favoU of a social ancl iexclJlieiexcl(ld order diflerent f(cm rhe prevruHng arder bur it limiu the ruuse 01 chotce ti a1remative orders which are feasibJe mmsformations ofme cxvaing worJd h musr rejEC[ improbable alternadVe8 ju~t as ir rejecrs rhe pcrmanctlly nr lhe exiscing order (Cox 19 90)
Cridcal rheory differs lrom Marxist upproElchcs beCElUS( of iu tejection nf any daim to hold the objenive tru[h and betause or it~ avoidance of (he pmslllt ol il utopia Neverrhe1ess [heir analysis of incernarional relarln1l$ is one tbu hEls u numher of similariuumles wich the Marxisc pcrspecdve It regurds rhl tlistlng suucrures of world polirics as beiug oppressie not
- _ __ _-
lean because of rhe dominance of (he capitalism of che Unired StElte~ For many che USA is seco as a hegemonic power the prevailing urder - in re[ms rbar reReet he wrirings of the Itallan Marxisc writer Amonio Gramscl (1891-1932) Gramsd advanced the nodon of ln hisrori(middot bloc which in itself refilaquors che $Ocial reladons oE ptoducdoo The dominanr dass in a counrty - 01 indeed aoy social grouping - mlinrains cohesion and idenciry withio [he bloc [hrough the ptopagacion of a COIDmOfl culturegt A new bloc can be formelt when a subordinate dau can euablish tU hegeshymony over orher subotdioate gtOllpS (Cox 1993 56--7) The IDove rowuds hegemony comeS with the piexclt$ting fmm che spediacutek inrercsrs ofa gronp Ol
dass tO rhe building uf inrimdons aOO elaoorarion uf ideologies (Cox 1993 57-8) It Loiexcl rhat ptOCe$S thar embeds the incemu of the dominanc dan in an imttmrional form thae [w an appeal widet [ban that dan ine1f It the-refole repreSoems mote tlmn jUSt (he drunJnaoce oE one state ovec anocher bllt implies a cemufi acceptante of the tules arJd institutions purouized by [he hegemonic JIQwer Jo other woros it is all order wbicb most Olher Sta[e-~ (01 at 1enst those within reath of die hegernouy) couId find compatible- wirh their iexclmetem (Cox 1993 6t) h aJso involves noe just inttt-staee rueivirle5 bur rhose oiacute tlvilliOCiety (oon-Stllte socieM instishycudons) ebereby encoumging Hnks between social dus$ts iexcln the connules covered by ebe hegemony
What does Cox llave to uy about ioccmational Otgsniuciexclons 1bey Ilre scen in he oontext ofme wiacuteoo unaemanduuml18 of itnernational reUacuteltions mentloned iexcliexclhove He is direcr 000t mem Ooc mechanisru chrough wruch the universal norms of a wodd hegemony are expttssed js the interoatiooal organisation (Cox 1993 62) Why is chis so Cox U993 62) gives five teIlSons
bull They e-mbody rules cOae help (be- apwlSion of a hegemonic wodd iexclrder These insdwrians reflcct the intererts ()( the dominam social anil economic force- buc a1low a cettain amOunt oC adjusrment ro accommodare other subordinared interests TIms the USA WllS preplltoo ro mm conccssions to
bciI18 in Lhe EU srares and Japan ro rhe Wotld Trade Otganizatimt They a[e prooucrs of that order Though [he insrimrions and rules Ilce
nurITlllUy initiared by the hegemook power ir takes cate ro involve aOO comule a numbe-r of second-ronk stares and gaio theit supporc he Wotld Bank and Inte[nacional Mooetaty Fund were very much pan of [he world order thar emerged afrer [he Second World Wat and which was dominared by rhe Uoiced Stlres
They ltgidmi7e i[s nOlms by providing guidance for SllIteS and by legitshyimiuacuteulS cerraIacuten IlCdviries Ilr me narional leveL he OBCD afie rhe inrerruuiooal financia) irntuumluriom lave spread an acceptante of mllrket coodirions and sHict mOllerary iexclJlides
They co-opr elites from pelipheral counrrie Ihlented sraH commg 110m the Thiacuterd Wocld are expected tO dCCept he scriexclpt wcittttt by the domishynam power Bouuos Bourros-Ghati as Secteury General uf the Unired
166 Jiexclljiexclr1giexcl Qr1 ifJfCflrttuacutemal IWgaizati(ifJJ
Nadons stroyed too amp~r ftOm the gtip of Washinston and his second term was VCtoM by rhe USA His sucecssor Kofi Annan will no doubt undentand what 1$ n-quired of him He brings the mncerns of orhe states ro che UN bUf nor in a way thu threatt1l$ the USA
bull They absorb counter-hegemonic ideas Ideaiexcl $uch as 1iustainable dlYClop_ ment tukl even debr foTgiwness are taken 00 board by the intetnatwnal finarnial institlltion$ blu are trandirmel into pulido rhat swt them
Wh~t is ro be done Cox thinks thar the pfQblem of changiog dw world orUer 1iMuld be shlfred back from intern~tional insritutions tO niexcllriacuteooal $OIacuteishyeties where the sodo-political b~se for a new historie bloc mighr be ereated (Cox 1993 64) FaiJing the creadon of a new historie bloc of the new working cla$s and rural and urb~o marginal groups there might be tnmdorshymadon oC the curtent monopoly-libcral hegemony by adjusting to rhe demanJs oiacute local ello$ for polides 5uch as natlonaHution Cox 199~ 65) He aw advocates te-regulation of erooomies and a re-wmpositjon of civil sodery Internatiotla lnstlcutions induding organiutions can berome eontact puint1i fOr new $OCia[ furtt (Cox 1994 (11)
Critica throrJm $uch as Cox oifee a refreshing exposidon oiacute che posidofl oC imernatiooal ofganizatioos in a wocld where the main revolutionary powe~ have either collapsed (rhe Soviet Union) or se(tled into a cautious ronservatirun (China) Ir provlde~ a sceptical arf realisric world~view without acreptins tbe inevuumlahility ni a illture domlnared by mooopoly eapi~ ujsm sud the Utlired States J-Iowevtr its appllcariexclon to intemationa1 organhatJons 11 StImewha( timited tQ the maln global jnsdm(jons and th financial and economlc orgmiutions Ir has 1m (O say aboue regional nrgashynjudon Uf abour N(JUacutes Furthermore iu alternarive fu(ure testS on ourcoroes thu are far froro certain RevnJutlons in the Thied World are roore likely to be- irupired by nadondi$m oc by IsJaroic fllndamentaHfl OCalaquoely [he solid ooses for new historie blocs
Fwinuumll aNml4cbts
Feminist perspcctives 0f1 inttmatlonal rtlatioos llave in common wirh the erit~ ical rheocillu a rejclaquoion of (he dominance in rhe $Ilbjecr of the rcnHst and rdOrmisrs Although fuminist writen cover a wide 5laquolpe the gencral basis oiacute their aqurnent 1S har in interwnional relatioM ru in most politkal aud tcooomk acdvity women are diexclSJtdvantagt~l Alchoogh they own ahour 1 pet tCfH oC the worlJs lfOpeny and tiexcliexclxe heme 10 peiacute ceoc ofincome they perfurm 60 per eenr of working houn and provide 80 per eent of nfusets (petetsen and Runyan 1993 6) This is a derDOnstrndon of gender inequalitie~ the sodalJy learned behavior and expecratioos thar distioguish berween maKuliniry and femininity (Petetsen and Runpn 1993 5) Feminist aprroaches ofren So bejond the $tati~tks and examine (he mind~se[ of those engaged in the pmctice of intemadonal rdations whiexclch (bey ampee as geodered In other woros che world
Writingc Off inlmhJliofMl vrgntiZdlMm 167
illeen in a mlLlndine way thar kvrntB (he posjtiOll o( mnles in rhe hitgtranhy and devlllues the c041trihution of WQmeO (Sylvestet 1994) War in pattKular is gendered in a way chat keeps wornen and metl from qUtstioniog the essentiat pmpose and he neglltive effects of war militarization ~nd viQleme on their awn and orhers livts (Petetsen and Ruoyan J993 9 t)
What of wminist view$ uf imernationaJ organizationsr Ir IS not possible ro presem a rollf(tive vjew that eneomp3$~e~ rhe works of radicaJ femjnisu and ny iexclihetal teminists (rutead the work of one author Sandra Whitworth (1997) will be used as me pily$ rornt attrntion ro inrernarlonal organizations Aamper inrroductions ro feminilfr theory and internacional frIamiddot tiom and gendet and internacional relatlons Whirworrh examines geodet and imernational organilions She screpts Coxs vjew oiacute inrernational orgashynjzarions [har they retleltr (he dominant powet relations in che intetnational system and rhae internaliomd otgaoiution h che procelt of imcitntionaJshyiling and regulating conOice - eicher rhat which may IIrise among siexclates o( char which has iu (onU io transnationaI society (Cox 1980 375) TIte way duu pcople orgaoire themelve$ wirhin international iostirurjons reflects a variety of power relations ineludi~ of rollJSe gendec relatiull3 (Whitworth 1997 74) lbe triad of jnstirutions ideas and material rQudi~ tioru help ro hxare uSllmptiolls aboue geoocr withiu jntetmltional rewtioos Whitworth uses thesr tn examine lhe uooerstandillg oiacuteScndec io an INGO the Internadonal PlarUled ParenthooJ Federatlou (JPPF) and an intergnvemmental organilJ1rion (albcir one wlrh some oOl1-governmentJ)J represemation) the InrernatlonaL lab01lrOtganiution (no)
Whirworths studies show rhar thr IPPF tended ro accept the deshyemphasizlng oi the gendered oamfr of reproducdoo and (f) ignore rhe imponaoce ofbirth comcol foc womens reproductive freroom Instead in an effort tu popularize birth rontrol srrel~ WWl placoo on paremhooJ rather than iexclust the womans choice However IPPF poUcy beeiexcllme more radirnl in (he 19905- with Hnks beirtg made berween II1M control alld womeos ~)tu~ ality (WbJtworth 1997 ch 4 pmim)
The RO eoucerned itself with WQmen as workern It cnnsidercd that tbey oeeded spec-ial atrention and promoted ptoteCtlvt legiexcl~lacion This reiexcln~ forced me view (har [he male worxer Wall the norm with women workers nor deserving the same rights remunfration lOO mndirions Latterly however the JLO ha~ reflectoo views rhat prodaim wornens elt)ualily in rhe workforce and has sunoo tuacute assess the importanee of policies on womens role in rhe workplace as weU as in sodery more wjdely (Whlrwnrth J997 ch 5 panm) Whitworth comes [O the eondusion rhu iexclln iexcllnaLyiexcli~ of gernler in rbe IPPF and no shows how tbese rdiexcliexcldonsbips llnd definirions ni what it is to be a womltn oc man are structuted relationsrups3nd hlsrQciudly hve been scrurtured tu disadvantage women (ibid 15n
lo eommon with the critkal meorists Whitworth has useQ au examinamiddot doo of two intetnational organixations (O deroonstrate a puinr about imerflational relatiexclon~ indeed sodal rctatrol1s mOte widely The poinr is
I1
I
middot - ~-_ --___ aOOuc powec and iu use not (O balance oue SCdre ligaiOSf anorher but fm une gooup ro domiaare morher Jn chis case it 1$ ma the dominution of one dass me m culcnre over $ofU)(her (though Whirworrh recognizes those reLationshyships ti wcll) but of roen over women The crititUl uudy oiacute (wo jnceraational mganirations dealing with iSSlle5 recoSniud ti beiiexclg oiacute impocshycanee or WOfficn suggesu rha( tltOO simihu research on orher internacional organizadons could proJuce interening aOO uwfuiexcl resulrs
Pllit~ism
Thc posc-moderruacutesr $opprooch lO intetaarional rcllldon is one tlur bas (ome ro che fote Jn che perlod sinee lite end of rhe Cold War Jr is based on $o widcr imellectual viewpoim insrigated by l1rench iorcUtcruals of the 196()s gener~ ation _ Bllrrhes Derrida FouclIul and Lyorard - and whkh suggested rhat the modero era liad becn overome 11 fejeas mera-nattatives gnlud accounv- of hi5tory aoa iacuteNIacuteler subjecu as having no independem rubstance Scientifk btliefs induding [hose oiacute rhe $)(ial scJcllces are rooted in (lllxure polill(os arul mores oJ a wciery and are lherekJre subjective As rhere is 00
oblcctive reality cmpirical daims bave fl() spccial sunding in rhe rralms of koowledge IndeeJ ir i$ power aod knowledge are intimatel) incerwirud Posr-moJernism Hllnds against rhe belief of rbe modero pcfiod which LI seco as beginning wiacuterh rhe enlightenmcm of mid-eightcenth cenrufy Europe and AmeriCll Ir rheldore rejcn~ rhe COMCpr$ oC rationalirl and progrcss aSSuacutedared wi(h [he enlighrenment and [he moocrn age Thc uniry of IOOnkind iexclirW iexcldells such liS rhe untveIsWiI) of human aacuteghrs are rejcuoo lnsceadlocal aetion in smallgroups 15 advuacuteClmd
Post-modetnist ideas have affected tite srOOy of inremruionaJ rdarions as (bey have ocher social scienccs Posr-modern imeraarional relariops theoriscs havc ustd heir view$ 00 objecuumlviry (o exiexcltmine che rrmhs of international relatiom en see how rhe concepts iexclind knowledge-dairm (bar dominare the Jisdpline in faer are highiy conringenr on spccific power relatiom (Smith 1997 181) Post-modemisrs bave lltfa(red me mcta-narratives of the reelshy1m and reformlsu aHke The objectiacutevemiddot aaallses of the realim Ilnd neo-realisu are setn as being deJl(nclent on the subjective standpojnts of cheif mainly Amen(an and Europeau authors Ijcharcl amphiel (1986 258) daimed he works o[ Kenneth Waler men the leading neo-realillt trrat the glven ordcr a rhe natural nrder Jjmirs rarheE (lian 1XpawU political discllUtse negales oc rriviuliliS the signifinnce uf variely urOiS time and plue Whar emerges ii an ideology tllar anridpatcs iegirimires ancl onents a totalitarian projen 01 global ptoponioo~ che rattoualiaciuacuten of global poHcics iexclbe reformius are likcwise tainted Md have Ji mhr$lren belief in pmgress The posc-modernl$rs poinr m rh Helocausr as rhe heighr oiacute mooemism a rombimiddot Halioe of science dnd polidcal otganizillnon Il was SCruTely progreso
Given an antifllthy mwards rhe MlVe[iacute~ign srae borh as a centre of powet ll1ld as a crearioll Jiten imbutol wlth a wncepltliexcl uf progress pest~miexclJdetniexclsls
wHungJ mi Im~iexcliexclrun wgltiIRrzuJlU7iJ 1J7
can lOUcdy be expcctcd to vIacuteew intergovernmencal organiUlrions wirh sympilthy Tbe prefetted iacuteonu of internacional organizations when mentioned are those thiexcltt ltlj~plal differemes snd dlvenity in global pelitlcil duu are reginnaUy based or rhar reflec irKlividual actlOn Tndecd ir SeeIJS
rbat Michel Fomawt was involved with an alliance oiacute twO INGOs (Miquestdecin du Monde and Tertl-s do Hommes) in proresting agaiust internadonal iH~shydon over rhe boat people who flcd Vietnam in tite lare 1970s and ear1y 19S(k He is gU()[ed 11$ sayillg tbar Amnelltl Internnrlonal Teueiexcl dts Hommes Mfiiecin du Monde lHt inirilltives whiacutech have created a nrw righr rile dAht of privare individuss ro iexclntervene in [he otder of polino and internatioont snateg(eiexcl (dred in CampheH 1998 516)
Aootber researcher has exnmined ~he Europcan Communities Ilr che point wben Jr was mnslorming intO me European Unioo and askOO whether ir was a pootmodew ConJigUflHton (Nstrgaard 1994) Hi condusions wcre mar ir was gualiwiveJy a new organizarion oC human calJecrlvJties which mighr U$hec the coming of post-moderniry (Ntgttgnatd 1994 27j) The basis fO[ [bis judgemem was rhat me Ee did nO approximate anl modero form of piexcliexcl1idUll Ofpnizarion it did OOt commatld che means oiacute violence its au[hotity derives noc from die people and ir appeared to be a fCgJoo trying ro pOrecr itiexcliexclelf againsr globaliacutezadun iacuteN0rgaaro 1994 274--5) Ir remllins ro be sren whether [he BU tJf [he twenry-first cenrury wHl fu1fi1 rhtgtse hopes Ot wiU stllrr ro teVen
to a more scate-like being Generall) dIe cririolapproaches ro interruHiorud relarious hiexclJve provided
1lOOIe innovatIacuteve insigllls iexclnro rhe study uf imemarional orgsnizations The crtrical theorists llave becn sh3rpest in rheir unde[$(iexcltnding nf internarional ofgiexclt1lizacious as servsnrs of a dominiexcliexclIf power configuracion thoogh the) lave pemaps Umieed cbelr scope wllen viewing internacional organizadons Feminis[ wJiters ruave given Vltike to whac i5 after aH tbe scmi-sileut majoric) in rhe world and Ilre ouly srarting in qnest10niug the male dOmimiddot nance nuacutet iexclusr of the nmning of IGOs huc aloo of theic agenda Tite post-modemisrs are iMlSr concerned oiacute he (bree 8rOUp5 with inretnationlll organiucioru as such bllr rIacuteleic intellecrual approach is the ffiOSt tadkal aud can lelld tuuml a fnon of nihilism
GltJbaliacutesf lIiu
A gIobalisr perspective does oor viacuteew world poliacutetica as being predomishynandl arout iotergovernmemal relatlnn~ Ili would realisu or illbour inrentare aruI imersocietal rdations as a number uf reformisu llliexclll consider lnsteaacuted it cakes a more holisdc view Problems are (cmfronred ac Ji global level wlurions have tO be sou8ht here as weil This iexcls not ro neglcct (he 10tal Ol rhe ~tlte level ir is more J recognilion of the limiutshydoos of acdviuumles rhere The world-vicw like rhe reformists places empllasu on whal unIacutetes people Ilnd has lirde time for lhe demaoos of power pouumlics aad stare-cemrir orglLuiwrjollS Ir goe~ fllrther by nor
1 V WNimgJ lJ7f tIfernattmiexcliexclJ 11fK4111141tOnJ
liminog in view eirhec ro pans of che world or ro rellltions berweeo particuJar poliric~ lr ioded jlLSr m the economic social and poJitical demaods of mankind Paradoxically ir can be seen as IIn approach rhe very OppoSllC of the fimctionalist wirb whom tbere 5 much io common In nmtrast lO rhe fnnctionaHst (or neo-fllnctiooalisr or intetclependeuce srhuul) and ccrrainly in contrast ro rhe powet politks aOO MaOIacuteIt writers (be whole world approach places emphasis not 00 the discrere r~uiexclreshymems of groups SClteiexcl or individulI1s bm 00 tbe wel1-bciog of the tCOsystem in which rhf5f funnioll cbe planet Eanh The conccen of chis apptoach which is rcflccted il] in ttcumeUr of illternational urganizatiom is for the survival of lhe plunet for its effident funccioning in its widest SeILie aud fot che survival oiacute rhe myriad oiacute speoacutees - ollly one of which is homo sapiens - tbat inhabh me globe
Sinle tbe 196Os a number of wtiters on imernational affairs have expounded 00 tbis view and llave cOl1l~uendy ronsideted the implicadons for intemational organizacions Jobfl Button in bis World Society ronsldeted iflmstatt relations to be onIy a pan of wodd poli[iacutea and wrore
lf we employ rhe term world rociety imiexclreui of internanofla relarions iIacute we apptoo(h OUt study in this global way insread of the more tradi~ lonal nattonal way we will end to have a wider focos ro ask quesrions rhat are moee fundlmenral aOO imponant lO civilization and be ahle ro assess bettet me relevance of om own national bduviour ro be wider worW envifonment
(Button 1972 21)
Rkhacd Stetling posed the problem more spedfically
Nuclear esCllatiofl the popullltion explosion the pollmiofl of tbe envishyronmcnt the communkations rtvolurion rbe world~wide concentNdon of wC1llch and world~wide expansiofl of pltlvcrty are iexcliexcl11 essemially global and not 1laquo al pbellomena They have given rise jn tutn ro eartbshyspamuacutellg and revolutionary demands ror mass education rnass hesltb malts welfure and maltgts participation in che dccisions affecting roans fare
(Srerling 1974 322)
This wodd-view of rhe problems of the s)Jaceamphip EQlth begged fur global oolutlofl$ It suggcsred iexclhu not onIy iJ the system of sovereign stares as yer unable oc unwiHing to COme to grips with the above-menuontd prohlelUS but that a network of llllergoVCtn1lental organiutlom bGsed 00 me rights of statc wVfretgnt will ~lso be hammllng Globtl problems needed global solutlons based on institutinos rhat can (ake a global petsplaquoshytive Thus Sterling considetecl thllt it ~ tlOt unreasooable (O amidpate tme tbe member stares will be moved ro considft equippifllil the Unitw Nttous witb mote crunprebensive powen 1lt global pressUfes build 0974 323)
~h~ laquoo ~gt~ _- -gt bullbull (_bullbullbull __ - bullbull
A more compeluumlng cdH wus lAltiexclued by Barban Ward and Rene Dubas in their book prepared for [he UN Gmference of ehe Humafl EnVJroJlmenl 01lly UIIt EaFlh The c~ altJ Mdilllt1JatfCe (JI d Sflall Pta~t (972) 111ey stremsed the ufliry of tbe Eanh Jnd in eovironment and the )Jroblems in(ed by Jts iohabitants emntially thost oudined by SterJiog The ~uthoflgt poillted OUt rhat rhF envitonmenral qmosrion had by 1972 already had 50me impaltl on guvernments and im(rnarional organl1Jtion but the effior was somewhat ltInJOrdinated and unfocuseL In (hree particular aren - tbe global atmosphere rhe oceaml the worlds weather sysrellU - tbt-y saw [bl jmmediate neOO for (OmInOn poliey und co-ocdinared actiollS where vcerenshysions to national sovercigmy have no relevance ro ptrreived problems Bu rbefe was a need to go furrher and denl wirh other global problems di5Case srarvation iHitmcy unemployrnem ovcfllwding rntetnational poliCJcs wece at the 5tage reachOO wlrhin rhe devdoping s[ate~ of the ninettTtb (entury Elche they wiU move O to a wmmIlJlity bL~ro UiexclXIIl a more systematic sharin8 of weaJtb Ot tbey wiH break down in revoh and anareby (Wacd and Dubos 1972 295- -6) They Looked forward ro a sense of gLobal rommuniry 00seJ on he bope vf Irotecdon (from war aOO disaster) and the hope of enhancemenr (ecologic$1 as well as economid The ptlKtic~ and insrirutlofiS with whkh we are familiar inide our domestk sociecies would become suitably modlfied che basis of planetary oroer (Ward aOO Dubos 1972 297-8) This woold indude non~violent settlement of disputes witb legal arbirration ~nd polioacuteng ptocedures on an international basis jr would mea the Hansfer uf resoucces from rkh ro peor Ilnd inerCllSlaquo co-operaeion in arealt 5uch as health and edUcatIO farming uroon planning aud )JOlJution control As [befe halt been a shift of loyalty rom taroliy to dan from dan to tlation and from nation to fedctation there Wampll
hope clajmoo Wl1fd and Dubo$ for an ultimare lnyalty tuacute OUt single beau~ tifulllud vulnerable Planet Eanh (Ward and Dubas 1972 298)
Whilst the institutiona fmmework and organizational stfllCtuteS remain of necenity -ague in Oltl OM EaFtA iacutet is del( rhat the authors Wfre atming 11( a tlttwork oiacute world-wide fflnctionaUy hased organlzatiofll (both lOOs and JNGOs) char couId take on much of the work )JfCsendy done by governshymems o( rather whkh ougbt [O be dont by governmems UacuteJter writing-s have attempted (O deal wjth thc policy impliration$ of delllJng with )JrobshyJems globdly sroos (986) has poiacutenred en what 1w already been achieved in gtobal problem solving l1nd ha~ soughr ro buHd on rhis His critio have prunted out tha( what has already becn undertiacutelken has bren done more along rradicional Jntergovernmentallines (Donnelly 1990 121-30) Orbe writen have tied rubievemen[ in addressiacuteng [he global agenda more to renewed rutiviry in the UN (Rochester 1990 141-54) or to greater grass~ roots aud INOO acriviSffi Wget 1990 155-~8) Either way globaJj~m offeacuters a distinct W1ly of rackling the worlds ptublem~ It 1$ u ViIOIl thar sttesiexcles uniey and common (am( ntthet than disasreemem and roofrontashytion ir (ould thereIacuteore (oresce disputes being sruved inlernationally vety
much in (he way tbar chey are pre~ndy solvcd within tunny MtiOO iexclrares by more ro arbitratwn and Jaw and by entorcemenf ir neteS$il1) In this rhey have muh in COIDfllOfi wirh tire imerrnuiona lawyers iacuteUld idenlist writer of me eady (wenuacuteeh eemury mentioned at the beginning of tbu chaptet The globalisn are inspirecl jn rheir thinking more by ten Ot lt nudeal holocatlsr and by environmenml breakdown tnan by rhe duumleet elrpeshytieme uf wa dlllf aiacutefected rhe wricings of Woolf ol Ikierly
TIacutete globalisl appro~(h is opert ro the criticism of bcing roo idealistk jn a cynical world and lOO iIDpracrical in in uacutelstitutional sU8scsrioll5 Bur the di$mi$Slil oC rh~ words as globaloney cKleS HOt lid lite wctld oC che probw lems which hey have 50 effectively publiacutedzed They lutve uied to add anorIte dimensioacuten ro whar is possibte by showlng thar ie is nOCeSSiexcllty fOl rhe iexclurviwl of che planee
Tlle radical approach to the smdy oC iOternational orgllnizarions reflocu worIdmiddotvitws that normaUy lO beyond -dmse Jominated by rhe ltctivities of iexcltatcs or of LIte organizltuumlnns chemselves There is a sceprical view of whut is happeoing al soy one uacuteme in imernarional celarions and of he abilicy of mOfe cradicional wcifecs on imernafional cdarions ro explain let aJone llOderstand what is happeoing Ir is the feeling rhar approaches such ll1 (he MaNisr tlwt of rhe ideal theorisrs and some of rhe globuli~rs ur~ coming cber (O uodemaoding humanicys wider dilemmas rhar makes rhero so amactive They ar~ less Iikdy co apply rhemselves to rhe defais rutd wnrk~ ings oiacute p$cdcular imernatinnaJ organizations but neverrheless providt iotriguiog insighrs 00 [his phenomenoo by seeing rhem rhrollgh mol panoprk phHosophical lenses
SUMMARY
The rhree flIajor $chuols dealr wich io chis chaprer - the tcatiacuten the reformisrs iacutei1d che radical$ and rhe variarions (bey contain did not and do tlOf exJn iexcln a hiSforlcaj vacnum lde-as Wele foffilulared wirhio lhe COnten oiacute panicular sodedcs uoo in response ltO pUticular problems rbe communl (adom reYoludon of fhe nineteemb century the Finr World Wlli rhe rise of Nui Germany the spreading of nudeu weapons the deve1opmeof of plthitshy
$econd Workl War Europe fbe pnxeues of decoloniwion and deacuteteme rhe end oiacute the Cold War and rhe advaoce oiacute che inCormatton revolution In sorne CilSC$ the views oiacute rhose wdtings on inttmiddotrnational ocganUatlOHS have liad un efiecr on evenrs rhemelves pirlKulatly 00 rbe actitudes oC govetnrnents mwards tnternatiorW orgdflixauons AIl tXample is the work oC LecnarJ Woolf woose suggesnons Ctmceming a world organizatloo conttibuted lO fhe detailed preparnion oC the Lague oC Nations by me British goveltr mene Likewise Hans Morgeruhau and EK Can provided seimuli fot infiiexclrmoo US and Btirish governmcllul rhinking abom inrerruuional rela~ tiom iexclrom the 194Ck onwards In mher cases rhe general writings cJ persons lgtuch as Marx Leoin Mao Tse-tung and che dependencia school have affecred
rhe poJirk1ll dimare wirhin which govemmcncs conduce rheJe poUcy iucluding thar wwards jnternaclorull otgauj~atjon$
Orber ruCfOf$ aplft froro their historial cuntexc Iuve affencd the views of rhe schunl$ rncntioned They have differint backgtounJs io cheit ideruogy (Wesrero commllniSf Third World radical environmenralisr) and in theit level of $nalysis of inrernarional rebtions (stare Centuacutec inretesr aoo rramna~ dona groups cLitraquo dominanr global) This a(icca the typC oC inrernatiacuteonal organizariacuteon dominam io their studies (IGOs INCo) auJ thcic 8eograph~ kai $rea of interest (the Nonh Adandc Europe ThinJ WodJ Ot global)
TIte range of wcitings about intetnational organizarions has ull dte whole teflecfeJ wiJec llooersundings of imetoational ceJarions and wuumltld polidcs These io rhernselves have fed 00 tbe gtVidc iacutellccUecmal fcnnent and on developrnenrs in world affiuacuters Viewl about iacutellteftlational ocgsnizatJoos wiU continue ro take accOlnt of the ince1leeruaJ debate ill the studjes oiacute polishydes internacional re1atioO$ philosophy ecooomics imematluacutellal uw sociology histoty and geogrilphy They will also reflecto among other ampcton che stntcegk balance in tbe world [he relafIacuteve power of tiJe United Stares aod oroer nares me scate of wotld markers [be pto-ess uf Euwpeiexcliexcln tlllegrashytion che relacive positloo of the developing warIdgt iexclbe levd of cootlicc througbolc the world fhe -ratC of dte environfneot and the ahility oiacute huge StatCS to wiacutethswnd cenrrifttgal force Tbe way tIacuteult imematiornal organiuiexclshydons ret1ect tbese developrnents and tIacuteleir t1Ipability lO deal wich some of them will provide (he tllW fiWifcrial foc funue smdies
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Yamplt~ ~ hllmulirlffttl oggtlIirti~ru [he journilIacute 01 tbe Bnmel5-baed UIA iexclhat
fu more thllfl 50 jfltfl hu rountoo d ~iljfil and wdHen bollf inretnuiacuteo-iexcl
WSnintloos
~middot_iacuteli4IJ
Nltgtl~ plau rutpJI bdQtt 111 elgt lilerutr-~ aomna Ihm AlI iexclttt Wfe ~ 26
JIIIIry 2001
This rhaplct is by no means a compreherwivc survey of the literature ir is bound t() he selecrive not JUSI because a full aceOunt wnuld be indigesdblr for rhr reader but aISO bccause of the lirnitations on rhe author Thiacutes mealU that materiill is dmwn from that originally wdtten in the majoI European langnages wieh English and American literature domlmmt It does M(
mean that matetial written in other languages 1s oiacute lirde value dearly this is nor che case Becaust cf (he intetnati()nal uarure of tne politiacuteciexclJ sc1ence cornmunity imponant contributmos originalJy written in say Romanian or Chille~e will rmrrnaUy filter through wirl ttamlat10n iexclnto English or une of the orher European anguages Desplte tbis probahility thc readec sh~iexclld note (har linguistiy(onuraims fhe fWWrt of publishing ond what mlghr be called the eultU1iquest imperialism of che Iluropean IInd Nonh American lit aU mean that ideas foom rhe Third Wodd 6ght an uphill barde lO be wideIy dissernioMeO iu prior Sn tbis chapee is boUlld tuacute have a buih-in cultural ru(i$ however rareful the author may wve becn
REJIJSTS
Realist virwl of iorernational organiutiacuteons ronsider them to be pan of the iostirurionalil-ed te1ariouship between srares and govemmenu ibey have a state-crntric view tlf the polirical world and llave lirrle Interes io lNGOs Thclr maio concern is how imemaciooal telariorm can heS be man~
~ ~_ W~ __ bull ___ _ ~(gt __ _
ruher than how tbe syiexcltem may be reformea or improved A good SUInmuy of realiexclst wriretS is roo [hey Me in COrnmon shareQ assumptions aOOut the primacy of sures as inrernadooal oceoa the separauumlon of donwtic ami iacutemernational poIltics and who describe che laner in terms of ananhy Md a conCOmltanr lbiquiroUi srruggle foc power and securiexclry (Guacute[firhiexcl 1992 21 n extooob rend ro refer back ro (he wridngs of Thllcydides in Anoacuteenr Greece Machiavelli in medieval haly and Thomas HobbeJl living through (he sevemecnth century English civil war - all thtee wriring ln times of tutmoil and srrife - a~ express]ng the basic wiexcl~dom of Realisr thoUSht (Jaebon and S~renkn 1999 70-6 Viotti and Kaupiexcl 1999 57-60) In (he mooern era che tndJtional realiu writers Iacuteti1ve iexclliso reflected ttoubled time1i
Tbe ttruliJitmtJ realiSlJ
These WTirers had thetr Intdllaquo(ual rones in the 1930s the Second World War ami (he Cold War and are somerimes known as che powe~ polirks schoill lhey are represeoted tere by RH Can and Genrg Schwar~enberger jo Brirato aoo by Reinhold Niebuhr and Hans Morgenrhau in (he USA Therr srardng poinr was rhe exi5cence of che prC$ent state sysrem in which there is no common authotity over and ahoye fhe sovereign starc aOO where rhere is international anarchy io me senrre of a lack of govcrnmem iexcllr he internadorud leve JU $tared (his viewpoim has conrequeoces for rheiJ appreciation of the role oiacute inrernational organizatiom in intentare relations
EH (aHS wiexclitings reflect (he disiHusionment with che League of Narions in the 1930s over in - m rather irs members failute tO prevenr (he invll510ns of AbyJiexclsinia (Ethiopia) and Manchuria arnI wirh the conquesrs ~ the Nazi and t3sltisr srares iexcln Eutope He oonidcred that it was misguided ro suppost (hu a more rntional ana mote moral mocle of cQnducring inremate telarioos such as by Ulit of rile League aud [he PCIJ would necessarJIy have 1ed w a more Stlrisfactory world order e~ptcjiexclally if it were nor baselt on tite tealities oE existing power darionllhips 1he League aod (he strUCture it purported ro ~Iphold was only ti srrong as thOtt cnuoshycries willing O mppott it JU the mos powetful Lcaguc supponets (Fmoce and rhe IJnitelt Kingdom) found iexclln jncreasing numbee of States (Gennany Japan ltaly) rllngN agaiacutenst rhe wgue sySten1 aoo as the USA mi he USSR wefe eirher llnwilling or unavailable ro help Brirajn tlnd Fmocc cQmpromised their Sllppolaquo uf tbe u-ague ro keep he woIves from lheiacuter owo doon Indeed Catr was prepered ro support such policiC as che Munieb Agreemem oE Sepremlxt 1938 (lIt whkh Aricain and Femec effecshytive1y handecl over CzechOlil0vakia lO Hiclers Germany) as the neofesr llpproacb jo recent yeats ro (he scrdemem of 11 major inrernational iS$ue by II pfOCeoure of peace(ul change and as a recognirion of the preponderance oE frerman powef in cenuaJ Ellcope (Cac[ 1939 282) Furthecroore he condllded cbat [bcre were two major shoctcomings in imernatioual
moraliry a moraliry on which the Leaaue of Natious WIlS supposedly based Firsr rhere was discdmination in the internlltional cQromunicy between rhe way in which the cases oE cerrain mumries were rreatelt Jbere was fert cxample a differem anirude by the British IInd French governments [ti
Greelte (Ir Abyssinia being aeflaquokecl rhe former was unruceptable the lauee case (lnly regrettable Second there was rhe tailure ro secure general accepshyronce of [he posrulare chu che gond of (he whole taus precedence OVtf rhe good of che parr (Cacr 1946 166) Wichout such accepmnces ir WIlS hara ro imagine an organizatiun sach as the Lcaguc worklng unless iexclf were based un (he oVtlWhe1ming predomJnlilflCc oC power of JU suppotters Carrs ecophtiiiexcl un powcr does not mean thar he iettisoned che role ufmorality io iOternacimw atTain He recommended a judiciou5 blend of morality and power though comparerl with the natiooal arder in the intetnational order rhe role of power 1S grearer and tha[ of momlity te5s (Carr 1946 168) Indeed Knutsen (1992 268) considers wirh much jusrificariCfn that Carr was not a realise but draws upon the ROt15seaucan tradidon uf 5UCiiacutell thoughr and gives a dialecdcal accounr oE rhe evfliution oiacute ImernadonaJ Re1arions Though chis may be so his wrirings reflC(( much tealiu moughr of lhe inter-war perlad
The ffilljor work of Georg Schwarrenbefgcr PMPtr PoIiJia (1941) aOO took dw failure of the leaguc aud rhe inrerwar system as a pOint uf depar~ tute On the questiou of coUectivt secunty rhe rock f)1l which the Lengue of Nadoos was built Schwarzeoberger remarked referring tO hilattru pacrs uE mutual assisuncc
The Vtry nero fQr [[eafieN uE rhis $on ptoved char League members eirhet assumed that che s~tcm of [he Covenant wouLd be inadequatc inopcrative ur [QQ slow ro be of use or that the omer members u ehe League would nor honour rheir obligatiolS under che Covenanr 1hus hey offeacuter the most opeo refuwrion thar can be imagjnecl of the solutiou enviuged by the drafcers of che CovenaQt in a world imbucd with century~otd uaditions ofpuacuteWer pelitieso
(Schwanenberget 1941 152)
Dunng the latter pan of che 19Kls ~UppotteN of che League had turned their imeresr from the central quesdon of peace aoo securuumly to rhe more petipheral aras of dIiquest( erooomic and social adviries of che League and (lE agencies such as (he ILO Such iexcliexcln intere is show~ Lord Cecil in che conclllsiexclon ro his autobiography publish~ in (he same year as Schwarzenbergers book Schwarzenbetger was nar convincelt by the fuieh placed in such functionallirucs
Organizadf)Jl$ of a telthoical commerdal ami profC$iional kiMgt such Il$
dlf Imemadonal Postal Unjan (he Raok of lnterrunional SetrIemenn wrute slave conrrol oc dre lntetparWtcoetlott) Union ate within a sysrem
118 Witi1lgr 011 le1IIJuumlmalllrFa1lizatiOlu
of power polities limieed ro cbat sphere of internadonal reladons whieh is irrelevant from rhe standpoinr ofhigh politics
(Schwarzenberger 1941 388)
Writing dnring uncertain times Schwarzenberger was not aiming to adopr a merely negative srance Indeed he desired inrernational relations to be based on a community spirir and founded on the rule of law bur he thought rhat norhing was more dangerous to chis objffrive than che belief ehae half~way houses like che League of Nacions or limiced plans roe economie co-opemtion are adequate ro bring aboue chis vital tmn5formation (Schwarzenberger 1941 11) Internacional order and the rule oflaw in intershystace relations presupposed national communicies based on justiee freedom trurh and love Christian virmes ro which Schwarzenberger recommended We5tern smres return (Schwarzenberger 1941 434)
A strong Christian element is also to be found in he works of the American wricer Reinhold Niebuhr who nevercheless is ro be counted amongst rhe realist school Niebuhr contrasted growth in mans technical achievement with the lack of advance in politieal areas
Oue problem is thar rechnies have esmblished a rudimentary world community bur have not imegmred it organically momlly oc polidcally They have created a community of mutual dependence but not one of mutual trust and respecto
(Niebuhr 1948 379)
Niebuhr examined the case fur world government nodng cbat almosr all the arguments for it reseed on the presupposition that che desirabiliry of world order proves rhe actainabiliry of world government (Niebuhr 1948 380) He identified lWO faulrs which undermined arguments fur world government governments are not creared by fiar but need a communiry for rheie base and governments bave only limiced efficacy in integrating a communiey (Niebuhr 1948 380) Given the absence of such a communiry of interest in the world Niebuhr preferred che imperfffdons of the Chatter of che Unired Nations ro an internarional organization ehat would attempr world federation bur would accomplish something a lot less specraculat However he did nore thar the internacional cornmuniry i5 not tocally lacking in social rissue (Niebuhr 1948 386) He listed ffonomic incerdependence fear of mutual annihiladon and moral obligarion as unifying factors in the modern world Pitted against rhese were rhe economic disparities in rhe world rhe negarive effect of fear of destruccion and rhe lack of common convicrions on panicular issues in shon rhe forces which are operaring to integrare rhe world communiry are limired (Niebuhr 1948 388) Wriring during rhe inicial nighr-frost of the Cold War he rempered his realisrie view of the world wirh an apprffiation rhar satisfacdon with che Starus quo is in itself dangerous we mighr also gradually esrablish a genuine sense of
nllTll5J 1 17~~(Jt Off 15= ~ I 7
communiry with oue fue however small No marrer how stubbornly we resisr Russian pressures we should still have a marginal sense of communiry with rhe Sovier Union (Niebuhr 1948 388) For this reason Niebuhr placed emphasis on international organizations such as rhe UN nor 3l being nascent world government but in the Securiry Council as being a bridge of a sort between the segments of a divided world (Niebuhr 1948 382) The Chrisrian Niebuhr recognized rhat whilst individuals may be moral [he morairy of groups i5 much inferior ir may be possible though it is never easy ro esrablish JUSt relarions between individnals within a group purely by moral and rational suasion and accommodation In inrer-group relations this is practicalIy an impossibiliry (Niebuhr 1936 xxii-xxiii) Mankind mighr dream of peace and brorherhoexl but has to content itself with a more modesr goal a sociery in which cbere will be enollgh justice and in which coercion will be sufficiently non-violenr ro prevenr his common eoteeprise from issuing ioto complete disaster (Niebuhr 1936 22)
Perhaps the most famous member of the fower polirics or realist school is Hans Morgenthau author of the classic PolifiCJ am01lg Natos (Moegenrhall 1960) Hrst published in 1948 Morgenthau was a German-boro internashycional lawyer who emigrated in 1937 ro rbe Unired Scates where his post-war work had a deep influence on ioternational relations thinking and peactice Alchough he did nor specificaUy dfore any book to the problems of internacional organizadons his works were so broad as ro envelop the general problems of relations between sraee5 and rhe specific questions of intersmre organjzarions TIte rhree major elements that typify Morgenrhaus writings (and the realist school generally) are
bull the beliefs thar nation srates are rhe mosr importanr actors in internashyrional relarions
bull rhar rbere is a clear disrinction between domestic and international polities bull and that international relariacuteons i5 predominanrly about the struggle fue
power and peace (Vasquez 1979 211)
These basic tenets are reflected in Morgemhaus ereatment of jnterna~ rional organizations which are seen purely as interstate institutions importam in so far as chey are wed in the search for power oc in solving the problem ofpeace
A crucial senrence in PoitiCJ amog NafiJls poims to a central idea io Morgenthaus work The main signposc thar helps polirical realism to find irs way through the landscape of internacional poliries i5 the concepr of interest defined in terms of power (Morgenthau 1960 5) Thns Internacional policics like aU polities is a struggle foe power (Morgenthau 1960 27) and When we speak of power we mean mans control over the minds and acrions of orher men (Morgenrhau 1960 28) Furthermore AH politics domesric and internacional reveals [hree basic patterns rhat is aH
J LU wrwlIgiexcl M IIfffl1l4r1MdJ arga1lIZiJU01Ji
policical phenomena can be reduced ro one of duee ~ic rype5 A political pollcy seeks eithet 00 keep power ro Jnireot power Uf tu demonsrrare power (Motgeruhau 1960 39) These policies are seen in rhree forros (he pnlirics of status 100 (he politics of impedalirn and che polides of prestiA-c Moqiexclenmau then eVMUamptcJ narional power and timitlltlons on ir in the fuClll of balance of power intemarional mornlity and world public opillion and inremarional law He considered world politics in rhe mid-rwemieth century and rhe problem of peace He examined attemprs ro ob1lliin peare rhroacuteuiexcliexclh limicatJon (diwrmamenr collective seeudty judicial settlemeru peaceful change inrermuionaJ governmem) through ttansfOrmarion (inw drber 11 world Hace Ol a wodol commnnity) aM tbrough m-ommodatien by dip1omacy In rus wmk Morgemhau tewhcd en rhe role of intemationaJ organizatlmu ellpeciaHy in rus senioos en imecnadonal law on peace rhrough limitatton aud on wodd communit)
Morgemruw sttessed rbotr OH rhe bauacutes of inccmadonallaw there has been builr au impostng edifice consisring of tltousands of wadcs huodreds of deuumlsions uf intetmriou~l rrlbunals and innumentble dedsions of domestic roUtlS 1besc lcgulared relatIacuteom between stares arose from
the mulriplicity aud VliriC[) of incernllrional (omans which are tbe rewlr of modern communiauioos internat100al exchange of goods and secvkes and the greur numbtr of Internarional Otganiutiacuteons 10 whicb lOOSt
nadmUi have co-operated for rhe furrherarue ef their commou intereso (MOfgentluu 1960 277)
Whilst mosr internatlww1 UacutetW has been respettccl Moxgemhau rcmarked dIar when miel are vielatetl tbey are fiot 1I1ways cnrooced and rhat even wheo enfonement is uudel~n ir 1s nor alway~ roccrjve Memioning [he Briand-KeHogg Pace the Coveoant of the League of Nations al1d rhe UN Charter he comidered that
fhese inmuments are iexclndeed of doubrhll efficacy laquo(har is [bey are frequendy violared) and lomerimes even of doubtful validity (rhat IS they are ofren oot emorced in case of violation) fhey are bowever flOr typical of [he tradicional rules of imernarjonallaw
MOfgeoduu 1960 277)
lo the sectioo en ioternauacuteooal govemmem Morgeotlmu nored th$r since (he sean of tbe nintteenrh cen(ucy tlich of rbe lIuee wor1d wars (lhe Napoleonilt War tbe Fim anO Second World WaN) hud betn foUowed by an attempr ro euabJisb imernatlona1 governmem ~he Hoiy AlIiance lhe League oC Natiacuteoos aud che United Nations TIle ritn tWO arremprs rouodered becawe uf rhe varied interesrs of stales iBvolved in particular because of disagreemems abour tbe snlfUS qoo lhey wete sUPfll$ed tu be Sllpporting According (() Morgembllu
-rmgJ M Itrernana41 fI1ganlla1t)1tJ 1 Lo 1
cont1iexclu betwccn lIJe Btitish aod French conceprioru and polides did not howcver wreck (he Leugue of Nadons as rhe coufHcc brrween Great Brirajn llnd Ruuia hud the HoIy AlIianee Ir racher led ro a creepiug paralysis in the polirkaJ acfivitJ($ of elle Leugue and ro lu inahiUry ro take determined ardon iexcliexclgail1llc rhrears ro iocetlational ordet aud peare
(Morgenthau 1960 469)
The League coold oruy be iexcld te bave tXerdsed goverumerml functioos tU the 3tt$ of che maififeoanoe of illcernational order and peace in the tIltc
insNlnlaquo$ when eicher he interests of dte grear powers among in members were not affected or tbe common interests of the most influentiacuteal amonA rberu seemed ro requite ir (Motgenrhnu 1960 471)
The United Nadons was also seen by Morgenthau as ~ing based bn
unsure foundations bur fur a differenr rCJSon than for [he League after the Seltond World War [he vicrorious powers first created MI inrernacional governmenr for rhe purpose of IDaiacutencallling tbe srarus quo and alter tbat proposcd to agree upon me status quo However Since such aglaquoement has never existed during rhe Jife pan of tbe Uuited Nations rhe interruuJonal government of [he United NorioM as envisiged by the Citarter has temaiacutened a dltM Imer (Morgenthau 1960 493-4) He teterred lO a pantlysed Selturuuml) Council wirh che GtnetiUacute AssembIy and Secrtaiacutery-General of [be UN borh displayiog weakness (Morgenthan 10 492-3) and wirh tbe whole orguni~ utten acbltving liule rnough (Morgentbau 19tiO 496) Iu his view
The comribmion the Unind Nntiolls can make ro [he preservadon of peace then would lie tr1 fIlking advaotage (lf the oppormniry (hat (be coexisleuce of [he two bloc$ in the same inremariorual organizadon provides iexcl(Ir che unobrmsiexclve resumption of the techniques of tmditional dipJomacy
(MOlgenthau 196) 497)
In enminlng tite possibility of creadng a world community based on a t1lfl8t of iutematlonal organizations such as UNESCO and che ruhet spedaJ~ iud agencies Mursenrhau made he poinr [hae rhe creation of $uch a romrnuniry presupposes al least he mitigacion ampnd minlmiziltlOH cf iuter~ narional conflku so (ruu the interesu UOJrlug membus of different natlOIlS may outweigh me inrerests reparnting tbem (MotAcnchau 1960 536) On rhe UN agencies Morgemhliu (oruidered thar
che comriblltions imerna[Jonal functiOflll agencies make ro he weHmiddot bring of members- of all natious frule lnto tbe background Wh$t Irands brfore the eyes of alI IUC (he immense polixka conflicrs (ha divide tbe great oariollS of the Eanh and dUCQren he welJ-being of rhe- loser if not his very exisrelle
(Morgenrhau 1960 528)
122 Writings Q11 ifftmlailJltdlorganiza1om
In summary Hans MOfgentbau accepted chile inrernationaI orgllniexcllAtAacuteons have a place in intematinnal re1ations dlOUgb he was cardUl not ro QW1tate eheie imJXIrrance in [he match foe powet and peace in rbe worId He SltlW rbei comribution as beinp moJes (lf)(j as part of de geueral intercou~e hetween sraces and [heie gt1vernmcnts and be rve no real consideration ro internashyrional non-governmental oeganizations iexcliexclurthermore funcriacuteonalin(ernational organizacions whibt teCognited as bcing useful were nor given any pardcshyula role in snlvin~ the probkm of peaee Hven the Unired Natiacuteon~ WJ~ only given credence In dlis context as tbe new serring foc the old tethnic-iexclues uf diplomacy Morgenthau 1960 497)
TIte real1sr or po_r polirics schools view of inrernational orgMization is Open ro (hree truljoc (fiLieiuDS Ficst ir could be dairned rhar froro a moral viewpoim he power politks SdlOOl is gready lacking as il accepts too tasily the status que iu intern3tional politics and does nm allow iuternacional organizacions a posirive role io oeating a better wodd Howevct this js to fOrger chat in the writings of a number of cbe realisc schoo - Carr Schwanenberger 300 Niebuht - dlEtC Js a moral and oflen Christian 1lSpecL Hans Morgentltau WIllI use as CQuterned with the moral aspecrs of polidcs as were his contemporuies who rejtftoo the power politics prKepts The deptb of his concern can be sceo in his buok Tnh rmd Pouer Emraquo JI a DttttJe 1960-70 (Morgentltau 1910)
Second tbe whole tealisr school rypified by rhe works of Morgcuthao can be challenged exactIy 00 its major daim name1y Jts teiexcl1Ilism To what extent does (he $chool ofCet a useful descripdon and explanation of lnterna~ uonal reladens Valtiexclquez (979) has oudined how internacional relations anides published pnor to 1970 were dominated by rbe re-tlist paradigm yet their bYPQtbescs provtd 00 he inacrumie and even dld less weU than oonshyreglist h)pQrheses in tbeic prtdictive power Such findiogs tend to undermine me sneogth of wbat has becn the dominam internarional relashytions scboal in Western llCIldemia and suggest that alternadve paradigms shyfoc example tbe Maolsr aud me trnnsnadonal - shtuld be glven more tlme aOO comideratlon This questiOlling of tbe power pOlitkgt schoos work mus then libio mise doubts abonr their rathel dismissive rreatment oE iotemashytional organiwtlons as oong marginal in intemational reJatiQflS
Indeed OOe of the major uiticisms of me chools rceatrnenr of 10laquot011shydonal orgliohiexclitioru bas beelJ iu emphasis 00 high pJiicics tbe qUt5tlOO of peace and Wiexclir 00 che ncglen of low politics SlKh as economk cechnlcal and cultural relatioos lnrern9tionlil organizarioos are secn juSt as iustrushyrnents of policy fur lItates inrernational non-gQvernmental urgaulzarions are hardly oon~iexcldered Nowadays a neglect of econoroiiexcl relatioos and lNGOs seems atl eveu greatet Qmission
lo deenee of his acritudlt it should be rernemhered that most of lhe power polirics wridngs occurred before he ma$$ive exparuioo oiacute lNGOs froro the 1960s onW1llrds The scbool is roorecl in tbe reaction to rbe infir~ micy uf tbe Western democmcies when faeed by Hitler and Mwsolini in lite
WitaacuteKl O iJlt1tatioflal organiUiexclfiqm 123
1930s and i[ found its feet in tbe immooiare fIIl1r- war Cold Wac periodo Ir is riterclOre undentandable cbal ir stces~ high puliexcltic~ and is andpathcrk (O
inrernarional otganiutions wbich were Ken tu be conrtec(ed with [he discredited League oiacute Natiacuteons 4nd 1u inteUeaual sllpporten O wim the original intemioos of rbe United NatlooS bcore these were sulernatecl by Grei1( Power dmension
Neo-naIacutells
TIle Output of me realim tlagged in chc 1970s rogerher witb [he giobtll power of the United States aOO in the [ace 01 nCwapproache ltO the srudy of intemarional rdacions The neo~functiexcl()llalist and interdependencc braoches of refurrnisr approaches (sce nexr section) seemed tO have tuen iacutemu account rhe rise in uamnational non~stare elemenl5 in international relatiumr and rhe imponancc of economic factors in relaLlonS actoss internadonal frontien
By [he 19805 another brand of realinn - the neo-realim - had Jigcsted rhe ncw clcments in intcmattonal relllti)n~ and reasltiexclerted some mmiliar aspects Pcrhaps jn ralQrtIC to tbe reer~iexclon ro naditlonal seturiacutety thinking by the Reagan administtation in thr Unired States these authbrl tended ro stress the conflictnal nuure of jntemarional affuirs tbat this rnnfljet Wu prtmarily between nation iexcltates in the modern world and that power and security was a prime nmsiderarion in human morivafIacuteons (Gtlpin 1984 227) lhe new ciernent jo rheir writing is a manet of S(1l1 debate (Baldwjn 1993 Kegley 199 Keobane 1986amp) bu( rbey bad in common ti de~ire for more intellectual rigour in theit work [han eme of the old retlshyises a willingness ro deal wirh telltions in 11 wodd where US hegemony was in qllestioll and a pttparedness tu include econurnj( fumiddotton io tbeir cakulashydons
How then did the oeo-realisrs rccae imeroarjonal organizatioru 00 the wbole (bey vicwed [hero witb tbe same jaundiced eye as did Morgemhau Imernational QCRinhatiooll were SCen as instrumencs of atate policy at most COrnmoo lorurns Their role ns independenc actors in [he iuteroatinnal syttem was not somechiog thl1 most uf the neo-r~lisu readUy anepted lndeed [beir doyen Keuneth Walu furcefuUy reasserter the pn~idoo oiacute th sovereign Stolte in internarional poli rics
fO a theory that demal the central role oiacute states will be nttded fmir if non~tate KtOrs develoi ro me poim oiacute rivaJling or SllrpRUing che great pOWCfS nor just a iacuteew uf tle minot on~ Tbey sbow 00 ign ofdoiog diexcliexclu
(WaI I98Go 89)
Waltt like others such as Gilpin (1981) Wall nmcerned wirh intetnashytianal pnlitics srructured by rh uneven distributinn of pOWCl lnternational instiexcltuttoilS therefore ftflecred rhe realities of [bL~ ~iexcltuation aod rhe major intematinna organizarioo5 llorliexcl as cbe U uited Nations Ol rhe Bretton
124 Writings JIJ iflJm1UtirmalIilgJ1liza1iofll
Woods iostitudons conld be eXpampted lO bear he imprinr of rhe maln bege~ monic power (in t~e CtlSes rhe Uoitw Srores) lf rbey rrled m brmk away from duacutes snaicjacker ~ as dlrl rhe otueraI Asscmbly of (he uumlN in he 197)s - fhey would find dxemselves lgtide-rnlCked by tIUt power
Tbe neo-reaiJSts accepred [har hegemoni( JXlwer could aru1 woukl decline bm wCfC les$ abJe ro deal wuumlh he consequences of rhis decline 00 rhe srruc~ tllrt1i uf iuternari01lal reJatious How mishr [bey (induding iowtnadolUll orgBnizatlolls) change aCrer hegcmony lt was ro thiiacutel (udtion rbar Roben Keobane uddressea himself He firiexclt wmited ehar Realism is patdcu1arly weak in accoundng foc ehange espc(iiexclJly where rhe sources of that chanse he in rhe wodd JOlirical economy oc in rhe domesdc srructures of smtes (Keohanc 1986b 1)9) He then referred ro his own eadie wooo un mrnpln interuependence for iospiradon CKeohnlle 1986b 160) He saw rbe (d lo $upplemenr though nor replace JeltlliSf wricings wiexclrh theoeiEs and be sHtSSCJ rhe importance of smdying inrerruuional inslitu[ioru which in particular would oeal wirh the question of how co-operation can cake place io wotW polidcs without hegemony (Keohane 19A4 14) By the early 1990s Koohllne fOUM a synthesis in elle iosriturionalist argument thal oormws e1ement5 ftcm hoth liberalism and teiexcltlil111 (Keohane 1993 271) Thi assumed (har sutes were rhe principal Qaors in world politics and acrm in rheir own self-inrerests hoth traditional eenli~t tenen Reiative capahilides - how power weaith etc was distributed berween the various nares - was impotcunt and S(Rtt5 had m rely on rheir own jUrlQns ro ensure rehuive gatos fmm coopetatioo From the Jiberal side Krohanes insrirutiQruUacuteism borrows 11 greater empbasis un the role of inrernatiunal jfl$rlIIriacuteoru in changing COnceiexclllons oftdf-interese (Keohane 1993)
During [he period from about 1945 ro 196S iexclntetna[ional imuacuterutions werc shaped by [he prevaHing American hegcmony Keohane identified as a problem the ledme in reronrces dllll lIacutele tilliced States governmellr had beeo wiUing ro devore tU the roainreoance of chis system (especially tU economic a~pect) siacutence he mid-1960s As US hegemony dedined rhere would be sn increased need for intematiooal ftgtgimes - scrs of rules norms and insrimrions ~ so [hat states could rub aJong mgether Keohane saw the regimes lefr by American hegemooy as a good scanillg poinr for future coshyopecatiiexclO and thought thar [hese should be adapred tu roCCt [he needs of (he new sicuation (J 984 244~ 6) This woulo ar leas[ make co--operatioo possible provide information foc all abotlr pnlicies inteor1ons aoO VIllues and woutd creare a depeudabiUry in intemational relarioni (Keohane 1993 259)
Keohanes wOrk has bccn critiacutecized by che more staunch feO-realistl Joseph GriecO 0993 301-38) provided a compreheruivc refundon of Koohanes leanings ro a more liberal positioo and rherehy advances a classic sratement of neo-fcalist conceros He admirs bar iU$riacuterurionalism has made imponam cOfluiburioru ir lIDs shuwo bow the dflilrchicaJ SlfUCture of iexclntershynationaJ rdarioru has Cfillted the problem of chenins fo lmerruuional
wnlngs 1m nf1hJUQrlai O1ffdl1lzamJ1U 1)
cooperario1 Setond ie has focusm on how lnternatlonal instirutions help srares manage thar problem and les symptoms Thioo they have caused che neo~realistS 00 look more carefully ar rhe relarive gains problem ihis is (he case where states are less concerned wirh rhe absolure gailll than with theit gaios ser aside [hose of orher srares which are seen as porenriaL riVus In other words le is beuer to agree tO an ums contml Healy allowing yOlJf
iexclrare ro build duee extra missiles and youe 0l1JXiuent lO build two exrra missiles rhan tu tolerate a situatiou wbere you can build five more missiacuteleiexcl (a better absolute gajn titan rhe [hree) bU your rival cnn buHd iexclnen (they have a stronger relJirive 81ljn mmpued wirh the arms control iexclreiexcliexclty outcotne) FinaJly neo-tClllim have had (O re-assess cher views of rhe signifkauce of intetnatlonal instirucions in rhe sysrem
This view of inrernarionaJ irutirutions entompasres the oeo-rett1ist IJndersranding of (he role of imernarjonaI uumltganizatioos in the international ~ystem As mendonw he realins view thero as insftumenrs oC rhe sovereign litates Neo-reaJisc$ have rehued rhis undersrandiog by poruuying tbem as refleecias che hegemony of the mese J70wcrful membe1l They can airo provide forums wirh [he poremjJi1 to be SOmewhaacutet more efficient than trnditional diplomacy or iHeguLu mnferences though a danget comes wheo they try ro he ilCroCS in ffieir own right Tbe successol1 of rhe tradimiddot donal realius such as WaltZ (1979 70-U and Mcaubeimet (1990) saw rhe EUlOpean Uo1on ptedecessor che Europeall COrnmunities me) as flour~ ishing because of rhe bipolar diviolioo of Europe by rhe USA and he Soviet Unl00 dudng the Cold War The txpecrarion was fhar with rhe end of che Cold War the Be pooject wnuld nor advance bur rache sink ioro disuse T1lltlugh the EC fiued n nurnher nf c-rlses in rhe early 1990s ir dld transfotm irsetf iexclmo the EUnlpean Unjon (EU) wich ao Boonomk and Monetary Union (EMU) 11nd a Common Foreign and Security Poky Grieco (1993 331) expIained rhis in tetms of $tates mnstitnting rollaoorariacuteve rules for a commen interese with the wCllker stares reying to consrrucr rules rhnt aUow them effenive volee opportuniries to ameLiotate tbeir dOJrunation by srronger partners Tite weaket states - sueb as Bdgium Portugal ot even France in rhe EU - wefe trying ro bind cbe stmoger Gcrmany in his (middotIl-~e lmo a form of relationship that avoids dominatioIL Crlieco (l993 335) admirtetl thaL realism hll-~ JIDC offered aIl explaoarion fm che tendeo(y uf sram tu undcrrake their coopemrion rhrough iftrituriOJiexclaited instirutions
This chaUenge has buo taken by those who nave ioaeasingly sought tO
liacutenk a fiiexclidy reaJlsr uudetstanding of wodd polides with domestic pulirles in the lcadifl8 stace actors An tlCamplc 15 Joho Richarelss Study of che regulation of dte inremarinnnl vlatioo marken in which he daims tO
refine rhe ffalm understamUugs of power io iexclmernarional bargaining 0999 33 BasiOlUy uationaJ po1iriciexclan~ Ut$te and susmin International inuJtudons induding intefflaacuteuacuteonal nrganiacutezations ro maxlmise domesshyti poliriud advamuumlge ltRicharda 1999 9) His conrendnn is har
l-V H~giexcl iexcllJJ ltifffltIltlUImal lIfglaquonlMiffIU1fJ
internatIacuteonal iusti[U[ious wiH be created whcn they are politicaUy effishyoacuteenr (mat is inrrease eleuoral support) Cor natiooa poHticians (Richards 1999 3) Rithards rejeces a loHective goods approach tO intctrtatlomuacute iuscirmiollgt (such a~ that ofZacher and SumID 1996) that See$ such insti~ clltiom al cHrrecdng lhe working$ oiacute che market internuJonally antl rherefore produciug econQmic benefirs all n1l1Od However he alro tejelttS rhe hard realist approach that daims rhat instltl1tions including internashycional organizatium merely reOeltt the power tap4biHtles in rhe international system altiexcl in Kra~nermiddots statement mar srronger Haces have simply done what they hiexcllve plea~edmiddot 0991 337) Richard srill claims rhat international imtitutlons iexcllre the iacutenstroments of stateS Because $ueb inscirucions as the internationill organiradons (hat regulate mtetoational rravel definc property rights internatiacuteonal1y they alter che marketplace leaving gains for sorne and losscs fur others This beJng ro [he building of such iexclnstirutiollS inrernationally is oound lO trigger a fiexclerce domestic political batdc (Richardll 1999 9) Thus whac happens ro and in internashytional otganizadons can be usoo by domestk politkians ro maxiacutemize eheir OWIl dmnestic advanrage This is a view that may attrac( supporr within the Ulliacuteted Srarcs though may be less reSOllant in sorne of the smaller and weaker ~tales
A similar view hdu bcen takco by the liberal intergovernmcotalistll who havt examined the European Union (EU) Moravcsik (1993 1998) has pcimoo (raquoIr tbar governrncmal strtttegies withiacuten tbe SU havc becn domi~ naced by preferences and power Cooperatiun and integration wete rhus seen as usefu strateampies if tbey furtltered a governmenrs control over its domesric alfalrs and agenda Moravcsik rhm ste$ the EU as a succc5sful imecgovernshytnelUal regime desigued ti) manage (conomt intetdcpendence rhrough negotiated poticy ctM1tdinatioo (1993 474)
The neo-res1i$tS have becn auacked OH many ground~ not leaJIt fO provIacuteltilng no WVIoce on toe works of che old realuumlt ($Ce AshJcy 1984) Like their reatist predecessors (he predicdve powcr of rheir work hal betn dlUacutelenged particulady their inabiUty (O foreste the eod uf the OJld War tand oiacute the Suviet Union (Scholte 1993 8) Scholre also cuacutetlcizs fhem fur nO addressing global iexclssucs $uch as welfnre questiorn ano poUucfon thar domishynate the world uf rbe late tweorieth and eurly twenry~first cenruries This questioos rbe descnpttve ability oiacute the oeo-realisu tS what (hey descdbe an) more (C$isritmiddot tllan thett realiacutest predelaquoSSOrs They have on rhe wbole OOen as unintere$laquod M cheir predece$sms in rIacute1f ro1e of interoatinnal ofRaniurioos The main exceptlon undl the 1990s wu Robert KeltiexclIacutellilne whose earLier worb en intetdependence stcved hun well no rIacutelar Sfilre Evel hee the critidsm can be made rha his view is b41skaHy conservative and was concerncd iexcljede iexcleh the incerests of (he Thiacuterd World Sorne of rhe Wrltel1l no economic coopshyeratino and integrauon fU tlle 1990s a(cepted many ol the nco-realiu assumptiacuteons aoout natiQna1 UlrettU$ ln Illternatllmal o~iratlon The) bave brought 00 the OeM a more refmed vlew oE rhe relatioacuternhip between govern-
Wrltingr tffl inttntaJumal ~ruZaJlflf1 ti I
menn and inrernarional orgHnizatioru and have Ieft behiod he Cnld War reain empoosis 00 the mijitruy ilSpet-ts ofpower
REFORMISTS
Tile n-alist wciters despite theit diftering valuatioos of the worth of cenain intematlonal organizstiltms have in rornrnon a state-centrk approoen ro intershyoational reiatWIlS 1bough liOIlle were CQnremed tbiacutelt govemITlents shoold renect more he (iacutenevitably) good lntentions uf their dtizens in inrerruttonmiddotd affiUfl or rbar world otgmizarions shoukI have more power (O detll wjth warlikt ()t reoegade Stares tOOr nus of artentioo is the internacional govem~ mental otganhtaacutetIDn (lOO) A nociceable devclopmenr in internariona reladons literawn inu the Second Wodd War has been (he movement away [rom mis 5tate-centred view towards ooe tIacutelat admits the impoarune of intematioroal atmiddotWrs iexcliexcltha than tite sovereign SUte 1bese indude lGOs in tbeir 0JIffi right (rnrlwr than as meeting places or inmumenn of thcir rnember tare) lNGOs trnnsaatJoual otgllnizatloru polirical group5 aod individual dtizeru Although many pl1blkadmlS just desctibe tbese new phenomena whkh llaVe herome more aniV in rhe last iacuteotty years [nere 15 a1so iI prescriptive erement to sorne oiacute [he writings They ttnd te prescribe incrmsed non-srare Jrtivity in inremashydonal relatiom ase a way uf underpinning claset relations berWfetl stattS ami socieries or undermining houlle anitudes by guvemmenrs (WeiS$ and Gordenker 1996 WlIlerrs 19~ Gordenker and WcillS 1998) Whilr this general reformist viewpoint is similar to reall~t approaches in aooopting the importafl(e uf the srate relatjons in incernational polit1cS ir does no( aoept eiexclrher fhe monopo1y oE rhe state in tbe sysrem or mar litatfS are unimry talional actors In surnrnary tbe leey aJlpeltrs of a reformist ilppftmdl to intetnational rclashytions indudes n number oE rbe folJowing
1 ihe belieE in reason in human nature and in progres$ [he [requency and level of war can be redocoo fur example
2 Inrernauumlonal relatioru can be moperative rather toon confIirtrW 3 Though seates are imponam in inrernarionaJ Ielations rhey are IJoOt [he
only aCtofS 4 ampates are Q)t ulUacuterary iexclI(tors wirh their dedsion inrematiacuteonally reflecting
intemal divisions aoJ interests They dv nve therefore neccssarHy muimize the interesrs oE che stare
~ The internacional s1gttem espl(bHy pires of iexclt comairu the elemenrl uf international society ano relies on a wriety oE international institutiollS indudjng inrernadonat Otgltlniution
The refurmist approach to the srudy (lf intemntional reladons hase conse~ quences fOl [be roruiderafIacuteon of interniexcltrnmal Otiexcliexclalization~ ano has made a notieabJe conuibwion to the lit(llIr~lre on the subjctt especiall) since [he 19508 Hnwever there is a bockgtotlnd ro the aboye idea~ char can be ICen in
j 01 Wnlmg 1m l1f1eOkllttmal urgJmuJugtnJ
me esdier writifl8~ of Grmiw Ladre Hentbam 3nd l(uiexclc (Jwkson aoo amprensen 1999 108-11 VlOtrl and Kaupi 199t) 200-4) Ao undet1randing of che curren refutmtst appruache1 ro inttmational otganiUitioos um be helped by reiacuteerente ro SOUlt of the WI1tets on internacional law wnich wiIJ mrm one section beLow
lnlernatIacutetmall8wyers
Mueh of rhe lirerarure abour mrernatioual organwoou$ 1$ descriptivc ltiren detiing with several organizacions aM giving purricuw eutpha$is te tite League ofNarioas and UN sometimes dealing with one organiacutezadoo swn lIS NATO me OAU Of rhe EU Leading woru in trus area 1m those of the intetshynariooal lawyers who give particular ronsidemcion ro rhe cowlimtiacuteoru of international organizaoons thei legal penonaliries aoo institucional probshykm Indecd ic was pmbably lhe P~ ltgtfuw ar amplinburgh Universiry J lorimer who fin coined the e~ionmiddotiexclnrernatiooal organization in 1B67
Contributions (Q cbe study of internarionai organizacions llave been made by Britisb legal exptm and bisfOrians 50ch as Zirnmern in his iexclrudy The Uacute4g~ JI NaJimn an4 the RMk of LnJiexcl (ZJmmem 19gt9) and J1 Buacuteerlys comparison of rhe newly emerged Unuumled Narions wirh rhe suurwre aod aims of lbe then dying Ieague Brierly demonnrated a strong preferenn~ for fbe inrrusioo of international law iOfO etonomk ilnd sndal affpjn gttl dat rbe generic grievances of sures ma) be removed (Btier1y t946 9n Hersrh laurerpliCht published Tbt Dwefpment ()f lntmwlftmal lJw by rhe Permanml CfJkrl el l1iImJ4lifJNiexcl-1 jllJtia in 1934 and [his was later marched in [he Ullired States by Judge Manle) O Hudseos Intmwt]iexclmal TribltllfJuacute PaJI
qniexclJ Plfum (944) WilfrEd ]ellki [be ugai Advlscr to che lLO CUIIribured noe jU$ 00 chilE organizarIacuteon (Jenks 1962a) but abo mote genernl wodcs 00 iarematiol181 orgaruzarions (leaks 1945a 1945tl 1962tl) 1 le stressed (he need [O IDaH) [he craf[ of tbe imernational lawyer wuumlh rhe Pludence uf che polirician tO develop an effective s)stem of incernadonaJ orgafiUBtion
Institutional developmeru 15 primarily cbe responsibiliry of staCesmaDshyship ir muS[ be gnided aud cootrolled b) a [fue appreciarion of political forces Tbe greaccst oflegal uadirions is still to be crearEd irs cexmre wiU be largely ltlefermined b) rhe qnaliry of [he crafesmanship which inrernatlonal lawyers place sr the disposal of sracesmen during me next geaeration
(Jenks 1945a 71-2)
laltor imernarional insrituriom cexebooks were pmvided by rwo Europcan intemalional lawyels Henry Schelmelll Professor of law at lIte Univeaiey of Amsreroam restricted himself tuacute inrernacional instuumluttonal law wbicb by roncerning irself wirh [he srrucmre and functions of inrershy
~h~ bullmiddotff~ V_middot ~f_lt~V_
fliUional organiexclttttlonstries ro explllin [he present developmem and ro promote he harmonious growth of lnafniexclldQual organization (Schermcfs 1972 2) He Jodt wim rhe partidpants in lmernadonstl orgllniexcl~lltion8 tbe general roles ror their crgaru and me activities of these Orgllus from prirruuHy a legal viewpoinr A similar approacb was adopted by rhc Bririsb iacutenternat1oniexcll1 leglll eJtpen D W Bower( whOie book Tht 14W QI lnlmwIacutePMJ lmtiJlflilJrll (970) placed grearer emphasis on pflrtkular insrishymtions - he Lcague thc UN and in spedalized ageucies che regional organizarions rile juriacutedical iacutens(iexclmdons - as weU as dealing wirh general questions such as t-he internattoual pcrsouaUt) of che organizarions and their impac( on (he doctrine of (he rovereigll equalit) of srare5 Por a blend of sociology bistoty and luretnarioOllJ lpw che work of Paul Reurer Professor uf lmernatioual Iilw pe Pileis Univcrsit) is UB$urpassed In Inml14tionaJ bmitllfiom (1958) he examined che phenomeoon ol imemashyt10nal orgaruzadon rather tban jUS( the orgilnizations and insdtutiun~ auJ thererore speut sorne time on the uature of imernariolllll ~je[) [he erigias aud foundarions of iuternational institutioll$ lS weU iexcll$ rhe posiacutediexclm of Staeeg in international society
Sorne post-Cold Wllr studies nave moved uWily from wruu tllto regllrded as csoretic descriptions of che 111w (Kn aud Djehl 1998 3) aud have insread examinEd intetnatiomJ I1lws iacuteofluence on poLirIacutelal behavior (Ku ampnd Diehl1998 3) One of rhe buses of tluch au IIpproach iN chat imtornashytionaJ organiUltions nOIl-governmenral orgllnirpriOfl$- multithltiJllUl corporations aud even privare IndividuaJiexcliexcl have come ro pliexcly Illl iexclIlcrelljiexcling role in intematioual rclations and accordingly international legal tules have evolved co engage rhese oew accors (Ku and Olebl 1998 3) Tnternarional lllv is seco both as au operatillJ system and a normative system for internariacuteona relarionll Algt the fotmet it 5eu the genernJ proshyceclures and iacutensticudons toe the conduce of incern11ltlonal relatiolls lt provides che framewotk fu estllbllshing rules lInd UOI11lS oodilles be parilmcters of interaction ancl provides (he ptocedures Ilnd furums ror re~lvlng disputes among those taking part in tnese intecllCtiacuteOO$ (Ku and Diehl 1998 6~7) As a nOttnative S)stem iuternatiouallaw giexclves rorm ro lhe aspiradOlu anu vlllues oE the partkipants of the system (Jr) is 11 proJuct oiacute the struttlltes Ind processes thar make up rbe opernting ~ystem rTt1 tllkes on a principaU) legislativc chamcret by mandating particular valueg IlnJ ditetting speciiacutek chllnges in sure bebaviQr (Ku Ilnd Diehl 1998 7) Mote tradiciunal appr03Lhel tO lnternatlonallaw rendlaquol tO de~(ribe che role 01 imelllatiuuaJ otgauJutiotu as pan of the opcradng sySLCm Legal texu pllblishcd in he laSt decade Ot so of (be rwcnrierh centUry looked lncteasingl) ae the position of inrernatlonal urganilations middotw
nor leas [hose oiacute the UN system - in a nurmanve framewnrk especiaHy in functional areas such as human righn (AJston 1995 he envilOumenr (Kin 199M) [be global commnm (Jo)ner and Manell 1998) and wOlneiexcluacute issues (Berkovith 1999 Wrighe 1993 1)~g8)
130 Writingi (f1I iexclktnati~nal I11glttftiZAtitlrlJ
Intecnationallawyers have airo given exteosive comideration ti particular instimtions The League Qf NatJons attlacted special attention as lawyen played an imporunt role jn J~ dmfting and as it had as tU aims che pmmotion of international c(K)perntion aoo the achievement of iexclnrcrna~ tionru pcace and eturity
by the ficm establishment nf the undersrnndings of imemauacuteonal law as tbe actual rule of condun among Governmenrs aOO by the maintemtnce of jnstice and a scrupulous mpect for all treaty obligations in the dcl~middot ings uforganised peoples wirh one another
(Preamble to tbe Covenant)
Furtbermoce the central pan uf che CQvenant dealing with the keeping of peace (Anide 12-16) OOopted a legalisck approoch in delining nn OCt of wu against all Ieapue membecs as being rewtt to war in disrtgaru of Anides 12 13 or 15 (Attide 16 (1raquo) In other wottb the cardina15in W$$
tbe breakiacuteng of rhe legal gretment mOOe wirh otner stares Imernational lawyeM in pIlrtkuar were ooncerned wirh how Iacutenlernarional IacuteiexcllW might be agreed judged ane enforced in lhe jnter-war perIDd lhey turned much of their atrention to the anivities oC che Permnnem Coun of Intemational Justice arul lhe league of Natlon5 Judge Hcrt(h TaureIp3cbc foc eurtlrle ronsldetetl rhat aH Jntemlltional dispures were justiciable and thus open (O
soludon by [he judicial process in internacional law He considered tbe League tu be useful 5tep in the development oE inrernational law and be sanctions 1I1lowcd Cor in Anide 16 of [he CoveOilnt as marking tbe fitn step towws he collective enEonement uf internacional law (Laurerpacht 1970 9)
The league hOO iexcles advocates among orher lega writers AlCred Zimmern wriring io 1938 set Lhe Leagues activjties and institurions against che backshydtop of the gathering 5tOrm io Europe He still found much ro ~y lor ir it had rkveloped 2ru1 expanded tbe old iquestiplomaric ystem bad enrouragro wshyoperation in many ateIlS ane $r leur represeotecl iexcllfi artempt to ellminate WIlr even duting a period of whar Zrmmern caHed cmhquukes (Limmero 1939 491-509) Lord Robert Cedl one oC the fuunders of rhe League as weU as a lawyer and Conservative poHdcim admined when wming ln 1941 rbe Cailure of the orgamzation in preventing aggressive powers Neverdreless he hoped that iexclt would be reformulaced after bosrilities with a CI)ll of confederariacutean uf European tates the cenual objecr of which should be the preservatl(m uf the European peat e Peace in cbe test oE the world would Jepeod pretty weU on tbe then jusr~eltiexclsting Covenant wirh sorne small changes Cecil did admit rhat another piece of rnachinety couid do Iittle unless [he peoples allJ govemmeots cea11y tgtlt che enforcemenr nf law ann mainrenance of pealte as me firtr and grearen nadonal Jmereus (erH 1941middot 349-51)
The hopes of (hore ho yearned fur legal soludnns tO intemartonal
WrjlingJ 1m inffll7lltJfriexclftai rltgmiwtitln-iexcl 131
dt1putes dearly dcdined a~ the UN Charter wjth iacute~ emphasis on politica1 solutions to what were palideal disputes tepiacelti tbe optimist1c legal (otmula~ uf the League Covemutt The UN Chancr was not to be without tes Internationa Jegal romrnentaluts Indeed tWO early stllndard books on rhe UN are by diJtinguished lawyers Kelsen (l950) and Goodrich ti al (969) though the hmer have admitteu that when iexclnterpreting [he ltlwrter
since rhe responsibiliry for interpretadon is VC$ted in Ofgan~ and memben alike che process is more iexcliexclkely to be politia than judishyoacutealDeciexclsiltm~ rend to renea lhe enmmon intetesu of members in achieviug cerratn results
(Goodrich If JI 1969 15)
Other legal commentators have placed emphllSis 00 [he role of jtlterna~ tional orgaoJutions in tbe development of particular aspects of innl11iexcl1tional ew ami again haltle secn tbe rleyelopment uf the rules aon notms of internashytiOfliacutell society ~ howeyer imperfeltmiddott - in tbese cases Examples are Kratochwil (1989) who who has written generally ou the 1mbject Jaebon (l997) and Thomas IInd Meyer (19J7) on the world tradins sysrern Kiss 11M Shelttm (1991) on Iacutentern8ljoual envttunmenral law aud Human Rights Watch 09921999) and Bianchi (997)on human r1ghu iSIuc
lnternaonalgotJt1tmenlfgwfINIJJlue
Anorber AmcriC3llegaI aurhority ayde Eagleton gave the Unired Nations a critJcal though romewhat undmtaning appreciarioll ~mmmiexclng np its dilemma thus Ir (he Uniled Natioru cannor do more than ir ha~ the ampult liacutees with rhe Memhccs wbo marle it and opcrllte it and who j[ SfflIW slaquon preret the tootb aOO the fang ro internationallaw and order (Eagletoo 1948 552)
Eagieron placea the record (lf che Uoited Nations in thc context of irs predecessors in the hisroey of rhe gttlwth ofinternational govemmem and of iu legal and politica background He examined pmposals to achieve the inrernational government thff the UN ailed tu rt1tCh bm condueed chet fI chaogc in he attimdes oC Stares aud their pcoples JS neerkd fipiexclt (Fagl~too 194$ 583) Eagletons wnrk uuderlioed tbe point made by Evan Ltmm in his ntemd1ifma1 A~lIaacutetJ (977) that with (he existence of the UN and its lSSfJ(lated agencies many of che wodds prohlems are Ilor wirhout jmtiexcltu~ tions exercising authority over them The powers uf (his mnge of organizadon cau bc queHioned as Ciexcl1n chejr standing in relnion tn thcir rovereign state membera bur rheir exisrence in tne ptlStmiddotwiexcliexcl[ world ~ aud tbcir grnwth (rom their niacuteneteemh-cenrury hesinnings is a reality
Thi$ inrerese in [he 8rQwth of iorernariona[ governme(l( i tleithet new nor resrricted m the legal pmCeMion Oue uf the earlier publicauumlnru on tbe subject was by the writer leonard Woolf who Walt a fOllude uf the Fahian
132 WriJil1gJ (IfI htfmtaJIacutefmal argmitAJium
Socilaquoy che reformiu discusston group witbiu rhe British Ltbout Parry Wtiting in 1916 he omllned dJe exrenr m which imerllliootlal govem~ mene had been lKcepted rhroogh diplomade garfteaacutengs rhe use of public and privQce JmefOatwllru unions and che iocrtlSe iexcln commodify ugreemellts aad he PU forward plans roe che further teguJation of JmeroadOllal OCrltty lf war is (( be prevemed he elaimed states musr submir Q mUte intetuashy[jonal conrrol alld governmenr in their poJiticnl and udrninl1litrative rdadoru (laquooolf 1916 nB) He udvanred a Fabiao Cornmirree plan for nte Stipranaciacuteonal AudlOrlty cllat wiIl Preven War eiemenrs of whih fOllnd their way into (he Lea8ue Covenane aml whieh inhJt iexcliexcllid teCtJlllmended rhe estab1ishment of an Inrernatloclal High Grua an lntemadooai Coundl of sutes represenrnrives ami JO IOtelThldonal Seltreurjlil Woolf and his Fabiao coUeagues hoped dlar wirh rhis machiuery legal justiciable disputes wouM be 5ubmined ro rhe Cona Of a similar tribunal and orher dispmes ro the Couocil foc senlemenr with che patries rn he dispute ccnsmilned from warlike actjon fue a period of a year Provision was ro be rnade fur sancrions which ali sutes shoold pm inro open1rion lind al agfCltd tO make common cause even ro he exren( oC war against any constiruent Srue which violates thi$ uacuterndamentai llgreement (laquooolf 1916 233)
Woolf mgetIacuteltr wuumlh juriiexclu iexcluch IIS Hersrb Lauterpadu and Alfred Zimmern and British poliricaJ wrIacuterers like Pbiiexclip Nod-Baker LJrd Ceei and Gilbert Murlliy represented bmh [he praccuumlal and intdlectual mpponen ni lhe League of Natiacuteom in the interwar peuacuteod wbo were ouacuteen daified as iexcldealisrs or neo~rotiam Hedley Bul 0966 ~2 5) r1esnibed the rennal Grotlan assumption (named after (he seventeenrhshycentury lesal wtiter lIugo Grotiu$) as being rhat of the solidariry OI
porential solidariry oI (he SUtes comprising imemarlonal sociery wirh respect ro che enfurcemem of [he Law and Grodws basic crjredon of juse WI bt-ing fought in order ro enforee rjghrs a fimiofl dearly edwed in tbe Pabirin Comm1rrfts The Snpmnatlonat AuthorlEY rhll will Prevenr War BuH criricized rhe way ibis group lost sighr of intemarional polirics in rhelI preoccuparion wirh 10eroational1aw international otganization and intfoiexclniexcliexclriQnlll saciery
10 deallng wirh imefIUldonal marnti~y which rhey were indined ro confn$( wirh internarional law they eon[ribu[ed only a narrow and llflcririal rlaquorimdr whkh eKalred [he jnternational inreresr over tllujoual iexcllIrert~r~ (bnt wirhorlr asking bow rhe former was ro be detershyminel) mtlltiexcltimrimwl rdorm over revolurJon as [he meaflS of ll3lliCcndinA lhe soriely of sovereiNn states (bur without considering wfteher SUtCS cOllld OCcOIlIC [he agents of rheir owo ~rincriofl) and respcu fue legaliry oler [be neoo foc chaoAe (bur wirhour fdciflg up ro r~ mer that rh~ in(~rnadooal legal sys[em as (hey construed ir could nOl aecommodate change)
(BuU 1972 36)
Wrllingr on inlmralirmal ()fganiUJliofU 133
This J5 a teUing enough asseSSffiem of che idealim views includill8 [heir writings (tri imernarional oeganiurions HOWelef [he background of [he groop $hould be remerobeted they represellteJ a genemtion devastawd by the Finl World War ud whiacutecb wa~ used ro national suciery (early twenderh-teocut adtaio) lhat had henelired through institutional chal1ge and in whiacutech the rule of law had not preduJed remrro The k-gtgue of Natioo5 che Permanenc Coun of Illternuional J1L~tjce (PCI]) and [he 110 wen for rhem part of 1 Great Expedment to we Lord Cecil~ phrale
Wrirets in the last guarter of the twentieth century picked up and develshyopoo many of he omions current in rhe aoove Jirerawre aud srr~ed how iacutenrematiunal ioceocourse had heen governoo by a body of laws nl1~ lind feguladons ano by insdturions indlldifl8 internatiotlal organizatioO$ Though they llave kcpr rhe analogy with the domescic government of cirishyzens thef have preferred rhe terro internacional governancc demoosrrating thar such a system docs nOl hnve che son of enrorcemem powers expected of naticnal govetnmencs Notions of global governarue huve becn corered above whete tefereoce has heen made tU tbe idea of an imernarional regime (Pp 108-10) Thi5 concept helped bdng internacional olgsobacions iexclmo rhe wider titerarure abom inrernadonal cooperedon 11M governance in a srate of anat(by rneaning an absence of interOlltional governmenr with signifkant er[orcemem powers
In the early and mid~1990s IiHendon was agam wrned ro che manageshymenr of che internlitional environmem in rhe wake of the UN Confetence on Environment and Development (UNCED) al Riacuteo de Janeiro BnuiL gtlhe environmem seemed ro be a classk caudidste fur global governance pardy becl1use ir was glob-al and partly because of the range of instlwdons involved in iexcltS managemem In the words of Josepb Nye etTective intet~ narional envitonmental instltudoru thu$ helped w overcome sorne Ol (he rypical narional bordenecks tbar hiacutender cootrunated meusures to revene rbe frighrening trends of global environmental degradaLion llnd improve rhe possibiluumly of susrainable develo[lmenr of OUt plaller (Nye 1995 x) The assumprion of Keohane tt al was that whlle StateS may have difnculry ad~tessiexclng jmernationaacutel erlvitorlmemaL problems coopenuion betweeo governmen[$ couid hring dividends Eff(Xtlve intetnstiooaj 111stitutions wete needed which may take rhe form of internacional orgauuations rcgimes Ol informal conventlons They were seen in che woros of Maurlce Strong (Secretary-Cener-iexcliexcl ofUNCED)Ul rhe bllsic framework for 11 world sysrem of governance whkh iexcls imItJdve to rhe effective functionmg uf our global rocieey (1990 211 l2) The aim was pragmlltlC to see whetber rhe intemational josrjmrioos coveriug the environment had made a posirive difference especially in rhe polltiad iexcleid
Case rudJes were presenred (bar exploroo the impact oiacute inrenwiotl$l insriturions witb [hree conditions essenrja lor effecuumlve acrioo on the enlirOumem high levell of gownlflmtl bullmam a hospitable 1lIiIraiexcltttal t1Iy~
rrmmml suiliexcloacuteem poIiuacuten U1d ddltiniJtY(JJM CiJpacity in national
134 Wrftln[f 111 iexclttntntiona organiufif)lfJ
governments (Keohane tt al 199 11) The case s(Jdies Weuroe seen in rerms of agendiexclt selting internacional pnliacutecies and national policy ttJpon$($ (Keohane iacutef al 1995) The three authors wtJe aware of the strong influeDce of stare powers in iexclnrernadnnal institurions and of rbeie meagre result5 in sorne areas Nevetthees~ they set down three ronditions uoder whicn inrer ootional institutions can alrer (he bchavior of state actors and in turn improye environmenral qualiry (Keobane ti a 199 19) These afe
1 gnvernmencal concern has ro be higo enough [Q pmmpt the 1lte ufscarce mources lO tllckle tht problem
2 roere haiexcl 00 be a contllcrual enviroruncfit where ~tnttS make (rediMe coounitrnttlts and make iexcllOO keep lglremerll$ rhar incorporare joiotly enacted rules withour debflitadng fuAtof ftte-riding ur cheuting by othet1l
3 states should haw the pnlitical and adminimadve capaciry to make the domestk adjusrtnents necessruy ro implemenr international norms principies and rules (Krohane et al 1995 19-20)
TOe empha~iexcls -in chis view nf glotm govemance is on rhe relncionship becween rhe internuional anQ tIte Illlt10naL
Pan oE gJobtl govemsnce - ai noted in Chapte1 3 - are lnrernntional regimt$_ Thcampe are set- of implidt o explkir principies norms rule and del ision making proctdures arounrl which actors eJCpelttadons converge in a given area of internacional relatious (Krasner 1983 2) [1tey are subSu of irttetnational sodcey and its imtitlnions Imemational reglmes which are oft~o speciacutealitecl auangemenu limicer by function oc gengraphicaJ area are amngemcnts hat BoYe1n cooperative behaviour intetnatioOldly Thee are thus mure wiJely Jrawn than internatiunal organizations The latcer accurdifl8 ro one of the most profific wrltcrs on the $ubject Oran YounS 0989 1994) can boeh stimulate the process of regime formation nnd can htlp implement thei provisiuns (Young 1994 164)
Funuitrltdlisu
An eady bff~1c with the trmJtional view of international organizations based un the state-centriacuter mudel cm be seen in Leonard Woolfs book [ttltmatiltraquoldl
Grni-17111I Alrhough srilJ primarily coruemed wich interamptate relations and the questiolll of peace and secudry a sizeable BCniacuteon o( lis wriring5 rover governlnenral tlaquohoical and economk co-operatioo and INGOs
Ve are accustnmed to regard the wodJ as neady diided iexclnto compartshymenU caUed states or nationLBut chis vjion oiacute thewodd divided into iacutesolated compllrtmenrs is nor a cme reflection of fiu 15 as they exisc in a urge pottion of the etlnh [orlay
(Wnolf 19l6 216-17)
Writtng( (111 hmmatiacute(lrul f8grllliulinnJ 13
Snch a step pladng gre-iexcllter emphasis on non-star ime~natiacuteonal rtloshytions wa~ taken furrher in duo writln8~ o( me Romanian-bom aothor David Mitrany Mitrany ideas known iexclas the functiondisr appooruh lO
internuional politics were inspired by his early Iife io dIe Ba1kans He (ouoo much imelletruaI sdmuiatinn ofter coming ro Lundon in 1912 olld working together with Lennanl Woolf among otlters in the Ieagne uf Nations Society [he labour Pattys Advisory Commiuee on [nternational Arrairs and the Fabiexclan Socieey His (WO malor eacly worlca wcrc Tin PrtlgftlJ of lt1tmutt(IIId GtM1NmAnt (first pnbl~hed in 1932 rcprinted in Mitrany ([915araquo) and A WorklNx Pem Sylttm (fiCSt published jn 1943 rcpobHshcd jn 19(6) though he abu made a 1mbstamial nmtribudon in anides unril bis dearh in 1975 Many uf his writings tQgethcr with an amobiacuteographical piecc and In inuoouctjon are guhered fogefher in Tht Funcfuumlmal TwJry of Prdilia (Mitran) 1975) In his t932 work he omHued the nlnereenrh(intury growth iacuten intertwtJonal govenmcnt ajong similar lines as Woolf
The ninereenth cenrmy prodwed that amazing growrh in che mattrial equipment of (iiiiudon whifh weldcd the wodd togaher into (me organk whoiacutee making eaclt people a partner in tire Iacuteitte uf al The outwatd CXpelsiacuteon nf that change WQ5 the ~rance nf WQrld-wide popular movements and the making nf innumerabJe privare md public imernatjonal agItemenrs
(Mitrany 1915a~ 89)
Mitrany WiacuteI$ concerned thar (he rise of the fllidon-state and the insiexcl~tence of new statcs on che doctrine uf lluvereign equality when (bey were dlldy weaker and smalJer tban the Grear Powers hindered internacional lt0shy
operation in for example the cconomic lphere HowCer he 1lW rbar the fnne ofevents wu working agaiexcln~t sta~ism
No maeter what rhe size and shape of rhe particular community lo funcrions are such thar rhey haye to be organized and the fOrres and (crors now iexcllt work no longer have llny rroe telarion tlt) rhe uld pnlitkaJ divisions wirhin or withuJ( rile state The new functiom imposed upon our puliria instiacutetutions art compelllng 11 complete recomt(Ucrion of tile technique of govemmellt on a purely practical oosis 1 teach that rondU$ion by ming at the Illltset noto what is rlte iexclden form for an imtrnadonal $odetyiexcl but mher what are 1tS C$sential ftmctions
(Mitrany 1915a 99)
He claimed hat C$$cntially the nims of intemalional governmcnt were no diffcrent from dlo~e (lf municipal gnvernmenr w aCaJt equality bcfore the iexclaw for aH rnemben of the cnrnmuni(y and ro lrumote sodal jUlltict To expen [O achieve rhe first aim in inrernatlfllltliexcl sodely whefe 5talCS wcre
l ju WrJll1Jgs en mlWnal101tJf (iexcl(gamufJf)lJJ
nei[her eqna nor unchangiug uuiu would be unreascnwtc Ir woold be far more prncriC1iL ro cmnpromise rhis aim and CSLablish a League of Nations in which Grea( pQVeri woulcl he dirlltdy representelt Secondary Jitates woulcl have group representiexcliexclrioo afld malter ~tatet w()ulcl have panel repmentatioo At the same time sfCortdary bodie$ would be ser up in varJous pam of che world 11$ orgnns (lf regionJI grouptngs of Jitares artd (hese bodies woulJ be connected with and subordInare tO the new CCOtta League organs They wouiJ aleo be iexcliexclbie ro clesl wiacuteth problems mOle teaclily especially as the unanimity of aH srares would not be needed [Ol a senlemem
These suggesdom are noe (he novel aspeltts oE Mitran)$ work They are imponam in changing (he emphasjs away from the tighu of amptate wwards rhe dude oc lit ICllSt (he actlvJries of Hates Still the conccto was wth Ilrrllnging relnrioru netween snm~s In a paper $ubmitrecl ro che 8drish foceign Office in 1941 and in hi~ study A Wking Peaa Symm (966) Mirrnny wncenrrated on how che (unctioru of gOYernment might be cnrried OUt more exptdiriously He rtcognhed chllr withio liberal 1emocrati( stare~ [he Une berween whirh futCtions are Cflrried Out by pubtic and by privare aclioll was shifriog lIod that rhi5 line unde (he prel5ure u( (rt_ih social Ileeds and demands musr be Jeft free co move with rhem A similar demamuiacuteon existed in che terrirorial spbete interlla~ dooally wme (uncdons (eJ railway systems) could best be organized cOlltinenroUy some intercontinentnll) (e8 shippillg) alld some univcnaUy (eg aviation) However there would be no need for rigid patteros exccpe perbaps io tbe exercise of negadve (unctlons -- those related ro securi[y wberc more fotmal sacle lnstltuclOns WQuld be needeJ In (he field o( positive (unctiacuteoru (dw$C tdatecl ro economic eultunl and sodal affairs) he climensions ocgans and powers of any organiorion would be deler~ miacutened by the nature oiacute the funccton and would be fairly flexible Mitrany fmfSaw tbe tStliblisbment o( functional bodies wirh auronomous ta~ks and powers which wonld do thingl joiacutently Tbis wuulcllink aucborlry tu a specific activiacutery (hUi breaking llway foom the tradicional link between authocieyand a ltIacuteeftnire ~erritory Murany 1966 125) 11iacutes move wcmlcl avoicl he sreritity uf many of rhe wartjmt suggesdons fue posr-war (ecltrn~ tions O connitudonal innovariacuteon in rhe United Nacions whlch f~eteoacute 00 he opposidon oiacute sovereign sraee reiiexcltance Mitrnny hoped rhat che number uf internarional agencies (hat had exisred before the Serend Wodd War augmenteltIacute by the A11ied board durJng rhe war lrsdf wuuld u~rve u tbe ba~lS foc (he network oiacute inremarional gOvernrnent He quoud wlrb obviow appruval the wurd$ of an Amerltlln scholar J Payson Wild Jr 00 the varlOUS warrime experiments
The Hues between domesuc anltIacute iexclnrernational actlvlty ate blurred ancl nadonal adminisuatlve agencies of the Powecs concerned Smneshytimes engnge in domestk busint-1s and at orber rimes extend theit
Wrilings Ofl hllenJdUacuteoN1J org411iatiofJJ 137
(unctioru ioro rhe uumluernarionul sphere The resuh is o conglomerashydOn o( intermnional bwrd aocl domestic staf( whose dlties Illrermiacutengle Adminisrrnr1ve offtcers o( narional lmirs deal direcdy wirh rheir opposire numbers in orher S[1l[es WirhOlU benefit o( diplo maric intermediaries and simlllmneously perEorm borh nacional and intemational tasks So fu no attempt has been made en estab1ish iexcliexcl
super~State
(Mitrany 1 6 167)
Mitranyll villion is oE a world in wruch che functiollS of ~etyday $odal 1Jfe - transport healrb care rommunicatioos agticlllture industrial developmenr sciendfic developmenr and so on - are no Jonger assidl1ou$-ly carried en witbin rhe confines oE each sovereign iexcliexcltflte but ate underuJen across fmmiers on a tegionai cominental oc univetsal bflliiiexcliexcl These acrivjw des would be overseen by international Ofganizatioru which wOIJld be more like boards oE managemenr Tbe functional agencies of rhe UN (che no WHOgt FAUacute etc) already underrake urn ro~opetative t$Sks fIli do sorne non-governmental groupings of spedalisrs (League of Red eron Sndedell World Srout Movement etc) However tbe Une berween what has been done imernationaHy aOO dome$tkally bas tuen drnwn very much ro [he beneflc oE che latter and international activitid bave tuen riddted with politicel dispureoJ rnany oE which have liule ro do wlth me good manegemem of the (unction iexclnvolved Mirranys laquoheme would fiexcludually lOwtt rhe liue ro aUow more functioos ta be Citded OUt at rhe level where they wOrk more efficieruly and woukl proide managemenr of tbere funcshytions ra[her [han poHdclI1 interference Not onty would his develQpmeof beuefit (he general social welfure of the world ir would abo hcIl (O salve rile problem o( plaCe and security The LHliputian ties o( internacional fuucrionru co-operarion would piacuteo clown me giam of conflict weakenlog [he urge ro destruction and warfare by rhe promise of consmlctJoo and cashyexistence
The (unctional approach does nor focus solely on iorergovernmenral organizacion buc aUows for a network 01 spedaliuxl agencies roany uf which could be non-governmentaL Ir difftr in emphllSi5 ftoro che mainshystream craditionalis[ wricings and Mitrany~ work praaged a move away from internare relations 10 wotld politics Whilst the functiooaJ alpoolUh does not oReod against lh sentimem 01 nationaJity )t the pride oE sovereignty (Mitrany 1965 139) lhere is no doubl chat ir is meant lO weaken the i~por(Jloce and power of the middle roan berween rile indi vidual and a world communiry che sovereign scnre The feeling o( solidarlty enrounged by functionallinks 1s nor between states but beween people or assoclatioos of individuals Each of us is ill fuer a bundle of funCflonaJ loyalties so dWt tO build a wodd communiey upoo sueh a concepdoo is merely to a(eM artd consolidare ir also betwetn societies and grollps Micrany 15 14n
138 Wriling5 fin illttrnatiQJIa1 (ffanizatio1ts
Such IIn imaginative appruach tu wodd problems aud be mundiUlc hard~ working iexclapolitical role lt implieamp fOr interuational organizadons has its fiexclruIrs To ctiexclddu Mitranys functionalism as being impronica JS IUlfalr hoth because internlltionru functiornd links hllve grown espedaUy since the S~ World Warj and blaquoarue M1tranys approach is a gradual one he did OOE expeCt ir ro be adopted overnighr Even so ir cioes have certllin 11mbiexclshyuow a~pets which shOllld be criticany eDmined
Piexclrsr de5pite rhe refere-nce to possible regional fimnionalunmgement8 Mitranys pJans ron counter ro rhe notion of aU-embraciug regional organi utJoru such as the Europcan Communities now E~n Uninn (Mitrany 1975b 53-78) Whibt these organwdons roay Hnk their iexclamhotity ro a speoacuteftc activky $ueh as the conditloO foc running (he coal iexclaud steel indusshytries nr the agriculture of the EUs member states they sta hold w the rrnditinnal1ink betw~n authodry arul a definirt territory The cooJ and sr~l polkies or tite Common Agticultural Policy uf the BU are nor extended to tbe industries and fumen of other non-member countries who mar wish lO participate in theit ochemes Vet il can be argued toar ir is prccisdy in these iexclirnited geographicill blocs that flIlCtiOruJ arrnnscments are besr executed wirh limitations un mernhetship To wnrk propedy chemes must encompuss denned aras with a good deal jn common - the flexibility of Mitranys proposal wIQutd 500n break dOWIl )l the tnembers WlJuld have $O little in cornmon in fo cxampie the runnill8 of agriculture tbat coshyopetation would be dif(kulr or lloo-proouctiacuteve Furrhermore rhfmiddotse regional atrangemenpiexcl overcorne the problems of dedding the meaning hQundaries and consequtIlCCS of any particular function (Melaren 1985 142)
Second Mitrany did not really envisagc any piexclHejcal control of the futlCtiooal des between COllntdes mus distinguishing him frorn [he more traditionaliacutest approach lO inrernational orgaruwcions lle was hopeM dw the pmblems of roshyurdillltion between ronctionalagencies could be worked out as they lllOOe
To prescribe fOI the suke of [iexcladicional ne3tleSS somtthing more dennite han the guidancc and supervision of eg the Ecooomk Md Social Couooacutel W(lU1J be ro duron he whole conetprion from [he niftJo impollC upon them (funct-lonal bodiesJ a co-otdination authoriry with anyrhing Iike comrolling scuus w(luId be ro move again roWllrd$ that JiacutecumuJarion of power ar the centre
(Mitrany 196~ 143)
Thus [he institmions uf (he Eutopean ClJmmunitic~ - the Counoacutel uf Milli~iacuteers rhe Commission che Courr of Justicc rhe European Padiamenl dre Economic md Social Comlllittce - were al analnema fO Mitmny They werc juu miacuterrnring the poluacuteical COflffOh of lhe nation state ar iexcliexcl pa-n-continenullcvel anU according to Mirrany Continental unious w(luld have a more real chance thau individual suteS to pnletise the aurarky thae makes or division Mitrany 19(Kiacute 2n This may u((end
Witi1lf1 rm imernatilmalllrgaraquoiutifJ11J 139
agains[ lhe funcrJonalisu hope (r iexcliexcl universal apprOlltIacutel tu proble[Jls but (he abhorrence of policial imtitutions is lItrange wIacutelen [he funriona agenoacutees will aftee iln be mllkJng poHtkal decisions -- declsions roncetning lile aurhontative allocafion uf resources No only will iflfetnashytional functiunal transpon organizations established accordlng to Mittany have (O decide that cerEain areas wiH bt weU served by railways and Wds orhers llOt iexcliexclorne ports bujjt up others ieft to tlceay sume airlines expanded whlle rnbers are allowed ro fOllUact blt deeisiow wilI have ta be made on how w diexcl~tribu(e 5carce re~ources betwccn fo example iacutenvemtlent in transpon ur building more hospitals or restfllcturing rhe srecl Jndustty thwughour (he area eovered by [he orgalliurions Thee arc paHdeal declsiQw ln a period of economk growth and plenry [hdr potitshykal niexcliexcltute may be le5S obviou as resources are avaiuble for almost eVery plan advanced by world 01 regional shjpping aviation heaJth or sree1 O1ganizatioos Otherwit there mn$t sllrdy he a system by which scarce mrnurce$ are aUocaced Tbis problem was flJed squardy by Mitr1ny successors iexcln the neofunctionalin school (dealr wIacuteth in the SC(tiOH tbat follows) but ir doell seem ftoro Mirranys writings fhat the world of funcshytioollJi~m is a wodd of IlnUmiacuteted resounes (Melaren 1985 146)_
A third problem in Mimuys approach i~ brought out in a eommtnt by lniacutes Claude The functiacuteonal theory uf imemariruwl nrgaruzarions 1S ultimateJy eoncernen wirh the usue of polJtiacuteeal and military srniexclggJe functionalism tneats (he promotion of we1fue as au illdirecf approach tu rlx prevenrion of warfare (Claude 1968 31--5) Mitran quoted Oaude wirh appmval implyiog rha fulletionalism would ind~ mllk( a positive contribllt1on (albeit inilitecdy) CE (he ptCveurron of war fhis profOiSitiort is open (O $(Ieral criticisms Given the level uf arrnrunems in the worJd and the porential fQf cunflict the contriburron ro pettcc made by funcrioruuacute acrjvities miexclay come too late A youth group exthange betwtn rhe USA and China ma) bode we11 fOf
tbe furure OOt wlll be uf link use if (he respective parrus are beaten ro meir destinarions by intercominental baliiacutestic missiles funhermore the pmmotion of wtlfare may inctease internatioual conflicr by i~asiacuteng expettacions Espedally if social and ecounmic changes are bmugh[ aboue by imernational runctioual 3Jencies developing muntrie poliacuterical I~derships may fJnd ir increasingly cliiHcult to meet lheir poplllatIDn~ demands fot more economic benefJts fur a ampirer distribution uf benefits or in sorne ta$(-S fOf Ol)tool uf the social consequences of laquootlumic Rrowth Imernal sttili aod unrest may chen ~iIJ over into inrernacional eontlicr Finally Miacutetrany daiffi$ that rhe Nncshyrional approach ciocumveuts ideological aOO racial diviID05 as it ltloes territorial frontiacuteers (Mitrany 1975a 226) There ls guod evidellce tiJat the opposite has been happening thae the exlsting runctiuual organimfIacuteom slch $$ tiNEKO WHO and lID hllve been riddkd with ideulogical and racial (or al lea~t Norrh-Somh) diviions wruch h~ve teflected pnlirical argnments outside he olganizarimlS bu have ncvenheless adverscly aHewod their ba~ic work (Ghebali 1986 l tR-lt6 1mber 1989)
iexclIV WHURg) W~ mltTlWilm tIampmJlaiWN
NetrfJl1iKJiOalisls
Tbc move away foom rhe srate-cenrric vjew of JlItert1arlOlal organizarion Started by WOllf and Mirany was ccetiacuteeued io rht immedijlre posr-wur perjod by social stientim applyiacuteog asJltu of functionll1(st ~heory to European nd Atiacuteantlc in~limti()m This utw fUllCtionaliu approach showed paruumlcrnsr interesc in che European Communities (Ee later nuropean Union EU)) whjch arme iu iexclhe wake of che amphuman Plan In Mily 1950 Roben Schuman rhe Frenrh Foreign Minisrer advauroo (he idea cha( West Eucopean srarcs should establish a High Authority wlrh powers ro admillshyimr theit eoai aOO stecl induscrie~ Negorjatioru on rhe detalS of chis plan led t() the signing of che Treaty cf Pariacutes in Apdiacute 1951 by FraIlee Wen Gemuny Iraly rhe Neiexclherlands Bdgium sed Luxembourg (rhe Six) Tbls gave substanre tO (he idea lbat funcrional aiexcltivicy oould be ITlltllfIged across fcomien by IUl organizadon ove and above the govemmenrs of che member sraces a supmnational amhority The idea was wldened ro cover iexclm expanded unge of etooomk activiry when he Silo esrablished rhe Bt1fOpean Ecooomk Communicy (EEC) widl the Treaty of tome in MAtch J957 An Aromic Energy Communiacutety (Euratom) was eHablished sr che sume time However ~he element of upranationiexcliexclliry was dilurelt in the High AllthoritY-s successor (rhe Commission of rhe EEe) having only Iimited deciuacuteOIl-makin8 powers anJ having mosdy the task of proposing acdon ro tbe representarives of he rnember states situumlng in (he Coulliil of Ministe13 Despire his otber Community hutitutions contsined the gerrn of supranadonaHry rhe Courr of Jllstke empJoymg Coromunity nuhe [han nacional laws a Ruropean Padiument wbkh WlS eventually electelt by ditect eleedons amoog a Communiry-wide electorate voting for Cummunity-hased parties aad 1Jueresr groups represendng mrmetSgt consumen traJe unions aruJ blliiness on a Commuiexcliexclity tatber than a nnional basis
Tht$eacute tnmwauumloos in WeBtem Europe uiggeteJ a spate uf 1 iexclretamre primaril) in he lJnireJ Sures whieh examined tbe nurure unrl purpose of the Commuuity iustituions The Jominam staacutend amongst this writing was chat of the neo-(uncrlonalisrs sJCcifically Ern~1t Haas Lean lindbetg and J05eph Nye whose works are of importance io the uudy of internacional organizacions In ronrruc tO Mitrany the OCW fuoctiooalistli tended Br (iexclrOc tuacute iexclimir rbeie study 10 developmems in Wcscetn Europe (HtIaSs ~nJhe Naion Stte (964) bcing a nruiceable exeepdon) especially the OC alshyrhough later cornparimns were tnade wirh rbe growch ofccmmon lIlltirkets iexcln Mica East Eurupe aoo Larin America On che whole the neo-fumtiooaiscs had rerreated foom Mitranys world view
fhe neo-funcrionaljgrs aiso realized rhe dilemma faeed by Mitrliny in eelihng wirh politica dcdsicms ane did nor fllnch in introducin~ a merhod of making necessary chOtees ar he imernarif)llItI leve Indeed rhis wa~ rhe kernel uf rheir ideagt lhlll 1I0l ouly sperifie functionamp would be farried OUt ar rbe subrollrinentill rarher (han (he nacional leve bul thil( lhe decisions wnrernillg (hese functioos would be made at thaf level shy
6- v n_m_ ~olo_~~W_
with imponant cOnsequences for those groups imetesred in the decisiacuteons and iexcliexclIso liffecting orher arcas of poliey Por example supprne the Ecooomk Cual and Steel Community (BeSe) required (har che sreel lodustry be orgaoized as a West Europeao endty insfead of a numher uf narional industries a1l commled by differenl ccgularions aod rbar a suprauariona surhoriry be crcared ro decide on the policy Coc che ranniog of tbe Wcsr EUlopean sfeel induStries lo ronsequeoce those involvea in say rhe French steel industIl would switch tbeir attentioo away from Parili where policy was previowly rnade ro BroS$CIacutei wbcre ECSC poliey is mude Purthermore CommwIlty ntber dUlo nadonl poliey on ueel eould spiU ovet into ereadng a Community po1iey ror cool tnmspOH IUld Othet asrod~ ared acdvities As rhe numbe oC functiacuteooal policies decided at a Commuoity rnthet than a natkmllllevd expanded so the need for political actioo at this higher level would gfOw aod thc political sysrerol of the couutries involved would becomc inexorably iexclmcnwincd lhis was the logk of rhe innovator of he $chumao Plan idea Jean Monnet wM considered rhar rhe establishment of a c001 and srec1 community foUowed by similar organitations dealing wirh otbcr Cuncrional areas - agricultute transpon nade defence - would be lreps on [he way ro building Europe The eOO would be jln economiClllly aod politicaUy integmred Rurope lo Monneriexcl scbeme a federal West Furopeao state The means would be fuoctlonal bu with a political contento
In his study of fbe ECSC Rrnst Haas examiooo this s(rlltegy and a1so dmned polldcai inregradon in its ideal typc u beiug rhe process whereby political iexclcroo in severa distinct nadooal ~tings are petsuacltd to shjft thet lnyaltielJ expecrations liod pOlidcal iexcll(tiacutevides eoWjlrd jl new centre whose insdwtions possess or derrumd jutisdktion over me pit-existiog lIatiof19l $tates (Uaas 1958 16) ihis oew cemre would be che powelshyhouse managing rhe political ptoblems oC fuoctio1llll coopeaacutedon [he Uigh Audwrity of tbe ECSC and be indrurion of me EBe The policical actcniexcl invoJved would be rhose elites leading the poliacutetical groups habirually colCerned wirh public decision-making and wooJd indooe trade uoioacuten offishydaIs busiue5$ ami Hade representatives higher civil servann and activeacute poHttdam As tlltSiacute eliteS rutneU theit aacutetrendon ro rhe ojOW policical centre chey would find tha Community pelky in olle area nm be uwde tea oo1y if che task iuelf iexcls expanded CHus 1961 368) by way of a spillover of actiVity lIltO anocllet policy atea Evenrually Communiy policy~makiog would take uvet from S(ale policy~making jo alI rhe crucial BreaS and the new centre would emerge as being potenrially more powerful dma the member srares governmenu wbich had been drained of lheir mOS( meruoshyingful polidcal ucdvides
1( this stage ir can be quetied whetbet Haas was describing an inremashylional organizadun or il poremia1 federal mlte Io discumng tms quesrjon in his book on Elle EC-S( Haas cooduJed dllU Tbe hruHnct of federal as agaiacutenst middotimergovernmemaf powers lIeeacutems tU point to che coodusioo tbat in
142 WtitingJ on mtertlatilJtJA orgamZ41iom
alJ maneo relating ro the romine regularion of rhe commOTI ~et the High Authority is independent of government (HIlaS 195R 55-gt He al50 voiced rhe opinion rhu Supranadonaliry in snueturnl ferms tberefure means the exisreuce of govemmental a~lthorirjes dlloer tuacute Ihe archetype of fdeNrhm rhan any past inrernati(mal organizar ion buc not yet ideutiacutecal Wlth it Oiaas 1)158 59) However this $upnmttionaity in pNctice has deve10ped into a hybrid in which neither the federal no the intergovernshymentai reooency has deady triumphed a-bas 19511 527) Ir is aloo denr lbat the original Coo1 and Sreel Communicy was mueh mote functional~ Wlcrnl than the lateacutet Economic (ommunicy and untiacutel the mid~19805 the unified aud expanded Communuumly romw to play Jown the elemenU o( supranatlonality iu tavour of 1ts Jiacuteltergovemmenul insutution rhe Conndl u( MiuiMm This aud othet dtVe1opmems led Haas to lcconsidcr his origshyinal view of Community inrtitutioos
In the 1968 pre3ce ro Tuacute Uniting of Ellropt (which was wIacutetten in 1958) Haas alrtady identified factors that had dllngro rhe nattlc of me European Communiries experimem in che previous ten yeacs He observed tlur during this period vario~ spiU-OVet aOO adaptive ptcKeues s(ill had nO( resulted in la pulitically united Encope and in an~werjiexclg the question what went wtlJug he outliued fuur considetdtions Fitst (he new funaiurutlJsu had filiJed w di$tinguisb between background variahle cOlditioos prevamng at rhe time when cbe Comrnnnity WU$ csnbJished and new upiratiuns and expectations that had develnped Jhe esntbliacuteshment thar had ron counrer ro the Community spitit Second the imptet o( niexcltlonaUsm had becn undereshytimawl Third Eactors within me Commuruty had becn nressed ro he dccrimenr of those coming from the outside world PintUacutely me massive transCormation oE Western socie[y raking place indepeudent o( EutoptHl integratiacuteon aIso hacl been underestimaretl (HIlaS 1968 xiv--xv)
Haass definidon of imegralion alsu bccame wmewhar more negative I1lOre stlilte-centric than bis original 195R emlhasis un nationaJ llt(on shifting their loyaJties expecratiacute(ms and poJitical activities toward a new centre By 1970 Haas considered the study ofregionallntlgrurion to be concerned
wich explaining how aud why sUtes eease to be whoUy $overeign how ~md why they volunucily mingle metgt and mix with rhcir neighbours $O as to lose che facruru attributes of sovereignty while acyuiring ncw techniqucs me resolving conilirt between themselvell
(Haa~ 1970 610)
By 1975 Haas eonsidcred regional integmtion theoty oiJsolete in Wesrern Eurupe and obsolescenr - though still urerol _ in tite teSt o( the worId (Haas 1975 l) By 1976 he had arded out n maioI reintetpuEation of uew-fuuctlonaJist lhoory as it applied to rhe Ee The definahle outcome of integtation in Wenem Eutope was secn either in ttaditiorW federaHsc temu - a Wen Enrnpean (ederal state ereated out uf yenrs of fun~-tiexclonal
Writings M ifllernuJlfJmiexcl1 (JFfIiutian 143
rutivity whkh had lcd lO J trnmrer of poliduumlll acnvity away rom (he natlon ~tates tOwarJs a new srrunure - or ltlS the imtitutiooltlUdng uf some intermMiate iexcliexcltage such as rhe present status qno whcreby atlthonty is dimlbnrro unequally between several centres Wilh tire old nation states losing their previous Ituthoriey but with no new JiacutedeOl government in ptO$~ pect Whihr the original aspecrs of the EC - rhe cuuoms union aOO (he Common Agricultura Poliey _ have tllaquoorne entrenched the spillover inm orhe policy area~ had nor occurred by Ihe mid-1970s as che neo-furutiooa1ists liad ptedicred Also common polides liad becn Jevelopetl in differem o(8ashyIliratiuns - che OFCD the summit of indurmiatiooo counrrics the Group of Ten - tarher than within the liC lhe problem according lO Bus W1IS
rurhulerue whereby rhose iuvolved io polirirs haJ found rhemselves in a littting ofgreat social complexiry where rhe nnmber of atrorr is very large and each pursues a variety uf objectives whirh are murually incompatible lmt ucn is also unsure of che ultlde-ofamp between the objectjves He continued Tnis conditiQn imJgtlics the erosion o( such interorganizarional patteacutern~ oC comensus reciacuteprocity and no(mative tegularity as may havr CXlSted eadicrEveryrhiug is up fO( grallS (Hus 1976 179) HilaS sllggested thu iu the EC polioacuteeamp and (he institutioru devised ro lmpleshymeacuteut thero iacuteU~trnre rhe attempc ro deal with lhe turbulence nather tllan achieve regional politkal inteSradon (ibid 180 original emphasis)
A similar hiacuteft lttway fmm the earHer llSp1rauumlons iiexcliexcl ICen in rhe work~ Q( Lindberg aud Nye Lindbeg wlrose book 1he Pattirai DJMmict o EroJMn Ecrmomic IntegTatia (13) had fullowed on dosely from Hws work was hy 1966 showiog tbar moves wwaros inregration wirhin the Be (ooid cause Stress within (he system l1Jtfl inCftllq the barrien to fimher integration (lJnJberg 1966 254) Togcrher with lkheingold in 1970 he desctibcJ an EC wbich had noc deveJopeJ joro a federal structute haJ difereot ltvels of integrariacuteon fut different functions and was sdl susceptible tIJ UJsis lt was ao unprecedemed but curiousy amblguoos plurruistic syttem there seem tO be no satisfrutory modcls or ronceptli in che sociaJ scienee VQ(abulary to adequa[ely define ie (Lindberg and Scheingold 1970 306) In a anide Joseph Nye coruiacutedered thac Jespite rhese and otber revisioos the neo-Euncrional approodl srjlJ embodies 11 nurober of fault tbu re1lcct jrs origins in [he 1950s (Nye 1970 767) He proposed a nUml)(l OC changes scating rhe derendent variable lels ambiguoUlUumly adding more politiul ruwn reformufating rhe Hst oF integration condiuons and pethapli mOSf
significantly drOlping che ideas ufa single path fmm qWlsi~full(tiexclonallasks tuacute politica1 uuion by meamiexcl oF 5piUove( (Nye 1970 767 He conduded rha[ shnn oF dramadc chaugc the prospect9 (or common markets or microregiorud cennomie organiutions leading in rhe shon ron (of dendes) to fedewt1nn oc m1me sOtt oE polidcal union capable of tlU indept1Ldent dcferue and foreign paliey do not seem very high (Nye 1970 1129)
There hiexclas been a long jotJJney trom the functiorudisl-fecleral nope5 of Jean Monoet back jn 1950 but it has seen the evolution of nm only the
144 WitingJ on inlernafuacutemal ttrganizafifmJ
Communiry insrirurions and policies bur aIso neo-functionalist thinking The Iogic of inregrarion gave way ro coping wich rhe crises inseirutions mixing federalisc and intecgovernmental elemenrs were replaced by a Western Europe in which instirucional tidiness is best forgorten (Haas 1976 211) and the federal elemenrs seemed ac mosc dormam The hopes of che 1950s had been replaced by rhe uncerrainties of che 1970s and the early 19805
Wirh rhe launching in 1985 of rhe idea of creating a Single European Markec wuumlhin rhe EC by rhe end of 1992 che signing of rhe Single European Acr in 1986 (which exrended EC comperence aud changed irs inscitucional balance) and che sectlement of a uumber of Common Agriculcural Policy problems in February 1988 che Iogic of inregration seemed ro be revived
Wriring in 1990 Keohane and Hoffmann resrored and refined che neomiddot funcrionalisr norion of spillover advanced by Errut H9al They were sceprical char rhe rheory of spillover could explain the ECs irucirurional developments of che late 1980s buc saw it aCling posicively in orher ways for example rhrough che incenrives ro institutional change given byenlargeshymenc of EC membenhip in rhe early 19805 (Keohane and Hoffmann 1990 289-90) They saw che pcocess cominuing and barring Clrasrrophic excernal fucrors were moderately oprimisric abour rhe Communirys furure prospecrs (Keohane and Hoffmann 1990 296)
This view was raken up by Tranholm-Mikkelsen (991) and Holland (993) borh of whom saw che revival of rhe Communicy agenda in rhe Maasrrichr Trealy - wich irs blueprinr for a move ro economic and monetary union - as being a revival of the neo-functionalism Drher wrirers on European incegration at chis time adapted che basic notions of neoshyfunccionalism bU[ broughr in extra fucrors Majone (1994) agreed char che EU had seen an upgrading of common inreresn but placed an emphasis on public choice policy ro explain particular Ouccomes Marks et aJ (996) saw a much more complex relarionship berween che Communiry and domestic decision-making leve Though rhe srare was srill very important ir no 10nger monopolizes European level policy-making or rhe aggregarion of domesric interescs 0996 346) Insread rhey idenrified rhe growrh of mulrishyleve governance wirhin che EU
Indeed rhese developmenrs in neo-funcrionalisr wrirings on international organizarions poim up sorne of the criticism~ of che schooL Firsr despice rhe besr efforrs of Ibas Schmitter and Nye it remains a rheory overwhelmingly dominaroo by an inreresr in rhe EC and larer rhe European Union In 1964 Haas and Schmirrer rried to extend sorne of che lessons uf econumic union in Westeru Europe ru Larin America Drawing on Haass 1968 preface ro The Uniring of Europe rhey discerned nine variables four relared ro background condirions (similariey in power of memben rares of rransaction pluttllism in member seares complememing elices) rwo referring ro condirions ar rhe time of economic union (similarity of governmenral purpase powers of che ecunumic uniun) and rhree ro process coudi[ions (decision-making sryle
W[J U UWltU 15
rransacrions rate rhe adaptabiliry of governmenrs) (Haas aIld Schmitcer 1964 711-19) They looked ar rhe chances of policicizarion chat is the possibilicy chat lhe acmrs seek m resolve rheir problems so as ro upgrade common inrerests and in rhe process delegare more amhoricy m che centre (Haas aIld Schmitcer 1964 707) Nye in his article Comparing Common Markecs (1970) rried ro modify che Europo-cemric narure of the neo~ funccionalis[ approach and drew on a wide range of cases of economic imegracion Larin America Cenrral America rhe Caribbean Eastern Europe and East Africa as weH as EFTA and che EC He concluded [har
The original neo-funcrionalist model was close m irs ongms in the straregies of European inregrationisrs in che 1950s and thru mighc be seen as a rempting and misleading guide for policy in orher aceas The revised neo-functionalist model is not somethiug ro be imiraced bU is simply a rool fur making comparisons We wanr ro know whac differshyence ir makes if a group of seates form a common market
(Nye 1970 830)
Though by rhe end of che 1980s rhere were few places ro be found outside Europe thac were forming common markets rhe formacion of he Norrh American Free Trade Atea (NAFTA) and rhe renewal of economic cooperarion in Latin America and Sourh-Basc Asia during rhe 1990s provided different models from the more poliricized EU These seemed ro challenge some of the basic assumptions of rhe neo-funcrionalistS aIld perhaps give some weighc ro Nyes scepcicism ciced above
Second i[ is clear chac che neo--funccionalisrs have had trouble wirh che insticudonal formacs They have rerreaced from being functional federalist almose back co Micranys eclecric approach rowards institudons They have also accepced [he durability of rhe nadon state in resisring che logic of inreshygration and have soughr compromise formulas which at leasr continued ro place emphasis on non-srare accivicies even if insticutions above che stare (supranarional) were seen to be susceptible to stare inrerference
A chird Cliricism concerns the gtOH of non-srare acrors favoured by rhe neo-functionalists They have consraudy emphasized [he imporrance of polirical acrivisrs the elites of inrerest groups and rechnocrats This may have parrially blinded chem ro a weakness in rhe ECEU rhar could have affecced neo-functionalisms earUer proguuscicarions from being fulfilled its insticurions cannoc draw on rhe day-ro-day polirical resources available tO the narional policical acrors This has led tO a gap mosr noriceable in che newer members berween perceprions of che EU by the represemarional elice and rhose of rhe ordinary vorer or consumer Whilsc some earlier srudies of opinion in the EC did inelude opinion pons rhese ofren dealt wirh easy questions (showing ones EuropeaIl idenriry) 01 soft options (whether rhere should be say a more acrive EC industrial policy) With the firH expansion of rhe EC in 1973 and rhe first major oil price iucrCdse
146 Writi~5 cm lI1lMfatleuromal orgfll1iutl1ltl
whi(h coinoacutedemally happenoo a yeat liexclater Euttiexclpean voren werc faeed increasingly wirh mu(h harder options inflation versus employment tlnde union righu againsr consumer inrerests The poISibllity was thar bcing a good European might mean aHowiog sorne other COUlltry5 ruuionals to explott ones fish or oH The crearion oiacute a Single Enropean Marker within the Ee by the end of [992 and rhe move rowards a single curteney from 1999 by eleven theo (wdve of rhe HU member litares bmught he activi~ ties of the VOlon do~er lO the wodd of tite coosnmer or worker However chis seem iexclf anything to have iocreased rhe alienariacuteon of voten from rhe institntions aM acrivilies of rhe EU The 2000 election for rne Europeao Parliamenr shnwed the lowest tnroour yer in sllfh direct elections ano Enrobarometer opini()fi poUs have demonstrnred a msative trend in public opinion on che EU rnropaeuintknmmdgl0epoebc-b531p3npdO Ir may be thar a oumbcr uf interest groups llave switched rhrir expecta6ons and poJiexclcical activirics tuwatds the 00 bllt many of the ordinary European V(l(fS seemed ro have failed ro trans[er th~ir lnyalties tu he Union
In surnmaty the neo-functlona1ists mok np Mitranys srudy of rhe a-lashydons betwren group~ and individllals in oHferent sures il5 wellas che sta(cs representativtltl They tried ro gtapple witb the queuit)O (lf political control uf such iostirurionalized funcrional re1ation5hips aod ro undrrstand how ir would affrct rhe oatnre uf tiJe nation state They arremptrd to define the statuS of [hese newfy creatoo insutution5 tnough rhry wete out always fvlped by devdopments in che ECfEU which WWl rhe focus of rheir studies Tbdr works have demun~trared rhat the EU imututioos are by 110 mratlS juse ordinary imerg()vcrnmenral ones lh~y have al) provideo a mirror ()f the hircof) of (Yents in Westetn Europe in pankultH - moviog flom unitios aod poJitkal dynruniqgt through ~rress oy$ and anguish to obsolesceuce tllrbulent fudds and back to mooerace optimism and a new dynamism
TrotJJ(l(iacutecnaUJI
Anorher Americao writer whose work dealt wirh che question oiacute integrntion is KarJ Deursch Alrhough not a neo-fotlcrionalilit his tranmctional appwmh nali dealt with sorne iOmmoo ~hemes He has been umrerned with more rhan imergovermneuul relation~ aod indeed hM str~iexcl reJations berweeo peopIes nitherthan just rhe elites favonred by manyneo-fuflctionalists Deursch concerned himltelF with m( absrnce or presence of significan orga~ oized preplttrations fol war or large-snde iolence between int~rnatiexclona1 policical commuoities It was [he secutity rommullttles lhat had elimirutted war and [he expectation o[ wat whhin rheir ixmndaries whicn Dentamph and his PrincctOll coUeagues exarnined in PeliriuJ Cfml1NJNlily dIId M NarJh lt14Jtlaquo Atia (1957) A SClttlriLy community WWl defined as a gronp of people wnich has become ~inte8rated~ io rhe sense that thete is real iacutelSSnr+ ance that (he members of that rommunity will not fight ellch oeher
Wriil1g1 (raquo1 iacutelMfatlortal tJrgaiadlMm 147
physkally but will se~tle their disputes in liOffie otber way (Deutsch 1957 5)lt loregration does not necessarily mean rhe me~ging oF peoples ot governshymental units intn a ~ogle unie an idea explicir in fooerahsr rhinking Otud implicir in much funrtionalist wtiting Jnstesd two $otS uf integrared secu~ rit communities ar~ hJemified the amalgamarelt where pteviousiy independent unlts have bcen rormaly merged lnro a larger unit wich a iexclommotl guvernment (eg tlle US) ano the pJuralisric where srparate gnvertUlleJlUl Illlioraio their iexclrgaJ indepeodence (eg uacutenada amI rhe US) In stlldying a nllmbcr of cases of anempred or octual intesratioo io tbe Nortn American and WCSt European area Dtunch conduded rhat tIacutelere werc iexclweive conditions essential fnr the rurcts of ao amalgruruued teeutity (Ommuniry and thM rhree wen nec~ry fm it5 plutalisdc COUnrfrpilrt
The1e three conslsted of rhe compaiacuteibiliry oiacute marer valU($ relevant to
politiclll decision-making tbe capacity o( the participariacuteng plt)htinl Imitl or ~mmem~ ro respood tu each othcrS oetdl messages and llaions quickly adeqwuely and without rtsort ro vlolence aad rne mutual predicrability n bchavior (Delltsch 19H 66--7) In Deutschs work emphasis was placed 00 cornmunkauun brlweEn potidca uoIacutets increased trnns1Ctions between them (such fL polirinl exchangcs toUfl(m trade and rratl~pott) brought increases in mutual dciexcl)Cl(enmiddotc fue s cummnnity ro be created (his high level of trnnsactrons must be accomgtauied by mutual responsiveness o that thr demand o( each side 00 he other mn rccdve adequate and sympatheric treatroent llthis wouk not ooiy predude the need [01 aggressive action lO acbi(Ye ends bm would aJso build up 11 feeLing u( UUSt and seturiry in che edationship
Deuucb does not have an obse~uacuteon with imernattomtl orgaoiexclZ8rion~ although his 1957 book iacutes in [he eM collcetned with the ctelltiacuteon of UCCIlshy
tity community in the NATO area rhere ate few tcferences to internatlOnal nrganiuuons Many o( the Cll5C studj( are ser io tbe pcriud before (be postshywar expansioll uf such organlurions and almost all deal ieh bilareral relatIacuteonshj~ O(utschs work has coosequences for the lUudy o( ioternuiona organizatIacuteoos govemmental ano non-goveromCotaj iO[~rnational otiianiza~ tioos can be created as a re~ult uf a plnraliacutes[ic secuciry nmunuoit) lne integracion of whkh may evtotuaUy become iacutennirurjonalized iexclu nuppened reo the ampandinaviiexclm states creand (he Nordic Counci1 There run abo be forrns of instirUti(lnalued communiratlons berween socieries wnich prOldde the transactions and undersrandinli rhat help create ji securi[y community DeUtsch wrote
li the way tu iexclnregrarion domestic or internarionat i$ through rhe achievemem of a srose of community tnut undergirdS insrirurjtms thm ir seems likely [har ao iorreased sense of cotlloounlry would hrlp to snellgtbcn whatever instirutioos - supranatiooal or internacional - are aLreAdy Oltraring
([)euriKh 1957 7--8)
ltgt -_ bullbullbullbull _- _
Demsc-hs work was mken funher in a vnluffie ediretl io 1998 by AdLer and Bllenen (l998) (lLat docs pay sorne attention to ioternariorutl otgilniushydoos Indecd their volume contairu chapters thar rekr ro rhe oseeacute NATO the EU the UN the GnU Cooperarion Cowxil (GCC) aod rhc Assodation uf Soud Eat Asian Niexclttlons (ASEAN) They daim that imetshyruHiomuacute organiexclzauumlons aud iexclnstitutiacutem~ played al lmporum role in elKiltlraging more inteo$ive and extensive ioteracrioos octwttn states rhrough theit uwt-huildiug propenies (Bnrnetr and Adler 1998 418) They lht six corulusions of this snuerneor
bull By moniroting srares agreemenu tntcmatiuacutelwl orpuuacutezatiexcloo~ give them he cooftdente tuacute cooperare io (he ahsencc of trUSt
bull Jnternational O1ganizarions allow Hi1tC$ to discover new areas of muuwl intetellls Tu ponimlar [hey cenoacute ro link panicular areai
bull Inrcmational organizatiom can hdp shape $fllre pracdces by liCtting down nOfOU Ihat define what is acnptablc
bull The iIKTeaiing nwnber of internacionaJ orgamrutions emuuragC$ muldshylatetalim
bull They dIlO eruourage smres lua societies to see rhelll$Clvcs as pan of a resion
bull 1ntildeey can abo shape lhe identiry of rheir memben (Banlett aod Adler 1998 418-20)
The aurhms cWmed char cheir stuJit$ demonmared rhe exrent 10 whkh social cnmmunicadons beomes insrimtioualileJ aOO embedded in lnreroashytional oC8linbatlooslt and in turU how (hese organizatioru express an inreot to dcvelop trUSt end mmwl identificarion (Batnm and AdJer 1998 418) TIe work on sccurity (mmnunidcs is pelhapS at ir strongcu whcn dealing wim the esrablishetl Westcrn democracies rbough llamen and Adlers work shows rhar it may hilve a wider urility
lnlerJciexclnmdcme
Furrhcr emphasi on the growrh JO cnlnsaccions berween l()Cicries can be seen in the worts of Keohane 11l1d Nye who were m che forefront of the iexclnrerocJXndcnce school in rhe lJoited Srnnt fhey puacuteirued our (he conseshyquences of the innease in tldrunarioualucdolU ro che study uf iexclnternncional rdarions Thcit statcing iexclgtoint was sLlnuuarized chus
TraM1latlowJ relations are nolaquo new alrhough che growth of tmnsna~ tklOal orgnnizarion in me twentieth centuty has been specracunr Ye-r our nmremioo iso nor ooly rlur rhe srate-centrk paradigm )$ inade~
quare bur also thar it igt becoming progttSsively more inadequate as changes io inrernational relauumloos take place
(Keohane and Nye 1971 xxv)
The) llsred five omsequemes uf this growth uf inEematiooal inrcracrions ana organizarJ(tIls fur inrerstate politks (1) rhe promntiun of attirude change amongsr driacuterens (2) ao innease io inrernacional pluralism the linkjng of nntiooal Interese groups in tnmsnational strtlCtures usuaHy involving transruttionaI organizations fOI rhe putpoampe of (04)minatioo ltKtohAne and Nyc 1971 xviii) whiacutech has heen lhe basis for much noo~(Jncdontllist wriexcling (3) me cmdon lf dependence and inrerdependcofe IS often associacuteshyarea with intetnilriorutl cranspormrioo and iexclnance Keclune and Nye 1971 xix (4) creating new insrruments fut iexclnfluence for use by sOJne governments over ()(bers (Keuhane aOO Nye 1971 xx) 1100 lt5) dJe emergence cE auronomous acrors wirh priwre ntildelreign policia thar roa) deliberarely oppose Oiacute impinge on Sla(e polides (Krohilne and Nye 1911 xvii)
In a late book (1977) Keohane and Nye dcah with che questioo of imershydependem-e in world poliacutetics io greatet depth Iorecclependencc $lnce tbe Second Wm1d War has- onen cesulted from increasetl ttaosnadonal atciviries and iexcli divided ioto twO sorrs sensltlviry iacutemerdcpeodence (dte muIy effecrs of dULOges jo tranS1lCrJons oc ~()ciacuteetiexcles or govetrunents) md vulnembHhy interdependence where he acrors Hahllhy tc suffet eO$n iacutemposed by extemal evenc~ js (aken inro accoum (Koonane ana Nyc 1977 12-13) In COntrast ro tbe reaisr view of world poHrk Keohane and Nye pm totward che idea type of complcllt imerdependence which chey claimed soroetimes comes dosee ro realiacutety chan does realism (Keohanc attd Nye 1971 23) aod whieh has three nuio characretl$tks it allows fo mulnple rhallne1smiddot- imershyStatC tiansgovernmental and trilnsnationa- conneltring sncieries there i an abserue of hierarchy ilmonS the rnany questions ac inle hetween iexcliexcltates with military securiry no 10nger dominntlng lUly agenda and Millnu-y force 15 not used by governments toward orher governmenu within me laquogion or on [he lssutS where complex intetdcpendence prevaiacutels (Keorutne aoo Nye 1971 25)
These dltee condidons are said by KCQhane aOO Nye to typify fairly weJJ 5Ome LIlAUe$ of global economk md ecological interdependence ami come dose ro chamcrerizing rhe emite relarionship hetWetn sorne cnuntdes (KeolWne and Nye 1911 25) Complex ilterdepcndente glVel rise ro oacuteininctive poliacutetical processes a sute $ goals wiacutell vary by mue arca with mmsgoYernmeotul puumllitics making goab difficut ro define as ttansgovern~ menrnl llClaquo()$ (fof cxample mtfUsrers of agr1cuJmre inte11igente agencies nariona wcather bureaux) pursue their own aims Jhe followiog facwn are reLevant iriexcl eilch issue area
bull iexclhe resourc-es of a Ncue fur thaI particular area are most relevaot radre Ihan the stares overull military ~tre-ngth
bull international nrganizatinm and uansnntional actors wHl be fruloipula[ed as malnr instrumenrs oiacute mue poHcy
bull rhe agenda of issUC$ wi11 be fOrmulated hyebltUlgcs in the power dirmi~ burlon wirhin [he issue alaquollS by rhe pururinn (lf internarional regimes
150 Writings lIlt inttn1atiQrJ41 ergdniutirll1J
by changes jn rhe importance of ttaflstlational acwtS and by linkage froro orher issues
bull linkage between 1sllor$ will be mote difficult for strong naces to undetshyrah ir[orce 1$ downgraded
ft whiJsr linkage by we$k srares rhrough internacional organuumlarions seu agendas helps coalition-wrming and provides arenas for the political acdvity oC weaker states which can use the choice of organizarional forurn [or an issue and rhe mobiliZlition of votes as a politiul resource
(Keohane and Nye 1977 37)
Thm Keuacutehane and Nt gavc inremarjonal organizaciOfls an iroporran[ role in thde compfex interdependence model of world politics a model which whilst not uSlaquo (O explaitt aIl world politics was one which rhey daitned to hllve iacutenfrtasing releYJ1nce in IIlarge and growing area 1ntildeey used an intetnUional organizadon mooel as one of the explanations ror internashytioua regime change that js che lthange in the sets of goveming flrrangernems affening relatioruhips oC interdependence In tMs C$e intershynadonal oJsanisaciolls refeued ro multilevd Iinkage norms and insritutions (Keohane and Nye 1977 54) which once euablished are harJ (O enlAlicate BeCllue o( this rhey may Stand in the way of swes using thdr capabHities In ordec 00 chauge regimes Instead powet outcomCl will be more aJfectcU by votlng power (in the UN General AssemWy for example) ability ro futtl) coalidoos llnd 00 control elite networks (ruch as that founo io clte institushydougt of the European Commnnities) Whilst the complclt illternadorull organizarion mode1 was only Ofle oiacute fOur aJvaucecl by Keohane and Nye ro explain regiffie chAoge tbey Jiu expeomiddott jr to contribute to such chaIlSC in a world where complex interdependence (onditions pertain
1he rontribmions by Keohane and Nye demonstra(e hoth the roncero pf American wtilets iexcln inremationru relariWl in the 1970$ with altemacives to
tite srare-centric model and their wiluumlngness tO draw from more rhan one approach bringiexclng rogether elementogt from che more tradidonal appnJaChes with economic models and non-stare-cenuic dements TIleir Wi)rk does however have certain weaknesle$ Perhaps the mon serious is the use of rhe cerro imerdependence and iexclrs djvisiacuteon iexclnro ~n~itivity and vuinerability imerdependence Anepting rhar inltldeperulence meUlS mutool dependeoce (and [hjs leado to discussiou a~ w how mutual maoy relationihips are) che phrase scnsiuacuteviry imcrdcpendenre scarccly wflrmnu thc use uf the term interdependcnce fhe fault lies wJth che authou loose definiuOfl of depen~ iquestcnce as a oiexcltate (lf being detetmined oc $ignificaruly affected by externa fwces The induskm 0(signi6candy atkcted w~aken5 me urillry uf me cerm so tlme che nOr1on oiacute scusltivity inrtgtrdependence seems ro refer ro any nociceshyaMe cffeltr of ooe srate and society 00 anorher A person may Ix- significandy affectcd by taking drog$ wlthout Ix-ing dependen on chem David Baldwin showcd that mis use of rhe cerro interdependence ran conrrary to the striaer
Writingt ()I inf~_Ji(J1ia ~lfizaJJom 151
lUlderstlllldings (lf the concept fuund in MirhiaveUi Montesquieu and Ronsseall as weU 115 in che works uf twentieth-cemury wrlteI$ such as Norman Angell Francis D(laisi -and Ramsay Muir (ampIdwm 1980 7-9) He snuested the U$C of rhe rerms mutnal influence mutual responsivrness ot mutual scrlitivity insread ofscnsirivity inrerdependeruemiddot (Baldwin 1980 19)
A second cuacutericism uf Keohanc and Nyes books aso concems eheie termishynology In dealing wirh rransnational influentes They [ump tngerheraH types of teiations in whieb non~8overnrnental actOrs participare chus makiflA rhe componenrs of cheir new paradigm shifting aud poorIy defined (Wagoct 1974 440-1) Wagner questioned whetber their work simply demonstrated a shifr in interesr to new areas of intetnational polidts shyespedally elttmomic ones - ana whethcr [he world hM reaUy changed or whether we have iexclUSt overlookcd sorne things a1l along (Wagner 1974 441) The atent of imerdependence wa~ also chaHenged by Waltiquest (1970) anJ Rosecratlce el al (977) in che US and by Lirrle Bnd McKinlay (1978) and Strllivan (978) in rhe Briti~h Uteramre
DespiLe any falling$ Keohlllle and Nye provided insighrs ioto ttamlflashydonal polltics they shifted atrention away fcom p~lrely govcrnmental actOts in inff$rate relarions and they poiutm OUt he impMrance of intetnational organlziexcliexclxions in the intetdepcndence oc at lcast rnurual responsiveness of =
rbe rdormist view of both international celBtiOO1l and iuternational orga- nizar1ons has always provided an rutemative lO the more conservativc cealist approach Ir tended ro be dominated jn the pre-wu petiod by internauacuteonal lawyen and ideaJists but sinee hc Second World War has laoched on to the changell in world poUtics 6tst jn the economic ficld and then in Europe thar have Mn more difficulty to explain in ICliIHst term~ It has sten intcrna~ rionnl organizarions as mlans to manage trends such as iucftI$(d economl( intlrdlpcndcoC( bar hll5 also illtceplcU rhat these organizations mar necorne impoftllm aCtoriexcl (lO che wodd st$ge lhemselves and can cettainiy Iacute)(cnrne involved iexclO changing rhe preferences o( governmeflts
RADICALS
Writers covered in this sccrion iCe rhe intcrnadonal sysrem flOt so much as being domlnlltcd by states bn( more by diUerent divisions 01 its peoplcs Thi$ is noe to Sfly fhat chey ignore surtes They cOflsider them elthet w be ks tmportant chan the iquestjjsions of diUS tit wealth or merely ro refI~ct these othcr factors ot w be roadblo(ks to unky in (he fare Qf mote impomllt chalmiddot renga Power ls seefl as belnamp cxercised by eh( wealthy II1ld privileged and open to cha1Jeuge Change in the system is possibl( but onty through srrll8ge or by an awakenjug pf peoples tQ rhetr real sitllatlon Most iexclnter~ natimal organization~ are thus regarded as (eflccrioos of the currcnt unsruisracwry stare uf aiacuteTairs though $fJme more activist orgauhatioos mar llave potential as vehicles or (hange
This SIoacuteCElOn has betn sub-middotdivided imo rhree gthe fUS( are the econ01nk srructuralists and indude Marxists and Third Wocld wruumlers cririclll of rhe cutrem imernruionallyuem They haacuteve in common a belief mar che polltshyiexclcal srructUres of me world halle leeo wbloned mainiexcly by eltonomic fiiexclctors and rhAr mere has bren an intiacuteJUIllity builr imo the presen sytem lhe recood are the cruumliral app~es who5e radicalilifl1 is mure of the iacutemellec~ cual SOrt They rejeCf - Uf at 19$[ question - Jhatly of rhe usumpcions utlderlying be lIiews ofhe world tepresented by the realists and refotmers Finally mere are the globalim Theit perspective ls planerary ana theiacuter rnain conrtrn h fM rhc survival uf Earth Agilln they challcnge che mme statemiddotbuled approaches of both realjsts and reformers
Stnuturaluacutet lIiews
Ihe srructuralist appmiexclch rO (he swcly of inrematioOlIl relations differs In imporrant wars tO thoee of me realists and refotmuu tbough ir has some elemeou in comroon with mands ofb04h schools As roany of (he neo-realistsshyemphasite (he power scructure of wudd potities this sectiacuteon willlimir jwgtlf ro (hose writers roncerned wich the impacr 00 me political S)Srem of rhe wodds ccooomic strucrure Unliacuteke che ttalist approach the erooomk srrucruralisrs are OOr jUSt concemed with swtts io wodd polilla and rhelr economic and poIitkal differencC$ but alw with the divisioru within f1tld berween SoOCieties (WiIIeas 1990 263) They are [heretOre romerncd witl the rifi berween riel iexclmd poor within scares and rhar herwtto udl and poor glohally This leads ro an interese lO trulSlUirional reladoru as well as in inrergo~romenmt links Th(f have this in corrunon wim refPrtllist views bm diexclfier foom chem in (he emphast~ placeoacute on rhe structures of world pollics beinc formuared by eltooomic fiexcliexclcmn In rhis selttion attentioo wilt be given te MarxiS[ wtlletS lIud sume Thir1 Wodd view$ - partiuilarly (hose of rhe cependency sdlOOf and rhe developmemalj~[II - who have made a cootribution quite separare from rhat of rhe Muxiacutesr uadidon
Marxill laquoewl
There is no one Marxisr interptetariacuteon of me role of imerniexcliexcltional Olganiza~ cions in world politics Sur Manis[ approschf3 have certain elements in common and form a di~dnctive 5ch001 of rhough[ about lnrernartonal telamiddot tions generaHy and therefore ahotu international ocganizadoos These appmaches are based 00 du writiflgS of Karl Marx (l818~) in coshyoperarioo witb Fuacutewrich Engels (1820-95) with perhaps tbe gtearest later conrribution being maJe by VL Lenin kader of (he 1917 fo1shevik revolushydon in Rurna They are cf importanee pany becau1e ehey ficm tlle 00515 for mmmuniSt [hinking and (hm mey have an anactunenr m rhe Soviet Unian whieh WIlS be suongc1t commnuist stare unrII 1991 and EO rhe Peoples Republic of China COlUT1UnJSl sinee 1949 Apan ftom lbis ManiS( beliefs
had a irmng inpur mm Wescern imdleltrual cruoking and conunue ro iruoan some viewi abom wodd politics in rhe Third Wodd
Neither Marx no Mancisrs took rhe stare ro be (he curtency of iacutenteInashy(iexclonal relations Unlike (he realist viewpoints chey did fiO( coruider interactions blaquoween soveteigu ltates to be ofovettidi importance UnHke tbe funcrionalists aud other modem Westetn views rbar srress non-stare actocs Marxiexclsts in particular emphasized cbus relatlonships born wiexclrhin nates and IiCOOSS Stare boundaries Indeed ie is diffku[r ro talle only of a MaIXIacutest view of inrernatiooal re1atioll5 lec ttltme of iorernarional orgnniza~ UumlOOy as rhis separares ene particular aspecr of human behavinur tor MIlIXIsr rrearment divorcing ir from the undedying relleCS of Marxlc beliefs Man-ism provides a framcwok of undemanding by whkh ir iacutes daimed ~ociery pan lind vresen can be explaioed and che furure development of mankiexclnd determined
According ro Maf1 relariooshipamp between people and the futm~ mar insdmdooallzed rhose relatienshfpamp depended on rhe economic $truCtUR of soday fhe way rhat productlon was organized He traced the history of dvilixed maokind through five hiuorical staBes - AAjade mdenr feudal capttalin and socialin - which have ditTereru dominant methods of produc~ tioll leadiog 10 a complirared arrnngement of $OCiety ioto various ordetS 11 manifuld graduadon of sociru tank (Marx llnd Boge1s 1965 40) amph form of sorlef has coutained rhe conflictual divisiQl$ which help [Q tranuacuteorm the narun of rhat $Ocjeey coRrradicrioru in the mode ofpcoducfIacuteon placed srrain nn rhe existing social nrder sharpeniug rhe divide berween economic founshydatinn of sociery and a mpld aansIacuteonnlltion of in SOpel1Ullcture in legal polidcal and re1igious it1$tirutioos Thus by 11 confronration of da$~ Conrramiddot dkeions one historlraJ form of soc1ery wus transfocmcd into a bigher stage uf social devdopmem the history of aH hitherto existing ~ociexclety is the histoty uf dass struggles (MaDI Illld Bngets 15 39) Marx and Bnsels were parriculady conceroed wich capita1i$t sociery - ac its Oeyday during theiacuter Uves - and its tmnsrormarion iexcluto ampocis1iu sodety Wlthln rrus form of SoOCiety rOete would be no division of laboU4 and no eWses Illld no SUtes no elCpropnation of labours 5urplus vruue I1nd (bus no private property 00 exploira(ion of ene clilllS ny iexcliexcloother with 00 need fue war
For Marx and fingeJs C1ass then and noiexcl fllltions or sutea are rhe bade units in hurO) llIIIl che struggle between clAssts Jnstead oiacute infeutliltl contlict ocrupies rhe centre of acrention (Berki 1971 R1iexcl From me nlneteenth celUUf onwards rhis struggle -n in Marxisr cerros has been primarUy between [his capicalist dass ([he OOurgeoisic) aOO the bbouring dw (me proletariat) AA (he trarurormatlon fmm capltalisr SoOCIety [O ~OCialiexclMl ro comrounism rook p~e (he superstruerutt of bourgtOis SoOCilaquoy - religioo national divisiacuteon boutgmis politicnl insrirudnns rhe SOlte - woold be swept flway and in Engtls pmse rhe gOlcrotnent nf persons is replaced by [he udminlsuacion of things Fetter 19 (47) with me itEte relegated lO the mmeum iexclngemer Wlth lile spinshyning wheel Qnd [he bronze axe (Feuer 1969 433)
154 WrituacutetKiexclI mJenl4tiorJal rngmZtlJilm
Mux saw the European SUtes of his own rime as being rntans by which the ruBng dass (011amp oppress the work~ng clw by using (he agentl of tht 5tare such as the iudidary the poliee the army and rhe church he (xrerual Ilctlvities of the stare wete also determined by its Chtss namre MeanwhiJe rrmllnat]onat Rlations of a more meaningfuL kind WQuld bt creared by trade rhe movement of capital and incteaiitd romac[ and llOIacuteldarity betwten the prolerariat of vanoulS nations riacuteidefd rhe internacional nriexclaniutions of which Marx and Engels hnd dire(t experiena- wtfe the Fi~t Internatiomd and for Engels the Secund lntemarional both of which atttmpted lO orgashynJxe the represemarives of wruking people aiexclros fronden Onc~ agaJn this stteAAe$ the Marxist empbois on transnarional dass relutions rnther than on intentate relarionships
Whibt Soviet writlngs on international organizatinn1 wtte falrly desulshytory in Scalins reigu 0924-53) rhey did lmerIy hernld rbe move towams peaceful co-existerne arul roreshadowffi the lartf rnrhe[ restrktive view of Imch organi2Atinm hy Soviet commentators
In the post-Second Wodd War period and In patticular in the post-Stalin era Soviet liternmre on international organiuttions bl(lSsomed This has reflected Soviet membership oC ma1ly 1osiexcl-1945 organixations the emershygence of a socialist bloc of sta[C$ and tbe incre-ase in the mlmber of Sowcreign s[ates all flUtontilde demaruHng a more sophisricared Soviet view of lnter~llate reLadoru than che survivalism of Stalins period Uuring rhe lare 19805 i( auo ret1ected the new thinking iacutemroduced by Gorbachev
StalintI suIXessor KrU$hchev developed a revised view of internacional relaCtons which gave a positio1l ro the emerging Third Wnrhl (Tbe Third Wotld was then taken to mean rhotle IItates thar had emerged ftom colo~ nialiacutesm In effect rhe terrn later induded tbe stares of Latin America Africa - exclnding the rhen apaftbeid stnre of South Africa - the Middle Rasr Oceaniacutea and South Asia) Peace(ul co-exiuence between oda1ist and (apltaJisr states WM $til comidered nece1sary but this diacuted noc predude the ideologiacutecal stmggle between rhe two campsmiddot iexclndeed lhe Soviet inter~ national lawyer GI Ihnkiacuten wrote pearcfut cocx15tence of sutes represeonng che tWO differeor rodal sysems is a slccific form uf dass struggie beween socialism and calitllllsm (Osakwe 1972 37) The Soviet Union abo deveJoped relatlons wirh rbe newly emerging exshycoloniaJ cOllntdeJ and Soviet writiog had tu take ~ount of this developmem There wru a recognirion of a third group of stattli between rhe capitalist aud the communlsr that of poteorially friendly indtptomiddot deut $tarem io Europe and Asia such as India Egypt Indnnesia and Yugoslavia which would filrm a tone of peace Although the rebtions wiacuteth rhe capitaliacutest sures sriacuteH remaioecl embedded in pelteful coshyexluencc rhere was an emphasis by postmiddotStalinist Soviet writets on the da eJement in lile telatiomhil - that is rhe wntact with progressive elements in Weste1l sodeey smh as che Jabonr mnvement Ncither diexcld peaceful co-exiucuce rule OUt ~upport o[ middotjUSt wars of nationallibcrildon
WIacuteJIacute11gs tm iacutenUrllUtional WjatlJZtiacutelJlff 155
iexclndeed ir was seen lt a strategy fo wodd reloludon Fiacutenally (he rrlashyfIacuteonhips berween the Sovier Union and East Eumpean countries vere deerned ro be based on sociali internationalism posmlating a haemony of natinnal and commllnity interests and mndllding thar jnde~ndeuce and sovereioiexclnty of a soctalist uate means aoove aH indepltndencc from capitalism (Red Star 1 December 18)
Tunkin underljned traditional Soviet thiacutenking rllar the mngtrltllenl imrrllment of an ioretnational urganization (fne example the Chaner oiacute the UN) was all-impottant in derermining tIte enene rrun the otganizauumlon bad an international legal pcntildeonaliry rhar iexcl5 a standing in internacional 1l1w 5imilar tu titar of a sovereigo staxe Examining lhe question of the antonomOllS wiU oiacute international nrganitatioll Tunldn allowed thl1 they need not jmt act as agtnts for member stares
In imernatiunal ptacrke trellties conduded by jntcrl~ational mSaniacutezashytinns take their speciaJ piare as treacies by wbkh internationsl organimtiom aequire righu and take upon themselves cerrain obligiexcllshytioos Intctnat10nal organizatiou are created by Hares hey are broughr iexclnto being by states but the actloacuteos of imcmational organi7ashydoos are nlt)( in any way de facto or de jure ro be tqt1sred lO the actions of scates
(Osakwe J972 23)
Thi did nor mean than M internadonal organiacuteiariexclon was an entity indeshypendem of its memher us[es as any powers (har they hacl were delegated by [he members In Jine wirh che ampwiet doctrine of peareful co-exiacutesteme Tunkin placed Uress pn (he nature and rhe membership of an international organiacuteution dlOSe which drew their membersbip from commlmi1t c1Ipishytalist and TIiexclird World tares could expcct tu be genel1llly mognized as having an incernarional personaliacutery He wrote
TIte namre of tontemporary international prganiurions is lO a very great exttm derefmined by [he existerue of Haces beJonging ro differem wcio-economk systems and the ioevitable muggle between them Thar is why pcaceful crexislence is now the bl-sic condition of rh~ dfVC1iexclpshyment ufgeneral interoational ntganization
(Osltuumlltwlt 1972 289)
Mor07JN Clt1ntrlbuterl sorne extra points Fintildet be iududed JNGOs in his stndy He wrote dlQt lotetnational orgaruulions have as iI rol 8t least three member coumries TheM may be government$ offidJ orgilnlzarions or 0CInshy
guvernmental organizatiow (Morowv 1977 30) In a 11Iter seccion m NGo thcy were ldencifred as che la~ group of inrerrulttonal organiuttiolls wim two aspccn rbar concttntd socuIacuteiacuteIgtt commemarors tbe NGOriexcl auirude towards the preservarion of pealaquo wkh the Wnrld Feieradon ofTrade Unions
6 _ 0
rhe Wodd Fedemion oE Democratk Youth and otber meiexclllbtrs oiacute tbe Sovittshybacked World Peace (ounaacutel gaining special mentioo and the specialiuJ chataCrer of sorne NGOs itl(h as rhe ruerrutriunal Couocil of Scientifu Unions and che Scienrifk OJmmiuee on Antnrctk Research MOrlrLOv memioned how NGOs can belp emblish a social dimate citillg their contti shybution ro (he setdemenr of a number of internacional confHcu swh as dlilr in Vietnam He aOO dealr wirh the role of che NGOs io cbe UN aud che consuJshyrative srarus [hey llave witn lGOs saying du[ smdems of internariooal affitjoiexcl
in [he socjalisr councrics m critieal of many asplaquots of (his system fur the eoruulrarive StatuS amogemenrs stiU fall shon of wha( [he deveJopmenc of modern inretnatlonal relarions in fac[ catls fur (Morozov 1977 43) Tbe specialized namre ufNGOs Wamp1 atttibuted by M((2OV tu
tht increased Jnfiuence of the pubic at large un roreign polky [he grearer iexclmpat of public opininn in imernatiunal reladuns and [he greater importante uf me ideological fiexclUtot 10 $ucb relations Accoum should abo be raen of che proccsses of cconomic developmenr and [he coosequenc~ of [he scienrific and rechnological tevolutioo which has also led ro a greatet number of speoacutealized NGOs
(Morozov 1977 42)
Second Morozov wridog jo d~ late 197amp made moU pos-irive refershyencelgt (O [he role oiacute Trurd Wodd SUtes in imemaciooa otganimrions He noted rbar rbe emetgtoce oiacute ti large oumbe of Oung natiooal stares h8ve kd fO che emetgcnce of intetnarJonal Drganizadons among develcpi08 ecuoshytries (Mororov 1977 29) aod claimed hat partkiparion in (hese organh311oos is part uf he process uf consolidating their sovereigocy and ruuional jndependenu~ aod of wlviog cheir pressing ecoOfJmic anJ orher pmbemsmiddot (Morozov 1177 31)
Finally Momzov developed the puint made by fimkin aOOut he limited llalUre of ioternationaJ organiurjQn$ - ~econd-dllSS ffitrnbers nf the inrershynarloual sysrem as opposed tu rhe firsr-diexcllSS members SQvereJgn stateiexcl by reretcme tO theit dedsioos There bave resulted froro che inrelllctioo of politicuJ euroorces within the organil1ldons and
Thecombined will uf chcse lGOs i5 disuumlnc[ from [he wllls of theuuml indishyvidual members io in eflSenlte and ln in narure The v1ilflous wills in thb case are nor agsregued arirhmetically each one exim indepenshydendy ur oside a homogeneQu~ socio-political gOUP wirbin whose frarnework (hey can be combjlled
(Murozov 1977 34)
AfLer lhe comiog ro powet ofMikhail Gorbachev in the Soviet Union io 19Bgt a Ihaoge rook place jo $oVJIl policies rowards imeroadonal relations irutuding international organi1ations and [his has been reflecred in new
~ M-- bull 6_V_
Soviet writings un [he subJect Gorbachev inttoducetl a owjor review of [he fureign poljcy uf the Soviet Union (har marchcd rhe inremiry of his dmncslic refotmS He encouraged new rhinking- based on a revjeJ vlew of che world siruation Peaceful co-existence wirh iexclhe capiralisr tirares WlCgt no looger seeo a~ being a spetjfic fum of dass srruggle as Tunkin had written bUI 35 being in the commoo intecesu oiacute all countriCl Ir WIi$ predishycued on the neOO fin surviva of (he human nce which in ShakhfUlZOlrQvmiddot$ word$ must ofCOUIse take fim place Lighe 1988 297gt- Thjs ml$or rhar a new COIKeuropt of seGldty had ro he adopreJ hy che Soviers rhar oiacute common security which wa5 based un sume of he ideas of -che Palme Comminion (see he1ow) Greater emphasis wu given ro arms control and dlsarmament agreemenrs wirh the Wesr 11nd to co-opttation in international uffuirs whilst Soviet intervention io che Third Wodd enbed and milirary 5UppOtC 1m [he East European communisr govcfomentS WlS withdrawn
Soviet wdcings on inremurionilJ relations both offidal and academic came to mirror Gorhachevs new rhJnkiog bur eho lilete iexcl$ evety sigo chut rbese id~ were dmwu no only from rhe Wesr but alw Uacutenm Moscow mink-tanks slleh as lMEMO th~ JflSIirure of World Eronomy and Inremlfona Relacions) Liacuteght 1988 29~n Gorbschev aun his forngn minisrer FQllard Shevaronadre gave rhe academiacuten a Breen light for funher diSClViiacuteon ud debare (Shevaronadre 1990 23) As II reampul srudies examlned he role of che Uniacutered Nariacuteons as sn ugem for peoce (Kolyrev 1990 12-19 NesrerenkQ 1990 65 Petoovsky 1990 42--3) and rhe mte of inrernational or811nizadons in environmental mliLffers IiLnd disurmamenc qutsdmuuml Chodsulkwsky 1988j NikitiM 1989 123-32 Roginko 1989 133-43) and internarionallaw was teassesred (Sutier 1989~ 363-75)
Once che Sovier Union collapsed many of me wrifetS losr rhe main point of political reference A nwllber Iefi academc orhets adapted thelt ideas ro WCtem oues and a few remnioed as policy rulviseni ro che new Russian goVefrutJenL However cornmunism as M imellectually dominant organiuog rotce wlch pnliiisJ dour had djsappeared in Russia togerllef with much uf the persptr1ve ir provided - wben seen thmugh me unen distotdng leos uf tbe Sovier lfulon - oiacute inrernatiooaJ relatlons and inremariooal organhattnru
Chinese Marxisr wrirers have iexclargeIy reflected rhe views of the leadershyship in Chinll sioce [he coming ro power of rhe Commun1sr Patty in 1949 Undl (he 1970$ communist China was elduded from almon aH iotttllJishytional of811nizIiLtIOns and ie is flot surpriamping tha whae lirde writing tbete WUtl on the st1bje(r Wal fairly dismiacutesampive usuaUy consisdng uf coudemnaM tinos of (he UN fnf its action tn Korea aud rhe security allianes fot teir hegernonic narure Chjnese Marxisr rhinking hiacuteu divided (he modem wotld jnro three groups ihe Birsr World consisred of rile fWQ imperialist superpowers namely he USA ano the USSR The Second World was made up uf otbet areaa uf advamed industrilllired cnuntries primariacutely EUfape aod Japa which were opea ro donunariou by lite Sllperpowers bu( which could $tan a dialogue wirh rhe Thiacuterd World Theu (here was rhe Third
158 Writings OtJ internationdl organizatioru
Wodcl iexcltreI( coruisting of the Afro-Asiacutean-Lario Americltlu sta tes supported in their muggte aAainSt Picsr World imperialism by Chinls This viexclew of the wmId colouted tyJst Chiacutenese wridngs on iacuteoternatiollill oeganharions Tbe $uperJowers were seen as cynical lTlllnipubtors Qf inrernarionaJ jnsti~ tutions Mao Tre~tuog wOre of US poliey towards such insdfutions Ir mam use or them when it neOOS rhem and kicks them 3way when ir does flot (Society (or Anglo-Chinese Underuanding 1979 42) US-domioated pill-~ such amp$ SEATO and imperialist groupiacutengs like rhe Alliance tor PfOgre~( wttt detided Spedal viuiot was saved roc the Warsaw freaty Orgaoizatiun whieh in one aetide was described as Soviet sodal~ imperialisms mol fur aggression (Ming Sung circd Jn Chen 1979 194) fhe Soviet Union was aceuseQ of trying tu manipulate che Pan and negnshydate wlth Wesrem eouorries rhmugh the Enropean Scltwiry Conferenee tn consolidare irs begemonic status in Basrern Enrope at the same time iexcliexcll dividiog Wes(ern Europe squeezing Out the USA ro as ro muSte way (0(
iu expansion and infilrmrion into Westem Europe (Ming Sung clted in Chen 1979 197)
Chinese writecs Fegatded tbe Ntildegttood Worid espedally Western Europe as being a pen force io telmS of imperialism which Ww tdponeed to the lhird World wich diaJogu as io the Jmueacute Convention berweoen tIacute1e European Commnnitiacutees and AF~ican Carib~an and Paciuacutet srUe5
Furrhermore the defensive $spects of NATO were sttessed and with growing European cohcsion the trend iexclS IJkely to ~ towatds a fuoce in which the American elemenr is seen as 1 temporary neceuity eventual1y to be phased out (Sodety fur Anglo-Chioese Undetstanding 1979 90)
lthe countries of the Third World were setn as coostirotiog rbe mluumln force comb$dng imperiaJi~m colonialism and hegemonJsm reEerring nor only to the vestiges of Wesr Etl-OOptan foloniiexcliexclJism bOl abo to US iexclnpetlshyalism and gwwiog Soviet soci$l~imperiacutea1ism Tbe Third Wodd eQuld hdp tn exclude the gre$t powers ny baoding cogecher io such otganizatinos aiexcl tht DAU aod rhey could work ro correct unequiexcliexcl nade and eeonomk reladons with che sUpetpowers through UN iexcliexclgeucies and eonferences such as UNCTAD and UNaos Abo rtlW material ancl exporting orgllnizations liexclke OPEC rbe Incernadonal Bauxilaquo Association ancl the Onion of Banana Bxporting Counuies were proised a ehanging (he old interntlrional eumomic Ome and banerlog che biggest roarerJal plunderers in rile world rhe United Srates and (he Soviet Uoleo (Ptking Rt1Jiew 26 Septtmbtr 1975 cited in Cheo 1979 309)
111e poverty oiacute ehinne study of intetnatlenal erganhuions no dounr caused by the lack of Chinese membership of such etganizacions unril the 197amp and the turmoit ef the Cultural Revulution eiexcliexclme ro an enel by the 1980s Jnstead oere was a more reaHs( viexclew (lE rbe worlcl iexclf one S~shytimes coucbed In Manlst terms In Chlnese univenittes there was a growtb io detailed studies of iutemationalntgsnizations aod the nuropean Union
WritingI un inlmullPmnl vrgrsrtilpiill1J 159
Tbird Wwld vlewJ
Many Third Wodd Afro-Asian aoo Latin Atrusican) writers 00 jntemsw
tional organizaion have adopte a structtulIist framework and are particufarly nm(etnecl abour how insdtutions can be wcd as tools of exploitadon uf rhe nitd World aud how $ome cau be used lIS agenrs of libenuion They llave nor been induded in the ~ettiexcloo un Marxist viltws (or three feamm nOI al of them are Mandst thIJM who are Manisr place particular stresS on (he posicion oF thE l1lIacuterd World and as ThJrd Worlcl eitizens they have through theit own experience unother pe~cdve rhan [Mt of writers from industri$lized srates
Yash 18ndon (1978 377) has identjfied thNf nuacuterd World penfIXrives en inrernational Olganizatiolls Fim [here is that or the bourgeois Of perry natiunalisrs who are in power in mos[ Third World statcs and who are progressive in [errru of anti-impcrialism but are rraniollary ro the C1tccnr WC they would sooner mau thcir pcaee with imperialism rhan iluwnder power (e the masses and peasancs This group uses ineernational orgllniexclm~ tions ro pur presrure 0lI imperialisc states in order to extntCt concession5 from them and appease tbe masses in their own coontries TIley see che UN as an opportunity to parley witb their entwhiacutele impecild masters t a presumed kvd uf equa1iry (Tandoo 1978 365) Thc scltond pcrspective is rhat ofthe reaIly backward regimes of thl Thitd Wodd such un Taiwiexcliexcln and Jotdan or whnm intemarional orguniacutelattnnS are of margJna1 signifieance [)t they prefet tu dea wirh impcrialism iquestirt(tiy The rhird petSPCCrive idenrified by landOll is that uf rhe masses vi thc TIlird World for wbom toterntlunaJ orgmilAriom are petiphewl fin liS Jong as hey rontinue fO reflect the muing balanlte uf clas$ forces in hvour uf impeuacuteJism (fandon J 978 378) Sioce the ene of he 196amp rorces representing thu third group have bccome lnott prominent in world polido in che form of liberarioo groop1 lttCn as tbe PLO and whilst chese have f)tgten interested in galnin8 telaquolgnJtlon rOt rhemshyselves at the UN and the spedaliled agcodes rhey are not depeuden 00 these or8ani1Jlton~ rndecd Tandoo romioeted (hat fo che revoludonary snnggles in SOUfh~E3SC A~a and AfrJctI iOfernattonal otgilnizalJons are tOO peripheml to be of much $ignilJeaoce (Tandon )9713 377)
Tancloo providcd n inrere~tiog history of the Jevelopment uf the anrishycolonialist forees in che Third Wruld sinee 1945 bur hi~ clivi~iexcl()H iexcloro he three perspenives is roo stark leaving aside rhe leil important backWllro regimes be has basiclllly grO~lped tbe Third World leadershp joto the revoshylutionaries who have Uttle netd (or imernatiooa otgllnizatiooll and those who llave suumlpped into refOrmism and have beco duped iot() bdieving (hat they elln ehaoge chelr c1ependeoce 00 industtia1i1Cd nBfiexclmL~ lhrough intemadonal organiwtions Thjs seems to undelsrare me use or ~mh organishyzations by revolutionllry groups - especiiexcliexcllIy che PLO anel tlle SoUthem African liberadon OtgllOiexcl7arionS - whieb have made substaotial use oiacute [he UN me Arah League ano the OAU tO sustain rhe polirical aspeets of theit effOrt5 1t alS(l uverestimatcs the extent tu whieh the Third World countries
J UU wnlmgl 1111 JTiUrllamm41 ergtIttJ1I0fll
have any iUwinru about imetnariooal Qrganizarioos such a~ UNC1~D
Furchermorc the identificador of 800d revolutionaries and falten refurmislS i~ tuller impliexclstjc~ rhe maIur sponrot of the UNs New Ecooomic Order l wruch Tandon hal roudemned as rhe Old Economic Order with a diffefent rltetoric WIIS the Algetian radinu governmenr of Boumediemu rhe PLO irself ha heen dependem on a numlgttr of bnurgeWs Arab goveromenrs foc financial 00 diploJUlltic suppon and ro Tandoos duumlertion that PQr narlonallibemwn movemenn guided by a proktatlan idoology such liS rhose in Chifliexcl1 lIlud Vietnam iruemarionaJ organlwtlona WtU of no 1J5e can be- added the re5ervarion until chey carne (O power Whiht ir took some twenty years belote communist Qtill1 made use nf suth organiutions the unified communiSl Stale ol Vietnam was quick fO cake up it position in the UN ro ask [Ol aid thtough UN agencies liS well as w become ji membet of he CMEA (Comecon)
Third Wodd commemscOt1l on world politics have emphasized the nature uf rheir atea$ potirical ecoOoacutemtc Ilud culmral relatloosluumlp wilh rhe iHdllsrriexcl~ alixed Nonh TitilO is iOO$t Oflltl rypified aiexcliexcl bciug OHe of ueo-folonialism _ COntrol of che Third Wtltld by lhe Nortb by indirecl means ratlet (han by direa colonial tule and of Kf)IomIacute( dRptwJmry (o dtpmdemjiexcliexcl) lntetnationaiacute rdsdOOi bcrween sures are sublumed ro relations between claue$ world wide Ixtween on rhe one lIand the expluacuteiting impetialist capitetists in rhe northcm iru1usuialized couotries 2100 rhcir middle-ltlass collaboratotS in the 50Uthem SUtes aud on the othet band he exploiced masses rhe proleuriat ol [he $Ourhern contJnems The Lurcr gmupS have been 1I1iide ecooomkaUy dependent on [he furmer so char hey lIre in rhe wuacutetds uf the Bruiliiln T Dos SantOS in a situadon jn which the economy of a cetuin group of counshytrles is condiacutedoned by rhe develOplllent aad expansion of aoother ecouomy lO which thcit own 15 subjecred (Bodenheimer 1971 327)
The uOOerdeveloped tounrries depend uacuten [be developed ror their capital nd ercperdse they find key sectors of ehdr eroooroy conrrolled from OUtsJde rhey act as a SOUfce of raw marerials lIS ji lthetip source of labour arul as a rnarket fur mllnuf8ccurers from Euttipe ]apan and North America As thejr living standards were deterrniud by rhe vicissinWeS of the Northern~ dominated wodd marker the relationship was Otle uf unequa exchange (he [esule of which was a world experiencing woequal developmenr with a developed rieh indwtriaJiud capiralisr Notthern centre and d poor underdeveklpedgt agciculrutitlly backwarn eXFloired periphery in che 50mb The dependem 80mh has been divided berween rhe ptedominanr undemeshyveloped area~ lUld a few Cenfres of deve10prnenr wirh their ttade culrural rraffie and polidcal linL to [he deveJoped North - rhe depeOOem develop~ memo omlinea by EH Cardosa (1974) allodlt~r Bruiliall Mmir Amiu (977) rejC(ted the prosptltt of aH antonomous capitalist development in [he Third Work the oew bourgeaisJe of Lacin Ametica Africa and Asia were in allianec with capitalisrs from rhe Nnnh and rhe mato $OUrce of finance ror lmported equipmem was fmm the expon of raw materials to rhe indu~rial
5 ~ _~ smiddot_middot~~
iexclred smes Amin (1977 1-21) SllW rhe can made ror a New Imernational Ecooomic Order (NIEO) by Third World leaders at rbe UN UNCTAD aod che Vilrlous North-Sourh dialogues as an nrtempt LO iexclnerease the price of chelr ntw mattIial exporrs obraio more lmpotted technol08Y snd chus finance a new srage of develQpmenr He saw this ti placing the Thitd World more in the gttp of the neo-co1onialist sysrem and iostmd recommended 11
more self~rcuumlanr development wlrh murrud assismnce between Third World sures a reducdon in [ade wirh rhe induuialized wotld and Chlll a loos~ ening of dependenre Amin lJke TaOOon had Jittle fairh in presenc imtrnruional organizaciexclon Il tools foc fasbiooing a more independent Tbiacuten Wotd His sU88tl1cion of grearer mUtual ilSlgtistaoce between ThUd WorId uate~ implied somtthing more sophillticated than a numbtr of bilateral arrmgements As rbe present orgauizarions used fu iexclncm~Thjrd World cnshyoperation (che OAU he Atab League ASEAN) are domitllued by jusr dl()llC govetnmenrg chM accept lhe eowse coodemned by Amio _ the NIEO ami greater jmegrndon iexcluro rhe world economic sysrem ~hen Amia solutloil involves like-minded deveJoping counrries or more like1y political changes leading ro such indigenous intemuional orgilniwrions
Other Trufd Wodd wdten have plllCtXl emphasls on grearer use 01 exisring insdtutions lOO can broadJy be deKfibed lIS Wopmenraluli huI Prebisch an Argentinian econOmigf has not only studied the que5iaacuteon uf ecooomic dependency but his ideas llave been used as the baJiexclis for che wotk of cwo miexclljoc iexcliexcluemariOOiexcll1 organizadons rhe UN Enmomic Commission fa utin Ameriea (ECLA) and UNCfAD Iu his smdy of Briliacutesh-Argerl(inian trading relntioflS Prebisch bad idenrified rhe unequRl tecrns ol Hade between he favoured (ndusrrislized s(ate of tbe centre and he les privj~ leged llOIl-indumialiacutewl periphery Prebisch unlike rhe dependencia gtChool of Amiacuten Dos Sancos and Cardosa believed thu this inequaLity could be overcome by political acrinn by trade pre[ereonces fuvouring the pedphery by eoo1ruooiacutery agreemenrs by intelnatiacuteowll aid and by more foreiga imvestment in che ~riphery It was thele remedies thiexcllr Prebiacutesch eneouraged when he WiIS Executive SecrCrary of ECLA from 1955 lO 1963 aOO Secrewy-Genernl ofUNCTAD ftoro 14 ro 196tL In~d rhe amoum of aid the periphery needed in omer to overeome their Unfuvoluable rrnde balance became known io UNCTAD clrcles as [he Prebiexclsch Giexcllp
The distinguished Afiican aC1ldentie Aji Mazn1i has wricren un the plighr Qf (bar conciflfnt aod j~ role in pmem~day interruUIDllfl1 afmits He soughr ro answer rhe quesdon Now rlw Imperial Order is eoming ro an end who is going tO keep rhe peaee in Aampica and tu examine he concept of Pax AfrlclllUl the African s ambidoo ro be his OWh palaman The JXIliacutecillJS and se[f~8overnment ufAfriea depended on the nodan ofan African self which Mauui discusseJ in decaH He considered how this 1ndepen~ denre might be threarened by the politicaI and cultural fragmenMion of the contillenr Ellld eronomieally by deperulence on Europe He quoted Kwame Nkntmah finr President uf Ghaniexcll on rhe Europe-Jn ECOntunir Communiry
162 Wilihgr rm intd1JatirmallJrganizatimu
ihe ireaty of Romemarks the advent of oeoKolonitJism [n Afriacuteen snd bears unqutSrlonably the marks of Freneh neo-colonuumlllism (Murui 1967 93) He moduded from tM that Wlut AfrlOlns tbelaquofore neecletl was II
renerru authotity of cheir owa tI) ((lordilJlte fheir eltonomk and policicat deCena- sgain5t trus rnreat (Mamtiexcl 1961 93)
Given this theme it is not surprising tlwt Mazrui ser srore by rhe OAU bU[ he was realistic in bis judgement
In relatioos betwlaquon African statts lIOflesr step rowards Pu Africana was taken when rhe Organiution oiacute Aftlaquolln Uniey set up in Commissiacuteon ofMediauacuteoo Conci1illtion aud Arhitmion
Anormr OAU Commissioo of relevance fot Fax AftlOlna ls che Defence Cornmission Sor me Defeme Commlnion 1w se Car been among che lean effecdve QfPan-Aiacutericun ins(kndons Afrka mar indeed aspire to be her owu ptlliceman bur she does nO seem ready as yel to par the price iacutem it
(Mauui 19612[3)
Mazrui oudined the varicd backgrounds of [he lemen oiacute newly illdepenshydent Africa and thdr radical and revolmionary ideas and it is pethaps swprising rhat the insrirutions rhey created fur me coutinenf wete so mnservative with [he p05sible exceprion oiacute the OAUs Natiomtl Libetttion Comminee Mazrui no[ed thac Africa srill has the problem of how othet powetS respond tu its behaviour and [har forcigo iotmsilm in AJtica continued Indetd the I990s proved tO be a dC(ade of disusrer for AfrieR The debiacute burden contimlld while Ilome states collapsed lnro civil war ami others took to iutenoendoo in thejr ueighbonrs affairs Outslde interference from borh Enrope and North Amecica euodoned One of rhe fcw brlghr spots was the end of apallhcid in South Africa and the peaceful transitioo ro majoriry mJe lo al thiexcl~ tn quote Juliacuteus Nyerere rhe ampcmer pre~iexcldenl of Tan1ania The OAU exists outr ror tbe prorecdoo of (he Afrinllt Head~ oiacute State (cited io AlilgapPltl 1998 1 ) The relarive optimism of Maztui has giveu way ro Afriam writers examining sorne of me disrnrbing details of inaction by [be OAU and regtonal orgauiacutezatJuns nlCh as ECOWAS beiog used as doaks fu the machinations oE regional hegemou$ suth as Nigcria (Mibe 1m 61-9(1)
Radha Sinha$ problem--ortented undy Food iexcllfId PIWt11y (1976) has an IItgent message Sinha a former consultaot of the FAO prodnced an iofuacuterrned aUllyiexcljiexcl of the world$ food problem stress1Og in paniacutecular the maldistribution of food and other resources Noting he profO$ab of UNCTAD with heit muld-rommodJty approach and buffer nocks provjshySiOfli he commented rhe grearesr weakness oE the UNCTAD scheme js les Hkdy politlca1 unilcceptablliry ro me developed (ountdes parriculady che USA (Sinhil 1916 114) a propheey that has proved to he cortect He identitled a more aggresslve attitnde by Third World sutes e5pedally
WrilirrgJ on i1tternatiflii1l rHgarrtzatitmlt 163shy
after the uH prite cise of 197314 when the developing coonuies tried to maximize their own market powers by formin cartcls such as rhe Intematimlal BaurdtC Association the Intemuional Coundl of Copper Expotcing Countries aud the Intema[ional Tin Agrcrmenr He gave n qualified wekome ro the Lomeacute Convention betwcen the European (omrounities anJ cenain African Padfic and Caribbean Haces Writing in 1976 he commented
The receot cbange in rhe luirudes of tite tiche countries is largely due tu the incIeasing miliuncy of the Third World countries lt is almost ertalll utar the magnitude offuture cnnc~sions in me coune ofGAIT aud UNCTAD IV Ilegotiarioos wiU deperu mainly on (he continued solidariry uf the devdoping counlrtes
(Siha 1976 116)
Sinha was pardy correct as tbe solidatity cf rhe Tbird Workl states cracked se the induurialized wodd withheld funher Con(eampSJoru but ir was able tO do so because market condidons swung against che primaty producen
In his condusion Sinha called ror a IIDre1 shttting of wnrld t($nmes and power if confrontarion was ro he avoidOO He feared that the ffa of roshyoptradon berween [ieh and pool conntries hiid ((lT1e to an end and that batde lines were being drawn Instead he advOOIreltI majnr concessions from the dcher coumries on trnde lInd aid issues and a1so a ma~lt te$ltUcrnring of the incematiotlill organization~ aoo negoacutetiating ffiarhinery in order tu provide a much gtC2ter say fm me poorer countries in internatiooal tJ1lde invesrment and mooetaiexcly armngemenrs (SiMa 1976 132) GAn 1BRD aud IMF have been the presenoe of [he ri h with voting weighted m faacutevour of rhe OECD countries and Sinha re(()ffimended thlll GATr aoo UNCiAD be merged inro an Intemacional irade Organization (ITO) and che creatlon of a Third World permanent secrctariat iexclnvolved in all trade and aia negoriarioru Thoogh less radical than Amin Sinha aIso recomrnrnded gttter coshyoperation berween developing coulltries and an eoo ro their inkrtotity complex with instead a sense of m~ttnal sdiacute-e$teem and trust being devel~ oped (Sinha 1976 ch 10) Litde that h~ happened during the 19905 woo1d have encouraged Sinha The World iratle Organiaadon has emerged as the presenoe of the dlVelupeJ tares and lw brushed aside many of thc mucerns cf UNCTAD Debr ha~ edged on ro dlt wudd iexclagenda but mainly at the beheS[
of a non-governmental organization )ubiacutelec 2000 nd the promi$e~ of the main financill jnsrirutluru lO pursue dcbc-rclicf produred but a thiniexclmfl
In aH Third WQrld commenrarors have provided a vatied and lively approruh fOwards tne problems uf intetniexclational organizarions Their emphasis has niltntaHy beCl Qn tbe use of wurld lmtirutions to change the econornic condidon or the Southern cominents As this enndition is likely to worscn in the near filrtltf further more lJica conrtibutions on the rule oC
-- --- ~- __ _~- __- imernatIacuteonal orgaoilarions in Nonh-Smuh relarJons tOiexclghf be apected from rhe Third Worid A1ternaciveJy wrirers (mm rhat ares rmy jW ltIacuteespUacutet rm imergovemmemal orgaoizarions ar lealaquo Mee rhem $O Hrrle
Cfili~ald~heJ
Critica approadvs lO the nudy uf intetnadonal relations are (hose har rejee( the dominating vleW1iexcli repr=med by tbe realist and reformistS as oudined aboye In paHicular rhey reglUd realists as apologisu for the currem con6gutltion of power 10 (he wiexcldd sytem and considet [har rhe refOnntstS are elrher unable ro undersraoo he fUe llamee )( (hi sysrem oc ille UDwiUing to accepc rilar ir needs more rhan mooest refotlllS TIlOugh they may sympalhi-ze wirh rhe agenda of some Marxists aud Third World wt1cers chey do [lO( llave rhe hisrockal certaimy of the former not rarely do they have the experience and perspective of ehe larter TItey view intenUishy(jnl1ill nrganiutions wirh a jaundiced eye as these are mainly the lll$tmmenfS of rhose who dominare rhe syuem This section COlllaios an wcoum nf three approaches tmt of the critical rheorlsti- of kmintsc wrirshy[1185 ulld pose~mooernismlt
Cri(~1 herJrY The approach of critical theory 10 JnrematlonaJ o(ganizatiooll iSi determtoed by their wider world-view which in itsclf is explaiiexclwd by tbeir llame One of the leading exponents Roben Cox said [har ie is cririca1 in cne Jensc rha h srands apan 100m che prevailiog order of rhe wOlld and asks how tb$t oroer came iexcllPouc Ir does nor r-ake existing irucimtioM lIl1KI JIQwer relaclons rOl granred bu c311s them iacutemo queuion Ir 1S diexclrlaquoced ro rhe social itnd JIQiirshyical complex as a wItole rarhet (hall he stparate pirtt IUthet than subdiide and Imic an examination of a problem it looks al the wger pkturc of whkh rhe problem is jwt oue part and trio rO wJdeThwod the processeS uf change ill which botIt pans ulld whole ure involved laquo(ox 1993 277~S)
Ai a thoory cridQiIacute theory rejeen tbe daims of posicivism of an external Nulity and to be mue-free ror critkal rheorIacutests koowledge ti nor moraUy IleUc1ll1 ic is more che result of the social background of tbose Wt hold ir Given this ctitkal tbeory alJows foc a normarive choice in favoU of a social ancl iexclJlieiexcl(ld order diflerent f(cm rhe prevruHng arder bur it limiu the ruuse 01 chotce ti a1remative orders which are feasibJe mmsformations ofme cxvaing worJd h musr rejEC[ improbable alternadVe8 ju~t as ir rejecrs rhe pcrmanctlly nr lhe exiscing order (Cox 19 90)
Cridcal rheory differs lrom Marxist upproElchcs beCElUS( of iu tejection nf any daim to hold the objenive tru[h and betause or it~ avoidance of (he pmslllt ol il utopia Neverrhe1ess [heir analysis of incernarional relarln1l$ is one tbu hEls u numher of similariuumles wich the Marxisc pcrspecdve It regurds rhl tlistlng suucrures of world polirics as beiug oppressie not
- _ __ _-
lean because of rhe dominance of (he capitalism of che Unired StElte~ For many che USA is seco as a hegemonic power the prevailing urder - in re[ms rbar reReet he wrirings of the Itallan Marxisc writer Amonio Gramscl (1891-1932) Gramsd advanced the nodon of ln hisrori(middot bloc which in itself refilaquors che $Ocial reladons oE ptoducdoo The dominanr dass in a counrty - 01 indeed aoy social grouping - mlinrains cohesion and idenciry withio [he bloc [hrough the ptopagacion of a COIDmOfl culturegt A new bloc can be formelt when a subordinate dau can euablish tU hegeshymony over orher subotdioate gtOllpS (Cox 1993 56--7) The IDove rowuds hegemony comeS with the piexclt$ting fmm che spediacutek inrercsrs ofa gronp Ol
dass tO rhe building uf inrimdons aOO elaoorarion uf ideologies (Cox 1993 57-8) It Loiexcl rhat ptOCe$S thar embeds the incemu of the dominanc dan in an imttmrional form thae [w an appeal widet [ban that dan ine1f It the-refole repreSoems mote tlmn jUSt (he drunJnaoce oE one state ovec anocher bllt implies a cemufi acceptante of the tules arJd institutions purouized by [he hegemonic JIQwer Jo other woros it is all order wbicb most Olher Sta[e-~ (01 at 1enst those within reath of die hegernouy) couId find compatible- wirh their iexclmetem (Cox 1993 6t) h aJso involves noe just inttt-staee rueivirle5 bur rhose oiacute tlvilliOCiety (oon-Stllte socieM instishycudons) ebereby encoumging Hnks between social dus$ts iexcln the connules covered by ebe hegemony
What does Cox llave to uy about ioccmational Otgsniuciexclons 1bey Ilre scen in he oontext ofme wiacuteoo unaemanduuml18 of itnernational reUacuteltions mentloned iexcliexclhove He is direcr 000t mem Ooc mechanisru chrough wruch the universal norms of a wodd hegemony are expttssed js the interoatiooal organisation (Cox 1993 62) Why is chis so Cox U993 62) gives five teIlSons
bull They e-mbody rules cOae help (be- apwlSion of a hegemonic wodd iexclrder These insdwrians reflcct the intererts ()( the dominam social anil economic force- buc a1low a cettain amOunt oC adjusrment ro accommodare other subordinared interests TIms the USA WllS preplltoo ro mm conccssions to
bciI18 in Lhe EU srares and Japan ro rhe Wotld Trade Otganizatimt They a[e prooucrs of that order Though [he insrimrions and rules Ilce
nurITlllUy initiared by the hegemook power ir takes cate ro involve aOO comule a numbe-r of second-ronk stares and gaio theit supporc he Wotld Bank and Inte[nacional Mooetaty Fund were very much pan of [he world order thar emerged afrer [he Second World Wat and which was dominared by rhe Uoiced Stlres
They ltgidmi7e i[s nOlms by providing guidance for SllIteS and by legitshyimiuacuteulS cerraIacuten IlCdviries Ilr me narional leveL he OBCD afie rhe inrerruuiooal financia) irntuumluriom lave spread an acceptante of mllrket coodirions and sHict mOllerary iexclJlides
They co-opr elites from pelipheral counrrie Ihlented sraH commg 110m the Thiacuterd Wocld are expected tO dCCept he scriexclpt wcittttt by the domishynam power Bouuos Bourros-Ghati as Secteury General uf the Unired
166 Jiexclljiexclr1giexcl Qr1 ifJfCflrttuacutemal IWgaizati(ifJJ
Nadons stroyed too amp~r ftOm the gtip of Washinston and his second term was VCtoM by rhe USA His sucecssor Kofi Annan will no doubt undentand what 1$ n-quired of him He brings the mncerns of orhe states ro che UN bUf nor in a way thu threatt1l$ the USA
bull They absorb counter-hegemonic ideas Ideaiexcl $uch as 1iustainable dlYClop_ ment tukl even debr foTgiwness are taken 00 board by the intetnatwnal finarnial institlltion$ blu are trandirmel into pulido rhat swt them
Wh~t is ro be done Cox thinks thar the pfQblem of changiog dw world orUer 1iMuld be shlfred back from intern~tional insritutions tO niexcllriacuteooal $OIacuteishyeties where the sodo-political b~se for a new historie bloc mighr be ereated (Cox 1993 64) FaiJing the creadon of a new historie bloc of the new working cla$s and rural and urb~o marginal groups there might be tnmdorshymadon oC the curtent monopoly-libcral hegemony by adjusting to rhe demanJs oiacute local ello$ for polides 5uch as natlonaHution Cox 199~ 65) He aw advocates te-regulation of erooomies and a re-wmpositjon of civil sodery Internatiotla lnstlcutions induding organiutions can berome eontact puint1i fOr new $OCia[ furtt (Cox 1994 (11)
Critica throrJm $uch as Cox oifee a refreshing exposidon oiacute che posidofl oC imernatiooal ofganizatioos in a wocld where the main revolutionary powe~ have either collapsed (rhe Soviet Union) or se(tled into a cautious ronservatirun (China) Ir provlde~ a sceptical arf realisric world~view without acreptins tbe inevuumlahility ni a illture domlnared by mooopoly eapi~ ujsm sud the Utlired States J-Iowevtr its appllcariexclon to intemationa1 organhatJons 11 StImewha( timited tQ the maln global jnsdm(jons and th financial and economlc orgmiutions Ir has 1m (O say aboue regional nrgashynjudon Uf abour N(JUacutes Furthermore iu alternarive fu(ure testS on ourcoroes thu are far froro certain RevnJutlons in the Thied World are roore likely to be- irupired by nadondi$m oc by IsJaroic fllndamentaHfl OCalaquoely [he solid ooses for new historie blocs
Fwinuumll aNml4cbts
Feminist perspcctives 0f1 inttmatlonal rtlatioos llave in common wirh the erit~ ical rheocillu a rejclaquoion of (he dominance in rhe $Ilbjecr of the rcnHst and rdOrmisrs Although fuminist writen cover a wide 5laquolpe the gencral basis oiacute their aqurnent 1S har in interwnional relatioM ru in most politkal aud tcooomk acdvity women are diexclSJtdvantagt~l Alchoogh they own ahour 1 pet tCfH oC the worlJs lfOpeny and tiexcliexclxe heme 10 peiacute ceoc ofincome they perfurm 60 per eenr of working houn and provide 80 per eent of nfusets (petetsen and Runyan 1993 6) This is a derDOnstrndon of gender inequalitie~ the sodalJy learned behavior and expecratioos thar distioguish berween maKuliniry and femininity (Petetsen and Runpn 1993 5) Feminist aprroaches ofren So bejond the $tati~tks and examine (he mind~se[ of those engaged in the pmctice of intemadonal rdations whiexclch (bey ampee as geodered In other woros che world
Writingc Off inlmhJliofMl vrgntiZdlMm 167
illeen in a mlLlndine way thar kvrntB (he posjtiOll o( mnles in rhe hitgtranhy and devlllues the c041trihution of WQmeO (Sylvestet 1994) War in pattKular is gendered in a way chat keeps wornen and metl from qUtstioniog the essentiat pmpose and he neglltive effects of war militarization ~nd viQleme on their awn and orhers livts (Petetsen and Ruoyan J993 9 t)
What of wminist view$ uf imernationaJ organizationsr Ir IS not possible ro presem a rollf(tive vjew that eneomp3$~e~ rhe works of radicaJ femjnisu and ny iexclihetal teminists (rutead the work of one author Sandra Whitworth (1997) will be used as me pily$ rornt attrntion ro inrernarlonal organizations Aamper inrroductions ro feminilfr theory and internacional frIamiddot tiom and gendet and internacional relatlons Whirworrh examines geodet and imernational organilions She screpts Coxs vjew oiacute inrernational orgashynjzarions [har they retleltr (he dominant powet relations in che intetnational system and rhae internaliomd otgaoiution h che procelt of imcitntionaJshyiling and regulating conOice - eicher rhat which may IIrise among siexclates o( char which has iu (onU io transnationaI society (Cox 1980 375) TIte way duu pcople orgaoire themelve$ wirhin international iostirurjons reflects a variety of power relations ineludi~ of rollJSe gendec relatiull3 (Whitworth 1997 74) lbe triad of jnstirutions ideas and material rQudi~ tioru help ro hxare uSllmptiolls aboue geoocr withiu jntetmltional rewtioos Whitworth uses thesr tn examine lhe uooerstandillg oiacuteScndec io an INGO the Internadonal PlarUled ParenthooJ Federatlou (JPPF) and an intergnvemmental organilJ1rion (albcir one wlrh some oOl1-governmentJ)J represemation) the InrernatlonaL lab01lrOtganiution (no)
Whirworths studies show rhar thr IPPF tended ro accept the deshyemphasizlng oi the gendered oamfr of reproducdoo and (f) ignore rhe imponaoce ofbirth comcol foc womens reproductive freroom Instead in an effort tu popularize birth rontrol srrel~ WWl placoo on paremhooJ rather than iexclust the womans choice However IPPF poUcy beeiexcllme more radirnl in (he 19905- with Hnks beirtg made berween II1M control alld womeos ~)tu~ ality (WbJtworth 1997 ch 4 pmim)
The RO eoucerned itself with WQmen as workern It cnnsidercd that tbey oeeded spec-ial atrention and promoted ptoteCtlvt legiexcl~lacion This reiexcln~ forced me view (har [he male worxer Wall the norm with women workers nor deserving the same rights remunfration lOO mndirions Latterly however the JLO ha~ reflectoo views rhat prodaim wornens elt)ualily in rhe workforce and has sunoo tuacute assess the importanee of policies on womens role in rhe workplace as weU as in sodery more wjdely (Whlrwnrth J997 ch 5 panm) Whitworth comes [O the eondusion rhu iexclln iexcllnaLyiexcli~ of gernler in rbe IPPF and no shows how tbese rdiexcliexcldonsbips llnd definirions ni what it is to be a womltn oc man are structuted relationsrups3nd hlsrQciudly hve been scrurtured tu disadvantage women (ibid 15n
lo eommon with the critkal meorists Whitworth has useQ au examinamiddot doo of two intetnational organixations (O deroonstrate a puinr about imerflational relatiexclon~ indeed sodal rctatrol1s mOte widely The poinr is
I1
I
middot - ~-_ --___ aOOuc powec and iu use not (O balance oue SCdre ligaiOSf anorher but fm une gooup ro domiaare morher Jn chis case it 1$ ma the dominution of one dass me m culcnre over $ofU)(her (though Whirworrh recognizes those reLationshyships ti wcll) but of roen over women The crititUl uudy oiacute (wo jnceraational mganirations dealing with iSSlle5 recoSniud ti beiiexclg oiacute impocshycanee or WOfficn suggesu rha( tltOO simihu research on orher internacional organizadons could proJuce interening aOO uwfuiexcl resulrs
Pllit~ism
Thc posc-moderruacutesr $opprooch lO intetaarional rcllldon is one tlur bas (ome ro che fote Jn che perlod sinee lite end of rhe Cold War Jr is based on $o widcr imellectual viewpoim insrigated by l1rench iorcUtcruals of the 196()s gener~ ation _ Bllrrhes Derrida FouclIul and Lyorard - and whkh suggested rhat the modero era liad becn overome 11 fejeas mera-nattatives gnlud accounv- of hi5tory aoa iacuteNIacuteler subjecu as having no independem rubstance Scientifk btliefs induding [hose oiacute rhe $)(ial scJcllces are rooted in (lllxure polill(os arul mores oJ a wciery and are lherekJre subjective As rhere is 00
oblcctive reality cmpirical daims bave fl() spccial sunding in rhe rralms of koowledge IndeeJ ir i$ power aod knowledge are intimatel) incerwirud Posr-moJernism Hllnds against rhe belief of rbe modero pcfiod which LI seco as beginning wiacuterh rhe enlightenmcm of mid-eightcenth cenrufy Europe and AmeriCll Ir rheldore rejcn~ rhe COMCpr$ oC rationalirl and progrcss aSSuacutedared wi(h [he enlighrenment and [he moocrn age Thc uniry of IOOnkind iexclirW iexcldells such liS rhe untveIsWiI) of human aacuteghrs are rejcuoo lnsceadlocal aetion in smallgroups 15 advuacuteClmd
Post-modetnist ideas have affected tite srOOy of inremruionaJ rdarions as (bey have ocher social scienccs Posr-modern imeraarional relariops theoriscs havc ustd heir view$ 00 objecuumlviry (o exiexcltmine che rrmhs of international relatiom en see how rhe concepts iexclind knowledge-dairm (bar dominare the Jisdpline in faer are highiy conringenr on spccific power relatiom (Smith 1997 181) Post-modemisrs bave lltfa(red me mcta-narratives of the reelshy1m and reformlsu aHke The objectiacutevemiddot aaallses of the realim Ilnd neo-realisu are setn as being deJl(nclent on the subjective standpojnts of cheif mainly Amen(an and Europeau authors Ijcharcl amphiel (1986 258) daimed he works o[ Kenneth Waler men the leading neo-realillt trrat the glven ordcr a rhe natural nrder Jjmirs rarheE (lian 1XpawU political discllUtse negales oc rriviuliliS the signifinnce uf variely urOiS time and plue Whar emerges ii an ideology tllar anridpatcs iegirimires ancl onents a totalitarian projen 01 global ptoponioo~ che rattoualiaciuacuten of global poHcics iexclbe reformius are likcwise tainted Md have Ji mhr$lren belief in pmgress The posc-modernl$rs poinr m rh Helocausr as rhe heighr oiacute mooemism a rombimiddot Halioe of science dnd polidcal otganizillnon Il was SCruTely progreso
Given an antifllthy mwards rhe MlVe[iacute~ign srae borh as a centre of powet ll1ld as a crearioll Jiten imbutol wlth a wncepltliexcl uf progress pest~miexclJdetniexclsls
wHungJ mi Im~iexcliexclrun wgltiIRrzuJlU7iJ 1J7
can lOUcdy be expcctcd to vIacuteew intergovernmencal organiUlrions wirh sympilthy Tbe prefetted iacuteonu of internacional organizations when mentioned are those thiexcltt ltlj~plal differemes snd dlvenity in global pelitlcil duu are reginnaUy based or rhar reflec irKlividual actlOn Tndecd ir SeeIJS
rbat Michel Fomawt was involved with an alliance oiacute twO INGOs (Miquestdecin du Monde and Tertl-s do Hommes) in proresting agaiust internadonal iH~shydon over rhe boat people who flcd Vietnam in tite lare 1970s and ear1y 19S(k He is gU()[ed 11$ sayillg tbar Amnelltl Internnrlonal Teueiexcl dts Hommes Mfiiecin du Monde lHt inirilltives whiacutech have created a nrw righr rile dAht of privare individuss ro iexclntervene in [he otder of polino and internatioont snateg(eiexcl (dred in CampheH 1998 516)
Aootber researcher has exnmined ~he Europcan Communities Ilr che point wben Jr was mnslorming intO me European Unioo and askOO whether ir was a pootmodew ConJigUflHton (Nstrgaard 1994) Hi condusions wcre mar ir was gualiwiveJy a new organizarion oC human calJecrlvJties which mighr U$hec the coming of post-moderniry (Ntgttgnatd 1994 27j) The basis fO[ [bis judgemem was rhat me Ee did nO approximate anl modero form of piexcliexcl1idUll Ofpnizarion it did OOt commatld che means oiacute violence its au[hotity derives noc from die people and ir appeared to be a fCgJoo trying ro pOrecr itiexcliexclelf againsr globaliacutezadun iacuteN0rgaaro 1994 274--5) Ir remllins ro be sren whether [he BU tJf [he twenry-first cenrury wHl fu1fi1 rhtgtse hopes Ot wiU stllrr ro teVen
to a more scate-like being Generall) dIe cririolapproaches ro interruHiorud relarious hiexclJve provided
1lOOIe innovatIacuteve insigllls iexclnro rhe study uf imemarional orgsnizations The crtrical theorists llave becn sh3rpest in rheir unde[$(iexcltnding nf internarional ofgiexclt1lizacious as servsnrs of a dominiexcliexclIf power configuracion thoogh the) lave pemaps Umieed cbelr scope wllen viewing internacional organizadons Feminis[ wJiters ruave given Vltike to whac i5 after aH tbe scmi-sileut majoric) in rhe world and Ilre ouly srarting in qnest10niug the male dOmimiddot nance nuacutet iexclusr of the nmning of IGOs huc aloo of theic agenda Tite post-modemisrs are iMlSr concerned oiacute he (bree 8rOUp5 with inretnationlll organiucioru as such bllr rIacuteleic intellecrual approach is the ffiOSt tadkal aud can lelld tuuml a fnon of nihilism
GltJbaliacutesf lIiu
A gIobalisr perspective does oor viacuteew world poliacutetica as being predomishynandl arout iotergovernmemal relatlnn~ Ili would realisu or illbour inrentare aruI imersocietal rdations as a number uf reformisu llliexclll consider lnsteaacuted it cakes a more holisdc view Problems are (cmfronred ac Ji global level wlurions have tO be sou8ht here as weil This iexcls not ro neglcct (he 10tal Ol rhe ~tlte level ir is more J recognilion of the limiutshydoos of acdviuumles rhere The world-vicw like rhe reformists places empllasu on whal unIacutetes people Ilnd has lirde time for lhe demaoos of power pouumlics aad stare-cemrir orglLuiwrjollS Ir goe~ fllrther by nor
1 V WNimgJ lJ7f tIfernattmiexcliexclJ 11fK4111141tOnJ
liminog in view eirhec ro pans of che world or ro rellltions berweeo particuJar poliric~ lr ioded jlLSr m the economic social and poJitical demaods of mankind Paradoxically ir can be seen as IIn approach rhe very OppoSllC of the fimctionalist wirb whom tbere 5 much io common In nmtrast lO rhe fnnctionaHst (or neo-fllnctiooalisr or intetclependeuce srhuul) and ccrrainly in contrast ro rhe powet politks aOO MaOIacuteIt writers (be whole world approach places emphasis not 00 the discrere r~uiexclreshymems of groups SClteiexcl or individulI1s bm 00 tbe wel1-bciog of the tCOsystem in which rhf5f funnioll cbe planet Eanh The conccen of chis apptoach which is rcflccted il] in ttcumeUr of illternational urganizatiom is for the survival of lhe plunet for its effident funccioning in its widest SeILie aud fot che survival oiacute rhe myriad oiacute speoacutees - ollly one of which is homo sapiens - tbat inhabh me globe
Sinle tbe 196Os a number of wtiters on imernational affairs have expounded 00 tbis view and llave cOl1l~uendy ronsideted the implicadons for intemational organizacions Jobfl Button in bis World Society ronsldeted iflmstatt relations to be onIy a pan of wodd poli[iacutea and wrore
lf we employ rhe term world rociety imiexclreui of internanofla relarions iIacute we apptoo(h OUt study in this global way insread of the more tradi~ lonal nattonal way we will end to have a wider focos ro ask quesrions rhat are moee fundlmenral aOO imponant lO civilization and be ahle ro assess bettet me relevance of om own national bduviour ro be wider worW envifonment
(Button 1972 21)
Rkhacd Stetling posed the problem more spedfically
Nuclear esCllatiofl the popullltion explosion the pollmiofl of tbe envishyronmcnt the communkations rtvolurion rbe world~wide concentNdon of wC1llch and world~wide expansiofl of pltlvcrty are iexcliexcl11 essemially global and not 1laquo al pbellomena They have given rise jn tutn ro eartbshyspamuacutellg and revolutionary demands ror mass education rnass hesltb malts welfure and maltgts participation in che dccisions affecting roans fare
(Srerling 1974 322)
This wodd-view of rhe problems of the s)Jaceamphip EQlth begged fur global oolutlofl$ It suggcsred iexclhu not onIy iJ the system of sovereign stares as yer unable oc unwiHing to COme to grips with the above-menuontd prohlelUS but that a network of llllergoVCtn1lental organiutlom bGsed 00 me rights of statc wVfretgnt will ~lso be hammllng Globtl problems needed global solutlons based on institutinos rhat can (ake a global petsplaquoshytive Thus Sterling considetecl thllt it ~ tlOt unreasooable (O amidpate tme tbe member stares will be moved ro considft equippifllil the Unitw Nttous witb mote crunprebensive powen 1lt global pressUfes build 0974 323)
~h~ laquoo ~gt~ _- -gt bullbull (_bullbullbull __ - bullbull
A more compeluumlng cdH wus lAltiexclued by Barban Ward and Rene Dubas in their book prepared for [he UN Gmference of ehe Humafl EnVJroJlmenl 01lly UIIt EaFlh The c~ altJ Mdilllt1JatfCe (JI d Sflall Pta~t (972) 111ey stremsed the ufliry of tbe Eanh Jnd in eovironment and the )Jroblems in(ed by Jts iohabitants emntially thost oudined by SterJiog The ~uthoflgt poillted OUt rhat rhF envitonmenral qmosrion had by 1972 already had 50me impaltl on guvernments and im(rnarional organl1Jtion but the effior was somewhat ltInJOrdinated and unfocuseL In (hree particular aren - tbe global atmosphere rhe oceaml the worlds weather sysrellU - tbt-y saw [bl jmmediate neOO for (OmInOn poliey und co-ocdinared actiollS where vcerenshysions to national sovercigmy have no relevance ro ptrreived problems Bu rbefe was a need to go furrher and denl wirh other global problems di5Case srarvation iHitmcy unemployrnem ovcfllwding rntetnational poliCJcs wece at the 5tage reachOO wlrhin rhe devdoping s[ate~ of the ninettTtb (entury Elche they wiU move O to a wmmIlJlity bL~ro UiexclXIIl a more systematic sharin8 of weaJtb Ot tbey wiH break down in revoh and anareby (Wacd and Dubos 1972 295- -6) They Looked forward ro a sense of gLobal rommuniry 00seJ on he bope vf Irotecdon (from war aOO disaster) and the hope of enhancemenr (ecologic$1 as well as economid The ptlKtic~ and insrirutlofiS with whkh we are familiar inide our domestk sociecies would become suitably modlfied che basis of planetary oroer (Ward aOO Dubos 1972 297-8) This woold indude non~violent settlement of disputes witb legal arbirration ~nd polioacuteng ptocedures on an international basis jr would mea the Hansfer uf resoucces from rkh ro peor Ilnd inerCllSlaquo co-operaeion in arealt 5uch as health and edUcatIO farming uroon planning aud )JOlJution control As [befe halt been a shift of loyalty rom taroliy to dan from dan to tlation and from nation to fedctation there Wampll
hope clajmoo Wl1fd and Dubo$ for an ultimare lnyalty tuacute OUt single beau~ tifulllud vulnerable Planet Eanh (Ward and Dubas 1972 298)
Whilst the institutiona fmmework and organizational stfllCtuteS remain of necenity -ague in Oltl OM EaFtA iacutet is del( rhat the authors Wfre atming 11( a tlttwork oiacute world-wide fflnctionaUy hased organlzatiofll (both lOOs and JNGOs) char couId take on much of the work )JfCsendy done by governshymems o( rather whkh ougbt [O be dont by governmems UacuteJter writing-s have attempted (O deal wjth thc policy impliration$ of delllJng with )JrobshyJems globdly sroos (986) has poiacutenred en what 1w already been achieved in gtobal problem solving l1nd ha~ soughr ro buHd on rhis His critio have prunted out tha( what has already becn undertiacutelken has bren done more along rradicional Jntergovernmentallines (Donnelly 1990 121-30) Orbe writen have tied rubievemen[ in addressiacuteng [he global agenda more to renewed rutiviry in the UN (Rochester 1990 141-54) or to greater grass~ roots aud INOO acriviSffi Wget 1990 155-~8) Either way globaJj~m offeacuters a distinct W1ly of rackling the worlds ptublem~ It 1$ u ViIOIl thar sttesiexcles uniey and common (am( ntthet than disasreemem and roofrontashytion ir (ould thereIacuteore (oresce disputes being sruved inlernationally vety
much in (he way tbar chey are pre~ndy solvcd within tunny MtiOO iexclrares by more ro arbitratwn and Jaw and by entorcemenf ir neteS$il1) In this rhey have muh in COIDfllOfi wirh tire imerrnuiona lawyers iacuteUld idenlist writer of me eady (wenuacuteeh eemury mentioned at the beginning of tbu chaptet The globalisn are inspirecl jn rheir thinking more by ten Ot lt nudeal holocatlsr and by environmenml breakdown tnan by rhe duumleet elrpeshytieme uf wa dlllf aiacutefected rhe wricings of Woolf ol Ikierly
TIacutete globalisl appro~(h is opert ro the criticism of bcing roo idealistk jn a cynical world and lOO iIDpracrical in in uacutelstitutional sU8scsrioll5 Bur the di$mi$Slil oC rh~ words as globaloney cKleS HOt lid lite wctld oC che probw lems which hey have 50 effectively publiacutedzed They lutve uied to add anorIte dimensioacuten ro whar is possibte by showlng thar ie is nOCeSSiexcllty fOl rhe iexclurviwl of che planee
Tlle radical approach to the smdy oC iOternational orgllnizarions reflocu worIdmiddotvitws that normaUy lO beyond -dmse Jominated by rhe ltctivities of iexcltatcs or of LIte organizltuumlnns chemselves There is a sceprical view of whut is happeoing al soy one uacuteme in imernarional celarions and of he abilicy of mOfe cradicional wcifecs on imernafional cdarions ro explain let aJone llOderstand what is happeoing Ir is the feeling rhar approaches such ll1 (he MaNisr tlwt of rhe ideal theorisrs and some of rhe globuli~rs ur~ coming cber (O uodemaoding humanicys wider dilemmas rhar makes rhero so amactive They ar~ less Iikdy co apply rhemselves to rhe defais rutd wnrk~ ings oiacute p$cdcular imernatinnaJ organizations but neverrheless providt iotriguiog insighrs 00 [his phenomenoo by seeing rhem rhrollgh mol panoprk phHosophical lenses
SUMMARY
The rhree flIajor $chuols dealr wich io chis chaprer - the tcatiacuten the reformisrs iacutei1d che radical$ and rhe variarions (bey contain did not and do tlOf exJn iexcln a hiSforlcaj vacnum lde-as Wele foffilulared wirhio lhe COnten oiacute panicular sodedcs uoo in response ltO pUticular problems rbe communl (adom reYoludon of fhe nineteemb century the Finr World Wlli rhe rise of Nui Germany the spreading of nudeu weapons the deve1opmeof of plthitshy
$econd Workl War Europe fbe pnxeues of decoloniwion and deacuteteme rhe end oiacute the Cold War and rhe advaoce oiacute che inCormatton revolution In sorne CilSC$ the views oiacute rhose wdtings on inttmiddotrnational ocganUatlOHS have liad un efiecr on evenrs rhemelves pirlKulatly 00 rbe actitudes oC govetnrnents mwards tnternatiorW orgdflixauons AIl tXample is the work oC LecnarJ Woolf woose suggesnons Ctmceming a world organizatloo conttibuted lO fhe detailed preparnion oC the Lague oC Nations by me British goveltr mene Likewise Hans Morgeruhau and EK Can provided seimuli fot infiiexclrmoo US and Btirish governmcllul rhinking abom inrerruuional rela~ tiom iexclrom the 194Ck onwards In mher cases rhe general writings cJ persons lgtuch as Marx Leoin Mao Tse-tung and che dependencia school have affecred
rhe poJirk1ll dimare wirhin which govemmcncs conduce rheJe poUcy iucluding thar wwards jnternaclorull otgauj~atjon$
Orber ruCfOf$ aplft froro their historial cuntexc Iuve affencd the views of rhe schunl$ rncntioned They have differint backgtounJs io cheit ideruogy (Wesrero commllniSf Third World radical environmenralisr) and in theit level of $nalysis of inrernarional rebtions (stare Centuacutec inretesr aoo rramna~ dona groups cLitraquo dominanr global) This a(icca the typC oC inrernatiacuteonal organizariacuteon dominam io their studies (IGOs INCo) auJ thcic 8eograph~ kai $rea of interest (the Nonh Adandc Europe ThinJ WodJ Ot global)
TIte range of wcitings about intetnational organizarions has ull dte whole teflecfeJ wiJec llooersundings of imetoational ceJarions and wuumltld polidcs These io rhernselves have fed 00 tbe gtVidc iacutellccUecmal fcnnent and on developrnenrs in world affiuacuters Viewl about iacutellteftlational ocgsnizatJoos wiU continue ro take accOlnt of the ince1leeruaJ debate ill the studjes oiacute polishydes internacional re1atioO$ philosophy ecooomics imematluacutellal uw sociology histoty and geogrilphy They will also reflecto among other ampcton che stntcegk balance in tbe world [he relafIacuteve power of tiJe United Stares aod oroer nares me scate of wotld markers [be pto-ess uf Euwpeiexcliexcln tlllegrashytion che relacive positloo of the developing warIdgt iexclbe levd of cootlicc througbolc the world fhe -ratC of dte environfneot and the ahility oiacute huge StatCS to wiacutethswnd cenrrifttgal force Tbe way tIacuteult imematiornal organiuiexclshydons ret1ect tbese developrnents and tIacuteleir t1Ipability lO deal wich some of them will provide (he tllW fiWifcrial foc funue smdies
114 WritiJKJ en inJtfnaJifmaJ qrganizalkmJ
Tablt41 Web-siacutetes fur publicarions (Ifl llltrrnationlorgaiexcliexclimdons
GtIWtdl
loo1miOfJO M Ooball~llma 1lt Wl(illl$riln el iexclhe ~ fim vaned in 1995
Wilh rhc- publiacuteation of Our GloboIl Ndiexclh)OOod editd by IngvJl w~ md
Slllidlltth Rlltmphnl
UJWtiJqiexcliexcliexcl(J
Ddb(ll RotlllJd IDterlUlrional ~ebdCln$ rtIDUrte~ Cln che web hu complhemin
Ilnk$ tQ 11 tlugc of intematimul l1btiOnll 1ubjectS Jncluding IntemldQfIIIl OtpInluluon
miIprmlIIJitJllljwrtuIJ1NORfieibM-piiWuurort_l1 hlml
Gklbal Palier Flaquown New Yodbiued _b-pmih group dw monitcn UN and hu
rolllJululve WU idi rlll UN hu good slaquodlnon NGOs (_ $OCrion bekm)
tPIIWgJaIgtdJiexclvJtltJ ~
lnremlldoouacute Orgnniution lectioo of InltflAJonaJ 5tudie~ Awxiation brins
toSlitOO lcllilemk nlttllbtr~ of thii nuiacute US~ IH()o(atian wha al inclTestrd ln iexclht $tudy oflO rod pmvides newl ohecdon~ BttivititnJ
arotvrdJ8IdlitduaiMJiacutes
Unjon uf fntemIiruiexcla1 AISOCiexcllltirn~ (~_bo~ro ~l1iVllWO (hu hu done tite
mmt _ lb fOn W rltreu(h inlo ni aupport iexcln=fllltiQn-l oiiexcliexcltvtdons
PubluumlhtS tlN Ycubook of Il1tet~ra1 0IJ111nitiM5 relUence w whkh ffiI nlYl1
bti Ecund cn du UIA$ web1Jiacutete
_MiaI1PS
ue Berkeley liblltry TM jjbruy of this CtI1fOroian uni-urury pwvide B fraquod $uring fXlinr fur Match of the IitemNll on lOs
wwudil berIuhyMIilGSSligriexcl1Rb3 btIJ
UN horue pge aclaquou ro (he UNs innltutioru IInd tht mnge of iMUtlI wltb wbkh
it ceJIacutet-- Yilboo1 C~em Jmemotlonal Orgwtlwu ~re pmrides llIl tphabedw iexcliexcliIt w JO raquo(($ whh lQfIlf odd oneI tlteu and other mo1l obl-iOOl candiiklfl mm JirhwWNilGIIIImJ_tIIacutetJrIltlIacuteiWll4JIf~iMtiOllJiexcl
NOfJ~gotJ$11jmntta organizations
Global Ptllicy Forum~ sectinnon Neo Ja thorough and provide uefullinh
wwIglduipJit1TJgMiexclitldrxMM
WrifingI (11 mJtrk1tirmdllAgllfJiZdJiu1 J 1)
Tht Insdtutc lot Global CornmuniCitIacuteltn~ Menlbtuhjp D11T(1Uy~ thJ1 fUJKks gtIn
online rutwork uf gmup ud individuals and C~[~ in iIrtkular ptue iexclhe envimnshy
memll1bour wOJmen 11M iexcliexclmi -raci5m
ugtIoIltigcEfill8f1ItfIJ(Jl_btrJilllrx bluacute
JfNtf1fdi PiexcliexclliuiexcliJm
G~i ~ A R~ 4 MJttiacutedurtlliJm d~iexcliexclJ~1II4I OrgahII01lJ - reJatiexclYE
neWCClJlet mal t1ldd (11lt ~UM ofglobal ~lIIItf
wuouiexcl ~-Isectb1II
IIItlmtt01I1J o1Iliwli~ tbe w~H-lM3hH5hed journal on the ubjtlt bar oow 1m
gater emphaiexcl QO iexclhe politiacute( Q[ mtttndonal tcfm()mk rel~tion
~tpNIJlfJiIJIII~iexclllNOIi
Yamplt~ ~ hllmulirlffttl oggtlIirti~ru [he journilIacute 01 tbe Bnmel5-baed UIA iexclhat
fu more thllfl 50 jfltfl hu rountoo d ~iljfil and wdHen bollf inretnuiacuteo-iexcl
WSnintloos
~middot_iacuteli4IJ
Nltgtl~ plau rutpJI bdQtt 111 elgt lilerutr-~ aomna Ihm AlI iexclttt Wfe ~ 26
JIIIIry 2001
This rhaplct is by no means a compreherwivc survey of the literature ir is bound t() he selecrive not JUSI because a full aceOunt wnuld be indigesdblr for rhr reader but aISO bccause of the lirnitations on rhe author Thiacutes mealU that materiill is dmwn from that originally wdtten in the majoI European langnages wieh English and American literature domlmmt It does M(
mean that matetial written in other languages 1s oiacute lirde value dearly this is nor che case Becaust cf (he intetnati()nal uarure of tne politiacuteciexclJ sc1ence cornmunity imponant contributmos originalJy written in say Romanian or Chille~e will rmrrnaUy filter through wirl ttamlat10n iexclnto English or une of the orher European anguages Desplte tbis probahility thc readec sh~iexclld note (har linguistiy(onuraims fhe fWWrt of publishing ond what mlghr be called the eultU1iquest imperialism of che Iluropean IInd Nonh American lit aU mean that ideas foom rhe Third Wodd 6ght an uphill barde lO be wideIy dissernioMeO iu prior Sn tbis chapee is boUlld tuacute have a buih-in cultural ru(i$ however rareful the author may wve becn
REJIJSTS
Realist virwl of iorernational organiutiacuteons ronsider them to be pan of the iostirurionalil-ed te1ariouship between srares and govemmenu ibey have a state-crntric view tlf the polirical world and llave lirrle Interes io lNGOs Thclr maio concern is how imemaciooal telariorm can heS be man~
~ ~_ W~ __ bull ___ _ ~(gt __ _
ruher than how tbe syiexcltem may be reformea or improved A good SUInmuy of realiexclst wriretS is roo [hey Me in COrnmon shareQ assumptions aOOut the primacy of sures as inrernadooal oceoa the separauumlon of donwtic ami iacutemernational poIltics and who describe che laner in terms of ananhy Md a conCOmltanr lbiquiroUi srruggle foc power and securiexclry (Guacute[firhiexcl 1992 21 n extooob rend ro refer back ro (he wridngs of Thllcydides in Anoacuteenr Greece Machiavelli in medieval haly and Thomas HobbeJl living through (he sevemecnth century English civil war - all thtee wriring ln times of tutmoil and srrife - a~ express]ng the basic wiexcl~dom of Realisr thoUSht (Jaebon and S~renkn 1999 70-6 Viotti and Kaupiexcl 1999 57-60) In (he mooern era che tndJtional realiu writers Iacuteti1ve iexclliso reflected ttoubled time1i
Tbe ttruliJitmtJ realiSlJ
These WTirers had thetr Intdllaquo(ual rones in the 1930s the Second World War ami (he Cold War and are somerimes known as che powe~ polirks schoill lhey are represeoted tere by RH Can and Genrg Schwar~enberger jo Brirato aoo by Reinhold Niebuhr and Hans Morgenrhau in (he USA Therr srardng poinr was rhe exi5cence of che prC$ent state sysrem in which there is no common authotity over and ahoye fhe sovereign starc aOO where rhere is international anarchy io me senrre of a lack of govcrnmem iexcllr he internadorud leve JU $tared (his viewpoim has conrequeoces for rheiJ appreciation of the role oiacute inrernational organizatiom in intentare relations
EH (aHS wiexclitings reflect (he disiHusionment with che League of Narions in the 1930s over in - m rather irs members failute tO prevenr (he invll510ns of AbyJiexclsinia (Ethiopia) and Manchuria arnI wirh the conquesrs ~ the Nazi and t3sltisr srares iexcln Eutope He oonidcred that it was misguided ro suppost (hu a more rntional ana mote moral mocle of cQnducring inremate telarioos such as by Ulit of rile League aud [he PCIJ would necessarJIy have 1ed w a more Stlrisfactory world order e~ptcjiexclally if it were nor baselt on tite tealities oE existing power darionllhips 1he League aod (he strUCture it purported ro ~Iphold was only ti srrong as thOtt cnuoshycries willing O mppott it JU the mos powetful Lcaguc supponets (Fmoce and rhe IJnitelt Kingdom) found iexclln jncreasing numbee of States (Gennany Japan ltaly) rllngN agaiacutenst rhe wgue sySten1 aoo as the USA mi he USSR wefe eirher llnwilling or unavailable ro help Brirajn tlnd Fmocc cQmpromised their Sllppolaquo uf tbe u-ague ro keep he woIves from lheiacuter owo doon Indeed Catr was prepered ro support such policiC as che Munieb Agreemem oE Sepremlxt 1938 (lIt whkh Aricain and Femec effecshytive1y handecl over CzechOlil0vakia lO Hiclers Germany) as the neofesr llpproacb jo recent yeats ro (he scrdemem of 11 major inrernational iS$ue by II pfOCeoure of peace(ul change and as a recognirion of the preponderance oE frerman powef in cenuaJ Ellcope (Cac[ 1939 282) Furthecroore he condllded cbat [bcre were two major shoctcomings in imernatioual
moraliry a moraliry on which the Leaaue of Natious WIlS supposedly based Firsr rhere was discdmination in the internlltional cQromunicy between rhe way in which the cases oE cerrain mumries were rreatelt Jbere was fert cxample a differem anirude by the British IInd French governments [ti
Greelte (Ir Abyssinia being aeflaquokecl rhe former was unruceptable the lauee case (lnly regrettable Second there was rhe tailure ro secure general accepshyronce of [he posrulare chu che gond of (he whole taus precedence OVtf rhe good of che parr (Cacr 1946 166) Wichout such accepmnces ir WIlS hara ro imagine an organizatiun sach as the Lcaguc worklng unless iexclf were based un (he oVtlWhe1ming predomJnlilflCc oC power of JU suppotters Carrs ecophtiiiexcl un powcr does not mean thar he iettisoned che role ufmorality io iOternacimw atTain He recommended a judiciou5 blend of morality and power though comparerl with the natiooal arder in the intetnational order rhe role of power 1S grearer and tha[ of momlity te5s (Carr 1946 168) Indeed Knutsen (1992 268) considers wirh much jusrificariCfn that Carr was not a realise but draws upon the ROt15seaucan tradidon uf 5UCiiacutell thoughr and gives a dialecdcal accounr oE rhe evfliution oiacute ImernadonaJ Re1arions Though chis may be so his wrirings reflC(( much tealiu moughr of lhe inter-war perlad
The ffilljor work of Georg Schwarrenbefgcr PMPtr PoIiJia (1941) aOO took dw failure of the leaguc aud rhe inrerwar system as a pOint uf depar~ tute On the questiou of coUectivt secunty rhe rock f)1l which the Lengue of Nadoos was built Schwarzeoberger remarked referring tO hilattru pacrs uE mutual assisuncc
The Vtry nero fQr [[eafieN uE rhis $on ptoved char League members eirhet assumed that che s~tcm of [he Covenant wouLd be inadequatc inopcrative ur [QQ slow ro be of use or that the omer members u ehe League would nor honour rheir obligatiolS under che Covenanr 1hus hey offeacuter the most opeo refuwrion thar can be imagjnecl of the solutiou enviuged by the drafcers of che CovenaQt in a world imbucd with century~otd uaditions ofpuacuteWer pelitieso
(Schwanenberget 1941 152)
Dunng the latter pan of che 19Kls ~UppotteN of che League had turned their imeresr from the central quesdon of peace aoo securuumly to rhe more petipheral aras of dIiquest( erooomic and social adviries of che League and (lE agencies such as (he ILO Such iexcliexcln intere is show~ Lord Cecil in che conclllsiexclon ro his autobiography publish~ in (he same year as Schwarzenbergers book Schwarzenbetger was nar convincelt by the fuieh placed in such functionallirucs
Organizadf)Jl$ of a telthoical commerdal ami profC$iional kiMgt such Il$
dlf Imemadonal Postal Unjan (he Raok of lnterrunional SetrIemenn wrute slave conrrol oc dre lntetparWtcoetlott) Union ate within a sysrem
118 Witi1lgr 011 le1IIJuumlmalllrFa1lizatiOlu
of power polities limieed ro cbat sphere of internadonal reladons whieh is irrelevant from rhe standpoinr ofhigh politics
(Schwarzenberger 1941 388)
Writing dnring uncertain times Schwarzenberger was not aiming to adopr a merely negative srance Indeed he desired inrernational relations to be based on a community spirir and founded on the rule of law bur he thought rhat norhing was more dangerous to chis objffrive than che belief ehae half~way houses like che League of Nacions or limiced plans roe economie co-opemtion are adequate ro bring aboue chis vital tmn5formation (Schwarzenberger 1941 11) Internacional order and the rule oflaw in intershystace relations presupposed national communicies based on justiee freedom trurh and love Christian virmes ro which Schwarzenberger recommended We5tern smres return (Schwarzenberger 1941 434)
A strong Christian element is also to be found in he works of the American wricer Reinhold Niebuhr who nevercheless is ro be counted amongst rhe realist school Niebuhr contrasted growth in mans technical achievement with the lack of advance in politieal areas
Oue problem is thar rechnies have esmblished a rudimentary world community bur have not imegmred it organically momlly oc polidcally They have created a community of mutual dependence but not one of mutual trust and respecto
(Niebuhr 1948 379)
Niebuhr examined the case fur world government nodng cbat almosr all the arguments for it reseed on the presupposition that che desirabiliry of world order proves rhe actainabiliry of world government (Niebuhr 1948 380) He identified lWO faulrs which undermined arguments fur world government governments are not creared by fiar but need a communiry for rheie base and governments bave only limiced efficacy in integrating a communiey (Niebuhr 1948 380) Given the absence of such a communiry of interest in the world Niebuhr preferred che imperfffdons of the Chatter of che Unired Nations ro an internarional organization ehat would attempr world federation bur would accomplish something a lot less specraculat However he did nore thar the internacional cornmuniry i5 not tocally lacking in social rissue (Niebuhr 1948 386) He listed ffonomic incerdependence fear of mutual annihiladon and moral obligarion as unifying factors in the modern world Pitted against rhese were rhe economic disparities in rhe world rhe negarive effect of fear of destruccion and rhe lack of common convicrions on panicular issues in shon rhe forces which are operaring to integrare rhe world communiry are limired (Niebuhr 1948 388) Wriring during rhe inicial nighr-frost of the Cold War he rempered his realisrie view of the world wirh an apprffiation rhar satisfacdon with che Starus quo is in itself dangerous we mighr also gradually esrablish a genuine sense of
nllTll5J 1 17~~(Jt Off 15= ~ I 7
communiry with oue fue however small No marrer how stubbornly we resisr Russian pressures we should still have a marginal sense of communiry with rhe Sovier Union (Niebuhr 1948 388) For this reason Niebuhr placed emphasis on international organizations such as rhe UN nor 3l being nascent world government but in the Securiry Council as being a bridge of a sort between the segments of a divided world (Niebuhr 1948 382) The Chrisrian Niebuhr recognized rhat whilst individuals may be moral [he morairy of groups i5 much inferior ir may be possible though it is never easy ro esrablish JUSt relarions between individnals within a group purely by moral and rational suasion and accommodation In inrer-group relations this is practicalIy an impossibiliry (Niebuhr 1936 xxii-xxiii) Mankind mighr dream of peace and brorherhoexl but has to content itself with a more modesr goal a sociery in which cbere will be enollgh justice and in which coercion will be sufficiently non-violenr ro prevenr his common eoteeprise from issuing ioto complete disaster (Niebuhr 1936 22)
Perhaps the most famous member of the fower polirics or realist school is Hans Morgenthau author of the classic PolifiCJ am01lg Natos (Moegenrhall 1960) Hrst published in 1948 Morgenthau was a German-boro internashycional lawyer who emigrated in 1937 ro rbe Unired Scates where his post-war work had a deep influence on ioternational relations thinking and peactice Alchough he did nor specificaUy dfore any book to the problems of internacional organizadons his works were so broad as ro envelop the general problems of relations between sraee5 and rhe specific questions of intersmre organjzarions TIte rhree major elements that typify Morgenrhaus writings (and the realist school generally) are
bull the beliefs thar nation srates are rhe mosr importanr actors in internashyrional relarions
bull rhar rbere is a clear disrinction between domestic and international polities bull and that international relariacuteons i5 predominanrly about the struggle fue
power and peace (Vasquez 1979 211)
These basic tenets are reflected in Morgemhaus ereatment of jnterna~ rional organizations which are seen purely as interstate institutions importam in so far as chey are wed in the search for power oc in solving the problem ofpeace
A crucial senrence in PoitiCJ amog NafiJls poims to a central idea io Morgenthaus work The main signposc thar helps polirical realism to find irs way through the landscape of internacional poliries i5 the concepr of interest defined in terms of power (Morgenthau 1960 5) Thns Internacional policics like aU polities is a struggle foe power (Morgenthau 1960 27) and When we speak of power we mean mans control over the minds and acrions of orher men (Morgenrhau 1960 28) Furthermore AH politics domesric and internacional reveals [hree basic patterns rhat is aH
J LU wrwlIgiexcl M IIfffl1l4r1MdJ arga1lIZiJU01Ji
policical phenomena can be reduced ro one of duee ~ic rype5 A political pollcy seeks eithet 00 keep power ro Jnireot power Uf tu demonsrrare power (Motgeruhau 1960 39) These policies are seen in rhree forros (he pnlirics of status 100 (he politics of impedalirn and che polides of prestiA-c Moqiexclenmau then eVMUamptcJ narional power and timitlltlons on ir in the fuClll of balance of power intemarional mornlity and world public opillion and inremarional law He considered world politics in rhe mid-rwemieth century and rhe problem of peace He examined attemprs ro ob1lliin peare rhroacuteuiexcliexclh limicatJon (diwrmamenr collective seeudty judicial settlemeru peaceful change inrermuionaJ governmem) through ttansfOrmarion (inw drber 11 world Hace Ol a wodol commnnity) aM tbrough m-ommodatien by dip1omacy In rus wmk Morgemhau tewhcd en rhe role of intemationaJ organizatlmu ellpeciaHy in rus senioos en imecnadonal law on peace rhrough limitatton aud on wodd communit)
Morgemruw sttessed rbotr OH rhe bauacutes of inccmadonallaw there has been builr au impostng edifice consisring of tltousands of wadcs huodreds of deuumlsions uf intetmriou~l rrlbunals and innumentble dedsions of domestic roUtlS 1besc lcgulared relatIacuteom between stares arose from
the mulriplicity aud VliriC[) of incernllrional (omans which are tbe rewlr of modern communiauioos internat100al exchange of goods and secvkes and the greur numbtr of Internarional Otganiutiacuteons 10 whicb lOOSt
nadmUi have co-operated for rhe furrherarue ef their commou intereso (MOfgentluu 1960 277)
Whilst mosr internatlww1 UacutetW has been respettccl Moxgemhau rcmarked dIar when miel are vielatetl tbey are fiot 1I1ways cnrooced and rhat even wheo enfonement is uudel~n ir 1s nor alway~ roccrjve Memioning [he Briand-KeHogg Pace the Coveoant of the League of Nations al1d rhe UN Charter he comidered that
fhese inmuments are iexclndeed of doubrhll efficacy laquo(har is [bey are frequendy violared) and lomerimes even of doubtful validity (rhat IS they are ofren oot emorced in case of violation) fhey are bowever flOr typical of [he tradicional rules of imernarjonallaw
MOfgeoduu 1960 277)
lo the sectioo en ioternauacuteooal govemmem Morgeotlmu nored th$r since (he sean of tbe nintteenrh cen(ucy tlich of rbe lIuee wor1d wars (lhe Napoleonilt War tbe Fim anO Second World WaN) hud betn foUowed by an attempr ro euabJisb imernatlona1 governmem ~he Hoiy AlIiance lhe League oC Natiacuteoos aud che United Nations TIle ritn tWO arremprs rouodered becawe uf rhe varied interesrs of stales iBvolved in particular because of disagreemems abour tbe snlfUS qoo lhey wete sUPfll$ed tu be Sllpporting According (() Morgembllu
-rmgJ M Itrernana41 fI1ganlla1t)1tJ 1 Lo 1
cont1iexclu betwccn lIJe Btitish aod French conceprioru and polides did not howcver wreck (he Leugue of Nadons as rhe coufHcc brrween Great Brirajn llnd Ruuia hud the HoIy AlIianee Ir racher led ro a creepiug paralysis in the polirkaJ acfivitJ($ of elle Leugue and ro lu inahiUry ro take determined ardon iexcliexclgail1llc rhrears ro iocetlational ordet aud peare
(Morgenthau 1960 469)
The League coold oruy be iexcld te bave tXerdsed goverumerml functioos tU the 3tt$ of che maififeoanoe of illcernational order and peace in the tIltc
insNlnlaquo$ when eicher he interests of dte grear powers among in members were not affected or tbe common interests of the most influentiacuteal amonA rberu seemed ro requite ir (Motgenrhnu 1960 471)
The United Nadons was also seen by Morgenthau as ~ing based bn
unsure foundations bur fur a differenr rCJSon than for [he League after the Seltond World War [he vicrorious powers first created MI inrernacional governmenr for rhe purpose of IDaiacutencallling tbe srarus quo and alter tbat proposcd to agree upon me status quo However Since such aglaquoement has never existed during rhe Jife pan of tbe Uuited Nations rhe interruuJonal government of [he United NorioM as envisiged by the Citarter has temaiacutened a dltM Imer (Morgenthau 1960 493-4) He teterred lO a pantlysed Selturuuml) Council wirh che GtnetiUacute AssembIy and Secrtaiacutery-General of [be UN borh displayiog weakness (Morgenthan 10 492-3) and wirh tbe whole orguni~ utten acbltving liule rnough (Morgentbau 19tiO 496) Iu his view
The comribmion the Unind Nntiolls can make ro [he preservadon of peace then would lie tr1 fIlking advaotage (lf the oppormniry (hat (be coexisleuce of [he two bloc$ in the same inremariorual organizadon provides iexcl(Ir che unobrmsiexclve resumption of the techniques of tmditional dipJomacy
(MOlgenthau 196) 497)
In enminlng tite possibility of creadng a world community based on a t1lfl8t of iutematlonal organizations such as UNESCO and che ruhet spedaJ~ iud agencies Mursenrhau made he poinr [hae rhe creation of $uch a romrnuniry presupposes al least he mitigacion ampnd minlmiziltlOH cf iuter~ narional conflku so (ruu the interesu UOJrlug membus of different natlOIlS may outweigh me inrerests reparnting tbem (MotAcnchau 1960 536) On rhe UN agencies Morgemhliu (oruidered thar
che comriblltions imerna[Jonal functiOflll agencies make ro he weHmiddot bring of members- of all natious frule lnto tbe background Wh$t Irands brfore the eyes of alI IUC (he immense polixka conflicrs (ha divide tbe great oariollS of the Eanh and dUCQren he welJ-being of rhe- loser if not his very exisrelle
(Morgenrhau 1960 528)
122 Writings Q11 ifftmlailJltdlorganiza1om
In summary Hans MOfgentbau accepted chile inrernationaI orgllniexcllAtAacuteons have a place in intematinnal re1ations dlOUgb he was cardUl not ro QW1tate eheie imJXIrrance in [he match foe powet and peace in rbe worId He SltlW rbei comribution as beinp moJes (lf)(j as part of de geueral intercou~e hetween sraces and [heie gt1vernmcnts and be rve no real consideration ro internashyrional non-governmental oeganizations iexcliexclurthermore funcriacuteonalin(ernational organizacions whibt teCognited as bcing useful were nor given any pardcshyula role in snlvin~ the probkm of peaee Hven the Unired Natiacuteon~ WJ~ only given credence In dlis context as tbe new serring foc the old tethnic-iexclues uf diplomacy Morgenthau 1960 497)
TIte real1sr or po_r polirics schools view of inrernational orgMization is Open ro (hree truljoc (fiLieiuDS Ficst ir could be dairned rhar froro a moral viewpoim he power politks SdlOOl is gready lacking as il accepts too tasily the status que iu intern3tional politics and does nm allow iuternacional organizacions a posirive role io oeating a better wodd Howevct this js to fOrger chat in the writings of a number of cbe realisc schoo - Carr Schwanenberger 300 Niebuht - dlEtC Js a moral and oflen Christian 1lSpecL Hans Morgentltau WIllI use as CQuterned with the moral aspecrs of polidcs as were his contemporuies who rejtftoo the power politics prKepts The deptb of his concern can be sceo in his buok Tnh rmd Pouer Emraquo JI a DttttJe 1960-70 (Morgentltau 1910)
Second tbe whole tealisr school rypified by rhe works of Morgcuthao can be challenged exactIy 00 its major daim name1y Jts teiexcl1Ilism To what extent does (he $chool ofCet a useful descripdon and explanation of lnterna~ uonal reladens Valtiexclquez (979) has oudined how internacional relations anides published pnor to 1970 were dominated by rbe re-tlist paradigm yet their bYPQtbescs provtd 00 he inacrumie and even dld less weU than oonshyreglist h)pQrheses in tbeic prtdictive power Such findiogs tend to undermine me sneogth of wbat has becn the dominam internarional relashytions scboal in Western llCIldemia and suggest that alternadve paradigms shyfoc example tbe Maolsr aud me trnnsnadonal - shtuld be glven more tlme aOO comideratlon This questiOlling of tbe power pOlitkgt schoos work mus then libio mise doubts abonr their rathel dismissive rreatment oE iotemashytional organiwtlons as oong marginal in intemational reJatiQflS
Indeed OOe of the major uiticisms of me chools rceatrnenr of 10laquot011shydonal orgliohiexclitioru bas beelJ iu emphasis 00 high pJiicics tbe qUt5tlOO of peace and Wiexclir 00 che ncglen of low politics SlKh as economk cechnlcal and cultural relatioos lnrern9tionlil organizarioos are secn juSt as iustrushyrnents of policy fur lItates inrernational non-gQvernmental urgaulzarions are hardly oon~iexcldered Nowadays a neglect of econoroiiexcl relatioos and lNGOs seems atl eveu greatet Qmission
lo deenee of his acritudlt it should be rernemhered that most of lhe power polirics wridngs occurred before he ma$$ive exparuioo oiacute lNGOs froro the 1960s onW1llrds The scbool is roorecl in tbe reaction to rbe infir~ micy uf tbe Western democmcies when faeed by Hitler and Mwsolini in lite
WitaacuteKl O iJlt1tatioflal organiUiexclfiqm 123
1930s and i[ found its feet in tbe immooiare fIIl1r- war Cold Wac periodo Ir is riterclOre undentandable cbal ir stces~ high puliexcltic~ and is andpathcrk (O
inrernarional otganiutions wbich were Ken tu be conrtec(ed with [he discredited League oiacute Natiacuteons 4nd 1u inteUeaual sllpporten O wim the original intemioos of rbe United NatlooS bcore these were sulernatecl by Grei1( Power dmension
Neo-naIacutells
TIle Output of me realim tlagged in chc 1970s rogerher witb [he giobtll power of the United States aOO in the [ace 01 nCwapproache ltO the srudy of intemarional rdacions The neo~functiexcl()llalist and interdependencc braoches of refurrnisr approaches (sce nexr section) seemed tO have tuen iacutemu account rhe rise in uamnational non~stare elemenl5 in international relatiumr and rhe imponancc of economic factors in relaLlonS actoss internadonal frontien
By [he 19805 another brand of realinn - the neo-realim - had Jigcsted rhe ncw clcments in intcmattonal relllti)n~ and reasltiexclerted some mmiliar aspects Pcrhaps jn ralQrtIC to tbe reer~iexclon ro naditlonal seturiacutety thinking by the Reagan administtation in thr Unired States these authbrl tended ro stress the conflictnal nuure of jntemarional affuirs tbat this rnnfljet Wu prtmarily between nation iexcltates in the modern world and that power and security was a prime nmsiderarion in human morivafIacuteons (Gtlpin 1984 227) lhe new ciernent jo rheir writing is a manet of S(1l1 debate (Baldwjn 1993 Kegley 199 Keobane 1986amp) bu( rbey bad in common ti de~ire for more intellectual rigour in theit work [han eme of the old retlshyises a willingness ro deal wirh telltions in 11 wodd where US hegemony was in qllestioll and a pttparedness tu include econurnj( fumiddotton io tbeir cakulashydons
How then did the oeo-realisrs rccae imeroarjonal organizatioru 00 the wbole (bey vicwed [hero witb tbe same jaundiced eye as did Morgemhau Imernational QCRinhatiooll were SCen as instrumencs of atate policy at most COrnmoo lorurns Their role ns independenc actors in [he iuteroatinnal syttem was not somechiog thl1 most uf the neo-r~lisu readUy anepted lndeed [beir doyen Keuneth Walu furcefuUy reasserter the pn~idoo oiacute th sovereign Stolte in internarional poli rics
fO a theory that demal the central role oiacute states will be nttded fmir if non~tate KtOrs develoi ro me poim oiacute rivaJling or SllrpRUing che great pOWCfS nor just a iacuteew uf tle minot on~ Tbey sbow 00 ign ofdoiog diexcliexclu
(WaI I98Go 89)
Waltt like others such as Gilpin (1981) Wall nmcerned wirh intetnashytianal pnlitics srructured by rh uneven distributinn of pOWCl lnternational instiexcltuttoilS therefore ftflecred rhe realities of [bL~ ~iexcltuation aod rhe major intematinna organizarioo5 llorliexcl as cbe U uited Nations Ol rhe Bretton
124 Writings JIJ iflJm1UtirmalIilgJ1liza1iofll
Woods iostitudons conld be eXpampted lO bear he imprinr of rhe maln bege~ monic power (in t~e CtlSes rhe Uoitw Srores) lf rbey rrled m brmk away from duacutes snaicjacker ~ as dlrl rhe otueraI Asscmbly of (he uumlN in he 197)s - fhey would find dxemselves lgtide-rnlCked by tIUt power
Tbe neo-reaiJSts accepred [har hegemoni( JXlwer could aru1 woukl decline bm wCfC les$ abJe ro deal wuumlh he consequences of rhis decline 00 rhe srruc~ tllrt1i uf iuternari01lal reJatious How mishr [bey (induding iowtnadolUll orgBnizatlolls) change aCrer hegcmony lt was ro thiiacutel (udtion rbar Roben Keobane uddressea himself He firiexclt wmited ehar Realism is patdcu1arly weak in accoundng foc ehange espc(iiexclJly where rhe sources of that chanse he in rhe wodd JOlirical economy oc in rhe domesdc srructures of smtes (Keohanc 1986b 1)9) He then referred ro his own eadie wooo un mrnpln interuependence for iospiradon CKeohnlle 1986b 160) He saw rbe (d lo $upplemenr though nor replace JeltlliSf wricings wiexclrh theoeiEs and be sHtSSCJ rhe importance of smdying inrerruuional inslitu[ioru which in particular would oeal wirh the question of how co-operation can cake place io wotW polidcs without hegemony (Keohane 19A4 14) By the early 1990s Koohllne fOUM a synthesis in elle iosriturionalist argument thal oormws e1ement5 ftcm hoth liberalism and teiexcltlil111 (Keohane 1993 271) Thi assumed (har sutes were rhe principal Qaors in world politics and acrm in rheir own self-inrerests hoth traditional eenli~t tenen Reiative capahilides - how power weaith etc was distributed berween the various nares - was impotcunt and S(Rtt5 had m rely on rheir own jUrlQns ro ensure rehuive gatos fmm coopetatioo From the Jiberal side Krohanes insrirutiQruUacuteism borrows 11 greater empbasis un the role of inrernatiunal jfl$rlIIriacuteoru in changing COnceiexclllons oftdf-interese (Keohane 1993)
During [he period from about 1945 ro 196S iexclntetna[ional imuacuterutions werc shaped by [he prevaHing American hegcmony Keohane identified as a problem the ledme in reronrces dllll lIacutele tilliced States governmellr had beeo wiUing ro devore tU the roainreoance of chis system (especially tU economic a~pect) siacutence he mid-1960s As US hegemony dedined rhere would be sn increased need for intematiooal ftgtgimes - scrs of rules norms and insrimrions ~ so [hat states could rub aJong mgether Keohane saw the regimes lefr by American hegemooy as a good scanillg poinr for future coshyopecatiiexclO and thought thar [hese should be adapred tu roCCt [he needs of (he new sicuation (J 984 244~ 6) This woulo ar leas[ make co--operatioo possible provide information foc all abotlr pnlicies inteor1ons aoO VIllues and woutd creare a depeudabiUry in intemational relarioni (Keohane 1993 259)
Keohanes wOrk has bccn critiacutecized by che more staunch feO-realistl Joseph GriecO 0993 301-38) provided a compreheruivc refundon of Koohanes leanings ro a more liberal positioo and rherehy advances a classic sratement of neo-fcalist conceros He admirs bar iU$riacuterurionalism has made imponam cOfluiburioru ir lIDs shuwo bow the dflilrchicaJ SlfUCture of iexclntershynationaJ rdarioru has Cfillted the problem of chenins fo lmerruuional
wnlngs 1m nf1hJUQrlai O1ffdl1lzamJ1U 1)
cooperario1 Setond ie has focusm on how lnternatlonal instirutions help srares manage thar problem and les symptoms Thioo they have caused che neo~realistS 00 look more carefully ar rhe relarive gains problem ihis is (he case where states are less concerned wirh rhe absolure gailll than with theit gaios ser aside [hose of orher srares which are seen as porenriaL riVus In other words le is beuer to agree tO an ums contml Healy allowing yOlJf
iexclrare ro build duee extra missiles and youe 0l1JXiuent lO build two exrra missiles rhan tu tolerate a situatiou wbere you can build five more missiacuteleiexcl (a better absolute gajn titan rhe [hree) bU your rival cnn buHd iexclnen (they have a stronger relJirive 81ljn mmpued wirh the arms control iexclreiexcliexclty outcotne) FinaJly neo-tClllim have had (O re-assess cher views of rhe signifkauce of intetnatlonal instirucions in rhe sysrem
This view of inrernarionaJ irutirutions entompasres the oeo-rett1ist IJndersranding of (he role of imernarjonaI uumltganizatioos in the international ~ystem As mendonw he realins view thero as insftumenrs oC rhe sovereign litates Neo-reaJisc$ have rehued rhis undersrandiog by poruuying tbem as refleecias che hegemony of the mese J70wcrful membe1l They can airo provide forums wirh [he poremjJi1 to be SOmewhaacutet more efficient than trnditional diplomacy or iHeguLu mnferences though a danget comes wheo they try ro he ilCroCS in ffieir own right Tbe successol1 of rhe tradimiddot donal realius such as WaltZ (1979 70-U and Mcaubeimet (1990) saw rhe EUlOpean Uo1on ptedecessor che Europeall COrnmunities me) as flour~ ishing because of rhe bipolar diviolioo of Europe by rhe USA and he Soviet Unl00 dudng the Cold War The txpecrarion was fhar with rhe end of che Cold War the Be pooject wnuld nor advance bur rache sink ioro disuse T1lltlugh the EC fiued n nurnher nf c-rlses in rhe early 1990s ir dld transfotm irsetf iexclmo the EUnlpean Unjon (EU) wich ao Boonomk and Monetary Union (EMU) 11nd a Common Foreign and Security Poky Grieco (1993 331) expIained rhis in tetms of $tates mnstitnting rollaoorariacuteve rules for a commen interese with the wCllker stares reying to consrrucr rules rhnt aUow them effenive volee opportuniries to ameLiotate tbeir dOJrunation by srronger partners Tite weaket states - sueb as Bdgium Portugal ot even France in rhe EU - wefe trying ro bind cbe stmoger Gcrmany in his (middotIl-~e lmo a form of relationship that avoids dominatioIL Crlieco (l993 335) admirtetl thaL realism hll-~ JIDC offered aIl explaoarion fm che tendeo(y uf sram tu undcrrake their coopemrion rhrough iftrituriOJiexclaited instirutions
This chaUenge has buo taken by those who nave ioaeasingly sought tO
liacutenk a fiiexclidy reaJlsr uudetstanding of wodd polides with domestic pulirles in the lcadifl8 stace actors An tlCamplc 15 Joho Richarelss Study of che regulation of dte inremarinnnl vlatioo marken in which he daims tO
refine rhe ffalm understamUugs of power io iexclmernarional bargaining 0999 33 BasiOlUy uationaJ po1iriciexclan~ Ut$te and susmin International inuJtudons induding intefflaacuteuacuteonal nrganiacutezations ro maxlmise domesshyti poliriud advamuumlge ltRicharda 1999 9) His conrendnn is har
l-V H~giexcl iexcllJJ ltifffltIltlUImal lIfglaquonlMiffIU1fJ
internatIacuteonal iusti[U[ious wiH be created whcn they are politicaUy effishyoacuteenr (mat is inrrease eleuoral support) Cor natiooa poHticians (Richards 1999 3) Rithards rejeces a loHective goods approach tO intctrtatlomuacute iuscirmiollgt (such a~ that ofZacher and SumID 1996) that See$ such insti~ clltiom al cHrrecdng lhe working$ oiacute che market internuJonally antl rherefore produciug econQmic benefirs all n1l1Od However he alro tejelttS rhe hard realist approach that daims rhat instltl1tions including internashycional organizatium merely reOeltt the power tap4biHtles in rhe international system altiexcl in Kra~nermiddots statement mar srronger Haces have simply done what they hiexcllve plea~edmiddot 0991 337) Richard srill claims rhat international imtitutlons iexcllre the iacutenstroments of stateS Because $ueb inscirucions as the internationill organiradons (hat regulate mtetoational rravel definc property rights internatiacuteonal1y they alter che marketplace leaving gains for sorne and losscs fur others This beJng ro [he building of such iexclnstirutiollS inrernationally is oound lO trigger a fiexclerce domestic political batdc (Richardll 1999 9) Thus whac happens ro and in internashytional otganizadons can be usoo by domestk politkians ro maxiacutemize eheir OWIl dmnestic advanrage This is a view that may attrac( supporr within the Ulliacuteted Srarcs though may be less reSOllant in sorne of the smaller and weaker ~tales
A similar view hdu bcen takco by the liberal intergovernmcotalistll who havt examined the European Union (EU) Moravcsik (1993 1998) has pcimoo (raquoIr tbar governrncmal strtttegies withiacuten tbe SU havc becn domi~ naced by preferences and power Cooperatiun and integration wete rhus seen as usefu strateampies if tbey furtltered a governmenrs control over its domesric alfalrs and agenda Moravcsik rhm ste$ the EU as a succc5sful imecgovernshytnelUal regime desigued ti) manage (conomt intetdcpendence rhrough negotiated poticy ctM1tdinatioo (1993 474)
The neo-res1i$tS have becn auacked OH many ground~ not leaJIt fO provIacuteltilng no WVIoce on toe works of che old realuumlt ($Ce AshJcy 1984) Like their reatist predecessors (he predicdve powcr of rheir work hal betn dlUacutelenged particulady their inabiUty (O foreste the eod uf the OJld War tand oiacute the Suviet Union (Scholte 1993 8) Scholre also cuacutetlcizs fhem fur nO addressing global iexclssucs $uch as welfnre questiorn ano poUucfon thar domishynate the world uf rbe late tweorieth and eurly twenry~first cenruries This questioos rbe descnpttve ability oiacute the oeo-realisu tS what (hey descdbe an) more (C$isritmiddot tllan thett realiacutest predelaquoSSOrs They have on rhe wbole OOen as unintere$laquod M cheir predece$sms in rIacute1f ro1e of interoatinnal ofRaniurioos The main exceptlon undl the 1990s wu Robert KeltiexclIacutellilne whose earLier worb en intetdependence stcved hun well no rIacutelar Sfilre Evel hee the critidsm can be made rha his view is b41skaHy conservative and was concerncd iexcljede iexcleh the incerests of (he Thiacuterd World Sorne of rhe Wrltel1l no economic coopshyeratino and integrauon fU tlle 1990s a(cepted many ol the nco-realiu assumptiacuteons aoout natiQna1 UlrettU$ ln Illternatllmal o~iratlon The) bave brought 00 the OeM a more refmed vlew oE rhe relatioacuternhip between govern-
Wrltingr tffl inttntaJumal ~ruZaJlflf1 ti I
menn and inrernarional orgHnizatioru and have Ieft behiod he Cnld War reain empoosis 00 the mijitruy ilSpet-ts ofpower
REFORMISTS
Tile n-alist wciters despite theit diftering valuatioos of the worth of cenain intematlonal organizstiltms have in rornrnon a state-centrk approoen ro intershyoational reiatWIlS 1bough liOIlle were CQnremed tbiacutelt govemITlents shoold renect more he (iacutenevitably) good lntentions uf their dtizens in inrerruttonmiddotd affiUfl or rbar world otgmizarions shoukI have more power (O detll wjth warlikt ()t reoegade Stares tOOr nus of artentioo is the internacional govem~ mental otganhtaacutetIDn (lOO) A nociceable devclopmenr in internariona reladons literawn inu the Second Wodd War has been (he movement away [rom mis 5tate-centred view towards ooe tIacutelat admits the impoarune of intematioroal atmiddotWrs iexcliexcltha than tite sovereign SUte 1bese indude lGOs in tbeir 0JIffi right (rnrlwr than as meeting places or inmumenn of thcir rnember tare) lNGOs trnnsaatJoual otgllnizatloru polirical group5 aod individual dtizeru Although many pl1blkadmlS just desctibe tbese new phenomena whkh llaVe herome more aniV in rhe last iacuteotty years [nere 15 a1so iI prescriptive erement to sorne oiacute [he writings They ttnd te prescribe incrmsed non-srare Jrtivity in inremashydonal relatiom ase a way uf underpinning claset relations berWfetl stattS ami socieries or undermining houlle anitudes by guvemmenrs (WeiS$ and Gordenker 1996 WlIlerrs 19~ Gordenker and WcillS 1998) Whilr this general reformist viewpoint is similar to reall~t approaches in aooopting the importafl(e uf the srate relatjons in incernational polit1cS ir does no( aoept eiexclrher fhe monopo1y oE rhe state in tbe sysrem or mar litatfS are unimry talional actors In surnrnary tbe leey aJlpeltrs of a reformist ilppftmdl to intetnational rclashytions indudes n number oE rbe folJowing
1 ihe belieE in reason in human nature and in progres$ [he [requency and level of war can be redocoo fur example
2 Inrernauumlonal relatioru can be moperative rather toon confIirtrW 3 Though seates are imponam in inrernarionaJ Ielations rhey are IJoOt [he
only aCtofS 4 ampates are Q)t ulUacuterary iexclI(tors wirh their dedsion inrematiacuteonally reflecting
intemal divisions aoJ interests They dv nve therefore neccssarHy muimize the interesrs oE che stare
~ The internacional s1gttem espl(bHy pires of iexclt comairu the elemenrl uf international society ano relies on a wriety oE international institutiollS indudjng inrernadonat Otgltlniution
The refurmist approach to the srudy (lf intemntional reladons hase conse~ quences fOl [be roruiderafIacuteon of interniexcltrnmal Otiexcliexclalization~ ano has made a notieabJe conuibwion to the lit(llIr~lre on the subjctt especiall) since [he 19508 Hnwever there is a bockgtotlnd ro the aboye idea~ char can be ICen in
j 01 Wnlmg 1m l1f1eOkllttmal urgJmuJugtnJ
me esdier writifl8~ of Grmiw Ladre Hentbam 3nd l(uiexclc (Jwkson aoo amprensen 1999 108-11 VlOtrl and Kaupi 199t) 200-4) Ao undet1randing of che curren refutmtst appruache1 ro inttmational otganiUitioos um be helped by reiacuteerente ro SOUlt of the WI1tets on internacional law wnich wiIJ mrm one section beLow
lnlernatIacutetmall8wyers
Mueh of rhe lirerarure abour mrernatioual organwoou$ 1$ descriptivc ltiren detiing with several organizacions aM giving purricuw eutpha$is te tite League ofNarioas and UN sometimes dealing with one organiacutezadoo swn lIS NATO me OAU Of rhe EU Leading woru in trus area 1m those of the intetshynariooal lawyers who give particular ronsidemcion ro rhe cowlimtiacuteoru of international organizaoons thei legal penonaliries aoo institucional probshykm Indecd ic was pmbably lhe P~ ltgtfuw ar amplinburgh Universiry J lorimer who fin coined the e~ionmiddotiexclnrernatiooal organization in 1B67
Contributions (Q cbe study of internarionai organizacions llave been made by Britisb legal exptm and bisfOrians 50ch as Zirnmern in his iexclrudy The Uacute4g~ JI NaJimn an4 the RMk of LnJiexcl (ZJmmem 19gt9) and J1 Buacuteerlys comparison of rhe newly emerged Unuumled Narions wirh rhe suurwre aod aims of lbe then dying Ieague Brierly demonnrated a strong preferenn~ for fbe inrrusioo of international law iOfO etonomk ilnd sndal affpjn gttl dat rbe generic grievances of sures ma) be removed (Btier1y t946 9n Hersrh laurerpliCht published Tbt Dwefpment ()f lntmwlftmal lJw by rhe Permanml CfJkrl el l1iImJ4lifJNiexcl-1 jllJtia in 1934 and [his was later marched in [he Ullired States by Judge Manle) O Hudseos Intmwt]iexclmal TribltllfJuacute PaJI
qniexclJ Plfum (944) WilfrEd ]ellki [be ugai Advlscr to che lLO CUIIribured noe jU$ 00 chilE organizarIacuteon (Jenks 1962a) but abo mote genernl wodcs 00 iarematiol181 orgaruzarions (leaks 1945a 1945tl 1962tl) 1 le stressed (he need [O IDaH) [he craf[ of tbe imernational lawyer wuumlh rhe Pludence uf che polirician tO develop an effective s)stem of incernadonaJ orgafiUBtion
Institutional developmeru 15 primarily cbe responsibiliry of staCesmaDshyship ir muS[ be gnided aud cootrolled b) a [fue appreciarion of political forces Tbe greaccst oflegal uadirions is still to be crearEd irs cexmre wiU be largely ltlefermined b) rhe qnaliry of [he crafesmanship which inrernatlonal lawyers place sr the disposal of sracesmen during me next geaeration
(Jenks 1945a 71-2)
laltor imernarional insrituriom cexebooks were pmvided by rwo Europcan intemalional lawyels Henry Schelmelll Professor of law at lIte Univeaiey of Amsreroam restricted himself tuacute inrernacional instuumluttonal law wbicb by roncerning irself wirh [he srrucmre and functions of inrershy
~h~ bullmiddotff~ V_middot ~f_lt~V_
fliUional organiexclttttlonstries ro explllin [he present developmem and ro promote he harmonious growth of lnafniexclldQual organization (Schermcfs 1972 2) He Jodt wim rhe partidpants in lmernadonstl orgllniexcl~lltion8 tbe general roles ror their crgaru and me activities of these Orgllus from prirruuHy a legal viewpoinr A similar approacb was adopted by rhc Bririsb iacutenternat1oniexcll1 leglll eJtpen D W Bower( whOie book Tht 14W QI lnlmwIacutePMJ lmtiJlflilJrll (970) placed grearer emphasis on pflrtkular insrishymtions - he Lcague thc UN and in spedalized ageucies che regional organizarions rile juriacutedical iacutens(iexclmdons - as weU as dealing wirh general questions such as t-he internattoual pcrsouaUt) of che organizarions and their impac( on (he doctrine of (he rovereigll equalit) of srare5 Por a blend of sociology bistoty and luretnarioOllJ lpw che work of Paul Reurer Professor uf lmernatioual Iilw pe Pileis Univcrsit) is UB$urpassed In Inml14tionaJ bmitllfiom (1958) he examined che phenomeoon ol imemashyt10nal orgaruzadon rather tban jUS( the orgilnizations and insdtutiun~ auJ thererore speut sorne time on the uature of imernariolllll ~je[) [he erigias aud foundarions of iuternational institutioll$ lS weU iexcll$ rhe posiacutediexclm of Staeeg in international society
Sorne post-Cold Wllr studies nave moved uWily from wruu tllto regllrded as csoretic descriptions of che 111w (Kn aud Djehl 1998 3) aud have insread examinEd intetnatiomJ I1lws iacuteofluence on poLirIacutelal behavior (Ku ampnd Diehl1998 3) One of rhe buses of tluch au IIpproach iN chat imtornashytionaJ organiUltions nOIl-governmenral orgllnirpriOfl$- multithltiJllUl corporations aud even privare IndividuaJiexcliexcl have come ro pliexcly Illl iexclIlcrelljiexcling role in intematioual rclations and accordingly international legal tules have evolved co engage rhese oew accors (Ku and Olebl 1998 3) Tnternarional lllv is seco both as au operatillJ system and a normative system for internariacuteona relarionll Algt the fotmet it 5eu the genernJ proshyceclures and iacutensticudons toe the conduce of incern11ltlonal relatiolls lt provides che framewotk fu estllbllshing rules lInd UOI11lS oodilles be parilmcters of interaction ancl provides (he ptocedures Ilnd furums ror re~lvlng disputes among those taking part in tnese intecllCtiacuteOO$ (Ku and Diehl 1998 6~7) As a nOttnative S)stem iuternatiouallaw giexclves rorm ro lhe aspiradOlu anu vlllues oE the partkipants of the system (Jr) is 11 proJuct oiacute the struttlltes Ind processes thar make up rbe opernting ~ystem rTt1 tllkes on a principaU) legislativc chamcret by mandating particular valueg IlnJ ditetting speciiacutek chllnges in sure bebaviQr (Ku Ilnd Diehl 1998 7) Mote tradiciunal appr03Lhel tO lnternatlonallaw rendlaquol tO de~(ribe che role 01 imelllatiuuaJ otgauJutiotu as pan of the opcradng sySLCm Legal texu pllblishcd in he laSt decade Ot so of (be rwcnrierh centUry looked lncteasingl) ae the position of inrernatlonal urganilations middotw
nor leas [hose oiacute the UN system - in a nurmanve framewnrk especiaHy in functional areas such as human righn (AJston 1995 he envilOumenr (Kin 199M) [be global commnm (Jo)ner and Manell 1998) and wOlneiexcluacute issues (Berkovith 1999 Wrighe 1993 1)~g8)
130 Writingi (f1I iexclktnati~nal I11glttftiZAtitlrlJ
Intecnationallawyers have airo given exteosive comideration ti particular instimtions The League Qf NatJons attlacted special attention as lawyen played an imporunt role jn J~ dmfting and as it had as tU aims che pmmotion of international c(K)perntion aoo the achievement of iexclnrcrna~ tionru pcace and eturity
by the ficm establishment nf the undersrnndings of imemauacuteonal law as tbe actual rule of condun among Governmenrs aOO by the maintemtnce of jnstice and a scrupulous mpect for all treaty obligations in the dcl~middot ings uforganised peoples wirh one another
(Preamble to tbe Covenant)
Furtbermoce the central pan uf che CQvenant dealing with the keeping of peace (Anide 12-16) OOopted a legalisck approoch in delining nn OCt of wu against all Ieapue membecs as being rewtt to war in disrtgaru of Anides 12 13 or 15 (Attide 16 (1raquo) In other wottb the cardina15in W$$
tbe breakiacuteng of rhe legal gretment mOOe wirh otner stares Imernational lawyeM in pIlrtkuar were ooncerned wirh how Iacutenlernarional IacuteiexcllW might be agreed judged ane enforced in lhe jnter-war perIDd lhey turned much of their atrention to the anivities oC che Permnnem Coun of Intemational Justice arul lhe league of Natlon5 Judge Hcrt(h TaureIp3cbc foc eurtlrle ronsldetetl rhat aH Jntemlltional dispures were justiciable and thus open (O
soludon by [he judicial process in internacional law He considered tbe League tu be useful 5tep in the development oE inrernational law and be sanctions 1I1lowcd Cor in Anide 16 of [he CoveOilnt as marking tbe fitn step towws he collective enEonement uf internacional law (Laurerpacht 1970 9)
The league hOO iexcles advocates among orher lega writers AlCred Zimmern wriring io 1938 set Lhe Leagues activjties and institurions against che backshydtop of the gathering 5tOrm io Europe He still found much ro ~y lor ir it had rkveloped 2ru1 expanded tbe old iquestiplomaric ystem bad enrouragro wshyoperation in many ateIlS ane $r leur represeotecl iexcllfi artempt to ellminate WIlr even duting a period of whar Zrmmern caHed cmhquukes (Limmero 1939 491-509) Lord Robert Cedl one oC the fuunders of rhe League as weU as a lawyer and Conservative poHdcim admined when wming ln 1941 rbe Cailure of the orgamzation in preventing aggressive powers Neverdreless he hoped that iexclt would be reformulaced after bosrilities with a CI)ll of confederariacutean uf European tates the cenual objecr of which should be the preservatl(m uf the European peat e Peace in cbe test oE the world would Jepeod pretty weU on tbe then jusr~eltiexclsting Covenant wirh sorne small changes Cecil did admit rhat another piece of rnachinety couid do Iittle unless [he peoples allJ govemmeots cea11y tgtlt che enforcemenr nf law ann mainrenance of pealte as me firtr and grearen nadonal Jmereus (erH 1941middot 349-51)
The hopes of (hore ho yearned fur legal soludnns tO intemartonal
WrjlingJ 1m inffll7lltJfriexclftai rltgmiwtitln-iexcl 131
dt1putes dearly dcdined a~ the UN Charter wjth iacute~ emphasis on politica1 solutions to what were palideal disputes tepiacelti tbe optimist1c legal (otmula~ uf the League Covemutt The UN Chancr was not to be without tes Internationa Jegal romrnentaluts Indeed tWO early stllndard books on rhe UN are by diJtinguished lawyers Kelsen (l950) and Goodrich ti al (969) though the hmer have admitteu that when iexclnterpreting [he ltlwrter
since rhe responsibiliry for interpretadon is VC$ted in Ofgan~ and memben alike che process is more iexcliexclkely to be politia than judishyoacutealDeciexclsiltm~ rend to renea lhe enmmon intetesu of members in achieviug cerratn results
(Goodrich If JI 1969 15)
Other legal commentators have placed emphllSis 00 [he role of jtlterna~ tional orgaoJutions in tbe development of particular aspects of innl11iexcl1tional ew ami again haltle secn tbe rleyelopment uf the rules aon notms of internashytiOfliacutell society ~ howeyer imperfeltmiddott - in tbese cases Examples are Kratochwil (1989) who who has written generally ou the 1mbject Jaebon (l997) and Thomas IInd Meyer (19J7) on the world tradins sysrern Kiss 11M Shelttm (1991) on Iacutentern8ljoual envttunmenral law aud Human Rights Watch 09921999) and Bianchi (997)on human r1ghu iSIuc
lnternaonalgotJt1tmenlfgwfINIJJlue
Anorber AmcriC3llegaI aurhority ayde Eagleton gave the Unired Nations a critJcal though romewhat undmtaning appreciarioll ~mmmiexclng np its dilemma thus Ir (he Uniled Natioru cannor do more than ir ha~ the ampult liacutees with rhe Memhccs wbo marle it and opcrllte it and who j[ SfflIW slaquon preret the tootb aOO the fang ro internationallaw and order (Eagletoo 1948 552)
Eagieron placea the record (lf che Uoited Nations in thc context of irs predecessors in the hisroey of rhe gttlwth ofinternational govemmem and of iu legal and politica background He examined pmposals to achieve the inrernational government thff the UN ailed tu rt1tCh bm condueed chet fI chaogc in he attimdes oC Stares aud their pcoples JS neerkd fipiexclt (Fagl~too 194$ 583) Eagletons wnrk uuderlioed tbe point made by Evan Ltmm in his ntemd1ifma1 A~lIaacutetJ (977) that with (he existence of the UN and its lSSfJ(lated agencies many of che wodds prohlems are Ilor wirhout jmtiexcltu~ tions exercising authority over them The powers uf (his mnge of organizadon cau bc queHioned as Ciexcl1n chejr standing in relnion tn thcir rovereign state membera bur rheir exisrence in tne ptlStmiddotwiexcliexcl[ world ~ aud tbcir grnwth (rom their niacuteneteemh-cenrury hesinnings is a reality
Thi$ inrerese in [he 8rQwth of iorernariona[ governme(l( i tleithet new nor resrricted m the legal pmCeMion Oue uf the earlier publicauumlnru on tbe subject was by the writer leonard Woolf who Walt a fOllude uf the Fahian
132 WriJil1gJ (IfI htfmtaJIacutefmal argmitAJium
Socilaquoy che reformiu discusston group witbiu rhe British Ltbout Parry Wtiting in 1916 he omllned dJe exrenr m which imerllliootlal govem~ mene had been lKcepted rhroogh diplomade garfteaacutengs rhe use of public and privQce JmefOatwllru unions and che iocrtlSe iexcln commodify ugreemellts aad he PU forward plans roe che further teguJation of JmeroadOllal OCrltty lf war is (( be prevemed he elaimed states musr submir Q mUte intetuashy[jonal conrrol alld governmenr in their poJiticnl and udrninl1litrative rdadoru (laquooolf 1916 nB) He udvanred a Fabiao Cornmirree plan for nte Stipranaciacuteonal AudlOrlty cllat wiIl Preven War eiemenrs of whih fOllnd their way into (he Lea8ue Covenane aml whieh inhJt iexcliexcllid teCtJlllmended rhe estab1ishment of an Inrernatloclal High Grua an lntemadooai Coundl of sutes represenrnrives ami JO IOtelThldonal Seltreurjlil Woolf and his Fabiao coUeagues hoped dlar wirh rhis machiuery legal justiciable disputes wouM be 5ubmined ro rhe Cona Of a similar tribunal and orher dispmes ro the Couocil foc senlemenr with che patries rn he dispute ccnsmilned from warlike actjon fue a period of a year Provision was ro be rnade fur sancrions which ali sutes shoold pm inro open1rion lind al agfCltd tO make common cause even ro he exren( oC war against any constiruent Srue which violates thi$ uacuterndamentai llgreement (laquooolf 1916 233)
Woolf mgetIacuteltr wuumlh juriiexclu iexcluch IIS Hersrb Lauterpadu and Alfred Zimmern and British poliricaJ wrIacuterers like Pbiiexclip Nod-Baker LJrd Ceei and Gilbert Murlliy represented bmh [he praccuumlal and intdlectual mpponen ni lhe League of Natiacuteom in the interwar peuacuteod wbo were ouacuteen daified as iexcldealisrs or neo~rotiam Hedley Bul 0966 ~2 5) r1esnibed the rennal Grotlan assumption (named after (he seventeenrhshycentury lesal wtiter lIugo Grotiu$) as being rhat of the solidariry OI
porential solidariry oI (he SUtes comprising imemarlonal sociery wirh respect ro che enfurcemem of [he Law and Grodws basic crjredon of juse WI bt-ing fought in order ro enforee rjghrs a fimiofl dearly edwed in tbe Pabirin Comm1rrfts The Snpmnatlonat AuthorlEY rhll will Prevenr War BuH criricized rhe way ibis group lost sighr of intemarional polirics in rhelI preoccuparion wirh 10eroational1aw international otganization and intfoiexclniexcliexclriQnlll saciery
10 deallng wirh imefIUldonal marnti~y which rhey were indined ro confn$( wirh internarional law they eon[ribu[ed only a narrow and llflcririal rlaquorimdr whkh eKalred [he jnternational inreresr over tllujoual iexcllIrert~r~ (bnt wirhorlr asking bow rhe former was ro be detershyminel) mtlltiexcltimrimwl rdorm over revolurJon as [he meaflS of ll3lliCcndinA lhe soriely of sovereiNn states (bur without considering wfteher SUtCS cOllld OCcOIlIC [he agents of rheir owo ~rincriofl) and respcu fue legaliry oler [be neoo foc chaoAe (bur wirhour fdciflg up ro r~ mer that rh~ in(~rnadooal legal sys[em as (hey construed ir could nOl aecommodate change)
(BuU 1972 36)
Wrllingr on inlmralirmal ()fganiUJliofU 133
This J5 a teUing enough asseSSffiem of che idealim views includill8 [heir writings (tri imernarional oeganiurions HOWelef [he background of [he groop $hould be remerobeted they represellteJ a genemtion devastawd by the Finl World War ud whiacutecb wa~ used ro national suciery (early twenderh-teocut adtaio) lhat had henelired through institutional chal1ge and in whiacutech the rule of law had not preduJed remrro The k-gtgue of Natioo5 che Permanenc Coun of Illternuional J1L~tjce (PCI]) and [he 110 wen for rhem part of 1 Great Expedment to we Lord Cecil~ phrale
Wrirets in the last guarter of the twentieth century picked up and develshyopoo many of he omions current in rhe aoove Jirerawre aud srr~ed how iacutenrematiunal ioceocourse had heen governoo by a body of laws nl1~ lind feguladons ano by insdturions indlldifl8 internatiotlal organizatioO$ Though they llave kcpr rhe analogy with the domescic government of cirishyzens thef have preferred rhe terro internacional governancc demoosrrating thar such a system docs nOl hnve che son of enrorcemem powers expected of naticnal govetnmencs Notions of global governarue huve becn corered above whete tefereoce has heen made tU tbe idea of an imernarional regime (Pp 108-10) Thi5 concept helped bdng internacional olgsobacions iexclmo rhe wider titerarure abom inrernadonal cooperedon 11M governance in a srate of anat(by rneaning an absence of interOlltional governmenr with signifkant er[orcemem powers
In the early and mid~1990s IiHendon was agam wrned ro che manageshymenr of che internlitional environmem in rhe wake of the UN Confetence on Environment and Development (UNCED) al Riacuteo de Janeiro BnuiL gtlhe environmem seemed ro be a classk caudidste fur global governance pardy becl1use ir was glob-al and partly because of the range of instlwdons involved in iexcltS managemem In the words of Josepb Nye etTective intet~ narional envitonmental instltudoru thu$ helped w overcome sorne Ol (he rypical narional bordenecks tbar hiacutender cootrunated meusures to revene rbe frighrening trends of global environmental degradaLion llnd improve rhe possibiluumly of susrainable develo[lmenr of OUt plaller (Nye 1995 x) The assumprion of Keohane tt al was that whlle StateS may have difnculry ad~tessiexclng jmernationaacutel erlvitorlmemaL problems coopenuion betweeo governmen[$ couid hring dividends Eff(Xtlve intetnstiooaj 111stitutions wete needed which may take rhe form of internacional orgauuations rcgimes Ol informal conventlons They were seen in che woros of Maurlce Strong (Secretary-Cener-iexcliexcl ofUNCED)Ul rhe bllsic framework for 11 world sysrem of governance whkh iexcls imItJdve to rhe effective functionmg uf our global rocieey (1990 211 l2) The aim was pragmlltlC to see whetber rhe intemational josrjmrioos coveriug the environment had made a posirive difference especially in rhe polltiad iexcleid
Case rudJes were presenred (bar exploroo the impact oiacute inrenwiotl$l insriturions witb [hree conditions essenrja lor effecuumlve acrioo on the enlirOumem high levell of gownlflmtl bullmam a hospitable 1lIiIraiexcltttal t1Iy~
rrmmml suiliexcloacuteem poIiuacuten U1d ddltiniJtY(JJM CiJpacity in national
134 Wrftln[f 111 iexclttntntiona organiufif)lfJ
governments (Keohane tt al 199 11) The case s(Jdies Weuroe seen in rerms of agendiexclt selting internacional pnliacutecies and national policy ttJpon$($ (Keohane iacutef al 1995) The three authors wtJe aware of the strong influeDce of stare powers in iexclnrernadnnal institurions and of rbeie meagre result5 in sorne areas Nevetthees~ they set down three ronditions uoder whicn inrer ootional institutions can alrer (he bchavior of state actors and in turn improye environmenral qualiry (Keobane ti a 199 19) These afe
1 gnvernmencal concern has ro be higo enough [Q pmmpt the 1lte ufscarce mources lO tllckle tht problem
2 roere haiexcl 00 be a contllcrual enviroruncfit where ~tnttS make (rediMe coounitrnttlts and make iexcllOO keep lglremerll$ rhar incorporare joiotly enacted rules withour debflitadng fuAtof ftte-riding ur cheuting by othet1l
3 states should haw the pnlitical and adminimadve capaciry to make the domestk adjusrtnents necessruy ro implemenr international norms principies and rules (Krohane et al 1995 19-20)
TOe empha~iexcls -in chis view nf glotm govemance is on rhe relncionship becween rhe internuional anQ tIte Illlt10naL
Pan oE gJobtl govemsnce - ai noted in Chapte1 3 - are lnrernntional regimt$_ Thcampe are set- of implidt o explkir principies norms rule and del ision making proctdures arounrl which actors eJCpelttadons converge in a given area of internacional relatious (Krasner 1983 2) [1tey are subSu of irttetnational sodcey and its imtitlnions Imemational reglmes which are oft~o speciacutealitecl auangemenu limicer by function oc gengraphicaJ area are amngemcnts hat BoYe1n cooperative behaviour intetnatioOldly Thee are thus mure wiJely Jrawn than internatiunal organizations The latcer accurdifl8 ro one of the most profific wrltcrs on the $ubject Oran YounS 0989 1994) can boeh stimulate the process of regime formation nnd can htlp implement thei provisiuns (Young 1994 164)
Funuitrltdlisu
An eady bff~1c with the trmJtional view of international organizations based un the state-centriacuter mudel cm be seen in Leonard Woolfs book [ttltmatiltraquoldl
Grni-17111I Alrhough srilJ primarily coruemed wich interamptate relations and the questiolll of peace and secudry a sizeable BCniacuteon o( lis wriring5 rover governlnenral tlaquohoical and economk co-operatioo and INGOs
Ve are accustnmed to regard the wodJ as neady diided iexclnto compartshymenU caUed states or nationLBut chis vjion oiacute thewodd divided into iacutesolated compllrtmenrs is nor a cme reflection of fiu 15 as they exisc in a urge pottion of the etlnh [orlay
(Wnolf 19l6 216-17)
Writtng( (111 hmmatiacute(lrul f8grllliulinnJ 13
Snch a step pladng gre-iexcllter emphasis on non-star ime~natiacuteonal rtloshytions wa~ taken furrher in duo writln8~ o( me Romanian-bom aothor David Mitrany Mitrany ideas known iexclas the functiondisr appooruh lO
internuional politics were inspired by his early Iife io dIe Ba1kans He (ouoo much imelletruaI sdmuiatinn ofter coming ro Lundon in 1912 olld working together with Lennanl Woolf among otlters in the Ieagne uf Nations Society [he labour Pattys Advisory Commiuee on [nternational Arrairs and the Fabiexclan Socieey His (WO malor eacly worlca wcrc Tin PrtlgftlJ of lt1tmutt(IIId GtM1NmAnt (first pnbl~hed in 1932 rcprinted in Mitrany ([915araquo) and A WorklNx Pem Sylttm (fiCSt published jn 1943 rcpobHshcd jn 19(6) though he abu made a 1mbstamial nmtribudon in anides unril bis dearh in 1975 Many uf his writings tQgethcr with an amobiacuteographical piecc and In inuoouctjon are guhered fogefher in Tht Funcfuumlmal TwJry of Prdilia (Mitran) 1975) In his t932 work he omHued the nlnereenrh(intury growth iacuten intertwtJonal govenmcnt ajong similar lines as Woolf
The ninereenth cenrmy prodwed that amazing growrh in che mattrial equipment of (iiiiudon whifh weldcd the wodd togaher into (me organk whoiacutee making eaclt people a partner in tire Iacuteitte uf al The outwatd CXpelsiacuteon nf that change WQ5 the ~rance nf WQrld-wide popular movements and the making nf innumerabJe privare md public imernatjonal agItemenrs
(Mitrany 1915a~ 89)
Mitrany WiacuteI$ concerned thar (he rise of the fllidon-state and the insiexcl~tence of new statcs on che doctrine uf lluvereign equality when (bey were dlldy weaker and smalJer tban the Grear Powers hindered internacional lt0shy
operation in for example the cconomic lphere HowCer he 1lW rbar the fnne ofevents wu working agaiexcln~t sta~ism
No maeter what rhe size and shape of rhe particular community lo funcrions are such thar rhey haye to be organized and the fOrres and (crors now iexcllt work no longer have llny rroe telarion tlt) rhe uld pnlitkaJ divisions wirhin or withuJ( rile state The new functiom imposed upon our puliria instiacutetutions art compelllng 11 complete recomt(Ucrion of tile technique of govemmellt on a purely practical oosis 1 teach that rondU$ion by ming at the Illltset noto what is rlte iexclden form for an imtrnadonal $odetyiexcl but mher what are 1tS C$sential ftmctions
(Mitrany 1915a 99)
He claimed hat C$$cntially the nims of intemalional governmcnt were no diffcrent from dlo~e (lf municipal gnvernmenr w aCaJt equality bcfore the iexclaw for aH rnemben of the cnrnmuni(y and ro lrumote sodal jUlltict To expen [O achieve rhe first aim in inrernatlfllltliexcl sodely whefe 5talCS wcre
l ju WrJll1Jgs en mlWnal101tJf (iexcl(gamufJf)lJJ
nei[her eqna nor unchangiug uuiu would be unreascnwtc Ir woold be far more prncriC1iL ro cmnpromise rhis aim and CSLablish a League of Nations in which Grea( pQVeri woulcl he dirlltdy representelt Secondary Jitates woulcl have group representiexcliexclrioo afld malter ~tatet w()ulcl have panel repmentatioo At the same time sfCortdary bodie$ would be ser up in varJous pam of che world 11$ orgnns (lf regionJI grouptngs of Jitares artd (hese bodies woulJ be connected with and subordInare tO the new CCOtta League organs They wouiJ aleo be iexcliexclbie ro clesl wiacuteth problems mOle teaclily especially as the unanimity of aH srares would not be needed [Ol a senlemem
These suggesdom are noe (he novel aspeltts oE Mitran)$ work They are imponam in changing (he emphasjs away from the tighu of amptate wwards rhe dude oc lit ICllSt (he actlvJries of Hates Still the conccto was wth Ilrrllnging relnrioru netween snm~s In a paper $ubmitrecl ro che 8drish foceign Office in 1941 and in hi~ study A Wking Peaa Symm (966) Mirrnny wncenrrated on how che (unctioru of gOYernment might be cnrried OUt more exptdiriously He rtcognhed chllr withio liberal 1emocrati( stare~ [he Une berween whirh futCtions are Cflrried Out by pubtic and by privare aclioll was shifriog lIod that rhi5 line unde (he prel5ure u( (rt_ih social Ileeds and demands musr be Jeft free co move with rhem A similar demamuiacuteon existed in che terrirorial spbete interlla~ dooally wme (uncdons (eJ railway systems) could best be organized cOlltinenroUy some intercontinentnll) (e8 shippillg) alld some univcnaUy (eg aviation) However there would be no need for rigid patteros exccpe perbaps io tbe exercise of negadve (unctlons -- those related ro securi[y wberc more fotmal sacle lnstltuclOns WQuld be needeJ In (he field o( positive (unctiacuteoru (dw$C tdatecl ro economic eultunl and sodal affairs) he climensions ocgans and powers of any organiorion would be deler~ miacutened by the nature oiacute the funccton and would be fairly flexible Mitrany fmfSaw tbe tStliblisbment o( functional bodies wirh auronomous ta~ks and powers which wonld do thingl joiacutently Tbis wuulcllink aucborlry tu a specific activiacutery (hUi breaking llway foom the tradicional link between authocieyand a ltIacuteeftnire ~erritory Murany 1966 125) 11iacutes move wcmlcl avoicl he sreritity uf many of rhe wartjmt suggesdons fue posr-war (ecltrn~ tions O connitudonal innovariacuteon in rhe United Nacions whlch f~eteoacute 00 he opposidon oiacute sovereign sraee reiiexcltance Mitrnny hoped rhat che number uf internarional agencies (hat had exisred before the Serend Wodd War augmenteltIacute by the A11ied board durJng rhe war lrsdf wuuld u~rve u tbe ba~lS foc (he network oiacute inremarional gOvernrnent He quoud wlrb obviow appruval the wurd$ of an Amerltlln scholar J Payson Wild Jr 00 the varlOUS warrime experiments
The Hues between domesuc anltIacute iexclnrernational actlvlty ate blurred ancl nadonal adminisuatlve agencies of the Powecs concerned Smneshytimes engnge in domestk busint-1s and at orber rimes extend theit
Wrilings Ofl hllenJdUacuteoN1J org411iatiofJJ 137
(unctioru ioro rhe uumluernarionul sphere The resuh is o conglomerashydOn o( intermnional bwrd aocl domestic staf( whose dlties Illrermiacutengle Adminisrrnr1ve offtcers o( narional lmirs deal direcdy wirh rheir opposire numbers in orher S[1l[es WirhOlU benefit o( diplo maric intermediaries and simlllmneously perEorm borh nacional and intemational tasks So fu no attempt has been made en estab1ish iexcliexcl
super~State
(Mitrany 1 6 167)
Mitranyll villion is oE a world in wruch che functiollS of ~etyday $odal 1Jfe - transport healrb care rommunicatioos agticlllture industrial developmenr sciendfic developmenr and so on - are no Jonger assidl1ou$-ly carried en witbin rhe confines oE each sovereign iexcliexcltflte but ate underuJen across fmmiers on a tegionai cominental oc univetsal bflliiiexcliexcl These acrivjw des would be overseen by international Ofganizatioru which wOIJld be more like boards oE managemenr Tbe functional agencies of rhe UN (che no WHOgt FAUacute etc) already underrake urn ro~opetative t$Sks fIli do sorne non-governmental groupings of spedalisrs (League of Red eron Sndedell World Srout Movement etc) However tbe Une berween what has been done imernationaHy aOO dome$tkally bas tuen drnwn very much ro [he beneflc oE che latter and international activitid bave tuen riddted with politicel dispureoJ rnany oE which have liule ro do wlth me good manegemem of the (unction iexclnvolved Mirranys laquoheme would fiexcludually lOwtt rhe liue ro aUow more functioos ta be Citded OUt at rhe level where they wOrk more efficieruly and woukl proide managemenr of tbere funcshytions ra[her [han poHdclI1 interference Not onty would his develQpmeof beuefit (he general social welfure of the world ir would abo hcIl (O salve rile problem o( plaCe and security The LHliputian ties o( internacional fuucrionru co-operarion would piacuteo clown me giam of conflict weakenlog [he urge ro destruction and warfare by rhe promise of consmlctJoo and cashyexistence
The (unctional approach does nor focus solely on iorergovernmenral organizacion buc aUows for a network 01 spedaliuxl agencies roany uf which could be non-governmentaL Ir difftr in emphllSi5 ftoro che mainshystream craditionalis[ wricings and Mitrany~ work praaged a move away from internare relations 10 wotld politics Whilst the functiooaJ alpoolUh does not oReod against lh sentimem 01 nationaJity )t the pride oE sovereignty (Mitrany 1965 139) lhere is no doubl chat ir is meant lO weaken the i~por(Jloce and power of the middle roan berween rile indi vidual and a world communiry che sovereign scnre The feeling o( solidarlty enrounged by functionallinks 1s nor between states but beween people or assoclatioos of individuals Each of us is ill fuer a bundle of funCflonaJ loyalties so dWt tO build a wodd communiey upoo sueh a concepdoo is merely to a(eM artd consolidare ir also betwetn societies and grollps Micrany 15 14n
138 Wriling5 fin illttrnatiQJIa1 (ffanizatio1ts
Such IIn imaginative appruach tu wodd problems aud be mundiUlc hard~ working iexclapolitical role lt implieamp fOr interuational organizadons has its fiexclruIrs To ctiexclddu Mitranys functionalism as being impronica JS IUlfalr hoth because internlltionru functiornd links hllve grown espedaUy since the S~ World Warj and blaquoarue M1tranys approach is a gradual one he did OOE expeCt ir ro be adopted overnighr Even so ir cioes have certllin 11mbiexclshyuow a~pets which shOllld be criticany eDmined
Piexclrsr de5pite rhe refere-nce to possible regional fimnionalunmgement8 Mitranys pJans ron counter ro rhe notion of aU-embraciug regional organi utJoru such as the Europcan Communities now E~n Uninn (Mitrany 1975b 53-78) Whibt these organwdons roay Hnk their iexclamhotity ro a speoacuteftc activky $ueh as the conditloO foc running (he coal iexclaud steel indusshytries nr the agriculture of the EUs member states they sta hold w the rrnditinnal1ink betw~n authodry arul a definirt territory The cooJ and sr~l polkies or tite Common Agticultural Policy uf the BU are nor extended to tbe industries and fumen of other non-member countries who mar wish lO participate in theit ochemes Vet il can be argued toar ir is prccisdy in these iexclirnited geographicill blocs that flIlCtiOruJ arrnnscments are besr executed wirh limitations un mernhetship To wnrk propedy chemes must encompuss denned aras with a good deal jn common - the flexibility of Mitranys proposal wIQutd 500n break dOWIl )l the tnembers WlJuld have $O little in cornmon in fo cxampie the runnill8 of agriculture tbat coshyopetation would be dif(kulr or lloo-proouctiacuteve Furrhermore rhfmiddotse regional atrangemenpiexcl overcorne the problems of dedding the meaning hQundaries and consequtIlCCS of any particular function (Melaren 1985 142)
Second Mitrany did not really envisagc any piexclHejcal control of the futlCtiooal des between COllntdes mus distinguishing him frorn [he more traditionaliacutest approach lO inrernational orgaruwcions lle was hopeM dw the pmblems of roshyurdillltion between ronctionalagencies could be worked out as they lllOOe
To prescribe fOI the suke of [iexcladicional ne3tleSS somtthing more dennite han the guidancc and supervision of eg the Ecooomk Md Social Couooacutel W(lU1J be ro duron he whole conetprion from [he niftJo impollC upon them (funct-lonal bodiesJ a co-otdination authoriry with anyrhing Iike comrolling scuus w(luId be ro move again roWllrd$ that JiacutecumuJarion of power ar the centre
(Mitrany 196~ 143)
Thus [he institmions uf (he Eutopean ClJmmunitic~ - the Counoacutel uf Milli~iacuteers rhe Commission che Courr of Justicc rhe European Padiamenl dre Economic md Social Comlllittce - were al analnema fO Mitmny They werc juu miacuterrnring the poluacuteical COflffOh of lhe nation state ar iexcliexcl pa-n-continenullcvel anU according to Mirrany Continental unious w(luld have a more real chance thau individual suteS to pnletise the aurarky thae makes or division Mitrany 19(Kiacute 2n This may u((end
Witi1lf1 rm imernatilmalllrgaraquoiutifJ11J 139
agains[ lhe funcrJonalisu hope (r iexcliexcl universal apprOlltIacutel tu proble[Jls but (he abhorrence of policial imtitutions is lItrange wIacutelen [he funriona agenoacutees will aftee iln be mllkJng poHtkal decisions -- declsions roncetning lile aurhontative allocafion uf resources No only will iflfetnashytional functiunal transpon organizations established accordlng to Mittany have (O decide that cerEain areas wiH bt weU served by railways and Wds orhers llOt iexcliexclorne ports bujjt up others ieft to tlceay sume airlines expanded whlle rnbers are allowed ro fOllUact blt deeisiow wilI have ta be made on how w diexcl~tribu(e 5carce re~ources betwccn fo example iacutenvemtlent in transpon ur building more hospitals or restfllcturing rhe srecl Jndustty thwughour (he area eovered by [he orgalliurions Thee arc paHdeal declsiQw ln a period of economk growth and plenry [hdr potitshykal niexcliexcltute may be le5S obviou as resources are avaiuble for almost eVery plan advanced by world 01 regional shjpping aviation heaJth or sree1 O1ganizatioos Otherwit there mn$t sllrdy he a system by which scarce mrnurce$ are aUocaced Tbis problem was flJed squardy by Mitr1ny successors iexcln the neofunctionalin school (dealr wIacuteth in the SC(tiOH tbat follows) but ir doell seem ftoro Mirranys writings fhat the world of funcshytioollJi~m is a wodd of IlnUmiacuteted resounes (Melaren 1985 146)_
A third problem in Mimuys approach i~ brought out in a eommtnt by lniacutes Claude The functiacuteonal theory uf imemariruwl nrgaruzarions 1S ultimateJy eoncernen wirh the usue of polJtiacuteeal and military srniexclggJe functionalism tneats (he promotion of we1fue as au illdirecf approach tu rlx prevenrion of warfare (Claude 1968 31--5) Mitran quoted Oaude wirh appmval implyiog rha fulletionalism would ind~ mllk( a positive contribllt1on (albeit inilitecdy) CE (he ptCveurron of war fhis profOiSitiort is open (O $(Ieral criticisms Given the level uf arrnrunems in the worJd and the porential fQf cunflict the contriburron ro pettcc made by funcrioruuacute acrjvities miexclay come too late A youth group exthange betwtn rhe USA and China ma) bode we11 fOf
tbe furure OOt wlll be uf link use if (he respective parrus are beaten ro meir destinarions by intercominental baliiacutestic missiles funhermore the pmmotion of wtlfare may inctease internatioual conflicr by i~asiacuteng expettacions Espedally if social and ecounmic changes are bmugh[ aboue by imernational runctioual 3Jencies developing muntrie poliacuterical I~derships may fJnd ir increasingly cliiHcult to meet lheir poplllatIDn~ demands fot more economic benefJts fur a ampirer distribution uf benefits or in sorne ta$(-S fOf Ol)tool uf the social consequences of laquootlumic Rrowth Imernal sttili aod unrest may chen ~iIJ over into inrernacional eontlicr Finally Miacutetrany daiffi$ that rhe Nncshyrional approach ciocumveuts ideological aOO racial diviID05 as it ltloes territorial frontiacuteers (Mitrany 1975a 226) There ls guod evidellce tiJat the opposite has been happening thae the exlsting runctiuual organimfIacuteom slch $$ tiNEKO WHO and lID hllve been riddkd with ideulogical and racial (or al lea~t Norrh-Somh) diviions wruch h~ve teflected pnlirical argnments outside he olganizarimlS bu have ncvenheless adverscly aHewod their ba~ic work (Ghebali 1986 l tR-lt6 1mber 1989)
iexclIV WHURg) W~ mltTlWilm tIampmJlaiWN
NetrfJl1iKJiOalisls
Tbc move away foom rhe srate-cenrric vjew of JlItert1arlOlal organizarion Started by WOllf and Mirany was ccetiacuteeued io rht immedijlre posr-wur perjod by social stientim applyiacuteog asJltu of functionll1(st ~heory to European nd Atiacuteantlc in~limti()m This utw fUllCtionaliu approach showed paruumlcrnsr interesc in che European Communities (Ee later nuropean Union EU)) whjch arme iu iexclhe wake of che amphuman Plan In Mily 1950 Roben Schuman rhe Frenrh Foreign Minisrer advauroo (he idea cha( West Eucopean srarcs should establish a High Authority wlrh powers ro admillshyimr theit eoai aOO stecl induscrie~ Negorjatioru on rhe detalS of chis plan led t() the signing of che Treaty cf Pariacutes in Apdiacute 1951 by FraIlee Wen Gemuny Iraly rhe Neiexclherlands Bdgium sed Luxembourg (rhe Six) Tbls gave substanre tO (he idea lbat funcrional aiexcltivicy oould be ITlltllfIged across fcomien by IUl organizadon ove and above the govemmenrs of che member sraces a supmnational amhority The idea was wldened ro cover iexclm expanded unge of etooomk activiry when he Silo esrablished rhe Bt1fOpean Ecooomk Communicy (EEC) widl the Treaty of tome in MAtch J957 An Aromic Energy Communiacutety (Euratom) was eHablished sr che sume time However ~he element of upranationiexcliexclliry was dilurelt in the High AllthoritY-s successor (rhe Commission of rhe EEe) having only Iimited deciuacuteOIl-makin8 powers anJ having mosdy the task of proposing acdon ro tbe representarives of he rnember states situumlng in (he Coulliil of Ministe13 Despire his otber Community hutitutions contsined the gerrn of supranadonaHry rhe Courr of Jllstke empJoymg Coromunity nuhe [han nacional laws a Ruropean Padiument wbkh WlS eventually electelt by ditect eleedons amoog a Communiry-wide electorate voting for Cummunity-hased parties aad 1Jueresr groups represendng mrmetSgt consumen traJe unions aruJ blliiness on a Commuiexcliexclity tatber than a nnional basis
Tht$eacute tnmwauumloos in WeBtem Europe uiggeteJ a spate uf 1 iexclretamre primaril) in he lJnireJ Sures whieh examined tbe nurure unrl purpose of the Commuuity iustituions The Jominam staacutend amongst this writing was chat of the neo-(uncrlonalisrs sJCcifically Ern~1t Haas Lean lindbetg and J05eph Nye whose works are of importance io the uudy of internacional organizacions In ronrruc tO Mitrany the OCW fuoctiooalistli tended Br (iexclrOc tuacute iexclimir rbeie study 10 developmems in Wcscetn Europe (HtIaSs ~nJhe Naion Stte (964) bcing a nruiceable exeepdon) especially the OC alshyrhough later cornparimns were tnade wirh rbe growch ofccmmon lIlltirkets iexcln Mica East Eurupe aoo Larin America On che whole the neo-fumtiooaiscs had rerreated foom Mitranys world view
fhe neo-funcrionaljgrs aiso realized rhe dilemma faeed by Mitrliny in eelihng wirh politica dcdsicms ane did nor fllnch in introducin~ a merhod of making necessary chOtees ar he imernarif)llItI leve Indeed rhis wa~ rhe kernel uf rheir ideagt lhlll 1I0l ouly sperifie functionamp would be farried OUt ar rbe subrollrinentill rarher (han (he nacional leve bul thil( lhe decisions wnrernillg (hese functioos would be made at thaf level shy
6- v n_m_ ~olo_~~W_
with imponant cOnsequences for those groups imetesred in the decisiacuteons and iexcliexclIso liffecting orher arcas of poliey Por example supprne the Ecooomk Cual and Steel Community (BeSe) required (har che sreel lodustry be orgaoized as a West Europeao endty insfead of a numher uf narional industries a1l commled by differenl ccgularions aod rbar a suprauariona surhoriry be crcared ro decide on the policy Coc che ranniog of tbe Wcsr EUlopean sfeel induStries lo ronsequeoce those involvea in say rhe French steel industIl would switch tbeir attentioo away from Parili where policy was previowly rnade ro BroS$CIacutei wbcre ECSC poliey is mude Purthermore CommwIlty ntber dUlo nadonl poliey on ueel eould spiU ovet into ereadng a Community po1iey ror cool tnmspOH IUld Othet asrod~ ared acdvities As rhe numbe oC functiacuteooal policies decided at a Commuoity rnthet than a natkmllllevd expanded so the need for political actioo at this higher level would gfOw aod thc political sysrerol of the couutries involved would becomc inexorably iexclmcnwincd lhis was the logk of rhe innovator of he $chumao Plan idea Jean Monnet wM considered rhar rhe establishment of a c001 and srec1 community foUowed by similar organitations dealing wirh otbcr Cuncrional areas - agricultute transpon nade defence - would be lreps on [he way ro building Europe The eOO would be jln economiClllly aod politicaUy integmred Rurope lo Monneriexcl scbeme a federal West Furopeao state The means would be fuoctlonal bu with a political contento
In his study of fbe ECSC Rrnst Haas examiooo this s(rlltegy and a1so dmned polldcai inregradon in its ideal typc u beiug rhe process whereby political iexclcroo in severa distinct nadooal ~tings are petsuacltd to shjft thet lnyaltielJ expecrations liod pOlidcal iexcll(tiacutevides eoWjlrd jl new centre whose insdwtions possess or derrumd jutisdktion over me pit-existiog lIatiof19l $tates (Uaas 1958 16) ihis oew cemre would be che powelshyhouse managing rhe political ptoblems oC fuoctio1llll coopeaacutedon [he Uigh Audwrity of tbe ECSC and be indrurion of me EBe The policical actcniexcl invoJved would be rhose elites leading the poliacutetical groups habirually colCerned wirh public decision-making and wooJd indooe trade uoioacuten offishydaIs busiue5$ ami Hade representatives higher civil servann and activeacute poHttdam As tlltSiacute eliteS rutneU theit aacutetrendon ro rhe ojOW policical centre chey would find tha Community pelky in olle area nm be uwde tea oo1y if che task iuelf iexcls expanded CHus 1961 368) by way of a spillover of actiVity lIltO anocllet policy atea Evenrually Communiy policy~makiog would take uvet from S(ale policy~making jo alI rhe crucial BreaS and the new centre would emerge as being potenrially more powerful dma the member srares governmenu wbich had been drained of lheir mOS( meruoshyingful polidcal ucdvides
1( this stage ir can be quetied whetbet Haas was describing an inremashylional organizadun or il poremia1 federal mlte Io discumng tms quesrjon in his book on Elle EC-S( Haas cooduJed dllU Tbe hruHnct of federal as agaiacutenst middotimergovernmemaf powers lIeeacutems tU point to che coodusioo tbat in
142 WtitingJ on mtertlatilJtJA orgamZ41iom
alJ maneo relating ro the romine regularion of rhe commOTI ~et the High Authority is independent of government (HIlaS 195R 55-gt He al50 voiced rhe opinion rhu Supranadonaliry in snueturnl ferms tberefure means the exisreuce of govemmental a~lthorirjes dlloer tuacute Ihe archetype of fdeNrhm rhan any past inrernati(mal organizar ion buc not yet ideutiacutecal Wlth it Oiaas 1)158 59) However this $upnmttionaity in pNctice has deve10ped into a hybrid in which neither the federal no the intergovernshymentai reooency has deady triumphed a-bas 19511 527) Ir is aloo denr lbat the original Coo1 and Sreel Communicy was mueh mote functional~ Wlcrnl than the lateacutet Economic (ommunicy and untiacutel the mid~19805 the unified aud expanded Communuumly romw to play Jown the elemenU o( supranatlonality iu tavour of 1ts Jiacuteltergovemmenul insutution rhe Conndl u( MiuiMm This aud othet dtVe1opmems led Haas to lcconsidcr his origshyinal view of Community inrtitutioos
In the 1968 pre3ce ro Tuacute Uniting of Ellropt (which was wIacutetten in 1958) Haas alrtady identified factors that had dllngro rhe nattlc of me European Communiries experimem in che previous ten yeacs He observed tlur during this period vario~ spiU-OVet aOO adaptive ptcKeues s(ill had nO( resulted in la pulitically united Encope and in an~werjiexclg the question what went wtlJug he outliued fuur considetdtions Fitst (he new funaiurutlJsu had filiJed w di$tinguisb between background variahle cOlditioos prevamng at rhe time when cbe Comrnnnity WU$ csnbJished and new upiratiuns and expectations that had develnped Jhe esntbliacuteshment thar had ron counrer ro the Community spitit Second the imptet o( niexcltlonaUsm had becn undereshytimawl Third Eactors within me Commuruty had becn nressed ro he dccrimenr of those coming from the outside world PintUacutely me massive transCormation oE Western socie[y raking place indepeudent o( EutoptHl integratiacuteon aIso hacl been underestimaretl (HIlaS 1968 xiv--xv)
Haass definidon of imegralion alsu bccame wmewhar more negative I1lOre stlilte-centric than bis original 195R emlhasis un nationaJ llt(on shifting their loyaJties expecratiacute(ms and poJitical activities toward a new centre By 1970 Haas considered the study ofregionallntlgrurion to be concerned
wich explaining how aud why sUtes eease to be whoUy $overeign how ~md why they volunucily mingle metgt and mix with rhcir neighbours $O as to lose che facruru attributes of sovereignty while acyuiring ncw techniqucs me resolving conilirt between themselvell
(Haa~ 1970 610)
By 1975 Haas eonsidcred regional integmtion theoty oiJsolete in Wesrern Eurupe and obsolescenr - though still urerol _ in tite teSt o( the worId (Haas 1975 l) By 1976 he had arded out n maioI reintetpuEation of uew-fuuctlonaJist lhoory as it applied to rhe Ee The definahle outcome of integtation in Wenem Eutope was secn either in ttaditiorW federaHsc temu - a Wen Enrnpean (ederal state ereated out uf yenrs of fun~-tiexclonal
Writings M ifllernuJlfJmiexcl1 (JFfIiutian 143
rutivity whkh had lcd lO J trnmrer of poliduumlll acnvity away rom (he natlon ~tates tOwarJs a new srrunure - or ltlS the imtitutiooltlUdng uf some intermMiate iexcliexcltage such as rhe present status qno whcreby atlthonty is dimlbnrro unequally between several centres Wilh tire old nation states losing their previous Ituthoriey but with no new JiacutedeOl government in ptO$~ pect Whihr the original aspecrs of the EC - rhe cuuoms union aOO (he Common Agricultura Poliey _ have tllaquoorne entrenched the spillover inm orhe policy area~ had nor occurred by Ihe mid-1970s as che neo-furutiooa1ists liad ptedicred Also common polides liad becn Jevelopetl in differem o(8ashyIliratiuns - che OFCD the summit of indurmiatiooo counrrics the Group of Ten - tarher than within the liC lhe problem according lO Bus W1IS
rurhulerue whereby rhose iuvolved io polirirs haJ found rhemselves in a littting ofgreat social complexiry where rhe nnmber of atrorr is very large and each pursues a variety uf objectives whirh are murually incompatible lmt ucn is also unsure of che ultlde-ofamp between the objectjves He continued Tnis conditiQn imJgtlics the erosion o( such interorganizarional patteacutern~ oC comensus reciacuteprocity and no(mative tegularity as may havr CXlSted eadicrEveryrhiug is up fO( grallS (Hus 1976 179) HilaS sllggested thu iu the EC polioacuteeamp and (he institutioru devised ro lmpleshymeacuteut thero iacuteU~trnre rhe attempc ro deal with lhe turbulence nather tllan achieve regional politkal inteSradon (ibid 180 original emphasis)
A similar hiacuteft lttway fmm the earHer llSp1rauumlons iiexcliexcl ICen in rhe work~ Q( Lindberg aud Nye Lindbeg wlrose book 1he Pattirai DJMmict o EroJMn Ecrmomic IntegTatia (13) had fullowed on dosely from Hws work was hy 1966 showiog tbar moves wwaros inregration wirhin the Be (ooid cause Stress within (he system l1Jtfl inCftllq the barrien to fimher integration (lJnJberg 1966 254) Togcrher with lkheingold in 1970 he desctibcJ an EC wbich had noc deveJopeJ joro a federal structute haJ difereot ltvels of integrariacuteon fut different functions and was sdl susceptible tIJ UJsis lt was ao unprecedemed but curiousy amblguoos plurruistic syttem there seem tO be no satisfrutory modcls or ronceptli in che sociaJ scienee VQ(abulary to adequa[ely define ie (Lindberg and Scheingold 1970 306) In a anide Joseph Nye coruiacutedered thac Jespite rhese and otber revisioos the neo-Euncrional approodl srjlJ embodies 11 nurober of fault tbu re1lcct jrs origins in [he 1950s (Nye 1970 767) He proposed a nUml)(l OC changes scating rhe derendent variable lels ambiguoUlUumly adding more politiul ruwn reformufating rhe Hst oF integration condiuons and pethapli mOSf
significantly drOlping che ideas ufa single path fmm qWlsi~full(tiexclonallasks tuacute politica1 uuion by meamiexcl oF 5piUove( (Nye 1970 767 He conduded rha[ shnn oF dramadc chaugc the prospect9 (or common markets or microregiorud cennomie organiutions leading in rhe shon ron (of dendes) to fedewt1nn oc m1me sOtt oE polidcal union capable of tlU indept1Ldent dcferue and foreign paliey do not seem very high (Nye 1970 1129)
There hiexclas been a long jotJJney trom the functiorudisl-fecleral nope5 of Jean Monoet back jn 1950 but it has seen the evolution of nm only the
144 WitingJ on inlernafuacutemal ttrganizafifmJ
Communiry insrirurions and policies bur aIso neo-functionalist thinking The Iogic of inregrarion gave way ro coping wich rhe crises inseirutions mixing federalisc and intecgovernmental elemenrs were replaced by a Western Europe in which instirucional tidiness is best forgorten (Haas 1976 211) and the federal elemenrs seemed ac mosc dormam The hopes of che 1950s had been replaced by rhe uncerrainties of che 1970s and the early 19805
Wirh rhe launching in 1985 of rhe idea of creating a Single European Markec wuumlhin rhe EC by rhe end of 1992 che signing of rhe Single European Acr in 1986 (which exrended EC comperence aud changed irs inscitucional balance) and che sectlement of a uumber of Common Agriculcural Policy problems in February 1988 che Iogic of inregration seemed ro be revived
Wriring in 1990 Keohane and Hoffmann resrored and refined che neomiddot funcrionalisr norion of spillover advanced by Errut H9al They were sceprical char rhe rheory of spillover could explain the ECs irucirurional developments of che late 1980s buc saw it aCling posicively in orher ways for example rhrough che incenrives ro institutional change given byenlargeshymenc of EC membenhip in rhe early 19805 (Keohane and Hoffmann 1990 289-90) They saw che pcocess cominuing and barring Clrasrrophic excernal fucrors were moderately oprimisric abour rhe Communirys furure prospecrs (Keohane and Hoffmann 1990 296)
This view was raken up by Tranholm-Mikkelsen (991) and Holland (993) borh of whom saw che revival of rhe Communicy agenda in rhe Maasrrichr Trealy - wich irs blueprinr for a move ro economic and monetary union - as being a revival of the neo-functionalism Drher wrirers on European incegration at chis time adapted che basic notions of neoshyfunccionalism bU[ broughr in extra fucrors Majone (1994) agreed char che EU had seen an upgrading of common inreresn but placed an emphasis on public choice policy ro explain particular Ouccomes Marks et aJ (996) saw a much more complex relarionship berween che Communiry and domestic decision-making leve Though rhe srare was srill very important ir no 10nger monopolizes European level policy-making or rhe aggregarion of domesric interescs 0996 346) Insread rhey idenrified rhe growrh of mulrishyleve governance wirhin che EU
Indeed rhese developmenrs in neo-funcrionalisr wrirings on international organizarions poim up sorne of the criticism~ of che schooL Firsr despice rhe besr efforrs of Ibas Schmitter and Nye it remains a rheory overwhelmingly dominaroo by an inreresr in rhe EC and larer rhe European Union In 1964 Haas and Schmirrer rried to extend sorne of che lessons uf econumic union in Westeru Europe ru Larin America Drawing on Haass 1968 preface ro The Uniring of Europe rhey discerned nine variables four relared ro background condirions (similariey in power of memben rares of rransaction pluttllism in member seares complememing elices) rwo referring ro condirions ar rhe time of economic union (similarity of governmenral purpase powers of che ecunumic uniun) and rhree ro process coudi[ions (decision-making sryle
W[J U UWltU 15
rransacrions rate rhe adaptabiliry of governmenrs) (Haas aIld Schmitcer 1964 711-19) They looked ar rhe chances of policicizarion chat is the possibilicy chat lhe acmrs seek m resolve rheir problems so as ro upgrade common inrerests and in rhe process delegare more amhoricy m che centre (Haas aIld Schmitcer 1964 707) Nye in his article Comparing Common Markecs (1970) rried ro modify che Europo-cemric narure of the neo~ funccionalis[ approach and drew on a wide range of cases of economic imegracion Larin America Cenrral America rhe Caribbean Eastern Europe and East Africa as weH as EFTA and che EC He concluded [har
The original neo-funcrionalist model was close m irs ongms in the straregies of European inregrationisrs in che 1950s and thru mighc be seen as a rempting and misleading guide for policy in orher aceas The revised neo-functionalist model is not somethiug ro be imiraced bU is simply a rool fur making comparisons We wanr ro know whac differshyence ir makes if a group of seates form a common market
(Nye 1970 830)
Though by rhe end of che 1980s rhere were few places ro be found outside Europe thac were forming common markets rhe formacion of he Norrh American Free Trade Atea (NAFTA) and rhe renewal of economic cooperarion in Latin America and Sourh-Basc Asia during rhe 1990s provided different models from the more poliricized EU These seemed ro challenge some of the basic assumptions of rhe neo-funcrionalistS aIld perhaps give some weighc ro Nyes scepcicism ciced above
Second i[ is clear chac che neo--funccionalisrs have had trouble wirh che insticudonal formacs They have rerreaced from being functional federalist almose back co Micranys eclecric approach rowards institudons They have also accepced [he durability of rhe nadon state in resisring che logic of inreshygration and have soughr compromise formulas which at leasr continued ro place emphasis on non-srare accivicies even if insticutions above che stare (supranarional) were seen to be susceptible to stare inrerference
A chird Cliricism concerns the gtOH of non-srare acrors favoured by rhe neo-functionalists They have consraudy emphasized [he imporrance of polirical acrivisrs the elites of inrerest groups and rechnocrats This may have parrially blinded chem ro a weakness in rhe ECEU rhar could have affecced neo-functionalisms earUer proguuscicarions from being fulfilled its insticurions cannoc draw on rhe day-ro-day polirical resources available tO the narional policical acrors This has led tO a gap mosr noriceable in che newer members berween perceprions of che EU by the represemarional elice and rhose of rhe ordinary vorer or consumer Whilsc some earlier srudies of opinion in the EC did inelude opinion pons rhese ofren dealt wirh easy questions (showing ones EuropeaIl idenriry) 01 soft options (whether rhere should be say a more acrive EC industrial policy) With the firH expansion of rhe EC in 1973 and rhe first major oil price iucrCdse
146 Writi~5 cm lI1lMfatleuromal orgfll1iutl1ltl
whi(h coinoacutedemally happenoo a yeat liexclater Euttiexclpean voren werc faeed increasingly wirh mu(h harder options inflation versus employment tlnde union righu againsr consumer inrerests The poISibllity was thar bcing a good European might mean aHowiog sorne other COUlltry5 ruuionals to explott ones fish or oH The crearion oiacute a Single Enropean Marker within the Ee by the end of [992 and rhe move rowards a single curteney from 1999 by eleven theo (wdve of rhe HU member litares bmught he activi~ ties of the VOlon do~er lO the wodd of tite coosnmer or worker However chis seem iexclf anything to have iocreased rhe alienariacuteon of voten from rhe institntions aM acrivilies of rhe EU The 2000 election for rne Europeao Parliamenr shnwed the lowest tnroour yer in sllfh direct elections ano Enrobarometer opini()fi poUs have demonstrnred a msative trend in public opinion on che EU rnropaeuintknmmdgl0epoebc-b531p3npdO Ir may be thar a oumbcr uf interest groups llave switched rhrir expecta6ons and poJiexclcical activirics tuwatds the 00 bllt many of the ordinary European V(l(fS seemed ro have failed ro trans[er th~ir lnyalties tu he Union
In surnmaty the neo-functlona1ists mok np Mitranys srudy of rhe a-lashydons betwren group~ and individllals in oHferent sures il5 wellas che sta(cs representativtltl They tried ro gtapple witb the queuit)O (lf political control uf such iostirurionalized funcrional re1ation5hips aod ro undrrstand how ir would affrct rhe oatnre uf tiJe nation state They arremptrd to define the statuS of [hese newfy creatoo insutution5 tnough rhry wete out always fvlped by devdopments in che ECfEU which WWl rhe focus of rheir studies Tbdr works have demun~trared rhat the EU imututioos are by 110 mratlS juse ordinary imerg()vcrnmenral ones lh~y have al) provideo a mirror ()f the hircof) of (Yents in Westetn Europe in pankultH - moviog flom unitios aod poJitkal dynruniqgt through ~rress oy$ and anguish to obsolesceuce tllrbulent fudds and back to mooerace optimism and a new dynamism
TrotJJ(l(iacutecnaUJI
Anorher Americao writer whose work dealt wirh che question oiacute integrntion is KarJ Deursch Alrhough not a neo-fotlcrionalilit his tranmctional appwmh nali dealt with sorne iOmmoo ~hemes He has been umrerned with more rhan imergovermneuul relation~ aod indeed hM str~iexcl reJations berweeo peopIes nitherthan just rhe elites favonred by manyneo-fuflctionalists Deursch concerned himltelF with m( absrnce or presence of significan orga~ oized preplttrations fol war or large-snde iolence between int~rnatiexclona1 policical commuoities It was [he secutity rommullttles lhat had elimirutted war and [he expectation o[ wat whhin rheir ixmndaries whicn Dentamph and his PrincctOll coUeagues exarnined in PeliriuJ Cfml1NJNlily dIId M NarJh lt14Jtlaquo Atia (1957) A SClttlriLy community WWl defined as a gronp of people wnich has become ~inte8rated~ io rhe sense that thete is real iacutelSSnr+ ance that (he members of that rommunity will not fight ellch oeher
Wriil1g1 (raquo1 iacutelMfatlortal tJrgaiadlMm 147
physkally but will se~tle their disputes in liOffie otber way (Deutsch 1957 5)lt loregration does not necessarily mean rhe me~ging oF peoples ot governshymental units intn a ~ogle unie an idea explicir in fooerahsr rhinking Otud implicir in much funrtionalist wtiting Jnstesd two $otS uf integrared secu~ rit communities ar~ hJemified the amalgamarelt where pteviousiy independent unlts have bcen rormaly merged lnro a larger unit wich a iexclommotl guvernment (eg tlle US) ano the pJuralisric where srparate gnvertUlleJlUl Illlioraio their iexclrgaJ indepeodence (eg uacutenada amI rhe US) In stlldying a nllmbcr of cases of anempred or octual intesratioo io tbe Nortn American and WCSt European area Dtunch conduded rhat tIacutelere werc iexclweive conditions essential fnr the rurcts of ao amalgruruued teeutity (Ommuniry and thM rhree wen nec~ry fm it5 plutalisdc COUnrfrpilrt
The1e three conslsted of rhe compaiacuteibiliry oiacute marer valU($ relevant to
politiclll decision-making tbe capacity o( the participariacuteng plt)htinl Imitl or ~mmem~ ro respood tu each othcrS oetdl messages and llaions quickly adeqwuely and without rtsort ro vlolence aad rne mutual predicrability n bchavior (Delltsch 19H 66--7) In Deutschs work emphasis was placed 00 cornmunkauun brlweEn potidca uoIacutets increased trnns1Ctions between them (such fL polirinl exchangcs toUfl(m trade and rratl~pott) brought increases in mutual dciexcl)Cl(enmiddotc fue s cummnnity ro be created (his high level of trnnsactrons must be accomgtauied by mutual responsiveness o that thr demand o( each side 00 he other mn rccdve adequate and sympatheric treatroent llthis wouk not ooiy predude the need [01 aggressive action lO acbi(Ye ends bm would aJso build up 11 feeLing u( UUSt and seturiry in che edationship
Deuucb does not have an obse~uacuteon with imernattomtl orgaoiexclZ8rion~ although his 1957 book iacutes in [he eM collcetned with the ctelltiacuteon of UCCIlshy
tity community in the NATO area rhere ate few tcferences to internatlOnal nrganiuuons Many o( the Cll5C studj( are ser io tbe pcriud before (be postshywar expansioll uf such organlurions and almost all deal ieh bilareral relatIacuteonshj~ O(utschs work has coosequences for the lUudy o( ioternuiona organizatIacuteoos govemmental ano non-goveromCotaj iO[~rnational otiianiza~ tioos can be created as a re~ult uf a plnraliacutes[ic secuciry nmunuoit) lne integracion of whkh may evtotuaUy become iacutennirurjonalized iexclu nuppened reo the ampandinaviiexclm states creand (he Nordic Counci1 There run abo be forrns of instirUti(lnalued communiratlons berween socieries wnich prOldde the transactions and undersrandinli rhat help create ji securi[y community DeUtsch wrote
li the way tu iexclnregrarion domestic or internarionat i$ through rhe achievemem of a srose of community tnut undergirdS insrirurjtms thm ir seems likely [har ao iorreased sense of cotlloounlry would hrlp to snellgtbcn whatever instirutioos - supranatiooal or internacional - are aLreAdy Oltraring
([)euriKh 1957 7--8)
ltgt -_ bullbullbullbull _- _
Demsc-hs work was mken funher in a vnluffie ediretl io 1998 by AdLer and Bllenen (l998) (lLat docs pay sorne attention to ioternariorutl otgilniushydoos Indecd their volume contairu chapters thar rekr ro rhe oseeacute NATO the EU the UN the GnU Cooperarion Cowxil (GCC) aod rhc Assodation uf Soud Eat Asian Niexclttlons (ASEAN) They daim that imetshyruHiomuacute organiexclzauumlons aud iexclnstitutiacutem~ played al lmporum role in elKiltlraging more inteo$ive and extensive ioteracrioos octwttn states rhrough theit uwt-huildiug propenies (Bnrnetr and Adler 1998 418) They lht six corulusions of this snuerneor
bull By moniroting srares agreemenu tntcmatiuacutelwl orpuuacutezatiexcloo~ give them he cooftdente tuacute cooperare io (he ahsencc of trUSt
bull Jnternational O1ganizarions allow Hi1tC$ to discover new areas of muuwl intetellls Tu ponimlar [hey cenoacute ro link panicular areai
bull Inrcmational organizatiom can hdp shape $fllre pracdces by liCtting down nOfOU Ihat define what is acnptablc
bull The iIKTeaiing nwnber of internacionaJ orgamrutions emuuragC$ muldshylatetalim
bull They dIlO eruourage smres lua societies to see rhelll$Clvcs as pan of a resion
bull 1ntildeey can abo shape lhe identiry of rheir memben (Banlett aod Adler 1998 418-20)
The aurhms cWmed char cheir stuJit$ demonmared rhe exrent 10 whkh social cnmmunicadons beomes insrimtioualileJ aOO embedded in lnreroashytional oC8linbatlooslt and in turU how (hese organizatioru express an inreot to dcvelop trUSt end mmwl identificarion (Batnm and AdJer 1998 418) TIe work on sccurity (mmnunidcs is pelhapS at ir strongcu whcn dealing wim the esrablishetl Westcrn democracies rbough llamen and Adlers work shows rhar it may hilve a wider urility
lnlerJciexclnmdcme
Furrhcr emphasi on the growrh JO cnlnsaccions berween l()Cicries can be seen in the worts of Keohane 11l1d Nye who were m che forefront of the iexclnrerocJXndcnce school in rhe lJoited Srnnt fhey puacuteirued our (he conseshyquences of the innease in tldrunarioualucdolU ro che study uf iexclnternncional rdarions Thcit statcing iexclgtoint was sLlnuuarized chus
TraM1latlowJ relations are nolaquo new alrhough che growth of tmnsna~ tklOal orgnnizarion in me twentieth centuty has been specracunr Ye-r our nmremioo iso nor ooly rlur rhe srate-centrk paradigm )$ inade~
quare bur also thar it igt becoming progttSsively more inadequate as changes io inrernational relauumloos take place
(Keohane and Nye 1971 xxv)
The) llsred five omsequemes uf this growth uf inEematiooal inrcracrions ana organizarJ(tIls fur inrerstate politks (1) rhe promntiun of attirude change amongsr driacuterens (2) ao innease io inrernacional pluralism the linkjng of nntiooal Interese groups in tnmsnational strtlCtures usuaHy involving transruttionaI organizations fOI rhe putpoampe of (04)minatioo ltKtohAne and Nyc 1971 xviii) whiacutech has heen lhe basis for much noo~(Jncdontllist wriexcling (3) me cmdon lf dependence and inrerdependcofe IS often associacuteshyarea with intetnilriorutl cranspormrioo and iexclnance Keclune and Nye 1971 xix (4) creating new insrruments fut iexclnfluence for use by sOJne governments over ()(bers (Keuhane aOO Nye 1971 xx) 1100 lt5) dJe emergence cE auronomous acrors wirh priwre ntildelreign policia thar roa) deliberarely oppose Oiacute impinge on Sla(e polides (Krohilne and Nye 1911 xvii)
In a late book (1977) Keohane and Nye dcah with che questioo of imershydependem-e in world poliacutetics io greatet depth Iorecclependencc $lnce tbe Second Wm1d War has- onen cesulted from increasetl ttaosnadonal atciviries and iexcli divided ioto twO sorrs sensltlviry iacutemerdcpeodence (dte muIy effecrs of dULOges jo tranS1lCrJons oc ~()ciacuteetiexcles or govetrunents) md vulnembHhy interdependence where he acrors Hahllhy tc suffet eO$n iacutemposed by extemal evenc~ js (aken inro accoum (Koonane ana Nyc 1977 12-13) In COntrast ro tbe reaisr view of world poHrk Keohane and Nye pm totward che idea type of complcllt imerdependence which chey claimed soroetimes comes dosee ro realiacutety chan does realism (Keohanc attd Nye 1971 23) aod whieh has three nuio characretl$tks it allows fo mulnple rhallne1smiddot- imershyStatC tiansgovernmental and trilnsnationa- conneltring sncieries there i an abserue of hierarchy ilmonS the rnany questions ac inle hetween iexcliexcltates with military securiry no 10nger dominntlng lUly agenda and Millnu-y force 15 not used by governments toward orher governmenu within me laquogion or on [he lssutS where complex intetdcpendence prevaiacutels (Keorutne aoo Nye 1971 25)
These dltee condidons are said by KCQhane aOO Nye to typify fairly weJJ 5Ome LIlAUe$ of global economk md ecological interdependence ami come dose ro chamcrerizing rhe emite relarionship hetWetn sorne cnuntdes (KeolWne and Nye 1911 25) Complex ilterdepcndente glVel rise ro oacuteininctive poliacutetical processes a sute $ goals wiacutell vary by mue arca with mmsgoYernmeotul puumllitics making goab difficut ro define as ttansgovern~ menrnl llClaquo()$ (fof cxample mtfUsrers of agr1cuJmre inte11igente agencies nariona wcather bureaux) pursue their own aims Jhe followiog facwn are reLevant iriexcl eilch issue area
bull iexclhe resourc-es of a Ncue fur thaI particular area are most relevaot radre Ihan the stares overull military ~tre-ngth
bull international nrganizatinm and uansnntional actors wHl be fruloipula[ed as malnr instrumenrs oiacute mue poHcy
bull rhe agenda of issUC$ wi11 be fOrmulated hyebltUlgcs in the power dirmi~ burlon wirhin [he issue alaquollS by rhe pururinn (lf internarional regimes
150 Writings lIlt inttn1atiQrJ41 ergdniutirll1J
by changes jn rhe importance of ttaflstlational acwtS and by linkage froro orher issues
bull linkage between 1sllor$ will be mote difficult for strong naces to undetshyrah ir[orce 1$ downgraded
ft whiJsr linkage by we$k srares rhrough internacional organuumlarions seu agendas helps coalition-wrming and provides arenas for the political acdvity oC weaker states which can use the choice of organizarional forurn [or an issue and rhe mobiliZlition of votes as a politiul resource
(Keohane and Nye 1977 37)
Thm Keuacutehane and Nt gavc inremarjonal organizaciOfls an iroporran[ role in thde compfex interdependence model of world politics a model which whilst not uSlaquo (O explaitt aIl world politics was one which rhey daitned to hllve iacutenfrtasing releYJ1nce in IIlarge and growing area 1ntildeey used an intetnUional organizadon mooel as one of the explanations ror internashytioua regime change that js che lthange in the sets of goveming flrrangernems affening relatioruhips oC interdependence In tMs C$e intershynadonal oJsanisaciolls refeued ro multilevd Iinkage norms and insritutions (Keohane and Nye 1977 54) which once euablished are harJ (O enlAlicate BeCllue o( this rhey may Stand in the way of swes using thdr capabHities In ordec 00 chauge regimes Instead powet outcomCl will be more aJfectcU by votlng power (in the UN General AssemWy for example) ability ro futtl) coalidoos llnd 00 control elite networks (ruch as that founo io clte institushydougt of the European Commnnities) Whilst the complclt illternadorull organizarion mode1 was only Ofle oiacute fOur aJvaucecl by Keohane and Nye ro explain regiffie chAoge tbey Jiu expeomiddott jr to contribute to such chaIlSC in a world where complex interdependence (onditions pertain
1he rontribmions by Keohane and Nye demonstra(e hoth the roncero pf American wtilets iexcln inremationru relariWl in the 1970$ with altemacives to
tite srare-centric model and their wiluumlngness tO draw from more rhan one approach bringiexclng rogether elementogt from che more tradidonal appnJaChes with economic models and non-stare-cenuic dements TIleir Wi)rk does however have certain weaknesle$ Perhaps the mon serious is the use of rhe cerro imerdependence and iexclrs djvisiacuteon iexclnro ~n~itivity and vuinerability imerdependence Anepting rhar inltldeperulence meUlS mutool dependeoce (and [hjs leado to discussiou a~ w how mutual maoy relationihips are) che phrase scnsiuacuteviry imcrdcpendenre scarccly wflrmnu thc use uf the term interdependcnce fhe fault lies wJth che authou loose definiuOfl of depen~ iquestcnce as a oiexcltate (lf being detetmined oc $ignificaruly affected by externa fwces The induskm 0(signi6candy atkcted w~aken5 me urillry uf me cerm so tlme che nOr1on oiacute scusltivity inrtgtrdependence seems ro refer ro any nociceshyaMe cffeltr of ooe srate and society 00 anorher A person may Ix- significandy affectcd by taking drog$ wlthout Ix-ing dependen on chem David Baldwin showcd that mis use of rhe cerro interdependence ran conrrary to the striaer
Writingt ()I inf~_Ji(J1ia ~lfizaJJom 151
lUlderstlllldings (lf the concept fuund in MirhiaveUi Montesquieu and Ronsseall as weU 115 in che works uf twentieth-cemury wrlteI$ such as Norman Angell Francis D(laisi -and Ramsay Muir (ampIdwm 1980 7-9) He snuested the U$C of rhe rerms mutnal influence mutual responsivrness ot mutual scrlitivity insread ofscnsirivity inrerdependeruemiddot (Baldwin 1980 19)
A second cuacutericism uf Keohanc and Nyes books aso concems eheie termishynology In dealing wirh rransnational influentes They [ump tngerheraH types of teiations in whieb non~8overnrnental actOrs participare chus makiflA rhe componenrs of cheir new paradigm shifting aud poorIy defined (Wagoct 1974 440-1) Wagner questioned whetber their work simply demonstrated a shifr in interesr to new areas of intetnational polidts shyespedally elttmomic ones - ana whethcr [he world hM reaUy changed or whether we have iexclUSt overlookcd sorne things a1l along (Wagner 1974 441) The atent of imerdependence wa~ also chaHenged by Waltiquest (1970) anJ Rosecratlce el al (977) in che US and by Lirrle Bnd McKinlay (1978) and Strllivan (978) in rhe Briti~h Uteramre
DespiLe any falling$ Keohlllle and Nye provided insighrs ioto ttamlflashydonal polltics they shifted atrention away fcom p~lrely govcrnmental actOts in inff$rate relarions and they poiutm OUt he impMrance of intetnational organlziexcliexclxions in the intetdepcndence oc at lcast rnurual responsiveness of =
rbe rdormist view of both international celBtiOO1l and iuternational orga- nizar1ons has always provided an rutemative lO the more conservativc cealist approach Ir tended ro be dominated jn the pre-wu petiod by internauacuteonal lawyen and ideaJists but sinee hc Second World War has laoched on to the changell in world poUtics 6tst jn the economic ficld and then in Europe thar have Mn more difficulty to explain in ICliIHst term~ It has sten intcrna~ rionnl organizarions as mlans to manage trends such as iucftI$(d economl( intlrdlpcndcoC( bar hll5 also illtceplcU rhat these organizations mar necorne impoftllm aCtoriexcl (lO che wodd st$ge lhemselves and can cettainiy Iacute)(cnrne involved iexclO changing rhe preferences o( governmeflts
RADICALS
Writers covered in this sccrion iCe rhe intcrnadonal sysrem flOt so much as being domlnlltcd by states bn( more by diUerent divisions 01 its peoplcs Thi$ is noe to Sfly fhat chey ignore surtes They cOflsider them elthet w be ks tmportant chan the iquestjjsions of diUS tit wealth or merely ro refI~ct these othcr factors ot w be roadblo(ks to unky in (he fare Qf mote impomllt chalmiddot renga Power ls seefl as belnamp cxercised by eh( wealthy II1ld privileged and open to cha1Jeuge Change in the system is possibl( but onty through srrll8ge or by an awakenjug pf peoples tQ rhetr real sitllatlon Most iexclnter~ natimal organization~ are thus regarded as (eflccrioos of the currcnt unsruisracwry stare uf aiacuteTairs though $fJme more activist orgauhatioos mar llave potential as vehicles or (hange
This SIoacuteCElOn has betn sub-middotdivided imo rhree gthe fUS( are the econ01nk srructuralists and indude Marxists and Third Wocld wruumlers cririclll of rhe cutrem imernruionallyuem They haacuteve in common a belief mar che polltshyiexclcal srructUres of me world halle leeo wbloned mainiexcly by eltonomic fiiexclctors and rhAr mere has bren an intiacuteJUIllity builr imo the presen sytem lhe recood are the cruumliral app~es who5e radicalilifl1 is mure of the iacutemellec~ cual SOrt They rejeCf - Uf at 19$[ question - Jhatly of rhe usumpcions utlderlying be lIiews ofhe world tepresented by the realists and refotmers Finally mere are the globalim Theit perspective ls planerary ana theiacuter rnain conrtrn h fM rhc survival uf Earth Agilln they challcnge che mme statemiddotbuled approaches of both realjsts and reformers
Stnuturaluacutet lIiews
Ihe srructuralist appmiexclch rO (he swcly of inrematioOlIl relations differs In imporrant wars tO thoee of me realists and refotmuu tbough ir has some elemeou in comroon with mands ofb04h schools As roany of (he neo-realistsshyemphasite (he power scructure of wudd potities this sectiacuteon willlimir jwgtlf ro (hose writers roncerned wich the impacr 00 me political S)Srem of rhe wodds ccooomic strucrure Unliacuteke che ttalist approach the erooomk srrucruralisrs are OOr jUSt concemed with swtts io wodd polilla and rhelr economic and poIitkal differencC$ but alw with the divisioru within f1tld berween SoOCieties (WiIIeas 1990 263) They are [heretOre romerncd witl the rifi berween riel iexclmd poor within scares and rhar herwtto udl and poor glohally This leads ro an interese lO trulSlUirional reladoru as well as in inrergo~romenmt links Th(f have this in corrunon wim refPrtllist views bm diexclfier foom chem in (he emphast~ placeoacute on rhe structures of world pollics beinc formuared by eltooomic fiexcliexclcmn In rhis selttion attentioo wilt be given te MarxiS[ wtlletS lIud sume Thir1 Wodd view$ - partiuilarly (hose of rhe cependency sdlOOf and rhe developmemalj~[II - who have made a cootribution quite separare from rhat of rhe Muxiacutesr uadidon
Marxill laquoewl
There is no one Marxisr interptetariacuteon of me role of imerniexcliexcltional Olganiza~ cions in world politics Sur Manis[ approschf3 have certain elements in common and form a di~dnctive 5ch001 of rhough[ about lnrernartonal telamiddot tions generaHy and therefore ahotu international ocganizadoos These appmaches are based 00 du writiflgS of Karl Marx (l818~) in coshyoperarioo witb Fuacutewrich Engels (1820-95) with perhaps tbe gtearest later conrribution being maJe by VL Lenin kader of (he 1917 fo1shevik revolushydon in Rurna They are cf importanee pany becau1e ehey ficm tlle 00515 for mmmuniSt [hinking and (hm mey have an anactunenr m rhe Soviet Unian whieh WIlS be suongc1t commnuist stare unrII 1991 and EO rhe Peoples Republic of China COlUT1UnJSl sinee 1949 Apan ftom lbis ManiS( beliefs
had a irmng inpur mm Wescern imdleltrual cruoking and conunue ro iruoan some viewi abom wodd politics in rhe Third Wodd
Neither Marx no Mancisrs took rhe stare ro be (he curtency of iacutenteInashy(iexclonal relations Unlike (he realist viewpoints chey did fiO( coruider interactions blaquoween soveteigu ltates to be ofovettidi importance UnHke tbe funcrionalists aud other modem Westetn views rbar srress non-stare actocs Marxiexclsts in particular emphasized cbus relatlonships born wiexclrhin nates and IiCOOSS Stare boundaries Indeed ie is diffku[r ro talle only of a MaIXIacutest view of inrernatiooal re1atioll5 lec ttltme of iorernarional orgnniza~ UumlOOy as rhis separares ene particular aspecr of human behavinur tor MIlIXIsr rrearment divorcing ir from the undedying relleCS of Marxlc beliefs Man-ism provides a framcwok of undemanding by whkh ir iacutes daimed ~ociery pan lind vresen can be explaioed and che furure development of mankiexclnd determined
According ro Maf1 relariooshipamp between people and the futm~ mar insdmdooallzed rhose relatienshfpamp depended on rhe economic $truCtUR of soday fhe way rhat productlon was organized He traced the history of dvilixed maokind through five hiuorical staBes - AAjade mdenr feudal capttalin and socialin - which have ditTereru dominant methods of produc~ tioll leadiog 10 a complirared arrnngement of $OCiety ioto various ordetS 11 manifuld graduadon of sociru tank (Marx llnd Boge1s 1965 40) amph form of sorlef has coutained rhe conflictual divisiQl$ which help [Q tranuacuteorm the narun of rhat $Ocjeey coRrradicrioru in the mode ofpcoducfIacuteon placed srrain nn rhe existing social nrder sharpeniug rhe divide berween economic founshydatinn of sociery and a mpld aansIacuteonnlltion of in SOpel1Ullcture in legal polidcal and re1igious it1$tirutioos Thus by 11 confronration of da$~ Conrramiddot dkeions one historlraJ form of soc1ery wus transfocmcd into a bigher stage uf social devdopmem the history of aH hitherto existing ~ociexclety is the histoty uf dass struggles (MaDI Illld Bngets 15 39) Marx and Bnsels were parriculady conceroed wich capita1i$t sociery - ac its Oeyday during theiacuter Uves - and its tmnsrormarion iexcluto ampocis1iu sodety Wlthln rrus form of SoOCiety rOete would be no division of laboU4 and no eWses Illld no SUtes no elCpropnation of labours 5urplus vruue I1nd (bus no private property 00 exploira(ion of ene clilllS ny iexcliexcloother with 00 need fue war
For Marx and fingeJs C1ass then and noiexcl fllltions or sutea are rhe bade units in hurO) llIIIl che struggle between clAssts Jnstead oiacute infeutliltl contlict ocrupies rhe centre of acrention (Berki 1971 R1iexcl From me nlneteenth celUUf onwards rhis struggle -n in Marxisr cerros has been primarUy between [his capicalist dass ([he OOurgeoisic) aOO the bbouring dw (me proletariat) AA (he trarurormatlon fmm capltalisr SoOCIety [O ~OCialiexclMl ro comrounism rook p~e (he superstruerutt of bourgtOis SoOCilaquoy - religioo national divisiacuteon boutgmis politicnl insrirudnns rhe SOlte - woold be swept flway and in Engtls pmse rhe gOlcrotnent nf persons is replaced by [he udminlsuacion of things Fetter 19 (47) with me itEte relegated lO the mmeum iexclngemer Wlth lile spinshyning wheel Qnd [he bronze axe (Feuer 1969 433)
154 WrituacutetKiexclI mJenl4tiorJal rngmZtlJilm
Mux saw the European SUtes of his own rime as being rntans by which the ruBng dass (011amp oppress the work~ng clw by using (he agentl of tht 5tare such as the iudidary the poliee the army and rhe church he (xrerual Ilctlvities of the stare wete also determined by its Chtss namre MeanwhiJe rrmllnat]onat Rlations of a more meaningfuL kind WQuld bt creared by trade rhe movement of capital and incteaiitd romac[ and llOIacuteldarity betwten the prolerariat of vanoulS nations riacuteidefd rhe internacional nriexclaniutions of which Marx and Engels hnd dire(t experiena- wtfe the Fi~t Internatiomd and for Engels the Secund lntemarional both of which atttmpted lO orgashynJxe the represemarives of wruking people aiexclros fronden Onc~ agaJn this stteAAe$ the Marxist empbois on transnarional dass relutions rnther than on intentate relarionships
Whibt Soviet writlngs on international organizatinn1 wtte falrly desulshytory in Scalins reigu 0924-53) rhey did lmerIy hernld rbe move towams peaceful co-existerne arul roreshadowffi the lartf rnrhe[ restrktive view of Imch organi2Atinm hy Soviet commentators
In the post-Second Wodd War period and In patticular in the post-Stalin era Soviet liternmre on international organiuttions bl(lSsomed This has reflected Soviet membership oC ma1ly 1osiexcl-1945 organixations the emershygence of a socialist bloc of sta[C$ and tbe incre-ase in the mlmber of Sowcreign s[ates all flUtontilde demaruHng a more sophisricared Soviet view of lnter~llate reLadoru than che survivalism of Stalins period Uuring rhe lare 19805 i( auo ret1ected the new thinking iacutemroduced by Gorbachev
StalintI suIXessor KrU$hchev developed a revised view of internacional relaCtons which gave a positio1l ro the emerging Third Wnrhl (Tbe Third Wotld was then taken to mean rhotle IItates thar had emerged ftom colo~ nialiacutesm In effect rhe terrn later induded tbe stares of Latin America Africa - exclnding the rhen apaftbeid stnre of South Africa - the Middle Rasr Oceaniacutea and South Asia) Peace(ul co-exiuence between oda1ist and (apltaJisr states WM $til comidered nece1sary but this diacuted noc predude the ideologiacutecal stmggle between rhe two campsmiddot iexclndeed lhe Soviet inter~ national lawyer GI Ihnkiacuten wrote pearcfut cocx15tence of sutes represeonng che tWO differeor rodal sysems is a slccific form uf dass struggie beween socialism and calitllllsm (Osakwe 1972 37) The Soviet Union abo deveJoped relatlons wirh rbe newly emerging exshycoloniaJ cOllntdeJ and Soviet writiog had tu take ~ount of this developmem There wru a recognirion of a third group of stattli between rhe capitalist aud the communlsr that of poteorially friendly indtptomiddot deut $tarem io Europe and Asia such as India Egypt Indnnesia and Yugoslavia which would filrm a tone of peace Although the rebtions wiacuteth rhe capitaliacutest sures sriacuteH remaioecl embedded in pelteful coshyexluencc rhere was an emphasis by postmiddotStalinist Soviet writets on the da eJement in lile telatiomhil - that is rhe wntact with progressive elements in Weste1l sodeey smh as che Jabonr mnvement Ncither diexcld peaceful co-exiucuce rule OUt ~upport o[ middotjUSt wars of nationallibcrildon
WIacuteJIacute11gs tm iacutenUrllUtional WjatlJZtiacutelJlff 155
iexclndeed ir was seen lt a strategy fo wodd reloludon Fiacutenally (he rrlashyfIacuteonhips berween the Sovier Union and East Eumpean countries vere deerned ro be based on sociali internationalism posmlating a haemony of natinnal and commllnity interests and mndllding thar jnde~ndeuce and sovereioiexclnty of a soctalist uate means aoove aH indepltndencc from capitalism (Red Star 1 December 18)
Tunkin underljned traditional Soviet thiacutenking rllar the mngtrltllenl imrrllment of an ioretnational urganization (fne example the Chaner oiacute the UN) was all-impottant in derermining tIte enene rrun the otganizauumlon bad an international legal pcntildeonaliry rhar iexcl5 a standing in internacional 1l1w 5imilar tu titar of a sovereigo staxe Examining lhe question of the antonomOllS wiU oiacute international nrganitatioll Tunldn allowed thl1 they need not jmt act as agtnts for member stares
In imernatiunal ptacrke trellties conduded by jntcrl~ational mSaniacutezashytinns take their speciaJ piare as treacies by wbkh internationsl organimtiom aequire righu and take upon themselves cerrain obligiexcllshytioos Intctnat10nal organizatiou are created by Hares hey are broughr iexclnto being by states but the actloacuteos of imcmational organi7ashydoos are nlt)( in any way de facto or de jure ro be tqt1sred lO the actions of scates
(Osakwe J972 23)
Thi did nor mean than M internadonal organiacuteiariexclon was an entity indeshypendem of its memher us[es as any powers (har they hacl were delegated by [he members In Jine wirh che ampwiet doctrine of peareful co-exiacutesteme Tunkin placed Uress pn (he nature and rhe membership of an international organiacuteution dlOSe which drew their membersbip from commlmi1t c1Ipishytalist and TIiexclird World tares could expcct tu be genel1llly mognized as having an incernarional personaliacutery He wrote
TIte namre of tontemporary international prganiurions is lO a very great exttm derefmined by [he existerue of Haces beJonging ro differem wcio-economk systems and the ioevitable muggle between them Thar is why pcaceful crexislence is now the bl-sic condition of rh~ dfVC1iexclpshyment ufgeneral interoational ntganization
(Osltuumlltwlt 1972 289)
Mor07JN Clt1ntrlbuterl sorne extra points Fintildet be iududed JNGOs in his stndy He wrote dlQt lotetnational orgaruulions have as iI rol 8t least three member coumries TheM may be government$ offidJ orgilnlzarions or 0CInshy
guvernmental organizatiow (Morowv 1977 30) In a 11Iter seccion m NGo thcy were ldencifred as che la~ group of inrerrulttonal organiuttiolls wim two aspccn rbar concttntd socuIacuteiacuteIgtt commemarors tbe NGOriexcl auirude towards the preservarion of pealaquo wkh the Wnrld Feieradon ofTrade Unions
6 _ 0
rhe Wodd Fedemion oE Democratk Youth and otber meiexclllbtrs oiacute tbe Sovittshybacked World Peace (ounaacutel gaining special mentioo and the specialiuJ chataCrer of sorne NGOs itl(h as rhe ruerrutriunal Couocil of Scientifu Unions and che Scienrifk OJmmiuee on Antnrctk Research MOrlrLOv memioned how NGOs can belp emblish a social dimate citillg their contti shybution ro (he setdemenr of a number of internacional confHcu swh as dlilr in Vietnam He aOO dealr wirh the role of che NGOs io cbe UN aud che consuJshyrative srarus [hey llave witn lGOs saying du[ smdems of internariooal affitjoiexcl
in [he socjalisr councrics m critieal of many asplaquots of (his system fur the eoruulrarive StatuS amogemenrs stiU fall shon of wha( [he deveJopmenc of modern inretnatlonal relarions in fac[ catls fur (Morozov 1977 43) Tbe specialized namre ufNGOs Wamp1 atttibuted by M((2OV tu
tht increased Jnfiuence of the pubic at large un roreign polky [he grearer iexclmpat of public opininn in imernatiunal reladuns and [he greater importante uf me ideological fiexclUtot 10 $ucb relations Accoum should abo be raen of che proccsses of cconomic developmenr and [he coosequenc~ of [he scienrific and rechnological tevolutioo which has also led ro a greatet number of speoacutealized NGOs
(Morozov 1977 42)
Second Morozov wridog jo d~ late 197amp made moU pos-irive refershyencelgt (O [he role oiacute Trurd Wodd SUtes in imemaciooa otganimrions He noted rbar rbe emetgtoce oiacute ti large oumbe of Oung natiooal stares h8ve kd fO che emetgcnce of intetnarJonal Drganizadons among develcpi08 ecuoshytries (Mororov 1977 29) aod claimed hat partkiparion in (hese organh311oos is part uf he process uf consolidating their sovereigocy and ruuional jndependenu~ aod of wlviog cheir pressing ecoOfJmic anJ orher pmbemsmiddot (Morozov 1177 31)
Finally Momzov developed the puint made by fimkin aOOut he limited llalUre of ioternationaJ organiurjQn$ - ~econd-dllSS ffitrnbers nf the inrershynarloual sysrem as opposed tu rhe firsr-diexcllSS members SQvereJgn stateiexcl by reretcme tO theit dedsioos There bave resulted froro che inrelllctioo of politicuJ euroorces within the organil1ldons and
Thecombined will uf chcse lGOs i5 disuumlnc[ from [he wllls of theuuml indishyvidual members io in eflSenlte and ln in narure The v1ilflous wills in thb case are nor agsregued arirhmetically each one exim indepenshydendy ur oside a homogeneQu~ socio-political gOUP wirbin whose frarnework (hey can be combjlled
(Murozov 1977 34)
AfLer lhe comiog ro powet ofMikhail Gorbachev in the Soviet Union io 19Bgt a Ihaoge rook place jo $oVJIl policies rowards imeroadonal relations irutuding international organi1ations and [his has been reflecred in new
~ M-- bull 6_V_
Soviet writings un [he subJect Gorbachev inttoducetl a owjor review of [he fureign poljcy uf the Soviet Union (har marchcd rhe inremiry of his dmncslic refotmS He encouraged new rhinking- based on a revjeJ vlew of che world siruation Peaceful co-existence wirh iexclhe capiralisr tirares WlCgt no looger seeo a~ being a spetjfic fum of dass srruggle as Tunkin had written bUI 35 being in the commoo intecesu oiacute all countriCl Ir WIi$ predishycued on the neOO fin surviva of (he human nce which in ShakhfUlZOlrQvmiddot$ word$ must ofCOUIse take fim place Lighe 1988 297gt- Thjs ml$or rhar a new COIKeuropt of seGldty had ro he adopreJ hy che Soviers rhar oiacute common security which wa5 based un sume of he ideas of -che Palme Comminion (see he1ow) Greater emphasis wu given ro arms control and dlsarmament agreemenrs wirh the Wesr 11nd to co-opttation in international uffuirs whilst Soviet intervention io che Third Wodd enbed and milirary 5UppOtC 1m [he East European communisr govcfomentS WlS withdrawn
Soviet wdcings on inremurionilJ relations both offidal and academic came to mirror Gorhachevs new rhJnkiog bur eho lilete iexcl$ evety sigo chut rbese id~ were dmwu no only from rhe Wesr but alw Uacutenm Moscow mink-tanks slleh as lMEMO th~ JflSIirure of World Eronomy and Inremlfona Relacions) Liacuteght 1988 29~n Gorbschev aun his forngn minisrer FQllard Shevaronadre gave rhe academiacuten a Breen light for funher diSClViiacuteon ud debare (Shevaronadre 1990 23) As II reampul srudies examlned he role of che Uniacutered Nariacuteons as sn ugem for peoce (Kolyrev 1990 12-19 NesrerenkQ 1990 65 Petoovsky 1990 42--3) and rhe mte of inrernational or811nizadons in environmental mliLffers IiLnd disurmamenc qutsdmuuml Chodsulkwsky 1988j NikitiM 1989 123-32 Roginko 1989 133-43) and internarionallaw was teassesred (Sutier 1989~ 363-75)
Once che Sovier Union collapsed many of me wrifetS losr rhe main point of political reference A nwllber Iefi academc orhets adapted thelt ideas ro WCtem oues and a few remnioed as policy rulviseni ro che new Russian goVefrutJenL However cornmunism as M imellectually dominant organiuog rotce wlch pnliiisJ dour had djsappeared in Russia togerllef with much uf the persptr1ve ir provided - wben seen thmugh me unen distotdng leos uf tbe Sovier lfulon - oiacute inrernatiooaJ relatlons and inremariooal organhattnru
Chinese Marxisr wrirers have iexclargeIy reflected rhe views of the leadershyship in Chinll sioce [he coming ro power of rhe Commun1sr Patty in 1949 Undl (he 1970$ communist China was elduded from almon aH iotttllJishytional of811nizIiLtIOns and ie is flot surpriamping tha whae lirde writing tbete WUtl on the st1bje(r Wal fairly dismiacutesampive usuaUy consisdng uf coudemnaM tinos of (he UN fnf its action tn Korea aud rhe security allianes fot teir hegernonic narure Chjnese Marxisr rhinking hiacuteu divided (he modem wotld jnro three groups ihe Birsr World consisred of rile fWQ imperialist superpowers namely he USA ano the USSR The Second World was made up uf otbet areaa uf advamed industrilllired cnuntries primariacutely EUfape aod Japa which were opea ro donunariou by lite Sllperpowers bu( which could $tan a dialogue wirh rhe Thiacuterd World Theu (here was rhe Third
158 Writings OtJ internationdl organizatioru
Wodcl iexcltreI( coruisting of the Afro-Asiacutean-Lario Americltlu sta tes supported in their muggte aAainSt Picsr World imperialism by Chinls This viexclew of the wmId colouted tyJst Chiacutenese wridngs on iacuteoternatiollill oeganharions Tbe $uperJowers were seen as cynical lTlllnipubtors Qf inrernarionaJ jnsti~ tutions Mao Tre~tuog wOre of US poliey towards such insdfutions Ir mam use or them when it neOOS rhem and kicks them 3way when ir does flot (Society (or Anglo-Chinese Underuanding 1979 42) US-domioated pill-~ such amp$ SEATO and imperialist groupiacutengs like rhe Alliance tor PfOgre~( wttt detided Spedal viuiot was saved roc the Warsaw freaty Orgaoizatiun whieh in one aetide was described as Soviet sodal~ imperialisms mol fur aggression (Ming Sung circd Jn Chen 1979 194) fhe Soviet Union was aceuseQ of trying tu manipulate che Pan and negnshydate wlth Wesrem eouorries rhmugh the Enropean Scltwiry Conferenee tn consolidare irs begemonic status in Basrern Enrope at the same time iexcliexcll dividiog Wes(ern Europe squeezing Out the USA ro as ro muSte way (0(
iu expansion and infilrmrion into Westem Europe (Ming Sung clted in Chen 1979 197)
Chinese writecs Fegatded tbe Ntildegttood Worid espedally Western Europe as being a pen force io telmS of imperialism which Ww tdponeed to the lhird World wich diaJogu as io the Jmueacute Convention berweoen tIacute1e European Commnnitiacutees and AF~ican Carib~an and Paciuacutet srUe5
Furrhermore the defensive $spects of NATO were sttessed and with growing European cohcsion the trend iexclS IJkely to ~ towatds a fuoce in which the American elemenr is seen as 1 temporary neceuity eventual1y to be phased out (Sodety fur Anglo-Chioese Undetstanding 1979 90)
lthe countries of the Third World were setn as coostirotiog rbe mluumln force comb$dng imperiaJi~m colonialism and hegemonJsm reEerring nor only to the vestiges of Wesr Etl-OOptan foloniiexcliexclJism bOl abo to US iexclnpetlshyalism and gwwiog Soviet soci$l~imperiacutea1ism Tbe Third Wodd eQuld hdp tn exclude the gre$t powers ny baoding cogecher io such otganizatinos aiexcl tht DAU aod rhey could work ro correct unequiexcliexcl nade and eeonomk reladons with che sUpetpowers through UN iexcliexclgeucies and eonferences such as UNCTAD and UNaos Abo rtlW material ancl exporting orgllnizations liexclke OPEC rbe Incernadonal Bauxilaquo Association ancl the Onion of Banana Bxporting Counuies were proised a ehanging (he old interntlrional eumomic Ome and banerlog che biggest roarerJal plunderers in rile world rhe United Srates and (he Soviet Uoleo (Ptking Rt1Jiew 26 Septtmbtr 1975 cited in Cheo 1979 309)
111e poverty oiacute ehinne study of intetnatlenal erganhuions no dounr caused by the lack of Chinese membership of such etganizacions unril the 197amp and the turmoit ef the Cultural Revulution eiexcliexclme ro an enel by the 1980s Jnstead oere was a more reaHs( viexclew (lE rbe worlcl iexclf one S~shytimes coucbed In Manlst terms In Chlnese univenittes there was a growtb io detailed studies of iutemationalntgsnizations aod the nuropean Union
WritingI un inlmullPmnl vrgrsrtilpiill1J 159
Tbird Wwld vlewJ
Many Third Wodd Afro-Asian aoo Latin Atrusican) writers 00 jntemsw
tional organizaion have adopte a structtulIist framework and are particufarly nm(etnecl abour how insdtutions can be wcd as tools of exploitadon uf rhe nitd World aud how $ome cau be used lIS agenrs of libenuion They llave nor been induded in the ~ettiexcloo un Marxist viltws (or three feamm nOI al of them are Mandst thIJM who are Manisr place particular stresS on (he posicion oF thE l1lIacuterd World and as ThJrd Worlcl eitizens they have through theit own experience unother pe~cdve rhan [Mt of writers from industri$lized srates
Yash 18ndon (1978 377) has identjfied thNf nuacuterd World penfIXrives en inrernational Olganizatiolls Fim [here is that or the bourgeois Of perry natiunalisrs who are in power in mos[ Third World statcs and who are progressive in [errru of anti-impcrialism but are rraniollary ro the C1tccnr WC they would sooner mau thcir pcaee with imperialism rhan iluwnder power (e the masses and peasancs This group uses ineernational orgllniexclm~ tions ro pur presrure 0lI imperialisc states in order to extntCt concession5 from them and appease tbe masses in their own coontries TIley see che UN as an opportunity to parley witb their entwhiacutele impecild masters t a presumed kvd uf equa1iry (Tandoo 1978 365) Thc scltond pcrspective is rhat ofthe reaIly backward regimes of thl Thitd Wodd such un Taiwiexcliexcln and Jotdan or whnm intemarional orguniacutelattnnS are of margJna1 signifieance [)t they prefet tu dea wirh impcrialism iquestirt(tiy The rhird petSPCCrive idenrified by landOll is that uf rhe masses vi thc TIlird World for wbom toterntlunaJ orgmilAriom are petiphewl fin liS Jong as hey rontinue fO reflect the muing balanlte uf clas$ forces in hvour uf impeuacuteJism (fandon J 978 378) Sioce the ene of he 196amp rorces representing thu third group have bccome lnott prominent in world polido in che form of liberarioo groop1 lttCn as tbe PLO and whilst chese have f)tgten interested in galnin8 telaquolgnJtlon rOt rhemshyselves at the UN and the spedaliled agcodes rhey are not depeuden 00 these or8ani1Jlton~ rndecd Tandoo romioeted (hat fo che revoludonary snnggles in SOUfh~E3SC A~a and AfrJctI iOfernattonal otgilnizalJons are tOO peripheml to be of much $ignilJeaoce (Tandon )9713 377)
Tancloo providcd n inrere~tiog history of the Jevelopment uf the anrishycolonialist forees in che Third Wruld sinee 1945 bur hi~ clivi~iexcl()H iexcloro he three perspenives is roo stark leaving aside rhe leil important backWllro regimes be has basiclllly grO~lped tbe Third World leadershp joto the revoshylutionaries who have Uttle netd (or imernatiooa otgllnizatiooll and those who llave suumlpped into refOrmism and have beco duped iot() bdieving (hat they elln ehaoge chelr c1ependeoce 00 industtia1i1Cd nBfiexclmL~ lhrough intemadonal organiwtions Thjs seems to undelsrare me use or ~mh organishyzations by revolutionllry groups - especiiexcliexcllIy che PLO anel tlle SoUthem African liberadon OtgllOiexcl7arionS - whieb have made substaotial use oiacute [he UN me Arah League ano the OAU tO sustain rhe polirical aspeets of theit effOrt5 1t alS(l uverestimatcs the extent tu whieh the Third World countries
J UU wnlmgl 1111 JTiUrllamm41 ergtIttJ1I0fll
have any iUwinru about imetnariooal Qrganizarioos such a~ UNC1~D
Furchermorc the identificador of 800d revolutionaries and falten refurmislS i~ tuller impliexclstjc~ rhe maIur sponrot of the UNs New Ecooomic Order l wruch Tandon hal roudemned as rhe Old Economic Order with a diffefent rltetoric WIIS the Algetian radinu governmenr of Boumediemu rhe PLO irself ha heen dependem on a numlgttr of bnurgeWs Arab goveromenrs foc financial 00 diploJUlltic suppon and ro Tandoos duumlertion that PQr narlonallibemwn movemenn guided by a proktatlan idoology such liS rhose in Chifliexcl1 lIlud Vietnam iruemarionaJ organlwtlona WtU of no 1J5e can be- added the re5ervarion until chey carne (O power Whiht ir took some twenty years belote communist Qtill1 made use nf suth organiutions the unified communiSl Stale ol Vietnam was quick fO cake up it position in the UN ro ask [Ol aid thtough UN agencies liS well as w become ji membet of he CMEA (Comecon)
Third Wodd commemscOt1l on world politics have emphasized the nature uf rheir atea$ potirical ecoOoacutemtc Ilud culmral relatloosluumlp wilh rhe iHdllsrriexcl~ alixed Nonh TitilO is iOO$t Oflltl rypified aiexcliexcl bciug OHe of ueo-folonialism _ COntrol of che Third Wtltld by lhe Nortb by indirecl means ratlet (han by direa colonial tule and of Kf)IomIacute( dRptwJmry (o dtpmdemjiexcliexcl) lntetnationaiacute rdsdOOi bcrween sures are sublumed ro relations between claue$ world wide Ixtween on rhe one lIand the expluacuteiting impetialist capitetists in rhe northcm iru1usuialized couotries 2100 rhcir middle-ltlass collaboratotS in the 50Uthem SUtes aud on the othet band he exploiced masses rhe proleuriat ol [he $Ourhern contJnems The Lurcr gmupS have been 1I1iide ecooomkaUy dependent on [he furmer so char hey lIre in rhe wuacutetds uf the Bruiliiln T Dos SantOS in a situadon jn which the economy of a cetuin group of counshytrles is condiacutedoned by rhe develOplllent aad expansion of aoother ecouomy lO which thcit own 15 subjecred (Bodenheimer 1971 327)
The uOOerdeveloped tounrries depend uacuten [be developed ror their capital nd ercperdse they find key sectors of ehdr eroooroy conrrolled from OUtsJde rhey act as a SOUfce of raw marerials lIS ji lthetip source of labour arul as a rnarket fur mllnuf8ccurers from Euttipe ]apan and North America As thejr living standards were deterrniud by rhe vicissinWeS of the Northern~ dominated wodd marker the relationship was Otle uf unequa exchange (he [esule of which was a world experiencing woequal developmenr with a developed rieh indwtriaJiud capiralisr Notthern centre and d poor underdeveklpedgt agciculrutitlly backwarn eXFloired periphery in che 50mb The dependem 80mh has been divided berween rhe ptedominanr undemeshyveloped area~ lUld a few Cenfres of deve10prnenr wirh their ttade culrural rraffie and polidcal linL to [he deveJoped North - rhe depeOOem develop~ memo omlinea by EH Cardosa (1974) allodlt~r Bruiliall Mmir Amiu (977) rejC(ted the prosptltt of aH antonomous capitalist development in [he Third Work the oew bourgeaisJe of Lacin Ametica Africa and Asia were in allianec with capitalisrs from rhe Nnnh and rhe mato $OUrce of finance ror lmported equipmem was fmm the expon of raw materials to rhe indu~rial
5 ~ _~ smiddot_middot~~
iexclred smes Amin (1977 1-21) SllW rhe can made ror a New Imernational Ecooomic Order (NIEO) by Third World leaders at rbe UN UNCTAD aod che Vilrlous North-Sourh dialogues as an nrtempt LO iexclnerease the price of chelr ntw mattIial exporrs obraio more lmpotted technol08Y snd chus finance a new srage of develQpmenr He saw this ti placing the Thitd World more in the gttp of the neo-co1onialist sysrem and iostmd recommended 11
more self~rcuumlanr development wlrh murrud assismnce between Third World sures a reducdon in [ade wirh rhe induuialized wotld and Chlll a loos~ ening of dependenre Amin lJke TaOOon had Jittle fairh in presenc imtrnruional organizaciexclon Il tools foc fasbiooing a more independent Tbiacuten Wotd His sU88tl1cion of grearer mUtual ilSlgtistaoce between ThUd WorId uate~ implied somtthing more sophillticated than a numbtr of bilateral arrmgements As rbe present orgauizarions used fu iexclncm~Thjrd World cnshyoperation (che OAU he Atab League ASEAN) are domitllued by jusr dl()llC govetnmenrg chM accept lhe eowse coodemned by Amio _ the NIEO ami greater jmegrndon iexcluro rhe world economic sysrem ~hen Amia solutloil involves like-minded deveJoping counrries or more like1y political changes leading ro such indigenous intemuional orgilniwrions
Other Trufd Wodd wdten have plllCtXl emphasls on grearer use 01 exisring insdtutions lOO can broadJy be deKfibed lIS Wopmenraluli huI Prebisch an Argentinian econOmigf has not only studied the que5iaacuteon uf ecooomic dependency but his ideas llave been used as the baJiexclis for che wotk of cwo miexclljoc iexcliexcluemariOOiexcll1 organizadons rhe UN Enmomic Commission fa utin Ameriea (ECLA) and UNCfAD Iu his smdy of Briliacutesh-Argerl(inian trading relntioflS Prebisch bad idenrified rhe unequRl tecrns ol Hade between he favoured (ndusrrislized s(ate of tbe centre and he les privj~ leged llOIl-indumialiacutewl periphery Prebisch unlike rhe dependencia gtChool of Amiacuten Dos Sancos and Cardosa believed thu this inequaLity could be overcome by political acrinn by trade pre[ereonces fuvouring the pedphery by eoo1ruooiacutery agreemenrs by intelnatiacuteowll aid and by more foreiga imvestment in che ~riphery It was thele remedies thiexcllr Prebiacutesch eneouraged when he WiIS Executive SecrCrary of ECLA from 1955 lO 1963 aOO Secrewy-Genernl ofUNCTAD ftoro 14 ro 196tL In~d rhe amoum of aid the periphery needed in omer to overeome their Unfuvoluable rrnde balance became known io UNCTAD clrcles as [he Prebiexclsch Giexcllp
The distinguished Afiican aC1ldentie Aji Mazn1i has wricren un the plighr Qf (bar conciflfnt aod j~ role in pmem~day interruUIDllfl1 afmits He soughr ro answer rhe quesdon Now rlw Imperial Order is eoming ro an end who is going tO keep rhe peaee in Aampica and tu examine he concept of Pax AfrlclllUl the African s ambidoo ro be his OWh palaman The JXIliacutecillJS and se[f~8overnment ufAfriea depended on the nodan ofan African self which Mauui discusseJ in decaH He considered how this 1ndepen~ denre might be threarened by the politicaI and cultural fragmenMion of the contillenr Ellld eronomieally by deperulence on Europe He quoted Kwame Nkntmah finr President uf Ghaniexcll on rhe Europe-Jn ECOntunir Communiry
162 Wilihgr rm intd1JatirmallJrganizatimu
ihe ireaty of Romemarks the advent of oeoKolonitJism [n Afriacuteen snd bears unqutSrlonably the marks of Freneh neo-colonuumlllism (Murui 1967 93) He moduded from tM that Wlut AfrlOlns tbelaquofore neecletl was II
renerru authotity of cheir owa tI) ((lordilJlte fheir eltonomk and policicat deCena- sgain5t trus rnreat (Mamtiexcl 1961 93)
Given this theme it is not surprising tlwt Mazrui ser srore by rhe OAU bU[ he was realistic in bis judgement
In relatioos betwlaquon African statts lIOflesr step rowards Pu Africana was taken when rhe Organiution oiacute Aftlaquolln Uniey set up in Commissiacuteon ofMediauacuteoo Conci1illtion aud Arhitmion
Anormr OAU Commissioo of relevance fot Fax AftlOlna ls che Defence Cornmission Sor me Defeme Commlnion 1w se Car been among che lean effecdve QfPan-Aiacutericun ins(kndons Afrka mar indeed aspire to be her owu ptlliceman bur she does nO seem ready as yel to par the price iacutem it
(Mauui 19612[3)
Mazrui oudined the varicd backgrounds of [he lemen oiacute newly illdepenshydent Africa and thdr radical and revolmionary ideas and it is pethaps swprising rhat the insrirutions rhey created fur me coutinenf wete so mnservative with [he p05sible exceprion oiacute the OAUs Natiomtl Libetttion Comminee Mazrui no[ed thac Africa srill has the problem of how othet powetS respond tu its behaviour and [har forcigo iotmsilm in AJtica continued Indetd the I990s proved tO be a dC(ade of disusrer for AfrieR The debiacute burden contimlld while Ilome states collapsed lnro civil war ami others took to iutenoendoo in thejr ueighbonrs affairs Outslde interference from borh Enrope and North Amecica euodoned One of rhe fcw brlghr spots was the end of apallhcid in South Africa and the peaceful transitioo ro majoriry mJe lo al thiexcl~ tn quote Juliacuteus Nyerere rhe ampcmer pre~iexcldenl of Tan1ania The OAU exists outr ror tbe prorecdoo of (he Afrinllt Head~ oiacute State (cited io AlilgapPltl 1998 1 ) The relarive optimism of Maztui has giveu way ro Afriam writers examining sorne of me disrnrbing details of inaction by [be OAU and regtonal orgauiacutezatJuns nlCh as ECOWAS beiog used as doaks fu the machinations oE regional hegemou$ suth as Nigcria (Mibe 1m 61-9(1)
Radha Sinha$ problem--ortented undy Food iexcllfId PIWt11y (1976) has an IItgent message Sinha a former consultaot of the FAO prodnced an iofuacuterrned aUllyiexcljiexcl of the world$ food problem stress1Og in paniacutecular the maldistribution of food and other resources Noting he profO$ab of UNCTAD with heit muld-rommodJty approach and buffer nocks provjshySiOfli he commented rhe grearesr weakness oE the UNCTAD scheme js les Hkdy politlca1 unilcceptablliry ro me developed (ountdes parriculady che USA (Sinhil 1916 114) a propheey that has proved to he cortect He identitled a more aggresslve attitnde by Third World sutes e5pedally
WrilirrgJ on i1tternatiflii1l rHgarrtzatitmlt 163shy
after the uH prite cise of 197314 when the developing coonuies tried to maximize their own market powers by formin cartcls such as rhe Intematimlal BaurdtC Association the Intemuional Coundl of Copper Expotcing Countries aud the Intema[ional Tin Agrcrmenr He gave n qualified wekome ro the Lomeacute Convention betwcen the European (omrounities anJ cenain African Padfic and Caribbean Haces Writing in 1976 he commented
The receot cbange in rhe luirudes of tite tiche countries is largely due tu the incIeasing miliuncy of the Third World countries lt is almost ertalll utar the magnitude offuture cnnc~sions in me coune ofGAIT aud UNCTAD IV Ilegotiarioos wiU deperu mainly on (he continued solidariry uf the devdoping counlrtes
(Siha 1976 116)
Sinha was pardy correct as tbe solidatity cf rhe Tbird Workl states cracked se the induurialized wodd withheld funher Con(eampSJoru but ir was able tO do so because market condidons swung against che primaty producen
In his condusion Sinha called ror a IIDre1 shttting of wnrld t($nmes and power if confrontarion was ro he avoidOO He feared that the ffa of roshyoptradon berween [ieh and pool conntries hiid ((lT1e to an end and that batde lines were being drawn Instead he advOOIreltI majnr concessions from the dcher coumries on trnde lInd aid issues and a1so a ma~lt te$ltUcrnring of the incematiotlill organization~ aoo negoacutetiating ffiarhinery in order tu provide a much gtC2ter say fm me poorer countries in internatiooal tJ1lde invesrment and mooetaiexcly armngemenrs (SiMa 1976 132) GAn 1BRD aud IMF have been the presenoe of [he ri h with voting weighted m faacutevour of rhe OECD countries and Sinha re(()ffimended thlll GATr aoo UNCiAD be merged inro an Intemacional irade Organization (ITO) and che creatlon of a Third World permanent secrctariat iexclnvolved in all trade and aia negoriarioru Thoogh less radical than Amin Sinha aIso recomrnrnded gttter coshyoperation berween developing coulltries and an eoo ro their inkrtotity complex with instead a sense of m~ttnal sdiacute-e$teem and trust being devel~ oped (Sinha 1976 ch 10) Litde that h~ happened during the 19905 woo1d have encouraged Sinha The World iratle Organiaadon has emerged as the presenoe of the dlVelupeJ tares and lw brushed aside many of thc mucerns cf UNCTAD Debr ha~ edged on ro dlt wudd iexclagenda but mainly at the beheS[
of a non-governmental organization )ubiacutelec 2000 nd the promi$e~ of the main financill jnsrirutluru lO pursue dcbc-rclicf produred but a thiniexclmfl
In aH Third WQrld commenrarors have provided a vatied and lively approruh fOwards tne problems uf intetniexclational organizarions Their emphasis has niltntaHy beCl Qn tbe use of wurld lmtirutions to change the econornic condidon or the Southern cominents As this enndition is likely to worscn in the near filrtltf further more lJica conrtibutions on the rule oC
-- --- ~- __ _~- __- imernatIacuteonal orgaoilarions in Nonh-Smuh relarJons tOiexclghf be apected from rhe Third Worid A1ternaciveJy wrirers (mm rhat ares rmy jW ltIacuteespUacutet rm imergovemmemal orgaoizarions ar lealaquo Mee rhem $O Hrrle
Cfili~ald~heJ
Critica approadvs lO the nudy uf intetnadonal relations are (hose har rejee( the dominating vleW1iexcli repr=med by tbe realist and reformistS as oudined aboye In paHicular rhey reglUd realists as apologisu for the currem con6gutltion of power 10 (he wiexcldd sytem and considet [har rhe refOnntstS are elrher unable ro undersraoo he fUe llamee )( (hi sysrem oc ille UDwiUing to accepc rilar ir needs more rhan mooest refotlllS TIlOugh they may sympalhi-ze wirh rhe agenda of some Marxists aud Third World wt1cers chey do [lO( llave rhe hisrockal certaimy of the former not rarely do they have the experience and perspective of ehe larter TItey view intenUishy(jnl1ill nrganiutions wirh a jaundiced eye as these are mainly the lll$tmmenfS of rhose who dominare rhe syuem This section COlllaios an wcoum nf three approaches tmt of the critical rheorlsti- of kmintsc wrirshy[1185 ulld pose~mooernismlt
Cri(~1 herJrY The approach of critical theory 10 JnrematlonaJ o(ganizatiooll iSi determtoed by their wider world-view which in itsclf is explaiiexclwd by tbeir llame One of the leading exponents Roben Cox said [har ie is cririca1 in cne Jensc rha h srands apan 100m che prevailiog order of rhe wOlld and asks how tb$t oroer came iexcllPouc Ir does nor r-ake existing irucimtioM lIl1KI JIQwer relaclons rOl granred bu c311s them iacutemo queuion Ir 1S diexclrlaquoced ro rhe social itnd JIQiirshyical complex as a wItole rarhet (hall he stparate pirtt IUthet than subdiide and Imic an examination of a problem it looks al the wger pkturc of whkh rhe problem is jwt oue part and trio rO wJdeThwod the processeS uf change ill which botIt pans ulld whole ure involved laquo(ox 1993 277~S)
Ai a thoory cridQiIacute theory rejeen tbe daims of posicivism of an external Nulity and to be mue-free ror critkal rheorIacutests koowledge ti nor moraUy IleUc1ll1 ic is more che result of the social background of tbose Wt hold ir Given this ctitkal tbeory alJows foc a normarive choice in favoU of a social ancl iexclJlieiexcl(ld order diflerent f(cm rhe prevruHng arder bur it limiu the ruuse 01 chotce ti a1remative orders which are feasibJe mmsformations ofme cxvaing worJd h musr rejEC[ improbable alternadVe8 ju~t as ir rejecrs rhe pcrmanctlly nr lhe exiscing order (Cox 19 90)
Cridcal rheory differs lrom Marxist upproElchcs beCElUS( of iu tejection nf any daim to hold the objenive tru[h and betause or it~ avoidance of (he pmslllt ol il utopia Neverrhe1ess [heir analysis of incernarional relarln1l$ is one tbu hEls u numher of similariuumles wich the Marxisc pcrspecdve It regurds rhl tlistlng suucrures of world polirics as beiug oppressie not
- _ __ _-
lean because of rhe dominance of (he capitalism of che Unired StElte~ For many che USA is seco as a hegemonic power the prevailing urder - in re[ms rbar reReet he wrirings of the Itallan Marxisc writer Amonio Gramscl (1891-1932) Gramsd advanced the nodon of ln hisrori(middot bloc which in itself refilaquors che $Ocial reladons oE ptoducdoo The dominanr dass in a counrty - 01 indeed aoy social grouping - mlinrains cohesion and idenciry withio [he bloc [hrough the ptopagacion of a COIDmOfl culturegt A new bloc can be formelt when a subordinate dau can euablish tU hegeshymony over orher subotdioate gtOllpS (Cox 1993 56--7) The IDove rowuds hegemony comeS with the piexclt$ting fmm che spediacutek inrercsrs ofa gronp Ol
dass tO rhe building uf inrimdons aOO elaoorarion uf ideologies (Cox 1993 57-8) It Loiexcl rhat ptOCe$S thar embeds the incemu of the dominanc dan in an imttmrional form thae [w an appeal widet [ban that dan ine1f It the-refole repreSoems mote tlmn jUSt (he drunJnaoce oE one state ovec anocher bllt implies a cemufi acceptante of the tules arJd institutions purouized by [he hegemonic JIQwer Jo other woros it is all order wbicb most Olher Sta[e-~ (01 at 1enst those within reath of die hegernouy) couId find compatible- wirh their iexclmetem (Cox 1993 6t) h aJso involves noe just inttt-staee rueivirle5 bur rhose oiacute tlvilliOCiety (oon-Stllte socieM instishycudons) ebereby encoumging Hnks between social dus$ts iexcln the connules covered by ebe hegemony
What does Cox llave to uy about ioccmational Otgsniuciexclons 1bey Ilre scen in he oontext ofme wiacuteoo unaemanduuml18 of itnernational reUacuteltions mentloned iexcliexclhove He is direcr 000t mem Ooc mechanisru chrough wruch the universal norms of a wodd hegemony are expttssed js the interoatiooal organisation (Cox 1993 62) Why is chis so Cox U993 62) gives five teIlSons
bull They e-mbody rules cOae help (be- apwlSion of a hegemonic wodd iexclrder These insdwrians reflcct the intererts ()( the dominam social anil economic force- buc a1low a cettain amOunt oC adjusrment ro accommodare other subordinared interests TIms the USA WllS preplltoo ro mm conccssions to
bciI18 in Lhe EU srares and Japan ro rhe Wotld Trade Otganizatimt They a[e prooucrs of that order Though [he insrimrions and rules Ilce
nurITlllUy initiared by the hegemook power ir takes cate ro involve aOO comule a numbe-r of second-ronk stares and gaio theit supporc he Wotld Bank and Inte[nacional Mooetaty Fund were very much pan of [he world order thar emerged afrer [he Second World Wat and which was dominared by rhe Uoiced Stlres
They ltgidmi7e i[s nOlms by providing guidance for SllIteS and by legitshyimiuacuteulS cerraIacuten IlCdviries Ilr me narional leveL he OBCD afie rhe inrerruuiooal financia) irntuumluriom lave spread an acceptante of mllrket coodirions and sHict mOllerary iexclJlides
They co-opr elites from pelipheral counrrie Ihlented sraH commg 110m the Thiacuterd Wocld are expected tO dCCept he scriexclpt wcittttt by the domishynam power Bouuos Bourros-Ghati as Secteury General uf the Unired
166 Jiexclljiexclr1giexcl Qr1 ifJfCflrttuacutemal IWgaizati(ifJJ
Nadons stroyed too amp~r ftOm the gtip of Washinston and his second term was VCtoM by rhe USA His sucecssor Kofi Annan will no doubt undentand what 1$ n-quired of him He brings the mncerns of orhe states ro che UN bUf nor in a way thu threatt1l$ the USA
bull They absorb counter-hegemonic ideas Ideaiexcl $uch as 1iustainable dlYClop_ ment tukl even debr foTgiwness are taken 00 board by the intetnatwnal finarnial institlltion$ blu are trandirmel into pulido rhat swt them
Wh~t is ro be done Cox thinks thar the pfQblem of changiog dw world orUer 1iMuld be shlfred back from intern~tional insritutions tO niexcllriacuteooal $OIacuteishyeties where the sodo-political b~se for a new historie bloc mighr be ereated (Cox 1993 64) FaiJing the creadon of a new historie bloc of the new working cla$s and rural and urb~o marginal groups there might be tnmdorshymadon oC the curtent monopoly-libcral hegemony by adjusting to rhe demanJs oiacute local ello$ for polides 5uch as natlonaHution Cox 199~ 65) He aw advocates te-regulation of erooomies and a re-wmpositjon of civil sodery Internatiotla lnstlcutions induding organiutions can berome eontact puint1i fOr new $OCia[ furtt (Cox 1994 (11)
Critica throrJm $uch as Cox oifee a refreshing exposidon oiacute che posidofl oC imernatiooal ofganizatioos in a wocld where the main revolutionary powe~ have either collapsed (rhe Soviet Union) or se(tled into a cautious ronservatirun (China) Ir provlde~ a sceptical arf realisric world~view without acreptins tbe inevuumlahility ni a illture domlnared by mooopoly eapi~ ujsm sud the Utlired States J-Iowevtr its appllcariexclon to intemationa1 organhatJons 11 StImewha( timited tQ the maln global jnsdm(jons and th financial and economlc orgmiutions Ir has 1m (O say aboue regional nrgashynjudon Uf abour N(JUacutes Furthermore iu alternarive fu(ure testS on ourcoroes thu are far froro certain RevnJutlons in the Thied World are roore likely to be- irupired by nadondi$m oc by IsJaroic fllndamentaHfl OCalaquoely [he solid ooses for new historie blocs
Fwinuumll aNml4cbts
Feminist perspcctives 0f1 inttmatlonal rtlatioos llave in common wirh the erit~ ical rheocillu a rejclaquoion of (he dominance in rhe $Ilbjecr of the rcnHst and rdOrmisrs Although fuminist writen cover a wide 5laquolpe the gencral basis oiacute their aqurnent 1S har in interwnional relatioM ru in most politkal aud tcooomk acdvity women are diexclSJtdvantagt~l Alchoogh they own ahour 1 pet tCfH oC the worlJs lfOpeny and tiexcliexclxe heme 10 peiacute ceoc ofincome they perfurm 60 per eenr of working houn and provide 80 per eent of nfusets (petetsen and Runyan 1993 6) This is a derDOnstrndon of gender inequalitie~ the sodalJy learned behavior and expecratioos thar distioguish berween maKuliniry and femininity (Petetsen and Runpn 1993 5) Feminist aprroaches ofren So bejond the $tati~tks and examine (he mind~se[ of those engaged in the pmctice of intemadonal rdations whiexclch (bey ampee as geodered In other woros che world
Writingc Off inlmhJliofMl vrgntiZdlMm 167
illeen in a mlLlndine way thar kvrntB (he posjtiOll o( mnles in rhe hitgtranhy and devlllues the c041trihution of WQmeO (Sylvestet 1994) War in pattKular is gendered in a way chat keeps wornen and metl from qUtstioniog the essentiat pmpose and he neglltive effects of war militarization ~nd viQleme on their awn and orhers livts (Petetsen and Ruoyan J993 9 t)
What of wminist view$ uf imernationaJ organizationsr Ir IS not possible ro presem a rollf(tive vjew that eneomp3$~e~ rhe works of radicaJ femjnisu and ny iexclihetal teminists (rutead the work of one author Sandra Whitworth (1997) will be used as me pily$ rornt attrntion ro inrernarlonal organizations Aamper inrroductions ro feminilfr theory and internacional frIamiddot tiom and gendet and internacional relatlons Whirworrh examines geodet and imernational organilions She screpts Coxs vjew oiacute inrernational orgashynjzarions [har they retleltr (he dominant powet relations in che intetnational system and rhae internaliomd otgaoiution h che procelt of imcitntionaJshyiling and regulating conOice - eicher rhat which may IIrise among siexclates o( char which has iu (onU io transnationaI society (Cox 1980 375) TIte way duu pcople orgaoire themelve$ wirhin international iostirurjons reflects a variety of power relations ineludi~ of rollJSe gendec relatiull3 (Whitworth 1997 74) lbe triad of jnstirutions ideas and material rQudi~ tioru help ro hxare uSllmptiolls aboue geoocr withiu jntetmltional rewtioos Whitworth uses thesr tn examine lhe uooerstandillg oiacuteScndec io an INGO the Internadonal PlarUled ParenthooJ Federatlou (JPPF) and an intergnvemmental organilJ1rion (albcir one wlrh some oOl1-governmentJ)J represemation) the InrernatlonaL lab01lrOtganiution (no)
Whirworths studies show rhar thr IPPF tended ro accept the deshyemphasizlng oi the gendered oamfr of reproducdoo and (f) ignore rhe imponaoce ofbirth comcol foc womens reproductive freroom Instead in an effort tu popularize birth rontrol srrel~ WWl placoo on paremhooJ rather than iexclust the womans choice However IPPF poUcy beeiexcllme more radirnl in (he 19905- with Hnks beirtg made berween II1M control alld womeos ~)tu~ ality (WbJtworth 1997 ch 4 pmim)
The RO eoucerned itself with WQmen as workern It cnnsidercd that tbey oeeded spec-ial atrention and promoted ptoteCtlvt legiexcl~lacion This reiexcln~ forced me view (har [he male worxer Wall the norm with women workers nor deserving the same rights remunfration lOO mndirions Latterly however the JLO ha~ reflectoo views rhat prodaim wornens elt)ualily in rhe workforce and has sunoo tuacute assess the importanee of policies on womens role in rhe workplace as weU as in sodery more wjdely (Whlrwnrth J997 ch 5 panm) Whitworth comes [O the eondusion rhu iexclln iexcllnaLyiexcli~ of gernler in rbe IPPF and no shows how tbese rdiexcliexcldonsbips llnd definirions ni what it is to be a womltn oc man are structuted relationsrups3nd hlsrQciudly hve been scrurtured tu disadvantage women (ibid 15n
lo eommon with the critkal meorists Whitworth has useQ au examinamiddot doo of two intetnational organixations (O deroonstrate a puinr about imerflational relatiexclon~ indeed sodal rctatrol1s mOte widely The poinr is
I1
I
middot - ~-_ --___ aOOuc powec and iu use not (O balance oue SCdre ligaiOSf anorher but fm une gooup ro domiaare morher Jn chis case it 1$ ma the dominution of one dass me m culcnre over $ofU)(her (though Whirworrh recognizes those reLationshyships ti wcll) but of roen over women The crititUl uudy oiacute (wo jnceraational mganirations dealing with iSSlle5 recoSniud ti beiiexclg oiacute impocshycanee or WOfficn suggesu rha( tltOO simihu research on orher internacional organizadons could proJuce interening aOO uwfuiexcl resulrs
Pllit~ism
Thc posc-moderruacutesr $opprooch lO intetaarional rcllldon is one tlur bas (ome ro che fote Jn che perlod sinee lite end of rhe Cold War Jr is based on $o widcr imellectual viewpoim insrigated by l1rench iorcUtcruals of the 196()s gener~ ation _ Bllrrhes Derrida FouclIul and Lyorard - and whkh suggested rhat the modero era liad becn overome 11 fejeas mera-nattatives gnlud accounv- of hi5tory aoa iacuteNIacuteler subjecu as having no independem rubstance Scientifk btliefs induding [hose oiacute rhe $)(ial scJcllces are rooted in (lllxure polill(os arul mores oJ a wciery and are lherekJre subjective As rhere is 00
oblcctive reality cmpirical daims bave fl() spccial sunding in rhe rralms of koowledge IndeeJ ir i$ power aod knowledge are intimatel) incerwirud Posr-moJernism Hllnds against rhe belief of rbe modero pcfiod which LI seco as beginning wiacuterh rhe enlightenmcm of mid-eightcenth cenrufy Europe and AmeriCll Ir rheldore rejcn~ rhe COMCpr$ oC rationalirl and progrcss aSSuacutedared wi(h [he enlighrenment and [he moocrn age Thc uniry of IOOnkind iexclirW iexcldells such liS rhe untveIsWiI) of human aacuteghrs are rejcuoo lnsceadlocal aetion in smallgroups 15 advuacuteClmd
Post-modetnist ideas have affected tite srOOy of inremruionaJ rdarions as (bey have ocher social scienccs Posr-modern imeraarional relariops theoriscs havc ustd heir view$ 00 objecuumlviry (o exiexcltmine che rrmhs of international relatiom en see how rhe concepts iexclind knowledge-dairm (bar dominare the Jisdpline in faer are highiy conringenr on spccific power relatiom (Smith 1997 181) Post-modemisrs bave lltfa(red me mcta-narratives of the reelshy1m and reformlsu aHke The objectiacutevemiddot aaallses of the realim Ilnd neo-realisu are setn as being deJl(nclent on the subjective standpojnts of cheif mainly Amen(an and Europeau authors Ijcharcl amphiel (1986 258) daimed he works o[ Kenneth Waler men the leading neo-realillt trrat the glven ordcr a rhe natural nrder Jjmirs rarheE (lian 1XpawU political discllUtse negales oc rriviuliliS the signifinnce uf variely urOiS time and plue Whar emerges ii an ideology tllar anridpatcs iegirimires ancl onents a totalitarian projen 01 global ptoponioo~ che rattoualiaciuacuten of global poHcics iexclbe reformius are likcwise tainted Md have Ji mhr$lren belief in pmgress The posc-modernl$rs poinr m rh Helocausr as rhe heighr oiacute mooemism a rombimiddot Halioe of science dnd polidcal otganizillnon Il was SCruTely progreso
Given an antifllthy mwards rhe MlVe[iacute~ign srae borh as a centre of powet ll1ld as a crearioll Jiten imbutol wlth a wncepltliexcl uf progress pest~miexclJdetniexclsls
wHungJ mi Im~iexcliexclrun wgltiIRrzuJlU7iJ 1J7
can lOUcdy be expcctcd to vIacuteew intergovernmencal organiUlrions wirh sympilthy Tbe prefetted iacuteonu of internacional organizations when mentioned are those thiexcltt ltlj~plal differemes snd dlvenity in global pelitlcil duu are reginnaUy based or rhar reflec irKlividual actlOn Tndecd ir SeeIJS
rbat Michel Fomawt was involved with an alliance oiacute twO INGOs (Miquestdecin du Monde and Tertl-s do Hommes) in proresting agaiust internadonal iH~shydon over rhe boat people who flcd Vietnam in tite lare 1970s and ear1y 19S(k He is gU()[ed 11$ sayillg tbar Amnelltl Internnrlonal Teueiexcl dts Hommes Mfiiecin du Monde lHt inirilltives whiacutech have created a nrw righr rile dAht of privare individuss ro iexclntervene in [he otder of polino and internatioont snateg(eiexcl (dred in CampheH 1998 516)
Aootber researcher has exnmined ~he Europcan Communities Ilr che point wben Jr was mnslorming intO me European Unioo and askOO whether ir was a pootmodew ConJigUflHton (Nstrgaard 1994) Hi condusions wcre mar ir was gualiwiveJy a new organizarion oC human calJecrlvJties which mighr U$hec the coming of post-moderniry (Ntgttgnatd 1994 27j) The basis fO[ [bis judgemem was rhat me Ee did nO approximate anl modero form of piexcliexcl1idUll Ofpnizarion it did OOt commatld che means oiacute violence its au[hotity derives noc from die people and ir appeared to be a fCgJoo trying ro pOrecr itiexcliexclelf againsr globaliacutezadun iacuteN0rgaaro 1994 274--5) Ir remllins ro be sren whether [he BU tJf [he twenry-first cenrury wHl fu1fi1 rhtgtse hopes Ot wiU stllrr ro teVen
to a more scate-like being Generall) dIe cririolapproaches ro interruHiorud relarious hiexclJve provided
1lOOIe innovatIacuteve insigllls iexclnro rhe study uf imemarional orgsnizations The crtrical theorists llave becn sh3rpest in rheir unde[$(iexcltnding nf internarional ofgiexclt1lizacious as servsnrs of a dominiexcliexclIf power configuracion thoogh the) lave pemaps Umieed cbelr scope wllen viewing internacional organizadons Feminis[ wJiters ruave given Vltike to whac i5 after aH tbe scmi-sileut majoric) in rhe world and Ilre ouly srarting in qnest10niug the male dOmimiddot nance nuacutet iexclusr of the nmning of IGOs huc aloo of theic agenda Tite post-modemisrs are iMlSr concerned oiacute he (bree 8rOUp5 with inretnationlll organiucioru as such bllr rIacuteleic intellecrual approach is the ffiOSt tadkal aud can lelld tuuml a fnon of nihilism
GltJbaliacutesf lIiu
A gIobalisr perspective does oor viacuteew world poliacutetica as being predomishynandl arout iotergovernmemal relatlnn~ Ili would realisu or illbour inrentare aruI imersocietal rdations as a number uf reformisu llliexclll consider lnsteaacuted it cakes a more holisdc view Problems are (cmfronred ac Ji global level wlurions have tO be sou8ht here as weil This iexcls not ro neglcct (he 10tal Ol rhe ~tlte level ir is more J recognilion of the limiutshydoos of acdviuumles rhere The world-vicw like rhe reformists places empllasu on whal unIacutetes people Ilnd has lirde time for lhe demaoos of power pouumlics aad stare-cemrir orglLuiwrjollS Ir goe~ fllrther by nor
1 V WNimgJ lJ7f tIfernattmiexcliexclJ 11fK4111141tOnJ
liminog in view eirhec ro pans of che world or ro rellltions berweeo particuJar poliric~ lr ioded jlLSr m the economic social and poJitical demaods of mankind Paradoxically ir can be seen as IIn approach rhe very OppoSllC of the fimctionalist wirb whom tbere 5 much io common In nmtrast lO rhe fnnctionaHst (or neo-fllnctiooalisr or intetclependeuce srhuul) and ccrrainly in contrast ro rhe powet politks aOO MaOIacuteIt writers (be whole world approach places emphasis not 00 the discrere r~uiexclreshymems of groups SClteiexcl or individulI1s bm 00 tbe wel1-bciog of the tCOsystem in which rhf5f funnioll cbe planet Eanh The conccen of chis apptoach which is rcflccted il] in ttcumeUr of illternational urganizatiom is for the survival of lhe plunet for its effident funccioning in its widest SeILie aud fot che survival oiacute rhe myriad oiacute speoacutees - ollly one of which is homo sapiens - tbat inhabh me globe
Sinle tbe 196Os a number of wtiters on imernational affairs have expounded 00 tbis view and llave cOl1l~uendy ronsideted the implicadons for intemational organizacions Jobfl Button in bis World Society ronsldeted iflmstatt relations to be onIy a pan of wodd poli[iacutea and wrore
lf we employ rhe term world rociety imiexclreui of internanofla relarions iIacute we apptoo(h OUt study in this global way insread of the more tradi~ lonal nattonal way we will end to have a wider focos ro ask quesrions rhat are moee fundlmenral aOO imponant lO civilization and be ahle ro assess bettet me relevance of om own national bduviour ro be wider worW envifonment
(Button 1972 21)
Rkhacd Stetling posed the problem more spedfically
Nuclear esCllatiofl the popullltion explosion the pollmiofl of tbe envishyronmcnt the communkations rtvolurion rbe world~wide concentNdon of wC1llch and world~wide expansiofl of pltlvcrty are iexcliexcl11 essemially global and not 1laquo al pbellomena They have given rise jn tutn ro eartbshyspamuacutellg and revolutionary demands ror mass education rnass hesltb malts welfure and maltgts participation in che dccisions affecting roans fare
(Srerling 1974 322)
This wodd-view of rhe problems of the s)Jaceamphip EQlth begged fur global oolutlofl$ It suggcsred iexclhu not onIy iJ the system of sovereign stares as yer unable oc unwiHing to COme to grips with the above-menuontd prohlelUS but that a network of llllergoVCtn1lental organiutlom bGsed 00 me rights of statc wVfretgnt will ~lso be hammllng Globtl problems needed global solutlons based on institutinos rhat can (ake a global petsplaquoshytive Thus Sterling considetecl thllt it ~ tlOt unreasooable (O amidpate tme tbe member stares will be moved ro considft equippifllil the Unitw Nttous witb mote crunprebensive powen 1lt global pressUfes build 0974 323)
~h~ laquoo ~gt~ _- -gt bullbull (_bullbullbull __ - bullbull
A more compeluumlng cdH wus lAltiexclued by Barban Ward and Rene Dubas in their book prepared for [he UN Gmference of ehe Humafl EnVJroJlmenl 01lly UIIt EaFlh The c~ altJ Mdilllt1JatfCe (JI d Sflall Pta~t (972) 111ey stremsed the ufliry of tbe Eanh Jnd in eovironment and the )Jroblems in(ed by Jts iohabitants emntially thost oudined by SterJiog The ~uthoflgt poillted OUt rhat rhF envitonmenral qmosrion had by 1972 already had 50me impaltl on guvernments and im(rnarional organl1Jtion but the effior was somewhat ltInJOrdinated and unfocuseL In (hree particular aren - tbe global atmosphere rhe oceaml the worlds weather sysrellU - tbt-y saw [bl jmmediate neOO for (OmInOn poliey und co-ocdinared actiollS where vcerenshysions to national sovercigmy have no relevance ro ptrreived problems Bu rbefe was a need to go furrher and denl wirh other global problems di5Case srarvation iHitmcy unemployrnem ovcfllwding rntetnational poliCJcs wece at the 5tage reachOO wlrhin rhe devdoping s[ate~ of the ninettTtb (entury Elche they wiU move O to a wmmIlJlity bL~ro UiexclXIIl a more systematic sharin8 of weaJtb Ot tbey wiH break down in revoh and anareby (Wacd and Dubos 1972 295- -6) They Looked forward ro a sense of gLobal rommuniry 00seJ on he bope vf Irotecdon (from war aOO disaster) and the hope of enhancemenr (ecologic$1 as well as economid The ptlKtic~ and insrirutlofiS with whkh we are familiar inide our domestk sociecies would become suitably modlfied che basis of planetary oroer (Ward aOO Dubos 1972 297-8) This woold indude non~violent settlement of disputes witb legal arbirration ~nd polioacuteng ptocedures on an international basis jr would mea the Hansfer uf resoucces from rkh ro peor Ilnd inerCllSlaquo co-operaeion in arealt 5uch as health and edUcatIO farming uroon planning aud )JOlJution control As [befe halt been a shift of loyalty rom taroliy to dan from dan to tlation and from nation to fedctation there Wampll
hope clajmoo Wl1fd and Dubo$ for an ultimare lnyalty tuacute OUt single beau~ tifulllud vulnerable Planet Eanh (Ward and Dubas 1972 298)
Whilst the institutiona fmmework and organizational stfllCtuteS remain of necenity -ague in Oltl OM EaFtA iacutet is del( rhat the authors Wfre atming 11( a tlttwork oiacute world-wide fflnctionaUy hased organlzatiofll (both lOOs and JNGOs) char couId take on much of the work )JfCsendy done by governshymems o( rather whkh ougbt [O be dont by governmems UacuteJter writing-s have attempted (O deal wjth thc policy impliration$ of delllJng with )JrobshyJems globdly sroos (986) has poiacutenred en what 1w already been achieved in gtobal problem solving l1nd ha~ soughr ro buHd on rhis His critio have prunted out tha( what has already becn undertiacutelken has bren done more along rradicional Jntergovernmentallines (Donnelly 1990 121-30) Orbe writen have tied rubievemen[ in addressiacuteng [he global agenda more to renewed rutiviry in the UN (Rochester 1990 141-54) or to greater grass~ roots aud INOO acriviSffi Wget 1990 155-~8) Either way globaJj~m offeacuters a distinct W1ly of rackling the worlds ptublem~ It 1$ u ViIOIl thar sttesiexcles uniey and common (am( ntthet than disasreemem and roofrontashytion ir (ould thereIacuteore (oresce disputes being sruved inlernationally vety
much in (he way tbar chey are pre~ndy solvcd within tunny MtiOO iexclrares by more ro arbitratwn and Jaw and by entorcemenf ir neteS$il1) In this rhey have muh in COIDfllOfi wirh tire imerrnuiona lawyers iacuteUld idenlist writer of me eady (wenuacuteeh eemury mentioned at the beginning of tbu chaptet The globalisn are inspirecl jn rheir thinking more by ten Ot lt nudeal holocatlsr and by environmenml breakdown tnan by rhe duumleet elrpeshytieme uf wa dlllf aiacutefected rhe wricings of Woolf ol Ikierly
TIacutete globalisl appro~(h is opert ro the criticism of bcing roo idealistk jn a cynical world and lOO iIDpracrical in in uacutelstitutional sU8scsrioll5 Bur the di$mi$Slil oC rh~ words as globaloney cKleS HOt lid lite wctld oC che probw lems which hey have 50 effectively publiacutedzed They lutve uied to add anorIte dimensioacuten ro whar is possibte by showlng thar ie is nOCeSSiexcllty fOl rhe iexclurviwl of che planee
Tlle radical approach to the smdy oC iOternational orgllnizarions reflocu worIdmiddotvitws that normaUy lO beyond -dmse Jominated by rhe ltctivities of iexcltatcs or of LIte organizltuumlnns chemselves There is a sceprical view of whut is happeoing al soy one uacuteme in imernarional celarions and of he abilicy of mOfe cradicional wcifecs on imernafional cdarions ro explain let aJone llOderstand what is happeoing Ir is the feeling rhar approaches such ll1 (he MaNisr tlwt of rhe ideal theorisrs and some of rhe globuli~rs ur~ coming cber (O uodemaoding humanicys wider dilemmas rhar makes rhero so amactive They ar~ less Iikdy co apply rhemselves to rhe defais rutd wnrk~ ings oiacute p$cdcular imernatinnaJ organizations but neverrheless providt iotriguiog insighrs 00 [his phenomenoo by seeing rhem rhrollgh mol panoprk phHosophical lenses
SUMMARY
The rhree flIajor $chuols dealr wich io chis chaprer - the tcatiacuten the reformisrs iacutei1d che radical$ and rhe variarions (bey contain did not and do tlOf exJn iexcln a hiSforlcaj vacnum lde-as Wele foffilulared wirhio lhe COnten oiacute panicular sodedcs uoo in response ltO pUticular problems rbe communl (adom reYoludon of fhe nineteemb century the Finr World Wlli rhe rise of Nui Germany the spreading of nudeu weapons the deve1opmeof of plthitshy
$econd Workl War Europe fbe pnxeues of decoloniwion and deacuteteme rhe end oiacute the Cold War and rhe advaoce oiacute che inCormatton revolution In sorne CilSC$ the views oiacute rhose wdtings on inttmiddotrnational ocganUatlOHS have liad un efiecr on evenrs rhemelves pirlKulatly 00 rbe actitudes oC govetnrnents mwards tnternatiorW orgdflixauons AIl tXample is the work oC LecnarJ Woolf woose suggesnons Ctmceming a world organizatloo conttibuted lO fhe detailed preparnion oC the Lague oC Nations by me British goveltr mene Likewise Hans Morgeruhau and EK Can provided seimuli fot infiiexclrmoo US and Btirish governmcllul rhinking abom inrerruuional rela~ tiom iexclrom the 194Ck onwards In mher cases rhe general writings cJ persons lgtuch as Marx Leoin Mao Tse-tung and che dependencia school have affecred
rhe poJirk1ll dimare wirhin which govemmcncs conduce rheJe poUcy iucluding thar wwards jnternaclorull otgauj~atjon$
Orber ruCfOf$ aplft froro their historial cuntexc Iuve affencd the views of rhe schunl$ rncntioned They have differint backgtounJs io cheit ideruogy (Wesrero commllniSf Third World radical environmenralisr) and in theit level of $nalysis of inrernarional rebtions (stare Centuacutec inretesr aoo rramna~ dona groups cLitraquo dominanr global) This a(icca the typC oC inrernatiacuteonal organizariacuteon dominam io their studies (IGOs INCo) auJ thcic 8eograph~ kai $rea of interest (the Nonh Adandc Europe ThinJ WodJ Ot global)
TIte range of wcitings about intetnational organizarions has ull dte whole teflecfeJ wiJec llooersundings of imetoational ceJarions and wuumltld polidcs These io rhernselves have fed 00 tbe gtVidc iacutellccUecmal fcnnent and on developrnenrs in world affiuacuters Viewl about iacutellteftlational ocgsnizatJoos wiU continue ro take accOlnt of the ince1leeruaJ debate ill the studjes oiacute polishydes internacional re1atioO$ philosophy ecooomics imematluacutellal uw sociology histoty and geogrilphy They will also reflecto among other ampcton che stntcegk balance in tbe world [he relafIacuteve power of tiJe United Stares aod oroer nares me scate of wotld markers [be pto-ess uf Euwpeiexcliexcln tlllegrashytion che relacive positloo of the developing warIdgt iexclbe levd of cootlicc througbolc the world fhe -ratC of dte environfneot and the ahility oiacute huge StatCS to wiacutethswnd cenrrifttgal force Tbe way tIacuteult imematiornal organiuiexclshydons ret1ect tbese developrnents and tIacuteleir t1Ipability lO deal wich some of them will provide (he tllW fiWifcrial foc funue smdies
~ ~_ W~ __ bull ___ _ ~(gt __ _
ruher than how tbe syiexcltem may be reformea or improved A good SUInmuy of realiexclst wriretS is roo [hey Me in COrnmon shareQ assumptions aOOut the primacy of sures as inrernadooal oceoa the separauumlon of donwtic ami iacutemernational poIltics and who describe che laner in terms of ananhy Md a conCOmltanr lbiquiroUi srruggle foc power and securiexclry (Guacute[firhiexcl 1992 21 n extooob rend ro refer back ro (he wridngs of Thllcydides in Anoacuteenr Greece Machiavelli in medieval haly and Thomas HobbeJl living through (he sevemecnth century English civil war - all thtee wriring ln times of tutmoil and srrife - a~ express]ng the basic wiexcl~dom of Realisr thoUSht (Jaebon and S~renkn 1999 70-6 Viotti and Kaupiexcl 1999 57-60) In (he mooern era che tndJtional realiu writers Iacuteti1ve iexclliso reflected ttoubled time1i
Tbe ttruliJitmtJ realiSlJ
These WTirers had thetr Intdllaquo(ual rones in the 1930s the Second World War ami (he Cold War and are somerimes known as che powe~ polirks schoill lhey are represeoted tere by RH Can and Genrg Schwar~enberger jo Brirato aoo by Reinhold Niebuhr and Hans Morgenrhau in (he USA Therr srardng poinr was rhe exi5cence of che prC$ent state sysrem in which there is no common authotity over and ahoye fhe sovereign starc aOO where rhere is international anarchy io me senrre of a lack of govcrnmem iexcllr he internadorud leve JU $tared (his viewpoim has conrequeoces for rheiJ appreciation of the role oiacute inrernational organizatiom in intentare relations
EH (aHS wiexclitings reflect (he disiHusionment with che League of Narions in the 1930s over in - m rather irs members failute tO prevenr (he invll510ns of AbyJiexclsinia (Ethiopia) and Manchuria arnI wirh the conquesrs ~ the Nazi and t3sltisr srares iexcln Eutope He oonidcred that it was misguided ro suppost (hu a more rntional ana mote moral mocle of cQnducring inremate telarioos such as by Ulit of rile League aud [he PCIJ would necessarJIy have 1ed w a more Stlrisfactory world order e~ptcjiexclally if it were nor baselt on tite tealities oE existing power darionllhips 1he League aod (he strUCture it purported ro ~Iphold was only ti srrong as thOtt cnuoshycries willing O mppott it JU the mos powetful Lcaguc supponets (Fmoce and rhe IJnitelt Kingdom) found iexclln jncreasing numbee of States (Gennany Japan ltaly) rllngN agaiacutenst rhe wgue sySten1 aoo as the USA mi he USSR wefe eirher llnwilling or unavailable ro help Brirajn tlnd Fmocc cQmpromised their Sllppolaquo uf tbe u-ague ro keep he woIves from lheiacuter owo doon Indeed Catr was prepered ro support such policiC as che Munieb Agreemem oE Sepremlxt 1938 (lIt whkh Aricain and Femec effecshytive1y handecl over CzechOlil0vakia lO Hiclers Germany) as the neofesr llpproacb jo recent yeats ro (he scrdemem of 11 major inrernational iS$ue by II pfOCeoure of peace(ul change and as a recognirion of the preponderance oE frerman powef in cenuaJ Ellcope (Cac[ 1939 282) Furthecroore he condllded cbat [bcre were two major shoctcomings in imernatioual
moraliry a moraliry on which the Leaaue of Natious WIlS supposedly based Firsr rhere was discdmination in the internlltional cQromunicy between rhe way in which the cases oE cerrain mumries were rreatelt Jbere was fert cxample a differem anirude by the British IInd French governments [ti
Greelte (Ir Abyssinia being aeflaquokecl rhe former was unruceptable the lauee case (lnly regrettable Second there was rhe tailure ro secure general accepshyronce of [he posrulare chu che gond of (he whole taus precedence OVtf rhe good of che parr (Cacr 1946 166) Wichout such accepmnces ir WIlS hara ro imagine an organizatiun sach as the Lcaguc worklng unless iexclf were based un (he oVtlWhe1ming predomJnlilflCc oC power of JU suppotters Carrs ecophtiiiexcl un powcr does not mean thar he iettisoned che role ufmorality io iOternacimw atTain He recommended a judiciou5 blend of morality and power though comparerl with the natiooal arder in the intetnational order rhe role of power 1S grearer and tha[ of momlity te5s (Carr 1946 168) Indeed Knutsen (1992 268) considers wirh much jusrificariCfn that Carr was not a realise but draws upon the ROt15seaucan tradidon uf 5UCiiacutell thoughr and gives a dialecdcal accounr oE rhe evfliution oiacute ImernadonaJ Re1arions Though chis may be so his wrirings reflC(( much tealiu moughr of lhe inter-war perlad
The ffilljor work of Georg Schwarrenbefgcr PMPtr PoIiJia (1941) aOO took dw failure of the leaguc aud rhe inrerwar system as a pOint uf depar~ tute On the questiou of coUectivt secunty rhe rock f)1l which the Lengue of Nadoos was built Schwarzeoberger remarked referring tO hilattru pacrs uE mutual assisuncc
The Vtry nero fQr [[eafieN uE rhis $on ptoved char League members eirhet assumed that che s~tcm of [he Covenant wouLd be inadequatc inopcrative ur [QQ slow ro be of use or that the omer members u ehe League would nor honour rheir obligatiolS under che Covenanr 1hus hey offeacuter the most opeo refuwrion thar can be imagjnecl of the solutiou enviuged by the drafcers of che CovenaQt in a world imbucd with century~otd uaditions ofpuacuteWer pelitieso
(Schwanenberget 1941 152)
Dunng the latter pan of che 19Kls ~UppotteN of che League had turned their imeresr from the central quesdon of peace aoo securuumly to rhe more petipheral aras of dIiquest( erooomic and social adviries of che League and (lE agencies such as (he ILO Such iexcliexcln intere is show~ Lord Cecil in che conclllsiexclon ro his autobiography publish~ in (he same year as Schwarzenbergers book Schwarzenbetger was nar convincelt by the fuieh placed in such functionallirucs
Organizadf)Jl$ of a telthoical commerdal ami profC$iional kiMgt such Il$
dlf Imemadonal Postal Unjan (he Raok of lnterrunional SetrIemenn wrute slave conrrol oc dre lntetparWtcoetlott) Union ate within a sysrem
118 Witi1lgr 011 le1IIJuumlmalllrFa1lizatiOlu
of power polities limieed ro cbat sphere of internadonal reladons whieh is irrelevant from rhe standpoinr ofhigh politics
(Schwarzenberger 1941 388)
Writing dnring uncertain times Schwarzenberger was not aiming to adopr a merely negative srance Indeed he desired inrernational relations to be based on a community spirir and founded on the rule of law bur he thought rhat norhing was more dangerous to chis objffrive than che belief ehae half~way houses like che League of Nacions or limiced plans roe economie co-opemtion are adequate ro bring aboue chis vital tmn5formation (Schwarzenberger 1941 11) Internacional order and the rule oflaw in intershystace relations presupposed national communicies based on justiee freedom trurh and love Christian virmes ro which Schwarzenberger recommended We5tern smres return (Schwarzenberger 1941 434)
A strong Christian element is also to be found in he works of the American wricer Reinhold Niebuhr who nevercheless is ro be counted amongst rhe realist school Niebuhr contrasted growth in mans technical achievement with the lack of advance in politieal areas
Oue problem is thar rechnies have esmblished a rudimentary world community bur have not imegmred it organically momlly oc polidcally They have created a community of mutual dependence but not one of mutual trust and respecto
(Niebuhr 1948 379)
Niebuhr examined the case fur world government nodng cbat almosr all the arguments for it reseed on the presupposition that che desirabiliry of world order proves rhe actainabiliry of world government (Niebuhr 1948 380) He identified lWO faulrs which undermined arguments fur world government governments are not creared by fiar but need a communiry for rheie base and governments bave only limiced efficacy in integrating a communiey (Niebuhr 1948 380) Given the absence of such a communiry of interest in the world Niebuhr preferred che imperfffdons of the Chatter of che Unired Nations ro an internarional organization ehat would attempr world federation bur would accomplish something a lot less specraculat However he did nore thar the internacional cornmuniry i5 not tocally lacking in social rissue (Niebuhr 1948 386) He listed ffonomic incerdependence fear of mutual annihiladon and moral obligarion as unifying factors in the modern world Pitted against rhese were rhe economic disparities in rhe world rhe negarive effect of fear of destruccion and rhe lack of common convicrions on panicular issues in shon rhe forces which are operaring to integrare rhe world communiry are limired (Niebuhr 1948 388) Wriring during rhe inicial nighr-frost of the Cold War he rempered his realisrie view of the world wirh an apprffiation rhar satisfacdon with che Starus quo is in itself dangerous we mighr also gradually esrablish a genuine sense of
nllTll5J 1 17~~(Jt Off 15= ~ I 7
communiry with oue fue however small No marrer how stubbornly we resisr Russian pressures we should still have a marginal sense of communiry with rhe Sovier Union (Niebuhr 1948 388) For this reason Niebuhr placed emphasis on international organizations such as rhe UN nor 3l being nascent world government but in the Securiry Council as being a bridge of a sort between the segments of a divided world (Niebuhr 1948 382) The Chrisrian Niebuhr recognized rhat whilst individuals may be moral [he morairy of groups i5 much inferior ir may be possible though it is never easy ro esrablish JUSt relarions between individnals within a group purely by moral and rational suasion and accommodation In inrer-group relations this is practicalIy an impossibiliry (Niebuhr 1936 xxii-xxiii) Mankind mighr dream of peace and brorherhoexl but has to content itself with a more modesr goal a sociery in which cbere will be enollgh justice and in which coercion will be sufficiently non-violenr ro prevenr his common eoteeprise from issuing ioto complete disaster (Niebuhr 1936 22)
Perhaps the most famous member of the fower polirics or realist school is Hans Morgenthau author of the classic PolifiCJ am01lg Natos (Moegenrhall 1960) Hrst published in 1948 Morgenthau was a German-boro internashycional lawyer who emigrated in 1937 ro rbe Unired Scates where his post-war work had a deep influence on ioternational relations thinking and peactice Alchough he did nor specificaUy dfore any book to the problems of internacional organizadons his works were so broad as ro envelop the general problems of relations between sraee5 and rhe specific questions of intersmre organjzarions TIte rhree major elements that typify Morgenrhaus writings (and the realist school generally) are
bull the beliefs thar nation srates are rhe mosr importanr actors in internashyrional relarions
bull rhar rbere is a clear disrinction between domestic and international polities bull and that international relariacuteons i5 predominanrly about the struggle fue
power and peace (Vasquez 1979 211)
These basic tenets are reflected in Morgemhaus ereatment of jnterna~ rional organizations which are seen purely as interstate institutions importam in so far as chey are wed in the search for power oc in solving the problem ofpeace
A crucial senrence in PoitiCJ amog NafiJls poims to a central idea io Morgenthaus work The main signposc thar helps polirical realism to find irs way through the landscape of internacional poliries i5 the concepr of interest defined in terms of power (Morgenthau 1960 5) Thns Internacional policics like aU polities is a struggle foe power (Morgenthau 1960 27) and When we speak of power we mean mans control over the minds and acrions of orher men (Morgenrhau 1960 28) Furthermore AH politics domesric and internacional reveals [hree basic patterns rhat is aH
J LU wrwlIgiexcl M IIfffl1l4r1MdJ arga1lIZiJU01Ji
policical phenomena can be reduced ro one of duee ~ic rype5 A political pollcy seeks eithet 00 keep power ro Jnireot power Uf tu demonsrrare power (Motgeruhau 1960 39) These policies are seen in rhree forros (he pnlirics of status 100 (he politics of impedalirn and che polides of prestiA-c Moqiexclenmau then eVMUamptcJ narional power and timitlltlons on ir in the fuClll of balance of power intemarional mornlity and world public opillion and inremarional law He considered world politics in rhe mid-rwemieth century and rhe problem of peace He examined attemprs ro ob1lliin peare rhroacuteuiexcliexclh limicatJon (diwrmamenr collective seeudty judicial settlemeru peaceful change inrermuionaJ governmem) through ttansfOrmarion (inw drber 11 world Hace Ol a wodol commnnity) aM tbrough m-ommodatien by dip1omacy In rus wmk Morgemhau tewhcd en rhe role of intemationaJ organizatlmu ellpeciaHy in rus senioos en imecnadonal law on peace rhrough limitatton aud on wodd communit)
Morgemruw sttessed rbotr OH rhe bauacutes of inccmadonallaw there has been builr au impostng edifice consisring of tltousands of wadcs huodreds of deuumlsions uf intetmriou~l rrlbunals and innumentble dedsions of domestic roUtlS 1besc lcgulared relatIacuteom between stares arose from
the mulriplicity aud VliriC[) of incernllrional (omans which are tbe rewlr of modern communiauioos internat100al exchange of goods and secvkes and the greur numbtr of Internarional Otganiutiacuteons 10 whicb lOOSt
nadmUi have co-operated for rhe furrherarue ef their commou intereso (MOfgentluu 1960 277)
Whilst mosr internatlww1 UacutetW has been respettccl Moxgemhau rcmarked dIar when miel are vielatetl tbey are fiot 1I1ways cnrooced and rhat even wheo enfonement is uudel~n ir 1s nor alway~ roccrjve Memioning [he Briand-KeHogg Pace the Coveoant of the League of Nations al1d rhe UN Charter he comidered that
fhese inmuments are iexclndeed of doubrhll efficacy laquo(har is [bey are frequendy violared) and lomerimes even of doubtful validity (rhat IS they are ofren oot emorced in case of violation) fhey are bowever flOr typical of [he tradicional rules of imernarjonallaw
MOfgeoduu 1960 277)
lo the sectioo en ioternauacuteooal govemmem Morgeotlmu nored th$r since (he sean of tbe nintteenrh cen(ucy tlich of rbe lIuee wor1d wars (lhe Napoleonilt War tbe Fim anO Second World WaN) hud betn foUowed by an attempr ro euabJisb imernatlona1 governmem ~he Hoiy AlIiance lhe League oC Natiacuteoos aud che United Nations TIle ritn tWO arremprs rouodered becawe uf rhe varied interesrs of stales iBvolved in particular because of disagreemems abour tbe snlfUS qoo lhey wete sUPfll$ed tu be Sllpporting According (() Morgembllu
-rmgJ M Itrernana41 fI1ganlla1t)1tJ 1 Lo 1
cont1iexclu betwccn lIJe Btitish aod French conceprioru and polides did not howcver wreck (he Leugue of Nadons as rhe coufHcc brrween Great Brirajn llnd Ruuia hud the HoIy AlIianee Ir racher led ro a creepiug paralysis in the polirkaJ acfivitJ($ of elle Leugue and ro lu inahiUry ro take determined ardon iexcliexclgail1llc rhrears ro iocetlational ordet aud peare
(Morgenthau 1960 469)
The League coold oruy be iexcld te bave tXerdsed goverumerml functioos tU the 3tt$ of che maififeoanoe of illcernational order and peace in the tIltc
insNlnlaquo$ when eicher he interests of dte grear powers among in members were not affected or tbe common interests of the most influentiacuteal amonA rberu seemed ro requite ir (Motgenrhnu 1960 471)
The United Nadons was also seen by Morgenthau as ~ing based bn
unsure foundations bur fur a differenr rCJSon than for [he League after the Seltond World War [he vicrorious powers first created MI inrernacional governmenr for rhe purpose of IDaiacutencallling tbe srarus quo and alter tbat proposcd to agree upon me status quo However Since such aglaquoement has never existed during rhe Jife pan of tbe Uuited Nations rhe interruuJonal government of [he United NorioM as envisiged by the Citarter has temaiacutened a dltM Imer (Morgenthau 1960 493-4) He teterred lO a pantlysed Selturuuml) Council wirh che GtnetiUacute AssembIy and Secrtaiacutery-General of [be UN borh displayiog weakness (Morgenthan 10 492-3) and wirh tbe whole orguni~ utten acbltving liule rnough (Morgentbau 19tiO 496) Iu his view
The comribmion the Unind Nntiolls can make ro [he preservadon of peace then would lie tr1 fIlking advaotage (lf the oppormniry (hat (be coexisleuce of [he two bloc$ in the same inremariorual organizadon provides iexcl(Ir che unobrmsiexclve resumption of the techniques of tmditional dipJomacy
(MOlgenthau 196) 497)
In enminlng tite possibility of creadng a world community based on a t1lfl8t of iutematlonal organizations such as UNESCO and che ruhet spedaJ~ iud agencies Mursenrhau made he poinr [hae rhe creation of $uch a romrnuniry presupposes al least he mitigacion ampnd minlmiziltlOH cf iuter~ narional conflku so (ruu the interesu UOJrlug membus of different natlOIlS may outweigh me inrerests reparnting tbem (MotAcnchau 1960 536) On rhe UN agencies Morgemhliu (oruidered thar
che comriblltions imerna[Jonal functiOflll agencies make ro he weHmiddot bring of members- of all natious frule lnto tbe background Wh$t Irands brfore the eyes of alI IUC (he immense polixka conflicrs (ha divide tbe great oariollS of the Eanh and dUCQren he welJ-being of rhe- loser if not his very exisrelle
(Morgenrhau 1960 528)
122 Writings Q11 ifftmlailJltdlorganiza1om
In summary Hans MOfgentbau accepted chile inrernationaI orgllniexcllAtAacuteons have a place in intematinnal re1ations dlOUgb he was cardUl not ro QW1tate eheie imJXIrrance in [he match foe powet and peace in rbe worId He SltlW rbei comribution as beinp moJes (lf)(j as part of de geueral intercou~e hetween sraces and [heie gt1vernmcnts and be rve no real consideration ro internashyrional non-governmental oeganizations iexcliexclurthermore funcriacuteonalin(ernational organizacions whibt teCognited as bcing useful were nor given any pardcshyula role in snlvin~ the probkm of peaee Hven the Unired Natiacuteon~ WJ~ only given credence In dlis context as tbe new serring foc the old tethnic-iexclues uf diplomacy Morgenthau 1960 497)
TIte real1sr or po_r polirics schools view of inrernational orgMization is Open ro (hree truljoc (fiLieiuDS Ficst ir could be dairned rhar froro a moral viewpoim he power politks SdlOOl is gready lacking as il accepts too tasily the status que iu intern3tional politics and does nm allow iuternacional organizacions a posirive role io oeating a better wodd Howevct this js to fOrger chat in the writings of a number of cbe realisc schoo - Carr Schwanenberger 300 Niebuht - dlEtC Js a moral and oflen Christian 1lSpecL Hans Morgentltau WIllI use as CQuterned with the moral aspecrs of polidcs as were his contemporuies who rejtftoo the power politics prKepts The deptb of his concern can be sceo in his buok Tnh rmd Pouer Emraquo JI a DttttJe 1960-70 (Morgentltau 1910)
Second tbe whole tealisr school rypified by rhe works of Morgcuthao can be challenged exactIy 00 its major daim name1y Jts teiexcl1Ilism To what extent does (he $chool ofCet a useful descripdon and explanation of lnterna~ uonal reladens Valtiexclquez (979) has oudined how internacional relations anides published pnor to 1970 were dominated by rbe re-tlist paradigm yet their bYPQtbescs provtd 00 he inacrumie and even dld less weU than oonshyreglist h)pQrheses in tbeic prtdictive power Such findiogs tend to undermine me sneogth of wbat has becn the dominam internarional relashytions scboal in Western llCIldemia and suggest that alternadve paradigms shyfoc example tbe Maolsr aud me trnnsnadonal - shtuld be glven more tlme aOO comideratlon This questiOlling of tbe power pOlitkgt schoos work mus then libio mise doubts abonr their rathel dismissive rreatment oE iotemashytional organiwtlons as oong marginal in intemational reJatiQflS
Indeed OOe of the major uiticisms of me chools rceatrnenr of 10laquot011shydonal orgliohiexclitioru bas beelJ iu emphasis 00 high pJiicics tbe qUt5tlOO of peace and Wiexclir 00 che ncglen of low politics SlKh as economk cechnlcal and cultural relatioos lnrern9tionlil organizarioos are secn juSt as iustrushyrnents of policy fur lItates inrernational non-gQvernmental urgaulzarions are hardly oon~iexcldered Nowadays a neglect of econoroiiexcl relatioos and lNGOs seems atl eveu greatet Qmission
lo deenee of his acritudlt it should be rernemhered that most of lhe power polirics wridngs occurred before he ma$$ive exparuioo oiacute lNGOs froro the 1960s onW1llrds The scbool is roorecl in tbe reaction to rbe infir~ micy uf tbe Western democmcies when faeed by Hitler and Mwsolini in lite
WitaacuteKl O iJlt1tatioflal organiUiexclfiqm 123
1930s and i[ found its feet in tbe immooiare fIIl1r- war Cold Wac periodo Ir is riterclOre undentandable cbal ir stces~ high puliexcltic~ and is andpathcrk (O
inrernarional otganiutions wbich were Ken tu be conrtec(ed with [he discredited League oiacute Natiacuteons 4nd 1u inteUeaual sllpporten O wim the original intemioos of rbe United NatlooS bcore these were sulernatecl by Grei1( Power dmension
Neo-naIacutells
TIle Output of me realim tlagged in chc 1970s rogerher witb [he giobtll power of the United States aOO in the [ace 01 nCwapproache ltO the srudy of intemarional rdacions The neo~functiexcl()llalist and interdependencc braoches of refurrnisr approaches (sce nexr section) seemed tO have tuen iacutemu account rhe rise in uamnational non~stare elemenl5 in international relatiumr and rhe imponancc of economic factors in relaLlonS actoss internadonal frontien
By [he 19805 another brand of realinn - the neo-realim - had Jigcsted rhe ncw clcments in intcmattonal relllti)n~ and reasltiexclerted some mmiliar aspects Pcrhaps jn ralQrtIC to tbe reer~iexclon ro naditlonal seturiacutety thinking by the Reagan administtation in thr Unired States these authbrl tended ro stress the conflictnal nuure of jntemarional affuirs tbat this rnnfljet Wu prtmarily between nation iexcltates in the modern world and that power and security was a prime nmsiderarion in human morivafIacuteons (Gtlpin 1984 227) lhe new ciernent jo rheir writing is a manet of S(1l1 debate (Baldwjn 1993 Kegley 199 Keobane 1986amp) bu( rbey bad in common ti de~ire for more intellectual rigour in theit work [han eme of the old retlshyises a willingness ro deal wirh telltions in 11 wodd where US hegemony was in qllestioll and a pttparedness tu include econurnj( fumiddotton io tbeir cakulashydons
How then did the oeo-realisrs rccae imeroarjonal organizatioru 00 the wbole (bey vicwed [hero witb tbe same jaundiced eye as did Morgemhau Imernational QCRinhatiooll were SCen as instrumencs of atate policy at most COrnmoo lorurns Their role ns independenc actors in [he iuteroatinnal syttem was not somechiog thl1 most uf the neo-r~lisu readUy anepted lndeed [beir doyen Keuneth Walu furcefuUy reasserter the pn~idoo oiacute th sovereign Stolte in internarional poli rics
fO a theory that demal the central role oiacute states will be nttded fmir if non~tate KtOrs develoi ro me poim oiacute rivaJling or SllrpRUing che great pOWCfS nor just a iacuteew uf tle minot on~ Tbey sbow 00 ign ofdoiog diexcliexclu
(WaI I98Go 89)
Waltt like others such as Gilpin (1981) Wall nmcerned wirh intetnashytianal pnlitics srructured by rh uneven distributinn of pOWCl lnternational instiexcltuttoilS therefore ftflecred rhe realities of [bL~ ~iexcltuation aod rhe major intematinna organizarioo5 llorliexcl as cbe U uited Nations Ol rhe Bretton
124 Writings JIJ iflJm1UtirmalIilgJ1liza1iofll
Woods iostitudons conld be eXpampted lO bear he imprinr of rhe maln bege~ monic power (in t~e CtlSes rhe Uoitw Srores) lf rbey rrled m brmk away from duacutes snaicjacker ~ as dlrl rhe otueraI Asscmbly of (he uumlN in he 197)s - fhey would find dxemselves lgtide-rnlCked by tIUt power
Tbe neo-reaiJSts accepred [har hegemoni( JXlwer could aru1 woukl decline bm wCfC les$ abJe ro deal wuumlh he consequences of rhis decline 00 rhe srruc~ tllrt1i uf iuternari01lal reJatious How mishr [bey (induding iowtnadolUll orgBnizatlolls) change aCrer hegcmony lt was ro thiiacutel (udtion rbar Roben Keobane uddressea himself He firiexclt wmited ehar Realism is patdcu1arly weak in accoundng foc ehange espc(iiexclJly where rhe sources of that chanse he in rhe wodd JOlirical economy oc in rhe domesdc srructures of smtes (Keohanc 1986b 1)9) He then referred ro his own eadie wooo un mrnpln interuependence for iospiradon CKeohnlle 1986b 160) He saw rbe (d lo $upplemenr though nor replace JeltlliSf wricings wiexclrh theoeiEs and be sHtSSCJ rhe importance of smdying inrerruuional inslitu[ioru which in particular would oeal wirh the question of how co-operation can cake place io wotW polidcs without hegemony (Keohane 19A4 14) By the early 1990s Koohllne fOUM a synthesis in elle iosriturionalist argument thal oormws e1ement5 ftcm hoth liberalism and teiexcltlil111 (Keohane 1993 271) Thi assumed (har sutes were rhe principal Qaors in world politics and acrm in rheir own self-inrerests hoth traditional eenli~t tenen Reiative capahilides - how power weaith etc was distributed berween the various nares - was impotcunt and S(Rtt5 had m rely on rheir own jUrlQns ro ensure rehuive gatos fmm coopetatioo From the Jiberal side Krohanes insrirutiQruUacuteism borrows 11 greater empbasis un the role of inrernatiunal jfl$rlIIriacuteoru in changing COnceiexclllons oftdf-interese (Keohane 1993)
During [he period from about 1945 ro 196S iexclntetna[ional imuacuterutions werc shaped by [he prevaHing American hegcmony Keohane identified as a problem the ledme in reronrces dllll lIacutele tilliced States governmellr had beeo wiUing ro devore tU the roainreoance of chis system (especially tU economic a~pect) siacutence he mid-1960s As US hegemony dedined rhere would be sn increased need for intematiooal ftgtgimes - scrs of rules norms and insrimrions ~ so [hat states could rub aJong mgether Keohane saw the regimes lefr by American hegemooy as a good scanillg poinr for future coshyopecatiiexclO and thought thar [hese should be adapred tu roCCt [he needs of (he new sicuation (J 984 244~ 6) This woulo ar leas[ make co--operatioo possible provide information foc all abotlr pnlicies inteor1ons aoO VIllues and woutd creare a depeudabiUry in intemational relarioni (Keohane 1993 259)
Keohanes wOrk has bccn critiacutecized by che more staunch feO-realistl Joseph GriecO 0993 301-38) provided a compreheruivc refundon of Koohanes leanings ro a more liberal positioo and rherehy advances a classic sratement of neo-fcalist conceros He admirs bar iU$riacuterurionalism has made imponam cOfluiburioru ir lIDs shuwo bow the dflilrchicaJ SlfUCture of iexclntershynationaJ rdarioru has Cfillted the problem of chenins fo lmerruuional
wnlngs 1m nf1hJUQrlai O1ffdl1lzamJ1U 1)
cooperario1 Setond ie has focusm on how lnternatlonal instirutions help srares manage thar problem and les symptoms Thioo they have caused che neo~realistS 00 look more carefully ar rhe relarive gains problem ihis is (he case where states are less concerned wirh rhe absolure gailll than with theit gaios ser aside [hose of orher srares which are seen as porenriaL riVus In other words le is beuer to agree tO an ums contml Healy allowing yOlJf
iexclrare ro build duee extra missiles and youe 0l1JXiuent lO build two exrra missiles rhan tu tolerate a situatiou wbere you can build five more missiacuteleiexcl (a better absolute gajn titan rhe [hree) bU your rival cnn buHd iexclnen (they have a stronger relJirive 81ljn mmpued wirh the arms control iexclreiexcliexclty outcotne) FinaJly neo-tClllim have had (O re-assess cher views of rhe signifkauce of intetnatlonal instirucions in rhe sysrem
This view of inrernarionaJ irutirutions entompasres the oeo-rett1ist IJndersranding of (he role of imernarjonaI uumltganizatioos in the international ~ystem As mendonw he realins view thero as insftumenrs oC rhe sovereign litates Neo-reaJisc$ have rehued rhis undersrandiog by poruuying tbem as refleecias che hegemony of the mese J70wcrful membe1l They can airo provide forums wirh [he poremjJi1 to be SOmewhaacutet more efficient than trnditional diplomacy or iHeguLu mnferences though a danget comes wheo they try ro he ilCroCS in ffieir own right Tbe successol1 of rhe tradimiddot donal realius such as WaltZ (1979 70-U and Mcaubeimet (1990) saw rhe EUlOpean Uo1on ptedecessor che Europeall COrnmunities me) as flour~ ishing because of rhe bipolar diviolioo of Europe by rhe USA and he Soviet Unl00 dudng the Cold War The txpecrarion was fhar with rhe end of che Cold War the Be pooject wnuld nor advance bur rache sink ioro disuse T1lltlugh the EC fiued n nurnher nf c-rlses in rhe early 1990s ir dld transfotm irsetf iexclmo the EUnlpean Unjon (EU) wich ao Boonomk and Monetary Union (EMU) 11nd a Common Foreign and Security Poky Grieco (1993 331) expIained rhis in tetms of $tates mnstitnting rollaoorariacuteve rules for a commen interese with the wCllker stares reying to consrrucr rules rhnt aUow them effenive volee opportuniries to ameLiotate tbeir dOJrunation by srronger partners Tite weaket states - sueb as Bdgium Portugal ot even France in rhe EU - wefe trying ro bind cbe stmoger Gcrmany in his (middotIl-~e lmo a form of relationship that avoids dominatioIL Crlieco (l993 335) admirtetl thaL realism hll-~ JIDC offered aIl explaoarion fm che tendeo(y uf sram tu undcrrake their coopemrion rhrough iftrituriOJiexclaited instirutions
This chaUenge has buo taken by those who nave ioaeasingly sought tO
liacutenk a fiiexclidy reaJlsr uudetstanding of wodd polides with domestic pulirles in the lcadifl8 stace actors An tlCamplc 15 Joho Richarelss Study of che regulation of dte inremarinnnl vlatioo marken in which he daims tO
refine rhe ffalm understamUugs of power io iexclmernarional bargaining 0999 33 BasiOlUy uationaJ po1iriciexclan~ Ut$te and susmin International inuJtudons induding intefflaacuteuacuteonal nrganiacutezations ro maxlmise domesshyti poliriud advamuumlge ltRicharda 1999 9) His conrendnn is har
l-V H~giexcl iexcllJJ ltifffltIltlUImal lIfglaquonlMiffIU1fJ
internatIacuteonal iusti[U[ious wiH be created whcn they are politicaUy effishyoacuteenr (mat is inrrease eleuoral support) Cor natiooa poHticians (Richards 1999 3) Rithards rejeces a loHective goods approach tO intctrtatlomuacute iuscirmiollgt (such a~ that ofZacher and SumID 1996) that See$ such insti~ clltiom al cHrrecdng lhe working$ oiacute che market internuJonally antl rherefore produciug econQmic benefirs all n1l1Od However he alro tejelttS rhe hard realist approach that daims rhat instltl1tions including internashycional organizatium merely reOeltt the power tap4biHtles in rhe international system altiexcl in Kra~nermiddots statement mar srronger Haces have simply done what they hiexcllve plea~edmiddot 0991 337) Richard srill claims rhat international imtitutlons iexcllre the iacutenstroments of stateS Because $ueb inscirucions as the internationill organiradons (hat regulate mtetoational rravel definc property rights internatiacuteonal1y they alter che marketplace leaving gains for sorne and losscs fur others This beJng ro [he building of such iexclnstirutiollS inrernationally is oound lO trigger a fiexclerce domestic political batdc (Richardll 1999 9) Thus whac happens ro and in internashytional otganizadons can be usoo by domestk politkians ro maxiacutemize eheir OWIl dmnestic advanrage This is a view that may attrac( supporr within the Ulliacuteted Srarcs though may be less reSOllant in sorne of the smaller and weaker ~tales
A similar view hdu bcen takco by the liberal intergovernmcotalistll who havt examined the European Union (EU) Moravcsik (1993 1998) has pcimoo (raquoIr tbar governrncmal strtttegies withiacuten tbe SU havc becn domi~ naced by preferences and power Cooperatiun and integration wete rhus seen as usefu strateampies if tbey furtltered a governmenrs control over its domesric alfalrs and agenda Moravcsik rhm ste$ the EU as a succc5sful imecgovernshytnelUal regime desigued ti) manage (conomt intetdcpendence rhrough negotiated poticy ctM1tdinatioo (1993 474)
The neo-res1i$tS have becn auacked OH many ground~ not leaJIt fO provIacuteltilng no WVIoce on toe works of che old realuumlt ($Ce AshJcy 1984) Like their reatist predecessors (he predicdve powcr of rheir work hal betn dlUacutelenged particulady their inabiUty (O foreste the eod uf the OJld War tand oiacute the Suviet Union (Scholte 1993 8) Scholre also cuacutetlcizs fhem fur nO addressing global iexclssucs $uch as welfnre questiorn ano poUucfon thar domishynate the world uf rbe late tweorieth and eurly twenry~first cenruries This questioos rbe descnpttve ability oiacute the oeo-realisu tS what (hey descdbe an) more (C$isritmiddot tllan thett realiacutest predelaquoSSOrs They have on rhe wbole OOen as unintere$laquod M cheir predece$sms in rIacute1f ro1e of interoatinnal ofRaniurioos The main exceptlon undl the 1990s wu Robert KeltiexclIacutellilne whose earLier worb en intetdependence stcved hun well no rIacutelar Sfilre Evel hee the critidsm can be made rha his view is b41skaHy conservative and was concerncd iexcljede iexcleh the incerests of (he Thiacuterd World Sorne of rhe Wrltel1l no economic coopshyeratino and integrauon fU tlle 1990s a(cepted many ol the nco-realiu assumptiacuteons aoout natiQna1 UlrettU$ ln Illternatllmal o~iratlon The) bave brought 00 the OeM a more refmed vlew oE rhe relatioacuternhip between govern-
Wrltingr tffl inttntaJumal ~ruZaJlflf1 ti I
menn and inrernarional orgHnizatioru and have Ieft behiod he Cnld War reain empoosis 00 the mijitruy ilSpet-ts ofpower
REFORMISTS
Tile n-alist wciters despite theit diftering valuatioos of the worth of cenain intematlonal organizstiltms have in rornrnon a state-centrk approoen ro intershyoational reiatWIlS 1bough liOIlle were CQnremed tbiacutelt govemITlents shoold renect more he (iacutenevitably) good lntentions uf their dtizens in inrerruttonmiddotd affiUfl or rbar world otgmizarions shoukI have more power (O detll wjth warlikt ()t reoegade Stares tOOr nus of artentioo is the internacional govem~ mental otganhtaacutetIDn (lOO) A nociceable devclopmenr in internariona reladons literawn inu the Second Wodd War has been (he movement away [rom mis 5tate-centred view towards ooe tIacutelat admits the impoarune of intematioroal atmiddotWrs iexcliexcltha than tite sovereign SUte 1bese indude lGOs in tbeir 0JIffi right (rnrlwr than as meeting places or inmumenn of thcir rnember tare) lNGOs trnnsaatJoual otgllnizatloru polirical group5 aod individual dtizeru Although many pl1blkadmlS just desctibe tbese new phenomena whkh llaVe herome more aniV in rhe last iacuteotty years [nere 15 a1so iI prescriptive erement to sorne oiacute [he writings They ttnd te prescribe incrmsed non-srare Jrtivity in inremashydonal relatiom ase a way uf underpinning claset relations berWfetl stattS ami socieries or undermining houlle anitudes by guvemmenrs (WeiS$ and Gordenker 1996 WlIlerrs 19~ Gordenker and WcillS 1998) Whilr this general reformist viewpoint is similar to reall~t approaches in aooopting the importafl(e uf the srate relatjons in incernational polit1cS ir does no( aoept eiexclrher fhe monopo1y oE rhe state in tbe sysrem or mar litatfS are unimry talional actors In surnrnary tbe leey aJlpeltrs of a reformist ilppftmdl to intetnational rclashytions indudes n number oE rbe folJowing
1 ihe belieE in reason in human nature and in progres$ [he [requency and level of war can be redocoo fur example
2 Inrernauumlonal relatioru can be moperative rather toon confIirtrW 3 Though seates are imponam in inrernarionaJ Ielations rhey are IJoOt [he
only aCtofS 4 ampates are Q)t ulUacuterary iexclI(tors wirh their dedsion inrematiacuteonally reflecting
intemal divisions aoJ interests They dv nve therefore neccssarHy muimize the interesrs oE che stare
~ The internacional s1gttem espl(bHy pires of iexclt comairu the elemenrl uf international society ano relies on a wriety oE international institutiollS indudjng inrernadonat Otgltlniution
The refurmist approach to the srudy (lf intemntional reladons hase conse~ quences fOl [be roruiderafIacuteon of interniexcltrnmal Otiexcliexclalization~ ano has made a notieabJe conuibwion to the lit(llIr~lre on the subjctt especiall) since [he 19508 Hnwever there is a bockgtotlnd ro the aboye idea~ char can be ICen in
j 01 Wnlmg 1m l1f1eOkllttmal urgJmuJugtnJ
me esdier writifl8~ of Grmiw Ladre Hentbam 3nd l(uiexclc (Jwkson aoo amprensen 1999 108-11 VlOtrl and Kaupi 199t) 200-4) Ao undet1randing of che curren refutmtst appruache1 ro inttmational otganiUitioos um be helped by reiacuteerente ro SOUlt of the WI1tets on internacional law wnich wiIJ mrm one section beLow
lnlernatIacutetmall8wyers
Mueh of rhe lirerarure abour mrernatioual organwoou$ 1$ descriptivc ltiren detiing with several organizacions aM giving purricuw eutpha$is te tite League ofNarioas and UN sometimes dealing with one organiacutezadoo swn lIS NATO me OAU Of rhe EU Leading woru in trus area 1m those of the intetshynariooal lawyers who give particular ronsidemcion ro rhe cowlimtiacuteoru of international organizaoons thei legal penonaliries aoo institucional probshykm Indecd ic was pmbably lhe P~ ltgtfuw ar amplinburgh Universiry J lorimer who fin coined the e~ionmiddotiexclnrernatiooal organization in 1B67
Contributions (Q cbe study of internarionai organizacions llave been made by Britisb legal exptm and bisfOrians 50ch as Zirnmern in his iexclrudy The Uacute4g~ JI NaJimn an4 the RMk of LnJiexcl (ZJmmem 19gt9) and J1 Buacuteerlys comparison of rhe newly emerged Unuumled Narions wirh rhe suurwre aod aims of lbe then dying Ieague Brierly demonnrated a strong preferenn~ for fbe inrrusioo of international law iOfO etonomk ilnd sndal affpjn gttl dat rbe generic grievances of sures ma) be removed (Btier1y t946 9n Hersrh laurerpliCht published Tbt Dwefpment ()f lntmwlftmal lJw by rhe Permanml CfJkrl el l1iImJ4lifJNiexcl-1 jllJtia in 1934 and [his was later marched in [he Ullired States by Judge Manle) O Hudseos Intmwt]iexclmal TribltllfJuacute PaJI
qniexclJ Plfum (944) WilfrEd ]ellki [be ugai Advlscr to che lLO CUIIribured noe jU$ 00 chilE organizarIacuteon (Jenks 1962a) but abo mote genernl wodcs 00 iarematiol181 orgaruzarions (leaks 1945a 1945tl 1962tl) 1 le stressed (he need [O IDaH) [he craf[ of tbe imernational lawyer wuumlh rhe Pludence uf che polirician tO develop an effective s)stem of incernadonaJ orgafiUBtion
Institutional developmeru 15 primarily cbe responsibiliry of staCesmaDshyship ir muS[ be gnided aud cootrolled b) a [fue appreciarion of political forces Tbe greaccst oflegal uadirions is still to be crearEd irs cexmre wiU be largely ltlefermined b) rhe qnaliry of [he crafesmanship which inrernatlonal lawyers place sr the disposal of sracesmen during me next geaeration
(Jenks 1945a 71-2)
laltor imernarional insrituriom cexebooks were pmvided by rwo Europcan intemalional lawyels Henry Schelmelll Professor of law at lIte Univeaiey of Amsreroam restricted himself tuacute inrernacional instuumluttonal law wbicb by roncerning irself wirh [he srrucmre and functions of inrershy
~h~ bullmiddotff~ V_middot ~f_lt~V_
fliUional organiexclttttlonstries ro explllin [he present developmem and ro promote he harmonious growth of lnafniexclldQual organization (Schermcfs 1972 2) He Jodt wim rhe partidpants in lmernadonstl orgllniexcl~lltion8 tbe general roles ror their crgaru and me activities of these Orgllus from prirruuHy a legal viewpoinr A similar approacb was adopted by rhc Bririsb iacutenternat1oniexcll1 leglll eJtpen D W Bower( whOie book Tht 14W QI lnlmwIacutePMJ lmtiJlflilJrll (970) placed grearer emphasis on pflrtkular insrishymtions - he Lcague thc UN and in spedalized ageucies che regional organizarions rile juriacutedical iacutens(iexclmdons - as weU as dealing wirh general questions such as t-he internattoual pcrsouaUt) of che organizarions and their impac( on (he doctrine of (he rovereigll equalit) of srare5 Por a blend of sociology bistoty and luretnarioOllJ lpw che work of Paul Reurer Professor uf lmernatioual Iilw pe Pileis Univcrsit) is UB$urpassed In Inml14tionaJ bmitllfiom (1958) he examined che phenomeoon ol imemashyt10nal orgaruzadon rather tban jUS( the orgilnizations and insdtutiun~ auJ thererore speut sorne time on the uature of imernariolllll ~je[) [he erigias aud foundarions of iuternational institutioll$ lS weU iexcll$ rhe posiacutediexclm of Staeeg in international society
Sorne post-Cold Wllr studies nave moved uWily from wruu tllto regllrded as csoretic descriptions of che 111w (Kn aud Djehl 1998 3) aud have insread examinEd intetnatiomJ I1lws iacuteofluence on poLirIacutelal behavior (Ku ampnd Diehl1998 3) One of rhe buses of tluch au IIpproach iN chat imtornashytionaJ organiUltions nOIl-governmenral orgllnirpriOfl$- multithltiJllUl corporations aud even privare IndividuaJiexcliexcl have come ro pliexcly Illl iexclIlcrelljiexcling role in intematioual rclations and accordingly international legal tules have evolved co engage rhese oew accors (Ku and Olebl 1998 3) Tnternarional lllv is seco both as au operatillJ system and a normative system for internariacuteona relarionll Algt the fotmet it 5eu the genernJ proshyceclures and iacutensticudons toe the conduce of incern11ltlonal relatiolls lt provides che framewotk fu estllbllshing rules lInd UOI11lS oodilles be parilmcters of interaction ancl provides (he ptocedures Ilnd furums ror re~lvlng disputes among those taking part in tnese intecllCtiacuteOO$ (Ku and Diehl 1998 6~7) As a nOttnative S)stem iuternatiouallaw giexclves rorm ro lhe aspiradOlu anu vlllues oE the partkipants of the system (Jr) is 11 proJuct oiacute the struttlltes Ind processes thar make up rbe opernting ~ystem rTt1 tllkes on a principaU) legislativc chamcret by mandating particular valueg IlnJ ditetting speciiacutek chllnges in sure bebaviQr (Ku Ilnd Diehl 1998 7) Mote tradiciunal appr03Lhel tO lnternatlonallaw rendlaquol tO de~(ribe che role 01 imelllatiuuaJ otgauJutiotu as pan of the opcradng sySLCm Legal texu pllblishcd in he laSt decade Ot so of (be rwcnrierh centUry looked lncteasingl) ae the position of inrernatlonal urganilations middotw
nor leas [hose oiacute the UN system - in a nurmanve framewnrk especiaHy in functional areas such as human righn (AJston 1995 he envilOumenr (Kin 199M) [be global commnm (Jo)ner and Manell 1998) and wOlneiexcluacute issues (Berkovith 1999 Wrighe 1993 1)~g8)
130 Writingi (f1I iexclktnati~nal I11glttftiZAtitlrlJ
Intecnationallawyers have airo given exteosive comideration ti particular instimtions The League Qf NatJons attlacted special attention as lawyen played an imporunt role jn J~ dmfting and as it had as tU aims che pmmotion of international c(K)perntion aoo the achievement of iexclnrcrna~ tionru pcace and eturity
by the ficm establishment nf the undersrnndings of imemauacuteonal law as tbe actual rule of condun among Governmenrs aOO by the maintemtnce of jnstice and a scrupulous mpect for all treaty obligations in the dcl~middot ings uforganised peoples wirh one another
(Preamble to tbe Covenant)
Furtbermoce the central pan uf che CQvenant dealing with the keeping of peace (Anide 12-16) OOopted a legalisck approoch in delining nn OCt of wu against all Ieapue membecs as being rewtt to war in disrtgaru of Anides 12 13 or 15 (Attide 16 (1raquo) In other wottb the cardina15in W$$
tbe breakiacuteng of rhe legal gretment mOOe wirh otner stares Imernational lawyeM in pIlrtkuar were ooncerned wirh how Iacutenlernarional IacuteiexcllW might be agreed judged ane enforced in lhe jnter-war perIDd lhey turned much of their atrention to the anivities oC che Permnnem Coun of Intemational Justice arul lhe league of Natlon5 Judge Hcrt(h TaureIp3cbc foc eurtlrle ronsldetetl rhat aH Jntemlltional dispures were justiciable and thus open (O
soludon by [he judicial process in internacional law He considered tbe League tu be useful 5tep in the development oE inrernational law and be sanctions 1I1lowcd Cor in Anide 16 of [he CoveOilnt as marking tbe fitn step towws he collective enEonement uf internacional law (Laurerpacht 1970 9)
The league hOO iexcles advocates among orher lega writers AlCred Zimmern wriring io 1938 set Lhe Leagues activjties and institurions against che backshydtop of the gathering 5tOrm io Europe He still found much ro ~y lor ir it had rkveloped 2ru1 expanded tbe old iquestiplomaric ystem bad enrouragro wshyoperation in many ateIlS ane $r leur represeotecl iexcllfi artempt to ellminate WIlr even duting a period of whar Zrmmern caHed cmhquukes (Limmero 1939 491-509) Lord Robert Cedl one oC the fuunders of rhe League as weU as a lawyer and Conservative poHdcim admined when wming ln 1941 rbe Cailure of the orgamzation in preventing aggressive powers Neverdreless he hoped that iexclt would be reformulaced after bosrilities with a CI)ll of confederariacutean uf European tates the cenual objecr of which should be the preservatl(m uf the European peat e Peace in cbe test oE the world would Jepeod pretty weU on tbe then jusr~eltiexclsting Covenant wirh sorne small changes Cecil did admit rhat another piece of rnachinety couid do Iittle unless [he peoples allJ govemmeots cea11y tgtlt che enforcemenr nf law ann mainrenance of pealte as me firtr and grearen nadonal Jmereus (erH 1941middot 349-51)
The hopes of (hore ho yearned fur legal soludnns tO intemartonal
WrjlingJ 1m inffll7lltJfriexclftai rltgmiwtitln-iexcl 131
dt1putes dearly dcdined a~ the UN Charter wjth iacute~ emphasis on politica1 solutions to what were palideal disputes tepiacelti tbe optimist1c legal (otmula~ uf the League Covemutt The UN Chancr was not to be without tes Internationa Jegal romrnentaluts Indeed tWO early stllndard books on rhe UN are by diJtinguished lawyers Kelsen (l950) and Goodrich ti al (969) though the hmer have admitteu that when iexclnterpreting [he ltlwrter
since rhe responsibiliry for interpretadon is VC$ted in Ofgan~ and memben alike che process is more iexcliexclkely to be politia than judishyoacutealDeciexclsiltm~ rend to renea lhe enmmon intetesu of members in achieviug cerratn results
(Goodrich If JI 1969 15)
Other legal commentators have placed emphllSis 00 [he role of jtlterna~ tional orgaoJutions in tbe development of particular aspects of innl11iexcl1tional ew ami again haltle secn tbe rleyelopment uf the rules aon notms of internashytiOfliacutell society ~ howeyer imperfeltmiddott - in tbese cases Examples are Kratochwil (1989) who who has written generally ou the 1mbject Jaebon (l997) and Thomas IInd Meyer (19J7) on the world tradins sysrern Kiss 11M Shelttm (1991) on Iacutentern8ljoual envttunmenral law aud Human Rights Watch 09921999) and Bianchi (997)on human r1ghu iSIuc
lnternaonalgotJt1tmenlfgwfINIJJlue
Anorber AmcriC3llegaI aurhority ayde Eagleton gave the Unired Nations a critJcal though romewhat undmtaning appreciarioll ~mmmiexclng np its dilemma thus Ir (he Uniled Natioru cannor do more than ir ha~ the ampult liacutees with rhe Memhccs wbo marle it and opcrllte it and who j[ SfflIW slaquon preret the tootb aOO the fang ro internationallaw and order (Eagletoo 1948 552)
Eagieron placea the record (lf che Uoited Nations in thc context of irs predecessors in the hisroey of rhe gttlwth ofinternational govemmem and of iu legal and politica background He examined pmposals to achieve the inrernational government thff the UN ailed tu rt1tCh bm condueed chet fI chaogc in he attimdes oC Stares aud their pcoples JS neerkd fipiexclt (Fagl~too 194$ 583) Eagletons wnrk uuderlioed tbe point made by Evan Ltmm in his ntemd1ifma1 A~lIaacutetJ (977) that with (he existence of the UN and its lSSfJ(lated agencies many of che wodds prohlems are Ilor wirhout jmtiexcltu~ tions exercising authority over them The powers uf (his mnge of organizadon cau bc queHioned as Ciexcl1n chejr standing in relnion tn thcir rovereign state membera bur rheir exisrence in tne ptlStmiddotwiexcliexcl[ world ~ aud tbcir grnwth (rom their niacuteneteemh-cenrury hesinnings is a reality
Thi$ inrerese in [he 8rQwth of iorernariona[ governme(l( i tleithet new nor resrricted m the legal pmCeMion Oue uf the earlier publicauumlnru on tbe subject was by the writer leonard Woolf who Walt a fOllude uf the Fahian
132 WriJil1gJ (IfI htfmtaJIacutefmal argmitAJium
Socilaquoy che reformiu discusston group witbiu rhe British Ltbout Parry Wtiting in 1916 he omllned dJe exrenr m which imerllliootlal govem~ mene had been lKcepted rhroogh diplomade garfteaacutengs rhe use of public and privQce JmefOatwllru unions and che iocrtlSe iexcln commodify ugreemellts aad he PU forward plans roe che further teguJation of JmeroadOllal OCrltty lf war is (( be prevemed he elaimed states musr submir Q mUte intetuashy[jonal conrrol alld governmenr in their poJiticnl and udrninl1litrative rdadoru (laquooolf 1916 nB) He udvanred a Fabiao Cornmirree plan for nte Stipranaciacuteonal AudlOrlty cllat wiIl Preven War eiemenrs of whih fOllnd their way into (he Lea8ue Covenane aml whieh inhJt iexcliexcllid teCtJlllmended rhe estab1ishment of an Inrernatloclal High Grua an lntemadooai Coundl of sutes represenrnrives ami JO IOtelThldonal Seltreurjlil Woolf and his Fabiao coUeagues hoped dlar wirh rhis machiuery legal justiciable disputes wouM be 5ubmined ro rhe Cona Of a similar tribunal and orher dispmes ro the Couocil foc senlemenr with che patries rn he dispute ccnsmilned from warlike actjon fue a period of a year Provision was ro be rnade fur sancrions which ali sutes shoold pm inro open1rion lind al agfCltd tO make common cause even ro he exren( oC war against any constiruent Srue which violates thi$ uacuterndamentai llgreement (laquooolf 1916 233)
Woolf mgetIacuteltr wuumlh juriiexclu iexcluch IIS Hersrb Lauterpadu and Alfred Zimmern and British poliricaJ wrIacuterers like Pbiiexclip Nod-Baker LJrd Ceei and Gilbert Murlliy represented bmh [he praccuumlal and intdlectual mpponen ni lhe League of Natiacuteom in the interwar peuacuteod wbo were ouacuteen daified as iexcldealisrs or neo~rotiam Hedley Bul 0966 ~2 5) r1esnibed the rennal Grotlan assumption (named after (he seventeenrhshycentury lesal wtiter lIugo Grotiu$) as being rhat of the solidariry OI
porential solidariry oI (he SUtes comprising imemarlonal sociery wirh respect ro che enfurcemem of [he Law and Grodws basic crjredon of juse WI bt-ing fought in order ro enforee rjghrs a fimiofl dearly edwed in tbe Pabirin Comm1rrfts The Snpmnatlonat AuthorlEY rhll will Prevenr War BuH criricized rhe way ibis group lost sighr of intemarional polirics in rhelI preoccuparion wirh 10eroational1aw international otganization and intfoiexclniexcliexclriQnlll saciery
10 deallng wirh imefIUldonal marnti~y which rhey were indined ro confn$( wirh internarional law they eon[ribu[ed only a narrow and llflcririal rlaquorimdr whkh eKalred [he jnternational inreresr over tllujoual iexcllIrert~r~ (bnt wirhorlr asking bow rhe former was ro be detershyminel) mtlltiexcltimrimwl rdorm over revolurJon as [he meaflS of ll3lliCcndinA lhe soriely of sovereiNn states (bur without considering wfteher SUtCS cOllld OCcOIlIC [he agents of rheir owo ~rincriofl) and respcu fue legaliry oler [be neoo foc chaoAe (bur wirhour fdciflg up ro r~ mer that rh~ in(~rnadooal legal sys[em as (hey construed ir could nOl aecommodate change)
(BuU 1972 36)
Wrllingr on inlmralirmal ()fganiUJliofU 133
This J5 a teUing enough asseSSffiem of che idealim views includill8 [heir writings (tri imernarional oeganiurions HOWelef [he background of [he groop $hould be remerobeted they represellteJ a genemtion devastawd by the Finl World War ud whiacutecb wa~ used ro national suciery (early twenderh-teocut adtaio) lhat had henelired through institutional chal1ge and in whiacutech the rule of law had not preduJed remrro The k-gtgue of Natioo5 che Permanenc Coun of Illternuional J1L~tjce (PCI]) and [he 110 wen for rhem part of 1 Great Expedment to we Lord Cecil~ phrale
Wrirets in the last guarter of the twentieth century picked up and develshyopoo many of he omions current in rhe aoove Jirerawre aud srr~ed how iacutenrematiunal ioceocourse had heen governoo by a body of laws nl1~ lind feguladons ano by insdturions indlldifl8 internatiotlal organizatioO$ Though they llave kcpr rhe analogy with the domescic government of cirishyzens thef have preferred rhe terro internacional governancc demoosrrating thar such a system docs nOl hnve che son of enrorcemem powers expected of naticnal govetnmencs Notions of global governarue huve becn corered above whete tefereoce has heen made tU tbe idea of an imernarional regime (Pp 108-10) Thi5 concept helped bdng internacional olgsobacions iexclmo rhe wider titerarure abom inrernadonal cooperedon 11M governance in a srate of anat(by rneaning an absence of interOlltional governmenr with signifkant er[orcemem powers
In the early and mid~1990s IiHendon was agam wrned ro che manageshymenr of che internlitional environmem in rhe wake of the UN Confetence on Environment and Development (UNCED) al Riacuteo de Janeiro BnuiL gtlhe environmem seemed ro be a classk caudidste fur global governance pardy becl1use ir was glob-al and partly because of the range of instlwdons involved in iexcltS managemem In the words of Josepb Nye etTective intet~ narional envitonmental instltudoru thu$ helped w overcome sorne Ol (he rypical narional bordenecks tbar hiacutender cootrunated meusures to revene rbe frighrening trends of global environmental degradaLion llnd improve rhe possibiluumly of susrainable develo[lmenr of OUt plaller (Nye 1995 x) The assumprion of Keohane tt al was that whlle StateS may have difnculry ad~tessiexclng jmernationaacutel erlvitorlmemaL problems coopenuion betweeo governmen[$ couid hring dividends Eff(Xtlve intetnstiooaj 111stitutions wete needed which may take rhe form of internacional orgauuations rcgimes Ol informal conventlons They were seen in che woros of Maurlce Strong (Secretary-Cener-iexcliexcl ofUNCED)Ul rhe bllsic framework for 11 world sysrem of governance whkh iexcls imItJdve to rhe effective functionmg uf our global rocieey (1990 211 l2) The aim was pragmlltlC to see whetber rhe intemational josrjmrioos coveriug the environment had made a posirive difference especially in rhe polltiad iexcleid
Case rudJes were presenred (bar exploroo the impact oiacute inrenwiotl$l insriturions witb [hree conditions essenrja lor effecuumlve acrioo on the enlirOumem high levell of gownlflmtl bullmam a hospitable 1lIiIraiexcltttal t1Iy~
rrmmml suiliexcloacuteem poIiuacuten U1d ddltiniJtY(JJM CiJpacity in national
134 Wrftln[f 111 iexclttntntiona organiufif)lfJ
governments (Keohane tt al 199 11) The case s(Jdies Weuroe seen in rerms of agendiexclt selting internacional pnliacutecies and national policy ttJpon$($ (Keohane iacutef al 1995) The three authors wtJe aware of the strong influeDce of stare powers in iexclnrernadnnal institurions and of rbeie meagre result5 in sorne areas Nevetthees~ they set down three ronditions uoder whicn inrer ootional institutions can alrer (he bchavior of state actors and in turn improye environmenral qualiry (Keobane ti a 199 19) These afe
1 gnvernmencal concern has ro be higo enough [Q pmmpt the 1lte ufscarce mources lO tllckle tht problem
2 roere haiexcl 00 be a contllcrual enviroruncfit where ~tnttS make (rediMe coounitrnttlts and make iexcllOO keep lglremerll$ rhar incorporare joiotly enacted rules withour debflitadng fuAtof ftte-riding ur cheuting by othet1l
3 states should haw the pnlitical and adminimadve capaciry to make the domestk adjusrtnents necessruy ro implemenr international norms principies and rules (Krohane et al 1995 19-20)
TOe empha~iexcls -in chis view nf glotm govemance is on rhe relncionship becween rhe internuional anQ tIte Illlt10naL
Pan oE gJobtl govemsnce - ai noted in Chapte1 3 - are lnrernntional regimt$_ Thcampe are set- of implidt o explkir principies norms rule and del ision making proctdures arounrl which actors eJCpelttadons converge in a given area of internacional relatious (Krasner 1983 2) [1tey are subSu of irttetnational sodcey and its imtitlnions Imemational reglmes which are oft~o speciacutealitecl auangemenu limicer by function oc gengraphicaJ area are amngemcnts hat BoYe1n cooperative behaviour intetnatioOldly Thee are thus mure wiJely Jrawn than internatiunal organizations The latcer accurdifl8 ro one of the most profific wrltcrs on the $ubject Oran YounS 0989 1994) can boeh stimulate the process of regime formation nnd can htlp implement thei provisiuns (Young 1994 164)
Funuitrltdlisu
An eady bff~1c with the trmJtional view of international organizations based un the state-centriacuter mudel cm be seen in Leonard Woolfs book [ttltmatiltraquoldl
Grni-17111I Alrhough srilJ primarily coruemed wich interamptate relations and the questiolll of peace and secudry a sizeable BCniacuteon o( lis wriring5 rover governlnenral tlaquohoical and economk co-operatioo and INGOs
Ve are accustnmed to regard the wodJ as neady diided iexclnto compartshymenU caUed states or nationLBut chis vjion oiacute thewodd divided into iacutesolated compllrtmenrs is nor a cme reflection of fiu 15 as they exisc in a urge pottion of the etlnh [orlay
(Wnolf 19l6 216-17)
Writtng( (111 hmmatiacute(lrul f8grllliulinnJ 13
Snch a step pladng gre-iexcllter emphasis on non-star ime~natiacuteonal rtloshytions wa~ taken furrher in duo writln8~ o( me Romanian-bom aothor David Mitrany Mitrany ideas known iexclas the functiondisr appooruh lO
internuional politics were inspired by his early Iife io dIe Ba1kans He (ouoo much imelletruaI sdmuiatinn ofter coming ro Lundon in 1912 olld working together with Lennanl Woolf among otlters in the Ieagne uf Nations Society [he labour Pattys Advisory Commiuee on [nternational Arrairs and the Fabiexclan Socieey His (WO malor eacly worlca wcrc Tin PrtlgftlJ of lt1tmutt(IIId GtM1NmAnt (first pnbl~hed in 1932 rcprinted in Mitrany ([915araquo) and A WorklNx Pem Sylttm (fiCSt published jn 1943 rcpobHshcd jn 19(6) though he abu made a 1mbstamial nmtribudon in anides unril bis dearh in 1975 Many uf his writings tQgethcr with an amobiacuteographical piecc and In inuoouctjon are guhered fogefher in Tht Funcfuumlmal TwJry of Prdilia (Mitran) 1975) In his t932 work he omHued the nlnereenrh(intury growth iacuten intertwtJonal govenmcnt ajong similar lines as Woolf
The ninereenth cenrmy prodwed that amazing growrh in che mattrial equipment of (iiiiudon whifh weldcd the wodd togaher into (me organk whoiacutee making eaclt people a partner in tire Iacuteitte uf al The outwatd CXpelsiacuteon nf that change WQ5 the ~rance nf WQrld-wide popular movements and the making nf innumerabJe privare md public imernatjonal agItemenrs
(Mitrany 1915a~ 89)
Mitrany WiacuteI$ concerned thar (he rise of the fllidon-state and the insiexcl~tence of new statcs on che doctrine uf lluvereign equality when (bey were dlldy weaker and smalJer tban the Grear Powers hindered internacional lt0shy
operation in for example the cconomic lphere HowCer he 1lW rbar the fnne ofevents wu working agaiexcln~t sta~ism
No maeter what rhe size and shape of rhe particular community lo funcrions are such thar rhey haye to be organized and the fOrres and (crors now iexcllt work no longer have llny rroe telarion tlt) rhe uld pnlitkaJ divisions wirhin or withuJ( rile state The new functiom imposed upon our puliria instiacutetutions art compelllng 11 complete recomt(Ucrion of tile technique of govemmellt on a purely practical oosis 1 teach that rondU$ion by ming at the Illltset noto what is rlte iexclden form for an imtrnadonal $odetyiexcl but mher what are 1tS C$sential ftmctions
(Mitrany 1915a 99)
He claimed hat C$$cntially the nims of intemalional governmcnt were no diffcrent from dlo~e (lf municipal gnvernmenr w aCaJt equality bcfore the iexclaw for aH rnemben of the cnrnmuni(y and ro lrumote sodal jUlltict To expen [O achieve rhe first aim in inrernatlfllltliexcl sodely whefe 5talCS wcre
l ju WrJll1Jgs en mlWnal101tJf (iexcl(gamufJf)lJJ
nei[her eqna nor unchangiug uuiu would be unreascnwtc Ir woold be far more prncriC1iL ro cmnpromise rhis aim and CSLablish a League of Nations in which Grea( pQVeri woulcl he dirlltdy representelt Secondary Jitates woulcl have group representiexcliexclrioo afld malter ~tatet w()ulcl have panel repmentatioo At the same time sfCortdary bodie$ would be ser up in varJous pam of che world 11$ orgnns (lf regionJI grouptngs of Jitares artd (hese bodies woulJ be connected with and subordInare tO the new CCOtta League organs They wouiJ aleo be iexcliexclbie ro clesl wiacuteth problems mOle teaclily especially as the unanimity of aH srares would not be needed [Ol a senlemem
These suggesdom are noe (he novel aspeltts oE Mitran)$ work They are imponam in changing (he emphasjs away from the tighu of amptate wwards rhe dude oc lit ICllSt (he actlvJries of Hates Still the conccto was wth Ilrrllnging relnrioru netween snm~s In a paper $ubmitrecl ro che 8drish foceign Office in 1941 and in hi~ study A Wking Peaa Symm (966) Mirrnny wncenrrated on how che (unctioru of gOYernment might be cnrried OUt more exptdiriously He rtcognhed chllr withio liberal 1emocrati( stare~ [he Une berween whirh futCtions are Cflrried Out by pubtic and by privare aclioll was shifriog lIod that rhi5 line unde (he prel5ure u( (rt_ih social Ileeds and demands musr be Jeft free co move with rhem A similar demamuiacuteon existed in che terrirorial spbete interlla~ dooally wme (uncdons (eJ railway systems) could best be organized cOlltinenroUy some intercontinentnll) (e8 shippillg) alld some univcnaUy (eg aviation) However there would be no need for rigid patteros exccpe perbaps io tbe exercise of negadve (unctlons -- those related ro securi[y wberc more fotmal sacle lnstltuclOns WQuld be needeJ In (he field o( positive (unctiacuteoru (dw$C tdatecl ro economic eultunl and sodal affairs) he climensions ocgans and powers of any organiorion would be deler~ miacutened by the nature oiacute the funccton and would be fairly flexible Mitrany fmfSaw tbe tStliblisbment o( functional bodies wirh auronomous ta~ks and powers which wonld do thingl joiacutently Tbis wuulcllink aucborlry tu a specific activiacutery (hUi breaking llway foom the tradicional link between authocieyand a ltIacuteeftnire ~erritory Murany 1966 125) 11iacutes move wcmlcl avoicl he sreritity uf many of rhe wartjmt suggesdons fue posr-war (ecltrn~ tions O connitudonal innovariacuteon in rhe United Nacions whlch f~eteoacute 00 he opposidon oiacute sovereign sraee reiiexcltance Mitrnny hoped rhat che number uf internarional agencies (hat had exisred before the Serend Wodd War augmenteltIacute by the A11ied board durJng rhe war lrsdf wuuld u~rve u tbe ba~lS foc (he network oiacute inremarional gOvernrnent He quoud wlrb obviow appruval the wurd$ of an Amerltlln scholar J Payson Wild Jr 00 the varlOUS warrime experiments
The Hues between domesuc anltIacute iexclnrernational actlvlty ate blurred ancl nadonal adminisuatlve agencies of the Powecs concerned Smneshytimes engnge in domestk busint-1s and at orber rimes extend theit
Wrilings Ofl hllenJdUacuteoN1J org411iatiofJJ 137
(unctioru ioro rhe uumluernarionul sphere The resuh is o conglomerashydOn o( intermnional bwrd aocl domestic staf( whose dlties Illrermiacutengle Adminisrrnr1ve offtcers o( narional lmirs deal direcdy wirh rheir opposire numbers in orher S[1l[es WirhOlU benefit o( diplo maric intermediaries and simlllmneously perEorm borh nacional and intemational tasks So fu no attempt has been made en estab1ish iexcliexcl
super~State
(Mitrany 1 6 167)
Mitranyll villion is oE a world in wruch che functiollS of ~etyday $odal 1Jfe - transport healrb care rommunicatioos agticlllture industrial developmenr sciendfic developmenr and so on - are no Jonger assidl1ou$-ly carried en witbin rhe confines oE each sovereign iexcliexcltflte but ate underuJen across fmmiers on a tegionai cominental oc univetsal bflliiiexcliexcl These acrivjw des would be overseen by international Ofganizatioru which wOIJld be more like boards oE managemenr Tbe functional agencies of rhe UN (che no WHOgt FAUacute etc) already underrake urn ro~opetative t$Sks fIli do sorne non-governmental groupings of spedalisrs (League of Red eron Sndedell World Srout Movement etc) However tbe Une berween what has been done imernationaHy aOO dome$tkally bas tuen drnwn very much ro [he beneflc oE che latter and international activitid bave tuen riddted with politicel dispureoJ rnany oE which have liule ro do wlth me good manegemem of the (unction iexclnvolved Mirranys laquoheme would fiexcludually lOwtt rhe liue ro aUow more functioos ta be Citded OUt at rhe level where they wOrk more efficieruly and woukl proide managemenr of tbere funcshytions ra[her [han poHdclI1 interference Not onty would his develQpmeof beuefit (he general social welfure of the world ir would abo hcIl (O salve rile problem o( plaCe and security The LHliputian ties o( internacional fuucrionru co-operarion would piacuteo clown me giam of conflict weakenlog [he urge ro destruction and warfare by rhe promise of consmlctJoo and cashyexistence
The (unctional approach does nor focus solely on iorergovernmenral organizacion buc aUows for a network 01 spedaliuxl agencies roany uf which could be non-governmentaL Ir difftr in emphllSi5 ftoro che mainshystream craditionalis[ wricings and Mitrany~ work praaged a move away from internare relations 10 wotld politics Whilst the functiooaJ alpoolUh does not oReod against lh sentimem 01 nationaJity )t the pride oE sovereignty (Mitrany 1965 139) lhere is no doubl chat ir is meant lO weaken the i~por(Jloce and power of the middle roan berween rile indi vidual and a world communiry che sovereign scnre The feeling o( solidarlty enrounged by functionallinks 1s nor between states but beween people or assoclatioos of individuals Each of us is ill fuer a bundle of funCflonaJ loyalties so dWt tO build a wodd communiey upoo sueh a concepdoo is merely to a(eM artd consolidare ir also betwetn societies and grollps Micrany 15 14n
138 Wriling5 fin illttrnatiQJIa1 (ffanizatio1ts
Such IIn imaginative appruach tu wodd problems aud be mundiUlc hard~ working iexclapolitical role lt implieamp fOr interuational organizadons has its fiexclruIrs To ctiexclddu Mitranys functionalism as being impronica JS IUlfalr hoth because internlltionru functiornd links hllve grown espedaUy since the S~ World Warj and blaquoarue M1tranys approach is a gradual one he did OOE expeCt ir ro be adopted overnighr Even so ir cioes have certllin 11mbiexclshyuow a~pets which shOllld be criticany eDmined
Piexclrsr de5pite rhe refere-nce to possible regional fimnionalunmgement8 Mitranys pJans ron counter ro rhe notion of aU-embraciug regional organi utJoru such as the Europcan Communities now E~n Uninn (Mitrany 1975b 53-78) Whibt these organwdons roay Hnk their iexclamhotity ro a speoacuteftc activky $ueh as the conditloO foc running (he coal iexclaud steel indusshytries nr the agriculture of the EUs member states they sta hold w the rrnditinnal1ink betw~n authodry arul a definirt territory The cooJ and sr~l polkies or tite Common Agticultural Policy uf the BU are nor extended to tbe industries and fumen of other non-member countries who mar wish lO participate in theit ochemes Vet il can be argued toar ir is prccisdy in these iexclirnited geographicill blocs that flIlCtiOruJ arrnnscments are besr executed wirh limitations un mernhetship To wnrk propedy chemes must encompuss denned aras with a good deal jn common - the flexibility of Mitranys proposal wIQutd 500n break dOWIl )l the tnembers WlJuld have $O little in cornmon in fo cxampie the runnill8 of agriculture tbat coshyopetation would be dif(kulr or lloo-proouctiacuteve Furrhermore rhfmiddotse regional atrangemenpiexcl overcorne the problems of dedding the meaning hQundaries and consequtIlCCS of any particular function (Melaren 1985 142)
Second Mitrany did not really envisagc any piexclHejcal control of the futlCtiooal des between COllntdes mus distinguishing him frorn [he more traditionaliacutest approach lO inrernational orgaruwcions lle was hopeM dw the pmblems of roshyurdillltion between ronctionalagencies could be worked out as they lllOOe
To prescribe fOI the suke of [iexcladicional ne3tleSS somtthing more dennite han the guidancc and supervision of eg the Ecooomk Md Social Couooacutel W(lU1J be ro duron he whole conetprion from [he niftJo impollC upon them (funct-lonal bodiesJ a co-otdination authoriry with anyrhing Iike comrolling scuus w(luId be ro move again roWllrd$ that JiacutecumuJarion of power ar the centre
(Mitrany 196~ 143)
Thus [he institmions uf (he Eutopean ClJmmunitic~ - the Counoacutel uf Milli~iacuteers rhe Commission che Courr of Justicc rhe European Padiamenl dre Economic md Social Comlllittce - were al analnema fO Mitmny They werc juu miacuterrnring the poluacuteical COflffOh of lhe nation state ar iexcliexcl pa-n-continenullcvel anU according to Mirrany Continental unious w(luld have a more real chance thau individual suteS to pnletise the aurarky thae makes or division Mitrany 19(Kiacute 2n This may u((end
Witi1lf1 rm imernatilmalllrgaraquoiutifJ11J 139
agains[ lhe funcrJonalisu hope (r iexcliexcl universal apprOlltIacutel tu proble[Jls but (he abhorrence of policial imtitutions is lItrange wIacutelen [he funriona agenoacutees will aftee iln be mllkJng poHtkal decisions -- declsions roncetning lile aurhontative allocafion uf resources No only will iflfetnashytional functiunal transpon organizations established accordlng to Mittany have (O decide that cerEain areas wiH bt weU served by railways and Wds orhers llOt iexcliexclorne ports bujjt up others ieft to tlceay sume airlines expanded whlle rnbers are allowed ro fOllUact blt deeisiow wilI have ta be made on how w diexcl~tribu(e 5carce re~ources betwccn fo example iacutenvemtlent in transpon ur building more hospitals or restfllcturing rhe srecl Jndustty thwughour (he area eovered by [he orgalliurions Thee arc paHdeal declsiQw ln a period of economk growth and plenry [hdr potitshykal niexcliexcltute may be le5S obviou as resources are avaiuble for almost eVery plan advanced by world 01 regional shjpping aviation heaJth or sree1 O1ganizatioos Otherwit there mn$t sllrdy he a system by which scarce mrnurce$ are aUocaced Tbis problem was flJed squardy by Mitr1ny successors iexcln the neofunctionalin school (dealr wIacuteth in the SC(tiOH tbat follows) but ir doell seem ftoro Mirranys writings fhat the world of funcshytioollJi~m is a wodd of IlnUmiacuteted resounes (Melaren 1985 146)_
A third problem in Mimuys approach i~ brought out in a eommtnt by lniacutes Claude The functiacuteonal theory uf imemariruwl nrgaruzarions 1S ultimateJy eoncernen wirh the usue of polJtiacuteeal and military srniexclggJe functionalism tneats (he promotion of we1fue as au illdirecf approach tu rlx prevenrion of warfare (Claude 1968 31--5) Mitran quoted Oaude wirh appmval implyiog rha fulletionalism would ind~ mllk( a positive contribllt1on (albeit inilitecdy) CE (he ptCveurron of war fhis profOiSitiort is open (O $(Ieral criticisms Given the level uf arrnrunems in the worJd and the porential fQf cunflict the contriburron ro pettcc made by funcrioruuacute acrjvities miexclay come too late A youth group exthange betwtn rhe USA and China ma) bode we11 fOf
tbe furure OOt wlll be uf link use if (he respective parrus are beaten ro meir destinarions by intercominental baliiacutestic missiles funhermore the pmmotion of wtlfare may inctease internatioual conflicr by i~asiacuteng expettacions Espedally if social and ecounmic changes are bmugh[ aboue by imernational runctioual 3Jencies developing muntrie poliacuterical I~derships may fJnd ir increasingly cliiHcult to meet lheir poplllatIDn~ demands fot more economic benefJts fur a ampirer distribution uf benefits or in sorne ta$(-S fOf Ol)tool uf the social consequences of laquootlumic Rrowth Imernal sttili aod unrest may chen ~iIJ over into inrernacional eontlicr Finally Miacutetrany daiffi$ that rhe Nncshyrional approach ciocumveuts ideological aOO racial diviID05 as it ltloes territorial frontiacuteers (Mitrany 1975a 226) There ls guod evidellce tiJat the opposite has been happening thae the exlsting runctiuual organimfIacuteom slch $$ tiNEKO WHO and lID hllve been riddkd with ideulogical and racial (or al lea~t Norrh-Somh) diviions wruch h~ve teflected pnlirical argnments outside he olganizarimlS bu have ncvenheless adverscly aHewod their ba~ic work (Ghebali 1986 l tR-lt6 1mber 1989)
iexclIV WHURg) W~ mltTlWilm tIampmJlaiWN
NetrfJl1iKJiOalisls
Tbc move away foom rhe srate-cenrric vjew of JlItert1arlOlal organizarion Started by WOllf and Mirany was ccetiacuteeued io rht immedijlre posr-wur perjod by social stientim applyiacuteog asJltu of functionll1(st ~heory to European nd Atiacuteantlc in~limti()m This utw fUllCtionaliu approach showed paruumlcrnsr interesc in che European Communities (Ee later nuropean Union EU)) whjch arme iu iexclhe wake of che amphuman Plan In Mily 1950 Roben Schuman rhe Frenrh Foreign Minisrer advauroo (he idea cha( West Eucopean srarcs should establish a High Authority wlrh powers ro admillshyimr theit eoai aOO stecl induscrie~ Negorjatioru on rhe detalS of chis plan led t() the signing of che Treaty cf Pariacutes in Apdiacute 1951 by FraIlee Wen Gemuny Iraly rhe Neiexclherlands Bdgium sed Luxembourg (rhe Six) Tbls gave substanre tO (he idea lbat funcrional aiexcltivicy oould be ITlltllfIged across fcomien by IUl organizadon ove and above the govemmenrs of che member sraces a supmnational amhority The idea was wldened ro cover iexclm expanded unge of etooomk activiry when he Silo esrablished rhe Bt1fOpean Ecooomk Communicy (EEC) widl the Treaty of tome in MAtch J957 An Aromic Energy Communiacutety (Euratom) was eHablished sr che sume time However ~he element of upranationiexcliexclliry was dilurelt in the High AllthoritY-s successor (rhe Commission of rhe EEe) having only Iimited deciuacuteOIl-makin8 powers anJ having mosdy the task of proposing acdon ro tbe representarives of he rnember states situumlng in (he Coulliil of Ministe13 Despire his otber Community hutitutions contsined the gerrn of supranadonaHry rhe Courr of Jllstke empJoymg Coromunity nuhe [han nacional laws a Ruropean Padiument wbkh WlS eventually electelt by ditect eleedons amoog a Communiry-wide electorate voting for Cummunity-hased parties aad 1Jueresr groups represendng mrmetSgt consumen traJe unions aruJ blliiness on a Commuiexcliexclity tatber than a nnional basis
Tht$eacute tnmwauumloos in WeBtem Europe uiggeteJ a spate uf 1 iexclretamre primaril) in he lJnireJ Sures whieh examined tbe nurure unrl purpose of the Commuuity iustituions The Jominam staacutend amongst this writing was chat of the neo-(uncrlonalisrs sJCcifically Ern~1t Haas Lean lindbetg and J05eph Nye whose works are of importance io the uudy of internacional organizacions In ronrruc tO Mitrany the OCW fuoctiooalistli tended Br (iexclrOc tuacute iexclimir rbeie study 10 developmems in Wcscetn Europe (HtIaSs ~nJhe Naion Stte (964) bcing a nruiceable exeepdon) especially the OC alshyrhough later cornparimns were tnade wirh rbe growch ofccmmon lIlltirkets iexcln Mica East Eurupe aoo Larin America On che whole the neo-fumtiooaiscs had rerreated foom Mitranys world view
fhe neo-funcrionaljgrs aiso realized rhe dilemma faeed by Mitrliny in eelihng wirh politica dcdsicms ane did nor fllnch in introducin~ a merhod of making necessary chOtees ar he imernarif)llItI leve Indeed rhis wa~ rhe kernel uf rheir ideagt lhlll 1I0l ouly sperifie functionamp would be farried OUt ar rbe subrollrinentill rarher (han (he nacional leve bul thil( lhe decisions wnrernillg (hese functioos would be made at thaf level shy
6- v n_m_ ~olo_~~W_
with imponant cOnsequences for those groups imetesred in the decisiacuteons and iexcliexclIso liffecting orher arcas of poliey Por example supprne the Ecooomk Cual and Steel Community (BeSe) required (har che sreel lodustry be orgaoized as a West Europeao endty insfead of a numher uf narional industries a1l commled by differenl ccgularions aod rbar a suprauariona surhoriry be crcared ro decide on the policy Coc che ranniog of tbe Wcsr EUlopean sfeel induStries lo ronsequeoce those involvea in say rhe French steel industIl would switch tbeir attentioo away from Parili where policy was previowly rnade ro BroS$CIacutei wbcre ECSC poliey is mude Purthermore CommwIlty ntber dUlo nadonl poliey on ueel eould spiU ovet into ereadng a Community po1iey ror cool tnmspOH IUld Othet asrod~ ared acdvities As rhe numbe oC functiacuteooal policies decided at a Commuoity rnthet than a natkmllllevd expanded so the need for political actioo at this higher level would gfOw aod thc political sysrerol of the couutries involved would becomc inexorably iexclmcnwincd lhis was the logk of rhe innovator of he $chumao Plan idea Jean Monnet wM considered rhar rhe establishment of a c001 and srec1 community foUowed by similar organitations dealing wirh otbcr Cuncrional areas - agricultute transpon nade defence - would be lreps on [he way ro building Europe The eOO would be jln economiClllly aod politicaUy integmred Rurope lo Monneriexcl scbeme a federal West Furopeao state The means would be fuoctlonal bu with a political contento
In his study of fbe ECSC Rrnst Haas examiooo this s(rlltegy and a1so dmned polldcai inregradon in its ideal typc u beiug rhe process whereby political iexclcroo in severa distinct nadooal ~tings are petsuacltd to shjft thet lnyaltielJ expecrations liod pOlidcal iexcll(tiacutevides eoWjlrd jl new centre whose insdwtions possess or derrumd jutisdktion over me pit-existiog lIatiof19l $tates (Uaas 1958 16) ihis oew cemre would be che powelshyhouse managing rhe political ptoblems oC fuoctio1llll coopeaacutedon [he Uigh Audwrity of tbe ECSC and be indrurion of me EBe The policical actcniexcl invoJved would be rhose elites leading the poliacutetical groups habirually colCerned wirh public decision-making and wooJd indooe trade uoioacuten offishydaIs busiue5$ ami Hade representatives higher civil servann and activeacute poHttdam As tlltSiacute eliteS rutneU theit aacutetrendon ro rhe ojOW policical centre chey would find tha Community pelky in olle area nm be uwde tea oo1y if che task iuelf iexcls expanded CHus 1961 368) by way of a spillover of actiVity lIltO anocllet policy atea Evenrually Communiy policy~makiog would take uvet from S(ale policy~making jo alI rhe crucial BreaS and the new centre would emerge as being potenrially more powerful dma the member srares governmenu wbich had been drained of lheir mOS( meruoshyingful polidcal ucdvides
1( this stage ir can be quetied whetbet Haas was describing an inremashylional organizadun or il poremia1 federal mlte Io discumng tms quesrjon in his book on Elle EC-S( Haas cooduJed dllU Tbe hruHnct of federal as agaiacutenst middotimergovernmemaf powers lIeeacutems tU point to che coodusioo tbat in
142 WtitingJ on mtertlatilJtJA orgamZ41iom
alJ maneo relating ro the romine regularion of rhe commOTI ~et the High Authority is independent of government (HIlaS 195R 55-gt He al50 voiced rhe opinion rhu Supranadonaliry in snueturnl ferms tberefure means the exisreuce of govemmental a~lthorirjes dlloer tuacute Ihe archetype of fdeNrhm rhan any past inrernati(mal organizar ion buc not yet ideutiacutecal Wlth it Oiaas 1)158 59) However this $upnmttionaity in pNctice has deve10ped into a hybrid in which neither the federal no the intergovernshymentai reooency has deady triumphed a-bas 19511 527) Ir is aloo denr lbat the original Coo1 and Sreel Communicy was mueh mote functional~ Wlcrnl than the lateacutet Economic (ommunicy and untiacutel the mid~19805 the unified aud expanded Communuumly romw to play Jown the elemenU o( supranatlonality iu tavour of 1ts Jiacuteltergovemmenul insutution rhe Conndl u( MiuiMm This aud othet dtVe1opmems led Haas to lcconsidcr his origshyinal view of Community inrtitutioos
In the 1968 pre3ce ro Tuacute Uniting of Ellropt (which was wIacutetten in 1958) Haas alrtady identified factors that had dllngro rhe nattlc of me European Communiries experimem in che previous ten yeacs He observed tlur during this period vario~ spiU-OVet aOO adaptive ptcKeues s(ill had nO( resulted in la pulitically united Encope and in an~werjiexclg the question what went wtlJug he outliued fuur considetdtions Fitst (he new funaiurutlJsu had filiJed w di$tinguisb between background variahle cOlditioos prevamng at rhe time when cbe Comrnnnity WU$ csnbJished and new upiratiuns and expectations that had develnped Jhe esntbliacuteshment thar had ron counrer ro the Community spitit Second the imptet o( niexcltlonaUsm had becn undereshytimawl Third Eactors within me Commuruty had becn nressed ro he dccrimenr of those coming from the outside world PintUacutely me massive transCormation oE Western socie[y raking place indepeudent o( EutoptHl integratiacuteon aIso hacl been underestimaretl (HIlaS 1968 xiv--xv)
Haass definidon of imegralion alsu bccame wmewhar more negative I1lOre stlilte-centric than bis original 195R emlhasis un nationaJ llt(on shifting their loyaJties expecratiacute(ms and poJitical activities toward a new centre By 1970 Haas considered the study ofregionallntlgrurion to be concerned
wich explaining how aud why sUtes eease to be whoUy $overeign how ~md why they volunucily mingle metgt and mix with rhcir neighbours $O as to lose che facruru attributes of sovereignty while acyuiring ncw techniqucs me resolving conilirt between themselvell
(Haa~ 1970 610)
By 1975 Haas eonsidcred regional integmtion theoty oiJsolete in Wesrern Eurupe and obsolescenr - though still urerol _ in tite teSt o( the worId (Haas 1975 l) By 1976 he had arded out n maioI reintetpuEation of uew-fuuctlonaJist lhoory as it applied to rhe Ee The definahle outcome of integtation in Wenem Eutope was secn either in ttaditiorW federaHsc temu - a Wen Enrnpean (ederal state ereated out uf yenrs of fun~-tiexclonal
Writings M ifllernuJlfJmiexcl1 (JFfIiutian 143
rutivity whkh had lcd lO J trnmrer of poliduumlll acnvity away rom (he natlon ~tates tOwarJs a new srrunure - or ltlS the imtitutiooltlUdng uf some intermMiate iexcliexcltage such as rhe present status qno whcreby atlthonty is dimlbnrro unequally between several centres Wilh tire old nation states losing their previous Ituthoriey but with no new JiacutedeOl government in ptO$~ pect Whihr the original aspecrs of the EC - rhe cuuoms union aOO (he Common Agricultura Poliey _ have tllaquoorne entrenched the spillover inm orhe policy area~ had nor occurred by Ihe mid-1970s as che neo-furutiooa1ists liad ptedicred Also common polides liad becn Jevelopetl in differem o(8ashyIliratiuns - che OFCD the summit of indurmiatiooo counrrics the Group of Ten - tarher than within the liC lhe problem according lO Bus W1IS
rurhulerue whereby rhose iuvolved io polirirs haJ found rhemselves in a littting ofgreat social complexiry where rhe nnmber of atrorr is very large and each pursues a variety uf objectives whirh are murually incompatible lmt ucn is also unsure of che ultlde-ofamp between the objectjves He continued Tnis conditiQn imJgtlics the erosion o( such interorganizarional patteacutern~ oC comensus reciacuteprocity and no(mative tegularity as may havr CXlSted eadicrEveryrhiug is up fO( grallS (Hus 1976 179) HilaS sllggested thu iu the EC polioacuteeamp and (he institutioru devised ro lmpleshymeacuteut thero iacuteU~trnre rhe attempc ro deal with lhe turbulence nather tllan achieve regional politkal inteSradon (ibid 180 original emphasis)
A similar hiacuteft lttway fmm the earHer llSp1rauumlons iiexcliexcl ICen in rhe work~ Q( Lindberg aud Nye Lindbeg wlrose book 1he Pattirai DJMmict o EroJMn Ecrmomic IntegTatia (13) had fullowed on dosely from Hws work was hy 1966 showiog tbar moves wwaros inregration wirhin the Be (ooid cause Stress within (he system l1Jtfl inCftllq the barrien to fimher integration (lJnJberg 1966 254) Togcrher with lkheingold in 1970 he desctibcJ an EC wbich had noc deveJopeJ joro a federal structute haJ difereot ltvels of integrariacuteon fut different functions and was sdl susceptible tIJ UJsis lt was ao unprecedemed but curiousy amblguoos plurruistic syttem there seem tO be no satisfrutory modcls or ronceptli in che sociaJ scienee VQ(abulary to adequa[ely define ie (Lindberg and Scheingold 1970 306) In a anide Joseph Nye coruiacutedered thac Jespite rhese and otber revisioos the neo-Euncrional approodl srjlJ embodies 11 nurober of fault tbu re1lcct jrs origins in [he 1950s (Nye 1970 767) He proposed a nUml)(l OC changes scating rhe derendent variable lels ambiguoUlUumly adding more politiul ruwn reformufating rhe Hst oF integration condiuons and pethapli mOSf
significantly drOlping che ideas ufa single path fmm qWlsi~full(tiexclonallasks tuacute politica1 uuion by meamiexcl oF 5piUove( (Nye 1970 767 He conduded rha[ shnn oF dramadc chaugc the prospect9 (or common markets or microregiorud cennomie organiutions leading in rhe shon ron (of dendes) to fedewt1nn oc m1me sOtt oE polidcal union capable of tlU indept1Ldent dcferue and foreign paliey do not seem very high (Nye 1970 1129)
There hiexclas been a long jotJJney trom the functiorudisl-fecleral nope5 of Jean Monoet back jn 1950 but it has seen the evolution of nm only the
144 WitingJ on inlernafuacutemal ttrganizafifmJ
Communiry insrirurions and policies bur aIso neo-functionalist thinking The Iogic of inregrarion gave way ro coping wich rhe crises inseirutions mixing federalisc and intecgovernmental elemenrs were replaced by a Western Europe in which instirucional tidiness is best forgorten (Haas 1976 211) and the federal elemenrs seemed ac mosc dormam The hopes of che 1950s had been replaced by rhe uncerrainties of che 1970s and the early 19805
Wirh rhe launching in 1985 of rhe idea of creating a Single European Markec wuumlhin rhe EC by rhe end of 1992 che signing of rhe Single European Acr in 1986 (which exrended EC comperence aud changed irs inscitucional balance) and che sectlement of a uumber of Common Agriculcural Policy problems in February 1988 che Iogic of inregration seemed ro be revived
Wriring in 1990 Keohane and Hoffmann resrored and refined che neomiddot funcrionalisr norion of spillover advanced by Errut H9al They were sceprical char rhe rheory of spillover could explain the ECs irucirurional developments of che late 1980s buc saw it aCling posicively in orher ways for example rhrough che incenrives ro institutional change given byenlargeshymenc of EC membenhip in rhe early 19805 (Keohane and Hoffmann 1990 289-90) They saw che pcocess cominuing and barring Clrasrrophic excernal fucrors were moderately oprimisric abour rhe Communirys furure prospecrs (Keohane and Hoffmann 1990 296)
This view was raken up by Tranholm-Mikkelsen (991) and Holland (993) borh of whom saw che revival of rhe Communicy agenda in rhe Maasrrichr Trealy - wich irs blueprinr for a move ro economic and monetary union - as being a revival of the neo-functionalism Drher wrirers on European incegration at chis time adapted che basic notions of neoshyfunccionalism bU[ broughr in extra fucrors Majone (1994) agreed char che EU had seen an upgrading of common inreresn but placed an emphasis on public choice policy ro explain particular Ouccomes Marks et aJ (996) saw a much more complex relarionship berween che Communiry and domestic decision-making leve Though rhe srare was srill very important ir no 10nger monopolizes European level policy-making or rhe aggregarion of domesric interescs 0996 346) Insread rhey idenrified rhe growrh of mulrishyleve governance wirhin che EU
Indeed rhese developmenrs in neo-funcrionalisr wrirings on international organizarions poim up sorne of the criticism~ of che schooL Firsr despice rhe besr efforrs of Ibas Schmitter and Nye it remains a rheory overwhelmingly dominaroo by an inreresr in rhe EC and larer rhe European Union In 1964 Haas and Schmirrer rried to extend sorne of che lessons uf econumic union in Westeru Europe ru Larin America Drawing on Haass 1968 preface ro The Uniring of Europe rhey discerned nine variables four relared ro background condirions (similariey in power of memben rares of rransaction pluttllism in member seares complememing elices) rwo referring ro condirions ar rhe time of economic union (similarity of governmenral purpase powers of che ecunumic uniun) and rhree ro process coudi[ions (decision-making sryle
W[J U UWltU 15
rransacrions rate rhe adaptabiliry of governmenrs) (Haas aIld Schmitcer 1964 711-19) They looked ar rhe chances of policicizarion chat is the possibilicy chat lhe acmrs seek m resolve rheir problems so as ro upgrade common inrerests and in rhe process delegare more amhoricy m che centre (Haas aIld Schmitcer 1964 707) Nye in his article Comparing Common Markecs (1970) rried ro modify che Europo-cemric narure of the neo~ funccionalis[ approach and drew on a wide range of cases of economic imegracion Larin America Cenrral America rhe Caribbean Eastern Europe and East Africa as weH as EFTA and che EC He concluded [har
The original neo-funcrionalist model was close m irs ongms in the straregies of European inregrationisrs in che 1950s and thru mighc be seen as a rempting and misleading guide for policy in orher aceas The revised neo-functionalist model is not somethiug ro be imiraced bU is simply a rool fur making comparisons We wanr ro know whac differshyence ir makes if a group of seates form a common market
(Nye 1970 830)
Though by rhe end of che 1980s rhere were few places ro be found outside Europe thac were forming common markets rhe formacion of he Norrh American Free Trade Atea (NAFTA) and rhe renewal of economic cooperarion in Latin America and Sourh-Basc Asia during rhe 1990s provided different models from the more poliricized EU These seemed ro challenge some of the basic assumptions of rhe neo-funcrionalistS aIld perhaps give some weighc ro Nyes scepcicism ciced above
Second i[ is clear chac che neo--funccionalisrs have had trouble wirh che insticudonal formacs They have rerreaced from being functional federalist almose back co Micranys eclecric approach rowards institudons They have also accepced [he durability of rhe nadon state in resisring che logic of inreshygration and have soughr compromise formulas which at leasr continued ro place emphasis on non-srare accivicies even if insticutions above che stare (supranarional) were seen to be susceptible to stare inrerference
A chird Cliricism concerns the gtOH of non-srare acrors favoured by rhe neo-functionalists They have consraudy emphasized [he imporrance of polirical acrivisrs the elites of inrerest groups and rechnocrats This may have parrially blinded chem ro a weakness in rhe ECEU rhar could have affecced neo-functionalisms earUer proguuscicarions from being fulfilled its insticurions cannoc draw on rhe day-ro-day polirical resources available tO the narional policical acrors This has led tO a gap mosr noriceable in che newer members berween perceprions of che EU by the represemarional elice and rhose of rhe ordinary vorer or consumer Whilsc some earlier srudies of opinion in the EC did inelude opinion pons rhese ofren dealt wirh easy questions (showing ones EuropeaIl idenriry) 01 soft options (whether rhere should be say a more acrive EC industrial policy) With the firH expansion of rhe EC in 1973 and rhe first major oil price iucrCdse
146 Writi~5 cm lI1lMfatleuromal orgfll1iutl1ltl
whi(h coinoacutedemally happenoo a yeat liexclater Euttiexclpean voren werc faeed increasingly wirh mu(h harder options inflation versus employment tlnde union righu againsr consumer inrerests The poISibllity was thar bcing a good European might mean aHowiog sorne other COUlltry5 ruuionals to explott ones fish or oH The crearion oiacute a Single Enropean Marker within the Ee by the end of [992 and rhe move rowards a single curteney from 1999 by eleven theo (wdve of rhe HU member litares bmught he activi~ ties of the VOlon do~er lO the wodd of tite coosnmer or worker However chis seem iexclf anything to have iocreased rhe alienariacuteon of voten from rhe institntions aM acrivilies of rhe EU The 2000 election for rne Europeao Parliamenr shnwed the lowest tnroour yer in sllfh direct elections ano Enrobarometer opini()fi poUs have demonstrnred a msative trend in public opinion on che EU rnropaeuintknmmdgl0epoebc-b531p3npdO Ir may be thar a oumbcr uf interest groups llave switched rhrir expecta6ons and poJiexclcical activirics tuwatds the 00 bllt many of the ordinary European V(l(fS seemed ro have failed ro trans[er th~ir lnyalties tu he Union
In surnmaty the neo-functlona1ists mok np Mitranys srudy of rhe a-lashydons betwren group~ and individllals in oHferent sures il5 wellas che sta(cs representativtltl They tried ro gtapple witb the queuit)O (lf political control uf such iostirurionalized funcrional re1ation5hips aod ro undrrstand how ir would affrct rhe oatnre uf tiJe nation state They arremptrd to define the statuS of [hese newfy creatoo insutution5 tnough rhry wete out always fvlped by devdopments in che ECfEU which WWl rhe focus of rheir studies Tbdr works have demun~trared rhat the EU imututioos are by 110 mratlS juse ordinary imerg()vcrnmenral ones lh~y have al) provideo a mirror ()f the hircof) of (Yents in Westetn Europe in pankultH - moviog flom unitios aod poJitkal dynruniqgt through ~rress oy$ and anguish to obsolesceuce tllrbulent fudds and back to mooerace optimism and a new dynamism
TrotJJ(l(iacutecnaUJI
Anorher Americao writer whose work dealt wirh che question oiacute integrntion is KarJ Deursch Alrhough not a neo-fotlcrionalilit his tranmctional appwmh nali dealt with sorne iOmmoo ~hemes He has been umrerned with more rhan imergovermneuul relation~ aod indeed hM str~iexcl reJations berweeo peopIes nitherthan just rhe elites favonred by manyneo-fuflctionalists Deursch concerned himltelF with m( absrnce or presence of significan orga~ oized preplttrations fol war or large-snde iolence between int~rnatiexclona1 policical commuoities It was [he secutity rommullttles lhat had elimirutted war and [he expectation o[ wat whhin rheir ixmndaries whicn Dentamph and his PrincctOll coUeagues exarnined in PeliriuJ Cfml1NJNlily dIId M NarJh lt14Jtlaquo Atia (1957) A SClttlriLy community WWl defined as a gronp of people wnich has become ~inte8rated~ io rhe sense that thete is real iacutelSSnr+ ance that (he members of that rommunity will not fight ellch oeher
Wriil1g1 (raquo1 iacutelMfatlortal tJrgaiadlMm 147
physkally but will se~tle their disputes in liOffie otber way (Deutsch 1957 5)lt loregration does not necessarily mean rhe me~ging oF peoples ot governshymental units intn a ~ogle unie an idea explicir in fooerahsr rhinking Otud implicir in much funrtionalist wtiting Jnstesd two $otS uf integrared secu~ rit communities ar~ hJemified the amalgamarelt where pteviousiy independent unlts have bcen rormaly merged lnro a larger unit wich a iexclommotl guvernment (eg tlle US) ano the pJuralisric where srparate gnvertUlleJlUl Illlioraio their iexclrgaJ indepeodence (eg uacutenada amI rhe US) In stlldying a nllmbcr of cases of anempred or octual intesratioo io tbe Nortn American and WCSt European area Dtunch conduded rhat tIacutelere werc iexclweive conditions essential fnr the rurcts of ao amalgruruued teeutity (Ommuniry and thM rhree wen nec~ry fm it5 plutalisdc COUnrfrpilrt
The1e three conslsted of rhe compaiacuteibiliry oiacute marer valU($ relevant to
politiclll decision-making tbe capacity o( the participariacuteng plt)htinl Imitl or ~mmem~ ro respood tu each othcrS oetdl messages and llaions quickly adeqwuely and without rtsort ro vlolence aad rne mutual predicrability n bchavior (Delltsch 19H 66--7) In Deutschs work emphasis was placed 00 cornmunkauun brlweEn potidca uoIacutets increased trnns1Ctions between them (such fL polirinl exchangcs toUfl(m trade and rratl~pott) brought increases in mutual dciexcl)Cl(enmiddotc fue s cummnnity ro be created (his high level of trnnsactrons must be accomgtauied by mutual responsiveness o that thr demand o( each side 00 he other mn rccdve adequate and sympatheric treatroent llthis wouk not ooiy predude the need [01 aggressive action lO acbi(Ye ends bm would aJso build up 11 feeLing u( UUSt and seturiry in che edationship
Deuucb does not have an obse~uacuteon with imernattomtl orgaoiexclZ8rion~ although his 1957 book iacutes in [he eM collcetned with the ctelltiacuteon of UCCIlshy
tity community in the NATO area rhere ate few tcferences to internatlOnal nrganiuuons Many o( the Cll5C studj( are ser io tbe pcriud before (be postshywar expansioll uf such organlurions and almost all deal ieh bilareral relatIacuteonshj~ O(utschs work has coosequences for the lUudy o( ioternuiona organizatIacuteoos govemmental ano non-goveromCotaj iO[~rnational otiianiza~ tioos can be created as a re~ult uf a plnraliacutes[ic secuciry nmunuoit) lne integracion of whkh may evtotuaUy become iacutennirurjonalized iexclu nuppened reo the ampandinaviiexclm states creand (he Nordic Counci1 There run abo be forrns of instirUti(lnalued communiratlons berween socieries wnich prOldde the transactions and undersrandinli rhat help create ji securi[y community DeUtsch wrote
li the way tu iexclnregrarion domestic or internarionat i$ through rhe achievemem of a srose of community tnut undergirdS insrirurjtms thm ir seems likely [har ao iorreased sense of cotlloounlry would hrlp to snellgtbcn whatever instirutioos - supranatiooal or internacional - are aLreAdy Oltraring
([)euriKh 1957 7--8)
ltgt -_ bullbullbullbull _- _
Demsc-hs work was mken funher in a vnluffie ediretl io 1998 by AdLer and Bllenen (l998) (lLat docs pay sorne attention to ioternariorutl otgilniushydoos Indecd their volume contairu chapters thar rekr ro rhe oseeacute NATO the EU the UN the GnU Cooperarion Cowxil (GCC) aod rhc Assodation uf Soud Eat Asian Niexclttlons (ASEAN) They daim that imetshyruHiomuacute organiexclzauumlons aud iexclnstitutiacutem~ played al lmporum role in elKiltlraging more inteo$ive and extensive ioteracrioos octwttn states rhrough theit uwt-huildiug propenies (Bnrnetr and Adler 1998 418) They lht six corulusions of this snuerneor
bull By moniroting srares agreemenu tntcmatiuacutelwl orpuuacutezatiexcloo~ give them he cooftdente tuacute cooperare io (he ahsencc of trUSt
bull Jnternational O1ganizarions allow Hi1tC$ to discover new areas of muuwl intetellls Tu ponimlar [hey cenoacute ro link panicular areai
bull Inrcmational organizatiom can hdp shape $fllre pracdces by liCtting down nOfOU Ihat define what is acnptablc
bull The iIKTeaiing nwnber of internacionaJ orgamrutions emuuragC$ muldshylatetalim
bull They dIlO eruourage smres lua societies to see rhelll$Clvcs as pan of a resion
bull 1ntildeey can abo shape lhe identiry of rheir memben (Banlett aod Adler 1998 418-20)
The aurhms cWmed char cheir stuJit$ demonmared rhe exrent 10 whkh social cnmmunicadons beomes insrimtioualileJ aOO embedded in lnreroashytional oC8linbatlooslt and in turU how (hese organizatioru express an inreot to dcvelop trUSt end mmwl identificarion (Batnm and AdJer 1998 418) TIe work on sccurity (mmnunidcs is pelhapS at ir strongcu whcn dealing wim the esrablishetl Westcrn democracies rbough llamen and Adlers work shows rhar it may hilve a wider urility
lnlerJciexclnmdcme
Furrhcr emphasi on the growrh JO cnlnsaccions berween l()Cicries can be seen in the worts of Keohane 11l1d Nye who were m che forefront of the iexclnrerocJXndcnce school in rhe lJoited Srnnt fhey puacuteirued our (he conseshyquences of the innease in tldrunarioualucdolU ro che study uf iexclnternncional rdarions Thcit statcing iexclgtoint was sLlnuuarized chus
TraM1latlowJ relations are nolaquo new alrhough che growth of tmnsna~ tklOal orgnnizarion in me twentieth centuty has been specracunr Ye-r our nmremioo iso nor ooly rlur rhe srate-centrk paradigm )$ inade~
quare bur also thar it igt becoming progttSsively more inadequate as changes io inrernational relauumloos take place
(Keohane and Nye 1971 xxv)
The) llsred five omsequemes uf this growth uf inEematiooal inrcracrions ana organizarJ(tIls fur inrerstate politks (1) rhe promntiun of attirude change amongsr driacuterens (2) ao innease io inrernacional pluralism the linkjng of nntiooal Interese groups in tnmsnational strtlCtures usuaHy involving transruttionaI organizations fOI rhe putpoampe of (04)minatioo ltKtohAne and Nyc 1971 xviii) whiacutech has heen lhe basis for much noo~(Jncdontllist wriexcling (3) me cmdon lf dependence and inrerdependcofe IS often associacuteshyarea with intetnilriorutl cranspormrioo and iexclnance Keclune and Nye 1971 xix (4) creating new insrruments fut iexclnfluence for use by sOJne governments over ()(bers (Keuhane aOO Nye 1971 xx) 1100 lt5) dJe emergence cE auronomous acrors wirh priwre ntildelreign policia thar roa) deliberarely oppose Oiacute impinge on Sla(e polides (Krohilne and Nye 1911 xvii)
In a late book (1977) Keohane and Nye dcah with che questioo of imershydependem-e in world poliacutetics io greatet depth Iorecclependencc $lnce tbe Second Wm1d War has- onen cesulted from increasetl ttaosnadonal atciviries and iexcli divided ioto twO sorrs sensltlviry iacutemerdcpeodence (dte muIy effecrs of dULOges jo tranS1lCrJons oc ~()ciacuteetiexcles or govetrunents) md vulnembHhy interdependence where he acrors Hahllhy tc suffet eO$n iacutemposed by extemal evenc~ js (aken inro accoum (Koonane ana Nyc 1977 12-13) In COntrast ro tbe reaisr view of world poHrk Keohane and Nye pm totward che idea type of complcllt imerdependence which chey claimed soroetimes comes dosee ro realiacutety chan does realism (Keohanc attd Nye 1971 23) aod whieh has three nuio characretl$tks it allows fo mulnple rhallne1smiddot- imershyStatC tiansgovernmental and trilnsnationa- conneltring sncieries there i an abserue of hierarchy ilmonS the rnany questions ac inle hetween iexcliexcltates with military securiry no 10nger dominntlng lUly agenda and Millnu-y force 15 not used by governments toward orher governmenu within me laquogion or on [he lssutS where complex intetdcpendence prevaiacutels (Keorutne aoo Nye 1971 25)
These dltee condidons are said by KCQhane aOO Nye to typify fairly weJJ 5Ome LIlAUe$ of global economk md ecological interdependence ami come dose ro chamcrerizing rhe emite relarionship hetWetn sorne cnuntdes (KeolWne and Nye 1911 25) Complex ilterdepcndente glVel rise ro oacuteininctive poliacutetical processes a sute $ goals wiacutell vary by mue arca with mmsgoYernmeotul puumllitics making goab difficut ro define as ttansgovern~ menrnl llClaquo()$ (fof cxample mtfUsrers of agr1cuJmre inte11igente agencies nariona wcather bureaux) pursue their own aims Jhe followiog facwn are reLevant iriexcl eilch issue area
bull iexclhe resourc-es of a Ncue fur thaI particular area are most relevaot radre Ihan the stares overull military ~tre-ngth
bull international nrganizatinm and uansnntional actors wHl be fruloipula[ed as malnr instrumenrs oiacute mue poHcy
bull rhe agenda of issUC$ wi11 be fOrmulated hyebltUlgcs in the power dirmi~ burlon wirhin [he issue alaquollS by rhe pururinn (lf internarional regimes
150 Writings lIlt inttn1atiQrJ41 ergdniutirll1J
by changes jn rhe importance of ttaflstlational acwtS and by linkage froro orher issues
bull linkage between 1sllor$ will be mote difficult for strong naces to undetshyrah ir[orce 1$ downgraded
ft whiJsr linkage by we$k srares rhrough internacional organuumlarions seu agendas helps coalition-wrming and provides arenas for the political acdvity oC weaker states which can use the choice of organizarional forurn [or an issue and rhe mobiliZlition of votes as a politiul resource
(Keohane and Nye 1977 37)
Thm Keuacutehane and Nt gavc inremarjonal organizaciOfls an iroporran[ role in thde compfex interdependence model of world politics a model which whilst not uSlaquo (O explaitt aIl world politics was one which rhey daitned to hllve iacutenfrtasing releYJ1nce in IIlarge and growing area 1ntildeey used an intetnUional organizadon mooel as one of the explanations ror internashytioua regime change that js che lthange in the sets of goveming flrrangernems affening relatioruhips oC interdependence In tMs C$e intershynadonal oJsanisaciolls refeued ro multilevd Iinkage norms and insritutions (Keohane and Nye 1977 54) which once euablished are harJ (O enlAlicate BeCllue o( this rhey may Stand in the way of swes using thdr capabHities In ordec 00 chauge regimes Instead powet outcomCl will be more aJfectcU by votlng power (in the UN General AssemWy for example) ability ro futtl) coalidoos llnd 00 control elite networks (ruch as that founo io clte institushydougt of the European Commnnities) Whilst the complclt illternadorull organizarion mode1 was only Ofle oiacute fOur aJvaucecl by Keohane and Nye ro explain regiffie chAoge tbey Jiu expeomiddott jr to contribute to such chaIlSC in a world where complex interdependence (onditions pertain
1he rontribmions by Keohane and Nye demonstra(e hoth the roncero pf American wtilets iexcln inremationru relariWl in the 1970$ with altemacives to
tite srare-centric model and their wiluumlngness tO draw from more rhan one approach bringiexclng rogether elementogt from che more tradidonal appnJaChes with economic models and non-stare-cenuic dements TIleir Wi)rk does however have certain weaknesle$ Perhaps the mon serious is the use of rhe cerro imerdependence and iexclrs djvisiacuteon iexclnro ~n~itivity and vuinerability imerdependence Anepting rhar inltldeperulence meUlS mutool dependeoce (and [hjs leado to discussiou a~ w how mutual maoy relationihips are) che phrase scnsiuacuteviry imcrdcpendenre scarccly wflrmnu thc use uf the term interdependcnce fhe fault lies wJth che authou loose definiuOfl of depen~ iquestcnce as a oiexcltate (lf being detetmined oc $ignificaruly affected by externa fwces The induskm 0(signi6candy atkcted w~aken5 me urillry uf me cerm so tlme che nOr1on oiacute scusltivity inrtgtrdependence seems ro refer ro any nociceshyaMe cffeltr of ooe srate and society 00 anorher A person may Ix- significandy affectcd by taking drog$ wlthout Ix-ing dependen on chem David Baldwin showcd that mis use of rhe cerro interdependence ran conrrary to the striaer
Writingt ()I inf~_Ji(J1ia ~lfizaJJom 151
lUlderstlllldings (lf the concept fuund in MirhiaveUi Montesquieu and Ronsseall as weU 115 in che works uf twentieth-cemury wrlteI$ such as Norman Angell Francis D(laisi -and Ramsay Muir (ampIdwm 1980 7-9) He snuested the U$C of rhe rerms mutnal influence mutual responsivrness ot mutual scrlitivity insread ofscnsirivity inrerdependeruemiddot (Baldwin 1980 19)
A second cuacutericism uf Keohanc and Nyes books aso concems eheie termishynology In dealing wirh rransnational influentes They [ump tngerheraH types of teiations in whieb non~8overnrnental actOrs participare chus makiflA rhe componenrs of cheir new paradigm shifting aud poorIy defined (Wagoct 1974 440-1) Wagner questioned whetber their work simply demonstrated a shifr in interesr to new areas of intetnational polidts shyespedally elttmomic ones - ana whethcr [he world hM reaUy changed or whether we have iexclUSt overlookcd sorne things a1l along (Wagner 1974 441) The atent of imerdependence wa~ also chaHenged by Waltiquest (1970) anJ Rosecratlce el al (977) in che US and by Lirrle Bnd McKinlay (1978) and Strllivan (978) in rhe Briti~h Uteramre
DespiLe any falling$ Keohlllle and Nye provided insighrs ioto ttamlflashydonal polltics they shifted atrention away fcom p~lrely govcrnmental actOts in inff$rate relarions and they poiutm OUt he impMrance of intetnational organlziexcliexclxions in the intetdepcndence oc at lcast rnurual responsiveness of =
rbe rdormist view of both international celBtiOO1l and iuternational orga- nizar1ons has always provided an rutemative lO the more conservativc cealist approach Ir tended ro be dominated jn the pre-wu petiod by internauacuteonal lawyen and ideaJists but sinee hc Second World War has laoched on to the changell in world poUtics 6tst jn the economic ficld and then in Europe thar have Mn more difficulty to explain in ICliIHst term~ It has sten intcrna~ rionnl organizarions as mlans to manage trends such as iucftI$(d economl( intlrdlpcndcoC( bar hll5 also illtceplcU rhat these organizations mar necorne impoftllm aCtoriexcl (lO che wodd st$ge lhemselves and can cettainiy Iacute)(cnrne involved iexclO changing rhe preferences o( governmeflts
RADICALS
Writers covered in this sccrion iCe rhe intcrnadonal sysrem flOt so much as being domlnlltcd by states bn( more by diUerent divisions 01 its peoplcs Thi$ is noe to Sfly fhat chey ignore surtes They cOflsider them elthet w be ks tmportant chan the iquestjjsions of diUS tit wealth or merely ro refI~ct these othcr factors ot w be roadblo(ks to unky in (he fare Qf mote impomllt chalmiddot renga Power ls seefl as belnamp cxercised by eh( wealthy II1ld privileged and open to cha1Jeuge Change in the system is possibl( but onty through srrll8ge or by an awakenjug pf peoples tQ rhetr real sitllatlon Most iexclnter~ natimal organization~ are thus regarded as (eflccrioos of the currcnt unsruisracwry stare uf aiacuteTairs though $fJme more activist orgauhatioos mar llave potential as vehicles or (hange
This SIoacuteCElOn has betn sub-middotdivided imo rhree gthe fUS( are the econ01nk srructuralists and indude Marxists and Third Wocld wruumlers cririclll of rhe cutrem imernruionallyuem They haacuteve in common a belief mar che polltshyiexclcal srructUres of me world halle leeo wbloned mainiexcly by eltonomic fiiexclctors and rhAr mere has bren an intiacuteJUIllity builr imo the presen sytem lhe recood are the cruumliral app~es who5e radicalilifl1 is mure of the iacutemellec~ cual SOrt They rejeCf - Uf at 19$[ question - Jhatly of rhe usumpcions utlderlying be lIiews ofhe world tepresented by the realists and refotmers Finally mere are the globalim Theit perspective ls planerary ana theiacuter rnain conrtrn h fM rhc survival uf Earth Agilln they challcnge che mme statemiddotbuled approaches of both realjsts and reformers
Stnuturaluacutet lIiews
Ihe srructuralist appmiexclch rO (he swcly of inrematioOlIl relations differs In imporrant wars tO thoee of me realists and refotmuu tbough ir has some elemeou in comroon with mands ofb04h schools As roany of (he neo-realistsshyemphasite (he power scructure of wudd potities this sectiacuteon willlimir jwgtlf ro (hose writers roncerned wich the impacr 00 me political S)Srem of rhe wodds ccooomic strucrure Unliacuteke che ttalist approach the erooomk srrucruralisrs are OOr jUSt concemed with swtts io wodd polilla and rhelr economic and poIitkal differencC$ but alw with the divisioru within f1tld berween SoOCieties (WiIIeas 1990 263) They are [heretOre romerncd witl the rifi berween riel iexclmd poor within scares and rhar herwtto udl and poor glohally This leads ro an interese lO trulSlUirional reladoru as well as in inrergo~romenmt links Th(f have this in corrunon wim refPrtllist views bm diexclfier foom chem in (he emphast~ placeoacute on rhe structures of world pollics beinc formuared by eltooomic fiexcliexclcmn In rhis selttion attentioo wilt be given te MarxiS[ wtlletS lIud sume Thir1 Wodd view$ - partiuilarly (hose of rhe cependency sdlOOf and rhe developmemalj~[II - who have made a cootribution quite separare from rhat of rhe Muxiacutesr uadidon
Marxill laquoewl
There is no one Marxisr interptetariacuteon of me role of imerniexcliexcltional Olganiza~ cions in world politics Sur Manis[ approschf3 have certain elements in common and form a di~dnctive 5ch001 of rhough[ about lnrernartonal telamiddot tions generaHy and therefore ahotu international ocganizadoos These appmaches are based 00 du writiflgS of Karl Marx (l818~) in coshyoperarioo witb Fuacutewrich Engels (1820-95) with perhaps tbe gtearest later conrribution being maJe by VL Lenin kader of (he 1917 fo1shevik revolushydon in Rurna They are cf importanee pany becau1e ehey ficm tlle 00515 for mmmuniSt [hinking and (hm mey have an anactunenr m rhe Soviet Unian whieh WIlS be suongc1t commnuist stare unrII 1991 and EO rhe Peoples Republic of China COlUT1UnJSl sinee 1949 Apan ftom lbis ManiS( beliefs
had a irmng inpur mm Wescern imdleltrual cruoking and conunue ro iruoan some viewi abom wodd politics in rhe Third Wodd
Neither Marx no Mancisrs took rhe stare ro be (he curtency of iacutenteInashy(iexclonal relations Unlike (he realist viewpoints chey did fiO( coruider interactions blaquoween soveteigu ltates to be ofovettidi importance UnHke tbe funcrionalists aud other modem Westetn views rbar srress non-stare actocs Marxiexclsts in particular emphasized cbus relatlonships born wiexclrhin nates and IiCOOSS Stare boundaries Indeed ie is diffku[r ro talle only of a MaIXIacutest view of inrernatiooal re1atioll5 lec ttltme of iorernarional orgnniza~ UumlOOy as rhis separares ene particular aspecr of human behavinur tor MIlIXIsr rrearment divorcing ir from the undedying relleCS of Marxlc beliefs Man-ism provides a framcwok of undemanding by whkh ir iacutes daimed ~ociery pan lind vresen can be explaioed and che furure development of mankiexclnd determined
According ro Maf1 relariooshipamp between people and the futm~ mar insdmdooallzed rhose relatienshfpamp depended on rhe economic $truCtUR of soday fhe way rhat productlon was organized He traced the history of dvilixed maokind through five hiuorical staBes - AAjade mdenr feudal capttalin and socialin - which have ditTereru dominant methods of produc~ tioll leadiog 10 a complirared arrnngement of $OCiety ioto various ordetS 11 manifuld graduadon of sociru tank (Marx llnd Boge1s 1965 40) amph form of sorlef has coutained rhe conflictual divisiQl$ which help [Q tranuacuteorm the narun of rhat $Ocjeey coRrradicrioru in the mode ofpcoducfIacuteon placed srrain nn rhe existing social nrder sharpeniug rhe divide berween economic founshydatinn of sociery and a mpld aansIacuteonnlltion of in SOpel1Ullcture in legal polidcal and re1igious it1$tirutioos Thus by 11 confronration of da$~ Conrramiddot dkeions one historlraJ form of soc1ery wus transfocmcd into a bigher stage uf social devdopmem the history of aH hitherto existing ~ociexclety is the histoty uf dass struggles (MaDI Illld Bngets 15 39) Marx and Bnsels were parriculady conceroed wich capita1i$t sociery - ac its Oeyday during theiacuter Uves - and its tmnsrormarion iexcluto ampocis1iu sodety Wlthln rrus form of SoOCiety rOete would be no division of laboU4 and no eWses Illld no SUtes no elCpropnation of labours 5urplus vruue I1nd (bus no private property 00 exploira(ion of ene clilllS ny iexcliexcloother with 00 need fue war
For Marx and fingeJs C1ass then and noiexcl fllltions or sutea are rhe bade units in hurO) llIIIl che struggle between clAssts Jnstead oiacute infeutliltl contlict ocrupies rhe centre of acrention (Berki 1971 R1iexcl From me nlneteenth celUUf onwards rhis struggle -n in Marxisr cerros has been primarUy between [his capicalist dass ([he OOurgeoisic) aOO the bbouring dw (me proletariat) AA (he trarurormatlon fmm capltalisr SoOCIety [O ~OCialiexclMl ro comrounism rook p~e (he superstruerutt of bourgtOis SoOCilaquoy - religioo national divisiacuteon boutgmis politicnl insrirudnns rhe SOlte - woold be swept flway and in Engtls pmse rhe gOlcrotnent nf persons is replaced by [he udminlsuacion of things Fetter 19 (47) with me itEte relegated lO the mmeum iexclngemer Wlth lile spinshyning wheel Qnd [he bronze axe (Feuer 1969 433)
154 WrituacutetKiexclI mJenl4tiorJal rngmZtlJilm
Mux saw the European SUtes of his own rime as being rntans by which the ruBng dass (011amp oppress the work~ng clw by using (he agentl of tht 5tare such as the iudidary the poliee the army and rhe church he (xrerual Ilctlvities of the stare wete also determined by its Chtss namre MeanwhiJe rrmllnat]onat Rlations of a more meaningfuL kind WQuld bt creared by trade rhe movement of capital and incteaiitd romac[ and llOIacuteldarity betwten the prolerariat of vanoulS nations riacuteidefd rhe internacional nriexclaniutions of which Marx and Engels hnd dire(t experiena- wtfe the Fi~t Internatiomd and for Engels the Secund lntemarional both of which atttmpted lO orgashynJxe the represemarives of wruking people aiexclros fronden Onc~ agaJn this stteAAe$ the Marxist empbois on transnarional dass relutions rnther than on intentate relarionships
Whibt Soviet writlngs on international organizatinn1 wtte falrly desulshytory in Scalins reigu 0924-53) rhey did lmerIy hernld rbe move towams peaceful co-existerne arul roreshadowffi the lartf rnrhe[ restrktive view of Imch organi2Atinm hy Soviet commentators
In the post-Second Wodd War period and In patticular in the post-Stalin era Soviet liternmre on international organiuttions bl(lSsomed This has reflected Soviet membership oC ma1ly 1osiexcl-1945 organixations the emershygence of a socialist bloc of sta[C$ and tbe incre-ase in the mlmber of Sowcreign s[ates all flUtontilde demaruHng a more sophisricared Soviet view of lnter~llate reLadoru than che survivalism of Stalins period Uuring rhe lare 19805 i( auo ret1ected the new thinking iacutemroduced by Gorbachev
StalintI suIXessor KrU$hchev developed a revised view of internacional relaCtons which gave a positio1l ro the emerging Third Wnrhl (Tbe Third Wotld was then taken to mean rhotle IItates thar had emerged ftom colo~ nialiacutesm In effect rhe terrn later induded tbe stares of Latin America Africa - exclnding the rhen apaftbeid stnre of South Africa - the Middle Rasr Oceaniacutea and South Asia) Peace(ul co-exiuence between oda1ist and (apltaJisr states WM $til comidered nece1sary but this diacuted noc predude the ideologiacutecal stmggle between rhe two campsmiddot iexclndeed lhe Soviet inter~ national lawyer GI Ihnkiacuten wrote pearcfut cocx15tence of sutes represeonng che tWO differeor rodal sysems is a slccific form uf dass struggie beween socialism and calitllllsm (Osakwe 1972 37) The Soviet Union abo deveJoped relatlons wirh rbe newly emerging exshycoloniaJ cOllntdeJ and Soviet writiog had tu take ~ount of this developmem There wru a recognirion of a third group of stattli between rhe capitalist aud the communlsr that of poteorially friendly indtptomiddot deut $tarem io Europe and Asia such as India Egypt Indnnesia and Yugoslavia which would filrm a tone of peace Although the rebtions wiacuteth rhe capitaliacutest sures sriacuteH remaioecl embedded in pelteful coshyexluencc rhere was an emphasis by postmiddotStalinist Soviet writets on the da eJement in lile telatiomhil - that is rhe wntact with progressive elements in Weste1l sodeey smh as che Jabonr mnvement Ncither diexcld peaceful co-exiucuce rule OUt ~upport o[ middotjUSt wars of nationallibcrildon
WIacuteJIacute11gs tm iacutenUrllUtional WjatlJZtiacutelJlff 155
iexclndeed ir was seen lt a strategy fo wodd reloludon Fiacutenally (he rrlashyfIacuteonhips berween the Sovier Union and East Eumpean countries vere deerned ro be based on sociali internationalism posmlating a haemony of natinnal and commllnity interests and mndllding thar jnde~ndeuce and sovereioiexclnty of a soctalist uate means aoove aH indepltndencc from capitalism (Red Star 1 December 18)
Tunkin underljned traditional Soviet thiacutenking rllar the mngtrltllenl imrrllment of an ioretnational urganization (fne example the Chaner oiacute the UN) was all-impottant in derermining tIte enene rrun the otganizauumlon bad an international legal pcntildeonaliry rhar iexcl5 a standing in internacional 1l1w 5imilar tu titar of a sovereigo staxe Examining lhe question of the antonomOllS wiU oiacute international nrganitatioll Tunldn allowed thl1 they need not jmt act as agtnts for member stares
In imernatiunal ptacrke trellties conduded by jntcrl~ational mSaniacutezashytinns take their speciaJ piare as treacies by wbkh internationsl organimtiom aequire righu and take upon themselves cerrain obligiexcllshytioos Intctnat10nal organizatiou are created by Hares hey are broughr iexclnto being by states but the actloacuteos of imcmational organi7ashydoos are nlt)( in any way de facto or de jure ro be tqt1sred lO the actions of scates
(Osakwe J972 23)
Thi did nor mean than M internadonal organiacuteiariexclon was an entity indeshypendem of its memher us[es as any powers (har they hacl were delegated by [he members In Jine wirh che ampwiet doctrine of peareful co-exiacutesteme Tunkin placed Uress pn (he nature and rhe membership of an international organiacuteution dlOSe which drew their membersbip from commlmi1t c1Ipishytalist and TIiexclird World tares could expcct tu be genel1llly mognized as having an incernarional personaliacutery He wrote
TIte namre of tontemporary international prganiurions is lO a very great exttm derefmined by [he existerue of Haces beJonging ro differem wcio-economk systems and the ioevitable muggle between them Thar is why pcaceful crexislence is now the bl-sic condition of rh~ dfVC1iexclpshyment ufgeneral interoational ntganization
(Osltuumlltwlt 1972 289)
Mor07JN Clt1ntrlbuterl sorne extra points Fintildet be iududed JNGOs in his stndy He wrote dlQt lotetnational orgaruulions have as iI rol 8t least three member coumries TheM may be government$ offidJ orgilnlzarions or 0CInshy
guvernmental organizatiow (Morowv 1977 30) In a 11Iter seccion m NGo thcy were ldencifred as che la~ group of inrerrulttonal organiuttiolls wim two aspccn rbar concttntd socuIacuteiacuteIgtt commemarors tbe NGOriexcl auirude towards the preservarion of pealaquo wkh the Wnrld Feieradon ofTrade Unions
6 _ 0
rhe Wodd Fedemion oE Democratk Youth and otber meiexclllbtrs oiacute tbe Sovittshybacked World Peace (ounaacutel gaining special mentioo and the specialiuJ chataCrer of sorne NGOs itl(h as rhe ruerrutriunal Couocil of Scientifu Unions and che Scienrifk OJmmiuee on Antnrctk Research MOrlrLOv memioned how NGOs can belp emblish a social dimate citillg their contti shybution ro (he setdemenr of a number of internacional confHcu swh as dlilr in Vietnam He aOO dealr wirh the role of che NGOs io cbe UN aud che consuJshyrative srarus [hey llave witn lGOs saying du[ smdems of internariooal affitjoiexcl
in [he socjalisr councrics m critieal of many asplaquots of (his system fur the eoruulrarive StatuS amogemenrs stiU fall shon of wha( [he deveJopmenc of modern inretnatlonal relarions in fac[ catls fur (Morozov 1977 43) Tbe specialized namre ufNGOs Wamp1 atttibuted by M((2OV tu
tht increased Jnfiuence of the pubic at large un roreign polky [he grearer iexclmpat of public opininn in imernatiunal reladuns and [he greater importante uf me ideological fiexclUtot 10 $ucb relations Accoum should abo be raen of che proccsses of cconomic developmenr and [he coosequenc~ of [he scienrific and rechnological tevolutioo which has also led ro a greatet number of speoacutealized NGOs
(Morozov 1977 42)
Second Morozov wridog jo d~ late 197amp made moU pos-irive refershyencelgt (O [he role oiacute Trurd Wodd SUtes in imemaciooa otganimrions He noted rbar rbe emetgtoce oiacute ti large oumbe of Oung natiooal stares h8ve kd fO che emetgcnce of intetnarJonal Drganizadons among develcpi08 ecuoshytries (Mororov 1977 29) aod claimed hat partkiparion in (hese organh311oos is part uf he process uf consolidating their sovereigocy and ruuional jndependenu~ aod of wlviog cheir pressing ecoOfJmic anJ orher pmbemsmiddot (Morozov 1177 31)
Finally Momzov developed the puint made by fimkin aOOut he limited llalUre of ioternationaJ organiurjQn$ - ~econd-dllSS ffitrnbers nf the inrershynarloual sysrem as opposed tu rhe firsr-diexcllSS members SQvereJgn stateiexcl by reretcme tO theit dedsioos There bave resulted froro che inrelllctioo of politicuJ euroorces within the organil1ldons and
Thecombined will uf chcse lGOs i5 disuumlnc[ from [he wllls of theuuml indishyvidual members io in eflSenlte and ln in narure The v1ilflous wills in thb case are nor agsregued arirhmetically each one exim indepenshydendy ur oside a homogeneQu~ socio-political gOUP wirbin whose frarnework (hey can be combjlled
(Murozov 1977 34)
AfLer lhe comiog ro powet ofMikhail Gorbachev in the Soviet Union io 19Bgt a Ihaoge rook place jo $oVJIl policies rowards imeroadonal relations irutuding international organi1ations and [his has been reflecred in new
~ M-- bull 6_V_
Soviet writings un [he subJect Gorbachev inttoducetl a owjor review of [he fureign poljcy uf the Soviet Union (har marchcd rhe inremiry of his dmncslic refotmS He encouraged new rhinking- based on a revjeJ vlew of che world siruation Peaceful co-existence wirh iexclhe capiralisr tirares WlCgt no looger seeo a~ being a spetjfic fum of dass srruggle as Tunkin had written bUI 35 being in the commoo intecesu oiacute all countriCl Ir WIi$ predishycued on the neOO fin surviva of (he human nce which in ShakhfUlZOlrQvmiddot$ word$ must ofCOUIse take fim place Lighe 1988 297gt- Thjs ml$or rhar a new COIKeuropt of seGldty had ro he adopreJ hy che Soviers rhar oiacute common security which wa5 based un sume of he ideas of -che Palme Comminion (see he1ow) Greater emphasis wu given ro arms control and dlsarmament agreemenrs wirh the Wesr 11nd to co-opttation in international uffuirs whilst Soviet intervention io che Third Wodd enbed and milirary 5UppOtC 1m [he East European communisr govcfomentS WlS withdrawn
Soviet wdcings on inremurionilJ relations both offidal and academic came to mirror Gorhachevs new rhJnkiog bur eho lilete iexcl$ evety sigo chut rbese id~ were dmwu no only from rhe Wesr but alw Uacutenm Moscow mink-tanks slleh as lMEMO th~ JflSIirure of World Eronomy and Inremlfona Relacions) Liacuteght 1988 29~n Gorbschev aun his forngn minisrer FQllard Shevaronadre gave rhe academiacuten a Breen light for funher diSClViiacuteon ud debare (Shevaronadre 1990 23) As II reampul srudies examlned he role of che Uniacutered Nariacuteons as sn ugem for peoce (Kolyrev 1990 12-19 NesrerenkQ 1990 65 Petoovsky 1990 42--3) and rhe mte of inrernational or811nizadons in environmental mliLffers IiLnd disurmamenc qutsdmuuml Chodsulkwsky 1988j NikitiM 1989 123-32 Roginko 1989 133-43) and internarionallaw was teassesred (Sutier 1989~ 363-75)
Once che Sovier Union collapsed many of me wrifetS losr rhe main point of political reference A nwllber Iefi academc orhets adapted thelt ideas ro WCtem oues and a few remnioed as policy rulviseni ro che new Russian goVefrutJenL However cornmunism as M imellectually dominant organiuog rotce wlch pnliiisJ dour had djsappeared in Russia togerllef with much uf the persptr1ve ir provided - wben seen thmugh me unen distotdng leos uf tbe Sovier lfulon - oiacute inrernatiooaJ relatlons and inremariooal organhattnru
Chinese Marxisr wrirers have iexclargeIy reflected rhe views of the leadershyship in Chinll sioce [he coming ro power of rhe Commun1sr Patty in 1949 Undl (he 1970$ communist China was elduded from almon aH iotttllJishytional of811nizIiLtIOns and ie is flot surpriamping tha whae lirde writing tbete WUtl on the st1bje(r Wal fairly dismiacutesampive usuaUy consisdng uf coudemnaM tinos of (he UN fnf its action tn Korea aud rhe security allianes fot teir hegernonic narure Chjnese Marxisr rhinking hiacuteu divided (he modem wotld jnro three groups ihe Birsr World consisred of rile fWQ imperialist superpowers namely he USA ano the USSR The Second World was made up uf otbet areaa uf advamed industrilllired cnuntries primariacutely EUfape aod Japa which were opea ro donunariou by lite Sllperpowers bu( which could $tan a dialogue wirh rhe Thiacuterd World Theu (here was rhe Third
158 Writings OtJ internationdl organizatioru
Wodcl iexcltreI( coruisting of the Afro-Asiacutean-Lario Americltlu sta tes supported in their muggte aAainSt Picsr World imperialism by Chinls This viexclew of the wmId colouted tyJst Chiacutenese wridngs on iacuteoternatiollill oeganharions Tbe $uperJowers were seen as cynical lTlllnipubtors Qf inrernarionaJ jnsti~ tutions Mao Tre~tuog wOre of US poliey towards such insdfutions Ir mam use or them when it neOOS rhem and kicks them 3way when ir does flot (Society (or Anglo-Chinese Underuanding 1979 42) US-domioated pill-~ such amp$ SEATO and imperialist groupiacutengs like rhe Alliance tor PfOgre~( wttt detided Spedal viuiot was saved roc the Warsaw freaty Orgaoizatiun whieh in one aetide was described as Soviet sodal~ imperialisms mol fur aggression (Ming Sung circd Jn Chen 1979 194) fhe Soviet Union was aceuseQ of trying tu manipulate che Pan and negnshydate wlth Wesrem eouorries rhmugh the Enropean Scltwiry Conferenee tn consolidare irs begemonic status in Basrern Enrope at the same time iexcliexcll dividiog Wes(ern Europe squeezing Out the USA ro as ro muSte way (0(
iu expansion and infilrmrion into Westem Europe (Ming Sung clted in Chen 1979 197)
Chinese writecs Fegatded tbe Ntildegttood Worid espedally Western Europe as being a pen force io telmS of imperialism which Ww tdponeed to the lhird World wich diaJogu as io the Jmueacute Convention berweoen tIacute1e European Commnnitiacutees and AF~ican Carib~an and Paciuacutet srUe5
Furrhermore the defensive $spects of NATO were sttessed and with growing European cohcsion the trend iexclS IJkely to ~ towatds a fuoce in which the American elemenr is seen as 1 temporary neceuity eventual1y to be phased out (Sodety fur Anglo-Chioese Undetstanding 1979 90)
lthe countries of the Third World were setn as coostirotiog rbe mluumln force comb$dng imperiaJi~m colonialism and hegemonJsm reEerring nor only to the vestiges of Wesr Etl-OOptan foloniiexcliexclJism bOl abo to US iexclnpetlshyalism and gwwiog Soviet soci$l~imperiacutea1ism Tbe Third Wodd eQuld hdp tn exclude the gre$t powers ny baoding cogecher io such otganizatinos aiexcl tht DAU aod rhey could work ro correct unequiexcliexcl nade and eeonomk reladons with che sUpetpowers through UN iexcliexclgeucies and eonferences such as UNCTAD and UNaos Abo rtlW material ancl exporting orgllnizations liexclke OPEC rbe Incernadonal Bauxilaquo Association ancl the Onion of Banana Bxporting Counuies were proised a ehanging (he old interntlrional eumomic Ome and banerlog che biggest roarerJal plunderers in rile world rhe United Srates and (he Soviet Uoleo (Ptking Rt1Jiew 26 Septtmbtr 1975 cited in Cheo 1979 309)
111e poverty oiacute ehinne study of intetnatlenal erganhuions no dounr caused by the lack of Chinese membership of such etganizacions unril the 197amp and the turmoit ef the Cultural Revulution eiexcliexclme ro an enel by the 1980s Jnstead oere was a more reaHs( viexclew (lE rbe worlcl iexclf one S~shytimes coucbed In Manlst terms In Chlnese univenittes there was a growtb io detailed studies of iutemationalntgsnizations aod the nuropean Union
WritingI un inlmullPmnl vrgrsrtilpiill1J 159
Tbird Wwld vlewJ
Many Third Wodd Afro-Asian aoo Latin Atrusican) writers 00 jntemsw
tional organizaion have adopte a structtulIist framework and are particufarly nm(etnecl abour how insdtutions can be wcd as tools of exploitadon uf rhe nitd World aud how $ome cau be used lIS agenrs of libenuion They llave nor been induded in the ~ettiexcloo un Marxist viltws (or three feamm nOI al of them are Mandst thIJM who are Manisr place particular stresS on (he posicion oF thE l1lIacuterd World and as ThJrd Worlcl eitizens they have through theit own experience unother pe~cdve rhan [Mt of writers from industri$lized srates
Yash 18ndon (1978 377) has identjfied thNf nuacuterd World penfIXrives en inrernational Olganizatiolls Fim [here is that or the bourgeois Of perry natiunalisrs who are in power in mos[ Third World statcs and who are progressive in [errru of anti-impcrialism but are rraniollary ro the C1tccnr WC they would sooner mau thcir pcaee with imperialism rhan iluwnder power (e the masses and peasancs This group uses ineernational orgllniexclm~ tions ro pur presrure 0lI imperialisc states in order to extntCt concession5 from them and appease tbe masses in their own coontries TIley see che UN as an opportunity to parley witb their entwhiacutele impecild masters t a presumed kvd uf equa1iry (Tandoo 1978 365) Thc scltond pcrspective is rhat ofthe reaIly backward regimes of thl Thitd Wodd such un Taiwiexcliexcln and Jotdan or whnm intemarional orguniacutelattnnS are of margJna1 signifieance [)t they prefet tu dea wirh impcrialism iquestirt(tiy The rhird petSPCCrive idenrified by landOll is that uf rhe masses vi thc TIlird World for wbom toterntlunaJ orgmilAriom are petiphewl fin liS Jong as hey rontinue fO reflect the muing balanlte uf clas$ forces in hvour uf impeuacuteJism (fandon J 978 378) Sioce the ene of he 196amp rorces representing thu third group have bccome lnott prominent in world polido in che form of liberarioo groop1 lttCn as tbe PLO and whilst chese have f)tgten interested in galnin8 telaquolgnJtlon rOt rhemshyselves at the UN and the spedaliled agcodes rhey are not depeuden 00 these or8ani1Jlton~ rndecd Tandoo romioeted (hat fo che revoludonary snnggles in SOUfh~E3SC A~a and AfrJctI iOfernattonal otgilnizalJons are tOO peripheml to be of much $ignilJeaoce (Tandon )9713 377)
Tancloo providcd n inrere~tiog history of the Jevelopment uf the anrishycolonialist forees in che Third Wruld sinee 1945 bur hi~ clivi~iexcl()H iexcloro he three perspenives is roo stark leaving aside rhe leil important backWllro regimes be has basiclllly grO~lped tbe Third World leadershp joto the revoshylutionaries who have Uttle netd (or imernatiooa otgllnizatiooll and those who llave suumlpped into refOrmism and have beco duped iot() bdieving (hat they elln ehaoge chelr c1ependeoce 00 industtia1i1Cd nBfiexclmL~ lhrough intemadonal organiwtions Thjs seems to undelsrare me use or ~mh organishyzations by revolutionllry groups - especiiexcliexcllIy che PLO anel tlle SoUthem African liberadon OtgllOiexcl7arionS - whieb have made substaotial use oiacute [he UN me Arah League ano the OAU tO sustain rhe polirical aspeets of theit effOrt5 1t alS(l uverestimatcs the extent tu whieh the Third World countries
J UU wnlmgl 1111 JTiUrllamm41 ergtIttJ1I0fll
have any iUwinru about imetnariooal Qrganizarioos such a~ UNC1~D
Furchermorc the identificador of 800d revolutionaries and falten refurmislS i~ tuller impliexclstjc~ rhe maIur sponrot of the UNs New Ecooomic Order l wruch Tandon hal roudemned as rhe Old Economic Order with a diffefent rltetoric WIIS the Algetian radinu governmenr of Boumediemu rhe PLO irself ha heen dependem on a numlgttr of bnurgeWs Arab goveromenrs foc financial 00 diploJUlltic suppon and ro Tandoos duumlertion that PQr narlonallibemwn movemenn guided by a proktatlan idoology such liS rhose in Chifliexcl1 lIlud Vietnam iruemarionaJ organlwtlona WtU of no 1J5e can be- added the re5ervarion until chey carne (O power Whiht ir took some twenty years belote communist Qtill1 made use nf suth organiutions the unified communiSl Stale ol Vietnam was quick fO cake up it position in the UN ro ask [Ol aid thtough UN agencies liS well as w become ji membet of he CMEA (Comecon)
Third Wodd commemscOt1l on world politics have emphasized the nature uf rheir atea$ potirical ecoOoacutemtc Ilud culmral relatloosluumlp wilh rhe iHdllsrriexcl~ alixed Nonh TitilO is iOO$t Oflltl rypified aiexcliexcl bciug OHe of ueo-folonialism _ COntrol of che Third Wtltld by lhe Nortb by indirecl means ratlet (han by direa colonial tule and of Kf)IomIacute( dRptwJmry (o dtpmdemjiexcliexcl) lntetnationaiacute rdsdOOi bcrween sures are sublumed ro relations between claue$ world wide Ixtween on rhe one lIand the expluacuteiting impetialist capitetists in rhe northcm iru1usuialized couotries 2100 rhcir middle-ltlass collaboratotS in the 50Uthem SUtes aud on the othet band he exploiced masses rhe proleuriat ol [he $Ourhern contJnems The Lurcr gmupS have been 1I1iide ecooomkaUy dependent on [he furmer so char hey lIre in rhe wuacutetds uf the Bruiliiln T Dos SantOS in a situadon jn which the economy of a cetuin group of counshytrles is condiacutedoned by rhe develOplllent aad expansion of aoother ecouomy lO which thcit own 15 subjecred (Bodenheimer 1971 327)
The uOOerdeveloped tounrries depend uacuten [be developed ror their capital nd ercperdse they find key sectors of ehdr eroooroy conrrolled from OUtsJde rhey act as a SOUfce of raw marerials lIS ji lthetip source of labour arul as a rnarket fur mllnuf8ccurers from Euttipe ]apan and North America As thejr living standards were deterrniud by rhe vicissinWeS of the Northern~ dominated wodd marker the relationship was Otle uf unequa exchange (he [esule of which was a world experiencing woequal developmenr with a developed rieh indwtriaJiud capiralisr Notthern centre and d poor underdeveklpedgt agciculrutitlly backwarn eXFloired periphery in che 50mb The dependem 80mh has been divided berween rhe ptedominanr undemeshyveloped area~ lUld a few Cenfres of deve10prnenr wirh their ttade culrural rraffie and polidcal linL to [he deveJoped North - rhe depeOOem develop~ memo omlinea by EH Cardosa (1974) allodlt~r Bruiliall Mmir Amiu (977) rejC(ted the prosptltt of aH antonomous capitalist development in [he Third Work the oew bourgeaisJe of Lacin Ametica Africa and Asia were in allianec with capitalisrs from rhe Nnnh and rhe mato $OUrce of finance ror lmported equipmem was fmm the expon of raw materials to rhe indu~rial
5 ~ _~ smiddot_middot~~
iexclred smes Amin (1977 1-21) SllW rhe can made ror a New Imernational Ecooomic Order (NIEO) by Third World leaders at rbe UN UNCTAD aod che Vilrlous North-Sourh dialogues as an nrtempt LO iexclnerease the price of chelr ntw mattIial exporrs obraio more lmpotted technol08Y snd chus finance a new srage of develQpmenr He saw this ti placing the Thitd World more in the gttp of the neo-co1onialist sysrem and iostmd recommended 11
more self~rcuumlanr development wlrh murrud assismnce between Third World sures a reducdon in [ade wirh rhe induuialized wotld and Chlll a loos~ ening of dependenre Amin lJke TaOOon had Jittle fairh in presenc imtrnruional organizaciexclon Il tools foc fasbiooing a more independent Tbiacuten Wotd His sU88tl1cion of grearer mUtual ilSlgtistaoce between ThUd WorId uate~ implied somtthing more sophillticated than a numbtr of bilateral arrmgements As rbe present orgauizarions used fu iexclncm~Thjrd World cnshyoperation (che OAU he Atab League ASEAN) are domitllued by jusr dl()llC govetnmenrg chM accept lhe eowse coodemned by Amio _ the NIEO ami greater jmegrndon iexcluro rhe world economic sysrem ~hen Amia solutloil involves like-minded deveJoping counrries or more like1y political changes leading ro such indigenous intemuional orgilniwrions
Other Trufd Wodd wdten have plllCtXl emphasls on grearer use 01 exisring insdtutions lOO can broadJy be deKfibed lIS Wopmenraluli huI Prebisch an Argentinian econOmigf has not only studied the que5iaacuteon uf ecooomic dependency but his ideas llave been used as the baJiexclis for che wotk of cwo miexclljoc iexcliexcluemariOOiexcll1 organizadons rhe UN Enmomic Commission fa utin Ameriea (ECLA) and UNCfAD Iu his smdy of Briliacutesh-Argerl(inian trading relntioflS Prebisch bad idenrified rhe unequRl tecrns ol Hade between he favoured (ndusrrislized s(ate of tbe centre and he les privj~ leged llOIl-indumialiacutewl periphery Prebisch unlike rhe dependencia gtChool of Amiacuten Dos Sancos and Cardosa believed thu this inequaLity could be overcome by political acrinn by trade pre[ereonces fuvouring the pedphery by eoo1ruooiacutery agreemenrs by intelnatiacuteowll aid and by more foreiga imvestment in che ~riphery It was thele remedies thiexcllr Prebiacutesch eneouraged when he WiIS Executive SecrCrary of ECLA from 1955 lO 1963 aOO Secrewy-Genernl ofUNCTAD ftoro 14 ro 196tL In~d rhe amoum of aid the periphery needed in omer to overeome their Unfuvoluable rrnde balance became known io UNCTAD clrcles as [he Prebiexclsch Giexcllp
The distinguished Afiican aC1ldentie Aji Mazn1i has wricren un the plighr Qf (bar conciflfnt aod j~ role in pmem~day interruUIDllfl1 afmits He soughr ro answer rhe quesdon Now rlw Imperial Order is eoming ro an end who is going tO keep rhe peaee in Aampica and tu examine he concept of Pax AfrlclllUl the African s ambidoo ro be his OWh palaman The JXIliacutecillJS and se[f~8overnment ufAfriea depended on the nodan ofan African self which Mauui discusseJ in decaH He considered how this 1ndepen~ denre might be threarened by the politicaI and cultural fragmenMion of the contillenr Ellld eronomieally by deperulence on Europe He quoted Kwame Nkntmah finr President uf Ghaniexcll on rhe Europe-Jn ECOntunir Communiry
162 Wilihgr rm intd1JatirmallJrganizatimu
ihe ireaty of Romemarks the advent of oeoKolonitJism [n Afriacuteen snd bears unqutSrlonably the marks of Freneh neo-colonuumlllism (Murui 1967 93) He moduded from tM that Wlut AfrlOlns tbelaquofore neecletl was II
renerru authotity of cheir owa tI) ((lordilJlte fheir eltonomk and policicat deCena- sgain5t trus rnreat (Mamtiexcl 1961 93)
Given this theme it is not surprising tlwt Mazrui ser srore by rhe OAU bU[ he was realistic in bis judgement
In relatioos betwlaquon African statts lIOflesr step rowards Pu Africana was taken when rhe Organiution oiacute Aftlaquolln Uniey set up in Commissiacuteon ofMediauacuteoo Conci1illtion aud Arhitmion
Anormr OAU Commissioo of relevance fot Fax AftlOlna ls che Defence Cornmission Sor me Defeme Commlnion 1w se Car been among che lean effecdve QfPan-Aiacutericun ins(kndons Afrka mar indeed aspire to be her owu ptlliceman bur she does nO seem ready as yel to par the price iacutem it
(Mauui 19612[3)
Mazrui oudined the varicd backgrounds of [he lemen oiacute newly illdepenshydent Africa and thdr radical and revolmionary ideas and it is pethaps swprising rhat the insrirutions rhey created fur me coutinenf wete so mnservative with [he p05sible exceprion oiacute the OAUs Natiomtl Libetttion Comminee Mazrui no[ed thac Africa srill has the problem of how othet powetS respond tu its behaviour and [har forcigo iotmsilm in AJtica continued Indetd the I990s proved tO be a dC(ade of disusrer for AfrieR The debiacute burden contimlld while Ilome states collapsed lnro civil war ami others took to iutenoendoo in thejr ueighbonrs affairs Outslde interference from borh Enrope and North Amecica euodoned One of rhe fcw brlghr spots was the end of apallhcid in South Africa and the peaceful transitioo ro majoriry mJe lo al thiexcl~ tn quote Juliacuteus Nyerere rhe ampcmer pre~iexcldenl of Tan1ania The OAU exists outr ror tbe prorecdoo of (he Afrinllt Head~ oiacute State (cited io AlilgapPltl 1998 1 ) The relarive optimism of Maztui has giveu way ro Afriam writers examining sorne of me disrnrbing details of inaction by [be OAU and regtonal orgauiacutezatJuns nlCh as ECOWAS beiog used as doaks fu the machinations oE regional hegemou$ suth as Nigcria (Mibe 1m 61-9(1)
Radha Sinha$ problem--ortented undy Food iexcllfId PIWt11y (1976) has an IItgent message Sinha a former consultaot of the FAO prodnced an iofuacuterrned aUllyiexcljiexcl of the world$ food problem stress1Og in paniacutecular the maldistribution of food and other resources Noting he profO$ab of UNCTAD with heit muld-rommodJty approach and buffer nocks provjshySiOfli he commented rhe grearesr weakness oE the UNCTAD scheme js les Hkdy politlca1 unilcceptablliry ro me developed (ountdes parriculady che USA (Sinhil 1916 114) a propheey that has proved to he cortect He identitled a more aggresslve attitnde by Third World sutes e5pedally
WrilirrgJ on i1tternatiflii1l rHgarrtzatitmlt 163shy
after the uH prite cise of 197314 when the developing coonuies tried to maximize their own market powers by formin cartcls such as rhe Intematimlal BaurdtC Association the Intemuional Coundl of Copper Expotcing Countries aud the Intema[ional Tin Agrcrmenr He gave n qualified wekome ro the Lomeacute Convention betwcen the European (omrounities anJ cenain African Padfic and Caribbean Haces Writing in 1976 he commented
The receot cbange in rhe luirudes of tite tiche countries is largely due tu the incIeasing miliuncy of the Third World countries lt is almost ertalll utar the magnitude offuture cnnc~sions in me coune ofGAIT aud UNCTAD IV Ilegotiarioos wiU deperu mainly on (he continued solidariry uf the devdoping counlrtes
(Siha 1976 116)
Sinha was pardy correct as tbe solidatity cf rhe Tbird Workl states cracked se the induurialized wodd withheld funher Con(eampSJoru but ir was able tO do so because market condidons swung against che primaty producen
In his condusion Sinha called ror a IIDre1 shttting of wnrld t($nmes and power if confrontarion was ro he avoidOO He feared that the ffa of roshyoptradon berween [ieh and pool conntries hiid ((lT1e to an end and that batde lines were being drawn Instead he advOOIreltI majnr concessions from the dcher coumries on trnde lInd aid issues and a1so a ma~lt te$ltUcrnring of the incematiotlill organization~ aoo negoacutetiating ffiarhinery in order tu provide a much gtC2ter say fm me poorer countries in internatiooal tJ1lde invesrment and mooetaiexcly armngemenrs (SiMa 1976 132) GAn 1BRD aud IMF have been the presenoe of [he ri h with voting weighted m faacutevour of rhe OECD countries and Sinha re(()ffimended thlll GATr aoo UNCiAD be merged inro an Intemacional irade Organization (ITO) and che creatlon of a Third World permanent secrctariat iexclnvolved in all trade and aia negoriarioru Thoogh less radical than Amin Sinha aIso recomrnrnded gttter coshyoperation berween developing coulltries and an eoo ro their inkrtotity complex with instead a sense of m~ttnal sdiacute-e$teem and trust being devel~ oped (Sinha 1976 ch 10) Litde that h~ happened during the 19905 woo1d have encouraged Sinha The World iratle Organiaadon has emerged as the presenoe of the dlVelupeJ tares and lw brushed aside many of thc mucerns cf UNCTAD Debr ha~ edged on ro dlt wudd iexclagenda but mainly at the beheS[
of a non-governmental organization )ubiacutelec 2000 nd the promi$e~ of the main financill jnsrirutluru lO pursue dcbc-rclicf produred but a thiniexclmfl
In aH Third WQrld commenrarors have provided a vatied and lively approruh fOwards tne problems uf intetniexclational organizarions Their emphasis has niltntaHy beCl Qn tbe use of wurld lmtirutions to change the econornic condidon or the Southern cominents As this enndition is likely to worscn in the near filrtltf further more lJica conrtibutions on the rule oC
-- --- ~- __ _~- __- imernatIacuteonal orgaoilarions in Nonh-Smuh relarJons tOiexclghf be apected from rhe Third Worid A1ternaciveJy wrirers (mm rhat ares rmy jW ltIacuteespUacutet rm imergovemmemal orgaoizarions ar lealaquo Mee rhem $O Hrrle
Cfili~ald~heJ
Critica approadvs lO the nudy uf intetnadonal relations are (hose har rejee( the dominating vleW1iexcli repr=med by tbe realist and reformistS as oudined aboye In paHicular rhey reglUd realists as apologisu for the currem con6gutltion of power 10 (he wiexcldd sytem and considet [har rhe refOnntstS are elrher unable ro undersraoo he fUe llamee )( (hi sysrem oc ille UDwiUing to accepc rilar ir needs more rhan mooest refotlllS TIlOugh they may sympalhi-ze wirh rhe agenda of some Marxists aud Third World wt1cers chey do [lO( llave rhe hisrockal certaimy of the former not rarely do they have the experience and perspective of ehe larter TItey view intenUishy(jnl1ill nrganiutions wirh a jaundiced eye as these are mainly the lll$tmmenfS of rhose who dominare rhe syuem This section COlllaios an wcoum nf three approaches tmt of the critical rheorlsti- of kmintsc wrirshy[1185 ulld pose~mooernismlt
Cri(~1 herJrY The approach of critical theory 10 JnrematlonaJ o(ganizatiooll iSi determtoed by their wider world-view which in itsclf is explaiiexclwd by tbeir llame One of the leading exponents Roben Cox said [har ie is cririca1 in cne Jensc rha h srands apan 100m che prevailiog order of rhe wOlld and asks how tb$t oroer came iexcllPouc Ir does nor r-ake existing irucimtioM lIl1KI JIQwer relaclons rOl granred bu c311s them iacutemo queuion Ir 1S diexclrlaquoced ro rhe social itnd JIQiirshyical complex as a wItole rarhet (hall he stparate pirtt IUthet than subdiide and Imic an examination of a problem it looks al the wger pkturc of whkh rhe problem is jwt oue part and trio rO wJdeThwod the processeS uf change ill which botIt pans ulld whole ure involved laquo(ox 1993 277~S)
Ai a thoory cridQiIacute theory rejeen tbe daims of posicivism of an external Nulity and to be mue-free ror critkal rheorIacutests koowledge ti nor moraUy IleUc1ll1 ic is more che result of the social background of tbose Wt hold ir Given this ctitkal tbeory alJows foc a normarive choice in favoU of a social ancl iexclJlieiexcl(ld order diflerent f(cm rhe prevruHng arder bur it limiu the ruuse 01 chotce ti a1remative orders which are feasibJe mmsformations ofme cxvaing worJd h musr rejEC[ improbable alternadVe8 ju~t as ir rejecrs rhe pcrmanctlly nr lhe exiscing order (Cox 19 90)
Cridcal rheory differs lrom Marxist upproElchcs beCElUS( of iu tejection nf any daim to hold the objenive tru[h and betause or it~ avoidance of (he pmslllt ol il utopia Neverrhe1ess [heir analysis of incernarional relarln1l$ is one tbu hEls u numher of similariuumles wich the Marxisc pcrspecdve It regurds rhl tlistlng suucrures of world polirics as beiug oppressie not
- _ __ _-
lean because of rhe dominance of (he capitalism of che Unired StElte~ For many che USA is seco as a hegemonic power the prevailing urder - in re[ms rbar reReet he wrirings of the Itallan Marxisc writer Amonio Gramscl (1891-1932) Gramsd advanced the nodon of ln hisrori(middot bloc which in itself refilaquors che $Ocial reladons oE ptoducdoo The dominanr dass in a counrty - 01 indeed aoy social grouping - mlinrains cohesion and idenciry withio [he bloc [hrough the ptopagacion of a COIDmOfl culturegt A new bloc can be formelt when a subordinate dau can euablish tU hegeshymony over orher subotdioate gtOllpS (Cox 1993 56--7) The IDove rowuds hegemony comeS with the piexclt$ting fmm che spediacutek inrercsrs ofa gronp Ol
dass tO rhe building uf inrimdons aOO elaoorarion uf ideologies (Cox 1993 57-8) It Loiexcl rhat ptOCe$S thar embeds the incemu of the dominanc dan in an imttmrional form thae [w an appeal widet [ban that dan ine1f It the-refole repreSoems mote tlmn jUSt (he drunJnaoce oE one state ovec anocher bllt implies a cemufi acceptante of the tules arJd institutions purouized by [he hegemonic JIQwer Jo other woros it is all order wbicb most Olher Sta[e-~ (01 at 1enst those within reath of die hegernouy) couId find compatible- wirh their iexclmetem (Cox 1993 6t) h aJso involves noe just inttt-staee rueivirle5 bur rhose oiacute tlvilliOCiety (oon-Stllte socieM instishycudons) ebereby encoumging Hnks between social dus$ts iexcln the connules covered by ebe hegemony
What does Cox llave to uy about ioccmational Otgsniuciexclons 1bey Ilre scen in he oontext ofme wiacuteoo unaemanduuml18 of itnernational reUacuteltions mentloned iexcliexclhove He is direcr 000t mem Ooc mechanisru chrough wruch the universal norms of a wodd hegemony are expttssed js the interoatiooal organisation (Cox 1993 62) Why is chis so Cox U993 62) gives five teIlSons
bull They e-mbody rules cOae help (be- apwlSion of a hegemonic wodd iexclrder These insdwrians reflcct the intererts ()( the dominam social anil economic force- buc a1low a cettain amOunt oC adjusrment ro accommodare other subordinared interests TIms the USA WllS preplltoo ro mm conccssions to
bciI18 in Lhe EU srares and Japan ro rhe Wotld Trade Otganizatimt They a[e prooucrs of that order Though [he insrimrions and rules Ilce
nurITlllUy initiared by the hegemook power ir takes cate ro involve aOO comule a numbe-r of second-ronk stares and gaio theit supporc he Wotld Bank and Inte[nacional Mooetaty Fund were very much pan of [he world order thar emerged afrer [he Second World Wat and which was dominared by rhe Uoiced Stlres
They ltgidmi7e i[s nOlms by providing guidance for SllIteS and by legitshyimiuacuteulS cerraIacuten IlCdviries Ilr me narional leveL he OBCD afie rhe inrerruuiooal financia) irntuumluriom lave spread an acceptante of mllrket coodirions and sHict mOllerary iexclJlides
They co-opr elites from pelipheral counrrie Ihlented sraH commg 110m the Thiacuterd Wocld are expected tO dCCept he scriexclpt wcittttt by the domishynam power Bouuos Bourros-Ghati as Secteury General uf the Unired
166 Jiexclljiexclr1giexcl Qr1 ifJfCflrttuacutemal IWgaizati(ifJJ
Nadons stroyed too amp~r ftOm the gtip of Washinston and his second term was VCtoM by rhe USA His sucecssor Kofi Annan will no doubt undentand what 1$ n-quired of him He brings the mncerns of orhe states ro che UN bUf nor in a way thu threatt1l$ the USA
bull They absorb counter-hegemonic ideas Ideaiexcl $uch as 1iustainable dlYClop_ ment tukl even debr foTgiwness are taken 00 board by the intetnatwnal finarnial institlltion$ blu are trandirmel into pulido rhat swt them
Wh~t is ro be done Cox thinks thar the pfQblem of changiog dw world orUer 1iMuld be shlfred back from intern~tional insritutions tO niexcllriacuteooal $OIacuteishyeties where the sodo-political b~se for a new historie bloc mighr be ereated (Cox 1993 64) FaiJing the creadon of a new historie bloc of the new working cla$s and rural and urb~o marginal groups there might be tnmdorshymadon oC the curtent monopoly-libcral hegemony by adjusting to rhe demanJs oiacute local ello$ for polides 5uch as natlonaHution Cox 199~ 65) He aw advocates te-regulation of erooomies and a re-wmpositjon of civil sodery Internatiotla lnstlcutions induding organiutions can berome eontact puint1i fOr new $OCia[ furtt (Cox 1994 (11)
Critica throrJm $uch as Cox oifee a refreshing exposidon oiacute che posidofl oC imernatiooal ofganizatioos in a wocld where the main revolutionary powe~ have either collapsed (rhe Soviet Union) or se(tled into a cautious ronservatirun (China) Ir provlde~ a sceptical arf realisric world~view without acreptins tbe inevuumlahility ni a illture domlnared by mooopoly eapi~ ujsm sud the Utlired States J-Iowevtr its appllcariexclon to intemationa1 organhatJons 11 StImewha( timited tQ the maln global jnsdm(jons and th financial and economlc orgmiutions Ir has 1m (O say aboue regional nrgashynjudon Uf abour N(JUacutes Furthermore iu alternarive fu(ure testS on ourcoroes thu are far froro certain RevnJutlons in the Thied World are roore likely to be- irupired by nadondi$m oc by IsJaroic fllndamentaHfl OCalaquoely [he solid ooses for new historie blocs
Fwinuumll aNml4cbts
Feminist perspcctives 0f1 inttmatlonal rtlatioos llave in common wirh the erit~ ical rheocillu a rejclaquoion of (he dominance in rhe $Ilbjecr of the rcnHst and rdOrmisrs Although fuminist writen cover a wide 5laquolpe the gencral basis oiacute their aqurnent 1S har in interwnional relatioM ru in most politkal aud tcooomk acdvity women are diexclSJtdvantagt~l Alchoogh they own ahour 1 pet tCfH oC the worlJs lfOpeny and tiexcliexclxe heme 10 peiacute ceoc ofincome they perfurm 60 per eenr of working houn and provide 80 per eent of nfusets (petetsen and Runyan 1993 6) This is a derDOnstrndon of gender inequalitie~ the sodalJy learned behavior and expecratioos thar distioguish berween maKuliniry and femininity (Petetsen and Runpn 1993 5) Feminist aprroaches ofren So bejond the $tati~tks and examine (he mind~se[ of those engaged in the pmctice of intemadonal rdations whiexclch (bey ampee as geodered In other woros che world
Writingc Off inlmhJliofMl vrgntiZdlMm 167
illeen in a mlLlndine way thar kvrntB (he posjtiOll o( mnles in rhe hitgtranhy and devlllues the c041trihution of WQmeO (Sylvestet 1994) War in pattKular is gendered in a way chat keeps wornen and metl from qUtstioniog the essentiat pmpose and he neglltive effects of war militarization ~nd viQleme on their awn and orhers livts (Petetsen and Ruoyan J993 9 t)
What of wminist view$ uf imernationaJ organizationsr Ir IS not possible ro presem a rollf(tive vjew that eneomp3$~e~ rhe works of radicaJ femjnisu and ny iexclihetal teminists (rutead the work of one author Sandra Whitworth (1997) will be used as me pily$ rornt attrntion ro inrernarlonal organizations Aamper inrroductions ro feminilfr theory and internacional frIamiddot tiom and gendet and internacional relatlons Whirworrh examines geodet and imernational organilions She screpts Coxs vjew oiacute inrernational orgashynjzarions [har they retleltr (he dominant powet relations in che intetnational system and rhae internaliomd otgaoiution h che procelt of imcitntionaJshyiling and regulating conOice - eicher rhat which may IIrise among siexclates o( char which has iu (onU io transnationaI society (Cox 1980 375) TIte way duu pcople orgaoire themelve$ wirhin international iostirurjons reflects a variety of power relations ineludi~ of rollJSe gendec relatiull3 (Whitworth 1997 74) lbe triad of jnstirutions ideas and material rQudi~ tioru help ro hxare uSllmptiolls aboue geoocr withiu jntetmltional rewtioos Whitworth uses thesr tn examine lhe uooerstandillg oiacuteScndec io an INGO the Internadonal PlarUled ParenthooJ Federatlou (JPPF) and an intergnvemmental organilJ1rion (albcir one wlrh some oOl1-governmentJ)J represemation) the InrernatlonaL lab01lrOtganiution (no)
Whirworths studies show rhar thr IPPF tended ro accept the deshyemphasizlng oi the gendered oamfr of reproducdoo and (f) ignore rhe imponaoce ofbirth comcol foc womens reproductive freroom Instead in an effort tu popularize birth rontrol srrel~ WWl placoo on paremhooJ rather than iexclust the womans choice However IPPF poUcy beeiexcllme more radirnl in (he 19905- with Hnks beirtg made berween II1M control alld womeos ~)tu~ ality (WbJtworth 1997 ch 4 pmim)
The RO eoucerned itself with WQmen as workern It cnnsidercd that tbey oeeded spec-ial atrention and promoted ptoteCtlvt legiexcl~lacion This reiexcln~ forced me view (har [he male worxer Wall the norm with women workers nor deserving the same rights remunfration lOO mndirions Latterly however the JLO ha~ reflectoo views rhat prodaim wornens elt)ualily in rhe workforce and has sunoo tuacute assess the importanee of policies on womens role in rhe workplace as weU as in sodery more wjdely (Whlrwnrth J997 ch 5 panm) Whitworth comes [O the eondusion rhu iexclln iexcllnaLyiexcli~ of gernler in rbe IPPF and no shows how tbese rdiexcliexcldonsbips llnd definirions ni what it is to be a womltn oc man are structuted relationsrups3nd hlsrQciudly hve been scrurtured tu disadvantage women (ibid 15n
lo eommon with the critkal meorists Whitworth has useQ au examinamiddot doo of two intetnational organixations (O deroonstrate a puinr about imerflational relatiexclon~ indeed sodal rctatrol1s mOte widely The poinr is
I1
I
middot - ~-_ --___ aOOuc powec and iu use not (O balance oue SCdre ligaiOSf anorher but fm une gooup ro domiaare morher Jn chis case it 1$ ma the dominution of one dass me m culcnre over $ofU)(her (though Whirworrh recognizes those reLationshyships ti wcll) but of roen over women The crititUl uudy oiacute (wo jnceraational mganirations dealing with iSSlle5 recoSniud ti beiiexclg oiacute impocshycanee or WOfficn suggesu rha( tltOO simihu research on orher internacional organizadons could proJuce interening aOO uwfuiexcl resulrs
Pllit~ism
Thc posc-moderruacutesr $opprooch lO intetaarional rcllldon is one tlur bas (ome ro che fote Jn che perlod sinee lite end of rhe Cold War Jr is based on $o widcr imellectual viewpoim insrigated by l1rench iorcUtcruals of the 196()s gener~ ation _ Bllrrhes Derrida FouclIul and Lyorard - and whkh suggested rhat the modero era liad becn overome 11 fejeas mera-nattatives gnlud accounv- of hi5tory aoa iacuteNIacuteler subjecu as having no independem rubstance Scientifk btliefs induding [hose oiacute rhe $)(ial scJcllces are rooted in (lllxure polill(os arul mores oJ a wciery and are lherekJre subjective As rhere is 00
oblcctive reality cmpirical daims bave fl() spccial sunding in rhe rralms of koowledge IndeeJ ir i$ power aod knowledge are intimatel) incerwirud Posr-moJernism Hllnds against rhe belief of rbe modero pcfiod which LI seco as beginning wiacuterh rhe enlightenmcm of mid-eightcenth cenrufy Europe and AmeriCll Ir rheldore rejcn~ rhe COMCpr$ oC rationalirl and progrcss aSSuacutedared wi(h [he enlighrenment and [he moocrn age Thc uniry of IOOnkind iexclirW iexcldells such liS rhe untveIsWiI) of human aacuteghrs are rejcuoo lnsceadlocal aetion in smallgroups 15 advuacuteClmd
Post-modetnist ideas have affected tite srOOy of inremruionaJ rdarions as (bey have ocher social scienccs Posr-modern imeraarional relariops theoriscs havc ustd heir view$ 00 objecuumlviry (o exiexcltmine che rrmhs of international relatiom en see how rhe concepts iexclind knowledge-dairm (bar dominare the Jisdpline in faer are highiy conringenr on spccific power relatiom (Smith 1997 181) Post-modemisrs bave lltfa(red me mcta-narratives of the reelshy1m and reformlsu aHke The objectiacutevemiddot aaallses of the realim Ilnd neo-realisu are setn as being deJl(nclent on the subjective standpojnts of cheif mainly Amen(an and Europeau authors Ijcharcl amphiel (1986 258) daimed he works o[ Kenneth Waler men the leading neo-realillt trrat the glven ordcr a rhe natural nrder Jjmirs rarheE (lian 1XpawU political discllUtse negales oc rriviuliliS the signifinnce uf variely urOiS time and plue Whar emerges ii an ideology tllar anridpatcs iegirimires ancl onents a totalitarian projen 01 global ptoponioo~ che rattoualiaciuacuten of global poHcics iexclbe reformius are likcwise tainted Md have Ji mhr$lren belief in pmgress The posc-modernl$rs poinr m rh Helocausr as rhe heighr oiacute mooemism a rombimiddot Halioe of science dnd polidcal otganizillnon Il was SCruTely progreso
Given an antifllthy mwards rhe MlVe[iacute~ign srae borh as a centre of powet ll1ld as a crearioll Jiten imbutol wlth a wncepltliexcl uf progress pest~miexclJdetniexclsls
wHungJ mi Im~iexcliexclrun wgltiIRrzuJlU7iJ 1J7
can lOUcdy be expcctcd to vIacuteew intergovernmencal organiUlrions wirh sympilthy Tbe prefetted iacuteonu of internacional organizations when mentioned are those thiexcltt ltlj~plal differemes snd dlvenity in global pelitlcil duu are reginnaUy based or rhar reflec irKlividual actlOn Tndecd ir SeeIJS
rbat Michel Fomawt was involved with an alliance oiacute twO INGOs (Miquestdecin du Monde and Tertl-s do Hommes) in proresting agaiust internadonal iH~shydon over rhe boat people who flcd Vietnam in tite lare 1970s and ear1y 19S(k He is gU()[ed 11$ sayillg tbar Amnelltl Internnrlonal Teueiexcl dts Hommes Mfiiecin du Monde lHt inirilltives whiacutech have created a nrw righr rile dAht of privare individuss ro iexclntervene in [he otder of polino and internatioont snateg(eiexcl (dred in CampheH 1998 516)
Aootber researcher has exnmined ~he Europcan Communities Ilr che point wben Jr was mnslorming intO me European Unioo and askOO whether ir was a pootmodew ConJigUflHton (Nstrgaard 1994) Hi condusions wcre mar ir was gualiwiveJy a new organizarion oC human calJecrlvJties which mighr U$hec the coming of post-moderniry (Ntgttgnatd 1994 27j) The basis fO[ [bis judgemem was rhat me Ee did nO approximate anl modero form of piexcliexcl1idUll Ofpnizarion it did OOt commatld che means oiacute violence its au[hotity derives noc from die people and ir appeared to be a fCgJoo trying ro pOrecr itiexcliexclelf againsr globaliacutezadun iacuteN0rgaaro 1994 274--5) Ir remllins ro be sren whether [he BU tJf [he twenry-first cenrury wHl fu1fi1 rhtgtse hopes Ot wiU stllrr ro teVen
to a more scate-like being Generall) dIe cririolapproaches ro interruHiorud relarious hiexclJve provided
1lOOIe innovatIacuteve insigllls iexclnro rhe study uf imemarional orgsnizations The crtrical theorists llave becn sh3rpest in rheir unde[$(iexcltnding nf internarional ofgiexclt1lizacious as servsnrs of a dominiexcliexclIf power configuracion thoogh the) lave pemaps Umieed cbelr scope wllen viewing internacional organizadons Feminis[ wJiters ruave given Vltike to whac i5 after aH tbe scmi-sileut majoric) in rhe world and Ilre ouly srarting in qnest10niug the male dOmimiddot nance nuacutet iexclusr of the nmning of IGOs huc aloo of theic agenda Tite post-modemisrs are iMlSr concerned oiacute he (bree 8rOUp5 with inretnationlll organiucioru as such bllr rIacuteleic intellecrual approach is the ffiOSt tadkal aud can lelld tuuml a fnon of nihilism
GltJbaliacutesf lIiu
A gIobalisr perspective does oor viacuteew world poliacutetica as being predomishynandl arout iotergovernmemal relatlnn~ Ili would realisu or illbour inrentare aruI imersocietal rdations as a number uf reformisu llliexclll consider lnsteaacuted it cakes a more holisdc view Problems are (cmfronred ac Ji global level wlurions have tO be sou8ht here as weil This iexcls not ro neglcct (he 10tal Ol rhe ~tlte level ir is more J recognilion of the limiutshydoos of acdviuumles rhere The world-vicw like rhe reformists places empllasu on whal unIacutetes people Ilnd has lirde time for lhe demaoos of power pouumlics aad stare-cemrir orglLuiwrjollS Ir goe~ fllrther by nor
1 V WNimgJ lJ7f tIfernattmiexcliexclJ 11fK4111141tOnJ
liminog in view eirhec ro pans of che world or ro rellltions berweeo particuJar poliric~ lr ioded jlLSr m the economic social and poJitical demaods of mankind Paradoxically ir can be seen as IIn approach rhe very OppoSllC of the fimctionalist wirb whom tbere 5 much io common In nmtrast lO rhe fnnctionaHst (or neo-fllnctiooalisr or intetclependeuce srhuul) and ccrrainly in contrast ro rhe powet politks aOO MaOIacuteIt writers (be whole world approach places emphasis not 00 the discrere r~uiexclreshymems of groups SClteiexcl or individulI1s bm 00 tbe wel1-bciog of the tCOsystem in which rhf5f funnioll cbe planet Eanh The conccen of chis apptoach which is rcflccted il] in ttcumeUr of illternational urganizatiom is for the survival of lhe plunet for its effident funccioning in its widest SeILie aud fot che survival oiacute rhe myriad oiacute speoacutees - ollly one of which is homo sapiens - tbat inhabh me globe
Sinle tbe 196Os a number of wtiters on imernational affairs have expounded 00 tbis view and llave cOl1l~uendy ronsideted the implicadons for intemational organizacions Jobfl Button in bis World Society ronsldeted iflmstatt relations to be onIy a pan of wodd poli[iacutea and wrore
lf we employ rhe term world rociety imiexclreui of internanofla relarions iIacute we apptoo(h OUt study in this global way insread of the more tradi~ lonal nattonal way we will end to have a wider focos ro ask quesrions rhat are moee fundlmenral aOO imponant lO civilization and be ahle ro assess bettet me relevance of om own national bduviour ro be wider worW envifonment
(Button 1972 21)
Rkhacd Stetling posed the problem more spedfically
Nuclear esCllatiofl the popullltion explosion the pollmiofl of tbe envishyronmcnt the communkations rtvolurion rbe world~wide concentNdon of wC1llch and world~wide expansiofl of pltlvcrty are iexcliexcl11 essemially global and not 1laquo al pbellomena They have given rise jn tutn ro eartbshyspamuacutellg and revolutionary demands ror mass education rnass hesltb malts welfure and maltgts participation in che dccisions affecting roans fare
(Srerling 1974 322)
This wodd-view of rhe problems of the s)Jaceamphip EQlth begged fur global oolutlofl$ It suggcsred iexclhu not onIy iJ the system of sovereign stares as yer unable oc unwiHing to COme to grips with the above-menuontd prohlelUS but that a network of llllergoVCtn1lental organiutlom bGsed 00 me rights of statc wVfretgnt will ~lso be hammllng Globtl problems needed global solutlons based on institutinos rhat can (ake a global petsplaquoshytive Thus Sterling considetecl thllt it ~ tlOt unreasooable (O amidpate tme tbe member stares will be moved ro considft equippifllil the Unitw Nttous witb mote crunprebensive powen 1lt global pressUfes build 0974 323)
~h~ laquoo ~gt~ _- -gt bullbull (_bullbullbull __ - bullbull
A more compeluumlng cdH wus lAltiexclued by Barban Ward and Rene Dubas in their book prepared for [he UN Gmference of ehe Humafl EnVJroJlmenl 01lly UIIt EaFlh The c~ altJ Mdilllt1JatfCe (JI d Sflall Pta~t (972) 111ey stremsed the ufliry of tbe Eanh Jnd in eovironment and the )Jroblems in(ed by Jts iohabitants emntially thost oudined by SterJiog The ~uthoflgt poillted OUt rhat rhF envitonmenral qmosrion had by 1972 already had 50me impaltl on guvernments and im(rnarional organl1Jtion but the effior was somewhat ltInJOrdinated and unfocuseL In (hree particular aren - tbe global atmosphere rhe oceaml the worlds weather sysrellU - tbt-y saw [bl jmmediate neOO for (OmInOn poliey und co-ocdinared actiollS where vcerenshysions to national sovercigmy have no relevance ro ptrreived problems Bu rbefe was a need to go furrher and denl wirh other global problems di5Case srarvation iHitmcy unemployrnem ovcfllwding rntetnational poliCJcs wece at the 5tage reachOO wlrhin rhe devdoping s[ate~ of the ninettTtb (entury Elche they wiU move O to a wmmIlJlity bL~ro UiexclXIIl a more systematic sharin8 of weaJtb Ot tbey wiH break down in revoh and anareby (Wacd and Dubos 1972 295- -6) They Looked forward ro a sense of gLobal rommuniry 00seJ on he bope vf Irotecdon (from war aOO disaster) and the hope of enhancemenr (ecologic$1 as well as economid The ptlKtic~ and insrirutlofiS with whkh we are familiar inide our domestk sociecies would become suitably modlfied che basis of planetary oroer (Ward aOO Dubos 1972 297-8) This woold indude non~violent settlement of disputes witb legal arbirration ~nd polioacuteng ptocedures on an international basis jr would mea the Hansfer uf resoucces from rkh ro peor Ilnd inerCllSlaquo co-operaeion in arealt 5uch as health and edUcatIO farming uroon planning aud )JOlJution control As [befe halt been a shift of loyalty rom taroliy to dan from dan to tlation and from nation to fedctation there Wampll
hope clajmoo Wl1fd and Dubo$ for an ultimare lnyalty tuacute OUt single beau~ tifulllud vulnerable Planet Eanh (Ward and Dubas 1972 298)
Whilst the institutiona fmmework and organizational stfllCtuteS remain of necenity -ague in Oltl OM EaFtA iacutet is del( rhat the authors Wfre atming 11( a tlttwork oiacute world-wide fflnctionaUy hased organlzatiofll (both lOOs and JNGOs) char couId take on much of the work )JfCsendy done by governshymems o( rather whkh ougbt [O be dont by governmems UacuteJter writing-s have attempted (O deal wjth thc policy impliration$ of delllJng with )JrobshyJems globdly sroos (986) has poiacutenred en what 1w already been achieved in gtobal problem solving l1nd ha~ soughr ro buHd on rhis His critio have prunted out tha( what has already becn undertiacutelken has bren done more along rradicional Jntergovernmentallines (Donnelly 1990 121-30) Orbe writen have tied rubievemen[ in addressiacuteng [he global agenda more to renewed rutiviry in the UN (Rochester 1990 141-54) or to greater grass~ roots aud INOO acriviSffi Wget 1990 155-~8) Either way globaJj~m offeacuters a distinct W1ly of rackling the worlds ptublem~ It 1$ u ViIOIl thar sttesiexcles uniey and common (am( ntthet than disasreemem and roofrontashytion ir (ould thereIacuteore (oresce disputes being sruved inlernationally vety
much in (he way tbar chey are pre~ndy solvcd within tunny MtiOO iexclrares by more ro arbitratwn and Jaw and by entorcemenf ir neteS$il1) In this rhey have muh in COIDfllOfi wirh tire imerrnuiona lawyers iacuteUld idenlist writer of me eady (wenuacuteeh eemury mentioned at the beginning of tbu chaptet The globalisn are inspirecl jn rheir thinking more by ten Ot lt nudeal holocatlsr and by environmenml breakdown tnan by rhe duumleet elrpeshytieme uf wa dlllf aiacutefected rhe wricings of Woolf ol Ikierly
TIacutete globalisl appro~(h is opert ro the criticism of bcing roo idealistk jn a cynical world and lOO iIDpracrical in in uacutelstitutional sU8scsrioll5 Bur the di$mi$Slil oC rh~ words as globaloney cKleS HOt lid lite wctld oC che probw lems which hey have 50 effectively publiacutedzed They lutve uied to add anorIte dimensioacuten ro whar is possibte by showlng thar ie is nOCeSSiexcllty fOl rhe iexclurviwl of che planee
Tlle radical approach to the smdy oC iOternational orgllnizarions reflocu worIdmiddotvitws that normaUy lO beyond -dmse Jominated by rhe ltctivities of iexcltatcs or of LIte organizltuumlnns chemselves There is a sceprical view of whut is happeoing al soy one uacuteme in imernarional celarions and of he abilicy of mOfe cradicional wcifecs on imernafional cdarions ro explain let aJone llOderstand what is happeoing Ir is the feeling rhar approaches such ll1 (he MaNisr tlwt of rhe ideal theorisrs and some of rhe globuli~rs ur~ coming cber (O uodemaoding humanicys wider dilemmas rhar makes rhero so amactive They ar~ less Iikdy co apply rhemselves to rhe defais rutd wnrk~ ings oiacute p$cdcular imernatinnaJ organizations but neverrheless providt iotriguiog insighrs 00 [his phenomenoo by seeing rhem rhrollgh mol panoprk phHosophical lenses
SUMMARY
The rhree flIajor $chuols dealr wich io chis chaprer - the tcatiacuten the reformisrs iacutei1d che radical$ and rhe variarions (bey contain did not and do tlOf exJn iexcln a hiSforlcaj vacnum lde-as Wele foffilulared wirhio lhe COnten oiacute panicular sodedcs uoo in response ltO pUticular problems rbe communl (adom reYoludon of fhe nineteemb century the Finr World Wlli rhe rise of Nui Germany the spreading of nudeu weapons the deve1opmeof of plthitshy
$econd Workl War Europe fbe pnxeues of decoloniwion and deacuteteme rhe end oiacute the Cold War and rhe advaoce oiacute che inCormatton revolution In sorne CilSC$ the views oiacute rhose wdtings on inttmiddotrnational ocganUatlOHS have liad un efiecr on evenrs rhemelves pirlKulatly 00 rbe actitudes oC govetnrnents mwards tnternatiorW orgdflixauons AIl tXample is the work oC LecnarJ Woolf woose suggesnons Ctmceming a world organizatloo conttibuted lO fhe detailed preparnion oC the Lague oC Nations by me British goveltr mene Likewise Hans Morgeruhau and EK Can provided seimuli fot infiiexclrmoo US and Btirish governmcllul rhinking abom inrerruuional rela~ tiom iexclrom the 194Ck onwards In mher cases rhe general writings cJ persons lgtuch as Marx Leoin Mao Tse-tung and che dependencia school have affecred
rhe poJirk1ll dimare wirhin which govemmcncs conduce rheJe poUcy iucluding thar wwards jnternaclorull otgauj~atjon$
Orber ruCfOf$ aplft froro their historial cuntexc Iuve affencd the views of rhe schunl$ rncntioned They have differint backgtounJs io cheit ideruogy (Wesrero commllniSf Third World radical environmenralisr) and in theit level of $nalysis of inrernarional rebtions (stare Centuacutec inretesr aoo rramna~ dona groups cLitraquo dominanr global) This a(icca the typC oC inrernatiacuteonal organizariacuteon dominam io their studies (IGOs INCo) auJ thcic 8eograph~ kai $rea of interest (the Nonh Adandc Europe ThinJ WodJ Ot global)
TIte range of wcitings about intetnational organizarions has ull dte whole teflecfeJ wiJec llooersundings of imetoational ceJarions and wuumltld polidcs These io rhernselves have fed 00 tbe gtVidc iacutellccUecmal fcnnent and on developrnenrs in world affiuacuters Viewl about iacutellteftlational ocgsnizatJoos wiU continue ro take accOlnt of the ince1leeruaJ debate ill the studjes oiacute polishydes internacional re1atioO$ philosophy ecooomics imematluacutellal uw sociology histoty and geogrilphy They will also reflecto among other ampcton che stntcegk balance in tbe world [he relafIacuteve power of tiJe United Stares aod oroer nares me scate of wotld markers [be pto-ess uf Euwpeiexcliexcln tlllegrashytion che relacive positloo of the developing warIdgt iexclbe levd of cootlicc througbolc the world fhe -ratC of dte environfneot and the ahility oiacute huge StatCS to wiacutethswnd cenrrifttgal force Tbe way tIacuteult imematiornal organiuiexclshydons ret1ect tbese developrnents and tIacuteleir t1Ipability lO deal wich some of them will provide (he tllW fiWifcrial foc funue smdies
118 Witi1lgr 011 le1IIJuumlmalllrFa1lizatiOlu
of power polities limieed ro cbat sphere of internadonal reladons whieh is irrelevant from rhe standpoinr ofhigh politics
(Schwarzenberger 1941 388)
Writing dnring uncertain times Schwarzenberger was not aiming to adopr a merely negative srance Indeed he desired inrernational relations to be based on a community spirir and founded on the rule of law bur he thought rhat norhing was more dangerous to chis objffrive than che belief ehae half~way houses like che League of Nacions or limiced plans roe economie co-opemtion are adequate ro bring aboue chis vital tmn5formation (Schwarzenberger 1941 11) Internacional order and the rule oflaw in intershystace relations presupposed national communicies based on justiee freedom trurh and love Christian virmes ro which Schwarzenberger recommended We5tern smres return (Schwarzenberger 1941 434)
A strong Christian element is also to be found in he works of the American wricer Reinhold Niebuhr who nevercheless is ro be counted amongst rhe realist school Niebuhr contrasted growth in mans technical achievement with the lack of advance in politieal areas
Oue problem is thar rechnies have esmblished a rudimentary world community bur have not imegmred it organically momlly oc polidcally They have created a community of mutual dependence but not one of mutual trust and respecto
(Niebuhr 1948 379)
Niebuhr examined the case fur world government nodng cbat almosr all the arguments for it reseed on the presupposition that che desirabiliry of world order proves rhe actainabiliry of world government (Niebuhr 1948 380) He identified lWO faulrs which undermined arguments fur world government governments are not creared by fiar but need a communiry for rheie base and governments bave only limiced efficacy in integrating a communiey (Niebuhr 1948 380) Given the absence of such a communiry of interest in the world Niebuhr preferred che imperfffdons of the Chatter of che Unired Nations ro an internarional organization ehat would attempr world federation bur would accomplish something a lot less specraculat However he did nore thar the internacional cornmuniry i5 not tocally lacking in social rissue (Niebuhr 1948 386) He listed ffonomic incerdependence fear of mutual annihiladon and moral obligarion as unifying factors in the modern world Pitted against rhese were rhe economic disparities in rhe world rhe negarive effect of fear of destruccion and rhe lack of common convicrions on panicular issues in shon rhe forces which are operaring to integrare rhe world communiry are limired (Niebuhr 1948 388) Wriring during rhe inicial nighr-frost of the Cold War he rempered his realisrie view of the world wirh an apprffiation rhar satisfacdon with che Starus quo is in itself dangerous we mighr also gradually esrablish a genuine sense of
nllTll5J 1 17~~(Jt Off 15= ~ I 7
communiry with oue fue however small No marrer how stubbornly we resisr Russian pressures we should still have a marginal sense of communiry with rhe Sovier Union (Niebuhr 1948 388) For this reason Niebuhr placed emphasis on international organizations such as rhe UN nor 3l being nascent world government but in the Securiry Council as being a bridge of a sort between the segments of a divided world (Niebuhr 1948 382) The Chrisrian Niebuhr recognized rhat whilst individuals may be moral [he morairy of groups i5 much inferior ir may be possible though it is never easy ro esrablish JUSt relarions between individnals within a group purely by moral and rational suasion and accommodation In inrer-group relations this is practicalIy an impossibiliry (Niebuhr 1936 xxii-xxiii) Mankind mighr dream of peace and brorherhoexl but has to content itself with a more modesr goal a sociery in which cbere will be enollgh justice and in which coercion will be sufficiently non-violenr ro prevenr his common eoteeprise from issuing ioto complete disaster (Niebuhr 1936 22)
Perhaps the most famous member of the fower polirics or realist school is Hans Morgenthau author of the classic PolifiCJ am01lg Natos (Moegenrhall 1960) Hrst published in 1948 Morgenthau was a German-boro internashycional lawyer who emigrated in 1937 ro rbe Unired Scates where his post-war work had a deep influence on ioternational relations thinking and peactice Alchough he did nor specificaUy dfore any book to the problems of internacional organizadons his works were so broad as ro envelop the general problems of relations between sraee5 and rhe specific questions of intersmre organjzarions TIte rhree major elements that typify Morgenrhaus writings (and the realist school generally) are
bull the beliefs thar nation srates are rhe mosr importanr actors in internashyrional relarions
bull rhar rbere is a clear disrinction between domestic and international polities bull and that international relariacuteons i5 predominanrly about the struggle fue
power and peace (Vasquez 1979 211)
These basic tenets are reflected in Morgemhaus ereatment of jnterna~ rional organizations which are seen purely as interstate institutions importam in so far as chey are wed in the search for power oc in solving the problem ofpeace
A crucial senrence in PoitiCJ amog NafiJls poims to a central idea io Morgenthaus work The main signposc thar helps polirical realism to find irs way through the landscape of internacional poliries i5 the concepr of interest defined in terms of power (Morgenthau 1960 5) Thns Internacional policics like aU polities is a struggle foe power (Morgenthau 1960 27) and When we speak of power we mean mans control over the minds and acrions of orher men (Morgenrhau 1960 28) Furthermore AH politics domesric and internacional reveals [hree basic patterns rhat is aH
J LU wrwlIgiexcl M IIfffl1l4r1MdJ arga1lIZiJU01Ji
policical phenomena can be reduced ro one of duee ~ic rype5 A political pollcy seeks eithet 00 keep power ro Jnireot power Uf tu demonsrrare power (Motgeruhau 1960 39) These policies are seen in rhree forros (he pnlirics of status 100 (he politics of impedalirn and che polides of prestiA-c Moqiexclenmau then eVMUamptcJ narional power and timitlltlons on ir in the fuClll of balance of power intemarional mornlity and world public opillion and inremarional law He considered world politics in rhe mid-rwemieth century and rhe problem of peace He examined attemprs ro ob1lliin peare rhroacuteuiexcliexclh limicatJon (diwrmamenr collective seeudty judicial settlemeru peaceful change inrermuionaJ governmem) through ttansfOrmarion (inw drber 11 world Hace Ol a wodol commnnity) aM tbrough m-ommodatien by dip1omacy In rus wmk Morgemhau tewhcd en rhe role of intemationaJ organizatlmu ellpeciaHy in rus senioos en imecnadonal law on peace rhrough limitatton aud on wodd communit)
Morgemruw sttessed rbotr OH rhe bauacutes of inccmadonallaw there has been builr au impostng edifice consisring of tltousands of wadcs huodreds of deuumlsions uf intetmriou~l rrlbunals and innumentble dedsions of domestic roUtlS 1besc lcgulared relatIacuteom between stares arose from
the mulriplicity aud VliriC[) of incernllrional (omans which are tbe rewlr of modern communiauioos internat100al exchange of goods and secvkes and the greur numbtr of Internarional Otganiutiacuteons 10 whicb lOOSt
nadmUi have co-operated for rhe furrherarue ef their commou intereso (MOfgentluu 1960 277)
Whilst mosr internatlww1 UacutetW has been respettccl Moxgemhau rcmarked dIar when miel are vielatetl tbey are fiot 1I1ways cnrooced and rhat even wheo enfonement is uudel~n ir 1s nor alway~ roccrjve Memioning [he Briand-KeHogg Pace the Coveoant of the League of Nations al1d rhe UN Charter he comidered that
fhese inmuments are iexclndeed of doubrhll efficacy laquo(har is [bey are frequendy violared) and lomerimes even of doubtful validity (rhat IS they are ofren oot emorced in case of violation) fhey are bowever flOr typical of [he tradicional rules of imernarjonallaw
MOfgeoduu 1960 277)
lo the sectioo en ioternauacuteooal govemmem Morgeotlmu nored th$r since (he sean of tbe nintteenrh cen(ucy tlich of rbe lIuee wor1d wars (lhe Napoleonilt War tbe Fim anO Second World WaN) hud betn foUowed by an attempr ro euabJisb imernatlona1 governmem ~he Hoiy AlIiance lhe League oC Natiacuteoos aud che United Nations TIle ritn tWO arremprs rouodered becawe uf rhe varied interesrs of stales iBvolved in particular because of disagreemems abour tbe snlfUS qoo lhey wete sUPfll$ed tu be Sllpporting According (() Morgembllu
-rmgJ M Itrernana41 fI1ganlla1t)1tJ 1 Lo 1
cont1iexclu betwccn lIJe Btitish aod French conceprioru and polides did not howcver wreck (he Leugue of Nadons as rhe coufHcc brrween Great Brirajn llnd Ruuia hud the HoIy AlIianee Ir racher led ro a creepiug paralysis in the polirkaJ acfivitJ($ of elle Leugue and ro lu inahiUry ro take determined ardon iexcliexclgail1llc rhrears ro iocetlational ordet aud peare
(Morgenthau 1960 469)
The League coold oruy be iexcld te bave tXerdsed goverumerml functioos tU the 3tt$ of che maififeoanoe of illcernational order and peace in the tIltc
insNlnlaquo$ when eicher he interests of dte grear powers among in members were not affected or tbe common interests of the most influentiacuteal amonA rberu seemed ro requite ir (Motgenrhnu 1960 471)
The United Nadons was also seen by Morgenthau as ~ing based bn
unsure foundations bur fur a differenr rCJSon than for [he League after the Seltond World War [he vicrorious powers first created MI inrernacional governmenr for rhe purpose of IDaiacutencallling tbe srarus quo and alter tbat proposcd to agree upon me status quo However Since such aglaquoement has never existed during rhe Jife pan of tbe Uuited Nations rhe interruuJonal government of [he United NorioM as envisiged by the Citarter has temaiacutened a dltM Imer (Morgenthau 1960 493-4) He teterred lO a pantlysed Selturuuml) Council wirh che GtnetiUacute AssembIy and Secrtaiacutery-General of [be UN borh displayiog weakness (Morgenthan 10 492-3) and wirh tbe whole orguni~ utten acbltving liule rnough (Morgentbau 19tiO 496) Iu his view
The comribmion the Unind Nntiolls can make ro [he preservadon of peace then would lie tr1 fIlking advaotage (lf the oppormniry (hat (be coexisleuce of [he two bloc$ in the same inremariorual organizadon provides iexcl(Ir che unobrmsiexclve resumption of the techniques of tmditional dipJomacy
(MOlgenthau 196) 497)
In enminlng tite possibility of creadng a world community based on a t1lfl8t of iutematlonal organizations such as UNESCO and che ruhet spedaJ~ iud agencies Mursenrhau made he poinr [hae rhe creation of $uch a romrnuniry presupposes al least he mitigacion ampnd minlmiziltlOH cf iuter~ narional conflku so (ruu the interesu UOJrlug membus of different natlOIlS may outweigh me inrerests reparnting tbem (MotAcnchau 1960 536) On rhe UN agencies Morgemhliu (oruidered thar
che comriblltions imerna[Jonal functiOflll agencies make ro he weHmiddot bring of members- of all natious frule lnto tbe background Wh$t Irands brfore the eyes of alI IUC (he immense polixka conflicrs (ha divide tbe great oariollS of the Eanh and dUCQren he welJ-being of rhe- loser if not his very exisrelle
(Morgenrhau 1960 528)
122 Writings Q11 ifftmlailJltdlorganiza1om
In summary Hans MOfgentbau accepted chile inrernationaI orgllniexcllAtAacuteons have a place in intematinnal re1ations dlOUgb he was cardUl not ro QW1tate eheie imJXIrrance in [he match foe powet and peace in rbe worId He SltlW rbei comribution as beinp moJes (lf)(j as part of de geueral intercou~e hetween sraces and [heie gt1vernmcnts and be rve no real consideration ro internashyrional non-governmental oeganizations iexcliexclurthermore funcriacuteonalin(ernational organizacions whibt teCognited as bcing useful were nor given any pardcshyula role in snlvin~ the probkm of peaee Hven the Unired Natiacuteon~ WJ~ only given credence In dlis context as tbe new serring foc the old tethnic-iexclues uf diplomacy Morgenthau 1960 497)
TIte real1sr or po_r polirics schools view of inrernational orgMization is Open ro (hree truljoc (fiLieiuDS Ficst ir could be dairned rhar froro a moral viewpoim he power politks SdlOOl is gready lacking as il accepts too tasily the status que iu intern3tional politics and does nm allow iuternacional organizacions a posirive role io oeating a better wodd Howevct this js to fOrger chat in the writings of a number of cbe realisc schoo - Carr Schwanenberger 300 Niebuht - dlEtC Js a moral and oflen Christian 1lSpecL Hans Morgentltau WIllI use as CQuterned with the moral aspecrs of polidcs as were his contemporuies who rejtftoo the power politics prKepts The deptb of his concern can be sceo in his buok Tnh rmd Pouer Emraquo JI a DttttJe 1960-70 (Morgentltau 1910)
Second tbe whole tealisr school rypified by rhe works of Morgcuthao can be challenged exactIy 00 its major daim name1y Jts teiexcl1Ilism To what extent does (he $chool ofCet a useful descripdon and explanation of lnterna~ uonal reladens Valtiexclquez (979) has oudined how internacional relations anides published pnor to 1970 were dominated by rbe re-tlist paradigm yet their bYPQtbescs provtd 00 he inacrumie and even dld less weU than oonshyreglist h)pQrheses in tbeic prtdictive power Such findiogs tend to undermine me sneogth of wbat has becn the dominam internarional relashytions scboal in Western llCIldemia and suggest that alternadve paradigms shyfoc example tbe Maolsr aud me trnnsnadonal - shtuld be glven more tlme aOO comideratlon This questiOlling of tbe power pOlitkgt schoos work mus then libio mise doubts abonr their rathel dismissive rreatment oE iotemashytional organiwtlons as oong marginal in intemational reJatiQflS
Indeed OOe of the major uiticisms of me chools rceatrnenr of 10laquot011shydonal orgliohiexclitioru bas beelJ iu emphasis 00 high pJiicics tbe qUt5tlOO of peace and Wiexclir 00 che ncglen of low politics SlKh as economk cechnlcal and cultural relatioos lnrern9tionlil organizarioos are secn juSt as iustrushyrnents of policy fur lItates inrernational non-gQvernmental urgaulzarions are hardly oon~iexcldered Nowadays a neglect of econoroiiexcl relatioos and lNGOs seems atl eveu greatet Qmission
lo deenee of his acritudlt it should be rernemhered that most of lhe power polirics wridngs occurred before he ma$$ive exparuioo oiacute lNGOs froro the 1960s onW1llrds The scbool is roorecl in tbe reaction to rbe infir~ micy uf tbe Western democmcies when faeed by Hitler and Mwsolini in lite
WitaacuteKl O iJlt1tatioflal organiUiexclfiqm 123
1930s and i[ found its feet in tbe immooiare fIIl1r- war Cold Wac periodo Ir is riterclOre undentandable cbal ir stces~ high puliexcltic~ and is andpathcrk (O
inrernarional otganiutions wbich were Ken tu be conrtec(ed with [he discredited League oiacute Natiacuteons 4nd 1u inteUeaual sllpporten O wim the original intemioos of rbe United NatlooS bcore these were sulernatecl by Grei1( Power dmension
Neo-naIacutells
TIle Output of me realim tlagged in chc 1970s rogerher witb [he giobtll power of the United States aOO in the [ace 01 nCwapproache ltO the srudy of intemarional rdacions The neo~functiexcl()llalist and interdependencc braoches of refurrnisr approaches (sce nexr section) seemed tO have tuen iacutemu account rhe rise in uamnational non~stare elemenl5 in international relatiumr and rhe imponancc of economic factors in relaLlonS actoss internadonal frontien
By [he 19805 another brand of realinn - the neo-realim - had Jigcsted rhe ncw clcments in intcmattonal relllti)n~ and reasltiexclerted some mmiliar aspects Pcrhaps jn ralQrtIC to tbe reer~iexclon ro naditlonal seturiacutety thinking by the Reagan administtation in thr Unired States these authbrl tended ro stress the conflictnal nuure of jntemarional affuirs tbat this rnnfljet Wu prtmarily between nation iexcltates in the modern world and that power and security was a prime nmsiderarion in human morivafIacuteons (Gtlpin 1984 227) lhe new ciernent jo rheir writing is a manet of S(1l1 debate (Baldwjn 1993 Kegley 199 Keobane 1986amp) bu( rbey bad in common ti de~ire for more intellectual rigour in theit work [han eme of the old retlshyises a willingness ro deal wirh telltions in 11 wodd where US hegemony was in qllestioll and a pttparedness tu include econurnj( fumiddotton io tbeir cakulashydons
How then did the oeo-realisrs rccae imeroarjonal organizatioru 00 the wbole (bey vicwed [hero witb tbe same jaundiced eye as did Morgemhau Imernational QCRinhatiooll were SCen as instrumencs of atate policy at most COrnmoo lorurns Their role ns independenc actors in [he iuteroatinnal syttem was not somechiog thl1 most uf the neo-r~lisu readUy anepted lndeed [beir doyen Keuneth Walu furcefuUy reasserter the pn~idoo oiacute th sovereign Stolte in internarional poli rics
fO a theory that demal the central role oiacute states will be nttded fmir if non~tate KtOrs develoi ro me poim oiacute rivaJling or SllrpRUing che great pOWCfS nor just a iacuteew uf tle minot on~ Tbey sbow 00 ign ofdoiog diexcliexclu
(WaI I98Go 89)
Waltt like others such as Gilpin (1981) Wall nmcerned wirh intetnashytianal pnlitics srructured by rh uneven distributinn of pOWCl lnternational instiexcltuttoilS therefore ftflecred rhe realities of [bL~ ~iexcltuation aod rhe major intematinna organizarioo5 llorliexcl as cbe U uited Nations Ol rhe Bretton
124 Writings JIJ iflJm1UtirmalIilgJ1liza1iofll
Woods iostitudons conld be eXpampted lO bear he imprinr of rhe maln bege~ monic power (in t~e CtlSes rhe Uoitw Srores) lf rbey rrled m brmk away from duacutes snaicjacker ~ as dlrl rhe otueraI Asscmbly of (he uumlN in he 197)s - fhey would find dxemselves lgtide-rnlCked by tIUt power
Tbe neo-reaiJSts accepred [har hegemoni( JXlwer could aru1 woukl decline bm wCfC les$ abJe ro deal wuumlh he consequences of rhis decline 00 rhe srruc~ tllrt1i uf iuternari01lal reJatious How mishr [bey (induding iowtnadolUll orgBnizatlolls) change aCrer hegcmony lt was ro thiiacutel (udtion rbar Roben Keobane uddressea himself He firiexclt wmited ehar Realism is patdcu1arly weak in accoundng foc ehange espc(iiexclJly where rhe sources of that chanse he in rhe wodd JOlirical economy oc in rhe domesdc srructures of smtes (Keohanc 1986b 1)9) He then referred ro his own eadie wooo un mrnpln interuependence for iospiradon CKeohnlle 1986b 160) He saw rbe (d lo $upplemenr though nor replace JeltlliSf wricings wiexclrh theoeiEs and be sHtSSCJ rhe importance of smdying inrerruuional inslitu[ioru which in particular would oeal wirh the question of how co-operation can cake place io wotW polidcs without hegemony (Keohane 19A4 14) By the early 1990s Koohllne fOUM a synthesis in elle iosriturionalist argument thal oormws e1ement5 ftcm hoth liberalism and teiexcltlil111 (Keohane 1993 271) Thi assumed (har sutes were rhe principal Qaors in world politics and acrm in rheir own self-inrerests hoth traditional eenli~t tenen Reiative capahilides - how power weaith etc was distributed berween the various nares - was impotcunt and S(Rtt5 had m rely on rheir own jUrlQns ro ensure rehuive gatos fmm coopetatioo From the Jiberal side Krohanes insrirutiQruUacuteism borrows 11 greater empbasis un the role of inrernatiunal jfl$rlIIriacuteoru in changing COnceiexclllons oftdf-interese (Keohane 1993)
During [he period from about 1945 ro 196S iexclntetna[ional imuacuterutions werc shaped by [he prevaHing American hegcmony Keohane identified as a problem the ledme in reronrces dllll lIacutele tilliced States governmellr had beeo wiUing ro devore tU the roainreoance of chis system (especially tU economic a~pect) siacutence he mid-1960s As US hegemony dedined rhere would be sn increased need for intematiooal ftgtgimes - scrs of rules norms and insrimrions ~ so [hat states could rub aJong mgether Keohane saw the regimes lefr by American hegemooy as a good scanillg poinr for future coshyopecatiiexclO and thought thar [hese should be adapred tu roCCt [he needs of (he new sicuation (J 984 244~ 6) This woulo ar leas[ make co--operatioo possible provide information foc all abotlr pnlicies inteor1ons aoO VIllues and woutd creare a depeudabiUry in intemational relarioni (Keohane 1993 259)
Keohanes wOrk has bccn critiacutecized by che more staunch feO-realistl Joseph GriecO 0993 301-38) provided a compreheruivc refundon of Koohanes leanings ro a more liberal positioo and rherehy advances a classic sratement of neo-fcalist conceros He admirs bar iU$riacuterurionalism has made imponam cOfluiburioru ir lIDs shuwo bow the dflilrchicaJ SlfUCture of iexclntershynationaJ rdarioru has Cfillted the problem of chenins fo lmerruuional
wnlngs 1m nf1hJUQrlai O1ffdl1lzamJ1U 1)
cooperario1 Setond ie has focusm on how lnternatlonal instirutions help srares manage thar problem and les symptoms Thioo they have caused che neo~realistS 00 look more carefully ar rhe relarive gains problem ihis is (he case where states are less concerned wirh rhe absolure gailll than with theit gaios ser aside [hose of orher srares which are seen as porenriaL riVus In other words le is beuer to agree tO an ums contml Healy allowing yOlJf
iexclrare ro build duee extra missiles and youe 0l1JXiuent lO build two exrra missiles rhan tu tolerate a situatiou wbere you can build five more missiacuteleiexcl (a better absolute gajn titan rhe [hree) bU your rival cnn buHd iexclnen (they have a stronger relJirive 81ljn mmpued wirh the arms control iexclreiexcliexclty outcotne) FinaJly neo-tClllim have had (O re-assess cher views of rhe signifkauce of intetnatlonal instirucions in rhe sysrem
This view of inrernarionaJ irutirutions entompasres the oeo-rett1ist IJndersranding of (he role of imernarjonaI uumltganizatioos in the international ~ystem As mendonw he realins view thero as insftumenrs oC rhe sovereign litates Neo-reaJisc$ have rehued rhis undersrandiog by poruuying tbem as refleecias che hegemony of the mese J70wcrful membe1l They can airo provide forums wirh [he poremjJi1 to be SOmewhaacutet more efficient than trnditional diplomacy or iHeguLu mnferences though a danget comes wheo they try ro he ilCroCS in ffieir own right Tbe successol1 of rhe tradimiddot donal realius such as WaltZ (1979 70-U and Mcaubeimet (1990) saw rhe EUlOpean Uo1on ptedecessor che Europeall COrnmunities me) as flour~ ishing because of rhe bipolar diviolioo of Europe by rhe USA and he Soviet Unl00 dudng the Cold War The txpecrarion was fhar with rhe end of che Cold War the Be pooject wnuld nor advance bur rache sink ioro disuse T1lltlugh the EC fiued n nurnher nf c-rlses in rhe early 1990s ir dld transfotm irsetf iexclmo the EUnlpean Unjon (EU) wich ao Boonomk and Monetary Union (EMU) 11nd a Common Foreign and Security Poky Grieco (1993 331) expIained rhis in tetms of $tates mnstitnting rollaoorariacuteve rules for a commen interese with the wCllker stares reying to consrrucr rules rhnt aUow them effenive volee opportuniries to ameLiotate tbeir dOJrunation by srronger partners Tite weaket states - sueb as Bdgium Portugal ot even France in rhe EU - wefe trying ro bind cbe stmoger Gcrmany in his (middotIl-~e lmo a form of relationship that avoids dominatioIL Crlieco (l993 335) admirtetl thaL realism hll-~ JIDC offered aIl explaoarion fm che tendeo(y uf sram tu undcrrake their coopemrion rhrough iftrituriOJiexclaited instirutions
This chaUenge has buo taken by those who nave ioaeasingly sought tO
liacutenk a fiiexclidy reaJlsr uudetstanding of wodd polides with domestic pulirles in the lcadifl8 stace actors An tlCamplc 15 Joho Richarelss Study of che regulation of dte inremarinnnl vlatioo marken in which he daims tO
refine rhe ffalm understamUugs of power io iexclmernarional bargaining 0999 33 BasiOlUy uationaJ po1iriciexclan~ Ut$te and susmin International inuJtudons induding intefflaacuteuacuteonal nrganiacutezations ro maxlmise domesshyti poliriud advamuumlge ltRicharda 1999 9) His conrendnn is har
l-V H~giexcl iexcllJJ ltifffltIltlUImal lIfglaquonlMiffIU1fJ
internatIacuteonal iusti[U[ious wiH be created whcn they are politicaUy effishyoacuteenr (mat is inrrease eleuoral support) Cor natiooa poHticians (Richards 1999 3) Rithards rejeces a loHective goods approach tO intctrtatlomuacute iuscirmiollgt (such a~ that ofZacher and SumID 1996) that See$ such insti~ clltiom al cHrrecdng lhe working$ oiacute che market internuJonally antl rherefore produciug econQmic benefirs all n1l1Od However he alro tejelttS rhe hard realist approach that daims rhat instltl1tions including internashycional organizatium merely reOeltt the power tap4biHtles in rhe international system altiexcl in Kra~nermiddots statement mar srronger Haces have simply done what they hiexcllve plea~edmiddot 0991 337) Richard srill claims rhat international imtitutlons iexcllre the iacutenstroments of stateS Because $ueb inscirucions as the internationill organiradons (hat regulate mtetoational rravel definc property rights internatiacuteonal1y they alter che marketplace leaving gains for sorne and losscs fur others This beJng ro [he building of such iexclnstirutiollS inrernationally is oound lO trigger a fiexclerce domestic political batdc (Richardll 1999 9) Thus whac happens ro and in internashytional otganizadons can be usoo by domestk politkians ro maxiacutemize eheir OWIl dmnestic advanrage This is a view that may attrac( supporr within the Ulliacuteted Srarcs though may be less reSOllant in sorne of the smaller and weaker ~tales
A similar view hdu bcen takco by the liberal intergovernmcotalistll who havt examined the European Union (EU) Moravcsik (1993 1998) has pcimoo (raquoIr tbar governrncmal strtttegies withiacuten tbe SU havc becn domi~ naced by preferences and power Cooperatiun and integration wete rhus seen as usefu strateampies if tbey furtltered a governmenrs control over its domesric alfalrs and agenda Moravcsik rhm ste$ the EU as a succc5sful imecgovernshytnelUal regime desigued ti) manage (conomt intetdcpendence rhrough negotiated poticy ctM1tdinatioo (1993 474)
The neo-res1i$tS have becn auacked OH many ground~ not leaJIt fO provIacuteltilng no WVIoce on toe works of che old realuumlt ($Ce AshJcy 1984) Like their reatist predecessors (he predicdve powcr of rheir work hal betn dlUacutelenged particulady their inabiUty (O foreste the eod uf the OJld War tand oiacute the Suviet Union (Scholte 1993 8) Scholre also cuacutetlcizs fhem fur nO addressing global iexclssucs $uch as welfnre questiorn ano poUucfon thar domishynate the world uf rbe late tweorieth and eurly twenry~first cenruries This questioos rbe descnpttve ability oiacute the oeo-realisu tS what (hey descdbe an) more (C$isritmiddot tllan thett realiacutest predelaquoSSOrs They have on rhe wbole OOen as unintere$laquod M cheir predece$sms in rIacute1f ro1e of interoatinnal ofRaniurioos The main exceptlon undl the 1990s wu Robert KeltiexclIacutellilne whose earLier worb en intetdependence stcved hun well no rIacutelar Sfilre Evel hee the critidsm can be made rha his view is b41skaHy conservative and was concerncd iexcljede iexcleh the incerests of (he Thiacuterd World Sorne of rhe Wrltel1l no economic coopshyeratino and integrauon fU tlle 1990s a(cepted many ol the nco-realiu assumptiacuteons aoout natiQna1 UlrettU$ ln Illternatllmal o~iratlon The) bave brought 00 the OeM a more refmed vlew oE rhe relatioacuternhip between govern-
Wrltingr tffl inttntaJumal ~ruZaJlflf1 ti I
menn and inrernarional orgHnizatioru and have Ieft behiod he Cnld War reain empoosis 00 the mijitruy ilSpet-ts ofpower
REFORMISTS
Tile n-alist wciters despite theit diftering valuatioos of the worth of cenain intematlonal organizstiltms have in rornrnon a state-centrk approoen ro intershyoational reiatWIlS 1bough liOIlle were CQnremed tbiacutelt govemITlents shoold renect more he (iacutenevitably) good lntentions uf their dtizens in inrerruttonmiddotd affiUfl or rbar world otgmizarions shoukI have more power (O detll wjth warlikt ()t reoegade Stares tOOr nus of artentioo is the internacional govem~ mental otganhtaacutetIDn (lOO) A nociceable devclopmenr in internariona reladons literawn inu the Second Wodd War has been (he movement away [rom mis 5tate-centred view towards ooe tIacutelat admits the impoarune of intematioroal atmiddotWrs iexcliexcltha than tite sovereign SUte 1bese indude lGOs in tbeir 0JIffi right (rnrlwr than as meeting places or inmumenn of thcir rnember tare) lNGOs trnnsaatJoual otgllnizatloru polirical group5 aod individual dtizeru Although many pl1blkadmlS just desctibe tbese new phenomena whkh llaVe herome more aniV in rhe last iacuteotty years [nere 15 a1so iI prescriptive erement to sorne oiacute [he writings They ttnd te prescribe incrmsed non-srare Jrtivity in inremashydonal relatiom ase a way uf underpinning claset relations berWfetl stattS ami socieries or undermining houlle anitudes by guvemmenrs (WeiS$ and Gordenker 1996 WlIlerrs 19~ Gordenker and WcillS 1998) Whilr this general reformist viewpoint is similar to reall~t approaches in aooopting the importafl(e uf the srate relatjons in incernational polit1cS ir does no( aoept eiexclrher fhe monopo1y oE rhe state in tbe sysrem or mar litatfS are unimry talional actors In surnrnary tbe leey aJlpeltrs of a reformist ilppftmdl to intetnational rclashytions indudes n number oE rbe folJowing
1 ihe belieE in reason in human nature and in progres$ [he [requency and level of war can be redocoo fur example
2 Inrernauumlonal relatioru can be moperative rather toon confIirtrW 3 Though seates are imponam in inrernarionaJ Ielations rhey are IJoOt [he
only aCtofS 4 ampates are Q)t ulUacuterary iexclI(tors wirh their dedsion inrematiacuteonally reflecting
intemal divisions aoJ interests They dv nve therefore neccssarHy muimize the interesrs oE che stare
~ The internacional s1gttem espl(bHy pires of iexclt comairu the elemenrl uf international society ano relies on a wriety oE international institutiollS indudjng inrernadonat Otgltlniution
The refurmist approach to the srudy (lf intemntional reladons hase conse~ quences fOl [be roruiderafIacuteon of interniexcltrnmal Otiexcliexclalization~ ano has made a notieabJe conuibwion to the lit(llIr~lre on the subjctt especiall) since [he 19508 Hnwever there is a bockgtotlnd ro the aboye idea~ char can be ICen in
j 01 Wnlmg 1m l1f1eOkllttmal urgJmuJugtnJ
me esdier writifl8~ of Grmiw Ladre Hentbam 3nd l(uiexclc (Jwkson aoo amprensen 1999 108-11 VlOtrl and Kaupi 199t) 200-4) Ao undet1randing of che curren refutmtst appruache1 ro inttmational otganiUitioos um be helped by reiacuteerente ro SOUlt of the WI1tets on internacional law wnich wiIJ mrm one section beLow
lnlernatIacutetmall8wyers
Mueh of rhe lirerarure abour mrernatioual organwoou$ 1$ descriptivc ltiren detiing with several organizacions aM giving purricuw eutpha$is te tite League ofNarioas and UN sometimes dealing with one organiacutezadoo swn lIS NATO me OAU Of rhe EU Leading woru in trus area 1m those of the intetshynariooal lawyers who give particular ronsidemcion ro rhe cowlimtiacuteoru of international organizaoons thei legal penonaliries aoo institucional probshykm Indecd ic was pmbably lhe P~ ltgtfuw ar amplinburgh Universiry J lorimer who fin coined the e~ionmiddotiexclnrernatiooal organization in 1B67
Contributions (Q cbe study of internarionai organizacions llave been made by Britisb legal exptm and bisfOrians 50ch as Zirnmern in his iexclrudy The Uacute4g~ JI NaJimn an4 the RMk of LnJiexcl (ZJmmem 19gt9) and J1 Buacuteerlys comparison of rhe newly emerged Unuumled Narions wirh rhe suurwre aod aims of lbe then dying Ieague Brierly demonnrated a strong preferenn~ for fbe inrrusioo of international law iOfO etonomk ilnd sndal affpjn gttl dat rbe generic grievances of sures ma) be removed (Btier1y t946 9n Hersrh laurerpliCht published Tbt Dwefpment ()f lntmwlftmal lJw by rhe Permanml CfJkrl el l1iImJ4lifJNiexcl-1 jllJtia in 1934 and [his was later marched in [he Ullired States by Judge Manle) O Hudseos Intmwt]iexclmal TribltllfJuacute PaJI
qniexclJ Plfum (944) WilfrEd ]ellki [be ugai Advlscr to che lLO CUIIribured noe jU$ 00 chilE organizarIacuteon (Jenks 1962a) but abo mote genernl wodcs 00 iarematiol181 orgaruzarions (leaks 1945a 1945tl 1962tl) 1 le stressed (he need [O IDaH) [he craf[ of tbe imernational lawyer wuumlh rhe Pludence uf che polirician tO develop an effective s)stem of incernadonaJ orgafiUBtion
Institutional developmeru 15 primarily cbe responsibiliry of staCesmaDshyship ir muS[ be gnided aud cootrolled b) a [fue appreciarion of political forces Tbe greaccst oflegal uadirions is still to be crearEd irs cexmre wiU be largely ltlefermined b) rhe qnaliry of [he crafesmanship which inrernatlonal lawyers place sr the disposal of sracesmen during me next geaeration
(Jenks 1945a 71-2)
laltor imernarional insrituriom cexebooks were pmvided by rwo Europcan intemalional lawyels Henry Schelmelll Professor of law at lIte Univeaiey of Amsreroam restricted himself tuacute inrernacional instuumluttonal law wbicb by roncerning irself wirh [he srrucmre and functions of inrershy
~h~ bullmiddotff~ V_middot ~f_lt~V_
fliUional organiexclttttlonstries ro explllin [he present developmem and ro promote he harmonious growth of lnafniexclldQual organization (Schermcfs 1972 2) He Jodt wim rhe partidpants in lmernadonstl orgllniexcl~lltion8 tbe general roles ror their crgaru and me activities of these Orgllus from prirruuHy a legal viewpoinr A similar approacb was adopted by rhc Bririsb iacutenternat1oniexcll1 leglll eJtpen D W Bower( whOie book Tht 14W QI lnlmwIacutePMJ lmtiJlflilJrll (970) placed grearer emphasis on pflrtkular insrishymtions - he Lcague thc UN and in spedalized ageucies che regional organizarions rile juriacutedical iacutens(iexclmdons - as weU as dealing wirh general questions such as t-he internattoual pcrsouaUt) of che organizarions and their impac( on (he doctrine of (he rovereigll equalit) of srare5 Por a blend of sociology bistoty and luretnarioOllJ lpw che work of Paul Reurer Professor uf lmernatioual Iilw pe Pileis Univcrsit) is UB$urpassed In Inml14tionaJ bmitllfiom (1958) he examined che phenomeoon ol imemashyt10nal orgaruzadon rather tban jUS( the orgilnizations and insdtutiun~ auJ thererore speut sorne time on the uature of imernariolllll ~je[) [he erigias aud foundarions of iuternational institutioll$ lS weU iexcll$ rhe posiacutediexclm of Staeeg in international society
Sorne post-Cold Wllr studies nave moved uWily from wruu tllto regllrded as csoretic descriptions of che 111w (Kn aud Djehl 1998 3) aud have insread examinEd intetnatiomJ I1lws iacuteofluence on poLirIacutelal behavior (Ku ampnd Diehl1998 3) One of rhe buses of tluch au IIpproach iN chat imtornashytionaJ organiUltions nOIl-governmenral orgllnirpriOfl$- multithltiJllUl corporations aud even privare IndividuaJiexcliexcl have come ro pliexcly Illl iexclIlcrelljiexcling role in intematioual rclations and accordingly international legal tules have evolved co engage rhese oew accors (Ku and Olebl 1998 3) Tnternarional lllv is seco both as au operatillJ system and a normative system for internariacuteona relarionll Algt the fotmet it 5eu the genernJ proshyceclures and iacutensticudons toe the conduce of incern11ltlonal relatiolls lt provides che framewotk fu estllbllshing rules lInd UOI11lS oodilles be parilmcters of interaction ancl provides (he ptocedures Ilnd furums ror re~lvlng disputes among those taking part in tnese intecllCtiacuteOO$ (Ku and Diehl 1998 6~7) As a nOttnative S)stem iuternatiouallaw giexclves rorm ro lhe aspiradOlu anu vlllues oE the partkipants of the system (Jr) is 11 proJuct oiacute the struttlltes Ind processes thar make up rbe opernting ~ystem rTt1 tllkes on a principaU) legislativc chamcret by mandating particular valueg IlnJ ditetting speciiacutek chllnges in sure bebaviQr (Ku Ilnd Diehl 1998 7) Mote tradiciunal appr03Lhel tO lnternatlonallaw rendlaquol tO de~(ribe che role 01 imelllatiuuaJ otgauJutiotu as pan of the opcradng sySLCm Legal texu pllblishcd in he laSt decade Ot so of (be rwcnrierh centUry looked lncteasingl) ae the position of inrernatlonal urganilations middotw
nor leas [hose oiacute the UN system - in a nurmanve framewnrk especiaHy in functional areas such as human righn (AJston 1995 he envilOumenr (Kin 199M) [be global commnm (Jo)ner and Manell 1998) and wOlneiexcluacute issues (Berkovith 1999 Wrighe 1993 1)~g8)
130 Writingi (f1I iexclktnati~nal I11glttftiZAtitlrlJ
Intecnationallawyers have airo given exteosive comideration ti particular instimtions The League Qf NatJons attlacted special attention as lawyen played an imporunt role jn J~ dmfting and as it had as tU aims che pmmotion of international c(K)perntion aoo the achievement of iexclnrcrna~ tionru pcace and eturity
by the ficm establishment nf the undersrnndings of imemauacuteonal law as tbe actual rule of condun among Governmenrs aOO by the maintemtnce of jnstice and a scrupulous mpect for all treaty obligations in the dcl~middot ings uforganised peoples wirh one another
(Preamble to tbe Covenant)
Furtbermoce the central pan uf che CQvenant dealing with the keeping of peace (Anide 12-16) OOopted a legalisck approoch in delining nn OCt of wu against all Ieapue membecs as being rewtt to war in disrtgaru of Anides 12 13 or 15 (Attide 16 (1raquo) In other wottb the cardina15in W$$
tbe breakiacuteng of rhe legal gretment mOOe wirh otner stares Imernational lawyeM in pIlrtkuar were ooncerned wirh how Iacutenlernarional IacuteiexcllW might be agreed judged ane enforced in lhe jnter-war perIDd lhey turned much of their atrention to the anivities oC che Permnnem Coun of Intemational Justice arul lhe league of Natlon5 Judge Hcrt(h TaureIp3cbc foc eurtlrle ronsldetetl rhat aH Jntemlltional dispures were justiciable and thus open (O
soludon by [he judicial process in internacional law He considered tbe League tu be useful 5tep in the development oE inrernational law and be sanctions 1I1lowcd Cor in Anide 16 of [he CoveOilnt as marking tbe fitn step towws he collective enEonement uf internacional law (Laurerpacht 1970 9)
The league hOO iexcles advocates among orher lega writers AlCred Zimmern wriring io 1938 set Lhe Leagues activjties and institurions against che backshydtop of the gathering 5tOrm io Europe He still found much ro ~y lor ir it had rkveloped 2ru1 expanded tbe old iquestiplomaric ystem bad enrouragro wshyoperation in many ateIlS ane $r leur represeotecl iexcllfi artempt to ellminate WIlr even duting a period of whar Zrmmern caHed cmhquukes (Limmero 1939 491-509) Lord Robert Cedl one oC the fuunders of rhe League as weU as a lawyer and Conservative poHdcim admined when wming ln 1941 rbe Cailure of the orgamzation in preventing aggressive powers Neverdreless he hoped that iexclt would be reformulaced after bosrilities with a CI)ll of confederariacutean uf European tates the cenual objecr of which should be the preservatl(m uf the European peat e Peace in cbe test oE the world would Jepeod pretty weU on tbe then jusr~eltiexclsting Covenant wirh sorne small changes Cecil did admit rhat another piece of rnachinety couid do Iittle unless [he peoples allJ govemmeots cea11y tgtlt che enforcemenr nf law ann mainrenance of pealte as me firtr and grearen nadonal Jmereus (erH 1941middot 349-51)
The hopes of (hore ho yearned fur legal soludnns tO intemartonal
WrjlingJ 1m inffll7lltJfriexclftai rltgmiwtitln-iexcl 131
dt1putes dearly dcdined a~ the UN Charter wjth iacute~ emphasis on politica1 solutions to what were palideal disputes tepiacelti tbe optimist1c legal (otmula~ uf the League Covemutt The UN Chancr was not to be without tes Internationa Jegal romrnentaluts Indeed tWO early stllndard books on rhe UN are by diJtinguished lawyers Kelsen (l950) and Goodrich ti al (969) though the hmer have admitteu that when iexclnterpreting [he ltlwrter
since rhe responsibiliry for interpretadon is VC$ted in Ofgan~ and memben alike che process is more iexcliexclkely to be politia than judishyoacutealDeciexclsiltm~ rend to renea lhe enmmon intetesu of members in achieviug cerratn results
(Goodrich If JI 1969 15)
Other legal commentators have placed emphllSis 00 [he role of jtlterna~ tional orgaoJutions in tbe development of particular aspects of innl11iexcl1tional ew ami again haltle secn tbe rleyelopment uf the rules aon notms of internashytiOfliacutell society ~ howeyer imperfeltmiddott - in tbese cases Examples are Kratochwil (1989) who who has written generally ou the 1mbject Jaebon (l997) and Thomas IInd Meyer (19J7) on the world tradins sysrern Kiss 11M Shelttm (1991) on Iacutentern8ljoual envttunmenral law aud Human Rights Watch 09921999) and Bianchi (997)on human r1ghu iSIuc
lnternaonalgotJt1tmenlfgwfINIJJlue
Anorber AmcriC3llegaI aurhority ayde Eagleton gave the Unired Nations a critJcal though romewhat undmtaning appreciarioll ~mmmiexclng np its dilemma thus Ir (he Uniled Natioru cannor do more than ir ha~ the ampult liacutees with rhe Memhccs wbo marle it and opcrllte it and who j[ SfflIW slaquon preret the tootb aOO the fang ro internationallaw and order (Eagletoo 1948 552)
Eagieron placea the record (lf che Uoited Nations in thc context of irs predecessors in the hisroey of rhe gttlwth ofinternational govemmem and of iu legal and politica background He examined pmposals to achieve the inrernational government thff the UN ailed tu rt1tCh bm condueed chet fI chaogc in he attimdes oC Stares aud their pcoples JS neerkd fipiexclt (Fagl~too 194$ 583) Eagletons wnrk uuderlioed tbe point made by Evan Ltmm in his ntemd1ifma1 A~lIaacutetJ (977) that with (he existence of the UN and its lSSfJ(lated agencies many of che wodds prohlems are Ilor wirhout jmtiexcltu~ tions exercising authority over them The powers uf (his mnge of organizadon cau bc queHioned as Ciexcl1n chejr standing in relnion tn thcir rovereign state membera bur rheir exisrence in tne ptlStmiddotwiexcliexcl[ world ~ aud tbcir grnwth (rom their niacuteneteemh-cenrury hesinnings is a reality
Thi$ inrerese in [he 8rQwth of iorernariona[ governme(l( i tleithet new nor resrricted m the legal pmCeMion Oue uf the earlier publicauumlnru on tbe subject was by the writer leonard Woolf who Walt a fOllude uf the Fahian
132 WriJil1gJ (IfI htfmtaJIacutefmal argmitAJium
Socilaquoy che reformiu discusston group witbiu rhe British Ltbout Parry Wtiting in 1916 he omllned dJe exrenr m which imerllliootlal govem~ mene had been lKcepted rhroogh diplomade garfteaacutengs rhe use of public and privQce JmefOatwllru unions and che iocrtlSe iexcln commodify ugreemellts aad he PU forward plans roe che further teguJation of JmeroadOllal OCrltty lf war is (( be prevemed he elaimed states musr submir Q mUte intetuashy[jonal conrrol alld governmenr in their poJiticnl and udrninl1litrative rdadoru (laquooolf 1916 nB) He udvanred a Fabiao Cornmirree plan for nte Stipranaciacuteonal AudlOrlty cllat wiIl Preven War eiemenrs of whih fOllnd their way into (he Lea8ue Covenane aml whieh inhJt iexcliexcllid teCtJlllmended rhe estab1ishment of an Inrernatloclal High Grua an lntemadooai Coundl of sutes represenrnrives ami JO IOtelThldonal Seltreurjlil Woolf and his Fabiao coUeagues hoped dlar wirh rhis machiuery legal justiciable disputes wouM be 5ubmined ro rhe Cona Of a similar tribunal and orher dispmes ro the Couocil foc senlemenr with che patries rn he dispute ccnsmilned from warlike actjon fue a period of a year Provision was ro be rnade fur sancrions which ali sutes shoold pm inro open1rion lind al agfCltd tO make common cause even ro he exren( oC war against any constiruent Srue which violates thi$ uacuterndamentai llgreement (laquooolf 1916 233)
Woolf mgetIacuteltr wuumlh juriiexclu iexcluch IIS Hersrb Lauterpadu and Alfred Zimmern and British poliricaJ wrIacuterers like Pbiiexclip Nod-Baker LJrd Ceei and Gilbert Murlliy represented bmh [he praccuumlal and intdlectual mpponen ni lhe League of Natiacuteom in the interwar peuacuteod wbo were ouacuteen daified as iexcldealisrs or neo~rotiam Hedley Bul 0966 ~2 5) r1esnibed the rennal Grotlan assumption (named after (he seventeenrhshycentury lesal wtiter lIugo Grotiu$) as being rhat of the solidariry OI
porential solidariry oI (he SUtes comprising imemarlonal sociery wirh respect ro che enfurcemem of [he Law and Grodws basic crjredon of juse WI bt-ing fought in order ro enforee rjghrs a fimiofl dearly edwed in tbe Pabirin Comm1rrfts The Snpmnatlonat AuthorlEY rhll will Prevenr War BuH criricized rhe way ibis group lost sighr of intemarional polirics in rhelI preoccuparion wirh 10eroational1aw international otganization and intfoiexclniexcliexclriQnlll saciery
10 deallng wirh imefIUldonal marnti~y which rhey were indined ro confn$( wirh internarional law they eon[ribu[ed only a narrow and llflcririal rlaquorimdr whkh eKalred [he jnternational inreresr over tllujoual iexcllIrert~r~ (bnt wirhorlr asking bow rhe former was ro be detershyminel) mtlltiexcltimrimwl rdorm over revolurJon as [he meaflS of ll3lliCcndinA lhe soriely of sovereiNn states (bur without considering wfteher SUtCS cOllld OCcOIlIC [he agents of rheir owo ~rincriofl) and respcu fue legaliry oler [be neoo foc chaoAe (bur wirhour fdciflg up ro r~ mer that rh~ in(~rnadooal legal sys[em as (hey construed ir could nOl aecommodate change)
(BuU 1972 36)
Wrllingr on inlmralirmal ()fganiUJliofU 133
This J5 a teUing enough asseSSffiem of che idealim views includill8 [heir writings (tri imernarional oeganiurions HOWelef [he background of [he groop $hould be remerobeted they represellteJ a genemtion devastawd by the Finl World War ud whiacutecb wa~ used ro national suciery (early twenderh-teocut adtaio) lhat had henelired through institutional chal1ge and in whiacutech the rule of law had not preduJed remrro The k-gtgue of Natioo5 che Permanenc Coun of Illternuional J1L~tjce (PCI]) and [he 110 wen for rhem part of 1 Great Expedment to we Lord Cecil~ phrale
Wrirets in the last guarter of the twentieth century picked up and develshyopoo many of he omions current in rhe aoove Jirerawre aud srr~ed how iacutenrematiunal ioceocourse had heen governoo by a body of laws nl1~ lind feguladons ano by insdturions indlldifl8 internatiotlal organizatioO$ Though they llave kcpr rhe analogy with the domescic government of cirishyzens thef have preferred rhe terro internacional governancc demoosrrating thar such a system docs nOl hnve che son of enrorcemem powers expected of naticnal govetnmencs Notions of global governarue huve becn corered above whete tefereoce has heen made tU tbe idea of an imernarional regime (Pp 108-10) Thi5 concept helped bdng internacional olgsobacions iexclmo rhe wider titerarure abom inrernadonal cooperedon 11M governance in a srate of anat(by rneaning an absence of interOlltional governmenr with signifkant er[orcemem powers
In the early and mid~1990s IiHendon was agam wrned ro che manageshymenr of che internlitional environmem in rhe wake of the UN Confetence on Environment and Development (UNCED) al Riacuteo de Janeiro BnuiL gtlhe environmem seemed ro be a classk caudidste fur global governance pardy becl1use ir was glob-al and partly because of the range of instlwdons involved in iexcltS managemem In the words of Josepb Nye etTective intet~ narional envitonmental instltudoru thu$ helped w overcome sorne Ol (he rypical narional bordenecks tbar hiacutender cootrunated meusures to revene rbe frighrening trends of global environmental degradaLion llnd improve rhe possibiluumly of susrainable develo[lmenr of OUt plaller (Nye 1995 x) The assumprion of Keohane tt al was that whlle StateS may have difnculry ad~tessiexclng jmernationaacutel erlvitorlmemaL problems coopenuion betweeo governmen[$ couid hring dividends Eff(Xtlve intetnstiooaj 111stitutions wete needed which may take rhe form of internacional orgauuations rcgimes Ol informal conventlons They were seen in che woros of Maurlce Strong (Secretary-Cener-iexcliexcl ofUNCED)Ul rhe bllsic framework for 11 world sysrem of governance whkh iexcls imItJdve to rhe effective functionmg uf our global rocieey (1990 211 l2) The aim was pragmlltlC to see whetber rhe intemational josrjmrioos coveriug the environment had made a posirive difference especially in rhe polltiad iexcleid
Case rudJes were presenred (bar exploroo the impact oiacute inrenwiotl$l insriturions witb [hree conditions essenrja lor effecuumlve acrioo on the enlirOumem high levell of gownlflmtl bullmam a hospitable 1lIiIraiexcltttal t1Iy~
rrmmml suiliexcloacuteem poIiuacuten U1d ddltiniJtY(JJM CiJpacity in national
134 Wrftln[f 111 iexclttntntiona organiufif)lfJ
governments (Keohane tt al 199 11) The case s(Jdies Weuroe seen in rerms of agendiexclt selting internacional pnliacutecies and national policy ttJpon$($ (Keohane iacutef al 1995) The three authors wtJe aware of the strong influeDce of stare powers in iexclnrernadnnal institurions and of rbeie meagre result5 in sorne areas Nevetthees~ they set down three ronditions uoder whicn inrer ootional institutions can alrer (he bchavior of state actors and in turn improye environmenral qualiry (Keobane ti a 199 19) These afe
1 gnvernmencal concern has ro be higo enough [Q pmmpt the 1lte ufscarce mources lO tllckle tht problem
2 roere haiexcl 00 be a contllcrual enviroruncfit where ~tnttS make (rediMe coounitrnttlts and make iexcllOO keep lglremerll$ rhar incorporare joiotly enacted rules withour debflitadng fuAtof ftte-riding ur cheuting by othet1l
3 states should haw the pnlitical and adminimadve capaciry to make the domestk adjusrtnents necessruy ro implemenr international norms principies and rules (Krohane et al 1995 19-20)
TOe empha~iexcls -in chis view nf glotm govemance is on rhe relncionship becween rhe internuional anQ tIte Illlt10naL
Pan oE gJobtl govemsnce - ai noted in Chapte1 3 - are lnrernntional regimt$_ Thcampe are set- of implidt o explkir principies norms rule and del ision making proctdures arounrl which actors eJCpelttadons converge in a given area of internacional relatious (Krasner 1983 2) [1tey are subSu of irttetnational sodcey and its imtitlnions Imemational reglmes which are oft~o speciacutealitecl auangemenu limicer by function oc gengraphicaJ area are amngemcnts hat BoYe1n cooperative behaviour intetnatioOldly Thee are thus mure wiJely Jrawn than internatiunal organizations The latcer accurdifl8 ro one of the most profific wrltcrs on the $ubject Oran YounS 0989 1994) can boeh stimulate the process of regime formation nnd can htlp implement thei provisiuns (Young 1994 164)
Funuitrltdlisu
An eady bff~1c with the trmJtional view of international organizations based un the state-centriacuter mudel cm be seen in Leonard Woolfs book [ttltmatiltraquoldl
Grni-17111I Alrhough srilJ primarily coruemed wich interamptate relations and the questiolll of peace and secudry a sizeable BCniacuteon o( lis wriring5 rover governlnenral tlaquohoical and economk co-operatioo and INGOs
Ve are accustnmed to regard the wodJ as neady diided iexclnto compartshymenU caUed states or nationLBut chis vjion oiacute thewodd divided into iacutesolated compllrtmenrs is nor a cme reflection of fiu 15 as they exisc in a urge pottion of the etlnh [orlay
(Wnolf 19l6 216-17)
Writtng( (111 hmmatiacute(lrul f8grllliulinnJ 13
Snch a step pladng gre-iexcllter emphasis on non-star ime~natiacuteonal rtloshytions wa~ taken furrher in duo writln8~ o( me Romanian-bom aothor David Mitrany Mitrany ideas known iexclas the functiondisr appooruh lO
internuional politics were inspired by his early Iife io dIe Ba1kans He (ouoo much imelletruaI sdmuiatinn ofter coming ro Lundon in 1912 olld working together with Lennanl Woolf among otlters in the Ieagne uf Nations Society [he labour Pattys Advisory Commiuee on [nternational Arrairs and the Fabiexclan Socieey His (WO malor eacly worlca wcrc Tin PrtlgftlJ of lt1tmutt(IIId GtM1NmAnt (first pnbl~hed in 1932 rcprinted in Mitrany ([915araquo) and A WorklNx Pem Sylttm (fiCSt published jn 1943 rcpobHshcd jn 19(6) though he abu made a 1mbstamial nmtribudon in anides unril bis dearh in 1975 Many uf his writings tQgethcr with an amobiacuteographical piecc and In inuoouctjon are guhered fogefher in Tht Funcfuumlmal TwJry of Prdilia (Mitran) 1975) In his t932 work he omHued the nlnereenrh(intury growth iacuten intertwtJonal govenmcnt ajong similar lines as Woolf
The ninereenth cenrmy prodwed that amazing growrh in che mattrial equipment of (iiiiudon whifh weldcd the wodd togaher into (me organk whoiacutee making eaclt people a partner in tire Iacuteitte uf al The outwatd CXpelsiacuteon nf that change WQ5 the ~rance nf WQrld-wide popular movements and the making nf innumerabJe privare md public imernatjonal agItemenrs
(Mitrany 1915a~ 89)
Mitrany WiacuteI$ concerned thar (he rise of the fllidon-state and the insiexcl~tence of new statcs on che doctrine uf lluvereign equality when (bey were dlldy weaker and smalJer tban the Grear Powers hindered internacional lt0shy
operation in for example the cconomic lphere HowCer he 1lW rbar the fnne ofevents wu working agaiexcln~t sta~ism
No maeter what rhe size and shape of rhe particular community lo funcrions are such thar rhey haye to be organized and the fOrres and (crors now iexcllt work no longer have llny rroe telarion tlt) rhe uld pnlitkaJ divisions wirhin or withuJ( rile state The new functiom imposed upon our puliria instiacutetutions art compelllng 11 complete recomt(Ucrion of tile technique of govemmellt on a purely practical oosis 1 teach that rondU$ion by ming at the Illltset noto what is rlte iexclden form for an imtrnadonal $odetyiexcl but mher what are 1tS C$sential ftmctions
(Mitrany 1915a 99)
He claimed hat C$$cntially the nims of intemalional governmcnt were no diffcrent from dlo~e (lf municipal gnvernmenr w aCaJt equality bcfore the iexclaw for aH rnemben of the cnrnmuni(y and ro lrumote sodal jUlltict To expen [O achieve rhe first aim in inrernatlfllltliexcl sodely whefe 5talCS wcre
l ju WrJll1Jgs en mlWnal101tJf (iexcl(gamufJf)lJJ
nei[her eqna nor unchangiug uuiu would be unreascnwtc Ir woold be far more prncriC1iL ro cmnpromise rhis aim and CSLablish a League of Nations in which Grea( pQVeri woulcl he dirlltdy representelt Secondary Jitates woulcl have group representiexcliexclrioo afld malter ~tatet w()ulcl have panel repmentatioo At the same time sfCortdary bodie$ would be ser up in varJous pam of che world 11$ orgnns (lf regionJI grouptngs of Jitares artd (hese bodies woulJ be connected with and subordInare tO the new CCOtta League organs They wouiJ aleo be iexcliexclbie ro clesl wiacuteth problems mOle teaclily especially as the unanimity of aH srares would not be needed [Ol a senlemem
These suggesdom are noe (he novel aspeltts oE Mitran)$ work They are imponam in changing (he emphasjs away from the tighu of amptate wwards rhe dude oc lit ICllSt (he actlvJries of Hates Still the conccto was wth Ilrrllnging relnrioru netween snm~s In a paper $ubmitrecl ro che 8drish foceign Office in 1941 and in hi~ study A Wking Peaa Symm (966) Mirrnny wncenrrated on how che (unctioru of gOYernment might be cnrried OUt more exptdiriously He rtcognhed chllr withio liberal 1emocrati( stare~ [he Une berween whirh futCtions are Cflrried Out by pubtic and by privare aclioll was shifriog lIod that rhi5 line unde (he prel5ure u( (rt_ih social Ileeds and demands musr be Jeft free co move with rhem A similar demamuiacuteon existed in che terrirorial spbete interlla~ dooally wme (uncdons (eJ railway systems) could best be organized cOlltinenroUy some intercontinentnll) (e8 shippillg) alld some univcnaUy (eg aviation) However there would be no need for rigid patteros exccpe perbaps io tbe exercise of negadve (unctlons -- those related ro securi[y wberc more fotmal sacle lnstltuclOns WQuld be needeJ In (he field o( positive (unctiacuteoru (dw$C tdatecl ro economic eultunl and sodal affairs) he climensions ocgans and powers of any organiorion would be deler~ miacutened by the nature oiacute the funccton and would be fairly flexible Mitrany fmfSaw tbe tStliblisbment o( functional bodies wirh auronomous ta~ks and powers which wonld do thingl joiacutently Tbis wuulcllink aucborlry tu a specific activiacutery (hUi breaking llway foom the tradicional link between authocieyand a ltIacuteeftnire ~erritory Murany 1966 125) 11iacutes move wcmlcl avoicl he sreritity uf many of rhe wartjmt suggesdons fue posr-war (ecltrn~ tions O connitudonal innovariacuteon in rhe United Nacions whlch f~eteoacute 00 he opposidon oiacute sovereign sraee reiiexcltance Mitrnny hoped rhat che number uf internarional agencies (hat had exisred before the Serend Wodd War augmenteltIacute by the A11ied board durJng rhe war lrsdf wuuld u~rve u tbe ba~lS foc (he network oiacute inremarional gOvernrnent He quoud wlrb obviow appruval the wurd$ of an Amerltlln scholar J Payson Wild Jr 00 the varlOUS warrime experiments
The Hues between domesuc anltIacute iexclnrernational actlvlty ate blurred ancl nadonal adminisuatlve agencies of the Powecs concerned Smneshytimes engnge in domestk busint-1s and at orber rimes extend theit
Wrilings Ofl hllenJdUacuteoN1J org411iatiofJJ 137
(unctioru ioro rhe uumluernarionul sphere The resuh is o conglomerashydOn o( intermnional bwrd aocl domestic staf( whose dlties Illrermiacutengle Adminisrrnr1ve offtcers o( narional lmirs deal direcdy wirh rheir opposire numbers in orher S[1l[es WirhOlU benefit o( diplo maric intermediaries and simlllmneously perEorm borh nacional and intemational tasks So fu no attempt has been made en estab1ish iexcliexcl
super~State
(Mitrany 1 6 167)
Mitranyll villion is oE a world in wruch che functiollS of ~etyday $odal 1Jfe - transport healrb care rommunicatioos agticlllture industrial developmenr sciendfic developmenr and so on - are no Jonger assidl1ou$-ly carried en witbin rhe confines oE each sovereign iexcliexcltflte but ate underuJen across fmmiers on a tegionai cominental oc univetsal bflliiiexcliexcl These acrivjw des would be overseen by international Ofganizatioru which wOIJld be more like boards oE managemenr Tbe functional agencies of rhe UN (che no WHOgt FAUacute etc) already underrake urn ro~opetative t$Sks fIli do sorne non-governmental groupings of spedalisrs (League of Red eron Sndedell World Srout Movement etc) However tbe Une berween what has been done imernationaHy aOO dome$tkally bas tuen drnwn very much ro [he beneflc oE che latter and international activitid bave tuen riddted with politicel dispureoJ rnany oE which have liule ro do wlth me good manegemem of the (unction iexclnvolved Mirranys laquoheme would fiexcludually lOwtt rhe liue ro aUow more functioos ta be Citded OUt at rhe level where they wOrk more efficieruly and woukl proide managemenr of tbere funcshytions ra[her [han poHdclI1 interference Not onty would his develQpmeof beuefit (he general social welfure of the world ir would abo hcIl (O salve rile problem o( plaCe and security The LHliputian ties o( internacional fuucrionru co-operarion would piacuteo clown me giam of conflict weakenlog [he urge ro destruction and warfare by rhe promise of consmlctJoo and cashyexistence
The (unctional approach does nor focus solely on iorergovernmenral organizacion buc aUows for a network 01 spedaliuxl agencies roany uf which could be non-governmentaL Ir difftr in emphllSi5 ftoro che mainshystream craditionalis[ wricings and Mitrany~ work praaged a move away from internare relations 10 wotld politics Whilst the functiooaJ alpoolUh does not oReod against lh sentimem 01 nationaJity )t the pride oE sovereignty (Mitrany 1965 139) lhere is no doubl chat ir is meant lO weaken the i~por(Jloce and power of the middle roan berween rile indi vidual and a world communiry che sovereign scnre The feeling o( solidarlty enrounged by functionallinks 1s nor between states but beween people or assoclatioos of individuals Each of us is ill fuer a bundle of funCflonaJ loyalties so dWt tO build a wodd communiey upoo sueh a concepdoo is merely to a(eM artd consolidare ir also betwetn societies and grollps Micrany 15 14n
138 Wriling5 fin illttrnatiQJIa1 (ffanizatio1ts
Such IIn imaginative appruach tu wodd problems aud be mundiUlc hard~ working iexclapolitical role lt implieamp fOr interuational organizadons has its fiexclruIrs To ctiexclddu Mitranys functionalism as being impronica JS IUlfalr hoth because internlltionru functiornd links hllve grown espedaUy since the S~ World Warj and blaquoarue M1tranys approach is a gradual one he did OOE expeCt ir ro be adopted overnighr Even so ir cioes have certllin 11mbiexclshyuow a~pets which shOllld be criticany eDmined
Piexclrsr de5pite rhe refere-nce to possible regional fimnionalunmgement8 Mitranys pJans ron counter ro rhe notion of aU-embraciug regional organi utJoru such as the Europcan Communities now E~n Uninn (Mitrany 1975b 53-78) Whibt these organwdons roay Hnk their iexclamhotity ro a speoacuteftc activky $ueh as the conditloO foc running (he coal iexclaud steel indusshytries nr the agriculture of the EUs member states they sta hold w the rrnditinnal1ink betw~n authodry arul a definirt territory The cooJ and sr~l polkies or tite Common Agticultural Policy uf the BU are nor extended to tbe industries and fumen of other non-member countries who mar wish lO participate in theit ochemes Vet il can be argued toar ir is prccisdy in these iexclirnited geographicill blocs that flIlCtiOruJ arrnnscments are besr executed wirh limitations un mernhetship To wnrk propedy chemes must encompuss denned aras with a good deal jn common - the flexibility of Mitranys proposal wIQutd 500n break dOWIl )l the tnembers WlJuld have $O little in cornmon in fo cxampie the runnill8 of agriculture tbat coshyopetation would be dif(kulr or lloo-proouctiacuteve Furrhermore rhfmiddotse regional atrangemenpiexcl overcorne the problems of dedding the meaning hQundaries and consequtIlCCS of any particular function (Melaren 1985 142)
Second Mitrany did not really envisagc any piexclHejcal control of the futlCtiooal des between COllntdes mus distinguishing him frorn [he more traditionaliacutest approach lO inrernational orgaruwcions lle was hopeM dw the pmblems of roshyurdillltion between ronctionalagencies could be worked out as they lllOOe
To prescribe fOI the suke of [iexcladicional ne3tleSS somtthing more dennite han the guidancc and supervision of eg the Ecooomk Md Social Couooacutel W(lU1J be ro duron he whole conetprion from [he niftJo impollC upon them (funct-lonal bodiesJ a co-otdination authoriry with anyrhing Iike comrolling scuus w(luId be ro move again roWllrd$ that JiacutecumuJarion of power ar the centre
(Mitrany 196~ 143)
Thus [he institmions uf (he Eutopean ClJmmunitic~ - the Counoacutel uf Milli~iacuteers rhe Commission che Courr of Justicc rhe European Padiamenl dre Economic md Social Comlllittce - were al analnema fO Mitmny They werc juu miacuterrnring the poluacuteical COflffOh of lhe nation state ar iexcliexcl pa-n-continenullcvel anU according to Mirrany Continental unious w(luld have a more real chance thau individual suteS to pnletise the aurarky thae makes or division Mitrany 19(Kiacute 2n This may u((end
Witi1lf1 rm imernatilmalllrgaraquoiutifJ11J 139
agains[ lhe funcrJonalisu hope (r iexcliexcl universal apprOlltIacutel tu proble[Jls but (he abhorrence of policial imtitutions is lItrange wIacutelen [he funriona agenoacutees will aftee iln be mllkJng poHtkal decisions -- declsions roncetning lile aurhontative allocafion uf resources No only will iflfetnashytional functiunal transpon organizations established accordlng to Mittany have (O decide that cerEain areas wiH bt weU served by railways and Wds orhers llOt iexcliexclorne ports bujjt up others ieft to tlceay sume airlines expanded whlle rnbers are allowed ro fOllUact blt deeisiow wilI have ta be made on how w diexcl~tribu(e 5carce re~ources betwccn fo example iacutenvemtlent in transpon ur building more hospitals or restfllcturing rhe srecl Jndustty thwughour (he area eovered by [he orgalliurions Thee arc paHdeal declsiQw ln a period of economk growth and plenry [hdr potitshykal niexcliexcltute may be le5S obviou as resources are avaiuble for almost eVery plan advanced by world 01 regional shjpping aviation heaJth or sree1 O1ganizatioos Otherwit there mn$t sllrdy he a system by which scarce mrnurce$ are aUocaced Tbis problem was flJed squardy by Mitr1ny successors iexcln the neofunctionalin school (dealr wIacuteth in the SC(tiOH tbat follows) but ir doell seem ftoro Mirranys writings fhat the world of funcshytioollJi~m is a wodd of IlnUmiacuteted resounes (Melaren 1985 146)_
A third problem in Mimuys approach i~ brought out in a eommtnt by lniacutes Claude The functiacuteonal theory uf imemariruwl nrgaruzarions 1S ultimateJy eoncernen wirh the usue of polJtiacuteeal and military srniexclggJe functionalism tneats (he promotion of we1fue as au illdirecf approach tu rlx prevenrion of warfare (Claude 1968 31--5) Mitran quoted Oaude wirh appmval implyiog rha fulletionalism would ind~ mllk( a positive contribllt1on (albeit inilitecdy) CE (he ptCveurron of war fhis profOiSitiort is open (O $(Ieral criticisms Given the level uf arrnrunems in the worJd and the porential fQf cunflict the contriburron ro pettcc made by funcrioruuacute acrjvities miexclay come too late A youth group exthange betwtn rhe USA and China ma) bode we11 fOf
tbe furure OOt wlll be uf link use if (he respective parrus are beaten ro meir destinarions by intercominental baliiacutestic missiles funhermore the pmmotion of wtlfare may inctease internatioual conflicr by i~asiacuteng expettacions Espedally if social and ecounmic changes are bmugh[ aboue by imernational runctioual 3Jencies developing muntrie poliacuterical I~derships may fJnd ir increasingly cliiHcult to meet lheir poplllatIDn~ demands fot more economic benefJts fur a ampirer distribution uf benefits or in sorne ta$(-S fOf Ol)tool uf the social consequences of laquootlumic Rrowth Imernal sttili aod unrest may chen ~iIJ over into inrernacional eontlicr Finally Miacutetrany daiffi$ that rhe Nncshyrional approach ciocumveuts ideological aOO racial diviID05 as it ltloes territorial frontiacuteers (Mitrany 1975a 226) There ls guod evidellce tiJat the opposite has been happening thae the exlsting runctiuual organimfIacuteom slch $$ tiNEKO WHO and lID hllve been riddkd with ideulogical and racial (or al lea~t Norrh-Somh) diviions wruch h~ve teflected pnlirical argnments outside he olganizarimlS bu have ncvenheless adverscly aHewod their ba~ic work (Ghebali 1986 l tR-lt6 1mber 1989)
iexclIV WHURg) W~ mltTlWilm tIampmJlaiWN
NetrfJl1iKJiOalisls
Tbc move away foom rhe srate-cenrric vjew of JlItert1arlOlal organizarion Started by WOllf and Mirany was ccetiacuteeued io rht immedijlre posr-wur perjod by social stientim applyiacuteog asJltu of functionll1(st ~heory to European nd Atiacuteantlc in~limti()m This utw fUllCtionaliu approach showed paruumlcrnsr interesc in che European Communities (Ee later nuropean Union EU)) whjch arme iu iexclhe wake of che amphuman Plan In Mily 1950 Roben Schuman rhe Frenrh Foreign Minisrer advauroo (he idea cha( West Eucopean srarcs should establish a High Authority wlrh powers ro admillshyimr theit eoai aOO stecl induscrie~ Negorjatioru on rhe detalS of chis plan led t() the signing of che Treaty cf Pariacutes in Apdiacute 1951 by FraIlee Wen Gemuny Iraly rhe Neiexclherlands Bdgium sed Luxembourg (rhe Six) Tbls gave substanre tO (he idea lbat funcrional aiexcltivicy oould be ITlltllfIged across fcomien by IUl organizadon ove and above the govemmenrs of che member sraces a supmnational amhority The idea was wldened ro cover iexclm expanded unge of etooomk activiry when he Silo esrablished rhe Bt1fOpean Ecooomk Communicy (EEC) widl the Treaty of tome in MAtch J957 An Aromic Energy Communiacutety (Euratom) was eHablished sr che sume time However ~he element of upranationiexcliexclliry was dilurelt in the High AllthoritY-s successor (rhe Commission of rhe EEe) having only Iimited deciuacuteOIl-makin8 powers anJ having mosdy the task of proposing acdon ro tbe representarives of he rnember states situumlng in (he Coulliil of Ministe13 Despire his otber Community hutitutions contsined the gerrn of supranadonaHry rhe Courr of Jllstke empJoymg Coromunity nuhe [han nacional laws a Ruropean Padiument wbkh WlS eventually electelt by ditect eleedons amoog a Communiry-wide electorate voting for Cummunity-hased parties aad 1Jueresr groups represendng mrmetSgt consumen traJe unions aruJ blliiness on a Commuiexcliexclity tatber than a nnional basis
Tht$eacute tnmwauumloos in WeBtem Europe uiggeteJ a spate uf 1 iexclretamre primaril) in he lJnireJ Sures whieh examined tbe nurure unrl purpose of the Commuuity iustituions The Jominam staacutend amongst this writing was chat of the neo-(uncrlonalisrs sJCcifically Ern~1t Haas Lean lindbetg and J05eph Nye whose works are of importance io the uudy of internacional organizacions In ronrruc tO Mitrany the OCW fuoctiooalistli tended Br (iexclrOc tuacute iexclimir rbeie study 10 developmems in Wcscetn Europe (HtIaSs ~nJhe Naion Stte (964) bcing a nruiceable exeepdon) especially the OC alshyrhough later cornparimns were tnade wirh rbe growch ofccmmon lIlltirkets iexcln Mica East Eurupe aoo Larin America On che whole the neo-fumtiooaiscs had rerreated foom Mitranys world view
fhe neo-funcrionaljgrs aiso realized rhe dilemma faeed by Mitrliny in eelihng wirh politica dcdsicms ane did nor fllnch in introducin~ a merhod of making necessary chOtees ar he imernarif)llItI leve Indeed rhis wa~ rhe kernel uf rheir ideagt lhlll 1I0l ouly sperifie functionamp would be farried OUt ar rbe subrollrinentill rarher (han (he nacional leve bul thil( lhe decisions wnrernillg (hese functioos would be made at thaf level shy
6- v n_m_ ~olo_~~W_
with imponant cOnsequences for those groups imetesred in the decisiacuteons and iexcliexclIso liffecting orher arcas of poliey Por example supprne the Ecooomk Cual and Steel Community (BeSe) required (har che sreel lodustry be orgaoized as a West Europeao endty insfead of a numher uf narional industries a1l commled by differenl ccgularions aod rbar a suprauariona surhoriry be crcared ro decide on the policy Coc che ranniog of tbe Wcsr EUlopean sfeel induStries lo ronsequeoce those involvea in say rhe French steel industIl would switch tbeir attentioo away from Parili where policy was previowly rnade ro BroS$CIacutei wbcre ECSC poliey is mude Purthermore CommwIlty ntber dUlo nadonl poliey on ueel eould spiU ovet into ereadng a Community po1iey ror cool tnmspOH IUld Othet asrod~ ared acdvities As rhe numbe oC functiacuteooal policies decided at a Commuoity rnthet than a natkmllllevd expanded so the need for political actioo at this higher level would gfOw aod thc political sysrerol of the couutries involved would becomc inexorably iexclmcnwincd lhis was the logk of rhe innovator of he $chumao Plan idea Jean Monnet wM considered rhar rhe establishment of a c001 and srec1 community foUowed by similar organitations dealing wirh otbcr Cuncrional areas - agricultute transpon nade defence - would be lreps on [he way ro building Europe The eOO would be jln economiClllly aod politicaUy integmred Rurope lo Monneriexcl scbeme a federal West Furopeao state The means would be fuoctlonal bu with a political contento
In his study of fbe ECSC Rrnst Haas examiooo this s(rlltegy and a1so dmned polldcai inregradon in its ideal typc u beiug rhe process whereby political iexclcroo in severa distinct nadooal ~tings are petsuacltd to shjft thet lnyaltielJ expecrations liod pOlidcal iexcll(tiacutevides eoWjlrd jl new centre whose insdwtions possess or derrumd jutisdktion over me pit-existiog lIatiof19l $tates (Uaas 1958 16) ihis oew cemre would be che powelshyhouse managing rhe political ptoblems oC fuoctio1llll coopeaacutedon [he Uigh Audwrity of tbe ECSC and be indrurion of me EBe The policical actcniexcl invoJved would be rhose elites leading the poliacutetical groups habirually colCerned wirh public decision-making and wooJd indooe trade uoioacuten offishydaIs busiue5$ ami Hade representatives higher civil servann and activeacute poHttdam As tlltSiacute eliteS rutneU theit aacutetrendon ro rhe ojOW policical centre chey would find tha Community pelky in olle area nm be uwde tea oo1y if che task iuelf iexcls expanded CHus 1961 368) by way of a spillover of actiVity lIltO anocllet policy atea Evenrually Communiy policy~makiog would take uvet from S(ale policy~making jo alI rhe crucial BreaS and the new centre would emerge as being potenrially more powerful dma the member srares governmenu wbich had been drained of lheir mOS( meruoshyingful polidcal ucdvides
1( this stage ir can be quetied whetbet Haas was describing an inremashylional organizadun or il poremia1 federal mlte Io discumng tms quesrjon in his book on Elle EC-S( Haas cooduJed dllU Tbe hruHnct of federal as agaiacutenst middotimergovernmemaf powers lIeeacutems tU point to che coodusioo tbat in
142 WtitingJ on mtertlatilJtJA orgamZ41iom
alJ maneo relating ro the romine regularion of rhe commOTI ~et the High Authority is independent of government (HIlaS 195R 55-gt He al50 voiced rhe opinion rhu Supranadonaliry in snueturnl ferms tberefure means the exisreuce of govemmental a~lthorirjes dlloer tuacute Ihe archetype of fdeNrhm rhan any past inrernati(mal organizar ion buc not yet ideutiacutecal Wlth it Oiaas 1)158 59) However this $upnmttionaity in pNctice has deve10ped into a hybrid in which neither the federal no the intergovernshymentai reooency has deady triumphed a-bas 19511 527) Ir is aloo denr lbat the original Coo1 and Sreel Communicy was mueh mote functional~ Wlcrnl than the lateacutet Economic (ommunicy and untiacutel the mid~19805 the unified aud expanded Communuumly romw to play Jown the elemenU o( supranatlonality iu tavour of 1ts Jiacuteltergovemmenul insutution rhe Conndl u( MiuiMm This aud othet dtVe1opmems led Haas to lcconsidcr his origshyinal view of Community inrtitutioos
In the 1968 pre3ce ro Tuacute Uniting of Ellropt (which was wIacutetten in 1958) Haas alrtady identified factors that had dllngro rhe nattlc of me European Communiries experimem in che previous ten yeacs He observed tlur during this period vario~ spiU-OVet aOO adaptive ptcKeues s(ill had nO( resulted in la pulitically united Encope and in an~werjiexclg the question what went wtlJug he outliued fuur considetdtions Fitst (he new funaiurutlJsu had filiJed w di$tinguisb between background variahle cOlditioos prevamng at rhe time when cbe Comrnnnity WU$ csnbJished and new upiratiuns and expectations that had develnped Jhe esntbliacuteshment thar had ron counrer ro the Community spitit Second the imptet o( niexcltlonaUsm had becn undereshytimawl Third Eactors within me Commuruty had becn nressed ro he dccrimenr of those coming from the outside world PintUacutely me massive transCormation oE Western socie[y raking place indepeudent o( EutoptHl integratiacuteon aIso hacl been underestimaretl (HIlaS 1968 xiv--xv)
Haass definidon of imegralion alsu bccame wmewhar more negative I1lOre stlilte-centric than bis original 195R emlhasis un nationaJ llt(on shifting their loyaJties expecratiacute(ms and poJitical activities toward a new centre By 1970 Haas considered the study ofregionallntlgrurion to be concerned
wich explaining how aud why sUtes eease to be whoUy $overeign how ~md why they volunucily mingle metgt and mix with rhcir neighbours $O as to lose che facruru attributes of sovereignty while acyuiring ncw techniqucs me resolving conilirt between themselvell
(Haa~ 1970 610)
By 1975 Haas eonsidcred regional integmtion theoty oiJsolete in Wesrern Eurupe and obsolescenr - though still urerol _ in tite teSt o( the worId (Haas 1975 l) By 1976 he had arded out n maioI reintetpuEation of uew-fuuctlonaJist lhoory as it applied to rhe Ee The definahle outcome of integtation in Wenem Eutope was secn either in ttaditiorW federaHsc temu - a Wen Enrnpean (ederal state ereated out uf yenrs of fun~-tiexclonal
Writings M ifllernuJlfJmiexcl1 (JFfIiutian 143
rutivity whkh had lcd lO J trnmrer of poliduumlll acnvity away rom (he natlon ~tates tOwarJs a new srrunure - or ltlS the imtitutiooltlUdng uf some intermMiate iexcliexcltage such as rhe present status qno whcreby atlthonty is dimlbnrro unequally between several centres Wilh tire old nation states losing their previous Ituthoriey but with no new JiacutedeOl government in ptO$~ pect Whihr the original aspecrs of the EC - rhe cuuoms union aOO (he Common Agricultura Poliey _ have tllaquoorne entrenched the spillover inm orhe policy area~ had nor occurred by Ihe mid-1970s as che neo-furutiooa1ists liad ptedicred Also common polides liad becn Jevelopetl in differem o(8ashyIliratiuns - che OFCD the summit of indurmiatiooo counrrics the Group of Ten - tarher than within the liC lhe problem according lO Bus W1IS
rurhulerue whereby rhose iuvolved io polirirs haJ found rhemselves in a littting ofgreat social complexiry where rhe nnmber of atrorr is very large and each pursues a variety uf objectives whirh are murually incompatible lmt ucn is also unsure of che ultlde-ofamp between the objectjves He continued Tnis conditiQn imJgtlics the erosion o( such interorganizarional patteacutern~ oC comensus reciacuteprocity and no(mative tegularity as may havr CXlSted eadicrEveryrhiug is up fO( grallS (Hus 1976 179) HilaS sllggested thu iu the EC polioacuteeamp and (he institutioru devised ro lmpleshymeacuteut thero iacuteU~trnre rhe attempc ro deal with lhe turbulence nather tllan achieve regional politkal inteSradon (ibid 180 original emphasis)
A similar hiacuteft lttway fmm the earHer llSp1rauumlons iiexcliexcl ICen in rhe work~ Q( Lindberg aud Nye Lindbeg wlrose book 1he Pattirai DJMmict o EroJMn Ecrmomic IntegTatia (13) had fullowed on dosely from Hws work was hy 1966 showiog tbar moves wwaros inregration wirhin the Be (ooid cause Stress within (he system l1Jtfl inCftllq the barrien to fimher integration (lJnJberg 1966 254) Togcrher with lkheingold in 1970 he desctibcJ an EC wbich had noc deveJopeJ joro a federal structute haJ difereot ltvels of integrariacuteon fut different functions and was sdl susceptible tIJ UJsis lt was ao unprecedemed but curiousy amblguoos plurruistic syttem there seem tO be no satisfrutory modcls or ronceptli in che sociaJ scienee VQ(abulary to adequa[ely define ie (Lindberg and Scheingold 1970 306) In a anide Joseph Nye coruiacutedered thac Jespite rhese and otber revisioos the neo-Euncrional approodl srjlJ embodies 11 nurober of fault tbu re1lcct jrs origins in [he 1950s (Nye 1970 767) He proposed a nUml)(l OC changes scating rhe derendent variable lels ambiguoUlUumly adding more politiul ruwn reformufating rhe Hst oF integration condiuons and pethapli mOSf
significantly drOlping che ideas ufa single path fmm qWlsi~full(tiexclonallasks tuacute politica1 uuion by meamiexcl oF 5piUove( (Nye 1970 767 He conduded rha[ shnn oF dramadc chaugc the prospect9 (or common markets or microregiorud cennomie organiutions leading in rhe shon ron (of dendes) to fedewt1nn oc m1me sOtt oE polidcal union capable of tlU indept1Ldent dcferue and foreign paliey do not seem very high (Nye 1970 1129)
There hiexclas been a long jotJJney trom the functiorudisl-fecleral nope5 of Jean Monoet back jn 1950 but it has seen the evolution of nm only the
144 WitingJ on inlernafuacutemal ttrganizafifmJ
Communiry insrirurions and policies bur aIso neo-functionalist thinking The Iogic of inregrarion gave way ro coping wich rhe crises inseirutions mixing federalisc and intecgovernmental elemenrs were replaced by a Western Europe in which instirucional tidiness is best forgorten (Haas 1976 211) and the federal elemenrs seemed ac mosc dormam The hopes of che 1950s had been replaced by rhe uncerrainties of che 1970s and the early 19805
Wirh rhe launching in 1985 of rhe idea of creating a Single European Markec wuumlhin rhe EC by rhe end of 1992 che signing of rhe Single European Acr in 1986 (which exrended EC comperence aud changed irs inscitucional balance) and che sectlement of a uumber of Common Agriculcural Policy problems in February 1988 che Iogic of inregration seemed ro be revived
Wriring in 1990 Keohane and Hoffmann resrored and refined che neomiddot funcrionalisr norion of spillover advanced by Errut H9al They were sceprical char rhe rheory of spillover could explain the ECs irucirurional developments of che late 1980s buc saw it aCling posicively in orher ways for example rhrough che incenrives ro institutional change given byenlargeshymenc of EC membenhip in rhe early 19805 (Keohane and Hoffmann 1990 289-90) They saw che pcocess cominuing and barring Clrasrrophic excernal fucrors were moderately oprimisric abour rhe Communirys furure prospecrs (Keohane and Hoffmann 1990 296)
This view was raken up by Tranholm-Mikkelsen (991) and Holland (993) borh of whom saw che revival of rhe Communicy agenda in rhe Maasrrichr Trealy - wich irs blueprinr for a move ro economic and monetary union - as being a revival of the neo-functionalism Drher wrirers on European incegration at chis time adapted che basic notions of neoshyfunccionalism bU[ broughr in extra fucrors Majone (1994) agreed char che EU had seen an upgrading of common inreresn but placed an emphasis on public choice policy ro explain particular Ouccomes Marks et aJ (996) saw a much more complex relarionship berween che Communiry and domestic decision-making leve Though rhe srare was srill very important ir no 10nger monopolizes European level policy-making or rhe aggregarion of domesric interescs 0996 346) Insread rhey idenrified rhe growrh of mulrishyleve governance wirhin che EU
Indeed rhese developmenrs in neo-funcrionalisr wrirings on international organizarions poim up sorne of the criticism~ of che schooL Firsr despice rhe besr efforrs of Ibas Schmitter and Nye it remains a rheory overwhelmingly dominaroo by an inreresr in rhe EC and larer rhe European Union In 1964 Haas and Schmirrer rried to extend sorne of che lessons uf econumic union in Westeru Europe ru Larin America Drawing on Haass 1968 preface ro The Uniring of Europe rhey discerned nine variables four relared ro background condirions (similariey in power of memben rares of rransaction pluttllism in member seares complememing elices) rwo referring ro condirions ar rhe time of economic union (similarity of governmenral purpase powers of che ecunumic uniun) and rhree ro process coudi[ions (decision-making sryle
W[J U UWltU 15
rransacrions rate rhe adaptabiliry of governmenrs) (Haas aIld Schmitcer 1964 711-19) They looked ar rhe chances of policicizarion chat is the possibilicy chat lhe acmrs seek m resolve rheir problems so as ro upgrade common inrerests and in rhe process delegare more amhoricy m che centre (Haas aIld Schmitcer 1964 707) Nye in his article Comparing Common Markecs (1970) rried ro modify che Europo-cemric narure of the neo~ funccionalis[ approach and drew on a wide range of cases of economic imegracion Larin America Cenrral America rhe Caribbean Eastern Europe and East Africa as weH as EFTA and che EC He concluded [har
The original neo-funcrionalist model was close m irs ongms in the straregies of European inregrationisrs in che 1950s and thru mighc be seen as a rempting and misleading guide for policy in orher aceas The revised neo-functionalist model is not somethiug ro be imiraced bU is simply a rool fur making comparisons We wanr ro know whac differshyence ir makes if a group of seates form a common market
(Nye 1970 830)
Though by rhe end of che 1980s rhere were few places ro be found outside Europe thac were forming common markets rhe formacion of he Norrh American Free Trade Atea (NAFTA) and rhe renewal of economic cooperarion in Latin America and Sourh-Basc Asia during rhe 1990s provided different models from the more poliricized EU These seemed ro challenge some of the basic assumptions of rhe neo-funcrionalistS aIld perhaps give some weighc ro Nyes scepcicism ciced above
Second i[ is clear chac che neo--funccionalisrs have had trouble wirh che insticudonal formacs They have rerreaced from being functional federalist almose back co Micranys eclecric approach rowards institudons They have also accepced [he durability of rhe nadon state in resisring che logic of inreshygration and have soughr compromise formulas which at leasr continued ro place emphasis on non-srare accivicies even if insticutions above che stare (supranarional) were seen to be susceptible to stare inrerference
A chird Cliricism concerns the gtOH of non-srare acrors favoured by rhe neo-functionalists They have consraudy emphasized [he imporrance of polirical acrivisrs the elites of inrerest groups and rechnocrats This may have parrially blinded chem ro a weakness in rhe ECEU rhar could have affecced neo-functionalisms earUer proguuscicarions from being fulfilled its insticurions cannoc draw on rhe day-ro-day polirical resources available tO the narional policical acrors This has led tO a gap mosr noriceable in che newer members berween perceprions of che EU by the represemarional elice and rhose of rhe ordinary vorer or consumer Whilsc some earlier srudies of opinion in the EC did inelude opinion pons rhese ofren dealt wirh easy questions (showing ones EuropeaIl idenriry) 01 soft options (whether rhere should be say a more acrive EC industrial policy) With the firH expansion of rhe EC in 1973 and rhe first major oil price iucrCdse
146 Writi~5 cm lI1lMfatleuromal orgfll1iutl1ltl
whi(h coinoacutedemally happenoo a yeat liexclater Euttiexclpean voren werc faeed increasingly wirh mu(h harder options inflation versus employment tlnde union righu againsr consumer inrerests The poISibllity was thar bcing a good European might mean aHowiog sorne other COUlltry5 ruuionals to explott ones fish or oH The crearion oiacute a Single Enropean Marker within the Ee by the end of [992 and rhe move rowards a single curteney from 1999 by eleven theo (wdve of rhe HU member litares bmught he activi~ ties of the VOlon do~er lO the wodd of tite coosnmer or worker However chis seem iexclf anything to have iocreased rhe alienariacuteon of voten from rhe institntions aM acrivilies of rhe EU The 2000 election for rne Europeao Parliamenr shnwed the lowest tnroour yer in sllfh direct elections ano Enrobarometer opini()fi poUs have demonstrnred a msative trend in public opinion on che EU rnropaeuintknmmdgl0epoebc-b531p3npdO Ir may be thar a oumbcr uf interest groups llave switched rhrir expecta6ons and poJiexclcical activirics tuwatds the 00 bllt many of the ordinary European V(l(fS seemed ro have failed ro trans[er th~ir lnyalties tu he Union
In surnmaty the neo-functlona1ists mok np Mitranys srudy of rhe a-lashydons betwren group~ and individllals in oHferent sures il5 wellas che sta(cs representativtltl They tried ro gtapple witb the queuit)O (lf political control uf such iostirurionalized funcrional re1ation5hips aod ro undrrstand how ir would affrct rhe oatnre uf tiJe nation state They arremptrd to define the statuS of [hese newfy creatoo insutution5 tnough rhry wete out always fvlped by devdopments in che ECfEU which WWl rhe focus of rheir studies Tbdr works have demun~trared rhat the EU imututioos are by 110 mratlS juse ordinary imerg()vcrnmenral ones lh~y have al) provideo a mirror ()f the hircof) of (Yents in Westetn Europe in pankultH - moviog flom unitios aod poJitkal dynruniqgt through ~rress oy$ and anguish to obsolesceuce tllrbulent fudds and back to mooerace optimism and a new dynamism
TrotJJ(l(iacutecnaUJI
Anorher Americao writer whose work dealt wirh che question oiacute integrntion is KarJ Deursch Alrhough not a neo-fotlcrionalilit his tranmctional appwmh nali dealt with sorne iOmmoo ~hemes He has been umrerned with more rhan imergovermneuul relation~ aod indeed hM str~iexcl reJations berweeo peopIes nitherthan just rhe elites favonred by manyneo-fuflctionalists Deursch concerned himltelF with m( absrnce or presence of significan orga~ oized preplttrations fol war or large-snde iolence between int~rnatiexclona1 policical commuoities It was [he secutity rommullttles lhat had elimirutted war and [he expectation o[ wat whhin rheir ixmndaries whicn Dentamph and his PrincctOll coUeagues exarnined in PeliriuJ Cfml1NJNlily dIId M NarJh lt14Jtlaquo Atia (1957) A SClttlriLy community WWl defined as a gronp of people wnich has become ~inte8rated~ io rhe sense that thete is real iacutelSSnr+ ance that (he members of that rommunity will not fight ellch oeher
Wriil1g1 (raquo1 iacutelMfatlortal tJrgaiadlMm 147
physkally but will se~tle their disputes in liOffie otber way (Deutsch 1957 5)lt loregration does not necessarily mean rhe me~ging oF peoples ot governshymental units intn a ~ogle unie an idea explicir in fooerahsr rhinking Otud implicir in much funrtionalist wtiting Jnstesd two $otS uf integrared secu~ rit communities ar~ hJemified the amalgamarelt where pteviousiy independent unlts have bcen rormaly merged lnro a larger unit wich a iexclommotl guvernment (eg tlle US) ano the pJuralisric where srparate gnvertUlleJlUl Illlioraio their iexclrgaJ indepeodence (eg uacutenada amI rhe US) In stlldying a nllmbcr of cases of anempred or octual intesratioo io tbe Nortn American and WCSt European area Dtunch conduded rhat tIacutelere werc iexclweive conditions essential fnr the rurcts of ao amalgruruued teeutity (Ommuniry and thM rhree wen nec~ry fm it5 plutalisdc COUnrfrpilrt
The1e three conslsted of rhe compaiacuteibiliry oiacute marer valU($ relevant to
politiclll decision-making tbe capacity o( the participariacuteng plt)htinl Imitl or ~mmem~ ro respood tu each othcrS oetdl messages and llaions quickly adeqwuely and without rtsort ro vlolence aad rne mutual predicrability n bchavior (Delltsch 19H 66--7) In Deutschs work emphasis was placed 00 cornmunkauun brlweEn potidca uoIacutets increased trnns1Ctions between them (such fL polirinl exchangcs toUfl(m trade and rratl~pott) brought increases in mutual dciexcl)Cl(enmiddotc fue s cummnnity ro be created (his high level of trnnsactrons must be accomgtauied by mutual responsiveness o that thr demand o( each side 00 he other mn rccdve adequate and sympatheric treatroent llthis wouk not ooiy predude the need [01 aggressive action lO acbi(Ye ends bm would aJso build up 11 feeLing u( UUSt and seturiry in che edationship
Deuucb does not have an obse~uacuteon with imernattomtl orgaoiexclZ8rion~ although his 1957 book iacutes in [he eM collcetned with the ctelltiacuteon of UCCIlshy
tity community in the NATO area rhere ate few tcferences to internatlOnal nrganiuuons Many o( the Cll5C studj( are ser io tbe pcriud before (be postshywar expansioll uf such organlurions and almost all deal ieh bilareral relatIacuteonshj~ O(utschs work has coosequences for the lUudy o( ioternuiona organizatIacuteoos govemmental ano non-goveromCotaj iO[~rnational otiianiza~ tioos can be created as a re~ult uf a plnraliacutes[ic secuciry nmunuoit) lne integracion of whkh may evtotuaUy become iacutennirurjonalized iexclu nuppened reo the ampandinaviiexclm states creand (he Nordic Counci1 There run abo be forrns of instirUti(lnalued communiratlons berween socieries wnich prOldde the transactions and undersrandinli rhat help create ji securi[y community DeUtsch wrote
li the way tu iexclnregrarion domestic or internarionat i$ through rhe achievemem of a srose of community tnut undergirdS insrirurjtms thm ir seems likely [har ao iorreased sense of cotlloounlry would hrlp to snellgtbcn whatever instirutioos - supranatiooal or internacional - are aLreAdy Oltraring
([)euriKh 1957 7--8)
ltgt -_ bullbullbullbull _- _
Demsc-hs work was mken funher in a vnluffie ediretl io 1998 by AdLer and Bllenen (l998) (lLat docs pay sorne attention to ioternariorutl otgilniushydoos Indecd their volume contairu chapters thar rekr ro rhe oseeacute NATO the EU the UN the GnU Cooperarion Cowxil (GCC) aod rhc Assodation uf Soud Eat Asian Niexclttlons (ASEAN) They daim that imetshyruHiomuacute organiexclzauumlons aud iexclnstitutiacutem~ played al lmporum role in elKiltlraging more inteo$ive and extensive ioteracrioos octwttn states rhrough theit uwt-huildiug propenies (Bnrnetr and Adler 1998 418) They lht six corulusions of this snuerneor
bull By moniroting srares agreemenu tntcmatiuacutelwl orpuuacutezatiexcloo~ give them he cooftdente tuacute cooperare io (he ahsencc of trUSt
bull Jnternational O1ganizarions allow Hi1tC$ to discover new areas of muuwl intetellls Tu ponimlar [hey cenoacute ro link panicular areai
bull Inrcmational organizatiom can hdp shape $fllre pracdces by liCtting down nOfOU Ihat define what is acnptablc
bull The iIKTeaiing nwnber of internacionaJ orgamrutions emuuragC$ muldshylatetalim
bull They dIlO eruourage smres lua societies to see rhelll$Clvcs as pan of a resion
bull 1ntildeey can abo shape lhe identiry of rheir memben (Banlett aod Adler 1998 418-20)
The aurhms cWmed char cheir stuJit$ demonmared rhe exrent 10 whkh social cnmmunicadons beomes insrimtioualileJ aOO embedded in lnreroashytional oC8linbatlooslt and in turU how (hese organizatioru express an inreot to dcvelop trUSt end mmwl identificarion (Batnm and AdJer 1998 418) TIe work on sccurity (mmnunidcs is pelhapS at ir strongcu whcn dealing wim the esrablishetl Westcrn democracies rbough llamen and Adlers work shows rhar it may hilve a wider urility
lnlerJciexclnmdcme
Furrhcr emphasi on the growrh JO cnlnsaccions berween l()Cicries can be seen in the worts of Keohane 11l1d Nye who were m che forefront of the iexclnrerocJXndcnce school in rhe lJoited Srnnt fhey puacuteirued our (he conseshyquences of the innease in tldrunarioualucdolU ro che study uf iexclnternncional rdarions Thcit statcing iexclgtoint was sLlnuuarized chus
TraM1latlowJ relations are nolaquo new alrhough che growth of tmnsna~ tklOal orgnnizarion in me twentieth centuty has been specracunr Ye-r our nmremioo iso nor ooly rlur rhe srate-centrk paradigm )$ inade~
quare bur also thar it igt becoming progttSsively more inadequate as changes io inrernational relauumloos take place
(Keohane and Nye 1971 xxv)
The) llsred five omsequemes uf this growth uf inEematiooal inrcracrions ana organizarJ(tIls fur inrerstate politks (1) rhe promntiun of attirude change amongsr driacuterens (2) ao innease io inrernacional pluralism the linkjng of nntiooal Interese groups in tnmsnational strtlCtures usuaHy involving transruttionaI organizations fOI rhe putpoampe of (04)minatioo ltKtohAne and Nyc 1971 xviii) whiacutech has heen lhe basis for much noo~(Jncdontllist wriexcling (3) me cmdon lf dependence and inrerdependcofe IS often associacuteshyarea with intetnilriorutl cranspormrioo and iexclnance Keclune and Nye 1971 xix (4) creating new insrruments fut iexclnfluence for use by sOJne governments over ()(bers (Keuhane aOO Nye 1971 xx) 1100 lt5) dJe emergence cE auronomous acrors wirh priwre ntildelreign policia thar roa) deliberarely oppose Oiacute impinge on Sla(e polides (Krohilne and Nye 1911 xvii)
In a late book (1977) Keohane and Nye dcah with che questioo of imershydependem-e in world poliacutetics io greatet depth Iorecclependencc $lnce tbe Second Wm1d War has- onen cesulted from increasetl ttaosnadonal atciviries and iexcli divided ioto twO sorrs sensltlviry iacutemerdcpeodence (dte muIy effecrs of dULOges jo tranS1lCrJons oc ~()ciacuteetiexcles or govetrunents) md vulnembHhy interdependence where he acrors Hahllhy tc suffet eO$n iacutemposed by extemal evenc~ js (aken inro accoum (Koonane ana Nyc 1977 12-13) In COntrast ro tbe reaisr view of world poHrk Keohane and Nye pm totward che idea type of complcllt imerdependence which chey claimed soroetimes comes dosee ro realiacutety chan does realism (Keohanc attd Nye 1971 23) aod whieh has three nuio characretl$tks it allows fo mulnple rhallne1smiddot- imershyStatC tiansgovernmental and trilnsnationa- conneltring sncieries there i an abserue of hierarchy ilmonS the rnany questions ac inle hetween iexcliexcltates with military securiry no 10nger dominntlng lUly agenda and Millnu-y force 15 not used by governments toward orher governmenu within me laquogion or on [he lssutS where complex intetdcpendence prevaiacutels (Keorutne aoo Nye 1971 25)
These dltee condidons are said by KCQhane aOO Nye to typify fairly weJJ 5Ome LIlAUe$ of global economk md ecological interdependence ami come dose ro chamcrerizing rhe emite relarionship hetWetn sorne cnuntdes (KeolWne and Nye 1911 25) Complex ilterdepcndente glVel rise ro oacuteininctive poliacutetical processes a sute $ goals wiacutell vary by mue arca with mmsgoYernmeotul puumllitics making goab difficut ro define as ttansgovern~ menrnl llClaquo()$ (fof cxample mtfUsrers of agr1cuJmre inte11igente agencies nariona wcather bureaux) pursue their own aims Jhe followiog facwn are reLevant iriexcl eilch issue area
bull iexclhe resourc-es of a Ncue fur thaI particular area are most relevaot radre Ihan the stares overull military ~tre-ngth
bull international nrganizatinm and uansnntional actors wHl be fruloipula[ed as malnr instrumenrs oiacute mue poHcy
bull rhe agenda of issUC$ wi11 be fOrmulated hyebltUlgcs in the power dirmi~ burlon wirhin [he issue alaquollS by rhe pururinn (lf internarional regimes
150 Writings lIlt inttn1atiQrJ41 ergdniutirll1J
by changes jn rhe importance of ttaflstlational acwtS and by linkage froro orher issues
bull linkage between 1sllor$ will be mote difficult for strong naces to undetshyrah ir[orce 1$ downgraded
ft whiJsr linkage by we$k srares rhrough internacional organuumlarions seu agendas helps coalition-wrming and provides arenas for the political acdvity oC weaker states which can use the choice of organizarional forurn [or an issue and rhe mobiliZlition of votes as a politiul resource
(Keohane and Nye 1977 37)
Thm Keuacutehane and Nt gavc inremarjonal organizaciOfls an iroporran[ role in thde compfex interdependence model of world politics a model which whilst not uSlaquo (O explaitt aIl world politics was one which rhey daitned to hllve iacutenfrtasing releYJ1nce in IIlarge and growing area 1ntildeey used an intetnUional organizadon mooel as one of the explanations ror internashytioua regime change that js che lthange in the sets of goveming flrrangernems affening relatioruhips oC interdependence In tMs C$e intershynadonal oJsanisaciolls refeued ro multilevd Iinkage norms and insritutions (Keohane and Nye 1977 54) which once euablished are harJ (O enlAlicate BeCllue o( this rhey may Stand in the way of swes using thdr capabHities In ordec 00 chauge regimes Instead powet outcomCl will be more aJfectcU by votlng power (in the UN General AssemWy for example) ability ro futtl) coalidoos llnd 00 control elite networks (ruch as that founo io clte institushydougt of the European Commnnities) Whilst the complclt illternadorull organizarion mode1 was only Ofle oiacute fOur aJvaucecl by Keohane and Nye ro explain regiffie chAoge tbey Jiu expeomiddott jr to contribute to such chaIlSC in a world where complex interdependence (onditions pertain
1he rontribmions by Keohane and Nye demonstra(e hoth the roncero pf American wtilets iexcln inremationru relariWl in the 1970$ with altemacives to
tite srare-centric model and their wiluumlngness tO draw from more rhan one approach bringiexclng rogether elementogt from che more tradidonal appnJaChes with economic models and non-stare-cenuic dements TIleir Wi)rk does however have certain weaknesle$ Perhaps the mon serious is the use of rhe cerro imerdependence and iexclrs djvisiacuteon iexclnro ~n~itivity and vuinerability imerdependence Anepting rhar inltldeperulence meUlS mutool dependeoce (and [hjs leado to discussiou a~ w how mutual maoy relationihips are) che phrase scnsiuacuteviry imcrdcpendenre scarccly wflrmnu thc use uf the term interdependcnce fhe fault lies wJth che authou loose definiuOfl of depen~ iquestcnce as a oiexcltate (lf being detetmined oc $ignificaruly affected by externa fwces The induskm 0(signi6candy atkcted w~aken5 me urillry uf me cerm so tlme che nOr1on oiacute scusltivity inrtgtrdependence seems ro refer ro any nociceshyaMe cffeltr of ooe srate and society 00 anorher A person may Ix- significandy affectcd by taking drog$ wlthout Ix-ing dependen on chem David Baldwin showcd that mis use of rhe cerro interdependence ran conrrary to the striaer
Writingt ()I inf~_Ji(J1ia ~lfizaJJom 151
lUlderstlllldings (lf the concept fuund in MirhiaveUi Montesquieu and Ronsseall as weU 115 in che works uf twentieth-cemury wrlteI$ such as Norman Angell Francis D(laisi -and Ramsay Muir (ampIdwm 1980 7-9) He snuested the U$C of rhe rerms mutnal influence mutual responsivrness ot mutual scrlitivity insread ofscnsirivity inrerdependeruemiddot (Baldwin 1980 19)
A second cuacutericism uf Keohanc and Nyes books aso concems eheie termishynology In dealing wirh rransnational influentes They [ump tngerheraH types of teiations in whieb non~8overnrnental actOrs participare chus makiflA rhe componenrs of cheir new paradigm shifting aud poorIy defined (Wagoct 1974 440-1) Wagner questioned whetber their work simply demonstrated a shifr in interesr to new areas of intetnational polidts shyespedally elttmomic ones - ana whethcr [he world hM reaUy changed or whether we have iexclUSt overlookcd sorne things a1l along (Wagner 1974 441) The atent of imerdependence wa~ also chaHenged by Waltiquest (1970) anJ Rosecratlce el al (977) in che US and by Lirrle Bnd McKinlay (1978) and Strllivan (978) in rhe Briti~h Uteramre
DespiLe any falling$ Keohlllle and Nye provided insighrs ioto ttamlflashydonal polltics they shifted atrention away fcom p~lrely govcrnmental actOts in inff$rate relarions and they poiutm OUt he impMrance of intetnational organlziexcliexclxions in the intetdepcndence oc at lcast rnurual responsiveness of =
rbe rdormist view of both international celBtiOO1l and iuternational orga- nizar1ons has always provided an rutemative lO the more conservativc cealist approach Ir tended ro be dominated jn the pre-wu petiod by internauacuteonal lawyen and ideaJists but sinee hc Second World War has laoched on to the changell in world poUtics 6tst jn the economic ficld and then in Europe thar have Mn more difficulty to explain in ICliIHst term~ It has sten intcrna~ rionnl organizarions as mlans to manage trends such as iucftI$(d economl( intlrdlpcndcoC( bar hll5 also illtceplcU rhat these organizations mar necorne impoftllm aCtoriexcl (lO che wodd st$ge lhemselves and can cettainiy Iacute)(cnrne involved iexclO changing rhe preferences o( governmeflts
RADICALS
Writers covered in this sccrion iCe rhe intcrnadonal sysrem flOt so much as being domlnlltcd by states bn( more by diUerent divisions 01 its peoplcs Thi$ is noe to Sfly fhat chey ignore surtes They cOflsider them elthet w be ks tmportant chan the iquestjjsions of diUS tit wealth or merely ro refI~ct these othcr factors ot w be roadblo(ks to unky in (he fare Qf mote impomllt chalmiddot renga Power ls seefl as belnamp cxercised by eh( wealthy II1ld privileged and open to cha1Jeuge Change in the system is possibl( but onty through srrll8ge or by an awakenjug pf peoples tQ rhetr real sitllatlon Most iexclnter~ natimal organization~ are thus regarded as (eflccrioos of the currcnt unsruisracwry stare uf aiacuteTairs though $fJme more activist orgauhatioos mar llave potential as vehicles or (hange
This SIoacuteCElOn has betn sub-middotdivided imo rhree gthe fUS( are the econ01nk srructuralists and indude Marxists and Third Wocld wruumlers cririclll of rhe cutrem imernruionallyuem They haacuteve in common a belief mar che polltshyiexclcal srructUres of me world halle leeo wbloned mainiexcly by eltonomic fiiexclctors and rhAr mere has bren an intiacuteJUIllity builr imo the presen sytem lhe recood are the cruumliral app~es who5e radicalilifl1 is mure of the iacutemellec~ cual SOrt They rejeCf - Uf at 19$[ question - Jhatly of rhe usumpcions utlderlying be lIiews ofhe world tepresented by the realists and refotmers Finally mere are the globalim Theit perspective ls planerary ana theiacuter rnain conrtrn h fM rhc survival uf Earth Agilln they challcnge che mme statemiddotbuled approaches of both realjsts and reformers
Stnuturaluacutet lIiews
Ihe srructuralist appmiexclch rO (he swcly of inrematioOlIl relations differs In imporrant wars tO thoee of me realists and refotmuu tbough ir has some elemeou in comroon with mands ofb04h schools As roany of (he neo-realistsshyemphasite (he power scructure of wudd potities this sectiacuteon willlimir jwgtlf ro (hose writers roncerned wich the impacr 00 me political S)Srem of rhe wodds ccooomic strucrure Unliacuteke che ttalist approach the erooomk srrucruralisrs are OOr jUSt concemed with swtts io wodd polilla and rhelr economic and poIitkal differencC$ but alw with the divisioru within f1tld berween SoOCieties (WiIIeas 1990 263) They are [heretOre romerncd witl the rifi berween riel iexclmd poor within scares and rhar herwtto udl and poor glohally This leads ro an interese lO trulSlUirional reladoru as well as in inrergo~romenmt links Th(f have this in corrunon wim refPrtllist views bm diexclfier foom chem in (he emphast~ placeoacute on rhe structures of world pollics beinc formuared by eltooomic fiexcliexclcmn In rhis selttion attentioo wilt be given te MarxiS[ wtlletS lIud sume Thir1 Wodd view$ - partiuilarly (hose of rhe cependency sdlOOf and rhe developmemalj~[II - who have made a cootribution quite separare from rhat of rhe Muxiacutesr uadidon
Marxill laquoewl
There is no one Marxisr interptetariacuteon of me role of imerniexcliexcltional Olganiza~ cions in world politics Sur Manis[ approschf3 have certain elements in common and form a di~dnctive 5ch001 of rhough[ about lnrernartonal telamiddot tions generaHy and therefore ahotu international ocganizadoos These appmaches are based 00 du writiflgS of Karl Marx (l818~) in coshyoperarioo witb Fuacutewrich Engels (1820-95) with perhaps tbe gtearest later conrribution being maJe by VL Lenin kader of (he 1917 fo1shevik revolushydon in Rurna They are cf importanee pany becau1e ehey ficm tlle 00515 for mmmuniSt [hinking and (hm mey have an anactunenr m rhe Soviet Unian whieh WIlS be suongc1t commnuist stare unrII 1991 and EO rhe Peoples Republic of China COlUT1UnJSl sinee 1949 Apan ftom lbis ManiS( beliefs
had a irmng inpur mm Wescern imdleltrual cruoking and conunue ro iruoan some viewi abom wodd politics in rhe Third Wodd
Neither Marx no Mancisrs took rhe stare ro be (he curtency of iacutenteInashy(iexclonal relations Unlike (he realist viewpoints chey did fiO( coruider interactions blaquoween soveteigu ltates to be ofovettidi importance UnHke tbe funcrionalists aud other modem Westetn views rbar srress non-stare actocs Marxiexclsts in particular emphasized cbus relatlonships born wiexclrhin nates and IiCOOSS Stare boundaries Indeed ie is diffku[r ro talle only of a MaIXIacutest view of inrernatiooal re1atioll5 lec ttltme of iorernarional orgnniza~ UumlOOy as rhis separares ene particular aspecr of human behavinur tor MIlIXIsr rrearment divorcing ir from the undedying relleCS of Marxlc beliefs Man-ism provides a framcwok of undemanding by whkh ir iacutes daimed ~ociery pan lind vresen can be explaioed and che furure development of mankiexclnd determined
According ro Maf1 relariooshipamp between people and the futm~ mar insdmdooallzed rhose relatienshfpamp depended on rhe economic $truCtUR of soday fhe way rhat productlon was organized He traced the history of dvilixed maokind through five hiuorical staBes - AAjade mdenr feudal capttalin and socialin - which have ditTereru dominant methods of produc~ tioll leadiog 10 a complirared arrnngement of $OCiety ioto various ordetS 11 manifuld graduadon of sociru tank (Marx llnd Boge1s 1965 40) amph form of sorlef has coutained rhe conflictual divisiQl$ which help [Q tranuacuteorm the narun of rhat $Ocjeey coRrradicrioru in the mode ofpcoducfIacuteon placed srrain nn rhe existing social nrder sharpeniug rhe divide berween economic founshydatinn of sociery and a mpld aansIacuteonnlltion of in SOpel1Ullcture in legal polidcal and re1igious it1$tirutioos Thus by 11 confronration of da$~ Conrramiddot dkeions one historlraJ form of soc1ery wus transfocmcd into a bigher stage uf social devdopmem the history of aH hitherto existing ~ociexclety is the histoty uf dass struggles (MaDI Illld Bngets 15 39) Marx and Bnsels were parriculady conceroed wich capita1i$t sociery - ac its Oeyday during theiacuter Uves - and its tmnsrormarion iexcluto ampocis1iu sodety Wlthln rrus form of SoOCiety rOete would be no division of laboU4 and no eWses Illld no SUtes no elCpropnation of labours 5urplus vruue I1nd (bus no private property 00 exploira(ion of ene clilllS ny iexcliexcloother with 00 need fue war
For Marx and fingeJs C1ass then and noiexcl fllltions or sutea are rhe bade units in hurO) llIIIl che struggle between clAssts Jnstead oiacute infeutliltl contlict ocrupies rhe centre of acrention (Berki 1971 R1iexcl From me nlneteenth celUUf onwards rhis struggle -n in Marxisr cerros has been primarUy between [his capicalist dass ([he OOurgeoisic) aOO the bbouring dw (me proletariat) AA (he trarurormatlon fmm capltalisr SoOCIety [O ~OCialiexclMl ro comrounism rook p~e (he superstruerutt of bourgtOis SoOCilaquoy - religioo national divisiacuteon boutgmis politicnl insrirudnns rhe SOlte - woold be swept flway and in Engtls pmse rhe gOlcrotnent nf persons is replaced by [he udminlsuacion of things Fetter 19 (47) with me itEte relegated lO the mmeum iexclngemer Wlth lile spinshyning wheel Qnd [he bronze axe (Feuer 1969 433)
154 WrituacutetKiexclI mJenl4tiorJal rngmZtlJilm
Mux saw the European SUtes of his own rime as being rntans by which the ruBng dass (011amp oppress the work~ng clw by using (he agentl of tht 5tare such as the iudidary the poliee the army and rhe church he (xrerual Ilctlvities of the stare wete also determined by its Chtss namre MeanwhiJe rrmllnat]onat Rlations of a more meaningfuL kind WQuld bt creared by trade rhe movement of capital and incteaiitd romac[ and llOIacuteldarity betwten the prolerariat of vanoulS nations riacuteidefd rhe internacional nriexclaniutions of which Marx and Engels hnd dire(t experiena- wtfe the Fi~t Internatiomd and for Engels the Secund lntemarional both of which atttmpted lO orgashynJxe the represemarives of wruking people aiexclros fronden Onc~ agaJn this stteAAe$ the Marxist empbois on transnarional dass relutions rnther than on intentate relarionships
Whibt Soviet writlngs on international organizatinn1 wtte falrly desulshytory in Scalins reigu 0924-53) rhey did lmerIy hernld rbe move towams peaceful co-existerne arul roreshadowffi the lartf rnrhe[ restrktive view of Imch organi2Atinm hy Soviet commentators
In the post-Second Wodd War period and In patticular in the post-Stalin era Soviet liternmre on international organiuttions bl(lSsomed This has reflected Soviet membership oC ma1ly 1osiexcl-1945 organixations the emershygence of a socialist bloc of sta[C$ and tbe incre-ase in the mlmber of Sowcreign s[ates all flUtontilde demaruHng a more sophisricared Soviet view of lnter~llate reLadoru than che survivalism of Stalins period Uuring rhe lare 19805 i( auo ret1ected the new thinking iacutemroduced by Gorbachev
StalintI suIXessor KrU$hchev developed a revised view of internacional relaCtons which gave a positio1l ro the emerging Third Wnrhl (Tbe Third Wotld was then taken to mean rhotle IItates thar had emerged ftom colo~ nialiacutesm In effect rhe terrn later induded tbe stares of Latin America Africa - exclnding the rhen apaftbeid stnre of South Africa - the Middle Rasr Oceaniacutea and South Asia) Peace(ul co-exiuence between oda1ist and (apltaJisr states WM $til comidered nece1sary but this diacuted noc predude the ideologiacutecal stmggle between rhe two campsmiddot iexclndeed lhe Soviet inter~ national lawyer GI Ihnkiacuten wrote pearcfut cocx15tence of sutes represeonng che tWO differeor rodal sysems is a slccific form uf dass struggie beween socialism and calitllllsm (Osakwe 1972 37) The Soviet Union abo deveJoped relatlons wirh rbe newly emerging exshycoloniaJ cOllntdeJ and Soviet writiog had tu take ~ount of this developmem There wru a recognirion of a third group of stattli between rhe capitalist aud the communlsr that of poteorially friendly indtptomiddot deut $tarem io Europe and Asia such as India Egypt Indnnesia and Yugoslavia which would filrm a tone of peace Although the rebtions wiacuteth rhe capitaliacutest sures sriacuteH remaioecl embedded in pelteful coshyexluencc rhere was an emphasis by postmiddotStalinist Soviet writets on the da eJement in lile telatiomhil - that is rhe wntact with progressive elements in Weste1l sodeey smh as che Jabonr mnvement Ncither diexcld peaceful co-exiucuce rule OUt ~upport o[ middotjUSt wars of nationallibcrildon
WIacuteJIacute11gs tm iacutenUrllUtional WjatlJZtiacutelJlff 155
iexclndeed ir was seen lt a strategy fo wodd reloludon Fiacutenally (he rrlashyfIacuteonhips berween the Sovier Union and East Eumpean countries vere deerned ro be based on sociali internationalism posmlating a haemony of natinnal and commllnity interests and mndllding thar jnde~ndeuce and sovereioiexclnty of a soctalist uate means aoove aH indepltndencc from capitalism (Red Star 1 December 18)
Tunkin underljned traditional Soviet thiacutenking rllar the mngtrltllenl imrrllment of an ioretnational urganization (fne example the Chaner oiacute the UN) was all-impottant in derermining tIte enene rrun the otganizauumlon bad an international legal pcntildeonaliry rhar iexcl5 a standing in internacional 1l1w 5imilar tu titar of a sovereigo staxe Examining lhe question of the antonomOllS wiU oiacute international nrganitatioll Tunldn allowed thl1 they need not jmt act as agtnts for member stares
In imernatiunal ptacrke trellties conduded by jntcrl~ational mSaniacutezashytinns take their speciaJ piare as treacies by wbkh internationsl organimtiom aequire righu and take upon themselves cerrain obligiexcllshytioos Intctnat10nal organizatiou are created by Hares hey are broughr iexclnto being by states but the actloacuteos of imcmational organi7ashydoos are nlt)( in any way de facto or de jure ro be tqt1sred lO the actions of scates
(Osakwe J972 23)
Thi did nor mean than M internadonal organiacuteiariexclon was an entity indeshypendem of its memher us[es as any powers (har they hacl were delegated by [he members In Jine wirh che ampwiet doctrine of peareful co-exiacutesteme Tunkin placed Uress pn (he nature and rhe membership of an international organiacuteution dlOSe which drew their membersbip from commlmi1t c1Ipishytalist and TIiexclird World tares could expcct tu be genel1llly mognized as having an incernarional personaliacutery He wrote
TIte namre of tontemporary international prganiurions is lO a very great exttm derefmined by [he existerue of Haces beJonging ro differem wcio-economk systems and the ioevitable muggle between them Thar is why pcaceful crexislence is now the bl-sic condition of rh~ dfVC1iexclpshyment ufgeneral interoational ntganization
(Osltuumlltwlt 1972 289)
Mor07JN Clt1ntrlbuterl sorne extra points Fintildet be iududed JNGOs in his stndy He wrote dlQt lotetnational orgaruulions have as iI rol 8t least three member coumries TheM may be government$ offidJ orgilnlzarions or 0CInshy
guvernmental organizatiow (Morowv 1977 30) In a 11Iter seccion m NGo thcy were ldencifred as che la~ group of inrerrulttonal organiuttiolls wim two aspccn rbar concttntd socuIacuteiacuteIgtt commemarors tbe NGOriexcl auirude towards the preservarion of pealaquo wkh the Wnrld Feieradon ofTrade Unions
6 _ 0
rhe Wodd Fedemion oE Democratk Youth and otber meiexclllbtrs oiacute tbe Sovittshybacked World Peace (ounaacutel gaining special mentioo and the specialiuJ chataCrer of sorne NGOs itl(h as rhe ruerrutriunal Couocil of Scientifu Unions and che Scienrifk OJmmiuee on Antnrctk Research MOrlrLOv memioned how NGOs can belp emblish a social dimate citillg their contti shybution ro (he setdemenr of a number of internacional confHcu swh as dlilr in Vietnam He aOO dealr wirh the role of che NGOs io cbe UN aud che consuJshyrative srarus [hey llave witn lGOs saying du[ smdems of internariooal affitjoiexcl
in [he socjalisr councrics m critieal of many asplaquots of (his system fur the eoruulrarive StatuS amogemenrs stiU fall shon of wha( [he deveJopmenc of modern inretnatlonal relarions in fac[ catls fur (Morozov 1977 43) Tbe specialized namre ufNGOs Wamp1 atttibuted by M((2OV tu
tht increased Jnfiuence of the pubic at large un roreign polky [he grearer iexclmpat of public opininn in imernatiunal reladuns and [he greater importante uf me ideological fiexclUtot 10 $ucb relations Accoum should abo be raen of che proccsses of cconomic developmenr and [he coosequenc~ of [he scienrific and rechnological tevolutioo which has also led ro a greatet number of speoacutealized NGOs
(Morozov 1977 42)
Second Morozov wridog jo d~ late 197amp made moU pos-irive refershyencelgt (O [he role oiacute Trurd Wodd SUtes in imemaciooa otganimrions He noted rbar rbe emetgtoce oiacute ti large oumbe of Oung natiooal stares h8ve kd fO che emetgcnce of intetnarJonal Drganizadons among develcpi08 ecuoshytries (Mororov 1977 29) aod claimed hat partkiparion in (hese organh311oos is part uf he process uf consolidating their sovereigocy and ruuional jndependenu~ aod of wlviog cheir pressing ecoOfJmic anJ orher pmbemsmiddot (Morozov 1177 31)
Finally Momzov developed the puint made by fimkin aOOut he limited llalUre of ioternationaJ organiurjQn$ - ~econd-dllSS ffitrnbers nf the inrershynarloual sysrem as opposed tu rhe firsr-diexcllSS members SQvereJgn stateiexcl by reretcme tO theit dedsioos There bave resulted froro che inrelllctioo of politicuJ euroorces within the organil1ldons and
Thecombined will uf chcse lGOs i5 disuumlnc[ from [he wllls of theuuml indishyvidual members io in eflSenlte and ln in narure The v1ilflous wills in thb case are nor agsregued arirhmetically each one exim indepenshydendy ur oside a homogeneQu~ socio-political gOUP wirbin whose frarnework (hey can be combjlled
(Murozov 1977 34)
AfLer lhe comiog ro powet ofMikhail Gorbachev in the Soviet Union io 19Bgt a Ihaoge rook place jo $oVJIl policies rowards imeroadonal relations irutuding international organi1ations and [his has been reflecred in new
~ M-- bull 6_V_
Soviet writings un [he subJect Gorbachev inttoducetl a owjor review of [he fureign poljcy uf the Soviet Union (har marchcd rhe inremiry of his dmncslic refotmS He encouraged new rhinking- based on a revjeJ vlew of che world siruation Peaceful co-existence wirh iexclhe capiralisr tirares WlCgt no looger seeo a~ being a spetjfic fum of dass srruggle as Tunkin had written bUI 35 being in the commoo intecesu oiacute all countriCl Ir WIi$ predishycued on the neOO fin surviva of (he human nce which in ShakhfUlZOlrQvmiddot$ word$ must ofCOUIse take fim place Lighe 1988 297gt- Thjs ml$or rhar a new COIKeuropt of seGldty had ro he adopreJ hy che Soviers rhar oiacute common security which wa5 based un sume of he ideas of -che Palme Comminion (see he1ow) Greater emphasis wu given ro arms control and dlsarmament agreemenrs wirh the Wesr 11nd to co-opttation in international uffuirs whilst Soviet intervention io che Third Wodd enbed and milirary 5UppOtC 1m [he East European communisr govcfomentS WlS withdrawn
Soviet wdcings on inremurionilJ relations both offidal and academic came to mirror Gorhachevs new rhJnkiog bur eho lilete iexcl$ evety sigo chut rbese id~ were dmwu no only from rhe Wesr but alw Uacutenm Moscow mink-tanks slleh as lMEMO th~ JflSIirure of World Eronomy and Inremlfona Relacions) Liacuteght 1988 29~n Gorbschev aun his forngn minisrer FQllard Shevaronadre gave rhe academiacuten a Breen light for funher diSClViiacuteon ud debare (Shevaronadre 1990 23) As II reampul srudies examlned he role of che Uniacutered Nariacuteons as sn ugem for peoce (Kolyrev 1990 12-19 NesrerenkQ 1990 65 Petoovsky 1990 42--3) and rhe mte of inrernational or811nizadons in environmental mliLffers IiLnd disurmamenc qutsdmuuml Chodsulkwsky 1988j NikitiM 1989 123-32 Roginko 1989 133-43) and internarionallaw was teassesred (Sutier 1989~ 363-75)
Once che Sovier Union collapsed many of me wrifetS losr rhe main point of political reference A nwllber Iefi academc orhets adapted thelt ideas ro WCtem oues and a few remnioed as policy rulviseni ro che new Russian goVefrutJenL However cornmunism as M imellectually dominant organiuog rotce wlch pnliiisJ dour had djsappeared in Russia togerllef with much uf the persptr1ve ir provided - wben seen thmugh me unen distotdng leos uf tbe Sovier lfulon - oiacute inrernatiooaJ relatlons and inremariooal organhattnru
Chinese Marxisr wrirers have iexclargeIy reflected rhe views of the leadershyship in Chinll sioce [he coming ro power of rhe Commun1sr Patty in 1949 Undl (he 1970$ communist China was elduded from almon aH iotttllJishytional of811nizIiLtIOns and ie is flot surpriamping tha whae lirde writing tbete WUtl on the st1bje(r Wal fairly dismiacutesampive usuaUy consisdng uf coudemnaM tinos of (he UN fnf its action tn Korea aud rhe security allianes fot teir hegernonic narure Chjnese Marxisr rhinking hiacuteu divided (he modem wotld jnro three groups ihe Birsr World consisred of rile fWQ imperialist superpowers namely he USA ano the USSR The Second World was made up uf otbet areaa uf advamed industrilllired cnuntries primariacutely EUfape aod Japa which were opea ro donunariou by lite Sllperpowers bu( which could $tan a dialogue wirh rhe Thiacuterd World Theu (here was rhe Third
158 Writings OtJ internationdl organizatioru
Wodcl iexcltreI( coruisting of the Afro-Asiacutean-Lario Americltlu sta tes supported in their muggte aAainSt Picsr World imperialism by Chinls This viexclew of the wmId colouted tyJst Chiacutenese wridngs on iacuteoternatiollill oeganharions Tbe $uperJowers were seen as cynical lTlllnipubtors Qf inrernarionaJ jnsti~ tutions Mao Tre~tuog wOre of US poliey towards such insdfutions Ir mam use or them when it neOOS rhem and kicks them 3way when ir does flot (Society (or Anglo-Chinese Underuanding 1979 42) US-domioated pill-~ such amp$ SEATO and imperialist groupiacutengs like rhe Alliance tor PfOgre~( wttt detided Spedal viuiot was saved roc the Warsaw freaty Orgaoizatiun whieh in one aetide was described as Soviet sodal~ imperialisms mol fur aggression (Ming Sung circd Jn Chen 1979 194) fhe Soviet Union was aceuseQ of trying tu manipulate che Pan and negnshydate wlth Wesrem eouorries rhmugh the Enropean Scltwiry Conferenee tn consolidare irs begemonic status in Basrern Enrope at the same time iexcliexcll dividiog Wes(ern Europe squeezing Out the USA ro as ro muSte way (0(
iu expansion and infilrmrion into Westem Europe (Ming Sung clted in Chen 1979 197)
Chinese writecs Fegatded tbe Ntildegttood Worid espedally Western Europe as being a pen force io telmS of imperialism which Ww tdponeed to the lhird World wich diaJogu as io the Jmueacute Convention berweoen tIacute1e European Commnnitiacutees and AF~ican Carib~an and Paciuacutet srUe5
Furrhermore the defensive $spects of NATO were sttessed and with growing European cohcsion the trend iexclS IJkely to ~ towatds a fuoce in which the American elemenr is seen as 1 temporary neceuity eventual1y to be phased out (Sodety fur Anglo-Chioese Undetstanding 1979 90)
lthe countries of the Third World were setn as coostirotiog rbe mluumln force comb$dng imperiaJi~m colonialism and hegemonJsm reEerring nor only to the vestiges of Wesr Etl-OOptan foloniiexcliexclJism bOl abo to US iexclnpetlshyalism and gwwiog Soviet soci$l~imperiacutea1ism Tbe Third Wodd eQuld hdp tn exclude the gre$t powers ny baoding cogecher io such otganizatinos aiexcl tht DAU aod rhey could work ro correct unequiexcliexcl nade and eeonomk reladons with che sUpetpowers through UN iexcliexclgeucies and eonferences such as UNCTAD and UNaos Abo rtlW material ancl exporting orgllnizations liexclke OPEC rbe Incernadonal Bauxilaquo Association ancl the Onion of Banana Bxporting Counuies were proised a ehanging (he old interntlrional eumomic Ome and banerlog che biggest roarerJal plunderers in rile world rhe United Srates and (he Soviet Uoleo (Ptking Rt1Jiew 26 Septtmbtr 1975 cited in Cheo 1979 309)
111e poverty oiacute ehinne study of intetnatlenal erganhuions no dounr caused by the lack of Chinese membership of such etganizacions unril the 197amp and the turmoit ef the Cultural Revulution eiexcliexclme ro an enel by the 1980s Jnstead oere was a more reaHs( viexclew (lE rbe worlcl iexclf one S~shytimes coucbed In Manlst terms In Chlnese univenittes there was a growtb io detailed studies of iutemationalntgsnizations aod the nuropean Union
WritingI un inlmullPmnl vrgrsrtilpiill1J 159
Tbird Wwld vlewJ
Many Third Wodd Afro-Asian aoo Latin Atrusican) writers 00 jntemsw
tional organizaion have adopte a structtulIist framework and are particufarly nm(etnecl abour how insdtutions can be wcd as tools of exploitadon uf rhe nitd World aud how $ome cau be used lIS agenrs of libenuion They llave nor been induded in the ~ettiexcloo un Marxist viltws (or three feamm nOI al of them are Mandst thIJM who are Manisr place particular stresS on (he posicion oF thE l1lIacuterd World and as ThJrd Worlcl eitizens they have through theit own experience unother pe~cdve rhan [Mt of writers from industri$lized srates
Yash 18ndon (1978 377) has identjfied thNf nuacuterd World penfIXrives en inrernational Olganizatiolls Fim [here is that or the bourgeois Of perry natiunalisrs who are in power in mos[ Third World statcs and who are progressive in [errru of anti-impcrialism but are rraniollary ro the C1tccnr WC they would sooner mau thcir pcaee with imperialism rhan iluwnder power (e the masses and peasancs This group uses ineernational orgllniexclm~ tions ro pur presrure 0lI imperialisc states in order to extntCt concession5 from them and appease tbe masses in their own coontries TIley see che UN as an opportunity to parley witb their entwhiacutele impecild masters t a presumed kvd uf equa1iry (Tandoo 1978 365) Thc scltond pcrspective is rhat ofthe reaIly backward regimes of thl Thitd Wodd such un Taiwiexcliexcln and Jotdan or whnm intemarional orguniacutelattnnS are of margJna1 signifieance [)t they prefet tu dea wirh impcrialism iquestirt(tiy The rhird petSPCCrive idenrified by landOll is that uf rhe masses vi thc TIlird World for wbom toterntlunaJ orgmilAriom are petiphewl fin liS Jong as hey rontinue fO reflect the muing balanlte uf clas$ forces in hvour uf impeuacuteJism (fandon J 978 378) Sioce the ene of he 196amp rorces representing thu third group have bccome lnott prominent in world polido in che form of liberarioo groop1 lttCn as tbe PLO and whilst chese have f)tgten interested in galnin8 telaquolgnJtlon rOt rhemshyselves at the UN and the spedaliled agcodes rhey are not depeuden 00 these or8ani1Jlton~ rndecd Tandoo romioeted (hat fo che revoludonary snnggles in SOUfh~E3SC A~a and AfrJctI iOfernattonal otgilnizalJons are tOO peripheml to be of much $ignilJeaoce (Tandon )9713 377)
Tancloo providcd n inrere~tiog history of the Jevelopment uf the anrishycolonialist forees in che Third Wruld sinee 1945 bur hi~ clivi~iexcl()H iexcloro he three perspenives is roo stark leaving aside rhe leil important backWllro regimes be has basiclllly grO~lped tbe Third World leadershp joto the revoshylutionaries who have Uttle netd (or imernatiooa otgllnizatiooll and those who llave suumlpped into refOrmism and have beco duped iot() bdieving (hat they elln ehaoge chelr c1ependeoce 00 industtia1i1Cd nBfiexclmL~ lhrough intemadonal organiwtions Thjs seems to undelsrare me use or ~mh organishyzations by revolutionllry groups - especiiexcliexcllIy che PLO anel tlle SoUthem African liberadon OtgllOiexcl7arionS - whieb have made substaotial use oiacute [he UN me Arah League ano the OAU tO sustain rhe polirical aspeets of theit effOrt5 1t alS(l uverestimatcs the extent tu whieh the Third World countries
J UU wnlmgl 1111 JTiUrllamm41 ergtIttJ1I0fll
have any iUwinru about imetnariooal Qrganizarioos such a~ UNC1~D
Furchermorc the identificador of 800d revolutionaries and falten refurmislS i~ tuller impliexclstjc~ rhe maIur sponrot of the UNs New Ecooomic Order l wruch Tandon hal roudemned as rhe Old Economic Order with a diffefent rltetoric WIIS the Algetian radinu governmenr of Boumediemu rhe PLO irself ha heen dependem on a numlgttr of bnurgeWs Arab goveromenrs foc financial 00 diploJUlltic suppon and ro Tandoos duumlertion that PQr narlonallibemwn movemenn guided by a proktatlan idoology such liS rhose in Chifliexcl1 lIlud Vietnam iruemarionaJ organlwtlona WtU of no 1J5e can be- added the re5ervarion until chey carne (O power Whiht ir took some twenty years belote communist Qtill1 made use nf suth organiutions the unified communiSl Stale ol Vietnam was quick fO cake up it position in the UN ro ask [Ol aid thtough UN agencies liS well as w become ji membet of he CMEA (Comecon)
Third Wodd commemscOt1l on world politics have emphasized the nature uf rheir atea$ potirical ecoOoacutemtc Ilud culmral relatloosluumlp wilh rhe iHdllsrriexcl~ alixed Nonh TitilO is iOO$t Oflltl rypified aiexcliexcl bciug OHe of ueo-folonialism _ COntrol of che Third Wtltld by lhe Nortb by indirecl means ratlet (han by direa colonial tule and of Kf)IomIacute( dRptwJmry (o dtpmdemjiexcliexcl) lntetnationaiacute rdsdOOi bcrween sures are sublumed ro relations between claue$ world wide Ixtween on rhe one lIand the expluacuteiting impetialist capitetists in rhe northcm iru1usuialized couotries 2100 rhcir middle-ltlass collaboratotS in the 50Uthem SUtes aud on the othet band he exploiced masses rhe proleuriat ol [he $Ourhern contJnems The Lurcr gmupS have been 1I1iide ecooomkaUy dependent on [he furmer so char hey lIre in rhe wuacutetds uf the Bruiliiln T Dos SantOS in a situadon jn which the economy of a cetuin group of counshytrles is condiacutedoned by rhe develOplllent aad expansion of aoother ecouomy lO which thcit own 15 subjecred (Bodenheimer 1971 327)
The uOOerdeveloped tounrries depend uacuten [be developed ror their capital nd ercperdse they find key sectors of ehdr eroooroy conrrolled from OUtsJde rhey act as a SOUfce of raw marerials lIS ji lthetip source of labour arul as a rnarket fur mllnuf8ccurers from Euttipe ]apan and North America As thejr living standards were deterrniud by rhe vicissinWeS of the Northern~ dominated wodd marker the relationship was Otle uf unequa exchange (he [esule of which was a world experiencing woequal developmenr with a developed rieh indwtriaJiud capiralisr Notthern centre and d poor underdeveklpedgt agciculrutitlly backwarn eXFloired periphery in che 50mb The dependem 80mh has been divided berween rhe ptedominanr undemeshyveloped area~ lUld a few Cenfres of deve10prnenr wirh their ttade culrural rraffie and polidcal linL to [he deveJoped North - rhe depeOOem develop~ memo omlinea by EH Cardosa (1974) allodlt~r Bruiliall Mmir Amiu (977) rejC(ted the prosptltt of aH antonomous capitalist development in [he Third Work the oew bourgeaisJe of Lacin Ametica Africa and Asia were in allianec with capitalisrs from rhe Nnnh and rhe mato $OUrce of finance ror lmported equipmem was fmm the expon of raw materials to rhe indu~rial
5 ~ _~ smiddot_middot~~
iexclred smes Amin (1977 1-21) SllW rhe can made ror a New Imernational Ecooomic Order (NIEO) by Third World leaders at rbe UN UNCTAD aod che Vilrlous North-Sourh dialogues as an nrtempt LO iexclnerease the price of chelr ntw mattIial exporrs obraio more lmpotted technol08Y snd chus finance a new srage of develQpmenr He saw this ti placing the Thitd World more in the gttp of the neo-co1onialist sysrem and iostmd recommended 11
more self~rcuumlanr development wlrh murrud assismnce between Third World sures a reducdon in [ade wirh rhe induuialized wotld and Chlll a loos~ ening of dependenre Amin lJke TaOOon had Jittle fairh in presenc imtrnruional organizaciexclon Il tools foc fasbiooing a more independent Tbiacuten Wotd His sU88tl1cion of grearer mUtual ilSlgtistaoce between ThUd WorId uate~ implied somtthing more sophillticated than a numbtr of bilateral arrmgements As rbe present orgauizarions used fu iexclncm~Thjrd World cnshyoperation (che OAU he Atab League ASEAN) are domitllued by jusr dl()llC govetnmenrg chM accept lhe eowse coodemned by Amio _ the NIEO ami greater jmegrndon iexcluro rhe world economic sysrem ~hen Amia solutloil involves like-minded deveJoping counrries or more like1y political changes leading ro such indigenous intemuional orgilniwrions
Other Trufd Wodd wdten have plllCtXl emphasls on grearer use 01 exisring insdtutions lOO can broadJy be deKfibed lIS Wopmenraluli huI Prebisch an Argentinian econOmigf has not only studied the que5iaacuteon uf ecooomic dependency but his ideas llave been used as the baJiexclis for che wotk of cwo miexclljoc iexcliexcluemariOOiexcll1 organizadons rhe UN Enmomic Commission fa utin Ameriea (ECLA) and UNCfAD Iu his smdy of Briliacutesh-Argerl(inian trading relntioflS Prebisch bad idenrified rhe unequRl tecrns ol Hade between he favoured (ndusrrislized s(ate of tbe centre and he les privj~ leged llOIl-indumialiacutewl periphery Prebisch unlike rhe dependencia gtChool of Amiacuten Dos Sancos and Cardosa believed thu this inequaLity could be overcome by political acrinn by trade pre[ereonces fuvouring the pedphery by eoo1ruooiacutery agreemenrs by intelnatiacuteowll aid and by more foreiga imvestment in che ~riphery It was thele remedies thiexcllr Prebiacutesch eneouraged when he WiIS Executive SecrCrary of ECLA from 1955 lO 1963 aOO Secrewy-Genernl ofUNCTAD ftoro 14 ro 196tL In~d rhe amoum of aid the periphery needed in omer to overeome their Unfuvoluable rrnde balance became known io UNCTAD clrcles as [he Prebiexclsch Giexcllp
The distinguished Afiican aC1ldentie Aji Mazn1i has wricren un the plighr Qf (bar conciflfnt aod j~ role in pmem~day interruUIDllfl1 afmits He soughr ro answer rhe quesdon Now rlw Imperial Order is eoming ro an end who is going tO keep rhe peaee in Aampica and tu examine he concept of Pax AfrlclllUl the African s ambidoo ro be his OWh palaman The JXIliacutecillJS and se[f~8overnment ufAfriea depended on the nodan ofan African self which Mauui discusseJ in decaH He considered how this 1ndepen~ denre might be threarened by the politicaI and cultural fragmenMion of the contillenr Ellld eronomieally by deperulence on Europe He quoted Kwame Nkntmah finr President uf Ghaniexcll on rhe Europe-Jn ECOntunir Communiry
162 Wilihgr rm intd1JatirmallJrganizatimu
ihe ireaty of Romemarks the advent of oeoKolonitJism [n Afriacuteen snd bears unqutSrlonably the marks of Freneh neo-colonuumlllism (Murui 1967 93) He moduded from tM that Wlut AfrlOlns tbelaquofore neecletl was II
renerru authotity of cheir owa tI) ((lordilJlte fheir eltonomk and policicat deCena- sgain5t trus rnreat (Mamtiexcl 1961 93)
Given this theme it is not surprising tlwt Mazrui ser srore by rhe OAU bU[ he was realistic in bis judgement
In relatioos betwlaquon African statts lIOflesr step rowards Pu Africana was taken when rhe Organiution oiacute Aftlaquolln Uniey set up in Commissiacuteon ofMediauacuteoo Conci1illtion aud Arhitmion
Anormr OAU Commissioo of relevance fot Fax AftlOlna ls che Defence Cornmission Sor me Defeme Commlnion 1w se Car been among che lean effecdve QfPan-Aiacutericun ins(kndons Afrka mar indeed aspire to be her owu ptlliceman bur she does nO seem ready as yel to par the price iacutem it
(Mauui 19612[3)
Mazrui oudined the varicd backgrounds of [he lemen oiacute newly illdepenshydent Africa and thdr radical and revolmionary ideas and it is pethaps swprising rhat the insrirutions rhey created fur me coutinenf wete so mnservative with [he p05sible exceprion oiacute the OAUs Natiomtl Libetttion Comminee Mazrui no[ed thac Africa srill has the problem of how othet powetS respond tu its behaviour and [har forcigo iotmsilm in AJtica continued Indetd the I990s proved tO be a dC(ade of disusrer for AfrieR The debiacute burden contimlld while Ilome states collapsed lnro civil war ami others took to iutenoendoo in thejr ueighbonrs affairs Outslde interference from borh Enrope and North Amecica euodoned One of rhe fcw brlghr spots was the end of apallhcid in South Africa and the peaceful transitioo ro majoriry mJe lo al thiexcl~ tn quote Juliacuteus Nyerere rhe ampcmer pre~iexcldenl of Tan1ania The OAU exists outr ror tbe prorecdoo of (he Afrinllt Head~ oiacute State (cited io AlilgapPltl 1998 1 ) The relarive optimism of Maztui has giveu way ro Afriam writers examining sorne of me disrnrbing details of inaction by [be OAU and regtonal orgauiacutezatJuns nlCh as ECOWAS beiog used as doaks fu the machinations oE regional hegemou$ suth as Nigcria (Mibe 1m 61-9(1)
Radha Sinha$ problem--ortented undy Food iexcllfId PIWt11y (1976) has an IItgent message Sinha a former consultaot of the FAO prodnced an iofuacuterrned aUllyiexcljiexcl of the world$ food problem stress1Og in paniacutecular the maldistribution of food and other resources Noting he profO$ab of UNCTAD with heit muld-rommodJty approach and buffer nocks provjshySiOfli he commented rhe grearesr weakness oE the UNCTAD scheme js les Hkdy politlca1 unilcceptablliry ro me developed (ountdes parriculady che USA (Sinhil 1916 114) a propheey that has proved to he cortect He identitled a more aggresslve attitnde by Third World sutes e5pedally
WrilirrgJ on i1tternatiflii1l rHgarrtzatitmlt 163shy
after the uH prite cise of 197314 when the developing coonuies tried to maximize their own market powers by formin cartcls such as rhe Intematimlal BaurdtC Association the Intemuional Coundl of Copper Expotcing Countries aud the Intema[ional Tin Agrcrmenr He gave n qualified wekome ro the Lomeacute Convention betwcen the European (omrounities anJ cenain African Padfic and Caribbean Haces Writing in 1976 he commented
The receot cbange in rhe luirudes of tite tiche countries is largely due tu the incIeasing miliuncy of the Third World countries lt is almost ertalll utar the magnitude offuture cnnc~sions in me coune ofGAIT aud UNCTAD IV Ilegotiarioos wiU deperu mainly on (he continued solidariry uf the devdoping counlrtes
(Siha 1976 116)
Sinha was pardy correct as tbe solidatity cf rhe Tbird Workl states cracked se the induurialized wodd withheld funher Con(eampSJoru but ir was able tO do so because market condidons swung against che primaty producen
In his condusion Sinha called ror a IIDre1 shttting of wnrld t($nmes and power if confrontarion was ro he avoidOO He feared that the ffa of roshyoptradon berween [ieh and pool conntries hiid ((lT1e to an end and that batde lines were being drawn Instead he advOOIreltI majnr concessions from the dcher coumries on trnde lInd aid issues and a1so a ma~lt te$ltUcrnring of the incematiotlill organization~ aoo negoacutetiating ffiarhinery in order tu provide a much gtC2ter say fm me poorer countries in internatiooal tJ1lde invesrment and mooetaiexcly armngemenrs (SiMa 1976 132) GAn 1BRD aud IMF have been the presenoe of [he ri h with voting weighted m faacutevour of rhe OECD countries and Sinha re(()ffimended thlll GATr aoo UNCiAD be merged inro an Intemacional irade Organization (ITO) and che creatlon of a Third World permanent secrctariat iexclnvolved in all trade and aia negoriarioru Thoogh less radical than Amin Sinha aIso recomrnrnded gttter coshyoperation berween developing coulltries and an eoo ro their inkrtotity complex with instead a sense of m~ttnal sdiacute-e$teem and trust being devel~ oped (Sinha 1976 ch 10) Litde that h~ happened during the 19905 woo1d have encouraged Sinha The World iratle Organiaadon has emerged as the presenoe of the dlVelupeJ tares and lw brushed aside many of thc mucerns cf UNCTAD Debr ha~ edged on ro dlt wudd iexclagenda but mainly at the beheS[
of a non-governmental organization )ubiacutelec 2000 nd the promi$e~ of the main financill jnsrirutluru lO pursue dcbc-rclicf produred but a thiniexclmfl
In aH Third WQrld commenrarors have provided a vatied and lively approruh fOwards tne problems uf intetniexclational organizarions Their emphasis has niltntaHy beCl Qn tbe use of wurld lmtirutions to change the econornic condidon or the Southern cominents As this enndition is likely to worscn in the near filrtltf further more lJica conrtibutions on the rule oC
-- --- ~- __ _~- __- imernatIacuteonal orgaoilarions in Nonh-Smuh relarJons tOiexclghf be apected from rhe Third Worid A1ternaciveJy wrirers (mm rhat ares rmy jW ltIacuteespUacutet rm imergovemmemal orgaoizarions ar lealaquo Mee rhem $O Hrrle
Cfili~ald~heJ
Critica approadvs lO the nudy uf intetnadonal relations are (hose har rejee( the dominating vleW1iexcli repr=med by tbe realist and reformistS as oudined aboye In paHicular rhey reglUd realists as apologisu for the currem con6gutltion of power 10 (he wiexcldd sytem and considet [har rhe refOnntstS are elrher unable ro undersraoo he fUe llamee )( (hi sysrem oc ille UDwiUing to accepc rilar ir needs more rhan mooest refotlllS TIlOugh they may sympalhi-ze wirh rhe agenda of some Marxists aud Third World wt1cers chey do [lO( llave rhe hisrockal certaimy of the former not rarely do they have the experience and perspective of ehe larter TItey view intenUishy(jnl1ill nrganiutions wirh a jaundiced eye as these are mainly the lll$tmmenfS of rhose who dominare rhe syuem This section COlllaios an wcoum nf three approaches tmt of the critical rheorlsti- of kmintsc wrirshy[1185 ulld pose~mooernismlt
Cri(~1 herJrY The approach of critical theory 10 JnrematlonaJ o(ganizatiooll iSi determtoed by their wider world-view which in itsclf is explaiiexclwd by tbeir llame One of the leading exponents Roben Cox said [har ie is cririca1 in cne Jensc rha h srands apan 100m che prevailiog order of rhe wOlld and asks how tb$t oroer came iexcllPouc Ir does nor r-ake existing irucimtioM lIl1KI JIQwer relaclons rOl granred bu c311s them iacutemo queuion Ir 1S diexclrlaquoced ro rhe social itnd JIQiirshyical complex as a wItole rarhet (hall he stparate pirtt IUthet than subdiide and Imic an examination of a problem it looks al the wger pkturc of whkh rhe problem is jwt oue part and trio rO wJdeThwod the processeS uf change ill which botIt pans ulld whole ure involved laquo(ox 1993 277~S)
Ai a thoory cridQiIacute theory rejeen tbe daims of posicivism of an external Nulity and to be mue-free ror critkal rheorIacutests koowledge ti nor moraUy IleUc1ll1 ic is more che result of the social background of tbose Wt hold ir Given this ctitkal tbeory alJows foc a normarive choice in favoU of a social ancl iexclJlieiexcl(ld order diflerent f(cm rhe prevruHng arder bur it limiu the ruuse 01 chotce ti a1remative orders which are feasibJe mmsformations ofme cxvaing worJd h musr rejEC[ improbable alternadVe8 ju~t as ir rejecrs rhe pcrmanctlly nr lhe exiscing order (Cox 19 90)
Cridcal rheory differs lrom Marxist upproElchcs beCElUS( of iu tejection nf any daim to hold the objenive tru[h and betause or it~ avoidance of (he pmslllt ol il utopia Neverrhe1ess [heir analysis of incernarional relarln1l$ is one tbu hEls u numher of similariuumles wich the Marxisc pcrspecdve It regurds rhl tlistlng suucrures of world polirics as beiug oppressie not
- _ __ _-
lean because of rhe dominance of (he capitalism of che Unired StElte~ For many che USA is seco as a hegemonic power the prevailing urder - in re[ms rbar reReet he wrirings of the Itallan Marxisc writer Amonio Gramscl (1891-1932) Gramsd advanced the nodon of ln hisrori(middot bloc which in itself refilaquors che $Ocial reladons oE ptoducdoo The dominanr dass in a counrty - 01 indeed aoy social grouping - mlinrains cohesion and idenciry withio [he bloc [hrough the ptopagacion of a COIDmOfl culturegt A new bloc can be formelt when a subordinate dau can euablish tU hegeshymony over orher subotdioate gtOllpS (Cox 1993 56--7) The IDove rowuds hegemony comeS with the piexclt$ting fmm che spediacutek inrercsrs ofa gronp Ol
dass tO rhe building uf inrimdons aOO elaoorarion uf ideologies (Cox 1993 57-8) It Loiexcl rhat ptOCe$S thar embeds the incemu of the dominanc dan in an imttmrional form thae [w an appeal widet [ban that dan ine1f It the-refole repreSoems mote tlmn jUSt (he drunJnaoce oE one state ovec anocher bllt implies a cemufi acceptante of the tules arJd institutions purouized by [he hegemonic JIQwer Jo other woros it is all order wbicb most Olher Sta[e-~ (01 at 1enst those within reath of die hegernouy) couId find compatible- wirh their iexclmetem (Cox 1993 6t) h aJso involves noe just inttt-staee rueivirle5 bur rhose oiacute tlvilliOCiety (oon-Stllte socieM instishycudons) ebereby encoumging Hnks between social dus$ts iexcln the connules covered by ebe hegemony
What does Cox llave to uy about ioccmational Otgsniuciexclons 1bey Ilre scen in he oontext ofme wiacuteoo unaemanduuml18 of itnernational reUacuteltions mentloned iexcliexclhove He is direcr 000t mem Ooc mechanisru chrough wruch the universal norms of a wodd hegemony are expttssed js the interoatiooal organisation (Cox 1993 62) Why is chis so Cox U993 62) gives five teIlSons
bull They e-mbody rules cOae help (be- apwlSion of a hegemonic wodd iexclrder These insdwrians reflcct the intererts ()( the dominam social anil economic force- buc a1low a cettain amOunt oC adjusrment ro accommodare other subordinared interests TIms the USA WllS preplltoo ro mm conccssions to
bciI18 in Lhe EU srares and Japan ro rhe Wotld Trade Otganizatimt They a[e prooucrs of that order Though [he insrimrions and rules Ilce
nurITlllUy initiared by the hegemook power ir takes cate ro involve aOO comule a numbe-r of second-ronk stares and gaio theit supporc he Wotld Bank and Inte[nacional Mooetaty Fund were very much pan of [he world order thar emerged afrer [he Second World Wat and which was dominared by rhe Uoiced Stlres
They ltgidmi7e i[s nOlms by providing guidance for SllIteS and by legitshyimiuacuteulS cerraIacuten IlCdviries Ilr me narional leveL he OBCD afie rhe inrerruuiooal financia) irntuumluriom lave spread an acceptante of mllrket coodirions and sHict mOllerary iexclJlides
They co-opr elites from pelipheral counrrie Ihlented sraH commg 110m the Thiacuterd Wocld are expected tO dCCept he scriexclpt wcittttt by the domishynam power Bouuos Bourros-Ghati as Secteury General uf the Unired
166 Jiexclljiexclr1giexcl Qr1 ifJfCflrttuacutemal IWgaizati(ifJJ
Nadons stroyed too amp~r ftOm the gtip of Washinston and his second term was VCtoM by rhe USA His sucecssor Kofi Annan will no doubt undentand what 1$ n-quired of him He brings the mncerns of orhe states ro che UN bUf nor in a way thu threatt1l$ the USA
bull They absorb counter-hegemonic ideas Ideaiexcl $uch as 1iustainable dlYClop_ ment tukl even debr foTgiwness are taken 00 board by the intetnatwnal finarnial institlltion$ blu are trandirmel into pulido rhat swt them
Wh~t is ro be done Cox thinks thar the pfQblem of changiog dw world orUer 1iMuld be shlfred back from intern~tional insritutions tO niexcllriacuteooal $OIacuteishyeties where the sodo-political b~se for a new historie bloc mighr be ereated (Cox 1993 64) FaiJing the creadon of a new historie bloc of the new working cla$s and rural and urb~o marginal groups there might be tnmdorshymadon oC the curtent monopoly-libcral hegemony by adjusting to rhe demanJs oiacute local ello$ for polides 5uch as natlonaHution Cox 199~ 65) He aw advocates te-regulation of erooomies and a re-wmpositjon of civil sodery Internatiotla lnstlcutions induding organiutions can berome eontact puint1i fOr new $OCia[ furtt (Cox 1994 (11)
Critica throrJm $uch as Cox oifee a refreshing exposidon oiacute che posidofl oC imernatiooal ofganizatioos in a wocld where the main revolutionary powe~ have either collapsed (rhe Soviet Union) or se(tled into a cautious ronservatirun (China) Ir provlde~ a sceptical arf realisric world~view without acreptins tbe inevuumlahility ni a illture domlnared by mooopoly eapi~ ujsm sud the Utlired States J-Iowevtr its appllcariexclon to intemationa1 organhatJons 11 StImewha( timited tQ the maln global jnsdm(jons and th financial and economlc orgmiutions Ir has 1m (O say aboue regional nrgashynjudon Uf abour N(JUacutes Furthermore iu alternarive fu(ure testS on ourcoroes thu are far froro certain RevnJutlons in the Thied World are roore likely to be- irupired by nadondi$m oc by IsJaroic fllndamentaHfl OCalaquoely [he solid ooses for new historie blocs
Fwinuumll aNml4cbts
Feminist perspcctives 0f1 inttmatlonal rtlatioos llave in common wirh the erit~ ical rheocillu a rejclaquoion of (he dominance in rhe $Ilbjecr of the rcnHst and rdOrmisrs Although fuminist writen cover a wide 5laquolpe the gencral basis oiacute their aqurnent 1S har in interwnional relatioM ru in most politkal aud tcooomk acdvity women are diexclSJtdvantagt~l Alchoogh they own ahour 1 pet tCfH oC the worlJs lfOpeny and tiexcliexclxe heme 10 peiacute ceoc ofincome they perfurm 60 per eenr of working houn and provide 80 per eent of nfusets (petetsen and Runyan 1993 6) This is a derDOnstrndon of gender inequalitie~ the sodalJy learned behavior and expecratioos thar distioguish berween maKuliniry and femininity (Petetsen and Runpn 1993 5) Feminist aprroaches ofren So bejond the $tati~tks and examine (he mind~se[ of those engaged in the pmctice of intemadonal rdations whiexclch (bey ampee as geodered In other woros che world
Writingc Off inlmhJliofMl vrgntiZdlMm 167
illeen in a mlLlndine way thar kvrntB (he posjtiOll o( mnles in rhe hitgtranhy and devlllues the c041trihution of WQmeO (Sylvestet 1994) War in pattKular is gendered in a way chat keeps wornen and metl from qUtstioniog the essentiat pmpose and he neglltive effects of war militarization ~nd viQleme on their awn and orhers livts (Petetsen and Ruoyan J993 9 t)
What of wminist view$ uf imernationaJ organizationsr Ir IS not possible ro presem a rollf(tive vjew that eneomp3$~e~ rhe works of radicaJ femjnisu and ny iexclihetal teminists (rutead the work of one author Sandra Whitworth (1997) will be used as me pily$ rornt attrntion ro inrernarlonal organizations Aamper inrroductions ro feminilfr theory and internacional frIamiddot tiom and gendet and internacional relatlons Whirworrh examines geodet and imernational organilions She screpts Coxs vjew oiacute inrernational orgashynjzarions [har they retleltr (he dominant powet relations in che intetnational system and rhae internaliomd otgaoiution h che procelt of imcitntionaJshyiling and regulating conOice - eicher rhat which may IIrise among siexclates o( char which has iu (onU io transnationaI society (Cox 1980 375) TIte way duu pcople orgaoire themelve$ wirhin international iostirurjons reflects a variety of power relations ineludi~ of rollJSe gendec relatiull3 (Whitworth 1997 74) lbe triad of jnstirutions ideas and material rQudi~ tioru help ro hxare uSllmptiolls aboue geoocr withiu jntetmltional rewtioos Whitworth uses thesr tn examine lhe uooerstandillg oiacuteScndec io an INGO the Internadonal PlarUled ParenthooJ Federatlou (JPPF) and an intergnvemmental organilJ1rion (albcir one wlrh some oOl1-governmentJ)J represemation) the InrernatlonaL lab01lrOtganiution (no)
Whirworths studies show rhar thr IPPF tended ro accept the deshyemphasizlng oi the gendered oamfr of reproducdoo and (f) ignore rhe imponaoce ofbirth comcol foc womens reproductive freroom Instead in an effort tu popularize birth rontrol srrel~ WWl placoo on paremhooJ rather than iexclust the womans choice However IPPF poUcy beeiexcllme more radirnl in (he 19905- with Hnks beirtg made berween II1M control alld womeos ~)tu~ ality (WbJtworth 1997 ch 4 pmim)
The RO eoucerned itself with WQmen as workern It cnnsidercd that tbey oeeded spec-ial atrention and promoted ptoteCtlvt legiexcl~lacion This reiexcln~ forced me view (har [he male worxer Wall the norm with women workers nor deserving the same rights remunfration lOO mndirions Latterly however the JLO ha~ reflectoo views rhat prodaim wornens elt)ualily in rhe workforce and has sunoo tuacute assess the importanee of policies on womens role in rhe workplace as weU as in sodery more wjdely (Whlrwnrth J997 ch 5 panm) Whitworth comes [O the eondusion rhu iexclln iexcllnaLyiexcli~ of gernler in rbe IPPF and no shows how tbese rdiexcliexcldonsbips llnd definirions ni what it is to be a womltn oc man are structuted relationsrups3nd hlsrQciudly hve been scrurtured tu disadvantage women (ibid 15n
lo eommon with the critkal meorists Whitworth has useQ au examinamiddot doo of two intetnational organixations (O deroonstrate a puinr about imerflational relatiexclon~ indeed sodal rctatrol1s mOte widely The poinr is
I1
I
middot - ~-_ --___ aOOuc powec and iu use not (O balance oue SCdre ligaiOSf anorher but fm une gooup ro domiaare morher Jn chis case it 1$ ma the dominution of one dass me m culcnre over $ofU)(her (though Whirworrh recognizes those reLationshyships ti wcll) but of roen over women The crititUl uudy oiacute (wo jnceraational mganirations dealing with iSSlle5 recoSniud ti beiiexclg oiacute impocshycanee or WOfficn suggesu rha( tltOO simihu research on orher internacional organizadons could proJuce interening aOO uwfuiexcl resulrs
Pllit~ism
Thc posc-moderruacutesr $opprooch lO intetaarional rcllldon is one tlur bas (ome ro che fote Jn che perlod sinee lite end of rhe Cold War Jr is based on $o widcr imellectual viewpoim insrigated by l1rench iorcUtcruals of the 196()s gener~ ation _ Bllrrhes Derrida FouclIul and Lyorard - and whkh suggested rhat the modero era liad becn overome 11 fejeas mera-nattatives gnlud accounv- of hi5tory aoa iacuteNIacuteler subjecu as having no independem rubstance Scientifk btliefs induding [hose oiacute rhe $)(ial scJcllces are rooted in (lllxure polill(os arul mores oJ a wciery and are lherekJre subjective As rhere is 00
oblcctive reality cmpirical daims bave fl() spccial sunding in rhe rralms of koowledge IndeeJ ir i$ power aod knowledge are intimatel) incerwirud Posr-moJernism Hllnds against rhe belief of rbe modero pcfiod which LI seco as beginning wiacuterh rhe enlightenmcm of mid-eightcenth cenrufy Europe and AmeriCll Ir rheldore rejcn~ rhe COMCpr$ oC rationalirl and progrcss aSSuacutedared wi(h [he enlighrenment and [he moocrn age Thc uniry of IOOnkind iexclirW iexcldells such liS rhe untveIsWiI) of human aacuteghrs are rejcuoo lnsceadlocal aetion in smallgroups 15 advuacuteClmd
Post-modetnist ideas have affected tite srOOy of inremruionaJ rdarions as (bey have ocher social scienccs Posr-modern imeraarional relariops theoriscs havc ustd heir view$ 00 objecuumlviry (o exiexcltmine che rrmhs of international relatiom en see how rhe concepts iexclind knowledge-dairm (bar dominare the Jisdpline in faer are highiy conringenr on spccific power relatiom (Smith 1997 181) Post-modemisrs bave lltfa(red me mcta-narratives of the reelshy1m and reformlsu aHke The objectiacutevemiddot aaallses of the realim Ilnd neo-realisu are setn as being deJl(nclent on the subjective standpojnts of cheif mainly Amen(an and Europeau authors Ijcharcl amphiel (1986 258) daimed he works o[ Kenneth Waler men the leading neo-realillt trrat the glven ordcr a rhe natural nrder Jjmirs rarheE (lian 1XpawU political discllUtse negales oc rriviuliliS the signifinnce uf variely urOiS time and plue Whar emerges ii an ideology tllar anridpatcs iegirimires ancl onents a totalitarian projen 01 global ptoponioo~ che rattoualiaciuacuten of global poHcics iexclbe reformius are likcwise tainted Md have Ji mhr$lren belief in pmgress The posc-modernl$rs poinr m rh Helocausr as rhe heighr oiacute mooemism a rombimiddot Halioe of science dnd polidcal otganizillnon Il was SCruTely progreso
Given an antifllthy mwards rhe MlVe[iacute~ign srae borh as a centre of powet ll1ld as a crearioll Jiten imbutol wlth a wncepltliexcl uf progress pest~miexclJdetniexclsls
wHungJ mi Im~iexcliexclrun wgltiIRrzuJlU7iJ 1J7
can lOUcdy be expcctcd to vIacuteew intergovernmencal organiUlrions wirh sympilthy Tbe prefetted iacuteonu of internacional organizations when mentioned are those thiexcltt ltlj~plal differemes snd dlvenity in global pelitlcil duu are reginnaUy based or rhar reflec irKlividual actlOn Tndecd ir SeeIJS
rbat Michel Fomawt was involved with an alliance oiacute twO INGOs (Miquestdecin du Monde and Tertl-s do Hommes) in proresting agaiust internadonal iH~shydon over rhe boat people who flcd Vietnam in tite lare 1970s and ear1y 19S(k He is gU()[ed 11$ sayillg tbar Amnelltl Internnrlonal Teueiexcl dts Hommes Mfiiecin du Monde lHt inirilltives whiacutech have created a nrw righr rile dAht of privare individuss ro iexclntervene in [he otder of polino and internatioont snateg(eiexcl (dred in CampheH 1998 516)
Aootber researcher has exnmined ~he Europcan Communities Ilr che point wben Jr was mnslorming intO me European Unioo and askOO whether ir was a pootmodew ConJigUflHton (Nstrgaard 1994) Hi condusions wcre mar ir was gualiwiveJy a new organizarion oC human calJecrlvJties which mighr U$hec the coming of post-moderniry (Ntgttgnatd 1994 27j) The basis fO[ [bis judgemem was rhat me Ee did nO approximate anl modero form of piexcliexcl1idUll Ofpnizarion it did OOt commatld che means oiacute violence its au[hotity derives noc from die people and ir appeared to be a fCgJoo trying ro pOrecr itiexcliexclelf againsr globaliacutezadun iacuteN0rgaaro 1994 274--5) Ir remllins ro be sren whether [he BU tJf [he twenry-first cenrury wHl fu1fi1 rhtgtse hopes Ot wiU stllrr ro teVen
to a more scate-like being Generall) dIe cririolapproaches ro interruHiorud relarious hiexclJve provided
1lOOIe innovatIacuteve insigllls iexclnro rhe study uf imemarional orgsnizations The crtrical theorists llave becn sh3rpest in rheir unde[$(iexcltnding nf internarional ofgiexclt1lizacious as servsnrs of a dominiexcliexclIf power configuracion thoogh the) lave pemaps Umieed cbelr scope wllen viewing internacional organizadons Feminis[ wJiters ruave given Vltike to whac i5 after aH tbe scmi-sileut majoric) in rhe world and Ilre ouly srarting in qnest10niug the male dOmimiddot nance nuacutet iexclusr of the nmning of IGOs huc aloo of theic agenda Tite post-modemisrs are iMlSr concerned oiacute he (bree 8rOUp5 with inretnationlll organiucioru as such bllr rIacuteleic intellecrual approach is the ffiOSt tadkal aud can lelld tuuml a fnon of nihilism
GltJbaliacutesf lIiu
A gIobalisr perspective does oor viacuteew world poliacutetica as being predomishynandl arout iotergovernmemal relatlnn~ Ili would realisu or illbour inrentare aruI imersocietal rdations as a number uf reformisu llliexclll consider lnsteaacuted it cakes a more holisdc view Problems are (cmfronred ac Ji global level wlurions have tO be sou8ht here as weil This iexcls not ro neglcct (he 10tal Ol rhe ~tlte level ir is more J recognilion of the limiutshydoos of acdviuumles rhere The world-vicw like rhe reformists places empllasu on whal unIacutetes people Ilnd has lirde time for lhe demaoos of power pouumlics aad stare-cemrir orglLuiwrjollS Ir goe~ fllrther by nor
1 V WNimgJ lJ7f tIfernattmiexcliexclJ 11fK4111141tOnJ
liminog in view eirhec ro pans of che world or ro rellltions berweeo particuJar poliric~ lr ioded jlLSr m the economic social and poJitical demaods of mankind Paradoxically ir can be seen as IIn approach rhe very OppoSllC of the fimctionalist wirb whom tbere 5 much io common In nmtrast lO rhe fnnctionaHst (or neo-fllnctiooalisr or intetclependeuce srhuul) and ccrrainly in contrast ro rhe powet politks aOO MaOIacuteIt writers (be whole world approach places emphasis not 00 the discrere r~uiexclreshymems of groups SClteiexcl or individulI1s bm 00 tbe wel1-bciog of the tCOsystem in which rhf5f funnioll cbe planet Eanh The conccen of chis apptoach which is rcflccted il] in ttcumeUr of illternational urganizatiom is for the survival of lhe plunet for its effident funccioning in its widest SeILie aud fot che survival oiacute rhe myriad oiacute speoacutees - ollly one of which is homo sapiens - tbat inhabh me globe
Sinle tbe 196Os a number of wtiters on imernational affairs have expounded 00 tbis view and llave cOl1l~uendy ronsideted the implicadons for intemational organizacions Jobfl Button in bis World Society ronsldeted iflmstatt relations to be onIy a pan of wodd poli[iacutea and wrore
lf we employ rhe term world rociety imiexclreui of internanofla relarions iIacute we apptoo(h OUt study in this global way insread of the more tradi~ lonal nattonal way we will end to have a wider focos ro ask quesrions rhat are moee fundlmenral aOO imponant lO civilization and be ahle ro assess bettet me relevance of om own national bduviour ro be wider worW envifonment
(Button 1972 21)
Rkhacd Stetling posed the problem more spedfically
Nuclear esCllatiofl the popullltion explosion the pollmiofl of tbe envishyronmcnt the communkations rtvolurion rbe world~wide concentNdon of wC1llch and world~wide expansiofl of pltlvcrty are iexcliexcl11 essemially global and not 1laquo al pbellomena They have given rise jn tutn ro eartbshyspamuacutellg and revolutionary demands ror mass education rnass hesltb malts welfure and maltgts participation in che dccisions affecting roans fare
(Srerling 1974 322)
This wodd-view of rhe problems of the s)Jaceamphip EQlth begged fur global oolutlofl$ It suggcsred iexclhu not onIy iJ the system of sovereign stares as yer unable oc unwiHing to COme to grips with the above-menuontd prohlelUS but that a network of llllergoVCtn1lental organiutlom bGsed 00 me rights of statc wVfretgnt will ~lso be hammllng Globtl problems needed global solutlons based on institutinos rhat can (ake a global petsplaquoshytive Thus Sterling considetecl thllt it ~ tlOt unreasooable (O amidpate tme tbe member stares will be moved ro considft equippifllil the Unitw Nttous witb mote crunprebensive powen 1lt global pressUfes build 0974 323)
~h~ laquoo ~gt~ _- -gt bullbull (_bullbullbull __ - bullbull
A more compeluumlng cdH wus lAltiexclued by Barban Ward and Rene Dubas in their book prepared for [he UN Gmference of ehe Humafl EnVJroJlmenl 01lly UIIt EaFlh The c~ altJ Mdilllt1JatfCe (JI d Sflall Pta~t (972) 111ey stremsed the ufliry of tbe Eanh Jnd in eovironment and the )Jroblems in(ed by Jts iohabitants emntially thost oudined by SterJiog The ~uthoflgt poillted OUt rhat rhF envitonmenral qmosrion had by 1972 already had 50me impaltl on guvernments and im(rnarional organl1Jtion but the effior was somewhat ltInJOrdinated and unfocuseL In (hree particular aren - tbe global atmosphere rhe oceaml the worlds weather sysrellU - tbt-y saw [bl jmmediate neOO for (OmInOn poliey und co-ocdinared actiollS where vcerenshysions to national sovercigmy have no relevance ro ptrreived problems Bu rbefe was a need to go furrher and denl wirh other global problems di5Case srarvation iHitmcy unemployrnem ovcfllwding rntetnational poliCJcs wece at the 5tage reachOO wlrhin rhe devdoping s[ate~ of the ninettTtb (entury Elche they wiU move O to a wmmIlJlity bL~ro UiexclXIIl a more systematic sharin8 of weaJtb Ot tbey wiH break down in revoh and anareby (Wacd and Dubos 1972 295- -6) They Looked forward ro a sense of gLobal rommuniry 00seJ on he bope vf Irotecdon (from war aOO disaster) and the hope of enhancemenr (ecologic$1 as well as economid The ptlKtic~ and insrirutlofiS with whkh we are familiar inide our domestk sociecies would become suitably modlfied che basis of planetary oroer (Ward aOO Dubos 1972 297-8) This woold indude non~violent settlement of disputes witb legal arbirration ~nd polioacuteng ptocedures on an international basis jr would mea the Hansfer uf resoucces from rkh ro peor Ilnd inerCllSlaquo co-operaeion in arealt 5uch as health and edUcatIO farming uroon planning aud )JOlJution control As [befe halt been a shift of loyalty rom taroliy to dan from dan to tlation and from nation to fedctation there Wampll
hope clajmoo Wl1fd and Dubo$ for an ultimare lnyalty tuacute OUt single beau~ tifulllud vulnerable Planet Eanh (Ward and Dubas 1972 298)
Whilst the institutiona fmmework and organizational stfllCtuteS remain of necenity -ague in Oltl OM EaFtA iacutet is del( rhat the authors Wfre atming 11( a tlttwork oiacute world-wide fflnctionaUy hased organlzatiofll (both lOOs and JNGOs) char couId take on much of the work )JfCsendy done by governshymems o( rather whkh ougbt [O be dont by governmems UacuteJter writing-s have attempted (O deal wjth thc policy impliration$ of delllJng with )JrobshyJems globdly sroos (986) has poiacutenred en what 1w already been achieved in gtobal problem solving l1nd ha~ soughr ro buHd on rhis His critio have prunted out tha( what has already becn undertiacutelken has bren done more along rradicional Jntergovernmentallines (Donnelly 1990 121-30) Orbe writen have tied rubievemen[ in addressiacuteng [he global agenda more to renewed rutiviry in the UN (Rochester 1990 141-54) or to greater grass~ roots aud INOO acriviSffi Wget 1990 155-~8) Either way globaJj~m offeacuters a distinct W1ly of rackling the worlds ptublem~ It 1$ u ViIOIl thar sttesiexcles uniey and common (am( ntthet than disasreemem and roofrontashytion ir (ould thereIacuteore (oresce disputes being sruved inlernationally vety
much in (he way tbar chey are pre~ndy solvcd within tunny MtiOO iexclrares by more ro arbitratwn and Jaw and by entorcemenf ir neteS$il1) In this rhey have muh in COIDfllOfi wirh tire imerrnuiona lawyers iacuteUld idenlist writer of me eady (wenuacuteeh eemury mentioned at the beginning of tbu chaptet The globalisn are inspirecl jn rheir thinking more by ten Ot lt nudeal holocatlsr and by environmenml breakdown tnan by rhe duumleet elrpeshytieme uf wa dlllf aiacutefected rhe wricings of Woolf ol Ikierly
TIacutete globalisl appro~(h is opert ro the criticism of bcing roo idealistk jn a cynical world and lOO iIDpracrical in in uacutelstitutional sU8scsrioll5 Bur the di$mi$Slil oC rh~ words as globaloney cKleS HOt lid lite wctld oC che probw lems which hey have 50 effectively publiacutedzed They lutve uied to add anorIte dimensioacuten ro whar is possibte by showlng thar ie is nOCeSSiexcllty fOl rhe iexclurviwl of che planee
Tlle radical approach to the smdy oC iOternational orgllnizarions reflocu worIdmiddotvitws that normaUy lO beyond -dmse Jominated by rhe ltctivities of iexcltatcs or of LIte organizltuumlnns chemselves There is a sceprical view of whut is happeoing al soy one uacuteme in imernarional celarions and of he abilicy of mOfe cradicional wcifecs on imernafional cdarions ro explain let aJone llOderstand what is happeoing Ir is the feeling rhar approaches such ll1 (he MaNisr tlwt of rhe ideal theorisrs and some of rhe globuli~rs ur~ coming cber (O uodemaoding humanicys wider dilemmas rhar makes rhero so amactive They ar~ less Iikdy co apply rhemselves to rhe defais rutd wnrk~ ings oiacute p$cdcular imernatinnaJ organizations but neverrheless providt iotriguiog insighrs 00 [his phenomenoo by seeing rhem rhrollgh mol panoprk phHosophical lenses
SUMMARY
The rhree flIajor $chuols dealr wich io chis chaprer - the tcatiacuten the reformisrs iacutei1d che radical$ and rhe variarions (bey contain did not and do tlOf exJn iexcln a hiSforlcaj vacnum lde-as Wele foffilulared wirhio lhe COnten oiacute panicular sodedcs uoo in response ltO pUticular problems rbe communl (adom reYoludon of fhe nineteemb century the Finr World Wlli rhe rise of Nui Germany the spreading of nudeu weapons the deve1opmeof of plthitshy
$econd Workl War Europe fbe pnxeues of decoloniwion and deacuteteme rhe end oiacute the Cold War and rhe advaoce oiacute che inCormatton revolution In sorne CilSC$ the views oiacute rhose wdtings on inttmiddotrnational ocganUatlOHS have liad un efiecr on evenrs rhemelves pirlKulatly 00 rbe actitudes oC govetnrnents mwards tnternatiorW orgdflixauons AIl tXample is the work oC LecnarJ Woolf woose suggesnons Ctmceming a world organizatloo conttibuted lO fhe detailed preparnion oC the Lague oC Nations by me British goveltr mene Likewise Hans Morgeruhau and EK Can provided seimuli fot infiiexclrmoo US and Btirish governmcllul rhinking abom inrerruuional rela~ tiom iexclrom the 194Ck onwards In mher cases rhe general writings cJ persons lgtuch as Marx Leoin Mao Tse-tung and che dependencia school have affecred
rhe poJirk1ll dimare wirhin which govemmcncs conduce rheJe poUcy iucluding thar wwards jnternaclorull otgauj~atjon$
Orber ruCfOf$ aplft froro their historial cuntexc Iuve affencd the views of rhe schunl$ rncntioned They have differint backgtounJs io cheit ideruogy (Wesrero commllniSf Third World radical environmenralisr) and in theit level of $nalysis of inrernarional rebtions (stare Centuacutec inretesr aoo rramna~ dona groups cLitraquo dominanr global) This a(icca the typC oC inrernatiacuteonal organizariacuteon dominam io their studies (IGOs INCo) auJ thcic 8eograph~ kai $rea of interest (the Nonh Adandc Europe ThinJ WodJ Ot global)
TIte range of wcitings about intetnational organizarions has ull dte whole teflecfeJ wiJec llooersundings of imetoational ceJarions and wuumltld polidcs These io rhernselves have fed 00 tbe gtVidc iacutellccUecmal fcnnent and on developrnenrs in world affiuacuters Viewl about iacutellteftlational ocgsnizatJoos wiU continue ro take accOlnt of the ince1leeruaJ debate ill the studjes oiacute polishydes internacional re1atioO$ philosophy ecooomics imematluacutellal uw sociology histoty and geogrilphy They will also reflecto among other ampcton che stntcegk balance in tbe world [he relafIacuteve power of tiJe United Stares aod oroer nares me scate of wotld markers [be pto-ess uf Euwpeiexcliexcln tlllegrashytion che relacive positloo of the developing warIdgt iexclbe levd of cootlicc througbolc the world fhe -ratC of dte environfneot and the ahility oiacute huge StatCS to wiacutethswnd cenrrifttgal force Tbe way tIacuteult imematiornal organiuiexclshydons ret1ect tbese developrnents and tIacuteleir t1Ipability lO deal wich some of them will provide (he tllW fiWifcrial foc funue smdies
J LU wrwlIgiexcl M IIfffl1l4r1MdJ arga1lIZiJU01Ji
policical phenomena can be reduced ro one of duee ~ic rype5 A political pollcy seeks eithet 00 keep power ro Jnireot power Uf tu demonsrrare power (Motgeruhau 1960 39) These policies are seen in rhree forros (he pnlirics of status 100 (he politics of impedalirn and che polides of prestiA-c Moqiexclenmau then eVMUamptcJ narional power and timitlltlons on ir in the fuClll of balance of power intemarional mornlity and world public opillion and inremarional law He considered world politics in rhe mid-rwemieth century and rhe problem of peace He examined attemprs ro ob1lliin peare rhroacuteuiexcliexclh limicatJon (diwrmamenr collective seeudty judicial settlemeru peaceful change inrermuionaJ governmem) through ttansfOrmarion (inw drber 11 world Hace Ol a wodol commnnity) aM tbrough m-ommodatien by dip1omacy In rus wmk Morgemhau tewhcd en rhe role of intemationaJ organizatlmu ellpeciaHy in rus senioos en imecnadonal law on peace rhrough limitatton aud on wodd communit)
Morgemruw sttessed rbotr OH rhe bauacutes of inccmadonallaw there has been builr au impostng edifice consisring of tltousands of wadcs huodreds of deuumlsions uf intetmriou~l rrlbunals and innumentble dedsions of domestic roUtlS 1besc lcgulared relatIacuteom between stares arose from
the mulriplicity aud VliriC[) of incernllrional (omans which are tbe rewlr of modern communiauioos internat100al exchange of goods and secvkes and the greur numbtr of Internarional Otganiutiacuteons 10 whicb lOOSt
nadmUi have co-operated for rhe furrherarue ef their commou intereso (MOfgentluu 1960 277)
Whilst mosr internatlww1 UacutetW has been respettccl Moxgemhau rcmarked dIar when miel are vielatetl tbey are fiot 1I1ways cnrooced and rhat even wheo enfonement is uudel~n ir 1s nor alway~ roccrjve Memioning [he Briand-KeHogg Pace the Coveoant of the League of Nations al1d rhe UN Charter he comidered that
fhese inmuments are iexclndeed of doubrhll efficacy laquo(har is [bey are frequendy violared) and lomerimes even of doubtful validity (rhat IS they are ofren oot emorced in case of violation) fhey are bowever flOr typical of [he tradicional rules of imernarjonallaw
MOfgeoduu 1960 277)
lo the sectioo en ioternauacuteooal govemmem Morgeotlmu nored th$r since (he sean of tbe nintteenrh cen(ucy tlich of rbe lIuee wor1d wars (lhe Napoleonilt War tbe Fim anO Second World WaN) hud betn foUowed by an attempr ro euabJisb imernatlona1 governmem ~he Hoiy AlIiance lhe League oC Natiacuteoos aud che United Nations TIle ritn tWO arremprs rouodered becawe uf rhe varied interesrs of stales iBvolved in particular because of disagreemems abour tbe snlfUS qoo lhey wete sUPfll$ed tu be Sllpporting According (() Morgembllu
-rmgJ M Itrernana41 fI1ganlla1t)1tJ 1 Lo 1
cont1iexclu betwccn lIJe Btitish aod French conceprioru and polides did not howcver wreck (he Leugue of Nadons as rhe coufHcc brrween Great Brirajn llnd Ruuia hud the HoIy AlIianee Ir racher led ro a creepiug paralysis in the polirkaJ acfivitJ($ of elle Leugue and ro lu inahiUry ro take determined ardon iexcliexclgail1llc rhrears ro iocetlational ordet aud peare
(Morgenthau 1960 469)
The League coold oruy be iexcld te bave tXerdsed goverumerml functioos tU the 3tt$ of che maififeoanoe of illcernational order and peace in the tIltc
insNlnlaquo$ when eicher he interests of dte grear powers among in members were not affected or tbe common interests of the most influentiacuteal amonA rberu seemed ro requite ir (Motgenrhnu 1960 471)
The United Nadons was also seen by Morgenthau as ~ing based bn
unsure foundations bur fur a differenr rCJSon than for [he League after the Seltond World War [he vicrorious powers first created MI inrernacional governmenr for rhe purpose of IDaiacutencallling tbe srarus quo and alter tbat proposcd to agree upon me status quo However Since such aglaquoement has never existed during rhe Jife pan of tbe Uuited Nations rhe interruuJonal government of [he United NorioM as envisiged by the Citarter has temaiacutened a dltM Imer (Morgenthau 1960 493-4) He teterred lO a pantlysed Selturuuml) Council wirh che GtnetiUacute AssembIy and Secrtaiacutery-General of [be UN borh displayiog weakness (Morgenthan 10 492-3) and wirh tbe whole orguni~ utten acbltving liule rnough (Morgentbau 19tiO 496) Iu his view
The comribmion the Unind Nntiolls can make ro [he preservadon of peace then would lie tr1 fIlking advaotage (lf the oppormniry (hat (be coexisleuce of [he two bloc$ in the same inremariorual organizadon provides iexcl(Ir che unobrmsiexclve resumption of the techniques of tmditional dipJomacy
(MOlgenthau 196) 497)
In enminlng tite possibility of creadng a world community based on a t1lfl8t of iutematlonal organizations such as UNESCO and che ruhet spedaJ~ iud agencies Mursenrhau made he poinr [hae rhe creation of $uch a romrnuniry presupposes al least he mitigacion ampnd minlmiziltlOH cf iuter~ narional conflku so (ruu the interesu UOJrlug membus of different natlOIlS may outweigh me inrerests reparnting tbem (MotAcnchau 1960 536) On rhe UN agencies Morgemhliu (oruidered thar
che comriblltions imerna[Jonal functiOflll agencies make ro he weHmiddot bring of members- of all natious frule lnto tbe background Wh$t Irands brfore the eyes of alI IUC (he immense polixka conflicrs (ha divide tbe great oariollS of the Eanh and dUCQren he welJ-being of rhe- loser if not his very exisrelle
(Morgenrhau 1960 528)
122 Writings Q11 ifftmlailJltdlorganiza1om
In summary Hans MOfgentbau accepted chile inrernationaI orgllniexcllAtAacuteons have a place in intematinnal re1ations dlOUgb he was cardUl not ro QW1tate eheie imJXIrrance in [he match foe powet and peace in rbe worId He SltlW rbei comribution as beinp moJes (lf)(j as part of de geueral intercou~e hetween sraces and [heie gt1vernmcnts and be rve no real consideration ro internashyrional non-governmental oeganizations iexcliexclurthermore funcriacuteonalin(ernational organizacions whibt teCognited as bcing useful were nor given any pardcshyula role in snlvin~ the probkm of peaee Hven the Unired Natiacuteon~ WJ~ only given credence In dlis context as tbe new serring foc the old tethnic-iexclues uf diplomacy Morgenthau 1960 497)
TIte real1sr or po_r polirics schools view of inrernational orgMization is Open ro (hree truljoc (fiLieiuDS Ficst ir could be dairned rhar froro a moral viewpoim he power politks SdlOOl is gready lacking as il accepts too tasily the status que iu intern3tional politics and does nm allow iuternacional organizacions a posirive role io oeating a better wodd Howevct this js to fOrger chat in the writings of a number of cbe realisc schoo - Carr Schwanenberger 300 Niebuht - dlEtC Js a moral and oflen Christian 1lSpecL Hans Morgentltau WIllI use as CQuterned with the moral aspecrs of polidcs as were his contemporuies who rejtftoo the power politics prKepts The deptb of his concern can be sceo in his buok Tnh rmd Pouer Emraquo JI a DttttJe 1960-70 (Morgentltau 1910)
Second tbe whole tealisr school rypified by rhe works of Morgcuthao can be challenged exactIy 00 its major daim name1y Jts teiexcl1Ilism To what extent does (he $chool ofCet a useful descripdon and explanation of lnterna~ uonal reladens Valtiexclquez (979) has oudined how internacional relations anides published pnor to 1970 were dominated by rbe re-tlist paradigm yet their bYPQtbescs provtd 00 he inacrumie and even dld less weU than oonshyreglist h)pQrheses in tbeic prtdictive power Such findiogs tend to undermine me sneogth of wbat has becn the dominam internarional relashytions scboal in Western llCIldemia and suggest that alternadve paradigms shyfoc example tbe Maolsr aud me trnnsnadonal - shtuld be glven more tlme aOO comideratlon This questiOlling of tbe power pOlitkgt schoos work mus then libio mise doubts abonr their rathel dismissive rreatment oE iotemashytional organiwtlons as oong marginal in intemational reJatiQflS
Indeed OOe of the major uiticisms of me chools rceatrnenr of 10laquot011shydonal orgliohiexclitioru bas beelJ iu emphasis 00 high pJiicics tbe qUt5tlOO of peace and Wiexclir 00 che ncglen of low politics SlKh as economk cechnlcal and cultural relatioos lnrern9tionlil organizarioos are secn juSt as iustrushyrnents of policy fur lItates inrernational non-gQvernmental urgaulzarions are hardly oon~iexcldered Nowadays a neglect of econoroiiexcl relatioos and lNGOs seems atl eveu greatet Qmission
lo deenee of his acritudlt it should be rernemhered that most of lhe power polirics wridngs occurred before he ma$$ive exparuioo oiacute lNGOs froro the 1960s onW1llrds The scbool is roorecl in tbe reaction to rbe infir~ micy uf tbe Western democmcies when faeed by Hitler and Mwsolini in lite
WitaacuteKl O iJlt1tatioflal organiUiexclfiqm 123
1930s and i[ found its feet in tbe immooiare fIIl1r- war Cold Wac periodo Ir is riterclOre undentandable cbal ir stces~ high puliexcltic~ and is andpathcrk (O
inrernarional otganiutions wbich were Ken tu be conrtec(ed with [he discredited League oiacute Natiacuteons 4nd 1u inteUeaual sllpporten O wim the original intemioos of rbe United NatlooS bcore these were sulernatecl by Grei1( Power dmension
Neo-naIacutells
TIle Output of me realim tlagged in chc 1970s rogerher witb [he giobtll power of the United States aOO in the [ace 01 nCwapproache ltO the srudy of intemarional rdacions The neo~functiexcl()llalist and interdependencc braoches of refurrnisr approaches (sce nexr section) seemed tO have tuen iacutemu account rhe rise in uamnational non~stare elemenl5 in international relatiumr and rhe imponancc of economic factors in relaLlonS actoss internadonal frontien
By [he 19805 another brand of realinn - the neo-realim - had Jigcsted rhe ncw clcments in intcmattonal relllti)n~ and reasltiexclerted some mmiliar aspects Pcrhaps jn ralQrtIC to tbe reer~iexclon ro naditlonal seturiacutety thinking by the Reagan administtation in thr Unired States these authbrl tended ro stress the conflictnal nuure of jntemarional affuirs tbat this rnnfljet Wu prtmarily between nation iexcltates in the modern world and that power and security was a prime nmsiderarion in human morivafIacuteons (Gtlpin 1984 227) lhe new ciernent jo rheir writing is a manet of S(1l1 debate (Baldwjn 1993 Kegley 199 Keobane 1986amp) bu( rbey bad in common ti de~ire for more intellectual rigour in theit work [han eme of the old retlshyises a willingness ro deal wirh telltions in 11 wodd where US hegemony was in qllestioll and a pttparedness tu include econurnj( fumiddotton io tbeir cakulashydons
How then did the oeo-realisrs rccae imeroarjonal organizatioru 00 the wbole (bey vicwed [hero witb tbe same jaundiced eye as did Morgemhau Imernational QCRinhatiooll were SCen as instrumencs of atate policy at most COrnmoo lorurns Their role ns independenc actors in [he iuteroatinnal syttem was not somechiog thl1 most uf the neo-r~lisu readUy anepted lndeed [beir doyen Keuneth Walu furcefuUy reasserter the pn~idoo oiacute th sovereign Stolte in internarional poli rics
fO a theory that demal the central role oiacute states will be nttded fmir if non~tate KtOrs develoi ro me poim oiacute rivaJling or SllrpRUing che great pOWCfS nor just a iacuteew uf tle minot on~ Tbey sbow 00 ign ofdoiog diexcliexclu
(WaI I98Go 89)
Waltt like others such as Gilpin (1981) Wall nmcerned wirh intetnashytianal pnlitics srructured by rh uneven distributinn of pOWCl lnternational instiexcltuttoilS therefore ftflecred rhe realities of [bL~ ~iexcltuation aod rhe major intematinna organizarioo5 llorliexcl as cbe U uited Nations Ol rhe Bretton
124 Writings JIJ iflJm1UtirmalIilgJ1liza1iofll
Woods iostitudons conld be eXpampted lO bear he imprinr of rhe maln bege~ monic power (in t~e CtlSes rhe Uoitw Srores) lf rbey rrled m brmk away from duacutes snaicjacker ~ as dlrl rhe otueraI Asscmbly of (he uumlN in he 197)s - fhey would find dxemselves lgtide-rnlCked by tIUt power
Tbe neo-reaiJSts accepred [har hegemoni( JXlwer could aru1 woukl decline bm wCfC les$ abJe ro deal wuumlh he consequences of rhis decline 00 rhe srruc~ tllrt1i uf iuternari01lal reJatious How mishr [bey (induding iowtnadolUll orgBnizatlolls) change aCrer hegcmony lt was ro thiiacutel (udtion rbar Roben Keobane uddressea himself He firiexclt wmited ehar Realism is patdcu1arly weak in accoundng foc ehange espc(iiexclJly where rhe sources of that chanse he in rhe wodd JOlirical economy oc in rhe domesdc srructures of smtes (Keohanc 1986b 1)9) He then referred ro his own eadie wooo un mrnpln interuependence for iospiradon CKeohnlle 1986b 160) He saw rbe (d lo $upplemenr though nor replace JeltlliSf wricings wiexclrh theoeiEs and be sHtSSCJ rhe importance of smdying inrerruuional inslitu[ioru which in particular would oeal wirh the question of how co-operation can cake place io wotW polidcs without hegemony (Keohane 19A4 14) By the early 1990s Koohllne fOUM a synthesis in elle iosriturionalist argument thal oormws e1ement5 ftcm hoth liberalism and teiexcltlil111 (Keohane 1993 271) Thi assumed (har sutes were rhe principal Qaors in world politics and acrm in rheir own self-inrerests hoth traditional eenli~t tenen Reiative capahilides - how power weaith etc was distributed berween the various nares - was impotcunt and S(Rtt5 had m rely on rheir own jUrlQns ro ensure rehuive gatos fmm coopetatioo From the Jiberal side Krohanes insrirutiQruUacuteism borrows 11 greater empbasis un the role of inrernatiunal jfl$rlIIriacuteoru in changing COnceiexclllons oftdf-interese (Keohane 1993)
During [he period from about 1945 ro 196S iexclntetna[ional imuacuterutions werc shaped by [he prevaHing American hegcmony Keohane identified as a problem the ledme in reronrces dllll lIacutele tilliced States governmellr had beeo wiUing ro devore tU the roainreoance of chis system (especially tU economic a~pect) siacutence he mid-1960s As US hegemony dedined rhere would be sn increased need for intematiooal ftgtgimes - scrs of rules norms and insrimrions ~ so [hat states could rub aJong mgether Keohane saw the regimes lefr by American hegemooy as a good scanillg poinr for future coshyopecatiiexclO and thought thar [hese should be adapred tu roCCt [he needs of (he new sicuation (J 984 244~ 6) This woulo ar leas[ make co--operatioo possible provide information foc all abotlr pnlicies inteor1ons aoO VIllues and woutd creare a depeudabiUry in intemational relarioni (Keohane 1993 259)
Keohanes wOrk has bccn critiacutecized by che more staunch feO-realistl Joseph GriecO 0993 301-38) provided a compreheruivc refundon of Koohanes leanings ro a more liberal positioo and rherehy advances a classic sratement of neo-fcalist conceros He admirs bar iU$riacuterurionalism has made imponam cOfluiburioru ir lIDs shuwo bow the dflilrchicaJ SlfUCture of iexclntershynationaJ rdarioru has Cfillted the problem of chenins fo lmerruuional
wnlngs 1m nf1hJUQrlai O1ffdl1lzamJ1U 1)
cooperario1 Setond ie has focusm on how lnternatlonal instirutions help srares manage thar problem and les symptoms Thioo they have caused che neo~realistS 00 look more carefully ar rhe relarive gains problem ihis is (he case where states are less concerned wirh rhe absolure gailll than with theit gaios ser aside [hose of orher srares which are seen as porenriaL riVus In other words le is beuer to agree tO an ums contml Healy allowing yOlJf
iexclrare ro build duee extra missiles and youe 0l1JXiuent lO build two exrra missiles rhan tu tolerate a situatiou wbere you can build five more missiacuteleiexcl (a better absolute gajn titan rhe [hree) bU your rival cnn buHd iexclnen (they have a stronger relJirive 81ljn mmpued wirh the arms control iexclreiexcliexclty outcotne) FinaJly neo-tClllim have had (O re-assess cher views of rhe signifkauce of intetnatlonal instirucions in rhe sysrem
This view of inrernarionaJ irutirutions entompasres the oeo-rett1ist IJndersranding of (he role of imernarjonaI uumltganizatioos in the international ~ystem As mendonw he realins view thero as insftumenrs oC rhe sovereign litates Neo-reaJisc$ have rehued rhis undersrandiog by poruuying tbem as refleecias che hegemony of the mese J70wcrful membe1l They can airo provide forums wirh [he poremjJi1 to be SOmewhaacutet more efficient than trnditional diplomacy or iHeguLu mnferences though a danget comes wheo they try ro he ilCroCS in ffieir own right Tbe successol1 of rhe tradimiddot donal realius such as WaltZ (1979 70-U and Mcaubeimet (1990) saw rhe EUlOpean Uo1on ptedecessor che Europeall COrnmunities me) as flour~ ishing because of rhe bipolar diviolioo of Europe by rhe USA and he Soviet Unl00 dudng the Cold War The txpecrarion was fhar with rhe end of che Cold War the Be pooject wnuld nor advance bur rache sink ioro disuse T1lltlugh the EC fiued n nurnher nf c-rlses in rhe early 1990s ir dld transfotm irsetf iexclmo the EUnlpean Unjon (EU) wich ao Boonomk and Monetary Union (EMU) 11nd a Common Foreign and Security Poky Grieco (1993 331) expIained rhis in tetms of $tates mnstitnting rollaoorariacuteve rules for a commen interese with the wCllker stares reying to consrrucr rules rhnt aUow them effenive volee opportuniries to ameLiotate tbeir dOJrunation by srronger partners Tite weaket states - sueb as Bdgium Portugal ot even France in rhe EU - wefe trying ro bind cbe stmoger Gcrmany in his (middotIl-~e lmo a form of relationship that avoids dominatioIL Crlieco (l993 335) admirtetl thaL realism hll-~ JIDC offered aIl explaoarion fm che tendeo(y uf sram tu undcrrake their coopemrion rhrough iftrituriOJiexclaited instirutions
This chaUenge has buo taken by those who nave ioaeasingly sought tO
liacutenk a fiiexclidy reaJlsr uudetstanding of wodd polides with domestic pulirles in the lcadifl8 stace actors An tlCamplc 15 Joho Richarelss Study of che regulation of dte inremarinnnl vlatioo marken in which he daims tO
refine rhe ffalm understamUugs of power io iexclmernarional bargaining 0999 33 BasiOlUy uationaJ po1iriciexclan~ Ut$te and susmin International inuJtudons induding intefflaacuteuacuteonal nrganiacutezations ro maxlmise domesshyti poliriud advamuumlge ltRicharda 1999 9) His conrendnn is har
l-V H~giexcl iexcllJJ ltifffltIltlUImal lIfglaquonlMiffIU1fJ
internatIacuteonal iusti[U[ious wiH be created whcn they are politicaUy effishyoacuteenr (mat is inrrease eleuoral support) Cor natiooa poHticians (Richards 1999 3) Rithards rejeces a loHective goods approach tO intctrtatlomuacute iuscirmiollgt (such a~ that ofZacher and SumID 1996) that See$ such insti~ clltiom al cHrrecdng lhe working$ oiacute che market internuJonally antl rherefore produciug econQmic benefirs all n1l1Od However he alro tejelttS rhe hard realist approach that daims rhat instltl1tions including internashycional organizatium merely reOeltt the power tap4biHtles in rhe international system altiexcl in Kra~nermiddots statement mar srronger Haces have simply done what they hiexcllve plea~edmiddot 0991 337) Richard srill claims rhat international imtitutlons iexcllre the iacutenstroments of stateS Because $ueb inscirucions as the internationill organiradons (hat regulate mtetoational rravel definc property rights internatiacuteonal1y they alter che marketplace leaving gains for sorne and losscs fur others This beJng ro [he building of such iexclnstirutiollS inrernationally is oound lO trigger a fiexclerce domestic political batdc (Richardll 1999 9) Thus whac happens ro and in internashytional otganizadons can be usoo by domestk politkians ro maxiacutemize eheir OWIl dmnestic advanrage This is a view that may attrac( supporr within the Ulliacuteted Srarcs though may be less reSOllant in sorne of the smaller and weaker ~tales
A similar view hdu bcen takco by the liberal intergovernmcotalistll who havt examined the European Union (EU) Moravcsik (1993 1998) has pcimoo (raquoIr tbar governrncmal strtttegies withiacuten tbe SU havc becn domi~ naced by preferences and power Cooperatiun and integration wete rhus seen as usefu strateampies if tbey furtltered a governmenrs control over its domesric alfalrs and agenda Moravcsik rhm ste$ the EU as a succc5sful imecgovernshytnelUal regime desigued ti) manage (conomt intetdcpendence rhrough negotiated poticy ctM1tdinatioo (1993 474)
The neo-res1i$tS have becn auacked OH many ground~ not leaJIt fO provIacuteltilng no WVIoce on toe works of che old realuumlt ($Ce AshJcy 1984) Like their reatist predecessors (he predicdve powcr of rheir work hal betn dlUacutelenged particulady their inabiUty (O foreste the eod uf the OJld War tand oiacute the Suviet Union (Scholte 1993 8) Scholre also cuacutetlcizs fhem fur nO addressing global iexclssucs $uch as welfnre questiorn ano poUucfon thar domishynate the world uf rbe late tweorieth and eurly twenry~first cenruries This questioos rbe descnpttve ability oiacute the oeo-realisu tS what (hey descdbe an) more (C$isritmiddot tllan thett realiacutest predelaquoSSOrs They have on rhe wbole OOen as unintere$laquod M cheir predece$sms in rIacute1f ro1e of interoatinnal ofRaniurioos The main exceptlon undl the 1990s wu Robert KeltiexclIacutellilne whose earLier worb en intetdependence stcved hun well no rIacutelar Sfilre Evel hee the critidsm can be made rha his view is b41skaHy conservative and was concerncd iexcljede iexcleh the incerests of (he Thiacuterd World Sorne of rhe Wrltel1l no economic coopshyeratino and integrauon fU tlle 1990s a(cepted many ol the nco-realiu assumptiacuteons aoout natiQna1 UlrettU$ ln Illternatllmal o~iratlon The) bave brought 00 the OeM a more refmed vlew oE rhe relatioacuternhip between govern-
Wrltingr tffl inttntaJumal ~ruZaJlflf1 ti I
menn and inrernarional orgHnizatioru and have Ieft behiod he Cnld War reain empoosis 00 the mijitruy ilSpet-ts ofpower
REFORMISTS
Tile n-alist wciters despite theit diftering valuatioos of the worth of cenain intematlonal organizstiltms have in rornrnon a state-centrk approoen ro intershyoational reiatWIlS 1bough liOIlle were CQnremed tbiacutelt govemITlents shoold renect more he (iacutenevitably) good lntentions uf their dtizens in inrerruttonmiddotd affiUfl or rbar world otgmizarions shoukI have more power (O detll wjth warlikt ()t reoegade Stares tOOr nus of artentioo is the internacional govem~ mental otganhtaacutetIDn (lOO) A nociceable devclopmenr in internariona reladons literawn inu the Second Wodd War has been (he movement away [rom mis 5tate-centred view towards ooe tIacutelat admits the impoarune of intematioroal atmiddotWrs iexcliexcltha than tite sovereign SUte 1bese indude lGOs in tbeir 0JIffi right (rnrlwr than as meeting places or inmumenn of thcir rnember tare) lNGOs trnnsaatJoual otgllnizatloru polirical group5 aod individual dtizeru Although many pl1blkadmlS just desctibe tbese new phenomena whkh llaVe herome more aniV in rhe last iacuteotty years [nere 15 a1so iI prescriptive erement to sorne oiacute [he writings They ttnd te prescribe incrmsed non-srare Jrtivity in inremashydonal relatiom ase a way uf underpinning claset relations berWfetl stattS ami socieries or undermining houlle anitudes by guvemmenrs (WeiS$ and Gordenker 1996 WlIlerrs 19~ Gordenker and WcillS 1998) Whilr this general reformist viewpoint is similar to reall~t approaches in aooopting the importafl(e uf the srate relatjons in incernational polit1cS ir does no( aoept eiexclrher fhe monopo1y oE rhe state in tbe sysrem or mar litatfS are unimry talional actors In surnrnary tbe leey aJlpeltrs of a reformist ilppftmdl to intetnational rclashytions indudes n number oE rbe folJowing
1 ihe belieE in reason in human nature and in progres$ [he [requency and level of war can be redocoo fur example
2 Inrernauumlonal relatioru can be moperative rather toon confIirtrW 3 Though seates are imponam in inrernarionaJ Ielations rhey are IJoOt [he
only aCtofS 4 ampates are Q)t ulUacuterary iexclI(tors wirh their dedsion inrematiacuteonally reflecting
intemal divisions aoJ interests They dv nve therefore neccssarHy muimize the interesrs oE che stare
~ The internacional s1gttem espl(bHy pires of iexclt comairu the elemenrl uf international society ano relies on a wriety oE international institutiollS indudjng inrernadonat Otgltlniution
The refurmist approach to the srudy (lf intemntional reladons hase conse~ quences fOl [be roruiderafIacuteon of interniexcltrnmal Otiexcliexclalization~ ano has made a notieabJe conuibwion to the lit(llIr~lre on the subjctt especiall) since [he 19508 Hnwever there is a bockgtotlnd ro the aboye idea~ char can be ICen in
j 01 Wnlmg 1m l1f1eOkllttmal urgJmuJugtnJ
me esdier writifl8~ of Grmiw Ladre Hentbam 3nd l(uiexclc (Jwkson aoo amprensen 1999 108-11 VlOtrl and Kaupi 199t) 200-4) Ao undet1randing of che curren refutmtst appruache1 ro inttmational otganiUitioos um be helped by reiacuteerente ro SOUlt of the WI1tets on internacional law wnich wiIJ mrm one section beLow
lnlernatIacutetmall8wyers
Mueh of rhe lirerarure abour mrernatioual organwoou$ 1$ descriptivc ltiren detiing with several organizacions aM giving purricuw eutpha$is te tite League ofNarioas and UN sometimes dealing with one organiacutezadoo swn lIS NATO me OAU Of rhe EU Leading woru in trus area 1m those of the intetshynariooal lawyers who give particular ronsidemcion ro rhe cowlimtiacuteoru of international organizaoons thei legal penonaliries aoo institucional probshykm Indecd ic was pmbably lhe P~ ltgtfuw ar amplinburgh Universiry J lorimer who fin coined the e~ionmiddotiexclnrernatiooal organization in 1B67
Contributions (Q cbe study of internarionai organizacions llave been made by Britisb legal exptm and bisfOrians 50ch as Zirnmern in his iexclrudy The Uacute4g~ JI NaJimn an4 the RMk of LnJiexcl (ZJmmem 19gt9) and J1 Buacuteerlys comparison of rhe newly emerged Unuumled Narions wirh rhe suurwre aod aims of lbe then dying Ieague Brierly demonnrated a strong preferenn~ for fbe inrrusioo of international law iOfO etonomk ilnd sndal affpjn gttl dat rbe generic grievances of sures ma) be removed (Btier1y t946 9n Hersrh laurerpliCht published Tbt Dwefpment ()f lntmwlftmal lJw by rhe Permanml CfJkrl el l1iImJ4lifJNiexcl-1 jllJtia in 1934 and [his was later marched in [he Ullired States by Judge Manle) O Hudseos Intmwt]iexclmal TribltllfJuacute PaJI
qniexclJ Plfum (944) WilfrEd ]ellki [be ugai Advlscr to che lLO CUIIribured noe jU$ 00 chilE organizarIacuteon (Jenks 1962a) but abo mote genernl wodcs 00 iarematiol181 orgaruzarions (leaks 1945a 1945tl 1962tl) 1 le stressed (he need [O IDaH) [he craf[ of tbe imernational lawyer wuumlh rhe Pludence uf che polirician tO develop an effective s)stem of incernadonaJ orgafiUBtion
Institutional developmeru 15 primarily cbe responsibiliry of staCesmaDshyship ir muS[ be gnided aud cootrolled b) a [fue appreciarion of political forces Tbe greaccst oflegal uadirions is still to be crearEd irs cexmre wiU be largely ltlefermined b) rhe qnaliry of [he crafesmanship which inrernatlonal lawyers place sr the disposal of sracesmen during me next geaeration
(Jenks 1945a 71-2)
laltor imernarional insrituriom cexebooks were pmvided by rwo Europcan intemalional lawyels Henry Schelmelll Professor of law at lIte Univeaiey of Amsreroam restricted himself tuacute inrernacional instuumluttonal law wbicb by roncerning irself wirh [he srrucmre and functions of inrershy
~h~ bullmiddotff~ V_middot ~f_lt~V_
fliUional organiexclttttlonstries ro explllin [he present developmem and ro promote he harmonious growth of lnafniexclldQual organization (Schermcfs 1972 2) He Jodt wim rhe partidpants in lmernadonstl orgllniexcl~lltion8 tbe general roles ror their crgaru and me activities of these Orgllus from prirruuHy a legal viewpoinr A similar approacb was adopted by rhc Bririsb iacutenternat1oniexcll1 leglll eJtpen D W Bower( whOie book Tht 14W QI lnlmwIacutePMJ lmtiJlflilJrll (970) placed grearer emphasis on pflrtkular insrishymtions - he Lcague thc UN and in spedalized ageucies che regional organizarions rile juriacutedical iacutens(iexclmdons - as weU as dealing wirh general questions such as t-he internattoual pcrsouaUt) of che organizarions and their impac( on (he doctrine of (he rovereigll equalit) of srare5 Por a blend of sociology bistoty and luretnarioOllJ lpw che work of Paul Reurer Professor uf lmernatioual Iilw pe Pileis Univcrsit) is UB$urpassed In Inml14tionaJ bmitllfiom (1958) he examined che phenomeoon ol imemashyt10nal orgaruzadon rather tban jUS( the orgilnizations and insdtutiun~ auJ thererore speut sorne time on the uature of imernariolllll ~je[) [he erigias aud foundarions of iuternational institutioll$ lS weU iexcll$ rhe posiacutediexclm of Staeeg in international society
Sorne post-Cold Wllr studies nave moved uWily from wruu tllto regllrded as csoretic descriptions of che 111w (Kn aud Djehl 1998 3) aud have insread examinEd intetnatiomJ I1lws iacuteofluence on poLirIacutelal behavior (Ku ampnd Diehl1998 3) One of rhe buses of tluch au IIpproach iN chat imtornashytionaJ organiUltions nOIl-governmenral orgllnirpriOfl$- multithltiJllUl corporations aud even privare IndividuaJiexcliexcl have come ro pliexcly Illl iexclIlcrelljiexcling role in intematioual rclations and accordingly international legal tules have evolved co engage rhese oew accors (Ku and Olebl 1998 3) Tnternarional lllv is seco both as au operatillJ system and a normative system for internariacuteona relarionll Algt the fotmet it 5eu the genernJ proshyceclures and iacutensticudons toe the conduce of incern11ltlonal relatiolls lt provides che framewotk fu estllbllshing rules lInd UOI11lS oodilles be parilmcters of interaction ancl provides (he ptocedures Ilnd furums ror re~lvlng disputes among those taking part in tnese intecllCtiacuteOO$ (Ku and Diehl 1998 6~7) As a nOttnative S)stem iuternatiouallaw giexclves rorm ro lhe aspiradOlu anu vlllues oE the partkipants of the system (Jr) is 11 proJuct oiacute the struttlltes Ind processes thar make up rbe opernting ~ystem rTt1 tllkes on a principaU) legislativc chamcret by mandating particular valueg IlnJ ditetting speciiacutek chllnges in sure bebaviQr (Ku Ilnd Diehl 1998 7) Mote tradiciunal appr03Lhel tO lnternatlonallaw rendlaquol tO de~(ribe che role 01 imelllatiuuaJ otgauJutiotu as pan of the opcradng sySLCm Legal texu pllblishcd in he laSt decade Ot so of (be rwcnrierh centUry looked lncteasingl) ae the position of inrernatlonal urganilations middotw
nor leas [hose oiacute the UN system - in a nurmanve framewnrk especiaHy in functional areas such as human righn (AJston 1995 he envilOumenr (Kin 199M) [be global commnm (Jo)ner and Manell 1998) and wOlneiexcluacute issues (Berkovith 1999 Wrighe 1993 1)~g8)
130 Writingi (f1I iexclktnati~nal I11glttftiZAtitlrlJ
Intecnationallawyers have airo given exteosive comideration ti particular instimtions The League Qf NatJons attlacted special attention as lawyen played an imporunt role jn J~ dmfting and as it had as tU aims che pmmotion of international c(K)perntion aoo the achievement of iexclnrcrna~ tionru pcace and eturity
by the ficm establishment nf the undersrnndings of imemauacuteonal law as tbe actual rule of condun among Governmenrs aOO by the maintemtnce of jnstice and a scrupulous mpect for all treaty obligations in the dcl~middot ings uforganised peoples wirh one another
(Preamble to tbe Covenant)
Furtbermoce the central pan uf che CQvenant dealing with the keeping of peace (Anide 12-16) OOopted a legalisck approoch in delining nn OCt of wu against all Ieapue membecs as being rewtt to war in disrtgaru of Anides 12 13 or 15 (Attide 16 (1raquo) In other wottb the cardina15in W$$
tbe breakiacuteng of rhe legal gretment mOOe wirh otner stares Imernational lawyeM in pIlrtkuar were ooncerned wirh how Iacutenlernarional IacuteiexcllW might be agreed judged ane enforced in lhe jnter-war perIDd lhey turned much of their atrention to the anivities oC che Permnnem Coun of Intemational Justice arul lhe league of Natlon5 Judge Hcrt(h TaureIp3cbc foc eurtlrle ronsldetetl rhat aH Jntemlltional dispures were justiciable and thus open (O
soludon by [he judicial process in internacional law He considered tbe League tu be useful 5tep in the development oE inrernational law and be sanctions 1I1lowcd Cor in Anide 16 of [he CoveOilnt as marking tbe fitn step towws he collective enEonement uf internacional law (Laurerpacht 1970 9)
The league hOO iexcles advocates among orher lega writers AlCred Zimmern wriring io 1938 set Lhe Leagues activjties and institurions against che backshydtop of the gathering 5tOrm io Europe He still found much ro ~y lor ir it had rkveloped 2ru1 expanded tbe old iquestiplomaric ystem bad enrouragro wshyoperation in many ateIlS ane $r leur represeotecl iexcllfi artempt to ellminate WIlr even duting a period of whar Zrmmern caHed cmhquukes (Limmero 1939 491-509) Lord Robert Cedl one oC the fuunders of rhe League as weU as a lawyer and Conservative poHdcim admined when wming ln 1941 rbe Cailure of the orgamzation in preventing aggressive powers Neverdreless he hoped that iexclt would be reformulaced after bosrilities with a CI)ll of confederariacutean uf European tates the cenual objecr of which should be the preservatl(m uf the European peat e Peace in cbe test oE the world would Jepeod pretty weU on tbe then jusr~eltiexclsting Covenant wirh sorne small changes Cecil did admit rhat another piece of rnachinety couid do Iittle unless [he peoples allJ govemmeots cea11y tgtlt che enforcemenr nf law ann mainrenance of pealte as me firtr and grearen nadonal Jmereus (erH 1941middot 349-51)
The hopes of (hore ho yearned fur legal soludnns tO intemartonal
WrjlingJ 1m inffll7lltJfriexclftai rltgmiwtitln-iexcl 131
dt1putes dearly dcdined a~ the UN Charter wjth iacute~ emphasis on politica1 solutions to what were palideal disputes tepiacelti tbe optimist1c legal (otmula~ uf the League Covemutt The UN Chancr was not to be without tes Internationa Jegal romrnentaluts Indeed tWO early stllndard books on rhe UN are by diJtinguished lawyers Kelsen (l950) and Goodrich ti al (969) though the hmer have admitteu that when iexclnterpreting [he ltlwrter
since rhe responsibiliry for interpretadon is VC$ted in Ofgan~ and memben alike che process is more iexcliexclkely to be politia than judishyoacutealDeciexclsiltm~ rend to renea lhe enmmon intetesu of members in achieviug cerratn results
(Goodrich If JI 1969 15)
Other legal commentators have placed emphllSis 00 [he role of jtlterna~ tional orgaoJutions in tbe development of particular aspects of innl11iexcl1tional ew ami again haltle secn tbe rleyelopment uf the rules aon notms of internashytiOfliacutell society ~ howeyer imperfeltmiddott - in tbese cases Examples are Kratochwil (1989) who who has written generally ou the 1mbject Jaebon (l997) and Thomas IInd Meyer (19J7) on the world tradins sysrern Kiss 11M Shelttm (1991) on Iacutentern8ljoual envttunmenral law aud Human Rights Watch 09921999) and Bianchi (997)on human r1ghu iSIuc
lnternaonalgotJt1tmenlfgwfINIJJlue
Anorber AmcriC3llegaI aurhority ayde Eagleton gave the Unired Nations a critJcal though romewhat undmtaning appreciarioll ~mmmiexclng np its dilemma thus Ir (he Uniled Natioru cannor do more than ir ha~ the ampult liacutees with rhe Memhccs wbo marle it and opcrllte it and who j[ SfflIW slaquon preret the tootb aOO the fang ro internationallaw and order (Eagletoo 1948 552)
Eagieron placea the record (lf che Uoited Nations in thc context of irs predecessors in the hisroey of rhe gttlwth ofinternational govemmem and of iu legal and politica background He examined pmposals to achieve the inrernational government thff the UN ailed tu rt1tCh bm condueed chet fI chaogc in he attimdes oC Stares aud their pcoples JS neerkd fipiexclt (Fagl~too 194$ 583) Eagletons wnrk uuderlioed tbe point made by Evan Ltmm in his ntemd1ifma1 A~lIaacutetJ (977) that with (he existence of the UN and its lSSfJ(lated agencies many of che wodds prohlems are Ilor wirhout jmtiexcltu~ tions exercising authority over them The powers uf (his mnge of organizadon cau bc queHioned as Ciexcl1n chejr standing in relnion tn thcir rovereign state membera bur rheir exisrence in tne ptlStmiddotwiexcliexcl[ world ~ aud tbcir grnwth (rom their niacuteneteemh-cenrury hesinnings is a reality
Thi$ inrerese in [he 8rQwth of iorernariona[ governme(l( i tleithet new nor resrricted m the legal pmCeMion Oue uf the earlier publicauumlnru on tbe subject was by the writer leonard Woolf who Walt a fOllude uf the Fahian
132 WriJil1gJ (IfI htfmtaJIacutefmal argmitAJium
Socilaquoy che reformiu discusston group witbiu rhe British Ltbout Parry Wtiting in 1916 he omllned dJe exrenr m which imerllliootlal govem~ mene had been lKcepted rhroogh diplomade garfteaacutengs rhe use of public and privQce JmefOatwllru unions and che iocrtlSe iexcln commodify ugreemellts aad he PU forward plans roe che further teguJation of JmeroadOllal OCrltty lf war is (( be prevemed he elaimed states musr submir Q mUte intetuashy[jonal conrrol alld governmenr in their poJiticnl and udrninl1litrative rdadoru (laquooolf 1916 nB) He udvanred a Fabiao Cornmirree plan for nte Stipranaciacuteonal AudlOrlty cllat wiIl Preven War eiemenrs of whih fOllnd their way into (he Lea8ue Covenane aml whieh inhJt iexcliexcllid teCtJlllmended rhe estab1ishment of an Inrernatloclal High Grua an lntemadooai Coundl of sutes represenrnrives ami JO IOtelThldonal Seltreurjlil Woolf and his Fabiao coUeagues hoped dlar wirh rhis machiuery legal justiciable disputes wouM be 5ubmined ro rhe Cona Of a similar tribunal and orher dispmes ro the Couocil foc senlemenr with che patries rn he dispute ccnsmilned from warlike actjon fue a period of a year Provision was ro be rnade fur sancrions which ali sutes shoold pm inro open1rion lind al agfCltd tO make common cause even ro he exren( oC war against any constiruent Srue which violates thi$ uacuterndamentai llgreement (laquooolf 1916 233)
Woolf mgetIacuteltr wuumlh juriiexclu iexcluch IIS Hersrb Lauterpadu and Alfred Zimmern and British poliricaJ wrIacuterers like Pbiiexclip Nod-Baker LJrd Ceei and Gilbert Murlliy represented bmh [he praccuumlal and intdlectual mpponen ni lhe League of Natiacuteom in the interwar peuacuteod wbo were ouacuteen daified as iexcldealisrs or neo~rotiam Hedley Bul 0966 ~2 5) r1esnibed the rennal Grotlan assumption (named after (he seventeenrhshycentury lesal wtiter lIugo Grotiu$) as being rhat of the solidariry OI
porential solidariry oI (he SUtes comprising imemarlonal sociery wirh respect ro che enfurcemem of [he Law and Grodws basic crjredon of juse WI bt-ing fought in order ro enforee rjghrs a fimiofl dearly edwed in tbe Pabirin Comm1rrfts The Snpmnatlonat AuthorlEY rhll will Prevenr War BuH criricized rhe way ibis group lost sighr of intemarional polirics in rhelI preoccuparion wirh 10eroational1aw international otganization and intfoiexclniexcliexclriQnlll saciery
10 deallng wirh imefIUldonal marnti~y which rhey were indined ro confn$( wirh internarional law they eon[ribu[ed only a narrow and llflcririal rlaquorimdr whkh eKalred [he jnternational inreresr over tllujoual iexcllIrert~r~ (bnt wirhorlr asking bow rhe former was ro be detershyminel) mtlltiexcltimrimwl rdorm over revolurJon as [he meaflS of ll3lliCcndinA lhe soriely of sovereiNn states (bur without considering wfteher SUtCS cOllld OCcOIlIC [he agents of rheir owo ~rincriofl) and respcu fue legaliry oler [be neoo foc chaoAe (bur wirhour fdciflg up ro r~ mer that rh~ in(~rnadooal legal sys[em as (hey construed ir could nOl aecommodate change)
(BuU 1972 36)
Wrllingr on inlmralirmal ()fganiUJliofU 133
This J5 a teUing enough asseSSffiem of che idealim views includill8 [heir writings (tri imernarional oeganiurions HOWelef [he background of [he groop $hould be remerobeted they represellteJ a genemtion devastawd by the Finl World War ud whiacutecb wa~ used ro national suciery (early twenderh-teocut adtaio) lhat had henelired through institutional chal1ge and in whiacutech the rule of law had not preduJed remrro The k-gtgue of Natioo5 che Permanenc Coun of Illternuional J1L~tjce (PCI]) and [he 110 wen for rhem part of 1 Great Expedment to we Lord Cecil~ phrale
Wrirets in the last guarter of the twentieth century picked up and develshyopoo many of he omions current in rhe aoove Jirerawre aud srr~ed how iacutenrematiunal ioceocourse had heen governoo by a body of laws nl1~ lind feguladons ano by insdturions indlldifl8 internatiotlal organizatioO$ Though they llave kcpr rhe analogy with the domescic government of cirishyzens thef have preferred rhe terro internacional governancc demoosrrating thar such a system docs nOl hnve che son of enrorcemem powers expected of naticnal govetnmencs Notions of global governarue huve becn corered above whete tefereoce has heen made tU tbe idea of an imernarional regime (Pp 108-10) Thi5 concept helped bdng internacional olgsobacions iexclmo rhe wider titerarure abom inrernadonal cooperedon 11M governance in a srate of anat(by rneaning an absence of interOlltional governmenr with signifkant er[orcemem powers
In the early and mid~1990s IiHendon was agam wrned ro che manageshymenr of che internlitional environmem in rhe wake of the UN Confetence on Environment and Development (UNCED) al Riacuteo de Janeiro BnuiL gtlhe environmem seemed ro be a classk caudidste fur global governance pardy becl1use ir was glob-al and partly because of the range of instlwdons involved in iexcltS managemem In the words of Josepb Nye etTective intet~ narional envitonmental instltudoru thu$ helped w overcome sorne Ol (he rypical narional bordenecks tbar hiacutender cootrunated meusures to revene rbe frighrening trends of global environmental degradaLion llnd improve rhe possibiluumly of susrainable develo[lmenr of OUt plaller (Nye 1995 x) The assumprion of Keohane tt al was that whlle StateS may have difnculry ad~tessiexclng jmernationaacutel erlvitorlmemaL problems coopenuion betweeo governmen[$ couid hring dividends Eff(Xtlve intetnstiooaj 111stitutions wete needed which may take rhe form of internacional orgauuations rcgimes Ol informal conventlons They were seen in che woros of Maurlce Strong (Secretary-Cener-iexcliexcl ofUNCED)Ul rhe bllsic framework for 11 world sysrem of governance whkh iexcls imItJdve to rhe effective functionmg uf our global rocieey (1990 211 l2) The aim was pragmlltlC to see whetber rhe intemational josrjmrioos coveriug the environment had made a posirive difference especially in rhe polltiad iexcleid
Case rudJes were presenred (bar exploroo the impact oiacute inrenwiotl$l insriturions witb [hree conditions essenrja lor effecuumlve acrioo on the enlirOumem high levell of gownlflmtl bullmam a hospitable 1lIiIraiexcltttal t1Iy~
rrmmml suiliexcloacuteem poIiuacuten U1d ddltiniJtY(JJM CiJpacity in national
134 Wrftln[f 111 iexclttntntiona organiufif)lfJ
governments (Keohane tt al 199 11) The case s(Jdies Weuroe seen in rerms of agendiexclt selting internacional pnliacutecies and national policy ttJpon$($ (Keohane iacutef al 1995) The three authors wtJe aware of the strong influeDce of stare powers in iexclnrernadnnal institurions and of rbeie meagre result5 in sorne areas Nevetthees~ they set down three ronditions uoder whicn inrer ootional institutions can alrer (he bchavior of state actors and in turn improye environmenral qualiry (Keobane ti a 199 19) These afe
1 gnvernmencal concern has ro be higo enough [Q pmmpt the 1lte ufscarce mources lO tllckle tht problem
2 roere haiexcl 00 be a contllcrual enviroruncfit where ~tnttS make (rediMe coounitrnttlts and make iexcllOO keep lglremerll$ rhar incorporare joiotly enacted rules withour debflitadng fuAtof ftte-riding ur cheuting by othet1l
3 states should haw the pnlitical and adminimadve capaciry to make the domestk adjusrtnents necessruy ro implemenr international norms principies and rules (Krohane et al 1995 19-20)
TOe empha~iexcls -in chis view nf glotm govemance is on rhe relncionship becween rhe internuional anQ tIte Illlt10naL
Pan oE gJobtl govemsnce - ai noted in Chapte1 3 - are lnrernntional regimt$_ Thcampe are set- of implidt o explkir principies norms rule and del ision making proctdures arounrl which actors eJCpelttadons converge in a given area of internacional relatious (Krasner 1983 2) [1tey are subSu of irttetnational sodcey and its imtitlnions Imemational reglmes which are oft~o speciacutealitecl auangemenu limicer by function oc gengraphicaJ area are amngemcnts hat BoYe1n cooperative behaviour intetnatioOldly Thee are thus mure wiJely Jrawn than internatiunal organizations The latcer accurdifl8 ro one of the most profific wrltcrs on the $ubject Oran YounS 0989 1994) can boeh stimulate the process of regime formation nnd can htlp implement thei provisiuns (Young 1994 164)
Funuitrltdlisu
An eady bff~1c with the trmJtional view of international organizations based un the state-centriacuter mudel cm be seen in Leonard Woolfs book [ttltmatiltraquoldl
Grni-17111I Alrhough srilJ primarily coruemed wich interamptate relations and the questiolll of peace and secudry a sizeable BCniacuteon o( lis wriring5 rover governlnenral tlaquohoical and economk co-operatioo and INGOs
Ve are accustnmed to regard the wodJ as neady diided iexclnto compartshymenU caUed states or nationLBut chis vjion oiacute thewodd divided into iacutesolated compllrtmenrs is nor a cme reflection of fiu 15 as they exisc in a urge pottion of the etlnh [orlay
(Wnolf 19l6 216-17)
Writtng( (111 hmmatiacute(lrul f8grllliulinnJ 13
Snch a step pladng gre-iexcllter emphasis on non-star ime~natiacuteonal rtloshytions wa~ taken furrher in duo writln8~ o( me Romanian-bom aothor David Mitrany Mitrany ideas known iexclas the functiondisr appooruh lO
internuional politics were inspired by his early Iife io dIe Ba1kans He (ouoo much imelletruaI sdmuiatinn ofter coming ro Lundon in 1912 olld working together with Lennanl Woolf among otlters in the Ieagne uf Nations Society [he labour Pattys Advisory Commiuee on [nternational Arrairs and the Fabiexclan Socieey His (WO malor eacly worlca wcrc Tin PrtlgftlJ of lt1tmutt(IIId GtM1NmAnt (first pnbl~hed in 1932 rcprinted in Mitrany ([915araquo) and A WorklNx Pem Sylttm (fiCSt published jn 1943 rcpobHshcd jn 19(6) though he abu made a 1mbstamial nmtribudon in anides unril bis dearh in 1975 Many uf his writings tQgethcr with an amobiacuteographical piecc and In inuoouctjon are guhered fogefher in Tht Funcfuumlmal TwJry of Prdilia (Mitran) 1975) In his t932 work he omHued the nlnereenrh(intury growth iacuten intertwtJonal govenmcnt ajong similar lines as Woolf
The ninereenth cenrmy prodwed that amazing growrh in che mattrial equipment of (iiiiudon whifh weldcd the wodd togaher into (me organk whoiacutee making eaclt people a partner in tire Iacuteitte uf al The outwatd CXpelsiacuteon nf that change WQ5 the ~rance nf WQrld-wide popular movements and the making nf innumerabJe privare md public imernatjonal agItemenrs
(Mitrany 1915a~ 89)
Mitrany WiacuteI$ concerned thar (he rise of the fllidon-state and the insiexcl~tence of new statcs on che doctrine uf lluvereign equality when (bey were dlldy weaker and smalJer tban the Grear Powers hindered internacional lt0shy
operation in for example the cconomic lphere HowCer he 1lW rbar the fnne ofevents wu working agaiexcln~t sta~ism
No maeter what rhe size and shape of rhe particular community lo funcrions are such thar rhey haye to be organized and the fOrres and (crors now iexcllt work no longer have llny rroe telarion tlt) rhe uld pnlitkaJ divisions wirhin or withuJ( rile state The new functiom imposed upon our puliria instiacutetutions art compelllng 11 complete recomt(Ucrion of tile technique of govemmellt on a purely practical oosis 1 teach that rondU$ion by ming at the Illltset noto what is rlte iexclden form for an imtrnadonal $odetyiexcl but mher what are 1tS C$sential ftmctions
(Mitrany 1915a 99)
He claimed hat C$$cntially the nims of intemalional governmcnt were no diffcrent from dlo~e (lf municipal gnvernmenr w aCaJt equality bcfore the iexclaw for aH rnemben of the cnrnmuni(y and ro lrumote sodal jUlltict To expen [O achieve rhe first aim in inrernatlfllltliexcl sodely whefe 5talCS wcre
l ju WrJll1Jgs en mlWnal101tJf (iexcl(gamufJf)lJJ
nei[her eqna nor unchangiug uuiu would be unreascnwtc Ir woold be far more prncriC1iL ro cmnpromise rhis aim and CSLablish a League of Nations in which Grea( pQVeri woulcl he dirlltdy representelt Secondary Jitates woulcl have group representiexcliexclrioo afld malter ~tatet w()ulcl have panel repmentatioo At the same time sfCortdary bodie$ would be ser up in varJous pam of che world 11$ orgnns (lf regionJI grouptngs of Jitares artd (hese bodies woulJ be connected with and subordInare tO the new CCOtta League organs They wouiJ aleo be iexcliexclbie ro clesl wiacuteth problems mOle teaclily especially as the unanimity of aH srares would not be needed [Ol a senlemem
These suggesdom are noe (he novel aspeltts oE Mitran)$ work They are imponam in changing (he emphasjs away from the tighu of amptate wwards rhe dude oc lit ICllSt (he actlvJries of Hates Still the conccto was wth Ilrrllnging relnrioru netween snm~s In a paper $ubmitrecl ro che 8drish foceign Office in 1941 and in hi~ study A Wking Peaa Symm (966) Mirrnny wncenrrated on how che (unctioru of gOYernment might be cnrried OUt more exptdiriously He rtcognhed chllr withio liberal 1emocrati( stare~ [he Une berween whirh futCtions are Cflrried Out by pubtic and by privare aclioll was shifriog lIod that rhi5 line unde (he prel5ure u( (rt_ih social Ileeds and demands musr be Jeft free co move with rhem A similar demamuiacuteon existed in che terrirorial spbete interlla~ dooally wme (uncdons (eJ railway systems) could best be organized cOlltinenroUy some intercontinentnll) (e8 shippillg) alld some univcnaUy (eg aviation) However there would be no need for rigid patteros exccpe perbaps io tbe exercise of negadve (unctlons -- those related ro securi[y wberc more fotmal sacle lnstltuclOns WQuld be needeJ In (he field o( positive (unctiacuteoru (dw$C tdatecl ro economic eultunl and sodal affairs) he climensions ocgans and powers of any organiorion would be deler~ miacutened by the nature oiacute the funccton and would be fairly flexible Mitrany fmfSaw tbe tStliblisbment o( functional bodies wirh auronomous ta~ks and powers which wonld do thingl joiacutently Tbis wuulcllink aucborlry tu a specific activiacutery (hUi breaking llway foom the tradicional link between authocieyand a ltIacuteeftnire ~erritory Murany 1966 125) 11iacutes move wcmlcl avoicl he sreritity uf many of rhe wartjmt suggesdons fue posr-war (ecltrn~ tions O connitudonal innovariacuteon in rhe United Nacions whlch f~eteoacute 00 he opposidon oiacute sovereign sraee reiiexcltance Mitrnny hoped rhat che number uf internarional agencies (hat had exisred before the Serend Wodd War augmenteltIacute by the A11ied board durJng rhe war lrsdf wuuld u~rve u tbe ba~lS foc (he network oiacute inremarional gOvernrnent He quoud wlrb obviow appruval the wurd$ of an Amerltlln scholar J Payson Wild Jr 00 the varlOUS warrime experiments
The Hues between domesuc anltIacute iexclnrernational actlvlty ate blurred ancl nadonal adminisuatlve agencies of the Powecs concerned Smneshytimes engnge in domestk busint-1s and at orber rimes extend theit
Wrilings Ofl hllenJdUacuteoN1J org411iatiofJJ 137
(unctioru ioro rhe uumluernarionul sphere The resuh is o conglomerashydOn o( intermnional bwrd aocl domestic staf( whose dlties Illrermiacutengle Adminisrrnr1ve offtcers o( narional lmirs deal direcdy wirh rheir opposire numbers in orher S[1l[es WirhOlU benefit o( diplo maric intermediaries and simlllmneously perEorm borh nacional and intemational tasks So fu no attempt has been made en estab1ish iexcliexcl
super~State
(Mitrany 1 6 167)
Mitranyll villion is oE a world in wruch che functiollS of ~etyday $odal 1Jfe - transport healrb care rommunicatioos agticlllture industrial developmenr sciendfic developmenr and so on - are no Jonger assidl1ou$-ly carried en witbin rhe confines oE each sovereign iexcliexcltflte but ate underuJen across fmmiers on a tegionai cominental oc univetsal bflliiiexcliexcl These acrivjw des would be overseen by international Ofganizatioru which wOIJld be more like boards oE managemenr Tbe functional agencies of rhe UN (che no WHOgt FAUacute etc) already underrake urn ro~opetative t$Sks fIli do sorne non-governmental groupings of spedalisrs (League of Red eron Sndedell World Srout Movement etc) However tbe Une berween what has been done imernationaHy aOO dome$tkally bas tuen drnwn very much ro [he beneflc oE che latter and international activitid bave tuen riddted with politicel dispureoJ rnany oE which have liule ro do wlth me good manegemem of the (unction iexclnvolved Mirranys laquoheme would fiexcludually lOwtt rhe liue ro aUow more functioos ta be Citded OUt at rhe level where they wOrk more efficieruly and woukl proide managemenr of tbere funcshytions ra[her [han poHdclI1 interference Not onty would his develQpmeof beuefit (he general social welfure of the world ir would abo hcIl (O salve rile problem o( plaCe and security The LHliputian ties o( internacional fuucrionru co-operarion would piacuteo clown me giam of conflict weakenlog [he urge ro destruction and warfare by rhe promise of consmlctJoo and cashyexistence
The (unctional approach does nor focus solely on iorergovernmenral organizacion buc aUows for a network 01 spedaliuxl agencies roany uf which could be non-governmentaL Ir difftr in emphllSi5 ftoro che mainshystream craditionalis[ wricings and Mitrany~ work praaged a move away from internare relations 10 wotld politics Whilst the functiooaJ alpoolUh does not oReod against lh sentimem 01 nationaJity )t the pride oE sovereignty (Mitrany 1965 139) lhere is no doubl chat ir is meant lO weaken the i~por(Jloce and power of the middle roan berween rile indi vidual and a world communiry che sovereign scnre The feeling o( solidarlty enrounged by functionallinks 1s nor between states but beween people or assoclatioos of individuals Each of us is ill fuer a bundle of funCflonaJ loyalties so dWt tO build a wodd communiey upoo sueh a concepdoo is merely to a(eM artd consolidare ir also betwetn societies and grollps Micrany 15 14n
138 Wriling5 fin illttrnatiQJIa1 (ffanizatio1ts
Such IIn imaginative appruach tu wodd problems aud be mundiUlc hard~ working iexclapolitical role lt implieamp fOr interuational organizadons has its fiexclruIrs To ctiexclddu Mitranys functionalism as being impronica JS IUlfalr hoth because internlltionru functiornd links hllve grown espedaUy since the S~ World Warj and blaquoarue M1tranys approach is a gradual one he did OOE expeCt ir ro be adopted overnighr Even so ir cioes have certllin 11mbiexclshyuow a~pets which shOllld be criticany eDmined
Piexclrsr de5pite rhe refere-nce to possible regional fimnionalunmgement8 Mitranys pJans ron counter ro rhe notion of aU-embraciug regional organi utJoru such as the Europcan Communities now E~n Uninn (Mitrany 1975b 53-78) Whibt these organwdons roay Hnk their iexclamhotity ro a speoacuteftc activky $ueh as the conditloO foc running (he coal iexclaud steel indusshytries nr the agriculture of the EUs member states they sta hold w the rrnditinnal1ink betw~n authodry arul a definirt territory The cooJ and sr~l polkies or tite Common Agticultural Policy uf the BU are nor extended to tbe industries and fumen of other non-member countries who mar wish lO participate in theit ochemes Vet il can be argued toar ir is prccisdy in these iexclirnited geographicill blocs that flIlCtiOruJ arrnnscments are besr executed wirh limitations un mernhetship To wnrk propedy chemes must encompuss denned aras with a good deal jn common - the flexibility of Mitranys proposal wIQutd 500n break dOWIl )l the tnembers WlJuld have $O little in cornmon in fo cxampie the runnill8 of agriculture tbat coshyopetation would be dif(kulr or lloo-proouctiacuteve Furrhermore rhfmiddotse regional atrangemenpiexcl overcorne the problems of dedding the meaning hQundaries and consequtIlCCS of any particular function (Melaren 1985 142)
Second Mitrany did not really envisagc any piexclHejcal control of the futlCtiooal des between COllntdes mus distinguishing him frorn [he more traditionaliacutest approach lO inrernational orgaruwcions lle was hopeM dw the pmblems of roshyurdillltion between ronctionalagencies could be worked out as they lllOOe
To prescribe fOI the suke of [iexcladicional ne3tleSS somtthing more dennite han the guidancc and supervision of eg the Ecooomk Md Social Couooacutel W(lU1J be ro duron he whole conetprion from [he niftJo impollC upon them (funct-lonal bodiesJ a co-otdination authoriry with anyrhing Iike comrolling scuus w(luId be ro move again roWllrd$ that JiacutecumuJarion of power ar the centre
(Mitrany 196~ 143)
Thus [he institmions uf (he Eutopean ClJmmunitic~ - the Counoacutel uf Milli~iacuteers rhe Commission che Courr of Justicc rhe European Padiamenl dre Economic md Social Comlllittce - were al analnema fO Mitmny They werc juu miacuterrnring the poluacuteical COflffOh of lhe nation state ar iexcliexcl pa-n-continenullcvel anU according to Mirrany Continental unious w(luld have a more real chance thau individual suteS to pnletise the aurarky thae makes or division Mitrany 19(Kiacute 2n This may u((end
Witi1lf1 rm imernatilmalllrgaraquoiutifJ11J 139
agains[ lhe funcrJonalisu hope (r iexcliexcl universal apprOlltIacutel tu proble[Jls but (he abhorrence of policial imtitutions is lItrange wIacutelen [he funriona agenoacutees will aftee iln be mllkJng poHtkal decisions -- declsions roncetning lile aurhontative allocafion uf resources No only will iflfetnashytional functiunal transpon organizations established accordlng to Mittany have (O decide that cerEain areas wiH bt weU served by railways and Wds orhers llOt iexcliexclorne ports bujjt up others ieft to tlceay sume airlines expanded whlle rnbers are allowed ro fOllUact blt deeisiow wilI have ta be made on how w diexcl~tribu(e 5carce re~ources betwccn fo example iacutenvemtlent in transpon ur building more hospitals or restfllcturing rhe srecl Jndustty thwughour (he area eovered by [he orgalliurions Thee arc paHdeal declsiQw ln a period of economk growth and plenry [hdr potitshykal niexcliexcltute may be le5S obviou as resources are avaiuble for almost eVery plan advanced by world 01 regional shjpping aviation heaJth or sree1 O1ganizatioos Otherwit there mn$t sllrdy he a system by which scarce mrnurce$ are aUocaced Tbis problem was flJed squardy by Mitr1ny successors iexcln the neofunctionalin school (dealr wIacuteth in the SC(tiOH tbat follows) but ir doell seem ftoro Mirranys writings fhat the world of funcshytioollJi~m is a wodd of IlnUmiacuteted resounes (Melaren 1985 146)_
A third problem in Mimuys approach i~ brought out in a eommtnt by lniacutes Claude The functiacuteonal theory uf imemariruwl nrgaruzarions 1S ultimateJy eoncernen wirh the usue of polJtiacuteeal and military srniexclggJe functionalism tneats (he promotion of we1fue as au illdirecf approach tu rlx prevenrion of warfare (Claude 1968 31--5) Mitran quoted Oaude wirh appmval implyiog rha fulletionalism would ind~ mllk( a positive contribllt1on (albeit inilitecdy) CE (he ptCveurron of war fhis profOiSitiort is open (O $(Ieral criticisms Given the level uf arrnrunems in the worJd and the porential fQf cunflict the contriburron ro pettcc made by funcrioruuacute acrjvities miexclay come too late A youth group exthange betwtn rhe USA and China ma) bode we11 fOf
tbe furure OOt wlll be uf link use if (he respective parrus are beaten ro meir destinarions by intercominental baliiacutestic missiles funhermore the pmmotion of wtlfare may inctease internatioual conflicr by i~asiacuteng expettacions Espedally if social and ecounmic changes are bmugh[ aboue by imernational runctioual 3Jencies developing muntrie poliacuterical I~derships may fJnd ir increasingly cliiHcult to meet lheir poplllatIDn~ demands fot more economic benefJts fur a ampirer distribution uf benefits or in sorne ta$(-S fOf Ol)tool uf the social consequences of laquootlumic Rrowth Imernal sttili aod unrest may chen ~iIJ over into inrernacional eontlicr Finally Miacutetrany daiffi$ that rhe Nncshyrional approach ciocumveuts ideological aOO racial diviID05 as it ltloes territorial frontiacuteers (Mitrany 1975a 226) There ls guod evidellce tiJat the opposite has been happening thae the exlsting runctiuual organimfIacuteom slch $$ tiNEKO WHO and lID hllve been riddkd with ideulogical and racial (or al lea~t Norrh-Somh) diviions wruch h~ve teflected pnlirical argnments outside he olganizarimlS bu have ncvenheless adverscly aHewod their ba~ic work (Ghebali 1986 l tR-lt6 1mber 1989)
iexclIV WHURg) W~ mltTlWilm tIampmJlaiWN
NetrfJl1iKJiOalisls
Tbc move away foom rhe srate-cenrric vjew of JlItert1arlOlal organizarion Started by WOllf and Mirany was ccetiacuteeued io rht immedijlre posr-wur perjod by social stientim applyiacuteog asJltu of functionll1(st ~heory to European nd Atiacuteantlc in~limti()m This utw fUllCtionaliu approach showed paruumlcrnsr interesc in che European Communities (Ee later nuropean Union EU)) whjch arme iu iexclhe wake of che amphuman Plan In Mily 1950 Roben Schuman rhe Frenrh Foreign Minisrer advauroo (he idea cha( West Eucopean srarcs should establish a High Authority wlrh powers ro admillshyimr theit eoai aOO stecl induscrie~ Negorjatioru on rhe detalS of chis plan led t() the signing of che Treaty cf Pariacutes in Apdiacute 1951 by FraIlee Wen Gemuny Iraly rhe Neiexclherlands Bdgium sed Luxembourg (rhe Six) Tbls gave substanre tO (he idea lbat funcrional aiexcltivicy oould be ITlltllfIged across fcomien by IUl organizadon ove and above the govemmenrs of che member sraces a supmnational amhority The idea was wldened ro cover iexclm expanded unge of etooomk activiry when he Silo esrablished rhe Bt1fOpean Ecooomk Communicy (EEC) widl the Treaty of tome in MAtch J957 An Aromic Energy Communiacutety (Euratom) was eHablished sr che sume time However ~he element of upranationiexcliexclliry was dilurelt in the High AllthoritY-s successor (rhe Commission of rhe EEe) having only Iimited deciuacuteOIl-makin8 powers anJ having mosdy the task of proposing acdon ro tbe representarives of he rnember states situumlng in (he Coulliil of Ministe13 Despire his otber Community hutitutions contsined the gerrn of supranadonaHry rhe Courr of Jllstke empJoymg Coromunity nuhe [han nacional laws a Ruropean Padiument wbkh WlS eventually electelt by ditect eleedons amoog a Communiry-wide electorate voting for Cummunity-hased parties aad 1Jueresr groups represendng mrmetSgt consumen traJe unions aruJ blliiness on a Commuiexcliexclity tatber than a nnional basis
Tht$eacute tnmwauumloos in WeBtem Europe uiggeteJ a spate uf 1 iexclretamre primaril) in he lJnireJ Sures whieh examined tbe nurure unrl purpose of the Commuuity iustituions The Jominam staacutend amongst this writing was chat of the neo-(uncrlonalisrs sJCcifically Ern~1t Haas Lean lindbetg and J05eph Nye whose works are of importance io the uudy of internacional organizacions In ronrruc tO Mitrany the OCW fuoctiooalistli tended Br (iexclrOc tuacute iexclimir rbeie study 10 developmems in Wcscetn Europe (HtIaSs ~nJhe Naion Stte (964) bcing a nruiceable exeepdon) especially the OC alshyrhough later cornparimns were tnade wirh rbe growch ofccmmon lIlltirkets iexcln Mica East Eurupe aoo Larin America On che whole the neo-fumtiooaiscs had rerreated foom Mitranys world view
fhe neo-funcrionaljgrs aiso realized rhe dilemma faeed by Mitrliny in eelihng wirh politica dcdsicms ane did nor fllnch in introducin~ a merhod of making necessary chOtees ar he imernarif)llItI leve Indeed rhis wa~ rhe kernel uf rheir ideagt lhlll 1I0l ouly sperifie functionamp would be farried OUt ar rbe subrollrinentill rarher (han (he nacional leve bul thil( lhe decisions wnrernillg (hese functioos would be made at thaf level shy
6- v n_m_ ~olo_~~W_
with imponant cOnsequences for those groups imetesred in the decisiacuteons and iexcliexclIso liffecting orher arcas of poliey Por example supprne the Ecooomk Cual and Steel Community (BeSe) required (har che sreel lodustry be orgaoized as a West Europeao endty insfead of a numher uf narional industries a1l commled by differenl ccgularions aod rbar a suprauariona surhoriry be crcared ro decide on the policy Coc che ranniog of tbe Wcsr EUlopean sfeel induStries lo ronsequeoce those involvea in say rhe French steel industIl would switch tbeir attentioo away from Parili where policy was previowly rnade ro BroS$CIacutei wbcre ECSC poliey is mude Purthermore CommwIlty ntber dUlo nadonl poliey on ueel eould spiU ovet into ereadng a Community po1iey ror cool tnmspOH IUld Othet asrod~ ared acdvities As rhe numbe oC functiacuteooal policies decided at a Commuoity rnthet than a natkmllllevd expanded so the need for political actioo at this higher level would gfOw aod thc political sysrerol of the couutries involved would becomc inexorably iexclmcnwincd lhis was the logk of rhe innovator of he $chumao Plan idea Jean Monnet wM considered rhar rhe establishment of a c001 and srec1 community foUowed by similar organitations dealing wirh otbcr Cuncrional areas - agricultute transpon nade defence - would be lreps on [he way ro building Europe The eOO would be jln economiClllly aod politicaUy integmred Rurope lo Monneriexcl scbeme a federal West Furopeao state The means would be fuoctlonal bu with a political contento
In his study of fbe ECSC Rrnst Haas examiooo this s(rlltegy and a1so dmned polldcai inregradon in its ideal typc u beiug rhe process whereby political iexclcroo in severa distinct nadooal ~tings are petsuacltd to shjft thet lnyaltielJ expecrations liod pOlidcal iexcll(tiacutevides eoWjlrd jl new centre whose insdwtions possess or derrumd jutisdktion over me pit-existiog lIatiof19l $tates (Uaas 1958 16) ihis oew cemre would be che powelshyhouse managing rhe political ptoblems oC fuoctio1llll coopeaacutedon [he Uigh Audwrity of tbe ECSC and be indrurion of me EBe The policical actcniexcl invoJved would be rhose elites leading the poliacutetical groups habirually colCerned wirh public decision-making and wooJd indooe trade uoioacuten offishydaIs busiue5$ ami Hade representatives higher civil servann and activeacute poHttdam As tlltSiacute eliteS rutneU theit aacutetrendon ro rhe ojOW policical centre chey would find tha Community pelky in olle area nm be uwde tea oo1y if che task iuelf iexcls expanded CHus 1961 368) by way of a spillover of actiVity lIltO anocllet policy atea Evenrually Communiy policy~makiog would take uvet from S(ale policy~making jo alI rhe crucial BreaS and the new centre would emerge as being potenrially more powerful dma the member srares governmenu wbich had been drained of lheir mOS( meruoshyingful polidcal ucdvides
1( this stage ir can be quetied whetbet Haas was describing an inremashylional organizadun or il poremia1 federal mlte Io discumng tms quesrjon in his book on Elle EC-S( Haas cooduJed dllU Tbe hruHnct of federal as agaiacutenst middotimergovernmemaf powers lIeeacutems tU point to che coodusioo tbat in
142 WtitingJ on mtertlatilJtJA orgamZ41iom
alJ maneo relating ro the romine regularion of rhe commOTI ~et the High Authority is independent of government (HIlaS 195R 55-gt He al50 voiced rhe opinion rhu Supranadonaliry in snueturnl ferms tberefure means the exisreuce of govemmental a~lthorirjes dlloer tuacute Ihe archetype of fdeNrhm rhan any past inrernati(mal organizar ion buc not yet ideutiacutecal Wlth it Oiaas 1)158 59) However this $upnmttionaity in pNctice has deve10ped into a hybrid in which neither the federal no the intergovernshymentai reooency has deady triumphed a-bas 19511 527) Ir is aloo denr lbat the original Coo1 and Sreel Communicy was mueh mote functional~ Wlcrnl than the lateacutet Economic (ommunicy and untiacutel the mid~19805 the unified aud expanded Communuumly romw to play Jown the elemenU o( supranatlonality iu tavour of 1ts Jiacuteltergovemmenul insutution rhe Conndl u( MiuiMm This aud othet dtVe1opmems led Haas to lcconsidcr his origshyinal view of Community inrtitutioos
In the 1968 pre3ce ro Tuacute Uniting of Ellropt (which was wIacutetten in 1958) Haas alrtady identified factors that had dllngro rhe nattlc of me European Communiries experimem in che previous ten yeacs He observed tlur during this period vario~ spiU-OVet aOO adaptive ptcKeues s(ill had nO( resulted in la pulitically united Encope and in an~werjiexclg the question what went wtlJug he outliued fuur considetdtions Fitst (he new funaiurutlJsu had filiJed w di$tinguisb between background variahle cOlditioos prevamng at rhe time when cbe Comrnnnity WU$ csnbJished and new upiratiuns and expectations that had develnped Jhe esntbliacuteshment thar had ron counrer ro the Community spitit Second the imptet o( niexcltlonaUsm had becn undereshytimawl Third Eactors within me Commuruty had becn nressed ro he dccrimenr of those coming from the outside world PintUacutely me massive transCormation oE Western socie[y raking place indepeudent o( EutoptHl integratiacuteon aIso hacl been underestimaretl (HIlaS 1968 xiv--xv)
Haass definidon of imegralion alsu bccame wmewhar more negative I1lOre stlilte-centric than bis original 195R emlhasis un nationaJ llt(on shifting their loyaJties expecratiacute(ms and poJitical activities toward a new centre By 1970 Haas considered the study ofregionallntlgrurion to be concerned
wich explaining how aud why sUtes eease to be whoUy $overeign how ~md why they volunucily mingle metgt and mix with rhcir neighbours $O as to lose che facruru attributes of sovereignty while acyuiring ncw techniqucs me resolving conilirt between themselvell
(Haa~ 1970 610)
By 1975 Haas eonsidcred regional integmtion theoty oiJsolete in Wesrern Eurupe and obsolescenr - though still urerol _ in tite teSt o( the worId (Haas 1975 l) By 1976 he had arded out n maioI reintetpuEation of uew-fuuctlonaJist lhoory as it applied to rhe Ee The definahle outcome of integtation in Wenem Eutope was secn either in ttaditiorW federaHsc temu - a Wen Enrnpean (ederal state ereated out uf yenrs of fun~-tiexclonal
Writings M ifllernuJlfJmiexcl1 (JFfIiutian 143
rutivity whkh had lcd lO J trnmrer of poliduumlll acnvity away rom (he natlon ~tates tOwarJs a new srrunure - or ltlS the imtitutiooltlUdng uf some intermMiate iexcliexcltage such as rhe present status qno whcreby atlthonty is dimlbnrro unequally between several centres Wilh tire old nation states losing their previous Ituthoriey but with no new JiacutedeOl government in ptO$~ pect Whihr the original aspecrs of the EC - rhe cuuoms union aOO (he Common Agricultura Poliey _ have tllaquoorne entrenched the spillover inm orhe policy area~ had nor occurred by Ihe mid-1970s as che neo-furutiooa1ists liad ptedicred Also common polides liad becn Jevelopetl in differem o(8ashyIliratiuns - che OFCD the summit of indurmiatiooo counrrics the Group of Ten - tarher than within the liC lhe problem according lO Bus W1IS
rurhulerue whereby rhose iuvolved io polirirs haJ found rhemselves in a littting ofgreat social complexiry where rhe nnmber of atrorr is very large and each pursues a variety uf objectives whirh are murually incompatible lmt ucn is also unsure of che ultlde-ofamp between the objectjves He continued Tnis conditiQn imJgtlics the erosion o( such interorganizarional patteacutern~ oC comensus reciacuteprocity and no(mative tegularity as may havr CXlSted eadicrEveryrhiug is up fO( grallS (Hus 1976 179) HilaS sllggested thu iu the EC polioacuteeamp and (he institutioru devised ro lmpleshymeacuteut thero iacuteU~trnre rhe attempc ro deal with lhe turbulence nather tllan achieve regional politkal inteSradon (ibid 180 original emphasis)
A similar hiacuteft lttway fmm the earHer llSp1rauumlons iiexcliexcl ICen in rhe work~ Q( Lindberg aud Nye Lindbeg wlrose book 1he Pattirai DJMmict o EroJMn Ecrmomic IntegTatia (13) had fullowed on dosely from Hws work was hy 1966 showiog tbar moves wwaros inregration wirhin the Be (ooid cause Stress within (he system l1Jtfl inCftllq the barrien to fimher integration (lJnJberg 1966 254) Togcrher with lkheingold in 1970 he desctibcJ an EC wbich had noc deveJopeJ joro a federal structute haJ difereot ltvels of integrariacuteon fut different functions and was sdl susceptible tIJ UJsis lt was ao unprecedemed but curiousy amblguoos plurruistic syttem there seem tO be no satisfrutory modcls or ronceptli in che sociaJ scienee VQ(abulary to adequa[ely define ie (Lindberg and Scheingold 1970 306) In a anide Joseph Nye coruiacutedered thac Jespite rhese and otber revisioos the neo-Euncrional approodl srjlJ embodies 11 nurober of fault tbu re1lcct jrs origins in [he 1950s (Nye 1970 767) He proposed a nUml)(l OC changes scating rhe derendent variable lels ambiguoUlUumly adding more politiul ruwn reformufating rhe Hst oF integration condiuons and pethapli mOSf
significantly drOlping che ideas ufa single path fmm qWlsi~full(tiexclonallasks tuacute politica1 uuion by meamiexcl oF 5piUove( (Nye 1970 767 He conduded rha[ shnn oF dramadc chaugc the prospect9 (or common markets or microregiorud cennomie organiutions leading in rhe shon ron (of dendes) to fedewt1nn oc m1me sOtt oE polidcal union capable of tlU indept1Ldent dcferue and foreign paliey do not seem very high (Nye 1970 1129)
There hiexclas been a long jotJJney trom the functiorudisl-fecleral nope5 of Jean Monoet back jn 1950 but it has seen the evolution of nm only the
144 WitingJ on inlernafuacutemal ttrganizafifmJ
Communiry insrirurions and policies bur aIso neo-functionalist thinking The Iogic of inregrarion gave way ro coping wich rhe crises inseirutions mixing federalisc and intecgovernmental elemenrs were replaced by a Western Europe in which instirucional tidiness is best forgorten (Haas 1976 211) and the federal elemenrs seemed ac mosc dormam The hopes of che 1950s had been replaced by rhe uncerrainties of che 1970s and the early 19805
Wirh rhe launching in 1985 of rhe idea of creating a Single European Markec wuumlhin rhe EC by rhe end of 1992 che signing of rhe Single European Acr in 1986 (which exrended EC comperence aud changed irs inscitucional balance) and che sectlement of a uumber of Common Agriculcural Policy problems in February 1988 che Iogic of inregration seemed ro be revived
Wriring in 1990 Keohane and Hoffmann resrored and refined che neomiddot funcrionalisr norion of spillover advanced by Errut H9al They were sceprical char rhe rheory of spillover could explain the ECs irucirurional developments of che late 1980s buc saw it aCling posicively in orher ways for example rhrough che incenrives ro institutional change given byenlargeshymenc of EC membenhip in rhe early 19805 (Keohane and Hoffmann 1990 289-90) They saw che pcocess cominuing and barring Clrasrrophic excernal fucrors were moderately oprimisric abour rhe Communirys furure prospecrs (Keohane and Hoffmann 1990 296)
This view was raken up by Tranholm-Mikkelsen (991) and Holland (993) borh of whom saw che revival of rhe Communicy agenda in rhe Maasrrichr Trealy - wich irs blueprinr for a move ro economic and monetary union - as being a revival of the neo-functionalism Drher wrirers on European incegration at chis time adapted che basic notions of neoshyfunccionalism bU[ broughr in extra fucrors Majone (1994) agreed char che EU had seen an upgrading of common inreresn but placed an emphasis on public choice policy ro explain particular Ouccomes Marks et aJ (996) saw a much more complex relarionship berween che Communiry and domestic decision-making leve Though rhe srare was srill very important ir no 10nger monopolizes European level policy-making or rhe aggregarion of domesric interescs 0996 346) Insread rhey idenrified rhe growrh of mulrishyleve governance wirhin che EU
Indeed rhese developmenrs in neo-funcrionalisr wrirings on international organizarions poim up sorne of the criticism~ of che schooL Firsr despice rhe besr efforrs of Ibas Schmitter and Nye it remains a rheory overwhelmingly dominaroo by an inreresr in rhe EC and larer rhe European Union In 1964 Haas and Schmirrer rried to extend sorne of che lessons uf econumic union in Westeru Europe ru Larin America Drawing on Haass 1968 preface ro The Uniring of Europe rhey discerned nine variables four relared ro background condirions (similariey in power of memben rares of rransaction pluttllism in member seares complememing elices) rwo referring ro condirions ar rhe time of economic union (similarity of governmenral purpase powers of che ecunumic uniun) and rhree ro process coudi[ions (decision-making sryle
W[J U UWltU 15
rransacrions rate rhe adaptabiliry of governmenrs) (Haas aIld Schmitcer 1964 711-19) They looked ar rhe chances of policicizarion chat is the possibilicy chat lhe acmrs seek m resolve rheir problems so as ro upgrade common inrerests and in rhe process delegare more amhoricy m che centre (Haas aIld Schmitcer 1964 707) Nye in his article Comparing Common Markecs (1970) rried ro modify che Europo-cemric narure of the neo~ funccionalis[ approach and drew on a wide range of cases of economic imegracion Larin America Cenrral America rhe Caribbean Eastern Europe and East Africa as weH as EFTA and che EC He concluded [har
The original neo-funcrionalist model was close m irs ongms in the straregies of European inregrationisrs in che 1950s and thru mighc be seen as a rempting and misleading guide for policy in orher aceas The revised neo-functionalist model is not somethiug ro be imiraced bU is simply a rool fur making comparisons We wanr ro know whac differshyence ir makes if a group of seates form a common market
(Nye 1970 830)
Though by rhe end of che 1980s rhere were few places ro be found outside Europe thac were forming common markets rhe formacion of he Norrh American Free Trade Atea (NAFTA) and rhe renewal of economic cooperarion in Latin America and Sourh-Basc Asia during rhe 1990s provided different models from the more poliricized EU These seemed ro challenge some of the basic assumptions of rhe neo-funcrionalistS aIld perhaps give some weighc ro Nyes scepcicism ciced above
Second i[ is clear chac che neo--funccionalisrs have had trouble wirh che insticudonal formacs They have rerreaced from being functional federalist almose back co Micranys eclecric approach rowards institudons They have also accepced [he durability of rhe nadon state in resisring che logic of inreshygration and have soughr compromise formulas which at leasr continued ro place emphasis on non-srare accivicies even if insticutions above che stare (supranarional) were seen to be susceptible to stare inrerference
A chird Cliricism concerns the gtOH of non-srare acrors favoured by rhe neo-functionalists They have consraudy emphasized [he imporrance of polirical acrivisrs the elites of inrerest groups and rechnocrats This may have parrially blinded chem ro a weakness in rhe ECEU rhar could have affecced neo-functionalisms earUer proguuscicarions from being fulfilled its insticurions cannoc draw on rhe day-ro-day polirical resources available tO the narional policical acrors This has led tO a gap mosr noriceable in che newer members berween perceprions of che EU by the represemarional elice and rhose of rhe ordinary vorer or consumer Whilsc some earlier srudies of opinion in the EC did inelude opinion pons rhese ofren dealt wirh easy questions (showing ones EuropeaIl idenriry) 01 soft options (whether rhere should be say a more acrive EC industrial policy) With the firH expansion of rhe EC in 1973 and rhe first major oil price iucrCdse
146 Writi~5 cm lI1lMfatleuromal orgfll1iutl1ltl
whi(h coinoacutedemally happenoo a yeat liexclater Euttiexclpean voren werc faeed increasingly wirh mu(h harder options inflation versus employment tlnde union righu againsr consumer inrerests The poISibllity was thar bcing a good European might mean aHowiog sorne other COUlltry5 ruuionals to explott ones fish or oH The crearion oiacute a Single Enropean Marker within the Ee by the end of [992 and rhe move rowards a single curteney from 1999 by eleven theo (wdve of rhe HU member litares bmught he activi~ ties of the VOlon do~er lO the wodd of tite coosnmer or worker However chis seem iexclf anything to have iocreased rhe alienariacuteon of voten from rhe institntions aM acrivilies of rhe EU The 2000 election for rne Europeao Parliamenr shnwed the lowest tnroour yer in sllfh direct elections ano Enrobarometer opini()fi poUs have demonstrnred a msative trend in public opinion on che EU rnropaeuintknmmdgl0epoebc-b531p3npdO Ir may be thar a oumbcr uf interest groups llave switched rhrir expecta6ons and poJiexclcical activirics tuwatds the 00 bllt many of the ordinary European V(l(fS seemed ro have failed ro trans[er th~ir lnyalties tu he Union
In surnmaty the neo-functlona1ists mok np Mitranys srudy of rhe a-lashydons betwren group~ and individllals in oHferent sures il5 wellas che sta(cs representativtltl They tried ro gtapple witb the queuit)O (lf political control uf such iostirurionalized funcrional re1ation5hips aod ro undrrstand how ir would affrct rhe oatnre uf tiJe nation state They arremptrd to define the statuS of [hese newfy creatoo insutution5 tnough rhry wete out always fvlped by devdopments in che ECfEU which WWl rhe focus of rheir studies Tbdr works have demun~trared rhat the EU imututioos are by 110 mratlS juse ordinary imerg()vcrnmenral ones lh~y have al) provideo a mirror ()f the hircof) of (Yents in Westetn Europe in pankultH - moviog flom unitios aod poJitkal dynruniqgt through ~rress oy$ and anguish to obsolesceuce tllrbulent fudds and back to mooerace optimism and a new dynamism
TrotJJ(l(iacutecnaUJI
Anorher Americao writer whose work dealt wirh che question oiacute integrntion is KarJ Deursch Alrhough not a neo-fotlcrionalilit his tranmctional appwmh nali dealt with sorne iOmmoo ~hemes He has been umrerned with more rhan imergovermneuul relation~ aod indeed hM str~iexcl reJations berweeo peopIes nitherthan just rhe elites favonred by manyneo-fuflctionalists Deursch concerned himltelF with m( absrnce or presence of significan orga~ oized preplttrations fol war or large-snde iolence between int~rnatiexclona1 policical commuoities It was [he secutity rommullttles lhat had elimirutted war and [he expectation o[ wat whhin rheir ixmndaries whicn Dentamph and his PrincctOll coUeagues exarnined in PeliriuJ Cfml1NJNlily dIId M NarJh lt14Jtlaquo Atia (1957) A SClttlriLy community WWl defined as a gronp of people wnich has become ~inte8rated~ io rhe sense that thete is real iacutelSSnr+ ance that (he members of that rommunity will not fight ellch oeher
Wriil1g1 (raquo1 iacutelMfatlortal tJrgaiadlMm 147
physkally but will se~tle their disputes in liOffie otber way (Deutsch 1957 5)lt loregration does not necessarily mean rhe me~ging oF peoples ot governshymental units intn a ~ogle unie an idea explicir in fooerahsr rhinking Otud implicir in much funrtionalist wtiting Jnstesd two $otS uf integrared secu~ rit communities ar~ hJemified the amalgamarelt where pteviousiy independent unlts have bcen rormaly merged lnro a larger unit wich a iexclommotl guvernment (eg tlle US) ano the pJuralisric where srparate gnvertUlleJlUl Illlioraio their iexclrgaJ indepeodence (eg uacutenada amI rhe US) In stlldying a nllmbcr of cases of anempred or octual intesratioo io tbe Nortn American and WCSt European area Dtunch conduded rhat tIacutelere werc iexclweive conditions essential fnr the rurcts of ao amalgruruued teeutity (Ommuniry and thM rhree wen nec~ry fm it5 plutalisdc COUnrfrpilrt
The1e three conslsted of rhe compaiacuteibiliry oiacute marer valU($ relevant to
politiclll decision-making tbe capacity o( the participariacuteng plt)htinl Imitl or ~mmem~ ro respood tu each othcrS oetdl messages and llaions quickly adeqwuely and without rtsort ro vlolence aad rne mutual predicrability n bchavior (Delltsch 19H 66--7) In Deutschs work emphasis was placed 00 cornmunkauun brlweEn potidca uoIacutets increased trnns1Ctions between them (such fL polirinl exchangcs toUfl(m trade and rratl~pott) brought increases in mutual dciexcl)Cl(enmiddotc fue s cummnnity ro be created (his high level of trnnsactrons must be accomgtauied by mutual responsiveness o that thr demand o( each side 00 he other mn rccdve adequate and sympatheric treatroent llthis wouk not ooiy predude the need [01 aggressive action lO acbi(Ye ends bm would aJso build up 11 feeLing u( UUSt and seturiry in che edationship
Deuucb does not have an obse~uacuteon with imernattomtl orgaoiexclZ8rion~ although his 1957 book iacutes in [he eM collcetned with the ctelltiacuteon of UCCIlshy
tity community in the NATO area rhere ate few tcferences to internatlOnal nrganiuuons Many o( the Cll5C studj( are ser io tbe pcriud before (be postshywar expansioll uf such organlurions and almost all deal ieh bilareral relatIacuteonshj~ O(utschs work has coosequences for the lUudy o( ioternuiona organizatIacuteoos govemmental ano non-goveromCotaj iO[~rnational otiianiza~ tioos can be created as a re~ult uf a plnraliacutes[ic secuciry nmunuoit) lne integracion of whkh may evtotuaUy become iacutennirurjonalized iexclu nuppened reo the ampandinaviiexclm states creand (he Nordic Counci1 There run abo be forrns of instirUti(lnalued communiratlons berween socieries wnich prOldde the transactions and undersrandinli rhat help create ji securi[y community DeUtsch wrote
li the way tu iexclnregrarion domestic or internarionat i$ through rhe achievemem of a srose of community tnut undergirdS insrirurjtms thm ir seems likely [har ao iorreased sense of cotlloounlry would hrlp to snellgtbcn whatever instirutioos - supranatiooal or internacional - are aLreAdy Oltraring
([)euriKh 1957 7--8)
ltgt -_ bullbullbullbull _- _
Demsc-hs work was mken funher in a vnluffie ediretl io 1998 by AdLer and Bllenen (l998) (lLat docs pay sorne attention to ioternariorutl otgilniushydoos Indecd their volume contairu chapters thar rekr ro rhe oseeacute NATO the EU the UN the GnU Cooperarion Cowxil (GCC) aod rhc Assodation uf Soud Eat Asian Niexclttlons (ASEAN) They daim that imetshyruHiomuacute organiexclzauumlons aud iexclnstitutiacutem~ played al lmporum role in elKiltlraging more inteo$ive and extensive ioteracrioos octwttn states rhrough theit uwt-huildiug propenies (Bnrnetr and Adler 1998 418) They lht six corulusions of this snuerneor
bull By moniroting srares agreemenu tntcmatiuacutelwl orpuuacutezatiexcloo~ give them he cooftdente tuacute cooperare io (he ahsencc of trUSt
bull Jnternational O1ganizarions allow Hi1tC$ to discover new areas of muuwl intetellls Tu ponimlar [hey cenoacute ro link panicular areai
bull Inrcmational organizatiom can hdp shape $fllre pracdces by liCtting down nOfOU Ihat define what is acnptablc
bull The iIKTeaiing nwnber of internacionaJ orgamrutions emuuragC$ muldshylatetalim
bull They dIlO eruourage smres lua societies to see rhelll$Clvcs as pan of a resion
bull 1ntildeey can abo shape lhe identiry of rheir memben (Banlett aod Adler 1998 418-20)
The aurhms cWmed char cheir stuJit$ demonmared rhe exrent 10 whkh social cnmmunicadons beomes insrimtioualileJ aOO embedded in lnreroashytional oC8linbatlooslt and in turU how (hese organizatioru express an inreot to dcvelop trUSt end mmwl identificarion (Batnm and AdJer 1998 418) TIe work on sccurity (mmnunidcs is pelhapS at ir strongcu whcn dealing wim the esrablishetl Westcrn democracies rbough llamen and Adlers work shows rhar it may hilve a wider urility
lnlerJciexclnmdcme
Furrhcr emphasi on the growrh JO cnlnsaccions berween l()Cicries can be seen in the worts of Keohane 11l1d Nye who were m che forefront of the iexclnrerocJXndcnce school in rhe lJoited Srnnt fhey puacuteirued our (he conseshyquences of the innease in tldrunarioualucdolU ro che study uf iexclnternncional rdarions Thcit statcing iexclgtoint was sLlnuuarized chus
TraM1latlowJ relations are nolaquo new alrhough che growth of tmnsna~ tklOal orgnnizarion in me twentieth centuty has been specracunr Ye-r our nmremioo iso nor ooly rlur rhe srate-centrk paradigm )$ inade~
quare bur also thar it igt becoming progttSsively more inadequate as changes io inrernational relauumloos take place
(Keohane and Nye 1971 xxv)
The) llsred five omsequemes uf this growth uf inEematiooal inrcracrions ana organizarJ(tIls fur inrerstate politks (1) rhe promntiun of attirude change amongsr driacuterens (2) ao innease io inrernacional pluralism the linkjng of nntiooal Interese groups in tnmsnational strtlCtures usuaHy involving transruttionaI organizations fOI rhe putpoampe of (04)minatioo ltKtohAne and Nyc 1971 xviii) whiacutech has heen lhe basis for much noo~(Jncdontllist wriexcling (3) me cmdon lf dependence and inrerdependcofe IS often associacuteshyarea with intetnilriorutl cranspormrioo and iexclnance Keclune and Nye 1971 xix (4) creating new insrruments fut iexclnfluence for use by sOJne governments over ()(bers (Keuhane aOO Nye 1971 xx) 1100 lt5) dJe emergence cE auronomous acrors wirh priwre ntildelreign policia thar roa) deliberarely oppose Oiacute impinge on Sla(e polides (Krohilne and Nye 1911 xvii)
In a late book (1977) Keohane and Nye dcah with che questioo of imershydependem-e in world poliacutetics io greatet depth Iorecclependencc $lnce tbe Second Wm1d War has- onen cesulted from increasetl ttaosnadonal atciviries and iexcli divided ioto twO sorrs sensltlviry iacutemerdcpeodence (dte muIy effecrs of dULOges jo tranS1lCrJons oc ~()ciacuteetiexcles or govetrunents) md vulnembHhy interdependence where he acrors Hahllhy tc suffet eO$n iacutemposed by extemal evenc~ js (aken inro accoum (Koonane ana Nyc 1977 12-13) In COntrast ro tbe reaisr view of world poHrk Keohane and Nye pm totward che idea type of complcllt imerdependence which chey claimed soroetimes comes dosee ro realiacutety chan does realism (Keohanc attd Nye 1971 23) aod whieh has three nuio characretl$tks it allows fo mulnple rhallne1smiddot- imershyStatC tiansgovernmental and trilnsnationa- conneltring sncieries there i an abserue of hierarchy ilmonS the rnany questions ac inle hetween iexcliexcltates with military securiry no 10nger dominntlng lUly agenda and Millnu-y force 15 not used by governments toward orher governmenu within me laquogion or on [he lssutS where complex intetdcpendence prevaiacutels (Keorutne aoo Nye 1971 25)
These dltee condidons are said by KCQhane aOO Nye to typify fairly weJJ 5Ome LIlAUe$ of global economk md ecological interdependence ami come dose ro chamcrerizing rhe emite relarionship hetWetn sorne cnuntdes (KeolWne and Nye 1911 25) Complex ilterdepcndente glVel rise ro oacuteininctive poliacutetical processes a sute $ goals wiacutell vary by mue arca with mmsgoYernmeotul puumllitics making goab difficut ro define as ttansgovern~ menrnl llClaquo()$ (fof cxample mtfUsrers of agr1cuJmre inte11igente agencies nariona wcather bureaux) pursue their own aims Jhe followiog facwn are reLevant iriexcl eilch issue area
bull iexclhe resourc-es of a Ncue fur thaI particular area are most relevaot radre Ihan the stares overull military ~tre-ngth
bull international nrganizatinm and uansnntional actors wHl be fruloipula[ed as malnr instrumenrs oiacute mue poHcy
bull rhe agenda of issUC$ wi11 be fOrmulated hyebltUlgcs in the power dirmi~ burlon wirhin [he issue alaquollS by rhe pururinn (lf internarional regimes
150 Writings lIlt inttn1atiQrJ41 ergdniutirll1J
by changes jn rhe importance of ttaflstlational acwtS and by linkage froro orher issues
bull linkage between 1sllor$ will be mote difficult for strong naces to undetshyrah ir[orce 1$ downgraded
ft whiJsr linkage by we$k srares rhrough internacional organuumlarions seu agendas helps coalition-wrming and provides arenas for the political acdvity oC weaker states which can use the choice of organizarional forurn [or an issue and rhe mobiliZlition of votes as a politiul resource
(Keohane and Nye 1977 37)
Thm Keuacutehane and Nt gavc inremarjonal organizaciOfls an iroporran[ role in thde compfex interdependence model of world politics a model which whilst not uSlaquo (O explaitt aIl world politics was one which rhey daitned to hllve iacutenfrtasing releYJ1nce in IIlarge and growing area 1ntildeey used an intetnUional organizadon mooel as one of the explanations ror internashytioua regime change that js che lthange in the sets of goveming flrrangernems affening relatioruhips oC interdependence In tMs C$e intershynadonal oJsanisaciolls refeued ro multilevd Iinkage norms and insritutions (Keohane and Nye 1977 54) which once euablished are harJ (O enlAlicate BeCllue o( this rhey may Stand in the way of swes using thdr capabHities In ordec 00 chauge regimes Instead powet outcomCl will be more aJfectcU by votlng power (in the UN General AssemWy for example) ability ro futtl) coalidoos llnd 00 control elite networks (ruch as that founo io clte institushydougt of the European Commnnities) Whilst the complclt illternadorull organizarion mode1 was only Ofle oiacute fOur aJvaucecl by Keohane and Nye ro explain regiffie chAoge tbey Jiu expeomiddott jr to contribute to such chaIlSC in a world where complex interdependence (onditions pertain
1he rontribmions by Keohane and Nye demonstra(e hoth the roncero pf American wtilets iexcln inremationru relariWl in the 1970$ with altemacives to
tite srare-centric model and their wiluumlngness tO draw from more rhan one approach bringiexclng rogether elementogt from che more tradidonal appnJaChes with economic models and non-stare-cenuic dements TIleir Wi)rk does however have certain weaknesle$ Perhaps the mon serious is the use of rhe cerro imerdependence and iexclrs djvisiacuteon iexclnro ~n~itivity and vuinerability imerdependence Anepting rhar inltldeperulence meUlS mutool dependeoce (and [hjs leado to discussiou a~ w how mutual maoy relationihips are) che phrase scnsiuacuteviry imcrdcpendenre scarccly wflrmnu thc use uf the term interdependcnce fhe fault lies wJth che authou loose definiuOfl of depen~ iquestcnce as a oiexcltate (lf being detetmined oc $ignificaruly affected by externa fwces The induskm 0(signi6candy atkcted w~aken5 me urillry uf me cerm so tlme che nOr1on oiacute scusltivity inrtgtrdependence seems ro refer ro any nociceshyaMe cffeltr of ooe srate and society 00 anorher A person may Ix- significandy affectcd by taking drog$ wlthout Ix-ing dependen on chem David Baldwin showcd that mis use of rhe cerro interdependence ran conrrary to the striaer
Writingt ()I inf~_Ji(J1ia ~lfizaJJom 151
lUlderstlllldings (lf the concept fuund in MirhiaveUi Montesquieu and Ronsseall as weU 115 in che works uf twentieth-cemury wrlteI$ such as Norman Angell Francis D(laisi -and Ramsay Muir (ampIdwm 1980 7-9) He snuested the U$C of rhe rerms mutnal influence mutual responsivrness ot mutual scrlitivity insread ofscnsirivity inrerdependeruemiddot (Baldwin 1980 19)
A second cuacutericism uf Keohanc and Nyes books aso concems eheie termishynology In dealing wirh rransnational influentes They [ump tngerheraH types of teiations in whieb non~8overnrnental actOrs participare chus makiflA rhe componenrs of cheir new paradigm shifting aud poorIy defined (Wagoct 1974 440-1) Wagner questioned whetber their work simply demonstrated a shifr in interesr to new areas of intetnational polidts shyespedally elttmomic ones - ana whethcr [he world hM reaUy changed or whether we have iexclUSt overlookcd sorne things a1l along (Wagner 1974 441) The atent of imerdependence wa~ also chaHenged by Waltiquest (1970) anJ Rosecratlce el al (977) in che US and by Lirrle Bnd McKinlay (1978) and Strllivan (978) in rhe Briti~h Uteramre
DespiLe any falling$ Keohlllle and Nye provided insighrs ioto ttamlflashydonal polltics they shifted atrention away fcom p~lrely govcrnmental actOts in inff$rate relarions and they poiutm OUt he impMrance of intetnational organlziexcliexclxions in the intetdepcndence oc at lcast rnurual responsiveness of =
rbe rdormist view of both international celBtiOO1l and iuternational orga- nizar1ons has always provided an rutemative lO the more conservativc cealist approach Ir tended ro be dominated jn the pre-wu petiod by internauacuteonal lawyen and ideaJists but sinee hc Second World War has laoched on to the changell in world poUtics 6tst jn the economic ficld and then in Europe thar have Mn more difficulty to explain in ICliIHst term~ It has sten intcrna~ rionnl organizarions as mlans to manage trends such as iucftI$(d economl( intlrdlpcndcoC( bar hll5 also illtceplcU rhat these organizations mar necorne impoftllm aCtoriexcl (lO che wodd st$ge lhemselves and can cettainiy Iacute)(cnrne involved iexclO changing rhe preferences o( governmeflts
RADICALS
Writers covered in this sccrion iCe rhe intcrnadonal sysrem flOt so much as being domlnlltcd by states bn( more by diUerent divisions 01 its peoplcs Thi$ is noe to Sfly fhat chey ignore surtes They cOflsider them elthet w be ks tmportant chan the iquestjjsions of diUS tit wealth or merely ro refI~ct these othcr factors ot w be roadblo(ks to unky in (he fare Qf mote impomllt chalmiddot renga Power ls seefl as belnamp cxercised by eh( wealthy II1ld privileged and open to cha1Jeuge Change in the system is possibl( but onty through srrll8ge or by an awakenjug pf peoples tQ rhetr real sitllatlon Most iexclnter~ natimal organization~ are thus regarded as (eflccrioos of the currcnt unsruisracwry stare uf aiacuteTairs though $fJme more activist orgauhatioos mar llave potential as vehicles or (hange
This SIoacuteCElOn has betn sub-middotdivided imo rhree gthe fUS( are the econ01nk srructuralists and indude Marxists and Third Wocld wruumlers cririclll of rhe cutrem imernruionallyuem They haacuteve in common a belief mar che polltshyiexclcal srructUres of me world halle leeo wbloned mainiexcly by eltonomic fiiexclctors and rhAr mere has bren an intiacuteJUIllity builr imo the presen sytem lhe recood are the cruumliral app~es who5e radicalilifl1 is mure of the iacutemellec~ cual SOrt They rejeCf - Uf at 19$[ question - Jhatly of rhe usumpcions utlderlying be lIiews ofhe world tepresented by the realists and refotmers Finally mere are the globalim Theit perspective ls planerary ana theiacuter rnain conrtrn h fM rhc survival uf Earth Agilln they challcnge che mme statemiddotbuled approaches of both realjsts and reformers
Stnuturaluacutet lIiews
Ihe srructuralist appmiexclch rO (he swcly of inrematioOlIl relations differs In imporrant wars tO thoee of me realists and refotmuu tbough ir has some elemeou in comroon with mands ofb04h schools As roany of (he neo-realistsshyemphasite (he power scructure of wudd potities this sectiacuteon willlimir jwgtlf ro (hose writers roncerned wich the impacr 00 me political S)Srem of rhe wodds ccooomic strucrure Unliacuteke che ttalist approach the erooomk srrucruralisrs are OOr jUSt concemed with swtts io wodd polilla and rhelr economic and poIitkal differencC$ but alw with the divisioru within f1tld berween SoOCieties (WiIIeas 1990 263) They are [heretOre romerncd witl the rifi berween riel iexclmd poor within scares and rhar herwtto udl and poor glohally This leads ro an interese lO trulSlUirional reladoru as well as in inrergo~romenmt links Th(f have this in corrunon wim refPrtllist views bm diexclfier foom chem in (he emphast~ placeoacute on rhe structures of world pollics beinc formuared by eltooomic fiexcliexclcmn In rhis selttion attentioo wilt be given te MarxiS[ wtlletS lIud sume Thir1 Wodd view$ - partiuilarly (hose of rhe cependency sdlOOf and rhe developmemalj~[II - who have made a cootribution quite separare from rhat of rhe Muxiacutesr uadidon
Marxill laquoewl
There is no one Marxisr interptetariacuteon of me role of imerniexcliexcltional Olganiza~ cions in world politics Sur Manis[ approschf3 have certain elements in common and form a di~dnctive 5ch001 of rhough[ about lnrernartonal telamiddot tions generaHy and therefore ahotu international ocganizadoos These appmaches are based 00 du writiflgS of Karl Marx (l818~) in coshyoperarioo witb Fuacutewrich Engels (1820-95) with perhaps tbe gtearest later conrribution being maJe by VL Lenin kader of (he 1917 fo1shevik revolushydon in Rurna They are cf importanee pany becau1e ehey ficm tlle 00515 for mmmuniSt [hinking and (hm mey have an anactunenr m rhe Soviet Unian whieh WIlS be suongc1t commnuist stare unrII 1991 and EO rhe Peoples Republic of China COlUT1UnJSl sinee 1949 Apan ftom lbis ManiS( beliefs
had a irmng inpur mm Wescern imdleltrual cruoking and conunue ro iruoan some viewi abom wodd politics in rhe Third Wodd
Neither Marx no Mancisrs took rhe stare ro be (he curtency of iacutenteInashy(iexclonal relations Unlike (he realist viewpoints chey did fiO( coruider interactions blaquoween soveteigu ltates to be ofovettidi importance UnHke tbe funcrionalists aud other modem Westetn views rbar srress non-stare actocs Marxiexclsts in particular emphasized cbus relatlonships born wiexclrhin nates and IiCOOSS Stare boundaries Indeed ie is diffku[r ro talle only of a MaIXIacutest view of inrernatiooal re1atioll5 lec ttltme of iorernarional orgnniza~ UumlOOy as rhis separares ene particular aspecr of human behavinur tor MIlIXIsr rrearment divorcing ir from the undedying relleCS of Marxlc beliefs Man-ism provides a framcwok of undemanding by whkh ir iacutes daimed ~ociery pan lind vresen can be explaioed and che furure development of mankiexclnd determined
According ro Maf1 relariooshipamp between people and the futm~ mar insdmdooallzed rhose relatienshfpamp depended on rhe economic $truCtUR of soday fhe way rhat productlon was organized He traced the history of dvilixed maokind through five hiuorical staBes - AAjade mdenr feudal capttalin and socialin - which have ditTereru dominant methods of produc~ tioll leadiog 10 a complirared arrnngement of $OCiety ioto various ordetS 11 manifuld graduadon of sociru tank (Marx llnd Boge1s 1965 40) amph form of sorlef has coutained rhe conflictual divisiQl$ which help [Q tranuacuteorm the narun of rhat $Ocjeey coRrradicrioru in the mode ofpcoducfIacuteon placed srrain nn rhe existing social nrder sharpeniug rhe divide berween economic founshydatinn of sociery and a mpld aansIacuteonnlltion of in SOpel1Ullcture in legal polidcal and re1igious it1$tirutioos Thus by 11 confronration of da$~ Conrramiddot dkeions one historlraJ form of soc1ery wus transfocmcd into a bigher stage uf social devdopmem the history of aH hitherto existing ~ociexclety is the histoty uf dass struggles (MaDI Illld Bngets 15 39) Marx and Bnsels were parriculady conceroed wich capita1i$t sociery - ac its Oeyday during theiacuter Uves - and its tmnsrormarion iexcluto ampocis1iu sodety Wlthln rrus form of SoOCiety rOete would be no division of laboU4 and no eWses Illld no SUtes no elCpropnation of labours 5urplus vruue I1nd (bus no private property 00 exploira(ion of ene clilllS ny iexcliexcloother with 00 need fue war
For Marx and fingeJs C1ass then and noiexcl fllltions or sutea are rhe bade units in hurO) llIIIl che struggle between clAssts Jnstead oiacute infeutliltl contlict ocrupies rhe centre of acrention (Berki 1971 R1iexcl From me nlneteenth celUUf onwards rhis struggle -n in Marxisr cerros has been primarUy between [his capicalist dass ([he OOurgeoisic) aOO the bbouring dw (me proletariat) AA (he trarurormatlon fmm capltalisr SoOCIety [O ~OCialiexclMl ro comrounism rook p~e (he superstruerutt of bourgtOis SoOCilaquoy - religioo national divisiacuteon boutgmis politicnl insrirudnns rhe SOlte - woold be swept flway and in Engtls pmse rhe gOlcrotnent nf persons is replaced by [he udminlsuacion of things Fetter 19 (47) with me itEte relegated lO the mmeum iexclngemer Wlth lile spinshyning wheel Qnd [he bronze axe (Feuer 1969 433)
154 WrituacutetKiexclI mJenl4tiorJal rngmZtlJilm
Mux saw the European SUtes of his own rime as being rntans by which the ruBng dass (011amp oppress the work~ng clw by using (he agentl of tht 5tare such as the iudidary the poliee the army and rhe church he (xrerual Ilctlvities of the stare wete also determined by its Chtss namre MeanwhiJe rrmllnat]onat Rlations of a more meaningfuL kind WQuld bt creared by trade rhe movement of capital and incteaiitd romac[ and llOIacuteldarity betwten the prolerariat of vanoulS nations riacuteidefd rhe internacional nriexclaniutions of which Marx and Engels hnd dire(t experiena- wtfe the Fi~t Internatiomd and for Engels the Secund lntemarional both of which atttmpted lO orgashynJxe the represemarives of wruking people aiexclros fronden Onc~ agaJn this stteAAe$ the Marxist empbois on transnarional dass relutions rnther than on intentate relarionships
Whibt Soviet writlngs on international organizatinn1 wtte falrly desulshytory in Scalins reigu 0924-53) rhey did lmerIy hernld rbe move towams peaceful co-existerne arul roreshadowffi the lartf rnrhe[ restrktive view of Imch organi2Atinm hy Soviet commentators
In the post-Second Wodd War period and In patticular in the post-Stalin era Soviet liternmre on international organiuttions bl(lSsomed This has reflected Soviet membership oC ma1ly 1osiexcl-1945 organixations the emershygence of a socialist bloc of sta[C$ and tbe incre-ase in the mlmber of Sowcreign s[ates all flUtontilde demaruHng a more sophisricared Soviet view of lnter~llate reLadoru than che survivalism of Stalins period Uuring rhe lare 19805 i( auo ret1ected the new thinking iacutemroduced by Gorbachev
StalintI suIXessor KrU$hchev developed a revised view of internacional relaCtons which gave a positio1l ro the emerging Third Wnrhl (Tbe Third Wotld was then taken to mean rhotle IItates thar had emerged ftom colo~ nialiacutesm In effect rhe terrn later induded tbe stares of Latin America Africa - exclnding the rhen apaftbeid stnre of South Africa - the Middle Rasr Oceaniacutea and South Asia) Peace(ul co-exiuence between oda1ist and (apltaJisr states WM $til comidered nece1sary but this diacuted noc predude the ideologiacutecal stmggle between rhe two campsmiddot iexclndeed lhe Soviet inter~ national lawyer GI Ihnkiacuten wrote pearcfut cocx15tence of sutes represeonng che tWO differeor rodal sysems is a slccific form uf dass struggie beween socialism and calitllllsm (Osakwe 1972 37) The Soviet Union abo deveJoped relatlons wirh rbe newly emerging exshycoloniaJ cOllntdeJ and Soviet writiog had tu take ~ount of this developmem There wru a recognirion of a third group of stattli between rhe capitalist aud the communlsr that of poteorially friendly indtptomiddot deut $tarem io Europe and Asia such as India Egypt Indnnesia and Yugoslavia which would filrm a tone of peace Although the rebtions wiacuteth rhe capitaliacutest sures sriacuteH remaioecl embedded in pelteful coshyexluencc rhere was an emphasis by postmiddotStalinist Soviet writets on the da eJement in lile telatiomhil - that is rhe wntact with progressive elements in Weste1l sodeey smh as che Jabonr mnvement Ncither diexcld peaceful co-exiucuce rule OUt ~upport o[ middotjUSt wars of nationallibcrildon
WIacuteJIacute11gs tm iacutenUrllUtional WjatlJZtiacutelJlff 155
iexclndeed ir was seen lt a strategy fo wodd reloludon Fiacutenally (he rrlashyfIacuteonhips berween the Sovier Union and East Eumpean countries vere deerned ro be based on sociali internationalism posmlating a haemony of natinnal and commllnity interests and mndllding thar jnde~ndeuce and sovereioiexclnty of a soctalist uate means aoove aH indepltndencc from capitalism (Red Star 1 December 18)
Tunkin underljned traditional Soviet thiacutenking rllar the mngtrltllenl imrrllment of an ioretnational urganization (fne example the Chaner oiacute the UN) was all-impottant in derermining tIte enene rrun the otganizauumlon bad an international legal pcntildeonaliry rhar iexcl5 a standing in internacional 1l1w 5imilar tu titar of a sovereigo staxe Examining lhe question of the antonomOllS wiU oiacute international nrganitatioll Tunldn allowed thl1 they need not jmt act as agtnts for member stares
In imernatiunal ptacrke trellties conduded by jntcrl~ational mSaniacutezashytinns take their speciaJ piare as treacies by wbkh internationsl organimtiom aequire righu and take upon themselves cerrain obligiexcllshytioos Intctnat10nal organizatiou are created by Hares hey are broughr iexclnto being by states but the actloacuteos of imcmational organi7ashydoos are nlt)( in any way de facto or de jure ro be tqt1sred lO the actions of scates
(Osakwe J972 23)
Thi did nor mean than M internadonal organiacuteiariexclon was an entity indeshypendem of its memher us[es as any powers (har they hacl were delegated by [he members In Jine wirh che ampwiet doctrine of peareful co-exiacutesteme Tunkin placed Uress pn (he nature and rhe membership of an international organiacuteution dlOSe which drew their membersbip from commlmi1t c1Ipishytalist and TIiexclird World tares could expcct tu be genel1llly mognized as having an incernarional personaliacutery He wrote
TIte namre of tontemporary international prganiurions is lO a very great exttm derefmined by [he existerue of Haces beJonging ro differem wcio-economk systems and the ioevitable muggle between them Thar is why pcaceful crexislence is now the bl-sic condition of rh~ dfVC1iexclpshyment ufgeneral interoational ntganization
(Osltuumlltwlt 1972 289)
Mor07JN Clt1ntrlbuterl sorne extra points Fintildet be iududed JNGOs in his stndy He wrote dlQt lotetnational orgaruulions have as iI rol 8t least three member coumries TheM may be government$ offidJ orgilnlzarions or 0CInshy
guvernmental organizatiow (Morowv 1977 30) In a 11Iter seccion m NGo thcy were ldencifred as che la~ group of inrerrulttonal organiuttiolls wim two aspccn rbar concttntd socuIacuteiacuteIgtt commemarors tbe NGOriexcl auirude towards the preservarion of pealaquo wkh the Wnrld Feieradon ofTrade Unions
6 _ 0
rhe Wodd Fedemion oE Democratk Youth and otber meiexclllbtrs oiacute tbe Sovittshybacked World Peace (ounaacutel gaining special mentioo and the specialiuJ chataCrer of sorne NGOs itl(h as rhe ruerrutriunal Couocil of Scientifu Unions and che Scienrifk OJmmiuee on Antnrctk Research MOrlrLOv memioned how NGOs can belp emblish a social dimate citillg their contti shybution ro (he setdemenr of a number of internacional confHcu swh as dlilr in Vietnam He aOO dealr wirh the role of che NGOs io cbe UN aud che consuJshyrative srarus [hey llave witn lGOs saying du[ smdems of internariooal affitjoiexcl
in [he socjalisr councrics m critieal of many asplaquots of (his system fur the eoruulrarive StatuS amogemenrs stiU fall shon of wha( [he deveJopmenc of modern inretnatlonal relarions in fac[ catls fur (Morozov 1977 43) Tbe specialized namre ufNGOs Wamp1 atttibuted by M((2OV tu
tht increased Jnfiuence of the pubic at large un roreign polky [he grearer iexclmpat of public opininn in imernatiunal reladuns and [he greater importante uf me ideological fiexclUtot 10 $ucb relations Accoum should abo be raen of che proccsses of cconomic developmenr and [he coosequenc~ of [he scienrific and rechnological tevolutioo which has also led ro a greatet number of speoacutealized NGOs
(Morozov 1977 42)
Second Morozov wridog jo d~ late 197amp made moU pos-irive refershyencelgt (O [he role oiacute Trurd Wodd SUtes in imemaciooa otganimrions He noted rbar rbe emetgtoce oiacute ti large oumbe of Oung natiooal stares h8ve kd fO che emetgcnce of intetnarJonal Drganizadons among develcpi08 ecuoshytries (Mororov 1977 29) aod claimed hat partkiparion in (hese organh311oos is part uf he process uf consolidating their sovereigocy and ruuional jndependenu~ aod of wlviog cheir pressing ecoOfJmic anJ orher pmbemsmiddot (Morozov 1177 31)
Finally Momzov developed the puint made by fimkin aOOut he limited llalUre of ioternationaJ organiurjQn$ - ~econd-dllSS ffitrnbers nf the inrershynarloual sysrem as opposed tu rhe firsr-diexcllSS members SQvereJgn stateiexcl by reretcme tO theit dedsioos There bave resulted froro che inrelllctioo of politicuJ euroorces within the organil1ldons and
Thecombined will uf chcse lGOs i5 disuumlnc[ from [he wllls of theuuml indishyvidual members io in eflSenlte and ln in narure The v1ilflous wills in thb case are nor agsregued arirhmetically each one exim indepenshydendy ur oside a homogeneQu~ socio-political gOUP wirbin whose frarnework (hey can be combjlled
(Murozov 1977 34)
AfLer lhe comiog ro powet ofMikhail Gorbachev in the Soviet Union io 19Bgt a Ihaoge rook place jo $oVJIl policies rowards imeroadonal relations irutuding international organi1ations and [his has been reflecred in new
~ M-- bull 6_V_
Soviet writings un [he subJect Gorbachev inttoducetl a owjor review of [he fureign poljcy uf the Soviet Union (har marchcd rhe inremiry of his dmncslic refotmS He encouraged new rhinking- based on a revjeJ vlew of che world siruation Peaceful co-existence wirh iexclhe capiralisr tirares WlCgt no looger seeo a~ being a spetjfic fum of dass srruggle as Tunkin had written bUI 35 being in the commoo intecesu oiacute all countriCl Ir WIi$ predishycued on the neOO fin surviva of (he human nce which in ShakhfUlZOlrQvmiddot$ word$ must ofCOUIse take fim place Lighe 1988 297gt- Thjs ml$or rhar a new COIKeuropt of seGldty had ro he adopreJ hy che Soviers rhar oiacute common security which wa5 based un sume of he ideas of -che Palme Comminion (see he1ow) Greater emphasis wu given ro arms control and dlsarmament agreemenrs wirh the Wesr 11nd to co-opttation in international uffuirs whilst Soviet intervention io che Third Wodd enbed and milirary 5UppOtC 1m [he East European communisr govcfomentS WlS withdrawn
Soviet wdcings on inremurionilJ relations both offidal and academic came to mirror Gorhachevs new rhJnkiog bur eho lilete iexcl$ evety sigo chut rbese id~ were dmwu no only from rhe Wesr but alw Uacutenm Moscow mink-tanks slleh as lMEMO th~ JflSIirure of World Eronomy and Inremlfona Relacions) Liacuteght 1988 29~n Gorbschev aun his forngn minisrer FQllard Shevaronadre gave rhe academiacuten a Breen light for funher diSClViiacuteon ud debare (Shevaronadre 1990 23) As II reampul srudies examlned he role of che Uniacutered Nariacuteons as sn ugem for peoce (Kolyrev 1990 12-19 NesrerenkQ 1990 65 Petoovsky 1990 42--3) and rhe mte of inrernational or811nizadons in environmental mliLffers IiLnd disurmamenc qutsdmuuml Chodsulkwsky 1988j NikitiM 1989 123-32 Roginko 1989 133-43) and internarionallaw was teassesred (Sutier 1989~ 363-75)
Once che Sovier Union collapsed many of me wrifetS losr rhe main point of political reference A nwllber Iefi academc orhets adapted thelt ideas ro WCtem oues and a few remnioed as policy rulviseni ro che new Russian goVefrutJenL However cornmunism as M imellectually dominant organiuog rotce wlch pnliiisJ dour had djsappeared in Russia togerllef with much uf the persptr1ve ir provided - wben seen thmugh me unen distotdng leos uf tbe Sovier lfulon - oiacute inrernatiooaJ relatlons and inremariooal organhattnru
Chinese Marxisr wrirers have iexclargeIy reflected rhe views of the leadershyship in Chinll sioce [he coming ro power of rhe Commun1sr Patty in 1949 Undl (he 1970$ communist China was elduded from almon aH iotttllJishytional of811nizIiLtIOns and ie is flot surpriamping tha whae lirde writing tbete WUtl on the st1bje(r Wal fairly dismiacutesampive usuaUy consisdng uf coudemnaM tinos of (he UN fnf its action tn Korea aud rhe security allianes fot teir hegernonic narure Chjnese Marxisr rhinking hiacuteu divided (he modem wotld jnro three groups ihe Birsr World consisred of rile fWQ imperialist superpowers namely he USA ano the USSR The Second World was made up uf otbet areaa uf advamed industrilllired cnuntries primariacutely EUfape aod Japa which were opea ro donunariou by lite Sllperpowers bu( which could $tan a dialogue wirh rhe Thiacuterd World Theu (here was rhe Third
158 Writings OtJ internationdl organizatioru
Wodcl iexcltreI( coruisting of the Afro-Asiacutean-Lario Americltlu sta tes supported in their muggte aAainSt Picsr World imperialism by Chinls This viexclew of the wmId colouted tyJst Chiacutenese wridngs on iacuteoternatiollill oeganharions Tbe $uperJowers were seen as cynical lTlllnipubtors Qf inrernarionaJ jnsti~ tutions Mao Tre~tuog wOre of US poliey towards such insdfutions Ir mam use or them when it neOOS rhem and kicks them 3way when ir does flot (Society (or Anglo-Chinese Underuanding 1979 42) US-domioated pill-~ such amp$ SEATO and imperialist groupiacutengs like rhe Alliance tor PfOgre~( wttt detided Spedal viuiot was saved roc the Warsaw freaty Orgaoizatiun whieh in one aetide was described as Soviet sodal~ imperialisms mol fur aggression (Ming Sung circd Jn Chen 1979 194) fhe Soviet Union was aceuseQ of trying tu manipulate che Pan and negnshydate wlth Wesrem eouorries rhmugh the Enropean Scltwiry Conferenee tn consolidare irs begemonic status in Basrern Enrope at the same time iexcliexcll dividiog Wes(ern Europe squeezing Out the USA ro as ro muSte way (0(
iu expansion and infilrmrion into Westem Europe (Ming Sung clted in Chen 1979 197)
Chinese writecs Fegatded tbe Ntildegttood Worid espedally Western Europe as being a pen force io telmS of imperialism which Ww tdponeed to the lhird World wich diaJogu as io the Jmueacute Convention berweoen tIacute1e European Commnnitiacutees and AF~ican Carib~an and Paciuacutet srUe5
Furrhermore the defensive $spects of NATO were sttessed and with growing European cohcsion the trend iexclS IJkely to ~ towatds a fuoce in which the American elemenr is seen as 1 temporary neceuity eventual1y to be phased out (Sodety fur Anglo-Chioese Undetstanding 1979 90)
lthe countries of the Third World were setn as coostirotiog rbe mluumln force comb$dng imperiaJi~m colonialism and hegemonJsm reEerring nor only to the vestiges of Wesr Etl-OOptan foloniiexcliexclJism bOl abo to US iexclnpetlshyalism and gwwiog Soviet soci$l~imperiacutea1ism Tbe Third Wodd eQuld hdp tn exclude the gre$t powers ny baoding cogecher io such otganizatinos aiexcl tht DAU aod rhey could work ro correct unequiexcliexcl nade and eeonomk reladons with che sUpetpowers through UN iexcliexclgeucies and eonferences such as UNCTAD and UNaos Abo rtlW material ancl exporting orgllnizations liexclke OPEC rbe Incernadonal Bauxilaquo Association ancl the Onion of Banana Bxporting Counuies were proised a ehanging (he old interntlrional eumomic Ome and banerlog che biggest roarerJal plunderers in rile world rhe United Srates and (he Soviet Uoleo (Ptking Rt1Jiew 26 Septtmbtr 1975 cited in Cheo 1979 309)
111e poverty oiacute ehinne study of intetnatlenal erganhuions no dounr caused by the lack of Chinese membership of such etganizacions unril the 197amp and the turmoit ef the Cultural Revulution eiexcliexclme ro an enel by the 1980s Jnstead oere was a more reaHs( viexclew (lE rbe worlcl iexclf one S~shytimes coucbed In Manlst terms In Chlnese univenittes there was a growtb io detailed studies of iutemationalntgsnizations aod the nuropean Union
WritingI un inlmullPmnl vrgrsrtilpiill1J 159
Tbird Wwld vlewJ
Many Third Wodd Afro-Asian aoo Latin Atrusican) writers 00 jntemsw
tional organizaion have adopte a structtulIist framework and are particufarly nm(etnecl abour how insdtutions can be wcd as tools of exploitadon uf rhe nitd World aud how $ome cau be used lIS agenrs of libenuion They llave nor been induded in the ~ettiexcloo un Marxist viltws (or three feamm nOI al of them are Mandst thIJM who are Manisr place particular stresS on (he posicion oF thE l1lIacuterd World and as ThJrd Worlcl eitizens they have through theit own experience unother pe~cdve rhan [Mt of writers from industri$lized srates
Yash 18ndon (1978 377) has identjfied thNf nuacuterd World penfIXrives en inrernational Olganizatiolls Fim [here is that or the bourgeois Of perry natiunalisrs who are in power in mos[ Third World statcs and who are progressive in [errru of anti-impcrialism but are rraniollary ro the C1tccnr WC they would sooner mau thcir pcaee with imperialism rhan iluwnder power (e the masses and peasancs This group uses ineernational orgllniexclm~ tions ro pur presrure 0lI imperialisc states in order to extntCt concession5 from them and appease tbe masses in their own coontries TIley see che UN as an opportunity to parley witb their entwhiacutele impecild masters t a presumed kvd uf equa1iry (Tandoo 1978 365) Thc scltond pcrspective is rhat ofthe reaIly backward regimes of thl Thitd Wodd such un Taiwiexcliexcln and Jotdan or whnm intemarional orguniacutelattnnS are of margJna1 signifieance [)t they prefet tu dea wirh impcrialism iquestirt(tiy The rhird petSPCCrive idenrified by landOll is that uf rhe masses vi thc TIlird World for wbom toterntlunaJ orgmilAriom are petiphewl fin liS Jong as hey rontinue fO reflect the muing balanlte uf clas$ forces in hvour uf impeuacuteJism (fandon J 978 378) Sioce the ene of he 196amp rorces representing thu third group have bccome lnott prominent in world polido in che form of liberarioo groop1 lttCn as tbe PLO and whilst chese have f)tgten interested in galnin8 telaquolgnJtlon rOt rhemshyselves at the UN and the spedaliled agcodes rhey are not depeuden 00 these or8ani1Jlton~ rndecd Tandoo romioeted (hat fo che revoludonary snnggles in SOUfh~E3SC A~a and AfrJctI iOfernattonal otgilnizalJons are tOO peripheml to be of much $ignilJeaoce (Tandon )9713 377)
Tancloo providcd n inrere~tiog history of the Jevelopment uf the anrishycolonialist forees in che Third Wruld sinee 1945 bur hi~ clivi~iexcl()H iexcloro he three perspenives is roo stark leaving aside rhe leil important backWllro regimes be has basiclllly grO~lped tbe Third World leadershp joto the revoshylutionaries who have Uttle netd (or imernatiooa otgllnizatiooll and those who llave suumlpped into refOrmism and have beco duped iot() bdieving (hat they elln ehaoge chelr c1ependeoce 00 industtia1i1Cd nBfiexclmL~ lhrough intemadonal organiwtions Thjs seems to undelsrare me use or ~mh organishyzations by revolutionllry groups - especiiexcliexcllIy che PLO anel tlle SoUthem African liberadon OtgllOiexcl7arionS - whieb have made substaotial use oiacute [he UN me Arah League ano the OAU tO sustain rhe polirical aspeets of theit effOrt5 1t alS(l uverestimatcs the extent tu whieh the Third World countries
J UU wnlmgl 1111 JTiUrllamm41 ergtIttJ1I0fll
have any iUwinru about imetnariooal Qrganizarioos such a~ UNC1~D
Furchermorc the identificador of 800d revolutionaries and falten refurmislS i~ tuller impliexclstjc~ rhe maIur sponrot of the UNs New Ecooomic Order l wruch Tandon hal roudemned as rhe Old Economic Order with a diffefent rltetoric WIIS the Algetian radinu governmenr of Boumediemu rhe PLO irself ha heen dependem on a numlgttr of bnurgeWs Arab goveromenrs foc financial 00 diploJUlltic suppon and ro Tandoos duumlertion that PQr narlonallibemwn movemenn guided by a proktatlan idoology such liS rhose in Chifliexcl1 lIlud Vietnam iruemarionaJ organlwtlona WtU of no 1J5e can be- added the re5ervarion until chey carne (O power Whiht ir took some twenty years belote communist Qtill1 made use nf suth organiutions the unified communiSl Stale ol Vietnam was quick fO cake up it position in the UN ro ask [Ol aid thtough UN agencies liS well as w become ji membet of he CMEA (Comecon)
Third Wodd commemscOt1l on world politics have emphasized the nature uf rheir atea$ potirical ecoOoacutemtc Ilud culmral relatloosluumlp wilh rhe iHdllsrriexcl~ alixed Nonh TitilO is iOO$t Oflltl rypified aiexcliexcl bciug OHe of ueo-folonialism _ COntrol of che Third Wtltld by lhe Nortb by indirecl means ratlet (han by direa colonial tule and of Kf)IomIacute( dRptwJmry (o dtpmdemjiexcliexcl) lntetnationaiacute rdsdOOi bcrween sures are sublumed ro relations between claue$ world wide Ixtween on rhe one lIand the expluacuteiting impetialist capitetists in rhe northcm iru1usuialized couotries 2100 rhcir middle-ltlass collaboratotS in the 50Uthem SUtes aud on the othet band he exploiced masses rhe proleuriat ol [he $Ourhern contJnems The Lurcr gmupS have been 1I1iide ecooomkaUy dependent on [he furmer so char hey lIre in rhe wuacutetds uf the Bruiliiln T Dos SantOS in a situadon jn which the economy of a cetuin group of counshytrles is condiacutedoned by rhe develOplllent aad expansion of aoother ecouomy lO which thcit own 15 subjecred (Bodenheimer 1971 327)
The uOOerdeveloped tounrries depend uacuten [be developed ror their capital nd ercperdse they find key sectors of ehdr eroooroy conrrolled from OUtsJde rhey act as a SOUfce of raw marerials lIS ji lthetip source of labour arul as a rnarket fur mllnuf8ccurers from Euttipe ]apan and North America As thejr living standards were deterrniud by rhe vicissinWeS of the Northern~ dominated wodd marker the relationship was Otle uf unequa exchange (he [esule of which was a world experiencing woequal developmenr with a developed rieh indwtriaJiud capiralisr Notthern centre and d poor underdeveklpedgt agciculrutitlly backwarn eXFloired periphery in che 50mb The dependem 80mh has been divided berween rhe ptedominanr undemeshyveloped area~ lUld a few Cenfres of deve10prnenr wirh their ttade culrural rraffie and polidcal linL to [he deveJoped North - rhe depeOOem develop~ memo omlinea by EH Cardosa (1974) allodlt~r Bruiliall Mmir Amiu (977) rejC(ted the prosptltt of aH antonomous capitalist development in [he Third Work the oew bourgeaisJe of Lacin Ametica Africa and Asia were in allianec with capitalisrs from rhe Nnnh and rhe mato $OUrce of finance ror lmported equipmem was fmm the expon of raw materials to rhe indu~rial
5 ~ _~ smiddot_middot~~
iexclred smes Amin (1977 1-21) SllW rhe can made ror a New Imernational Ecooomic Order (NIEO) by Third World leaders at rbe UN UNCTAD aod che Vilrlous North-Sourh dialogues as an nrtempt LO iexclnerease the price of chelr ntw mattIial exporrs obraio more lmpotted technol08Y snd chus finance a new srage of develQpmenr He saw this ti placing the Thitd World more in the gttp of the neo-co1onialist sysrem and iostmd recommended 11
more self~rcuumlanr development wlrh murrud assismnce between Third World sures a reducdon in [ade wirh rhe induuialized wotld and Chlll a loos~ ening of dependenre Amin lJke TaOOon had Jittle fairh in presenc imtrnruional organizaciexclon Il tools foc fasbiooing a more independent Tbiacuten Wotd His sU88tl1cion of grearer mUtual ilSlgtistaoce between ThUd WorId uate~ implied somtthing more sophillticated than a numbtr of bilateral arrmgements As rbe present orgauizarions used fu iexclncm~Thjrd World cnshyoperation (che OAU he Atab League ASEAN) are domitllued by jusr dl()llC govetnmenrg chM accept lhe eowse coodemned by Amio _ the NIEO ami greater jmegrndon iexcluro rhe world economic sysrem ~hen Amia solutloil involves like-minded deveJoping counrries or more like1y political changes leading ro such indigenous intemuional orgilniwrions
Other Trufd Wodd wdten have plllCtXl emphasls on grearer use 01 exisring insdtutions lOO can broadJy be deKfibed lIS Wopmenraluli huI Prebisch an Argentinian econOmigf has not only studied the que5iaacuteon uf ecooomic dependency but his ideas llave been used as the baJiexclis for che wotk of cwo miexclljoc iexcliexcluemariOOiexcll1 organizadons rhe UN Enmomic Commission fa utin Ameriea (ECLA) and UNCfAD Iu his smdy of Briliacutesh-Argerl(inian trading relntioflS Prebisch bad idenrified rhe unequRl tecrns ol Hade between he favoured (ndusrrislized s(ate of tbe centre and he les privj~ leged llOIl-indumialiacutewl periphery Prebisch unlike rhe dependencia gtChool of Amiacuten Dos Sancos and Cardosa believed thu this inequaLity could be overcome by political acrinn by trade pre[ereonces fuvouring the pedphery by eoo1ruooiacutery agreemenrs by intelnatiacuteowll aid and by more foreiga imvestment in che ~riphery It was thele remedies thiexcllr Prebiacutesch eneouraged when he WiIS Executive SecrCrary of ECLA from 1955 lO 1963 aOO Secrewy-Genernl ofUNCTAD ftoro 14 ro 196tL In~d rhe amoum of aid the periphery needed in omer to overeome their Unfuvoluable rrnde balance became known io UNCTAD clrcles as [he Prebiexclsch Giexcllp
The distinguished Afiican aC1ldentie Aji Mazn1i has wricren un the plighr Qf (bar conciflfnt aod j~ role in pmem~day interruUIDllfl1 afmits He soughr ro answer rhe quesdon Now rlw Imperial Order is eoming ro an end who is going tO keep rhe peaee in Aampica and tu examine he concept of Pax AfrlclllUl the African s ambidoo ro be his OWh palaman The JXIliacutecillJS and se[f~8overnment ufAfriea depended on the nodan ofan African self which Mauui discusseJ in decaH He considered how this 1ndepen~ denre might be threarened by the politicaI and cultural fragmenMion of the contillenr Ellld eronomieally by deperulence on Europe He quoted Kwame Nkntmah finr President uf Ghaniexcll on rhe Europe-Jn ECOntunir Communiry
162 Wilihgr rm intd1JatirmallJrganizatimu
ihe ireaty of Romemarks the advent of oeoKolonitJism [n Afriacuteen snd bears unqutSrlonably the marks of Freneh neo-colonuumlllism (Murui 1967 93) He moduded from tM that Wlut AfrlOlns tbelaquofore neecletl was II
renerru authotity of cheir owa tI) ((lordilJlte fheir eltonomk and policicat deCena- sgain5t trus rnreat (Mamtiexcl 1961 93)
Given this theme it is not surprising tlwt Mazrui ser srore by rhe OAU bU[ he was realistic in bis judgement
In relatioos betwlaquon African statts lIOflesr step rowards Pu Africana was taken when rhe Organiution oiacute Aftlaquolln Uniey set up in Commissiacuteon ofMediauacuteoo Conci1illtion aud Arhitmion
Anormr OAU Commissioo of relevance fot Fax AftlOlna ls che Defence Cornmission Sor me Defeme Commlnion 1w se Car been among che lean effecdve QfPan-Aiacutericun ins(kndons Afrka mar indeed aspire to be her owu ptlliceman bur she does nO seem ready as yel to par the price iacutem it
(Mauui 19612[3)
Mazrui oudined the varicd backgrounds of [he lemen oiacute newly illdepenshydent Africa and thdr radical and revolmionary ideas and it is pethaps swprising rhat the insrirutions rhey created fur me coutinenf wete so mnservative with [he p05sible exceprion oiacute the OAUs Natiomtl Libetttion Comminee Mazrui no[ed thac Africa srill has the problem of how othet powetS respond tu its behaviour and [har forcigo iotmsilm in AJtica continued Indetd the I990s proved tO be a dC(ade of disusrer for AfrieR The debiacute burden contimlld while Ilome states collapsed lnro civil war ami others took to iutenoendoo in thejr ueighbonrs affairs Outslde interference from borh Enrope and North Amecica euodoned One of rhe fcw brlghr spots was the end of apallhcid in South Africa and the peaceful transitioo ro majoriry mJe lo al thiexcl~ tn quote Juliacuteus Nyerere rhe ampcmer pre~iexcldenl of Tan1ania The OAU exists outr ror tbe prorecdoo of (he Afrinllt Head~ oiacute State (cited io AlilgapPltl 1998 1 ) The relarive optimism of Maztui has giveu way ro Afriam writers examining sorne of me disrnrbing details of inaction by [be OAU and regtonal orgauiacutezatJuns nlCh as ECOWAS beiog used as doaks fu the machinations oE regional hegemou$ suth as Nigcria (Mibe 1m 61-9(1)
Radha Sinha$ problem--ortented undy Food iexcllfId PIWt11y (1976) has an IItgent message Sinha a former consultaot of the FAO prodnced an iofuacuterrned aUllyiexcljiexcl of the world$ food problem stress1Og in paniacutecular the maldistribution of food and other resources Noting he profO$ab of UNCTAD with heit muld-rommodJty approach and buffer nocks provjshySiOfli he commented rhe grearesr weakness oE the UNCTAD scheme js les Hkdy politlca1 unilcceptablliry ro me developed (ountdes parriculady che USA (Sinhil 1916 114) a propheey that has proved to he cortect He identitled a more aggresslve attitnde by Third World sutes e5pedally
WrilirrgJ on i1tternatiflii1l rHgarrtzatitmlt 163shy
after the uH prite cise of 197314 when the developing coonuies tried to maximize their own market powers by formin cartcls such as rhe Intematimlal BaurdtC Association the Intemuional Coundl of Copper Expotcing Countries aud the Intema[ional Tin Agrcrmenr He gave n qualified wekome ro the Lomeacute Convention betwcen the European (omrounities anJ cenain African Padfic and Caribbean Haces Writing in 1976 he commented
The receot cbange in rhe luirudes of tite tiche countries is largely due tu the incIeasing miliuncy of the Third World countries lt is almost ertalll utar the magnitude offuture cnnc~sions in me coune ofGAIT aud UNCTAD IV Ilegotiarioos wiU deperu mainly on (he continued solidariry uf the devdoping counlrtes
(Siha 1976 116)
Sinha was pardy correct as tbe solidatity cf rhe Tbird Workl states cracked se the induurialized wodd withheld funher Con(eampSJoru but ir was able tO do so because market condidons swung against che primaty producen
In his condusion Sinha called ror a IIDre1 shttting of wnrld t($nmes and power if confrontarion was ro he avoidOO He feared that the ffa of roshyoptradon berween [ieh and pool conntries hiid ((lT1e to an end and that batde lines were being drawn Instead he advOOIreltI majnr concessions from the dcher coumries on trnde lInd aid issues and a1so a ma~lt te$ltUcrnring of the incematiotlill organization~ aoo negoacutetiating ffiarhinery in order tu provide a much gtC2ter say fm me poorer countries in internatiooal tJ1lde invesrment and mooetaiexcly armngemenrs (SiMa 1976 132) GAn 1BRD aud IMF have been the presenoe of [he ri h with voting weighted m faacutevour of rhe OECD countries and Sinha re(()ffimended thlll GATr aoo UNCiAD be merged inro an Intemacional irade Organization (ITO) and che creatlon of a Third World permanent secrctariat iexclnvolved in all trade and aia negoriarioru Thoogh less radical than Amin Sinha aIso recomrnrnded gttter coshyoperation berween developing coulltries and an eoo ro their inkrtotity complex with instead a sense of m~ttnal sdiacute-e$teem and trust being devel~ oped (Sinha 1976 ch 10) Litde that h~ happened during the 19905 woo1d have encouraged Sinha The World iratle Organiaadon has emerged as the presenoe of the dlVelupeJ tares and lw brushed aside many of thc mucerns cf UNCTAD Debr ha~ edged on ro dlt wudd iexclagenda but mainly at the beheS[
of a non-governmental organization )ubiacutelec 2000 nd the promi$e~ of the main financill jnsrirutluru lO pursue dcbc-rclicf produred but a thiniexclmfl
In aH Third WQrld commenrarors have provided a vatied and lively approruh fOwards tne problems uf intetniexclational organizarions Their emphasis has niltntaHy beCl Qn tbe use of wurld lmtirutions to change the econornic condidon or the Southern cominents As this enndition is likely to worscn in the near filrtltf further more lJica conrtibutions on the rule oC
-- --- ~- __ _~- __- imernatIacuteonal orgaoilarions in Nonh-Smuh relarJons tOiexclghf be apected from rhe Third Worid A1ternaciveJy wrirers (mm rhat ares rmy jW ltIacuteespUacutet rm imergovemmemal orgaoizarions ar lealaquo Mee rhem $O Hrrle
Cfili~ald~heJ
Critica approadvs lO the nudy uf intetnadonal relations are (hose har rejee( the dominating vleW1iexcli repr=med by tbe realist and reformistS as oudined aboye In paHicular rhey reglUd realists as apologisu for the currem con6gutltion of power 10 (he wiexcldd sytem and considet [har rhe refOnntstS are elrher unable ro undersraoo he fUe llamee )( (hi sysrem oc ille UDwiUing to accepc rilar ir needs more rhan mooest refotlllS TIlOugh they may sympalhi-ze wirh rhe agenda of some Marxists aud Third World wt1cers chey do [lO( llave rhe hisrockal certaimy of the former not rarely do they have the experience and perspective of ehe larter TItey view intenUishy(jnl1ill nrganiutions wirh a jaundiced eye as these are mainly the lll$tmmenfS of rhose who dominare rhe syuem This section COlllaios an wcoum nf three approaches tmt of the critical rheorlsti- of kmintsc wrirshy[1185 ulld pose~mooernismlt
Cri(~1 herJrY The approach of critical theory 10 JnrematlonaJ o(ganizatiooll iSi determtoed by their wider world-view which in itsclf is explaiiexclwd by tbeir llame One of the leading exponents Roben Cox said [har ie is cririca1 in cne Jensc rha h srands apan 100m che prevailiog order of rhe wOlld and asks how tb$t oroer came iexcllPouc Ir does nor r-ake existing irucimtioM lIl1KI JIQwer relaclons rOl granred bu c311s them iacutemo queuion Ir 1S diexclrlaquoced ro rhe social itnd JIQiirshyical complex as a wItole rarhet (hall he stparate pirtt IUthet than subdiide and Imic an examination of a problem it looks al the wger pkturc of whkh rhe problem is jwt oue part and trio rO wJdeThwod the processeS uf change ill which botIt pans ulld whole ure involved laquo(ox 1993 277~S)
Ai a thoory cridQiIacute theory rejeen tbe daims of posicivism of an external Nulity and to be mue-free ror critkal rheorIacutests koowledge ti nor moraUy IleUc1ll1 ic is more che result of the social background of tbose Wt hold ir Given this ctitkal tbeory alJows foc a normarive choice in favoU of a social ancl iexclJlieiexcl(ld order diflerent f(cm rhe prevruHng arder bur it limiu the ruuse 01 chotce ti a1remative orders which are feasibJe mmsformations ofme cxvaing worJd h musr rejEC[ improbable alternadVe8 ju~t as ir rejecrs rhe pcrmanctlly nr lhe exiscing order (Cox 19 90)
Cridcal rheory differs lrom Marxist upproElchcs beCElUS( of iu tejection nf any daim to hold the objenive tru[h and betause or it~ avoidance of (he pmslllt ol il utopia Neverrhe1ess [heir analysis of incernarional relarln1l$ is one tbu hEls u numher of similariuumles wich the Marxisc pcrspecdve It regurds rhl tlistlng suucrures of world polirics as beiug oppressie not
- _ __ _-
lean because of rhe dominance of (he capitalism of che Unired StElte~ For many che USA is seco as a hegemonic power the prevailing urder - in re[ms rbar reReet he wrirings of the Itallan Marxisc writer Amonio Gramscl (1891-1932) Gramsd advanced the nodon of ln hisrori(middot bloc which in itself refilaquors che $Ocial reladons oE ptoducdoo The dominanr dass in a counrty - 01 indeed aoy social grouping - mlinrains cohesion and idenciry withio [he bloc [hrough the ptopagacion of a COIDmOfl culturegt A new bloc can be formelt when a subordinate dau can euablish tU hegeshymony over orher subotdioate gtOllpS (Cox 1993 56--7) The IDove rowuds hegemony comeS with the piexclt$ting fmm che spediacutek inrercsrs ofa gronp Ol
dass tO rhe building uf inrimdons aOO elaoorarion uf ideologies (Cox 1993 57-8) It Loiexcl rhat ptOCe$S thar embeds the incemu of the dominanc dan in an imttmrional form thae [w an appeal widet [ban that dan ine1f It the-refole repreSoems mote tlmn jUSt (he drunJnaoce oE one state ovec anocher bllt implies a cemufi acceptante of the tules arJd institutions purouized by [he hegemonic JIQwer Jo other woros it is all order wbicb most Olher Sta[e-~ (01 at 1enst those within reath of die hegernouy) couId find compatible- wirh their iexclmetem (Cox 1993 6t) h aJso involves noe just inttt-staee rueivirle5 bur rhose oiacute tlvilliOCiety (oon-Stllte socieM instishycudons) ebereby encoumging Hnks between social dus$ts iexcln the connules covered by ebe hegemony
What does Cox llave to uy about ioccmational Otgsniuciexclons 1bey Ilre scen in he oontext ofme wiacuteoo unaemanduuml18 of itnernational reUacuteltions mentloned iexcliexclhove He is direcr 000t mem Ooc mechanisru chrough wruch the universal norms of a wodd hegemony are expttssed js the interoatiooal organisation (Cox 1993 62) Why is chis so Cox U993 62) gives five teIlSons
bull They e-mbody rules cOae help (be- apwlSion of a hegemonic wodd iexclrder These insdwrians reflcct the intererts ()( the dominam social anil economic force- buc a1low a cettain amOunt oC adjusrment ro accommodare other subordinared interests TIms the USA WllS preplltoo ro mm conccssions to
bciI18 in Lhe EU srares and Japan ro rhe Wotld Trade Otganizatimt They a[e prooucrs of that order Though [he insrimrions and rules Ilce
nurITlllUy initiared by the hegemook power ir takes cate ro involve aOO comule a numbe-r of second-ronk stares and gaio theit supporc he Wotld Bank and Inte[nacional Mooetaty Fund were very much pan of [he world order thar emerged afrer [he Second World Wat and which was dominared by rhe Uoiced Stlres
They ltgidmi7e i[s nOlms by providing guidance for SllIteS and by legitshyimiuacuteulS cerraIacuten IlCdviries Ilr me narional leveL he OBCD afie rhe inrerruuiooal financia) irntuumluriom lave spread an acceptante of mllrket coodirions and sHict mOllerary iexclJlides
They co-opr elites from pelipheral counrrie Ihlented sraH commg 110m the Thiacuterd Wocld are expected tO dCCept he scriexclpt wcittttt by the domishynam power Bouuos Bourros-Ghati as Secteury General uf the Unired
166 Jiexclljiexclr1giexcl Qr1 ifJfCflrttuacutemal IWgaizati(ifJJ
Nadons stroyed too amp~r ftOm the gtip of Washinston and his second term was VCtoM by rhe USA His sucecssor Kofi Annan will no doubt undentand what 1$ n-quired of him He brings the mncerns of orhe states ro che UN bUf nor in a way thu threatt1l$ the USA
bull They absorb counter-hegemonic ideas Ideaiexcl $uch as 1iustainable dlYClop_ ment tukl even debr foTgiwness are taken 00 board by the intetnatwnal finarnial institlltion$ blu are trandirmel into pulido rhat swt them
Wh~t is ro be done Cox thinks thar the pfQblem of changiog dw world orUer 1iMuld be shlfred back from intern~tional insritutions tO niexcllriacuteooal $OIacuteishyeties where the sodo-political b~se for a new historie bloc mighr be ereated (Cox 1993 64) FaiJing the creadon of a new historie bloc of the new working cla$s and rural and urb~o marginal groups there might be tnmdorshymadon oC the curtent monopoly-libcral hegemony by adjusting to rhe demanJs oiacute local ello$ for polides 5uch as natlonaHution Cox 199~ 65) He aw advocates te-regulation of erooomies and a re-wmpositjon of civil sodery Internatiotla lnstlcutions induding organiutions can berome eontact puint1i fOr new $OCia[ furtt (Cox 1994 (11)
Critica throrJm $uch as Cox oifee a refreshing exposidon oiacute che posidofl oC imernatiooal ofganizatioos in a wocld where the main revolutionary powe~ have either collapsed (rhe Soviet Union) or se(tled into a cautious ronservatirun (China) Ir provlde~ a sceptical arf realisric world~view without acreptins tbe inevuumlahility ni a illture domlnared by mooopoly eapi~ ujsm sud the Utlired States J-Iowevtr its appllcariexclon to intemationa1 organhatJons 11 StImewha( timited tQ the maln global jnsdm(jons and th financial and economlc orgmiutions Ir has 1m (O say aboue regional nrgashynjudon Uf abour N(JUacutes Furthermore iu alternarive fu(ure testS on ourcoroes thu are far froro certain RevnJutlons in the Thied World are roore likely to be- irupired by nadondi$m oc by IsJaroic fllndamentaHfl OCalaquoely [he solid ooses for new historie blocs
Fwinuumll aNml4cbts
Feminist perspcctives 0f1 inttmatlonal rtlatioos llave in common wirh the erit~ ical rheocillu a rejclaquoion of (he dominance in rhe $Ilbjecr of the rcnHst and rdOrmisrs Although fuminist writen cover a wide 5laquolpe the gencral basis oiacute their aqurnent 1S har in interwnional relatioM ru in most politkal aud tcooomk acdvity women are diexclSJtdvantagt~l Alchoogh they own ahour 1 pet tCfH oC the worlJs lfOpeny and tiexcliexclxe heme 10 peiacute ceoc ofincome they perfurm 60 per eenr of working houn and provide 80 per eent of nfusets (petetsen and Runyan 1993 6) This is a derDOnstrndon of gender inequalitie~ the sodalJy learned behavior and expecratioos thar distioguish berween maKuliniry and femininity (Petetsen and Runpn 1993 5) Feminist aprroaches ofren So bejond the $tati~tks and examine (he mind~se[ of those engaged in the pmctice of intemadonal rdations whiexclch (bey ampee as geodered In other woros che world
Writingc Off inlmhJliofMl vrgntiZdlMm 167
illeen in a mlLlndine way thar kvrntB (he posjtiOll o( mnles in rhe hitgtranhy and devlllues the c041trihution of WQmeO (Sylvestet 1994) War in pattKular is gendered in a way chat keeps wornen and metl from qUtstioniog the essentiat pmpose and he neglltive effects of war militarization ~nd viQleme on their awn and orhers livts (Petetsen and Ruoyan J993 9 t)
What of wminist view$ uf imernationaJ organizationsr Ir IS not possible ro presem a rollf(tive vjew that eneomp3$~e~ rhe works of radicaJ femjnisu and ny iexclihetal teminists (rutead the work of one author Sandra Whitworth (1997) will be used as me pily$ rornt attrntion ro inrernarlonal organizations Aamper inrroductions ro feminilfr theory and internacional frIamiddot tiom and gendet and internacional relatlons Whirworrh examines geodet and imernational organilions She screpts Coxs vjew oiacute inrernational orgashynjzarions [har they retleltr (he dominant powet relations in che intetnational system and rhae internaliomd otgaoiution h che procelt of imcitntionaJshyiling and regulating conOice - eicher rhat which may IIrise among siexclates o( char which has iu (onU io transnationaI society (Cox 1980 375) TIte way duu pcople orgaoire themelve$ wirhin international iostirurjons reflects a variety of power relations ineludi~ of rollJSe gendec relatiull3 (Whitworth 1997 74) lbe triad of jnstirutions ideas and material rQudi~ tioru help ro hxare uSllmptiolls aboue geoocr withiu jntetmltional rewtioos Whitworth uses thesr tn examine lhe uooerstandillg oiacuteScndec io an INGO the Internadonal PlarUled ParenthooJ Federatlou (JPPF) and an intergnvemmental organilJ1rion (albcir one wlrh some oOl1-governmentJ)J represemation) the InrernatlonaL lab01lrOtganiution (no)
Whirworths studies show rhar thr IPPF tended ro accept the deshyemphasizlng oi the gendered oamfr of reproducdoo and (f) ignore rhe imponaoce ofbirth comcol foc womens reproductive freroom Instead in an effort tu popularize birth rontrol srrel~ WWl placoo on paremhooJ rather than iexclust the womans choice However IPPF poUcy beeiexcllme more radirnl in (he 19905- with Hnks beirtg made berween II1M control alld womeos ~)tu~ ality (WbJtworth 1997 ch 4 pmim)
The RO eoucerned itself with WQmen as workern It cnnsidercd that tbey oeeded spec-ial atrention and promoted ptoteCtlvt legiexcl~lacion This reiexcln~ forced me view (har [he male worxer Wall the norm with women workers nor deserving the same rights remunfration lOO mndirions Latterly however the JLO ha~ reflectoo views rhat prodaim wornens elt)ualily in rhe workforce and has sunoo tuacute assess the importanee of policies on womens role in rhe workplace as weU as in sodery more wjdely (Whlrwnrth J997 ch 5 panm) Whitworth comes [O the eondusion rhu iexclln iexcllnaLyiexcli~ of gernler in rbe IPPF and no shows how tbese rdiexcliexcldonsbips llnd definirions ni what it is to be a womltn oc man are structuted relationsrups3nd hlsrQciudly hve been scrurtured tu disadvantage women (ibid 15n
lo eommon with the critkal meorists Whitworth has useQ au examinamiddot doo of two intetnational organixations (O deroonstrate a puinr about imerflational relatiexclon~ indeed sodal rctatrol1s mOte widely The poinr is
I1
I
middot - ~-_ --___ aOOuc powec and iu use not (O balance oue SCdre ligaiOSf anorher but fm une gooup ro domiaare morher Jn chis case it 1$ ma the dominution of one dass me m culcnre over $ofU)(her (though Whirworrh recognizes those reLationshyships ti wcll) but of roen over women The crititUl uudy oiacute (wo jnceraational mganirations dealing with iSSlle5 recoSniud ti beiiexclg oiacute impocshycanee or WOfficn suggesu rha( tltOO simihu research on orher internacional organizadons could proJuce interening aOO uwfuiexcl resulrs
Pllit~ism
Thc posc-moderruacutesr $opprooch lO intetaarional rcllldon is one tlur bas (ome ro che fote Jn che perlod sinee lite end of rhe Cold War Jr is based on $o widcr imellectual viewpoim insrigated by l1rench iorcUtcruals of the 196()s gener~ ation _ Bllrrhes Derrida FouclIul and Lyorard - and whkh suggested rhat the modero era liad becn overome 11 fejeas mera-nattatives gnlud accounv- of hi5tory aoa iacuteNIacuteler subjecu as having no independem rubstance Scientifk btliefs induding [hose oiacute rhe $)(ial scJcllces are rooted in (lllxure polill(os arul mores oJ a wciery and are lherekJre subjective As rhere is 00
oblcctive reality cmpirical daims bave fl() spccial sunding in rhe rralms of koowledge IndeeJ ir i$ power aod knowledge are intimatel) incerwirud Posr-moJernism Hllnds against rhe belief of rbe modero pcfiod which LI seco as beginning wiacuterh rhe enlightenmcm of mid-eightcenth cenrufy Europe and AmeriCll Ir rheldore rejcn~ rhe COMCpr$ oC rationalirl and progrcss aSSuacutedared wi(h [he enlighrenment and [he moocrn age Thc uniry of IOOnkind iexclirW iexcldells such liS rhe untveIsWiI) of human aacuteghrs are rejcuoo lnsceadlocal aetion in smallgroups 15 advuacuteClmd
Post-modetnist ideas have affected tite srOOy of inremruionaJ rdarions as (bey have ocher social scienccs Posr-modern imeraarional relariops theoriscs havc ustd heir view$ 00 objecuumlviry (o exiexcltmine che rrmhs of international relatiom en see how rhe concepts iexclind knowledge-dairm (bar dominare the Jisdpline in faer are highiy conringenr on spccific power relatiom (Smith 1997 181) Post-modemisrs bave lltfa(red me mcta-narratives of the reelshy1m and reformlsu aHke The objectiacutevemiddot aaallses of the realim Ilnd neo-realisu are setn as being deJl(nclent on the subjective standpojnts of cheif mainly Amen(an and Europeau authors Ijcharcl amphiel (1986 258) daimed he works o[ Kenneth Waler men the leading neo-realillt trrat the glven ordcr a rhe natural nrder Jjmirs rarheE (lian 1XpawU political discllUtse negales oc rriviuliliS the signifinnce uf variely urOiS time and plue Whar emerges ii an ideology tllar anridpatcs iegirimires ancl onents a totalitarian projen 01 global ptoponioo~ che rattoualiaciuacuten of global poHcics iexclbe reformius are likcwise tainted Md have Ji mhr$lren belief in pmgress The posc-modernl$rs poinr m rh Helocausr as rhe heighr oiacute mooemism a rombimiddot Halioe of science dnd polidcal otganizillnon Il was SCruTely progreso
Given an antifllthy mwards rhe MlVe[iacute~ign srae borh as a centre of powet ll1ld as a crearioll Jiten imbutol wlth a wncepltliexcl uf progress pest~miexclJdetniexclsls
wHungJ mi Im~iexcliexclrun wgltiIRrzuJlU7iJ 1J7
can lOUcdy be expcctcd to vIacuteew intergovernmencal organiUlrions wirh sympilthy Tbe prefetted iacuteonu of internacional organizations when mentioned are those thiexcltt ltlj~plal differemes snd dlvenity in global pelitlcil duu are reginnaUy based or rhar reflec irKlividual actlOn Tndecd ir SeeIJS
rbat Michel Fomawt was involved with an alliance oiacute twO INGOs (Miquestdecin du Monde and Tertl-s do Hommes) in proresting agaiust internadonal iH~shydon over rhe boat people who flcd Vietnam in tite lare 1970s and ear1y 19S(k He is gU()[ed 11$ sayillg tbar Amnelltl Internnrlonal Teueiexcl dts Hommes Mfiiecin du Monde lHt inirilltives whiacutech have created a nrw righr rile dAht of privare individuss ro iexclntervene in [he otder of polino and internatioont snateg(eiexcl (dred in CampheH 1998 516)
Aootber researcher has exnmined ~he Europcan Communities Ilr che point wben Jr was mnslorming intO me European Unioo and askOO whether ir was a pootmodew ConJigUflHton (Nstrgaard 1994) Hi condusions wcre mar ir was gualiwiveJy a new organizarion oC human calJecrlvJties which mighr U$hec the coming of post-moderniry (Ntgttgnatd 1994 27j) The basis fO[ [bis judgemem was rhat me Ee did nO approximate anl modero form of piexcliexcl1idUll Ofpnizarion it did OOt commatld che means oiacute violence its au[hotity derives noc from die people and ir appeared to be a fCgJoo trying ro pOrecr itiexcliexclelf againsr globaliacutezadun iacuteN0rgaaro 1994 274--5) Ir remllins ro be sren whether [he BU tJf [he twenry-first cenrury wHl fu1fi1 rhtgtse hopes Ot wiU stllrr ro teVen
to a more scate-like being Generall) dIe cririolapproaches ro interruHiorud relarious hiexclJve provided
1lOOIe innovatIacuteve insigllls iexclnro rhe study uf imemarional orgsnizations The crtrical theorists llave becn sh3rpest in rheir unde[$(iexcltnding nf internarional ofgiexclt1lizacious as servsnrs of a dominiexcliexclIf power configuracion thoogh the) lave pemaps Umieed cbelr scope wllen viewing internacional organizadons Feminis[ wJiters ruave given Vltike to whac i5 after aH tbe scmi-sileut majoric) in rhe world and Ilre ouly srarting in qnest10niug the male dOmimiddot nance nuacutet iexclusr of the nmning of IGOs huc aloo of theic agenda Tite post-modemisrs are iMlSr concerned oiacute he (bree 8rOUp5 with inretnationlll organiucioru as such bllr rIacuteleic intellecrual approach is the ffiOSt tadkal aud can lelld tuuml a fnon of nihilism
GltJbaliacutesf lIiu
A gIobalisr perspective does oor viacuteew world poliacutetica as being predomishynandl arout iotergovernmemal relatlnn~ Ili would realisu or illbour inrentare aruI imersocietal rdations as a number uf reformisu llliexclll consider lnsteaacuted it cakes a more holisdc view Problems are (cmfronred ac Ji global level wlurions have tO be sou8ht here as weil This iexcls not ro neglcct (he 10tal Ol rhe ~tlte level ir is more J recognilion of the limiutshydoos of acdviuumles rhere The world-vicw like rhe reformists places empllasu on whal unIacutetes people Ilnd has lirde time for lhe demaoos of power pouumlics aad stare-cemrir orglLuiwrjollS Ir goe~ fllrther by nor
1 V WNimgJ lJ7f tIfernattmiexcliexclJ 11fK4111141tOnJ
liminog in view eirhec ro pans of che world or ro rellltions berweeo particuJar poliric~ lr ioded jlLSr m the economic social and poJitical demaods of mankind Paradoxically ir can be seen as IIn approach rhe very OppoSllC of the fimctionalist wirb whom tbere 5 much io common In nmtrast lO rhe fnnctionaHst (or neo-fllnctiooalisr or intetclependeuce srhuul) and ccrrainly in contrast ro rhe powet politks aOO MaOIacuteIt writers (be whole world approach places emphasis not 00 the discrere r~uiexclreshymems of groups SClteiexcl or individulI1s bm 00 tbe wel1-bciog of the tCOsystem in which rhf5f funnioll cbe planet Eanh The conccen of chis apptoach which is rcflccted il] in ttcumeUr of illternational urganizatiom is for the survival of lhe plunet for its effident funccioning in its widest SeILie aud fot che survival oiacute rhe myriad oiacute speoacutees - ollly one of which is homo sapiens - tbat inhabh me globe
Sinle tbe 196Os a number of wtiters on imernational affairs have expounded 00 tbis view and llave cOl1l~uendy ronsideted the implicadons for intemational organizacions Jobfl Button in bis World Society ronsldeted iflmstatt relations to be onIy a pan of wodd poli[iacutea and wrore
lf we employ rhe term world rociety imiexclreui of internanofla relarions iIacute we apptoo(h OUt study in this global way insread of the more tradi~ lonal nattonal way we will end to have a wider focos ro ask quesrions rhat are moee fundlmenral aOO imponant lO civilization and be ahle ro assess bettet me relevance of om own national bduviour ro be wider worW envifonment
(Button 1972 21)
Rkhacd Stetling posed the problem more spedfically
Nuclear esCllatiofl the popullltion explosion the pollmiofl of tbe envishyronmcnt the communkations rtvolurion rbe world~wide concentNdon of wC1llch and world~wide expansiofl of pltlvcrty are iexcliexcl11 essemially global and not 1laquo al pbellomena They have given rise jn tutn ro eartbshyspamuacutellg and revolutionary demands ror mass education rnass hesltb malts welfure and maltgts participation in che dccisions affecting roans fare
(Srerling 1974 322)
This wodd-view of rhe problems of the s)Jaceamphip EQlth begged fur global oolutlofl$ It suggcsred iexclhu not onIy iJ the system of sovereign stares as yer unable oc unwiHing to COme to grips with the above-menuontd prohlelUS but that a network of llllergoVCtn1lental organiutlom bGsed 00 me rights of statc wVfretgnt will ~lso be hammllng Globtl problems needed global solutlons based on institutinos rhat can (ake a global petsplaquoshytive Thus Sterling considetecl thllt it ~ tlOt unreasooable (O amidpate tme tbe member stares will be moved ro considft equippifllil the Unitw Nttous witb mote crunprebensive powen 1lt global pressUfes build 0974 323)
~h~ laquoo ~gt~ _- -gt bullbull (_bullbullbull __ - bullbull
A more compeluumlng cdH wus lAltiexclued by Barban Ward and Rene Dubas in their book prepared for [he UN Gmference of ehe Humafl EnVJroJlmenl 01lly UIIt EaFlh The c~ altJ Mdilllt1JatfCe (JI d Sflall Pta~t (972) 111ey stremsed the ufliry of tbe Eanh Jnd in eovironment and the )Jroblems in(ed by Jts iohabitants emntially thost oudined by SterJiog The ~uthoflgt poillted OUt rhat rhF envitonmenral qmosrion had by 1972 already had 50me impaltl on guvernments and im(rnarional organl1Jtion but the effior was somewhat ltInJOrdinated and unfocuseL In (hree particular aren - tbe global atmosphere rhe oceaml the worlds weather sysrellU - tbt-y saw [bl jmmediate neOO for (OmInOn poliey und co-ocdinared actiollS where vcerenshysions to national sovercigmy have no relevance ro ptrreived problems Bu rbefe was a need to go furrher and denl wirh other global problems di5Case srarvation iHitmcy unemployrnem ovcfllwding rntetnational poliCJcs wece at the 5tage reachOO wlrhin rhe devdoping s[ate~ of the ninettTtb (entury Elche they wiU move O to a wmmIlJlity bL~ro UiexclXIIl a more systematic sharin8 of weaJtb Ot tbey wiH break down in revoh and anareby (Wacd and Dubos 1972 295- -6) They Looked forward ro a sense of gLobal rommuniry 00seJ on he bope vf Irotecdon (from war aOO disaster) and the hope of enhancemenr (ecologic$1 as well as economid The ptlKtic~ and insrirutlofiS with whkh we are familiar inide our domestk sociecies would become suitably modlfied che basis of planetary oroer (Ward aOO Dubos 1972 297-8) This woold indude non~violent settlement of disputes witb legal arbirration ~nd polioacuteng ptocedures on an international basis jr would mea the Hansfer uf resoucces from rkh ro peor Ilnd inerCllSlaquo co-operaeion in arealt 5uch as health and edUcatIO farming uroon planning aud )JOlJution control As [befe halt been a shift of loyalty rom taroliy to dan from dan to tlation and from nation to fedctation there Wampll
hope clajmoo Wl1fd and Dubo$ for an ultimare lnyalty tuacute OUt single beau~ tifulllud vulnerable Planet Eanh (Ward and Dubas 1972 298)
Whilst the institutiona fmmework and organizational stfllCtuteS remain of necenity -ague in Oltl OM EaFtA iacutet is del( rhat the authors Wfre atming 11( a tlttwork oiacute world-wide fflnctionaUy hased organlzatiofll (both lOOs and JNGOs) char couId take on much of the work )JfCsendy done by governshymems o( rather whkh ougbt [O be dont by governmems UacuteJter writing-s have attempted (O deal wjth thc policy impliration$ of delllJng with )JrobshyJems globdly sroos (986) has poiacutenred en what 1w already been achieved in gtobal problem solving l1nd ha~ soughr ro buHd on rhis His critio have prunted out tha( what has already becn undertiacutelken has bren done more along rradicional Jntergovernmentallines (Donnelly 1990 121-30) Orbe writen have tied rubievemen[ in addressiacuteng [he global agenda more to renewed rutiviry in the UN (Rochester 1990 141-54) or to greater grass~ roots aud INOO acriviSffi Wget 1990 155-~8) Either way globaJj~m offeacuters a distinct W1ly of rackling the worlds ptublem~ It 1$ u ViIOIl thar sttesiexcles uniey and common (am( ntthet than disasreemem and roofrontashytion ir (ould thereIacuteore (oresce disputes being sruved inlernationally vety
much in (he way tbar chey are pre~ndy solvcd within tunny MtiOO iexclrares by more ro arbitratwn and Jaw and by entorcemenf ir neteS$il1) In this rhey have muh in COIDfllOfi wirh tire imerrnuiona lawyers iacuteUld idenlist writer of me eady (wenuacuteeh eemury mentioned at the beginning of tbu chaptet The globalisn are inspirecl jn rheir thinking more by ten Ot lt nudeal holocatlsr and by environmenml breakdown tnan by rhe duumleet elrpeshytieme uf wa dlllf aiacutefected rhe wricings of Woolf ol Ikierly
TIacutete globalisl appro~(h is opert ro the criticism of bcing roo idealistk jn a cynical world and lOO iIDpracrical in in uacutelstitutional sU8scsrioll5 Bur the di$mi$Slil oC rh~ words as globaloney cKleS HOt lid lite wctld oC che probw lems which hey have 50 effectively publiacutedzed They lutve uied to add anorIte dimensioacuten ro whar is possibte by showlng thar ie is nOCeSSiexcllty fOl rhe iexclurviwl of che planee
Tlle radical approach to the smdy oC iOternational orgllnizarions reflocu worIdmiddotvitws that normaUy lO beyond -dmse Jominated by rhe ltctivities of iexcltatcs or of LIte organizltuumlnns chemselves There is a sceprical view of whut is happeoing al soy one uacuteme in imernarional celarions and of he abilicy of mOfe cradicional wcifecs on imernafional cdarions ro explain let aJone llOderstand what is happeoing Ir is the feeling rhar approaches such ll1 (he MaNisr tlwt of rhe ideal theorisrs and some of rhe globuli~rs ur~ coming cber (O uodemaoding humanicys wider dilemmas rhar makes rhero so amactive They ar~ less Iikdy co apply rhemselves to rhe defais rutd wnrk~ ings oiacute p$cdcular imernatinnaJ organizations but neverrheless providt iotriguiog insighrs 00 [his phenomenoo by seeing rhem rhrollgh mol panoprk phHosophical lenses
SUMMARY
The rhree flIajor $chuols dealr wich io chis chaprer - the tcatiacuten the reformisrs iacutei1d che radical$ and rhe variarions (bey contain did not and do tlOf exJn iexcln a hiSforlcaj vacnum lde-as Wele foffilulared wirhio lhe COnten oiacute panicular sodedcs uoo in response ltO pUticular problems rbe communl (adom reYoludon of fhe nineteemb century the Finr World Wlli rhe rise of Nui Germany the spreading of nudeu weapons the deve1opmeof of plthitshy
$econd Workl War Europe fbe pnxeues of decoloniwion and deacuteteme rhe end oiacute the Cold War and rhe advaoce oiacute che inCormatton revolution In sorne CilSC$ the views oiacute rhose wdtings on inttmiddotrnational ocganUatlOHS have liad un efiecr on evenrs rhemelves pirlKulatly 00 rbe actitudes oC govetnrnents mwards tnternatiorW orgdflixauons AIl tXample is the work oC LecnarJ Woolf woose suggesnons Ctmceming a world organizatloo conttibuted lO fhe detailed preparnion oC the Lague oC Nations by me British goveltr mene Likewise Hans Morgeruhau and EK Can provided seimuli fot infiiexclrmoo US and Btirish governmcllul rhinking abom inrerruuional rela~ tiom iexclrom the 194Ck onwards In mher cases rhe general writings cJ persons lgtuch as Marx Leoin Mao Tse-tung and che dependencia school have affecred
rhe poJirk1ll dimare wirhin which govemmcncs conduce rheJe poUcy iucluding thar wwards jnternaclorull otgauj~atjon$
Orber ruCfOf$ aplft froro their historial cuntexc Iuve affencd the views of rhe schunl$ rncntioned They have differint backgtounJs io cheit ideruogy (Wesrero commllniSf Third World radical environmenralisr) and in theit level of $nalysis of inrernarional rebtions (stare Centuacutec inretesr aoo rramna~ dona groups cLitraquo dominanr global) This a(icca the typC oC inrernatiacuteonal organizariacuteon dominam io their studies (IGOs INCo) auJ thcic 8eograph~ kai $rea of interest (the Nonh Adandc Europe ThinJ WodJ Ot global)
TIte range of wcitings about intetnational organizarions has ull dte whole teflecfeJ wiJec llooersundings of imetoational ceJarions and wuumltld polidcs These io rhernselves have fed 00 tbe gtVidc iacutellccUecmal fcnnent and on developrnenrs in world affiuacuters Viewl about iacutellteftlational ocgsnizatJoos wiU continue ro take accOlnt of the ince1leeruaJ debate ill the studjes oiacute polishydes internacional re1atioO$ philosophy ecooomics imematluacutellal uw sociology histoty and geogrilphy They will also reflecto among other ampcton che stntcegk balance in tbe world [he relafIacuteve power of tiJe United Stares aod oroer nares me scate of wotld markers [be pto-ess uf Euwpeiexcliexcln tlllegrashytion che relacive positloo of the developing warIdgt iexclbe levd of cootlicc througbolc the world fhe -ratC of dte environfneot and the ahility oiacute huge StatCS to wiacutethswnd cenrrifttgal force Tbe way tIacuteult imematiornal organiuiexclshydons ret1ect tbese developrnents and tIacuteleir t1Ipability lO deal wich some of them will provide (he tllW fiWifcrial foc funue smdies
122 Writings Q11 ifftmlailJltdlorganiza1om
In summary Hans MOfgentbau accepted chile inrernationaI orgllniexcllAtAacuteons have a place in intematinnal re1ations dlOUgb he was cardUl not ro QW1tate eheie imJXIrrance in [he match foe powet and peace in rbe worId He SltlW rbei comribution as beinp moJes (lf)(j as part of de geueral intercou~e hetween sraces and [heie gt1vernmcnts and be rve no real consideration ro internashyrional non-governmental oeganizations iexcliexclurthermore funcriacuteonalin(ernational organizacions whibt teCognited as bcing useful were nor given any pardcshyula role in snlvin~ the probkm of peaee Hven the Unired Natiacuteon~ WJ~ only given credence In dlis context as tbe new serring foc the old tethnic-iexclues uf diplomacy Morgenthau 1960 497)
TIte real1sr or po_r polirics schools view of inrernational orgMization is Open ro (hree truljoc (fiLieiuDS Ficst ir could be dairned rhar froro a moral viewpoim he power politks SdlOOl is gready lacking as il accepts too tasily the status que iu intern3tional politics and does nm allow iuternacional organizacions a posirive role io oeating a better wodd Howevct this js to fOrger chat in the writings of a number of cbe realisc schoo - Carr Schwanenberger 300 Niebuht - dlEtC Js a moral and oflen Christian 1lSpecL Hans Morgentltau WIllI use as CQuterned with the moral aspecrs of polidcs as were his contemporuies who rejtftoo the power politics prKepts The deptb of his concern can be sceo in his buok Tnh rmd Pouer Emraquo JI a DttttJe 1960-70 (Morgentltau 1910)
Second tbe whole tealisr school rypified by rhe works of Morgcuthao can be challenged exactIy 00 its major daim name1y Jts teiexcl1Ilism To what extent does (he $chool ofCet a useful descripdon and explanation of lnterna~ uonal reladens Valtiexclquez (979) has oudined how internacional relations anides published pnor to 1970 were dominated by rbe re-tlist paradigm yet their bYPQtbescs provtd 00 he inacrumie and even dld less weU than oonshyreglist h)pQrheses in tbeic prtdictive power Such findiogs tend to undermine me sneogth of wbat has becn the dominam internarional relashytions scboal in Western llCIldemia and suggest that alternadve paradigms shyfoc example tbe Maolsr aud me trnnsnadonal - shtuld be glven more tlme aOO comideratlon This questiOlling of tbe power pOlitkgt schoos work mus then libio mise doubts abonr their rathel dismissive rreatment oE iotemashytional organiwtlons as oong marginal in intemational reJatiQflS
Indeed OOe of the major uiticisms of me chools rceatrnenr of 10laquot011shydonal orgliohiexclitioru bas beelJ iu emphasis 00 high pJiicics tbe qUt5tlOO of peace and Wiexclir 00 che ncglen of low politics SlKh as economk cechnlcal and cultural relatioos lnrern9tionlil organizarioos are secn juSt as iustrushyrnents of policy fur lItates inrernational non-gQvernmental urgaulzarions are hardly oon~iexcldered Nowadays a neglect of econoroiiexcl relatioos and lNGOs seems atl eveu greatet Qmission
lo deenee of his acritudlt it should be rernemhered that most of lhe power polirics wridngs occurred before he ma$$ive exparuioo oiacute lNGOs froro the 1960s onW1llrds The scbool is roorecl in tbe reaction to rbe infir~ micy uf tbe Western democmcies when faeed by Hitler and Mwsolini in lite
WitaacuteKl O iJlt1tatioflal organiUiexclfiqm 123
1930s and i[ found its feet in tbe immooiare fIIl1r- war Cold Wac periodo Ir is riterclOre undentandable cbal ir stces~ high puliexcltic~ and is andpathcrk (O
inrernarional otganiutions wbich were Ken tu be conrtec(ed with [he discredited League oiacute Natiacuteons 4nd 1u inteUeaual sllpporten O wim the original intemioos of rbe United NatlooS bcore these were sulernatecl by Grei1( Power dmension
Neo-naIacutells
TIle Output of me realim tlagged in chc 1970s rogerher witb [he giobtll power of the United States aOO in the [ace 01 nCwapproache ltO the srudy of intemarional rdacions The neo~functiexcl()llalist and interdependencc braoches of refurrnisr approaches (sce nexr section) seemed tO have tuen iacutemu account rhe rise in uamnational non~stare elemenl5 in international relatiumr and rhe imponancc of economic factors in relaLlonS actoss internadonal frontien
By [he 19805 another brand of realinn - the neo-realim - had Jigcsted rhe ncw clcments in intcmattonal relllti)n~ and reasltiexclerted some mmiliar aspects Pcrhaps jn ralQrtIC to tbe reer~iexclon ro naditlonal seturiacutety thinking by the Reagan administtation in thr Unired States these authbrl tended ro stress the conflictnal nuure of jntemarional affuirs tbat this rnnfljet Wu prtmarily between nation iexcltates in the modern world and that power and security was a prime nmsiderarion in human morivafIacuteons (Gtlpin 1984 227) lhe new ciernent jo rheir writing is a manet of S(1l1 debate (Baldwjn 1993 Kegley 199 Keobane 1986amp) bu( rbey bad in common ti de~ire for more intellectual rigour in theit work [han eme of the old retlshyises a willingness ro deal wirh telltions in 11 wodd where US hegemony was in qllestioll and a pttparedness tu include econurnj( fumiddotton io tbeir cakulashydons
How then did the oeo-realisrs rccae imeroarjonal organizatioru 00 the wbole (bey vicwed [hero witb tbe same jaundiced eye as did Morgemhau Imernational QCRinhatiooll were SCen as instrumencs of atate policy at most COrnmoo lorurns Their role ns independenc actors in [he iuteroatinnal syttem was not somechiog thl1 most uf the neo-r~lisu readUy anepted lndeed [beir doyen Keuneth Walu furcefuUy reasserter the pn~idoo oiacute th sovereign Stolte in internarional poli rics
fO a theory that demal the central role oiacute states will be nttded fmir if non~tate KtOrs develoi ro me poim oiacute rivaJling or SllrpRUing che great pOWCfS nor just a iacuteew uf tle minot on~ Tbey sbow 00 ign ofdoiog diexcliexclu
(WaI I98Go 89)
Waltt like others such as Gilpin (1981) Wall nmcerned wirh intetnashytianal pnlitics srructured by rh uneven distributinn of pOWCl lnternational instiexcltuttoilS therefore ftflecred rhe realities of [bL~ ~iexcltuation aod rhe major intematinna organizarioo5 llorliexcl as cbe U uited Nations Ol rhe Bretton
124 Writings JIJ iflJm1UtirmalIilgJ1liza1iofll
Woods iostitudons conld be eXpampted lO bear he imprinr of rhe maln bege~ monic power (in t~e CtlSes rhe Uoitw Srores) lf rbey rrled m brmk away from duacutes snaicjacker ~ as dlrl rhe otueraI Asscmbly of (he uumlN in he 197)s - fhey would find dxemselves lgtide-rnlCked by tIUt power
Tbe neo-reaiJSts accepred [har hegemoni( JXlwer could aru1 woukl decline bm wCfC les$ abJe ro deal wuumlh he consequences of rhis decline 00 rhe srruc~ tllrt1i uf iuternari01lal reJatious How mishr [bey (induding iowtnadolUll orgBnizatlolls) change aCrer hegcmony lt was ro thiiacutel (udtion rbar Roben Keobane uddressea himself He firiexclt wmited ehar Realism is patdcu1arly weak in accoundng foc ehange espc(iiexclJly where rhe sources of that chanse he in rhe wodd JOlirical economy oc in rhe domesdc srructures of smtes (Keohanc 1986b 1)9) He then referred ro his own eadie wooo un mrnpln interuependence for iospiradon CKeohnlle 1986b 160) He saw rbe (d lo $upplemenr though nor replace JeltlliSf wricings wiexclrh theoeiEs and be sHtSSCJ rhe importance of smdying inrerruuional inslitu[ioru which in particular would oeal wirh the question of how co-operation can cake place io wotW polidcs without hegemony (Keohane 19A4 14) By the early 1990s Koohllne fOUM a synthesis in elle iosriturionalist argument thal oormws e1ement5 ftcm hoth liberalism and teiexcltlil111 (Keohane 1993 271) Thi assumed (har sutes were rhe principal Qaors in world politics and acrm in rheir own self-inrerests hoth traditional eenli~t tenen Reiative capahilides - how power weaith etc was distributed berween the various nares - was impotcunt and S(Rtt5 had m rely on rheir own jUrlQns ro ensure rehuive gatos fmm coopetatioo From the Jiberal side Krohanes insrirutiQruUacuteism borrows 11 greater empbasis un the role of inrernatiunal jfl$rlIIriacuteoru in changing COnceiexclllons oftdf-interese (Keohane 1993)
During [he period from about 1945 ro 196S iexclntetna[ional imuacuterutions werc shaped by [he prevaHing American hegcmony Keohane identified as a problem the ledme in reronrces dllll lIacutele tilliced States governmellr had beeo wiUing ro devore tU the roainreoance of chis system (especially tU economic a~pect) siacutence he mid-1960s As US hegemony dedined rhere would be sn increased need for intematiooal ftgtgimes - scrs of rules norms and insrimrions ~ so [hat states could rub aJong mgether Keohane saw the regimes lefr by American hegemooy as a good scanillg poinr for future coshyopecatiiexclO and thought thar [hese should be adapred tu roCCt [he needs of (he new sicuation (J 984 244~ 6) This woulo ar leas[ make co--operatioo possible provide information foc all abotlr pnlicies inteor1ons aoO VIllues and woutd creare a depeudabiUry in intemational relarioni (Keohane 1993 259)
Keohanes wOrk has bccn critiacutecized by che more staunch feO-realistl Joseph GriecO 0993 301-38) provided a compreheruivc refundon of Koohanes leanings ro a more liberal positioo and rherehy advances a classic sratement of neo-fcalist conceros He admirs bar iU$riacuterurionalism has made imponam cOfluiburioru ir lIDs shuwo bow the dflilrchicaJ SlfUCture of iexclntershynationaJ rdarioru has Cfillted the problem of chenins fo lmerruuional
wnlngs 1m nf1hJUQrlai O1ffdl1lzamJ1U 1)
cooperario1 Setond ie has focusm on how lnternatlonal instirutions help srares manage thar problem and les symptoms Thioo they have caused che neo~realistS 00 look more carefully ar rhe relarive gains problem ihis is (he case where states are less concerned wirh rhe absolure gailll than with theit gaios ser aside [hose of orher srares which are seen as porenriaL riVus In other words le is beuer to agree tO an ums contml Healy allowing yOlJf
iexclrare ro build duee extra missiles and youe 0l1JXiuent lO build two exrra missiles rhan tu tolerate a situatiou wbere you can build five more missiacuteleiexcl (a better absolute gajn titan rhe [hree) bU your rival cnn buHd iexclnen (they have a stronger relJirive 81ljn mmpued wirh the arms control iexclreiexcliexclty outcotne) FinaJly neo-tClllim have had (O re-assess cher views of rhe signifkauce of intetnatlonal instirucions in rhe sysrem
This view of inrernarionaJ irutirutions entompasres the oeo-rett1ist IJndersranding of (he role of imernarjonaI uumltganizatioos in the international ~ystem As mendonw he realins view thero as insftumenrs oC rhe sovereign litates Neo-reaJisc$ have rehued rhis undersrandiog by poruuying tbem as refleecias che hegemony of the mese J70wcrful membe1l They can airo provide forums wirh [he poremjJi1 to be SOmewhaacutet more efficient than trnditional diplomacy or iHeguLu mnferences though a danget comes wheo they try ro he ilCroCS in ffieir own right Tbe successol1 of rhe tradimiddot donal realius such as WaltZ (1979 70-U and Mcaubeimet (1990) saw rhe EUlOpean Uo1on ptedecessor che Europeall COrnmunities me) as flour~ ishing because of rhe bipolar diviolioo of Europe by rhe USA and he Soviet Unl00 dudng the Cold War The txpecrarion was fhar with rhe end of che Cold War the Be pooject wnuld nor advance bur rache sink ioro disuse T1lltlugh the EC fiued n nurnher nf c-rlses in rhe early 1990s ir dld transfotm irsetf iexclmo the EUnlpean Unjon (EU) wich ao Boonomk and Monetary Union (EMU) 11nd a Common Foreign and Security Poky Grieco (1993 331) expIained rhis in tetms of $tates mnstitnting rollaoorariacuteve rules for a commen interese with the wCllker stares reying to consrrucr rules rhnt aUow them effenive volee opportuniries to ameLiotate tbeir dOJrunation by srronger partners Tite weaket states - sueb as Bdgium Portugal ot even France in rhe EU - wefe trying ro bind cbe stmoger Gcrmany in his (middotIl-~e lmo a form of relationship that avoids dominatioIL Crlieco (l993 335) admirtetl thaL realism hll-~ JIDC offered aIl explaoarion fm che tendeo(y uf sram tu undcrrake their coopemrion rhrough iftrituriOJiexclaited instirutions
This chaUenge has buo taken by those who nave ioaeasingly sought tO
liacutenk a fiiexclidy reaJlsr uudetstanding of wodd polides with domestic pulirles in the lcadifl8 stace actors An tlCamplc 15 Joho Richarelss Study of che regulation of dte inremarinnnl vlatioo marken in which he daims tO
refine rhe ffalm understamUugs of power io iexclmernarional bargaining 0999 33 BasiOlUy uationaJ po1iriciexclan~ Ut$te and susmin International inuJtudons induding intefflaacuteuacuteonal nrganiacutezations ro maxlmise domesshyti poliriud advamuumlge ltRicharda 1999 9) His conrendnn is har
l-V H~giexcl iexcllJJ ltifffltIltlUImal lIfglaquonlMiffIU1fJ
internatIacuteonal iusti[U[ious wiH be created whcn they are politicaUy effishyoacuteenr (mat is inrrease eleuoral support) Cor natiooa poHticians (Richards 1999 3) Rithards rejeces a loHective goods approach tO intctrtatlomuacute iuscirmiollgt (such a~ that ofZacher and SumID 1996) that See$ such insti~ clltiom al cHrrecdng lhe working$ oiacute che market internuJonally antl rherefore produciug econQmic benefirs all n1l1Od However he alro tejelttS rhe hard realist approach that daims rhat instltl1tions including internashycional organizatium merely reOeltt the power tap4biHtles in rhe international system altiexcl in Kra~nermiddots statement mar srronger Haces have simply done what they hiexcllve plea~edmiddot 0991 337) Richard srill claims rhat international imtitutlons iexcllre the iacutenstroments of stateS Because $ueb inscirucions as the internationill organiradons (hat regulate mtetoational rravel definc property rights internatiacuteonal1y they alter che marketplace leaving gains for sorne and losscs fur others This beJng ro [he building of such iexclnstirutiollS inrernationally is oound lO trigger a fiexclerce domestic political batdc (Richardll 1999 9) Thus whac happens ro and in internashytional otganizadons can be usoo by domestk politkians ro maxiacutemize eheir OWIl dmnestic advanrage This is a view that may attrac( supporr within the Ulliacuteted Srarcs though may be less reSOllant in sorne of the smaller and weaker ~tales
A similar view hdu bcen takco by the liberal intergovernmcotalistll who havt examined the European Union (EU) Moravcsik (1993 1998) has pcimoo (raquoIr tbar governrncmal strtttegies withiacuten tbe SU havc becn domi~ naced by preferences and power Cooperatiun and integration wete rhus seen as usefu strateampies if tbey furtltered a governmenrs control over its domesric alfalrs and agenda Moravcsik rhm ste$ the EU as a succc5sful imecgovernshytnelUal regime desigued ti) manage (conomt intetdcpendence rhrough negotiated poticy ctM1tdinatioo (1993 474)
The neo-res1i$tS have becn auacked OH many ground~ not leaJIt fO provIacuteltilng no WVIoce on toe works of che old realuumlt ($Ce AshJcy 1984) Like their reatist predecessors (he predicdve powcr of rheir work hal betn dlUacutelenged particulady their inabiUty (O foreste the eod uf the OJld War tand oiacute the Suviet Union (Scholte 1993 8) Scholre also cuacutetlcizs fhem fur nO addressing global iexclssucs $uch as welfnre questiorn ano poUucfon thar domishynate the world uf rbe late tweorieth and eurly twenry~first cenruries This questioos rbe descnpttve ability oiacute the oeo-realisu tS what (hey descdbe an) more (C$isritmiddot tllan thett realiacutest predelaquoSSOrs They have on rhe wbole OOen as unintere$laquod M cheir predece$sms in rIacute1f ro1e of interoatinnal ofRaniurioos The main exceptlon undl the 1990s wu Robert KeltiexclIacutellilne whose earLier worb en intetdependence stcved hun well no rIacutelar Sfilre Evel hee the critidsm can be made rha his view is b41skaHy conservative and was concerncd iexcljede iexcleh the incerests of (he Thiacuterd World Sorne of rhe Wrltel1l no economic coopshyeratino and integrauon fU tlle 1990s a(cepted many ol the nco-realiu assumptiacuteons aoout natiQna1 UlrettU$ ln Illternatllmal o~iratlon The) bave brought 00 the OeM a more refmed vlew oE rhe relatioacuternhip between govern-
Wrltingr tffl inttntaJumal ~ruZaJlflf1 ti I
menn and inrernarional orgHnizatioru and have Ieft behiod he Cnld War reain empoosis 00 the mijitruy ilSpet-ts ofpower
REFORMISTS
Tile n-alist wciters despite theit diftering valuatioos of the worth of cenain intematlonal organizstiltms have in rornrnon a state-centrk approoen ro intershyoational reiatWIlS 1bough liOIlle were CQnremed tbiacutelt govemITlents shoold renect more he (iacutenevitably) good lntentions uf their dtizens in inrerruttonmiddotd affiUfl or rbar world otgmizarions shoukI have more power (O detll wjth warlikt ()t reoegade Stares tOOr nus of artentioo is the internacional govem~ mental otganhtaacutetIDn (lOO) A nociceable devclopmenr in internariona reladons literawn inu the Second Wodd War has been (he movement away [rom mis 5tate-centred view towards ooe tIacutelat admits the impoarune of intematioroal atmiddotWrs iexcliexcltha than tite sovereign SUte 1bese indude lGOs in tbeir 0JIffi right (rnrlwr than as meeting places or inmumenn of thcir rnember tare) lNGOs trnnsaatJoual otgllnizatloru polirical group5 aod individual dtizeru Although many pl1blkadmlS just desctibe tbese new phenomena whkh llaVe herome more aniV in rhe last iacuteotty years [nere 15 a1so iI prescriptive erement to sorne oiacute [he writings They ttnd te prescribe incrmsed non-srare Jrtivity in inremashydonal relatiom ase a way uf underpinning claset relations berWfetl stattS ami socieries or undermining houlle anitudes by guvemmenrs (WeiS$ and Gordenker 1996 WlIlerrs 19~ Gordenker and WcillS 1998) Whilr this general reformist viewpoint is similar to reall~t approaches in aooopting the importafl(e uf the srate relatjons in incernational polit1cS ir does no( aoept eiexclrher fhe monopo1y oE rhe state in tbe sysrem or mar litatfS are unimry talional actors In surnrnary tbe leey aJlpeltrs of a reformist ilppftmdl to intetnational rclashytions indudes n number oE rbe folJowing
1 ihe belieE in reason in human nature and in progres$ [he [requency and level of war can be redocoo fur example
2 Inrernauumlonal relatioru can be moperative rather toon confIirtrW 3 Though seates are imponam in inrernarionaJ Ielations rhey are IJoOt [he
only aCtofS 4 ampates are Q)t ulUacuterary iexclI(tors wirh their dedsion inrematiacuteonally reflecting
intemal divisions aoJ interests They dv nve therefore neccssarHy muimize the interesrs oE che stare
~ The internacional s1gttem espl(bHy pires of iexclt comairu the elemenrl uf international society ano relies on a wriety oE international institutiollS indudjng inrernadonat Otgltlniution
The refurmist approach to the srudy (lf intemntional reladons hase conse~ quences fOl [be roruiderafIacuteon of interniexcltrnmal Otiexcliexclalization~ ano has made a notieabJe conuibwion to the lit(llIr~lre on the subjctt especiall) since [he 19508 Hnwever there is a bockgtotlnd ro the aboye idea~ char can be ICen in
j 01 Wnlmg 1m l1f1eOkllttmal urgJmuJugtnJ
me esdier writifl8~ of Grmiw Ladre Hentbam 3nd l(uiexclc (Jwkson aoo amprensen 1999 108-11 VlOtrl and Kaupi 199t) 200-4) Ao undet1randing of che curren refutmtst appruache1 ro inttmational otganiUitioos um be helped by reiacuteerente ro SOUlt of the WI1tets on internacional law wnich wiIJ mrm one section beLow
lnlernatIacutetmall8wyers
Mueh of rhe lirerarure abour mrernatioual organwoou$ 1$ descriptivc ltiren detiing with several organizacions aM giving purricuw eutpha$is te tite League ofNarioas and UN sometimes dealing with one organiacutezadoo swn lIS NATO me OAU Of rhe EU Leading woru in trus area 1m those of the intetshynariooal lawyers who give particular ronsidemcion ro rhe cowlimtiacuteoru of international organizaoons thei legal penonaliries aoo institucional probshykm Indecd ic was pmbably lhe P~ ltgtfuw ar amplinburgh Universiry J lorimer who fin coined the e~ionmiddotiexclnrernatiooal organization in 1B67
Contributions (Q cbe study of internarionai organizacions llave been made by Britisb legal exptm and bisfOrians 50ch as Zirnmern in his iexclrudy The Uacute4g~ JI NaJimn an4 the RMk of LnJiexcl (ZJmmem 19gt9) and J1 Buacuteerlys comparison of rhe newly emerged Unuumled Narions wirh rhe suurwre aod aims of lbe then dying Ieague Brierly demonnrated a strong preferenn~ for fbe inrrusioo of international law iOfO etonomk ilnd sndal affpjn gttl dat rbe generic grievances of sures ma) be removed (Btier1y t946 9n Hersrh laurerpliCht published Tbt Dwefpment ()f lntmwlftmal lJw by rhe Permanml CfJkrl el l1iImJ4lifJNiexcl-1 jllJtia in 1934 and [his was later marched in [he Ullired States by Judge Manle) O Hudseos Intmwt]iexclmal TribltllfJuacute PaJI
qniexclJ Plfum (944) WilfrEd ]ellki [be ugai Advlscr to che lLO CUIIribured noe jU$ 00 chilE organizarIacuteon (Jenks 1962a) but abo mote genernl wodcs 00 iarematiol181 orgaruzarions (leaks 1945a 1945tl 1962tl) 1 le stressed (he need [O IDaH) [he craf[ of tbe imernational lawyer wuumlh rhe Pludence uf che polirician tO develop an effective s)stem of incernadonaJ orgafiUBtion
Institutional developmeru 15 primarily cbe responsibiliry of staCesmaDshyship ir muS[ be gnided aud cootrolled b) a [fue appreciarion of political forces Tbe greaccst oflegal uadirions is still to be crearEd irs cexmre wiU be largely ltlefermined b) rhe qnaliry of [he crafesmanship which inrernatlonal lawyers place sr the disposal of sracesmen during me next geaeration
(Jenks 1945a 71-2)
laltor imernarional insrituriom cexebooks were pmvided by rwo Europcan intemalional lawyels Henry Schelmelll Professor of law at lIte Univeaiey of Amsreroam restricted himself tuacute inrernacional instuumluttonal law wbicb by roncerning irself wirh [he srrucmre and functions of inrershy
~h~ bullmiddotff~ V_middot ~f_lt~V_
fliUional organiexclttttlonstries ro explllin [he present developmem and ro promote he harmonious growth of lnafniexclldQual organization (Schermcfs 1972 2) He Jodt wim rhe partidpants in lmernadonstl orgllniexcl~lltion8 tbe general roles ror their crgaru and me activities of these Orgllus from prirruuHy a legal viewpoinr A similar approacb was adopted by rhc Bririsb iacutenternat1oniexcll1 leglll eJtpen D W Bower( whOie book Tht 14W QI lnlmwIacutePMJ lmtiJlflilJrll (970) placed grearer emphasis on pflrtkular insrishymtions - he Lcague thc UN and in spedalized ageucies che regional organizarions rile juriacutedical iacutens(iexclmdons - as weU as dealing wirh general questions such as t-he internattoual pcrsouaUt) of che organizarions and their impac( on (he doctrine of (he rovereigll equalit) of srare5 Por a blend of sociology bistoty and luretnarioOllJ lpw che work of Paul Reurer Professor uf lmernatioual Iilw pe Pileis Univcrsit) is UB$urpassed In Inml14tionaJ bmitllfiom (1958) he examined che phenomeoon ol imemashyt10nal orgaruzadon rather tban jUS( the orgilnizations and insdtutiun~ auJ thererore speut sorne time on the uature of imernariolllll ~je[) [he erigias aud foundarions of iuternational institutioll$ lS weU iexcll$ rhe posiacutediexclm of Staeeg in international society
Sorne post-Cold Wllr studies nave moved uWily from wruu tllto regllrded as csoretic descriptions of che 111w (Kn aud Djehl 1998 3) aud have insread examinEd intetnatiomJ I1lws iacuteofluence on poLirIacutelal behavior (Ku ampnd Diehl1998 3) One of rhe buses of tluch au IIpproach iN chat imtornashytionaJ organiUltions nOIl-governmenral orgllnirpriOfl$- multithltiJllUl corporations aud even privare IndividuaJiexcliexcl have come ro pliexcly Illl iexclIlcrelljiexcling role in intematioual rclations and accordingly international legal tules have evolved co engage rhese oew accors (Ku and Olebl 1998 3) Tnternarional lllv is seco both as au operatillJ system and a normative system for internariacuteona relarionll Algt the fotmet it 5eu the genernJ proshyceclures and iacutensticudons toe the conduce of incern11ltlonal relatiolls lt provides che framewotk fu estllbllshing rules lInd UOI11lS oodilles be parilmcters of interaction ancl provides (he ptocedures Ilnd furums ror re~lvlng disputes among those taking part in tnese intecllCtiacuteOO$ (Ku and Diehl 1998 6~7) As a nOttnative S)stem iuternatiouallaw giexclves rorm ro lhe aspiradOlu anu vlllues oE the partkipants of the system (Jr) is 11 proJuct oiacute the struttlltes Ind processes thar make up rbe opernting ~ystem rTt1 tllkes on a principaU) legislativc chamcret by mandating particular valueg IlnJ ditetting speciiacutek chllnges in sure bebaviQr (Ku Ilnd Diehl 1998 7) Mote tradiciunal appr03Lhel tO lnternatlonallaw rendlaquol tO de~(ribe che role 01 imelllatiuuaJ otgauJutiotu as pan of the opcradng sySLCm Legal texu pllblishcd in he laSt decade Ot so of (be rwcnrierh centUry looked lncteasingl) ae the position of inrernatlonal urganilations middotw
nor leas [hose oiacute the UN system - in a nurmanve framewnrk especiaHy in functional areas such as human righn (AJston 1995 he envilOumenr (Kin 199M) [be global commnm (Jo)ner and Manell 1998) and wOlneiexcluacute issues (Berkovith 1999 Wrighe 1993 1)~g8)
130 Writingi (f1I iexclktnati~nal I11glttftiZAtitlrlJ
Intecnationallawyers have airo given exteosive comideration ti particular instimtions The League Qf NatJons attlacted special attention as lawyen played an imporunt role jn J~ dmfting and as it had as tU aims che pmmotion of international c(K)perntion aoo the achievement of iexclnrcrna~ tionru pcace and eturity
by the ficm establishment nf the undersrnndings of imemauacuteonal law as tbe actual rule of condun among Governmenrs aOO by the maintemtnce of jnstice and a scrupulous mpect for all treaty obligations in the dcl~middot ings uforganised peoples wirh one another
(Preamble to tbe Covenant)
Furtbermoce the central pan uf che CQvenant dealing with the keeping of peace (Anide 12-16) OOopted a legalisck approoch in delining nn OCt of wu against all Ieapue membecs as being rewtt to war in disrtgaru of Anides 12 13 or 15 (Attide 16 (1raquo) In other wottb the cardina15in W$$
tbe breakiacuteng of rhe legal gretment mOOe wirh otner stares Imernational lawyeM in pIlrtkuar were ooncerned wirh how Iacutenlernarional IacuteiexcllW might be agreed judged ane enforced in lhe jnter-war perIDd lhey turned much of their atrention to the anivities oC che Permnnem Coun of Intemational Justice arul lhe league of Natlon5 Judge Hcrt(h TaureIp3cbc foc eurtlrle ronsldetetl rhat aH Jntemlltional dispures were justiciable and thus open (O
soludon by [he judicial process in internacional law He considered tbe League tu be useful 5tep in the development oE inrernational law and be sanctions 1I1lowcd Cor in Anide 16 of [he CoveOilnt as marking tbe fitn step towws he collective enEonement uf internacional law (Laurerpacht 1970 9)
The league hOO iexcles advocates among orher lega writers AlCred Zimmern wriring io 1938 set Lhe Leagues activjties and institurions against che backshydtop of the gathering 5tOrm io Europe He still found much ro ~y lor ir it had rkveloped 2ru1 expanded tbe old iquestiplomaric ystem bad enrouragro wshyoperation in many ateIlS ane $r leur represeotecl iexcllfi artempt to ellminate WIlr even duting a period of whar Zrmmern caHed cmhquukes (Limmero 1939 491-509) Lord Robert Cedl one oC the fuunders of rhe League as weU as a lawyer and Conservative poHdcim admined when wming ln 1941 rbe Cailure of the orgamzation in preventing aggressive powers Neverdreless he hoped that iexclt would be reformulaced after bosrilities with a CI)ll of confederariacutean uf European tates the cenual objecr of which should be the preservatl(m uf the European peat e Peace in cbe test oE the world would Jepeod pretty weU on tbe then jusr~eltiexclsting Covenant wirh sorne small changes Cecil did admit rhat another piece of rnachinety couid do Iittle unless [he peoples allJ govemmeots cea11y tgtlt che enforcemenr nf law ann mainrenance of pealte as me firtr and grearen nadonal Jmereus (erH 1941middot 349-51)
The hopes of (hore ho yearned fur legal soludnns tO intemartonal
WrjlingJ 1m inffll7lltJfriexclftai rltgmiwtitln-iexcl 131
dt1putes dearly dcdined a~ the UN Charter wjth iacute~ emphasis on politica1 solutions to what were palideal disputes tepiacelti tbe optimist1c legal (otmula~ uf the League Covemutt The UN Chancr was not to be without tes Internationa Jegal romrnentaluts Indeed tWO early stllndard books on rhe UN are by diJtinguished lawyers Kelsen (l950) and Goodrich ti al (969) though the hmer have admitteu that when iexclnterpreting [he ltlwrter
since rhe responsibiliry for interpretadon is VC$ted in Ofgan~ and memben alike che process is more iexcliexclkely to be politia than judishyoacutealDeciexclsiltm~ rend to renea lhe enmmon intetesu of members in achieviug cerratn results
(Goodrich If JI 1969 15)
Other legal commentators have placed emphllSis 00 [he role of jtlterna~ tional orgaoJutions in tbe development of particular aspects of innl11iexcl1tional ew ami again haltle secn tbe rleyelopment uf the rules aon notms of internashytiOfliacutell society ~ howeyer imperfeltmiddott - in tbese cases Examples are Kratochwil (1989) who who has written generally ou the 1mbject Jaebon (l997) and Thomas IInd Meyer (19J7) on the world tradins sysrern Kiss 11M Shelttm (1991) on Iacutentern8ljoual envttunmenral law aud Human Rights Watch 09921999) and Bianchi (997)on human r1ghu iSIuc
lnternaonalgotJt1tmenlfgwfINIJJlue
Anorber AmcriC3llegaI aurhority ayde Eagleton gave the Unired Nations a critJcal though romewhat undmtaning appreciarioll ~mmmiexclng np its dilemma thus Ir (he Uniled Natioru cannor do more than ir ha~ the ampult liacutees with rhe Memhccs wbo marle it and opcrllte it and who j[ SfflIW slaquon preret the tootb aOO the fang ro internationallaw and order (Eagletoo 1948 552)
Eagieron placea the record (lf che Uoited Nations in thc context of irs predecessors in the hisroey of rhe gttlwth ofinternational govemmem and of iu legal and politica background He examined pmposals to achieve the inrernational government thff the UN ailed tu rt1tCh bm condueed chet fI chaogc in he attimdes oC Stares aud their pcoples JS neerkd fipiexclt (Fagl~too 194$ 583) Eagletons wnrk uuderlioed tbe point made by Evan Ltmm in his ntemd1ifma1 A~lIaacutetJ (977) that with (he existence of the UN and its lSSfJ(lated agencies many of che wodds prohlems are Ilor wirhout jmtiexcltu~ tions exercising authority over them The powers uf (his mnge of organizadon cau bc queHioned as Ciexcl1n chejr standing in relnion tn thcir rovereign state membera bur rheir exisrence in tne ptlStmiddotwiexcliexcl[ world ~ aud tbcir grnwth (rom their niacuteneteemh-cenrury hesinnings is a reality
Thi$ inrerese in [he 8rQwth of iorernariona[ governme(l( i tleithet new nor resrricted m the legal pmCeMion Oue uf the earlier publicauumlnru on tbe subject was by the writer leonard Woolf who Walt a fOllude uf the Fahian
132 WriJil1gJ (IfI htfmtaJIacutefmal argmitAJium
Socilaquoy che reformiu discusston group witbiu rhe British Ltbout Parry Wtiting in 1916 he omllned dJe exrenr m which imerllliootlal govem~ mene had been lKcepted rhroogh diplomade garfteaacutengs rhe use of public and privQce JmefOatwllru unions and che iocrtlSe iexcln commodify ugreemellts aad he PU forward plans roe che further teguJation of JmeroadOllal OCrltty lf war is (( be prevemed he elaimed states musr submir Q mUte intetuashy[jonal conrrol alld governmenr in their poJiticnl and udrninl1litrative rdadoru (laquooolf 1916 nB) He udvanred a Fabiao Cornmirree plan for nte Stipranaciacuteonal AudlOrlty cllat wiIl Preven War eiemenrs of whih fOllnd their way into (he Lea8ue Covenane aml whieh inhJt iexcliexcllid teCtJlllmended rhe estab1ishment of an Inrernatloclal High Grua an lntemadooai Coundl of sutes represenrnrives ami JO IOtelThldonal Seltreurjlil Woolf and his Fabiao coUeagues hoped dlar wirh rhis machiuery legal justiciable disputes wouM be 5ubmined ro rhe Cona Of a similar tribunal and orher dispmes ro the Couocil foc senlemenr with che patries rn he dispute ccnsmilned from warlike actjon fue a period of a year Provision was ro be rnade fur sancrions which ali sutes shoold pm inro open1rion lind al agfCltd tO make common cause even ro he exren( oC war against any constiruent Srue which violates thi$ uacuterndamentai llgreement (laquooolf 1916 233)
Woolf mgetIacuteltr wuumlh juriiexclu iexcluch IIS Hersrb Lauterpadu and Alfred Zimmern and British poliricaJ wrIacuterers like Pbiiexclip Nod-Baker LJrd Ceei and Gilbert Murlliy represented bmh [he praccuumlal and intdlectual mpponen ni lhe League of Natiacuteom in the interwar peuacuteod wbo were ouacuteen daified as iexcldealisrs or neo~rotiam Hedley Bul 0966 ~2 5) r1esnibed the rennal Grotlan assumption (named after (he seventeenrhshycentury lesal wtiter lIugo Grotiu$) as being rhat of the solidariry OI
porential solidariry oI (he SUtes comprising imemarlonal sociery wirh respect ro che enfurcemem of [he Law and Grodws basic crjredon of juse WI bt-ing fought in order ro enforee rjghrs a fimiofl dearly edwed in tbe Pabirin Comm1rrfts The Snpmnatlonat AuthorlEY rhll will Prevenr War BuH criricized rhe way ibis group lost sighr of intemarional polirics in rhelI preoccuparion wirh 10eroational1aw international otganization and intfoiexclniexcliexclriQnlll saciery
10 deallng wirh imefIUldonal marnti~y which rhey were indined ro confn$( wirh internarional law they eon[ribu[ed only a narrow and llflcririal rlaquorimdr whkh eKalred [he jnternational inreresr over tllujoual iexcllIrert~r~ (bnt wirhorlr asking bow rhe former was ro be detershyminel) mtlltiexcltimrimwl rdorm over revolurJon as [he meaflS of ll3lliCcndinA lhe soriely of sovereiNn states (bur without considering wfteher SUtCS cOllld OCcOIlIC [he agents of rheir owo ~rincriofl) and respcu fue legaliry oler [be neoo foc chaoAe (bur wirhour fdciflg up ro r~ mer that rh~ in(~rnadooal legal sys[em as (hey construed ir could nOl aecommodate change)
(BuU 1972 36)
Wrllingr on inlmralirmal ()fganiUJliofU 133
This J5 a teUing enough asseSSffiem of che idealim views includill8 [heir writings (tri imernarional oeganiurions HOWelef [he background of [he groop $hould be remerobeted they represellteJ a genemtion devastawd by the Finl World War ud whiacutecb wa~ used ro national suciery (early twenderh-teocut adtaio) lhat had henelired through institutional chal1ge and in whiacutech the rule of law had not preduJed remrro The k-gtgue of Natioo5 che Permanenc Coun of Illternuional J1L~tjce (PCI]) and [he 110 wen for rhem part of 1 Great Expedment to we Lord Cecil~ phrale
Wrirets in the last guarter of the twentieth century picked up and develshyopoo many of he omions current in rhe aoove Jirerawre aud srr~ed how iacutenrematiunal ioceocourse had heen governoo by a body of laws nl1~ lind feguladons ano by insdturions indlldifl8 internatiotlal organizatioO$ Though they llave kcpr rhe analogy with the domescic government of cirishyzens thef have preferred rhe terro internacional governancc demoosrrating thar such a system docs nOl hnve che son of enrorcemem powers expected of naticnal govetnmencs Notions of global governarue huve becn corered above whete tefereoce has heen made tU tbe idea of an imernarional regime (Pp 108-10) Thi5 concept helped bdng internacional olgsobacions iexclmo rhe wider titerarure abom inrernadonal cooperedon 11M governance in a srate of anat(by rneaning an absence of interOlltional governmenr with signifkant er[orcemem powers
In the early and mid~1990s IiHendon was agam wrned ro che manageshymenr of che internlitional environmem in rhe wake of the UN Confetence on Environment and Development (UNCED) al Riacuteo de Janeiro BnuiL gtlhe environmem seemed ro be a classk caudidste fur global governance pardy becl1use ir was glob-al and partly because of the range of instlwdons involved in iexcltS managemem In the words of Josepb Nye etTective intet~ narional envitonmental instltudoru thu$ helped w overcome sorne Ol (he rypical narional bordenecks tbar hiacutender cootrunated meusures to revene rbe frighrening trends of global environmental degradaLion llnd improve rhe possibiluumly of susrainable develo[lmenr of OUt plaller (Nye 1995 x) The assumprion of Keohane tt al was that whlle StateS may have difnculry ad~tessiexclng jmernationaacutel erlvitorlmemaL problems coopenuion betweeo governmen[$ couid hring dividends Eff(Xtlve intetnstiooaj 111stitutions wete needed which may take rhe form of internacional orgauuations rcgimes Ol informal conventlons They were seen in che woros of Maurlce Strong (Secretary-Cener-iexcliexcl ofUNCED)Ul rhe bllsic framework for 11 world sysrem of governance whkh iexcls imItJdve to rhe effective functionmg uf our global rocieey (1990 211 l2) The aim was pragmlltlC to see whetber rhe intemational josrjmrioos coveriug the environment had made a posirive difference especially in rhe polltiad iexcleid
Case rudJes were presenred (bar exploroo the impact oiacute inrenwiotl$l insriturions witb [hree conditions essenrja lor effecuumlve acrioo on the enlirOumem high levell of gownlflmtl bullmam a hospitable 1lIiIraiexcltttal t1Iy~
rrmmml suiliexcloacuteem poIiuacuten U1d ddltiniJtY(JJM CiJpacity in national
134 Wrftln[f 111 iexclttntntiona organiufif)lfJ
governments (Keohane tt al 199 11) The case s(Jdies Weuroe seen in rerms of agendiexclt selting internacional pnliacutecies and national policy ttJpon$($ (Keohane iacutef al 1995) The three authors wtJe aware of the strong influeDce of stare powers in iexclnrernadnnal institurions and of rbeie meagre result5 in sorne areas Nevetthees~ they set down three ronditions uoder whicn inrer ootional institutions can alrer (he bchavior of state actors and in turn improye environmenral qualiry (Keobane ti a 199 19) These afe
1 gnvernmencal concern has ro be higo enough [Q pmmpt the 1lte ufscarce mources lO tllckle tht problem
2 roere haiexcl 00 be a contllcrual enviroruncfit where ~tnttS make (rediMe coounitrnttlts and make iexcllOO keep lglremerll$ rhar incorporare joiotly enacted rules withour debflitadng fuAtof ftte-riding ur cheuting by othet1l
3 states should haw the pnlitical and adminimadve capaciry to make the domestk adjusrtnents necessruy ro implemenr international norms principies and rules (Krohane et al 1995 19-20)
TOe empha~iexcls -in chis view nf glotm govemance is on rhe relncionship becween rhe internuional anQ tIte Illlt10naL
Pan oE gJobtl govemsnce - ai noted in Chapte1 3 - are lnrernntional regimt$_ Thcampe are set- of implidt o explkir principies norms rule and del ision making proctdures arounrl which actors eJCpelttadons converge in a given area of internacional relatious (Krasner 1983 2) [1tey are subSu of irttetnational sodcey and its imtitlnions Imemational reglmes which are oft~o speciacutealitecl auangemenu limicer by function oc gengraphicaJ area are amngemcnts hat BoYe1n cooperative behaviour intetnatioOldly Thee are thus mure wiJely Jrawn than internatiunal organizations The latcer accurdifl8 ro one of the most profific wrltcrs on the $ubject Oran YounS 0989 1994) can boeh stimulate the process of regime formation nnd can htlp implement thei provisiuns (Young 1994 164)
Funuitrltdlisu
An eady bff~1c with the trmJtional view of international organizations based un the state-centriacuter mudel cm be seen in Leonard Woolfs book [ttltmatiltraquoldl
Grni-17111I Alrhough srilJ primarily coruemed wich interamptate relations and the questiolll of peace and secudry a sizeable BCniacuteon o( lis wriring5 rover governlnenral tlaquohoical and economk co-operatioo and INGOs
Ve are accustnmed to regard the wodJ as neady diided iexclnto compartshymenU caUed states or nationLBut chis vjion oiacute thewodd divided into iacutesolated compllrtmenrs is nor a cme reflection of fiu 15 as they exisc in a urge pottion of the etlnh [orlay
(Wnolf 19l6 216-17)
Writtng( (111 hmmatiacute(lrul f8grllliulinnJ 13
Snch a step pladng gre-iexcllter emphasis on non-star ime~natiacuteonal rtloshytions wa~ taken furrher in duo writln8~ o( me Romanian-bom aothor David Mitrany Mitrany ideas known iexclas the functiondisr appooruh lO
internuional politics were inspired by his early Iife io dIe Ba1kans He (ouoo much imelletruaI sdmuiatinn ofter coming ro Lundon in 1912 olld working together with Lennanl Woolf among otlters in the Ieagne uf Nations Society [he labour Pattys Advisory Commiuee on [nternational Arrairs and the Fabiexclan Socieey His (WO malor eacly worlca wcrc Tin PrtlgftlJ of lt1tmutt(IIId GtM1NmAnt (first pnbl~hed in 1932 rcprinted in Mitrany ([915araquo) and A WorklNx Pem Sylttm (fiCSt published jn 1943 rcpobHshcd jn 19(6) though he abu made a 1mbstamial nmtribudon in anides unril bis dearh in 1975 Many uf his writings tQgethcr with an amobiacuteographical piecc and In inuoouctjon are guhered fogefher in Tht Funcfuumlmal TwJry of Prdilia (Mitran) 1975) In his t932 work he omHued the nlnereenrh(intury growth iacuten intertwtJonal govenmcnt ajong similar lines as Woolf
The ninereenth cenrmy prodwed that amazing growrh in che mattrial equipment of (iiiiudon whifh weldcd the wodd togaher into (me organk whoiacutee making eaclt people a partner in tire Iacuteitte uf al The outwatd CXpelsiacuteon nf that change WQ5 the ~rance nf WQrld-wide popular movements and the making nf innumerabJe privare md public imernatjonal agItemenrs
(Mitrany 1915a~ 89)
Mitrany WiacuteI$ concerned thar (he rise of the fllidon-state and the insiexcl~tence of new statcs on che doctrine uf lluvereign equality when (bey were dlldy weaker and smalJer tban the Grear Powers hindered internacional lt0shy
operation in for example the cconomic lphere HowCer he 1lW rbar the fnne ofevents wu working agaiexcln~t sta~ism
No maeter what rhe size and shape of rhe particular community lo funcrions are such thar rhey haye to be organized and the fOrres and (crors now iexcllt work no longer have llny rroe telarion tlt) rhe uld pnlitkaJ divisions wirhin or withuJ( rile state The new functiom imposed upon our puliria instiacutetutions art compelllng 11 complete recomt(Ucrion of tile technique of govemmellt on a purely practical oosis 1 teach that rondU$ion by ming at the Illltset noto what is rlte iexclden form for an imtrnadonal $odetyiexcl but mher what are 1tS C$sential ftmctions
(Mitrany 1915a 99)
He claimed hat C$$cntially the nims of intemalional governmcnt were no diffcrent from dlo~e (lf municipal gnvernmenr w aCaJt equality bcfore the iexclaw for aH rnemben of the cnrnmuni(y and ro lrumote sodal jUlltict To expen [O achieve rhe first aim in inrernatlfllltliexcl sodely whefe 5talCS wcre
l ju WrJll1Jgs en mlWnal101tJf (iexcl(gamufJf)lJJ
nei[her eqna nor unchangiug uuiu would be unreascnwtc Ir woold be far more prncriC1iL ro cmnpromise rhis aim and CSLablish a League of Nations in which Grea( pQVeri woulcl he dirlltdy representelt Secondary Jitates woulcl have group representiexcliexclrioo afld malter ~tatet w()ulcl have panel repmentatioo At the same time sfCortdary bodie$ would be ser up in varJous pam of che world 11$ orgnns (lf regionJI grouptngs of Jitares artd (hese bodies woulJ be connected with and subordInare tO the new CCOtta League organs They wouiJ aleo be iexcliexclbie ro clesl wiacuteth problems mOle teaclily especially as the unanimity of aH srares would not be needed [Ol a senlemem
These suggesdom are noe (he novel aspeltts oE Mitran)$ work They are imponam in changing (he emphasjs away from the tighu of amptate wwards rhe dude oc lit ICllSt (he actlvJries of Hates Still the conccto was wth Ilrrllnging relnrioru netween snm~s In a paper $ubmitrecl ro che 8drish foceign Office in 1941 and in hi~ study A Wking Peaa Symm (966) Mirrnny wncenrrated on how che (unctioru of gOYernment might be cnrried OUt more exptdiriously He rtcognhed chllr withio liberal 1emocrati( stare~ [he Une berween whirh futCtions are Cflrried Out by pubtic and by privare aclioll was shifriog lIod that rhi5 line unde (he prel5ure u( (rt_ih social Ileeds and demands musr be Jeft free co move with rhem A similar demamuiacuteon existed in che terrirorial spbete interlla~ dooally wme (uncdons (eJ railway systems) could best be organized cOlltinenroUy some intercontinentnll) (e8 shippillg) alld some univcnaUy (eg aviation) However there would be no need for rigid patteros exccpe perbaps io tbe exercise of negadve (unctlons -- those related ro securi[y wberc more fotmal sacle lnstltuclOns WQuld be needeJ In (he field o( positive (unctiacuteoru (dw$C tdatecl ro economic eultunl and sodal affairs) he climensions ocgans and powers of any organiorion would be deler~ miacutened by the nature oiacute the funccton and would be fairly flexible Mitrany fmfSaw tbe tStliblisbment o( functional bodies wirh auronomous ta~ks and powers which wonld do thingl joiacutently Tbis wuulcllink aucborlry tu a specific activiacutery (hUi breaking llway foom the tradicional link between authocieyand a ltIacuteeftnire ~erritory Murany 1966 125) 11iacutes move wcmlcl avoicl he sreritity uf many of rhe wartjmt suggesdons fue posr-war (ecltrn~ tions O connitudonal innovariacuteon in rhe United Nacions whlch f~eteoacute 00 he opposidon oiacute sovereign sraee reiiexcltance Mitrnny hoped rhat che number uf internarional agencies (hat had exisred before the Serend Wodd War augmenteltIacute by the A11ied board durJng rhe war lrsdf wuuld u~rve u tbe ba~lS foc (he network oiacute inremarional gOvernrnent He quoud wlrb obviow appruval the wurd$ of an Amerltlln scholar J Payson Wild Jr 00 the varlOUS warrime experiments
The Hues between domesuc anltIacute iexclnrernational actlvlty ate blurred ancl nadonal adminisuatlve agencies of the Powecs concerned Smneshytimes engnge in domestk busint-1s and at orber rimes extend theit
Wrilings Ofl hllenJdUacuteoN1J org411iatiofJJ 137
(unctioru ioro rhe uumluernarionul sphere The resuh is o conglomerashydOn o( intermnional bwrd aocl domestic staf( whose dlties Illrermiacutengle Adminisrrnr1ve offtcers o( narional lmirs deal direcdy wirh rheir opposire numbers in orher S[1l[es WirhOlU benefit o( diplo maric intermediaries and simlllmneously perEorm borh nacional and intemational tasks So fu no attempt has been made en estab1ish iexcliexcl
super~State
(Mitrany 1 6 167)
Mitranyll villion is oE a world in wruch che functiollS of ~etyday $odal 1Jfe - transport healrb care rommunicatioos agticlllture industrial developmenr sciendfic developmenr and so on - are no Jonger assidl1ou$-ly carried en witbin rhe confines oE each sovereign iexcliexcltflte but ate underuJen across fmmiers on a tegionai cominental oc univetsal bflliiiexcliexcl These acrivjw des would be overseen by international Ofganizatioru which wOIJld be more like boards oE managemenr Tbe functional agencies of rhe UN (che no WHOgt FAUacute etc) already underrake urn ro~opetative t$Sks fIli do sorne non-governmental groupings of spedalisrs (League of Red eron Sndedell World Srout Movement etc) However tbe Une berween what has been done imernationaHy aOO dome$tkally bas tuen drnwn very much ro [he beneflc oE che latter and international activitid bave tuen riddted with politicel dispureoJ rnany oE which have liule ro do wlth me good manegemem of the (unction iexclnvolved Mirranys laquoheme would fiexcludually lOwtt rhe liue ro aUow more functioos ta be Citded OUt at rhe level where they wOrk more efficieruly and woukl proide managemenr of tbere funcshytions ra[her [han poHdclI1 interference Not onty would his develQpmeof beuefit (he general social welfure of the world ir would abo hcIl (O salve rile problem o( plaCe and security The LHliputian ties o( internacional fuucrionru co-operarion would piacuteo clown me giam of conflict weakenlog [he urge ro destruction and warfare by rhe promise of consmlctJoo and cashyexistence
The (unctional approach does nor focus solely on iorergovernmenral organizacion buc aUows for a network 01 spedaliuxl agencies roany uf which could be non-governmentaL Ir difftr in emphllSi5 ftoro che mainshystream craditionalis[ wricings and Mitrany~ work praaged a move away from internare relations 10 wotld politics Whilst the functiooaJ alpoolUh does not oReod against lh sentimem 01 nationaJity )t the pride oE sovereignty (Mitrany 1965 139) lhere is no doubl chat ir is meant lO weaken the i~por(Jloce and power of the middle roan berween rile indi vidual and a world communiry che sovereign scnre The feeling o( solidarlty enrounged by functionallinks 1s nor between states but beween people or assoclatioos of individuals Each of us is ill fuer a bundle of funCflonaJ loyalties so dWt tO build a wodd communiey upoo sueh a concepdoo is merely to a(eM artd consolidare ir also betwetn societies and grollps Micrany 15 14n
138 Wriling5 fin illttrnatiQJIa1 (ffanizatio1ts
Such IIn imaginative appruach tu wodd problems aud be mundiUlc hard~ working iexclapolitical role lt implieamp fOr interuational organizadons has its fiexclruIrs To ctiexclddu Mitranys functionalism as being impronica JS IUlfalr hoth because internlltionru functiornd links hllve grown espedaUy since the S~ World Warj and blaquoarue M1tranys approach is a gradual one he did OOE expeCt ir ro be adopted overnighr Even so ir cioes have certllin 11mbiexclshyuow a~pets which shOllld be criticany eDmined
Piexclrsr de5pite rhe refere-nce to possible regional fimnionalunmgement8 Mitranys pJans ron counter ro rhe notion of aU-embraciug regional organi utJoru such as the Europcan Communities now E~n Uninn (Mitrany 1975b 53-78) Whibt these organwdons roay Hnk their iexclamhotity ro a speoacuteftc activky $ueh as the conditloO foc running (he coal iexclaud steel indusshytries nr the agriculture of the EUs member states they sta hold w the rrnditinnal1ink betw~n authodry arul a definirt territory The cooJ and sr~l polkies or tite Common Agticultural Policy uf the BU are nor extended to tbe industries and fumen of other non-member countries who mar wish lO participate in theit ochemes Vet il can be argued toar ir is prccisdy in these iexclirnited geographicill blocs that flIlCtiOruJ arrnnscments are besr executed wirh limitations un mernhetship To wnrk propedy chemes must encompuss denned aras with a good deal jn common - the flexibility of Mitranys proposal wIQutd 500n break dOWIl )l the tnembers WlJuld have $O little in cornmon in fo cxampie the runnill8 of agriculture tbat coshyopetation would be dif(kulr or lloo-proouctiacuteve Furrhermore rhfmiddotse regional atrangemenpiexcl overcorne the problems of dedding the meaning hQundaries and consequtIlCCS of any particular function (Melaren 1985 142)
Second Mitrany did not really envisagc any piexclHejcal control of the futlCtiooal des between COllntdes mus distinguishing him frorn [he more traditionaliacutest approach lO inrernational orgaruwcions lle was hopeM dw the pmblems of roshyurdillltion between ronctionalagencies could be worked out as they lllOOe
To prescribe fOI the suke of [iexcladicional ne3tleSS somtthing more dennite han the guidancc and supervision of eg the Ecooomk Md Social Couooacutel W(lU1J be ro duron he whole conetprion from [he niftJo impollC upon them (funct-lonal bodiesJ a co-otdination authoriry with anyrhing Iike comrolling scuus w(luId be ro move again roWllrd$ that JiacutecumuJarion of power ar the centre
(Mitrany 196~ 143)
Thus [he institmions uf (he Eutopean ClJmmunitic~ - the Counoacutel uf Milli~iacuteers rhe Commission che Courr of Justicc rhe European Padiamenl dre Economic md Social Comlllittce - were al analnema fO Mitmny They werc juu miacuterrnring the poluacuteical COflffOh of lhe nation state ar iexcliexcl pa-n-continenullcvel anU according to Mirrany Continental unious w(luld have a more real chance thau individual suteS to pnletise the aurarky thae makes or division Mitrany 19(Kiacute 2n This may u((end
Witi1lf1 rm imernatilmalllrgaraquoiutifJ11J 139
agains[ lhe funcrJonalisu hope (r iexcliexcl universal apprOlltIacutel tu proble[Jls but (he abhorrence of policial imtitutions is lItrange wIacutelen [he funriona agenoacutees will aftee iln be mllkJng poHtkal decisions -- declsions roncetning lile aurhontative allocafion uf resources No only will iflfetnashytional functiunal transpon organizations established accordlng to Mittany have (O decide that cerEain areas wiH bt weU served by railways and Wds orhers llOt iexcliexclorne ports bujjt up others ieft to tlceay sume airlines expanded whlle rnbers are allowed ro fOllUact blt deeisiow wilI have ta be made on how w diexcl~tribu(e 5carce re~ources betwccn fo example iacutenvemtlent in transpon ur building more hospitals or restfllcturing rhe srecl Jndustty thwughour (he area eovered by [he orgalliurions Thee arc paHdeal declsiQw ln a period of economk growth and plenry [hdr potitshykal niexcliexcltute may be le5S obviou as resources are avaiuble for almost eVery plan advanced by world 01 regional shjpping aviation heaJth or sree1 O1ganizatioos Otherwit there mn$t sllrdy he a system by which scarce mrnurce$ are aUocaced Tbis problem was flJed squardy by Mitr1ny successors iexcln the neofunctionalin school (dealr wIacuteth in the SC(tiOH tbat follows) but ir doell seem ftoro Mirranys writings fhat the world of funcshytioollJi~m is a wodd of IlnUmiacuteted resounes (Melaren 1985 146)_
A third problem in Mimuys approach i~ brought out in a eommtnt by lniacutes Claude The functiacuteonal theory uf imemariruwl nrgaruzarions 1S ultimateJy eoncernen wirh the usue of polJtiacuteeal and military srniexclggJe functionalism tneats (he promotion of we1fue as au illdirecf approach tu rlx prevenrion of warfare (Claude 1968 31--5) Mitran quoted Oaude wirh appmval implyiog rha fulletionalism would ind~ mllk( a positive contribllt1on (albeit inilitecdy) CE (he ptCveurron of war fhis profOiSitiort is open (O $(Ieral criticisms Given the level uf arrnrunems in the worJd and the porential fQf cunflict the contriburron ro pettcc made by funcrioruuacute acrjvities miexclay come too late A youth group exthange betwtn rhe USA and China ma) bode we11 fOf
tbe furure OOt wlll be uf link use if (he respective parrus are beaten ro meir destinarions by intercominental baliiacutestic missiles funhermore the pmmotion of wtlfare may inctease internatioual conflicr by i~asiacuteng expettacions Espedally if social and ecounmic changes are bmugh[ aboue by imernational runctioual 3Jencies developing muntrie poliacuterical I~derships may fJnd ir increasingly cliiHcult to meet lheir poplllatIDn~ demands fot more economic benefJts fur a ampirer distribution uf benefits or in sorne ta$(-S fOf Ol)tool uf the social consequences of laquootlumic Rrowth Imernal sttili aod unrest may chen ~iIJ over into inrernacional eontlicr Finally Miacutetrany daiffi$ that rhe Nncshyrional approach ciocumveuts ideological aOO racial diviID05 as it ltloes territorial frontiacuteers (Mitrany 1975a 226) There ls guod evidellce tiJat the opposite has been happening thae the exlsting runctiuual organimfIacuteom slch $$ tiNEKO WHO and lID hllve been riddkd with ideulogical and racial (or al lea~t Norrh-Somh) diviions wruch h~ve teflected pnlirical argnments outside he olganizarimlS bu have ncvenheless adverscly aHewod their ba~ic work (Ghebali 1986 l tR-lt6 1mber 1989)
iexclIV WHURg) W~ mltTlWilm tIampmJlaiWN
NetrfJl1iKJiOalisls
Tbc move away foom rhe srate-cenrric vjew of JlItert1arlOlal organizarion Started by WOllf and Mirany was ccetiacuteeued io rht immedijlre posr-wur perjod by social stientim applyiacuteog asJltu of functionll1(st ~heory to European nd Atiacuteantlc in~limti()m This utw fUllCtionaliu approach showed paruumlcrnsr interesc in che European Communities (Ee later nuropean Union EU)) whjch arme iu iexclhe wake of che amphuman Plan In Mily 1950 Roben Schuman rhe Frenrh Foreign Minisrer advauroo (he idea cha( West Eucopean srarcs should establish a High Authority wlrh powers ro admillshyimr theit eoai aOO stecl induscrie~ Negorjatioru on rhe detalS of chis plan led t() the signing of che Treaty cf Pariacutes in Apdiacute 1951 by FraIlee Wen Gemuny Iraly rhe Neiexclherlands Bdgium sed Luxembourg (rhe Six) Tbls gave substanre tO (he idea lbat funcrional aiexcltivicy oould be ITlltllfIged across fcomien by IUl organizadon ove and above the govemmenrs of che member sraces a supmnational amhority The idea was wldened ro cover iexclm expanded unge of etooomk activiry when he Silo esrablished rhe Bt1fOpean Ecooomk Communicy (EEC) widl the Treaty of tome in MAtch J957 An Aromic Energy Communiacutety (Euratom) was eHablished sr che sume time However ~he element of upranationiexcliexclliry was dilurelt in the High AllthoritY-s successor (rhe Commission of rhe EEe) having only Iimited deciuacuteOIl-makin8 powers anJ having mosdy the task of proposing acdon ro tbe representarives of he rnember states situumlng in (he Coulliil of Ministe13 Despire his otber Community hutitutions contsined the gerrn of supranadonaHry rhe Courr of Jllstke empJoymg Coromunity nuhe [han nacional laws a Ruropean Padiument wbkh WlS eventually electelt by ditect eleedons amoog a Communiry-wide electorate voting for Cummunity-hased parties aad 1Jueresr groups represendng mrmetSgt consumen traJe unions aruJ blliiness on a Commuiexcliexclity tatber than a nnional basis
Tht$eacute tnmwauumloos in WeBtem Europe uiggeteJ a spate uf 1 iexclretamre primaril) in he lJnireJ Sures whieh examined tbe nurure unrl purpose of the Commuuity iustituions The Jominam staacutend amongst this writing was chat of the neo-(uncrlonalisrs sJCcifically Ern~1t Haas Lean lindbetg and J05eph Nye whose works are of importance io the uudy of internacional organizacions In ronrruc tO Mitrany the OCW fuoctiooalistli tended Br (iexclrOc tuacute iexclimir rbeie study 10 developmems in Wcscetn Europe (HtIaSs ~nJhe Naion Stte (964) bcing a nruiceable exeepdon) especially the OC alshyrhough later cornparimns were tnade wirh rbe growch ofccmmon lIlltirkets iexcln Mica East Eurupe aoo Larin America On che whole the neo-fumtiooaiscs had rerreated foom Mitranys world view
fhe neo-funcrionaljgrs aiso realized rhe dilemma faeed by Mitrliny in eelihng wirh politica dcdsicms ane did nor fllnch in introducin~ a merhod of making necessary chOtees ar he imernarif)llItI leve Indeed rhis wa~ rhe kernel uf rheir ideagt lhlll 1I0l ouly sperifie functionamp would be farried OUt ar rbe subrollrinentill rarher (han (he nacional leve bul thil( lhe decisions wnrernillg (hese functioos would be made at thaf level shy
6- v n_m_ ~olo_~~W_
with imponant cOnsequences for those groups imetesred in the decisiacuteons and iexcliexclIso liffecting orher arcas of poliey Por example supprne the Ecooomk Cual and Steel Community (BeSe) required (har che sreel lodustry be orgaoized as a West Europeao endty insfead of a numher uf narional industries a1l commled by differenl ccgularions aod rbar a suprauariona surhoriry be crcared ro decide on the policy Coc che ranniog of tbe Wcsr EUlopean sfeel induStries lo ronsequeoce those involvea in say rhe French steel industIl would switch tbeir attentioo away from Parili where policy was previowly rnade ro BroS$CIacutei wbcre ECSC poliey is mude Purthermore CommwIlty ntber dUlo nadonl poliey on ueel eould spiU ovet into ereadng a Community po1iey ror cool tnmspOH IUld Othet asrod~ ared acdvities As rhe numbe oC functiacuteooal policies decided at a Commuoity rnthet than a natkmllllevd expanded so the need for political actioo at this higher level would gfOw aod thc political sysrerol of the couutries involved would becomc inexorably iexclmcnwincd lhis was the logk of rhe innovator of he $chumao Plan idea Jean Monnet wM considered rhar rhe establishment of a c001 and srec1 community foUowed by similar organitations dealing wirh otbcr Cuncrional areas - agricultute transpon nade defence - would be lreps on [he way ro building Europe The eOO would be jln economiClllly aod politicaUy integmred Rurope lo Monneriexcl scbeme a federal West Furopeao state The means would be fuoctlonal bu with a political contento
In his study of fbe ECSC Rrnst Haas examiooo this s(rlltegy and a1so dmned polldcai inregradon in its ideal typc u beiug rhe process whereby political iexclcroo in severa distinct nadooal ~tings are petsuacltd to shjft thet lnyaltielJ expecrations liod pOlidcal iexcll(tiacutevides eoWjlrd jl new centre whose insdwtions possess or derrumd jutisdktion over me pit-existiog lIatiof19l $tates (Uaas 1958 16) ihis oew cemre would be che powelshyhouse managing rhe political ptoblems oC fuoctio1llll coopeaacutedon [he Uigh Audwrity of tbe ECSC and be indrurion of me EBe The policical actcniexcl invoJved would be rhose elites leading the poliacutetical groups habirually colCerned wirh public decision-making and wooJd indooe trade uoioacuten offishydaIs busiue5$ ami Hade representatives higher civil servann and activeacute poHttdam As tlltSiacute eliteS rutneU theit aacutetrendon ro rhe ojOW policical centre chey would find tha Community pelky in olle area nm be uwde tea oo1y if che task iuelf iexcls expanded CHus 1961 368) by way of a spillover of actiVity lIltO anocllet policy atea Evenrually Communiy policy~makiog would take uvet from S(ale policy~making jo alI rhe crucial BreaS and the new centre would emerge as being potenrially more powerful dma the member srares governmenu wbich had been drained of lheir mOS( meruoshyingful polidcal ucdvides
1( this stage ir can be quetied whetbet Haas was describing an inremashylional organizadun or il poremia1 federal mlte Io discumng tms quesrjon in his book on Elle EC-S( Haas cooduJed dllU Tbe hruHnct of federal as agaiacutenst middotimergovernmemaf powers lIeeacutems tU point to che coodusioo tbat in
142 WtitingJ on mtertlatilJtJA orgamZ41iom
alJ maneo relating ro the romine regularion of rhe commOTI ~et the High Authority is independent of government (HIlaS 195R 55-gt He al50 voiced rhe opinion rhu Supranadonaliry in snueturnl ferms tberefure means the exisreuce of govemmental a~lthorirjes dlloer tuacute Ihe archetype of fdeNrhm rhan any past inrernati(mal organizar ion buc not yet ideutiacutecal Wlth it Oiaas 1)158 59) However this $upnmttionaity in pNctice has deve10ped into a hybrid in which neither the federal no the intergovernshymentai reooency has deady triumphed a-bas 19511 527) Ir is aloo denr lbat the original Coo1 and Sreel Communicy was mueh mote functional~ Wlcrnl than the lateacutet Economic (ommunicy and untiacutel the mid~19805 the unified aud expanded Communuumly romw to play Jown the elemenU o( supranatlonality iu tavour of 1ts Jiacuteltergovemmenul insutution rhe Conndl u( MiuiMm This aud othet dtVe1opmems led Haas to lcconsidcr his origshyinal view of Community inrtitutioos
In the 1968 pre3ce ro Tuacute Uniting of Ellropt (which was wIacutetten in 1958) Haas alrtady identified factors that had dllngro rhe nattlc of me European Communiries experimem in che previous ten yeacs He observed tlur during this period vario~ spiU-OVet aOO adaptive ptcKeues s(ill had nO( resulted in la pulitically united Encope and in an~werjiexclg the question what went wtlJug he outliued fuur considetdtions Fitst (he new funaiurutlJsu had filiJed w di$tinguisb between background variahle cOlditioos prevamng at rhe time when cbe Comrnnnity WU$ csnbJished and new upiratiuns and expectations that had develnped Jhe esntbliacuteshment thar had ron counrer ro the Community spitit Second the imptet o( niexcltlonaUsm had becn undereshytimawl Third Eactors within me Commuruty had becn nressed ro he dccrimenr of those coming from the outside world PintUacutely me massive transCormation oE Western socie[y raking place indepeudent o( EutoptHl integratiacuteon aIso hacl been underestimaretl (HIlaS 1968 xiv--xv)
Haass definidon of imegralion alsu bccame wmewhar more negative I1lOre stlilte-centric than bis original 195R emlhasis un nationaJ llt(on shifting their loyaJties expecratiacute(ms and poJitical activities toward a new centre By 1970 Haas considered the study ofregionallntlgrurion to be concerned
wich explaining how aud why sUtes eease to be whoUy $overeign how ~md why they volunucily mingle metgt and mix with rhcir neighbours $O as to lose che facruru attributes of sovereignty while acyuiring ncw techniqucs me resolving conilirt between themselvell
(Haa~ 1970 610)
By 1975 Haas eonsidcred regional integmtion theoty oiJsolete in Wesrern Eurupe and obsolescenr - though still urerol _ in tite teSt o( the worId (Haas 1975 l) By 1976 he had arded out n maioI reintetpuEation of uew-fuuctlonaJist lhoory as it applied to rhe Ee The definahle outcome of integtation in Wenem Eutope was secn either in ttaditiorW federaHsc temu - a Wen Enrnpean (ederal state ereated out uf yenrs of fun~-tiexclonal
Writings M ifllernuJlfJmiexcl1 (JFfIiutian 143
rutivity whkh had lcd lO J trnmrer of poliduumlll acnvity away rom (he natlon ~tates tOwarJs a new srrunure - or ltlS the imtitutiooltlUdng uf some intermMiate iexcliexcltage such as rhe present status qno whcreby atlthonty is dimlbnrro unequally between several centres Wilh tire old nation states losing their previous Ituthoriey but with no new JiacutedeOl government in ptO$~ pect Whihr the original aspecrs of the EC - rhe cuuoms union aOO (he Common Agricultura Poliey _ have tllaquoorne entrenched the spillover inm orhe policy area~ had nor occurred by Ihe mid-1970s as che neo-furutiooa1ists liad ptedicred Also common polides liad becn Jevelopetl in differem o(8ashyIliratiuns - che OFCD the summit of indurmiatiooo counrrics the Group of Ten - tarher than within the liC lhe problem according lO Bus W1IS
rurhulerue whereby rhose iuvolved io polirirs haJ found rhemselves in a littting ofgreat social complexiry where rhe nnmber of atrorr is very large and each pursues a variety uf objectives whirh are murually incompatible lmt ucn is also unsure of che ultlde-ofamp between the objectjves He continued Tnis conditiQn imJgtlics the erosion o( such interorganizarional patteacutern~ oC comensus reciacuteprocity and no(mative tegularity as may havr CXlSted eadicrEveryrhiug is up fO( grallS (Hus 1976 179) HilaS sllggested thu iu the EC polioacuteeamp and (he institutioru devised ro lmpleshymeacuteut thero iacuteU~trnre rhe attempc ro deal with lhe turbulence nather tllan achieve regional politkal inteSradon (ibid 180 original emphasis)
A similar hiacuteft lttway fmm the earHer llSp1rauumlons iiexcliexcl ICen in rhe work~ Q( Lindberg aud Nye Lindbeg wlrose book 1he Pattirai DJMmict o EroJMn Ecrmomic IntegTatia (13) had fullowed on dosely from Hws work was hy 1966 showiog tbar moves wwaros inregration wirhin the Be (ooid cause Stress within (he system l1Jtfl inCftllq the barrien to fimher integration (lJnJberg 1966 254) Togcrher with lkheingold in 1970 he desctibcJ an EC wbich had noc deveJopeJ joro a federal structute haJ difereot ltvels of integrariacuteon fut different functions and was sdl susceptible tIJ UJsis lt was ao unprecedemed but curiousy amblguoos plurruistic syttem there seem tO be no satisfrutory modcls or ronceptli in che sociaJ scienee VQ(abulary to adequa[ely define ie (Lindberg and Scheingold 1970 306) In a anide Joseph Nye coruiacutedered thac Jespite rhese and otber revisioos the neo-Euncrional approodl srjlJ embodies 11 nurober of fault tbu re1lcct jrs origins in [he 1950s (Nye 1970 767) He proposed a nUml)(l OC changes scating rhe derendent variable lels ambiguoUlUumly adding more politiul ruwn reformufating rhe Hst oF integration condiuons and pethapli mOSf
significantly drOlping che ideas ufa single path fmm qWlsi~full(tiexclonallasks tuacute politica1 uuion by meamiexcl oF 5piUove( (Nye 1970 767 He conduded rha[ shnn oF dramadc chaugc the prospect9 (or common markets or microregiorud cennomie organiutions leading in rhe shon ron (of dendes) to fedewt1nn oc m1me sOtt oE polidcal union capable of tlU indept1Ldent dcferue and foreign paliey do not seem very high (Nye 1970 1129)
There hiexclas been a long jotJJney trom the functiorudisl-fecleral nope5 of Jean Monoet back jn 1950 but it has seen the evolution of nm only the
144 WitingJ on inlernafuacutemal ttrganizafifmJ
Communiry insrirurions and policies bur aIso neo-functionalist thinking The Iogic of inregrarion gave way ro coping wich rhe crises inseirutions mixing federalisc and intecgovernmental elemenrs were replaced by a Western Europe in which instirucional tidiness is best forgorten (Haas 1976 211) and the federal elemenrs seemed ac mosc dormam The hopes of che 1950s had been replaced by rhe uncerrainties of che 1970s and the early 19805
Wirh rhe launching in 1985 of rhe idea of creating a Single European Markec wuumlhin rhe EC by rhe end of 1992 che signing of rhe Single European Acr in 1986 (which exrended EC comperence aud changed irs inscitucional balance) and che sectlement of a uumber of Common Agriculcural Policy problems in February 1988 che Iogic of inregration seemed ro be revived
Wriring in 1990 Keohane and Hoffmann resrored and refined che neomiddot funcrionalisr norion of spillover advanced by Errut H9al They were sceprical char rhe rheory of spillover could explain the ECs irucirurional developments of che late 1980s buc saw it aCling posicively in orher ways for example rhrough che incenrives ro institutional change given byenlargeshymenc of EC membenhip in rhe early 19805 (Keohane and Hoffmann 1990 289-90) They saw che pcocess cominuing and barring Clrasrrophic excernal fucrors were moderately oprimisric abour rhe Communirys furure prospecrs (Keohane and Hoffmann 1990 296)
This view was raken up by Tranholm-Mikkelsen (991) and Holland (993) borh of whom saw che revival of rhe Communicy agenda in rhe Maasrrichr Trealy - wich irs blueprinr for a move ro economic and monetary union - as being a revival of the neo-functionalism Drher wrirers on European incegration at chis time adapted che basic notions of neoshyfunccionalism bU[ broughr in extra fucrors Majone (1994) agreed char che EU had seen an upgrading of common inreresn but placed an emphasis on public choice policy ro explain particular Ouccomes Marks et aJ (996) saw a much more complex relarionship berween che Communiry and domestic decision-making leve Though rhe srare was srill very important ir no 10nger monopolizes European level policy-making or rhe aggregarion of domesric interescs 0996 346) Insread rhey idenrified rhe growrh of mulrishyleve governance wirhin che EU
Indeed rhese developmenrs in neo-funcrionalisr wrirings on international organizarions poim up sorne of the criticism~ of che schooL Firsr despice rhe besr efforrs of Ibas Schmitter and Nye it remains a rheory overwhelmingly dominaroo by an inreresr in rhe EC and larer rhe European Union In 1964 Haas and Schmirrer rried to extend sorne of che lessons uf econumic union in Westeru Europe ru Larin America Drawing on Haass 1968 preface ro The Uniring of Europe rhey discerned nine variables four relared ro background condirions (similariey in power of memben rares of rransaction pluttllism in member seares complememing elices) rwo referring ro condirions ar rhe time of economic union (similarity of governmenral purpase powers of che ecunumic uniun) and rhree ro process coudi[ions (decision-making sryle
W[J U UWltU 15
rransacrions rate rhe adaptabiliry of governmenrs) (Haas aIld Schmitcer 1964 711-19) They looked ar rhe chances of policicizarion chat is the possibilicy chat lhe acmrs seek m resolve rheir problems so as ro upgrade common inrerests and in rhe process delegare more amhoricy m che centre (Haas aIld Schmitcer 1964 707) Nye in his article Comparing Common Markecs (1970) rried ro modify che Europo-cemric narure of the neo~ funccionalis[ approach and drew on a wide range of cases of economic imegracion Larin America Cenrral America rhe Caribbean Eastern Europe and East Africa as weH as EFTA and che EC He concluded [har
The original neo-funcrionalist model was close m irs ongms in the straregies of European inregrationisrs in che 1950s and thru mighc be seen as a rempting and misleading guide for policy in orher aceas The revised neo-functionalist model is not somethiug ro be imiraced bU is simply a rool fur making comparisons We wanr ro know whac differshyence ir makes if a group of seates form a common market
(Nye 1970 830)
Though by rhe end of che 1980s rhere were few places ro be found outside Europe thac were forming common markets rhe formacion of he Norrh American Free Trade Atea (NAFTA) and rhe renewal of economic cooperarion in Latin America and Sourh-Basc Asia during rhe 1990s provided different models from the more poliricized EU These seemed ro challenge some of the basic assumptions of rhe neo-funcrionalistS aIld perhaps give some weighc ro Nyes scepcicism ciced above
Second i[ is clear chac che neo--funccionalisrs have had trouble wirh che insticudonal formacs They have rerreaced from being functional federalist almose back co Micranys eclecric approach rowards institudons They have also accepced [he durability of rhe nadon state in resisring che logic of inreshygration and have soughr compromise formulas which at leasr continued ro place emphasis on non-srare accivicies even if insticutions above che stare (supranarional) were seen to be susceptible to stare inrerference
A chird Cliricism concerns the gtOH of non-srare acrors favoured by rhe neo-functionalists They have consraudy emphasized [he imporrance of polirical acrivisrs the elites of inrerest groups and rechnocrats This may have parrially blinded chem ro a weakness in rhe ECEU rhar could have affecced neo-functionalisms earUer proguuscicarions from being fulfilled its insticurions cannoc draw on rhe day-ro-day polirical resources available tO the narional policical acrors This has led tO a gap mosr noriceable in che newer members berween perceprions of che EU by the represemarional elice and rhose of rhe ordinary vorer or consumer Whilsc some earlier srudies of opinion in the EC did inelude opinion pons rhese ofren dealt wirh easy questions (showing ones EuropeaIl idenriry) 01 soft options (whether rhere should be say a more acrive EC industrial policy) With the firH expansion of rhe EC in 1973 and rhe first major oil price iucrCdse
146 Writi~5 cm lI1lMfatleuromal orgfll1iutl1ltl
whi(h coinoacutedemally happenoo a yeat liexclater Euttiexclpean voren werc faeed increasingly wirh mu(h harder options inflation versus employment tlnde union righu againsr consumer inrerests The poISibllity was thar bcing a good European might mean aHowiog sorne other COUlltry5 ruuionals to explott ones fish or oH The crearion oiacute a Single Enropean Marker within the Ee by the end of [992 and rhe move rowards a single curteney from 1999 by eleven theo (wdve of rhe HU member litares bmught he activi~ ties of the VOlon do~er lO the wodd of tite coosnmer or worker However chis seem iexclf anything to have iocreased rhe alienariacuteon of voten from rhe institntions aM acrivilies of rhe EU The 2000 election for rne Europeao Parliamenr shnwed the lowest tnroour yer in sllfh direct elections ano Enrobarometer opini()fi poUs have demonstrnred a msative trend in public opinion on che EU rnropaeuintknmmdgl0epoebc-b531p3npdO Ir may be thar a oumbcr uf interest groups llave switched rhrir expecta6ons and poJiexclcical activirics tuwatds the 00 bllt many of the ordinary European V(l(fS seemed ro have failed ro trans[er th~ir lnyalties tu he Union
In surnmaty the neo-functlona1ists mok np Mitranys srudy of rhe a-lashydons betwren group~ and individllals in oHferent sures il5 wellas che sta(cs representativtltl They tried ro gtapple witb the queuit)O (lf political control uf such iostirurionalized funcrional re1ation5hips aod ro undrrstand how ir would affrct rhe oatnre uf tiJe nation state They arremptrd to define the statuS of [hese newfy creatoo insutution5 tnough rhry wete out always fvlped by devdopments in che ECfEU which WWl rhe focus of rheir studies Tbdr works have demun~trared rhat the EU imututioos are by 110 mratlS juse ordinary imerg()vcrnmenral ones lh~y have al) provideo a mirror ()f the hircof) of (Yents in Westetn Europe in pankultH - moviog flom unitios aod poJitkal dynruniqgt through ~rress oy$ and anguish to obsolesceuce tllrbulent fudds and back to mooerace optimism and a new dynamism
TrotJJ(l(iacutecnaUJI
Anorher Americao writer whose work dealt wirh che question oiacute integrntion is KarJ Deursch Alrhough not a neo-fotlcrionalilit his tranmctional appwmh nali dealt with sorne iOmmoo ~hemes He has been umrerned with more rhan imergovermneuul relation~ aod indeed hM str~iexcl reJations berweeo peopIes nitherthan just rhe elites favonred by manyneo-fuflctionalists Deursch concerned himltelF with m( absrnce or presence of significan orga~ oized preplttrations fol war or large-snde iolence between int~rnatiexclona1 policical commuoities It was [he secutity rommullttles lhat had elimirutted war and [he expectation o[ wat whhin rheir ixmndaries whicn Dentamph and his PrincctOll coUeagues exarnined in PeliriuJ Cfml1NJNlily dIId M NarJh lt14Jtlaquo Atia (1957) A SClttlriLy community WWl defined as a gronp of people wnich has become ~inte8rated~ io rhe sense that thete is real iacutelSSnr+ ance that (he members of that rommunity will not fight ellch oeher
Wriil1g1 (raquo1 iacutelMfatlortal tJrgaiadlMm 147
physkally but will se~tle their disputes in liOffie otber way (Deutsch 1957 5)lt loregration does not necessarily mean rhe me~ging oF peoples ot governshymental units intn a ~ogle unie an idea explicir in fooerahsr rhinking Otud implicir in much funrtionalist wtiting Jnstesd two $otS uf integrared secu~ rit communities ar~ hJemified the amalgamarelt where pteviousiy independent unlts have bcen rormaly merged lnro a larger unit wich a iexclommotl guvernment (eg tlle US) ano the pJuralisric where srparate gnvertUlleJlUl Illlioraio their iexclrgaJ indepeodence (eg uacutenada amI rhe US) In stlldying a nllmbcr of cases of anempred or octual intesratioo io tbe Nortn American and WCSt European area Dtunch conduded rhat tIacutelere werc iexclweive conditions essential fnr the rurcts of ao amalgruruued teeutity (Ommuniry and thM rhree wen nec~ry fm it5 plutalisdc COUnrfrpilrt
The1e three conslsted of rhe compaiacuteibiliry oiacute marer valU($ relevant to
politiclll decision-making tbe capacity o( the participariacuteng plt)htinl Imitl or ~mmem~ ro respood tu each othcrS oetdl messages and llaions quickly adeqwuely and without rtsort ro vlolence aad rne mutual predicrability n bchavior (Delltsch 19H 66--7) In Deutschs work emphasis was placed 00 cornmunkauun brlweEn potidca uoIacutets increased trnns1Ctions between them (such fL polirinl exchangcs toUfl(m trade and rratl~pott) brought increases in mutual dciexcl)Cl(enmiddotc fue s cummnnity ro be created (his high level of trnnsactrons must be accomgtauied by mutual responsiveness o that thr demand o( each side 00 he other mn rccdve adequate and sympatheric treatroent llthis wouk not ooiy predude the need [01 aggressive action lO acbi(Ye ends bm would aJso build up 11 feeLing u( UUSt and seturiry in che edationship
Deuucb does not have an obse~uacuteon with imernattomtl orgaoiexclZ8rion~ although his 1957 book iacutes in [he eM collcetned with the ctelltiacuteon of UCCIlshy
tity community in the NATO area rhere ate few tcferences to internatlOnal nrganiuuons Many o( the Cll5C studj( are ser io tbe pcriud before (be postshywar expansioll uf such organlurions and almost all deal ieh bilareral relatIacuteonshj~ O(utschs work has coosequences for the lUudy o( ioternuiona organizatIacuteoos govemmental ano non-goveromCotaj iO[~rnational otiianiza~ tioos can be created as a re~ult uf a plnraliacutes[ic secuciry nmunuoit) lne integracion of whkh may evtotuaUy become iacutennirurjonalized iexclu nuppened reo the ampandinaviiexclm states creand (he Nordic Counci1 There run abo be forrns of instirUti(lnalued communiratlons berween socieries wnich prOldde the transactions and undersrandinli rhat help create ji securi[y community DeUtsch wrote
li the way tu iexclnregrarion domestic or internarionat i$ through rhe achievemem of a srose of community tnut undergirdS insrirurjtms thm ir seems likely [har ao iorreased sense of cotlloounlry would hrlp to snellgtbcn whatever instirutioos - supranatiooal or internacional - are aLreAdy Oltraring
([)euriKh 1957 7--8)
ltgt -_ bullbullbullbull _- _
Demsc-hs work was mken funher in a vnluffie ediretl io 1998 by AdLer and Bllenen (l998) (lLat docs pay sorne attention to ioternariorutl otgilniushydoos Indecd their volume contairu chapters thar rekr ro rhe oseeacute NATO the EU the UN the GnU Cooperarion Cowxil (GCC) aod rhc Assodation uf Soud Eat Asian Niexclttlons (ASEAN) They daim that imetshyruHiomuacute organiexclzauumlons aud iexclnstitutiacutem~ played al lmporum role in elKiltlraging more inteo$ive and extensive ioteracrioos octwttn states rhrough theit uwt-huildiug propenies (Bnrnetr and Adler 1998 418) They lht six corulusions of this snuerneor
bull By moniroting srares agreemenu tntcmatiuacutelwl orpuuacutezatiexcloo~ give them he cooftdente tuacute cooperare io (he ahsencc of trUSt
bull Jnternational O1ganizarions allow Hi1tC$ to discover new areas of muuwl intetellls Tu ponimlar [hey cenoacute ro link panicular areai
bull Inrcmational organizatiom can hdp shape $fllre pracdces by liCtting down nOfOU Ihat define what is acnptablc
bull The iIKTeaiing nwnber of internacionaJ orgamrutions emuuragC$ muldshylatetalim
bull They dIlO eruourage smres lua societies to see rhelll$Clvcs as pan of a resion
bull 1ntildeey can abo shape lhe identiry of rheir memben (Banlett aod Adler 1998 418-20)
The aurhms cWmed char cheir stuJit$ demonmared rhe exrent 10 whkh social cnmmunicadons beomes insrimtioualileJ aOO embedded in lnreroashytional oC8linbatlooslt and in turU how (hese organizatioru express an inreot to dcvelop trUSt end mmwl identificarion (Batnm and AdJer 1998 418) TIe work on sccurity (mmnunidcs is pelhapS at ir strongcu whcn dealing wim the esrablishetl Westcrn democracies rbough llamen and Adlers work shows rhar it may hilve a wider urility
lnlerJciexclnmdcme
Furrhcr emphasi on the growrh JO cnlnsaccions berween l()Cicries can be seen in the worts of Keohane 11l1d Nye who were m che forefront of the iexclnrerocJXndcnce school in rhe lJoited Srnnt fhey puacuteirued our (he conseshyquences of the innease in tldrunarioualucdolU ro che study uf iexclnternncional rdarions Thcit statcing iexclgtoint was sLlnuuarized chus
TraM1latlowJ relations are nolaquo new alrhough che growth of tmnsna~ tklOal orgnnizarion in me twentieth centuty has been specracunr Ye-r our nmremioo iso nor ooly rlur rhe srate-centrk paradigm )$ inade~
quare bur also thar it igt becoming progttSsively more inadequate as changes io inrernational relauumloos take place
(Keohane and Nye 1971 xxv)
The) llsred five omsequemes uf this growth uf inEematiooal inrcracrions ana organizarJ(tIls fur inrerstate politks (1) rhe promntiun of attirude change amongsr driacuterens (2) ao innease io inrernacional pluralism the linkjng of nntiooal Interese groups in tnmsnational strtlCtures usuaHy involving transruttionaI organizations fOI rhe putpoampe of (04)minatioo ltKtohAne and Nyc 1971 xviii) whiacutech has heen lhe basis for much noo~(Jncdontllist wriexcling (3) me cmdon lf dependence and inrerdependcofe IS often associacuteshyarea with intetnilriorutl cranspormrioo and iexclnance Keclune and Nye 1971 xix (4) creating new insrruments fut iexclnfluence for use by sOJne governments over ()(bers (Keuhane aOO Nye 1971 xx) 1100 lt5) dJe emergence cE auronomous acrors wirh priwre ntildelreign policia thar roa) deliberarely oppose Oiacute impinge on Sla(e polides (Krohilne and Nye 1911 xvii)
In a late book (1977) Keohane and Nye dcah with che questioo of imershydependem-e in world poliacutetics io greatet depth Iorecclependencc $lnce tbe Second Wm1d War has- onen cesulted from increasetl ttaosnadonal atciviries and iexcli divided ioto twO sorrs sensltlviry iacutemerdcpeodence (dte muIy effecrs of dULOges jo tranS1lCrJons oc ~()ciacuteetiexcles or govetrunents) md vulnembHhy interdependence where he acrors Hahllhy tc suffet eO$n iacutemposed by extemal evenc~ js (aken inro accoum (Koonane ana Nyc 1977 12-13) In COntrast ro tbe reaisr view of world poHrk Keohane and Nye pm totward che idea type of complcllt imerdependence which chey claimed soroetimes comes dosee ro realiacutety chan does realism (Keohanc attd Nye 1971 23) aod whieh has three nuio characretl$tks it allows fo mulnple rhallne1smiddot- imershyStatC tiansgovernmental and trilnsnationa- conneltring sncieries there i an abserue of hierarchy ilmonS the rnany questions ac inle hetween iexcliexcltates with military securiry no 10nger dominntlng lUly agenda and Millnu-y force 15 not used by governments toward orher governmenu within me laquogion or on [he lssutS where complex intetdcpendence prevaiacutels (Keorutne aoo Nye 1971 25)
These dltee condidons are said by KCQhane aOO Nye to typify fairly weJJ 5Ome LIlAUe$ of global economk md ecological interdependence ami come dose ro chamcrerizing rhe emite relarionship hetWetn sorne cnuntdes (KeolWne and Nye 1911 25) Complex ilterdepcndente glVel rise ro oacuteininctive poliacutetical processes a sute $ goals wiacutell vary by mue arca with mmsgoYernmeotul puumllitics making goab difficut ro define as ttansgovern~ menrnl llClaquo()$ (fof cxample mtfUsrers of agr1cuJmre inte11igente agencies nariona wcather bureaux) pursue their own aims Jhe followiog facwn are reLevant iriexcl eilch issue area
bull iexclhe resourc-es of a Ncue fur thaI particular area are most relevaot radre Ihan the stares overull military ~tre-ngth
bull international nrganizatinm and uansnntional actors wHl be fruloipula[ed as malnr instrumenrs oiacute mue poHcy
bull rhe agenda of issUC$ wi11 be fOrmulated hyebltUlgcs in the power dirmi~ burlon wirhin [he issue alaquollS by rhe pururinn (lf internarional regimes
150 Writings lIlt inttn1atiQrJ41 ergdniutirll1J
by changes jn rhe importance of ttaflstlational acwtS and by linkage froro orher issues
bull linkage between 1sllor$ will be mote difficult for strong naces to undetshyrah ir[orce 1$ downgraded
ft whiJsr linkage by we$k srares rhrough internacional organuumlarions seu agendas helps coalition-wrming and provides arenas for the political acdvity oC weaker states which can use the choice of organizarional forurn [or an issue and rhe mobiliZlition of votes as a politiul resource
(Keohane and Nye 1977 37)
Thm Keuacutehane and Nt gavc inremarjonal organizaciOfls an iroporran[ role in thde compfex interdependence model of world politics a model which whilst not uSlaquo (O explaitt aIl world politics was one which rhey daitned to hllve iacutenfrtasing releYJ1nce in IIlarge and growing area 1ntildeey used an intetnUional organizadon mooel as one of the explanations ror internashytioua regime change that js che lthange in the sets of goveming flrrangernems affening relatioruhips oC interdependence In tMs C$e intershynadonal oJsanisaciolls refeued ro multilevd Iinkage norms and insritutions (Keohane and Nye 1977 54) which once euablished are harJ (O enlAlicate BeCllue o( this rhey may Stand in the way of swes using thdr capabHities In ordec 00 chauge regimes Instead powet outcomCl will be more aJfectcU by votlng power (in the UN General AssemWy for example) ability ro futtl) coalidoos llnd 00 control elite networks (ruch as that founo io clte institushydougt of the European Commnnities) Whilst the complclt illternadorull organizarion mode1 was only Ofle oiacute fOur aJvaucecl by Keohane and Nye ro explain regiffie chAoge tbey Jiu expeomiddott jr to contribute to such chaIlSC in a world where complex interdependence (onditions pertain
1he rontribmions by Keohane and Nye demonstra(e hoth the roncero pf American wtilets iexcln inremationru relariWl in the 1970$ with altemacives to
tite srare-centric model and their wiluumlngness tO draw from more rhan one approach bringiexclng rogether elementogt from che more tradidonal appnJaChes with economic models and non-stare-cenuic dements TIleir Wi)rk does however have certain weaknesle$ Perhaps the mon serious is the use of rhe cerro imerdependence and iexclrs djvisiacuteon iexclnro ~n~itivity and vuinerability imerdependence Anepting rhar inltldeperulence meUlS mutool dependeoce (and [hjs leado to discussiou a~ w how mutual maoy relationihips are) che phrase scnsiuacuteviry imcrdcpendenre scarccly wflrmnu thc use uf the term interdependcnce fhe fault lies wJth che authou loose definiuOfl of depen~ iquestcnce as a oiexcltate (lf being detetmined oc $ignificaruly affected by externa fwces The induskm 0(signi6candy atkcted w~aken5 me urillry uf me cerm so tlme che nOr1on oiacute scusltivity inrtgtrdependence seems ro refer ro any nociceshyaMe cffeltr of ooe srate and society 00 anorher A person may Ix- significandy affectcd by taking drog$ wlthout Ix-ing dependen on chem David Baldwin showcd that mis use of rhe cerro interdependence ran conrrary to the striaer
Writingt ()I inf~_Ji(J1ia ~lfizaJJom 151
lUlderstlllldings (lf the concept fuund in MirhiaveUi Montesquieu and Ronsseall as weU 115 in che works uf twentieth-cemury wrlteI$ such as Norman Angell Francis D(laisi -and Ramsay Muir (ampIdwm 1980 7-9) He snuested the U$C of rhe rerms mutnal influence mutual responsivrness ot mutual scrlitivity insread ofscnsirivity inrerdependeruemiddot (Baldwin 1980 19)
A second cuacutericism uf Keohanc and Nyes books aso concems eheie termishynology In dealing wirh rransnational influentes They [ump tngerheraH types of teiations in whieb non~8overnrnental actOrs participare chus makiflA rhe componenrs of cheir new paradigm shifting aud poorIy defined (Wagoct 1974 440-1) Wagner questioned whetber their work simply demonstrated a shifr in interesr to new areas of intetnational polidts shyespedally elttmomic ones - ana whethcr [he world hM reaUy changed or whether we have iexclUSt overlookcd sorne things a1l along (Wagner 1974 441) The atent of imerdependence wa~ also chaHenged by Waltiquest (1970) anJ Rosecratlce el al (977) in che US and by Lirrle Bnd McKinlay (1978) and Strllivan (978) in rhe Briti~h Uteramre
DespiLe any falling$ Keohlllle and Nye provided insighrs ioto ttamlflashydonal polltics they shifted atrention away fcom p~lrely govcrnmental actOts in inff$rate relarions and they poiutm OUt he impMrance of intetnational organlziexcliexclxions in the intetdepcndence oc at lcast rnurual responsiveness of =
rbe rdormist view of both international celBtiOO1l and iuternational orga- nizar1ons has always provided an rutemative lO the more conservativc cealist approach Ir tended ro be dominated jn the pre-wu petiod by internauacuteonal lawyen and ideaJists but sinee hc Second World War has laoched on to the changell in world poUtics 6tst jn the economic ficld and then in Europe thar have Mn more difficulty to explain in ICliIHst term~ It has sten intcrna~ rionnl organizarions as mlans to manage trends such as iucftI$(d economl( intlrdlpcndcoC( bar hll5 also illtceplcU rhat these organizations mar necorne impoftllm aCtoriexcl (lO che wodd st$ge lhemselves and can cettainiy Iacute)(cnrne involved iexclO changing rhe preferences o( governmeflts
RADICALS
Writers covered in this sccrion iCe rhe intcrnadonal sysrem flOt so much as being domlnlltcd by states bn( more by diUerent divisions 01 its peoplcs Thi$ is noe to Sfly fhat chey ignore surtes They cOflsider them elthet w be ks tmportant chan the iquestjjsions of diUS tit wealth or merely ro refI~ct these othcr factors ot w be roadblo(ks to unky in (he fare Qf mote impomllt chalmiddot renga Power ls seefl as belnamp cxercised by eh( wealthy II1ld privileged and open to cha1Jeuge Change in the system is possibl( but onty through srrll8ge or by an awakenjug pf peoples tQ rhetr real sitllatlon Most iexclnter~ natimal organization~ are thus regarded as (eflccrioos of the currcnt unsruisracwry stare uf aiacuteTairs though $fJme more activist orgauhatioos mar llave potential as vehicles or (hange
This SIoacuteCElOn has betn sub-middotdivided imo rhree gthe fUS( are the econ01nk srructuralists and indude Marxists and Third Wocld wruumlers cririclll of rhe cutrem imernruionallyuem They haacuteve in common a belief mar che polltshyiexclcal srructUres of me world halle leeo wbloned mainiexcly by eltonomic fiiexclctors and rhAr mere has bren an intiacuteJUIllity builr imo the presen sytem lhe recood are the cruumliral app~es who5e radicalilifl1 is mure of the iacutemellec~ cual SOrt They rejeCf - Uf at 19$[ question - Jhatly of rhe usumpcions utlderlying be lIiews ofhe world tepresented by the realists and refotmers Finally mere are the globalim Theit perspective ls planerary ana theiacuter rnain conrtrn h fM rhc survival uf Earth Agilln they challcnge che mme statemiddotbuled approaches of both realjsts and reformers
Stnuturaluacutet lIiews
Ihe srructuralist appmiexclch rO (he swcly of inrematioOlIl relations differs In imporrant wars tO thoee of me realists and refotmuu tbough ir has some elemeou in comroon with mands ofb04h schools As roany of (he neo-realistsshyemphasite (he power scructure of wudd potities this sectiacuteon willlimir jwgtlf ro (hose writers roncerned wich the impacr 00 me political S)Srem of rhe wodds ccooomic strucrure Unliacuteke che ttalist approach the erooomk srrucruralisrs are OOr jUSt concemed with swtts io wodd polilla and rhelr economic and poIitkal differencC$ but alw with the divisioru within f1tld berween SoOCieties (WiIIeas 1990 263) They are [heretOre romerncd witl the rifi berween riel iexclmd poor within scares and rhar herwtto udl and poor glohally This leads ro an interese lO trulSlUirional reladoru as well as in inrergo~romenmt links Th(f have this in corrunon wim refPrtllist views bm diexclfier foom chem in (he emphast~ placeoacute on rhe structures of world pollics beinc formuared by eltooomic fiexcliexclcmn In rhis selttion attentioo wilt be given te MarxiS[ wtlletS lIud sume Thir1 Wodd view$ - partiuilarly (hose of rhe cependency sdlOOf and rhe developmemalj~[II - who have made a cootribution quite separare from rhat of rhe Muxiacutesr uadidon
Marxill laquoewl
There is no one Marxisr interptetariacuteon of me role of imerniexcliexcltional Olganiza~ cions in world politics Sur Manis[ approschf3 have certain elements in common and form a di~dnctive 5ch001 of rhough[ about lnrernartonal telamiddot tions generaHy and therefore ahotu international ocganizadoos These appmaches are based 00 du writiflgS of Karl Marx (l818~) in coshyoperarioo witb Fuacutewrich Engels (1820-95) with perhaps tbe gtearest later conrribution being maJe by VL Lenin kader of (he 1917 fo1shevik revolushydon in Rurna They are cf importanee pany becau1e ehey ficm tlle 00515 for mmmuniSt [hinking and (hm mey have an anactunenr m rhe Soviet Unian whieh WIlS be suongc1t commnuist stare unrII 1991 and EO rhe Peoples Republic of China COlUT1UnJSl sinee 1949 Apan ftom lbis ManiS( beliefs
had a irmng inpur mm Wescern imdleltrual cruoking and conunue ro iruoan some viewi abom wodd politics in rhe Third Wodd
Neither Marx no Mancisrs took rhe stare ro be (he curtency of iacutenteInashy(iexclonal relations Unlike (he realist viewpoints chey did fiO( coruider interactions blaquoween soveteigu ltates to be ofovettidi importance UnHke tbe funcrionalists aud other modem Westetn views rbar srress non-stare actocs Marxiexclsts in particular emphasized cbus relatlonships born wiexclrhin nates and IiCOOSS Stare boundaries Indeed ie is diffku[r ro talle only of a MaIXIacutest view of inrernatiooal re1atioll5 lec ttltme of iorernarional orgnniza~ UumlOOy as rhis separares ene particular aspecr of human behavinur tor MIlIXIsr rrearment divorcing ir from the undedying relleCS of Marxlc beliefs Man-ism provides a framcwok of undemanding by whkh ir iacutes daimed ~ociery pan lind vresen can be explaioed and che furure development of mankiexclnd determined
According ro Maf1 relariooshipamp between people and the futm~ mar insdmdooallzed rhose relatienshfpamp depended on rhe economic $truCtUR of soday fhe way rhat productlon was organized He traced the history of dvilixed maokind through five hiuorical staBes - AAjade mdenr feudal capttalin and socialin - which have ditTereru dominant methods of produc~ tioll leadiog 10 a complirared arrnngement of $OCiety ioto various ordetS 11 manifuld graduadon of sociru tank (Marx llnd Boge1s 1965 40) amph form of sorlef has coutained rhe conflictual divisiQl$ which help [Q tranuacuteorm the narun of rhat $Ocjeey coRrradicrioru in the mode ofpcoducfIacuteon placed srrain nn rhe existing social nrder sharpeniug rhe divide berween economic founshydatinn of sociery and a mpld aansIacuteonnlltion of in SOpel1Ullcture in legal polidcal and re1igious it1$tirutioos Thus by 11 confronration of da$~ Conrramiddot dkeions one historlraJ form of soc1ery wus transfocmcd into a bigher stage uf social devdopmem the history of aH hitherto existing ~ociexclety is the histoty uf dass struggles (MaDI Illld Bngets 15 39) Marx and Bnsels were parriculady conceroed wich capita1i$t sociery - ac its Oeyday during theiacuter Uves - and its tmnsrormarion iexcluto ampocis1iu sodety Wlthln rrus form of SoOCiety rOete would be no division of laboU4 and no eWses Illld no SUtes no elCpropnation of labours 5urplus vruue I1nd (bus no private property 00 exploira(ion of ene clilllS ny iexcliexcloother with 00 need fue war
For Marx and fingeJs C1ass then and noiexcl fllltions or sutea are rhe bade units in hurO) llIIIl che struggle between clAssts Jnstead oiacute infeutliltl contlict ocrupies rhe centre of acrention (Berki 1971 R1iexcl From me nlneteenth celUUf onwards rhis struggle -n in Marxisr cerros has been primarUy between [his capicalist dass ([he OOurgeoisic) aOO the bbouring dw (me proletariat) AA (he trarurormatlon fmm capltalisr SoOCIety [O ~OCialiexclMl ro comrounism rook p~e (he superstruerutt of bourgtOis SoOCilaquoy - religioo national divisiacuteon boutgmis politicnl insrirudnns rhe SOlte - woold be swept flway and in Engtls pmse rhe gOlcrotnent nf persons is replaced by [he udminlsuacion of things Fetter 19 (47) with me itEte relegated lO the mmeum iexclngemer Wlth lile spinshyning wheel Qnd [he bronze axe (Feuer 1969 433)
154 WrituacutetKiexclI mJenl4tiorJal rngmZtlJilm
Mux saw the European SUtes of his own rime as being rntans by which the ruBng dass (011amp oppress the work~ng clw by using (he agentl of tht 5tare such as the iudidary the poliee the army and rhe church he (xrerual Ilctlvities of the stare wete also determined by its Chtss namre MeanwhiJe rrmllnat]onat Rlations of a more meaningfuL kind WQuld bt creared by trade rhe movement of capital and incteaiitd romac[ and llOIacuteldarity betwten the prolerariat of vanoulS nations riacuteidefd rhe internacional nriexclaniutions of which Marx and Engels hnd dire(t experiena- wtfe the Fi~t Internatiomd and for Engels the Secund lntemarional both of which atttmpted lO orgashynJxe the represemarives of wruking people aiexclros fronden Onc~ agaJn this stteAAe$ the Marxist empbois on transnarional dass relutions rnther than on intentate relarionships
Whibt Soviet writlngs on international organizatinn1 wtte falrly desulshytory in Scalins reigu 0924-53) rhey did lmerIy hernld rbe move towams peaceful co-existerne arul roreshadowffi the lartf rnrhe[ restrktive view of Imch organi2Atinm hy Soviet commentators
In the post-Second Wodd War period and In patticular in the post-Stalin era Soviet liternmre on international organiuttions bl(lSsomed This has reflected Soviet membership oC ma1ly 1osiexcl-1945 organixations the emershygence of a socialist bloc of sta[C$ and tbe incre-ase in the mlmber of Sowcreign s[ates all flUtontilde demaruHng a more sophisricared Soviet view of lnter~llate reLadoru than che survivalism of Stalins period Uuring rhe lare 19805 i( auo ret1ected the new thinking iacutemroduced by Gorbachev
StalintI suIXessor KrU$hchev developed a revised view of internacional relaCtons which gave a positio1l ro the emerging Third Wnrhl (Tbe Third Wotld was then taken to mean rhotle IItates thar had emerged ftom colo~ nialiacutesm In effect rhe terrn later induded tbe stares of Latin America Africa - exclnding the rhen apaftbeid stnre of South Africa - the Middle Rasr Oceaniacutea and South Asia) Peace(ul co-exiuence between oda1ist and (apltaJisr states WM $til comidered nece1sary but this diacuted noc predude the ideologiacutecal stmggle between rhe two campsmiddot iexclndeed lhe Soviet inter~ national lawyer GI Ihnkiacuten wrote pearcfut cocx15tence of sutes represeonng che tWO differeor rodal sysems is a slccific form uf dass struggie beween socialism and calitllllsm (Osakwe 1972 37) The Soviet Union abo deveJoped relatlons wirh rbe newly emerging exshycoloniaJ cOllntdeJ and Soviet writiog had tu take ~ount of this developmem There wru a recognirion of a third group of stattli between rhe capitalist aud the communlsr that of poteorially friendly indtptomiddot deut $tarem io Europe and Asia such as India Egypt Indnnesia and Yugoslavia which would filrm a tone of peace Although the rebtions wiacuteth rhe capitaliacutest sures sriacuteH remaioecl embedded in pelteful coshyexluencc rhere was an emphasis by postmiddotStalinist Soviet writets on the da eJement in lile telatiomhil - that is rhe wntact with progressive elements in Weste1l sodeey smh as che Jabonr mnvement Ncither diexcld peaceful co-exiucuce rule OUt ~upport o[ middotjUSt wars of nationallibcrildon
WIacuteJIacute11gs tm iacutenUrllUtional WjatlJZtiacutelJlff 155
iexclndeed ir was seen lt a strategy fo wodd reloludon Fiacutenally (he rrlashyfIacuteonhips berween the Sovier Union and East Eumpean countries vere deerned ro be based on sociali internationalism posmlating a haemony of natinnal and commllnity interests and mndllding thar jnde~ndeuce and sovereioiexclnty of a soctalist uate means aoove aH indepltndencc from capitalism (Red Star 1 December 18)
Tunkin underljned traditional Soviet thiacutenking rllar the mngtrltllenl imrrllment of an ioretnational urganization (fne example the Chaner oiacute the UN) was all-impottant in derermining tIte enene rrun the otganizauumlon bad an international legal pcntildeonaliry rhar iexcl5 a standing in internacional 1l1w 5imilar tu titar of a sovereigo staxe Examining lhe question of the antonomOllS wiU oiacute international nrganitatioll Tunldn allowed thl1 they need not jmt act as agtnts for member stares
In imernatiunal ptacrke trellties conduded by jntcrl~ational mSaniacutezashytinns take their speciaJ piare as treacies by wbkh internationsl organimtiom aequire righu and take upon themselves cerrain obligiexcllshytioos Intctnat10nal organizatiou are created by Hares hey are broughr iexclnto being by states but the actloacuteos of imcmational organi7ashydoos are nlt)( in any way de facto or de jure ro be tqt1sred lO the actions of scates
(Osakwe J972 23)
Thi did nor mean than M internadonal organiacuteiariexclon was an entity indeshypendem of its memher us[es as any powers (har they hacl were delegated by [he members In Jine wirh che ampwiet doctrine of peareful co-exiacutesteme Tunkin placed Uress pn (he nature and rhe membership of an international organiacuteution dlOSe which drew their membersbip from commlmi1t c1Ipishytalist and TIiexclird World tares could expcct tu be genel1llly mognized as having an incernarional personaliacutery He wrote
TIte namre of tontemporary international prganiurions is lO a very great exttm derefmined by [he existerue of Haces beJonging ro differem wcio-economk systems and the ioevitable muggle between them Thar is why pcaceful crexislence is now the bl-sic condition of rh~ dfVC1iexclpshyment ufgeneral interoational ntganization
(Osltuumlltwlt 1972 289)
Mor07JN Clt1ntrlbuterl sorne extra points Fintildet be iududed JNGOs in his stndy He wrote dlQt lotetnational orgaruulions have as iI rol 8t least three member coumries TheM may be government$ offidJ orgilnlzarions or 0CInshy
guvernmental organizatiow (Morowv 1977 30) In a 11Iter seccion m NGo thcy were ldencifred as che la~ group of inrerrulttonal organiuttiolls wim two aspccn rbar concttntd socuIacuteiacuteIgtt commemarors tbe NGOriexcl auirude towards the preservarion of pealaquo wkh the Wnrld Feieradon ofTrade Unions
6 _ 0
rhe Wodd Fedemion oE Democratk Youth and otber meiexclllbtrs oiacute tbe Sovittshybacked World Peace (ounaacutel gaining special mentioo and the specialiuJ chataCrer of sorne NGOs itl(h as rhe ruerrutriunal Couocil of Scientifu Unions and che Scienrifk OJmmiuee on Antnrctk Research MOrlrLOv memioned how NGOs can belp emblish a social dimate citillg their contti shybution ro (he setdemenr of a number of internacional confHcu swh as dlilr in Vietnam He aOO dealr wirh the role of che NGOs io cbe UN aud che consuJshyrative srarus [hey llave witn lGOs saying du[ smdems of internariooal affitjoiexcl
in [he socjalisr councrics m critieal of many asplaquots of (his system fur the eoruulrarive StatuS amogemenrs stiU fall shon of wha( [he deveJopmenc of modern inretnatlonal relarions in fac[ catls fur (Morozov 1977 43) Tbe specialized namre ufNGOs Wamp1 atttibuted by M((2OV tu
tht increased Jnfiuence of the pubic at large un roreign polky [he grearer iexclmpat of public opininn in imernatiunal reladuns and [he greater importante uf me ideological fiexclUtot 10 $ucb relations Accoum should abo be raen of che proccsses of cconomic developmenr and [he coosequenc~ of [he scienrific and rechnological tevolutioo which has also led ro a greatet number of speoacutealized NGOs
(Morozov 1977 42)
Second Morozov wridog jo d~ late 197amp made moU pos-irive refershyencelgt (O [he role oiacute Trurd Wodd SUtes in imemaciooa otganimrions He noted rbar rbe emetgtoce oiacute ti large oumbe of Oung natiooal stares h8ve kd fO che emetgcnce of intetnarJonal Drganizadons among develcpi08 ecuoshytries (Mororov 1977 29) aod claimed hat partkiparion in (hese organh311oos is part uf he process uf consolidating their sovereigocy and ruuional jndependenu~ aod of wlviog cheir pressing ecoOfJmic anJ orher pmbemsmiddot (Morozov 1177 31)
Finally Momzov developed the puint made by fimkin aOOut he limited llalUre of ioternationaJ organiurjQn$ - ~econd-dllSS ffitrnbers nf the inrershynarloual sysrem as opposed tu rhe firsr-diexcllSS members SQvereJgn stateiexcl by reretcme tO theit dedsioos There bave resulted froro che inrelllctioo of politicuJ euroorces within the organil1ldons and
Thecombined will uf chcse lGOs i5 disuumlnc[ from [he wllls of theuuml indishyvidual members io in eflSenlte and ln in narure The v1ilflous wills in thb case are nor agsregued arirhmetically each one exim indepenshydendy ur oside a homogeneQu~ socio-political gOUP wirbin whose frarnework (hey can be combjlled
(Murozov 1977 34)
AfLer lhe comiog ro powet ofMikhail Gorbachev in the Soviet Union io 19Bgt a Ihaoge rook place jo $oVJIl policies rowards imeroadonal relations irutuding international organi1ations and [his has been reflecred in new
~ M-- bull 6_V_
Soviet writings un [he subJect Gorbachev inttoducetl a owjor review of [he fureign poljcy uf the Soviet Union (har marchcd rhe inremiry of his dmncslic refotmS He encouraged new rhinking- based on a revjeJ vlew of che world siruation Peaceful co-existence wirh iexclhe capiralisr tirares WlCgt no looger seeo a~ being a spetjfic fum of dass srruggle as Tunkin had written bUI 35 being in the commoo intecesu oiacute all countriCl Ir WIi$ predishycued on the neOO fin surviva of (he human nce which in ShakhfUlZOlrQvmiddot$ word$ must ofCOUIse take fim place Lighe 1988 297gt- Thjs ml$or rhar a new COIKeuropt of seGldty had ro he adopreJ hy che Soviers rhar oiacute common security which wa5 based un sume of he ideas of -che Palme Comminion (see he1ow) Greater emphasis wu given ro arms control and dlsarmament agreemenrs wirh the Wesr 11nd to co-opttation in international uffuirs whilst Soviet intervention io che Third Wodd enbed and milirary 5UppOtC 1m [he East European communisr govcfomentS WlS withdrawn
Soviet wdcings on inremurionilJ relations both offidal and academic came to mirror Gorhachevs new rhJnkiog bur eho lilete iexcl$ evety sigo chut rbese id~ were dmwu no only from rhe Wesr but alw Uacutenm Moscow mink-tanks slleh as lMEMO th~ JflSIirure of World Eronomy and Inremlfona Relacions) Liacuteght 1988 29~n Gorbschev aun his forngn minisrer FQllard Shevaronadre gave rhe academiacuten a Breen light for funher diSClViiacuteon ud debare (Shevaronadre 1990 23) As II reampul srudies examlned he role of che Uniacutered Nariacuteons as sn ugem for peoce (Kolyrev 1990 12-19 NesrerenkQ 1990 65 Petoovsky 1990 42--3) and rhe mte of inrernational or811nizadons in environmental mliLffers IiLnd disurmamenc qutsdmuuml Chodsulkwsky 1988j NikitiM 1989 123-32 Roginko 1989 133-43) and internarionallaw was teassesred (Sutier 1989~ 363-75)
Once che Sovier Union collapsed many of me wrifetS losr rhe main point of political reference A nwllber Iefi academc orhets adapted thelt ideas ro WCtem oues and a few remnioed as policy rulviseni ro che new Russian goVefrutJenL However cornmunism as M imellectually dominant organiuog rotce wlch pnliiisJ dour had djsappeared in Russia togerllef with much uf the persptr1ve ir provided - wben seen thmugh me unen distotdng leos uf tbe Sovier lfulon - oiacute inrernatiooaJ relatlons and inremariooal organhattnru
Chinese Marxisr wrirers have iexclargeIy reflected rhe views of the leadershyship in Chinll sioce [he coming ro power of rhe Commun1sr Patty in 1949 Undl (he 1970$ communist China was elduded from almon aH iotttllJishytional of811nizIiLtIOns and ie is flot surpriamping tha whae lirde writing tbete WUtl on the st1bje(r Wal fairly dismiacutesampive usuaUy consisdng uf coudemnaM tinos of (he UN fnf its action tn Korea aud rhe security allianes fot teir hegernonic narure Chjnese Marxisr rhinking hiacuteu divided (he modem wotld jnro three groups ihe Birsr World consisred of rile fWQ imperialist superpowers namely he USA ano the USSR The Second World was made up uf otbet areaa uf advamed industrilllired cnuntries primariacutely EUfape aod Japa which were opea ro donunariou by lite Sllperpowers bu( which could $tan a dialogue wirh rhe Thiacuterd World Theu (here was rhe Third
158 Writings OtJ internationdl organizatioru
Wodcl iexcltreI( coruisting of the Afro-Asiacutean-Lario Americltlu sta tes supported in their muggte aAainSt Picsr World imperialism by Chinls This viexclew of the wmId colouted tyJst Chiacutenese wridngs on iacuteoternatiollill oeganharions Tbe $uperJowers were seen as cynical lTlllnipubtors Qf inrernarionaJ jnsti~ tutions Mao Tre~tuog wOre of US poliey towards such insdfutions Ir mam use or them when it neOOS rhem and kicks them 3way when ir does flot (Society (or Anglo-Chinese Underuanding 1979 42) US-domioated pill-~ such amp$ SEATO and imperialist groupiacutengs like rhe Alliance tor PfOgre~( wttt detided Spedal viuiot was saved roc the Warsaw freaty Orgaoizatiun whieh in one aetide was described as Soviet sodal~ imperialisms mol fur aggression (Ming Sung circd Jn Chen 1979 194) fhe Soviet Union was aceuseQ of trying tu manipulate che Pan and negnshydate wlth Wesrem eouorries rhmugh the Enropean Scltwiry Conferenee tn consolidare irs begemonic status in Basrern Enrope at the same time iexcliexcll dividiog Wes(ern Europe squeezing Out the USA ro as ro muSte way (0(
iu expansion and infilrmrion into Westem Europe (Ming Sung clted in Chen 1979 197)
Chinese writecs Fegatded tbe Ntildegttood Worid espedally Western Europe as being a pen force io telmS of imperialism which Ww tdponeed to the lhird World wich diaJogu as io the Jmueacute Convention berweoen tIacute1e European Commnnitiacutees and AF~ican Carib~an and Paciuacutet srUe5
Furrhermore the defensive $spects of NATO were sttessed and with growing European cohcsion the trend iexclS IJkely to ~ towatds a fuoce in which the American elemenr is seen as 1 temporary neceuity eventual1y to be phased out (Sodety fur Anglo-Chioese Undetstanding 1979 90)
lthe countries of the Third World were setn as coostirotiog rbe mluumln force comb$dng imperiaJi~m colonialism and hegemonJsm reEerring nor only to the vestiges of Wesr Etl-OOptan foloniiexcliexclJism bOl abo to US iexclnpetlshyalism and gwwiog Soviet soci$l~imperiacutea1ism Tbe Third Wodd eQuld hdp tn exclude the gre$t powers ny baoding cogecher io such otganizatinos aiexcl tht DAU aod rhey could work ro correct unequiexcliexcl nade and eeonomk reladons with che sUpetpowers through UN iexcliexclgeucies and eonferences such as UNCTAD and UNaos Abo rtlW material ancl exporting orgllnizations liexclke OPEC rbe Incernadonal Bauxilaquo Association ancl the Onion of Banana Bxporting Counuies were proised a ehanging (he old interntlrional eumomic Ome and banerlog che biggest roarerJal plunderers in rile world rhe United Srates and (he Soviet Uoleo (Ptking Rt1Jiew 26 Septtmbtr 1975 cited in Cheo 1979 309)
111e poverty oiacute ehinne study of intetnatlenal erganhuions no dounr caused by the lack of Chinese membership of such etganizacions unril the 197amp and the turmoit ef the Cultural Revulution eiexcliexclme ro an enel by the 1980s Jnstead oere was a more reaHs( viexclew (lE rbe worlcl iexclf one S~shytimes coucbed In Manlst terms In Chlnese univenittes there was a growtb io detailed studies of iutemationalntgsnizations aod the nuropean Union
WritingI un inlmullPmnl vrgrsrtilpiill1J 159
Tbird Wwld vlewJ
Many Third Wodd Afro-Asian aoo Latin Atrusican) writers 00 jntemsw
tional organizaion have adopte a structtulIist framework and are particufarly nm(etnecl abour how insdtutions can be wcd as tools of exploitadon uf rhe nitd World aud how $ome cau be used lIS agenrs of libenuion They llave nor been induded in the ~ettiexcloo un Marxist viltws (or three feamm nOI al of them are Mandst thIJM who are Manisr place particular stresS on (he posicion oF thE l1lIacuterd World and as ThJrd Worlcl eitizens they have through theit own experience unother pe~cdve rhan [Mt of writers from industri$lized srates
Yash 18ndon (1978 377) has identjfied thNf nuacuterd World penfIXrives en inrernational Olganizatiolls Fim [here is that or the bourgeois Of perry natiunalisrs who are in power in mos[ Third World statcs and who are progressive in [errru of anti-impcrialism but are rraniollary ro the C1tccnr WC they would sooner mau thcir pcaee with imperialism rhan iluwnder power (e the masses and peasancs This group uses ineernational orgllniexclm~ tions ro pur presrure 0lI imperialisc states in order to extntCt concession5 from them and appease tbe masses in their own coontries TIley see che UN as an opportunity to parley witb their entwhiacutele impecild masters t a presumed kvd uf equa1iry (Tandoo 1978 365) Thc scltond pcrspective is rhat ofthe reaIly backward regimes of thl Thitd Wodd such un Taiwiexcliexcln and Jotdan or whnm intemarional orguniacutelattnnS are of margJna1 signifieance [)t they prefet tu dea wirh impcrialism iquestirt(tiy The rhird petSPCCrive idenrified by landOll is that uf rhe masses vi thc TIlird World for wbom toterntlunaJ orgmilAriom are petiphewl fin liS Jong as hey rontinue fO reflect the muing balanlte uf clas$ forces in hvour uf impeuacuteJism (fandon J 978 378) Sioce the ene of he 196amp rorces representing thu third group have bccome lnott prominent in world polido in che form of liberarioo groop1 lttCn as tbe PLO and whilst chese have f)tgten interested in galnin8 telaquolgnJtlon rOt rhemshyselves at the UN and the spedaliled agcodes rhey are not depeuden 00 these or8ani1Jlton~ rndecd Tandoo romioeted (hat fo che revoludonary snnggles in SOUfh~E3SC A~a and AfrJctI iOfernattonal otgilnizalJons are tOO peripheml to be of much $ignilJeaoce (Tandon )9713 377)
Tancloo providcd n inrere~tiog history of the Jevelopment uf the anrishycolonialist forees in che Third Wruld sinee 1945 bur hi~ clivi~iexcl()H iexcloro he three perspenives is roo stark leaving aside rhe leil important backWllro regimes be has basiclllly grO~lped tbe Third World leadershp joto the revoshylutionaries who have Uttle netd (or imernatiooa otgllnizatiooll and those who llave suumlpped into refOrmism and have beco duped iot() bdieving (hat they elln ehaoge chelr c1ependeoce 00 industtia1i1Cd nBfiexclmL~ lhrough intemadonal organiwtions Thjs seems to undelsrare me use or ~mh organishyzations by revolutionllry groups - especiiexcliexcllIy che PLO anel tlle SoUthem African liberadon OtgllOiexcl7arionS - whieb have made substaotial use oiacute [he UN me Arah League ano the OAU tO sustain rhe polirical aspeets of theit effOrt5 1t alS(l uverestimatcs the extent tu whieh the Third World countries
J UU wnlmgl 1111 JTiUrllamm41 ergtIttJ1I0fll
have any iUwinru about imetnariooal Qrganizarioos such a~ UNC1~D
Furchermorc the identificador of 800d revolutionaries and falten refurmislS i~ tuller impliexclstjc~ rhe maIur sponrot of the UNs New Ecooomic Order l wruch Tandon hal roudemned as rhe Old Economic Order with a diffefent rltetoric WIIS the Algetian radinu governmenr of Boumediemu rhe PLO irself ha heen dependem on a numlgttr of bnurgeWs Arab goveromenrs foc financial 00 diploJUlltic suppon and ro Tandoos duumlertion that PQr narlonallibemwn movemenn guided by a proktatlan idoology such liS rhose in Chifliexcl1 lIlud Vietnam iruemarionaJ organlwtlona WtU of no 1J5e can be- added the re5ervarion until chey carne (O power Whiht ir took some twenty years belote communist Qtill1 made use nf suth organiutions the unified communiSl Stale ol Vietnam was quick fO cake up it position in the UN ro ask [Ol aid thtough UN agencies liS well as w become ji membet of he CMEA (Comecon)
Third Wodd commemscOt1l on world politics have emphasized the nature uf rheir atea$ potirical ecoOoacutemtc Ilud culmral relatloosluumlp wilh rhe iHdllsrriexcl~ alixed Nonh TitilO is iOO$t Oflltl rypified aiexcliexcl bciug OHe of ueo-folonialism _ COntrol of che Third Wtltld by lhe Nortb by indirecl means ratlet (han by direa colonial tule and of Kf)IomIacute( dRptwJmry (o dtpmdemjiexcliexcl) lntetnationaiacute rdsdOOi bcrween sures are sublumed ro relations between claue$ world wide Ixtween on rhe one lIand the expluacuteiting impetialist capitetists in rhe northcm iru1usuialized couotries 2100 rhcir middle-ltlass collaboratotS in the 50Uthem SUtes aud on the othet band he exploiced masses rhe proleuriat ol [he $Ourhern contJnems The Lurcr gmupS have been 1I1iide ecooomkaUy dependent on [he furmer so char hey lIre in rhe wuacutetds uf the Bruiliiln T Dos SantOS in a situadon jn which the economy of a cetuin group of counshytrles is condiacutedoned by rhe develOplllent aad expansion of aoother ecouomy lO which thcit own 15 subjecred (Bodenheimer 1971 327)
The uOOerdeveloped tounrries depend uacuten [be developed ror their capital nd ercperdse they find key sectors of ehdr eroooroy conrrolled from OUtsJde rhey act as a SOUfce of raw marerials lIS ji lthetip source of labour arul as a rnarket fur mllnuf8ccurers from Euttipe ]apan and North America As thejr living standards were deterrniud by rhe vicissinWeS of the Northern~ dominated wodd marker the relationship was Otle uf unequa exchange (he [esule of which was a world experiencing woequal developmenr with a developed rieh indwtriaJiud capiralisr Notthern centre and d poor underdeveklpedgt agciculrutitlly backwarn eXFloired periphery in che 50mb The dependem 80mh has been divided berween rhe ptedominanr undemeshyveloped area~ lUld a few Cenfres of deve10prnenr wirh their ttade culrural rraffie and polidcal linL to [he deveJoped North - rhe depeOOem develop~ memo omlinea by EH Cardosa (1974) allodlt~r Bruiliall Mmir Amiu (977) rejC(ted the prosptltt of aH antonomous capitalist development in [he Third Work the oew bourgeaisJe of Lacin Ametica Africa and Asia were in allianec with capitalisrs from rhe Nnnh and rhe mato $OUrce of finance ror lmported equipmem was fmm the expon of raw materials to rhe indu~rial
5 ~ _~ smiddot_middot~~
iexclred smes Amin (1977 1-21) SllW rhe can made ror a New Imernational Ecooomic Order (NIEO) by Third World leaders at rbe UN UNCTAD aod che Vilrlous North-Sourh dialogues as an nrtempt LO iexclnerease the price of chelr ntw mattIial exporrs obraio more lmpotted technol08Y snd chus finance a new srage of develQpmenr He saw this ti placing the Thitd World more in the gttp of the neo-co1onialist sysrem and iostmd recommended 11
more self~rcuumlanr development wlrh murrud assismnce between Third World sures a reducdon in [ade wirh rhe induuialized wotld and Chlll a loos~ ening of dependenre Amin lJke TaOOon had Jittle fairh in presenc imtrnruional organizaciexclon Il tools foc fasbiooing a more independent Tbiacuten Wotd His sU88tl1cion of grearer mUtual ilSlgtistaoce between ThUd WorId uate~ implied somtthing more sophillticated than a numbtr of bilateral arrmgements As rbe present orgauizarions used fu iexclncm~Thjrd World cnshyoperation (che OAU he Atab League ASEAN) are domitllued by jusr dl()llC govetnmenrg chM accept lhe eowse coodemned by Amio _ the NIEO ami greater jmegrndon iexcluro rhe world economic sysrem ~hen Amia solutloil involves like-minded deveJoping counrries or more like1y political changes leading ro such indigenous intemuional orgilniwrions
Other Trufd Wodd wdten have plllCtXl emphasls on grearer use 01 exisring insdtutions lOO can broadJy be deKfibed lIS Wopmenraluli huI Prebisch an Argentinian econOmigf has not only studied the que5iaacuteon uf ecooomic dependency but his ideas llave been used as the baJiexclis for che wotk of cwo miexclljoc iexcliexcluemariOOiexcll1 organizadons rhe UN Enmomic Commission fa utin Ameriea (ECLA) and UNCfAD Iu his smdy of Briliacutesh-Argerl(inian trading relntioflS Prebisch bad idenrified rhe unequRl tecrns ol Hade between he favoured (ndusrrislized s(ate of tbe centre and he les privj~ leged llOIl-indumialiacutewl periphery Prebisch unlike rhe dependencia gtChool of Amiacuten Dos Sancos and Cardosa believed thu this inequaLity could be overcome by political acrinn by trade pre[ereonces fuvouring the pedphery by eoo1ruooiacutery agreemenrs by intelnatiacuteowll aid and by more foreiga imvestment in che ~riphery It was thele remedies thiexcllr Prebiacutesch eneouraged when he WiIS Executive SecrCrary of ECLA from 1955 lO 1963 aOO Secrewy-Genernl ofUNCTAD ftoro 14 ro 196tL In~d rhe amoum of aid the periphery needed in omer to overeome their Unfuvoluable rrnde balance became known io UNCTAD clrcles as [he Prebiexclsch Giexcllp
The distinguished Afiican aC1ldentie Aji Mazn1i has wricren un the plighr Qf (bar conciflfnt aod j~ role in pmem~day interruUIDllfl1 afmits He soughr ro answer rhe quesdon Now rlw Imperial Order is eoming ro an end who is going tO keep rhe peaee in Aampica and tu examine he concept of Pax AfrlclllUl the African s ambidoo ro be his OWh palaman The JXIliacutecillJS and se[f~8overnment ufAfriea depended on the nodan ofan African self which Mauui discusseJ in decaH He considered how this 1ndepen~ denre might be threarened by the politicaI and cultural fragmenMion of the contillenr Ellld eronomieally by deperulence on Europe He quoted Kwame Nkntmah finr President uf Ghaniexcll on rhe Europe-Jn ECOntunir Communiry
162 Wilihgr rm intd1JatirmallJrganizatimu
ihe ireaty of Romemarks the advent of oeoKolonitJism [n Afriacuteen snd bears unqutSrlonably the marks of Freneh neo-colonuumlllism (Murui 1967 93) He moduded from tM that Wlut AfrlOlns tbelaquofore neecletl was II
renerru authotity of cheir owa tI) ((lordilJlte fheir eltonomk and policicat deCena- sgain5t trus rnreat (Mamtiexcl 1961 93)
Given this theme it is not surprising tlwt Mazrui ser srore by rhe OAU bU[ he was realistic in bis judgement
In relatioos betwlaquon African statts lIOflesr step rowards Pu Africana was taken when rhe Organiution oiacute Aftlaquolln Uniey set up in Commissiacuteon ofMediauacuteoo Conci1illtion aud Arhitmion
Anormr OAU Commissioo of relevance fot Fax AftlOlna ls che Defence Cornmission Sor me Defeme Commlnion 1w se Car been among che lean effecdve QfPan-Aiacutericun ins(kndons Afrka mar indeed aspire to be her owu ptlliceman bur she does nO seem ready as yel to par the price iacutem it
(Mauui 19612[3)
Mazrui oudined the varicd backgrounds of [he lemen oiacute newly illdepenshydent Africa and thdr radical and revolmionary ideas and it is pethaps swprising rhat the insrirutions rhey created fur me coutinenf wete so mnservative with [he p05sible exceprion oiacute the OAUs Natiomtl Libetttion Comminee Mazrui no[ed thac Africa srill has the problem of how othet powetS respond tu its behaviour and [har forcigo iotmsilm in AJtica continued Indetd the I990s proved tO be a dC(ade of disusrer for AfrieR The debiacute burden contimlld while Ilome states collapsed lnro civil war ami others took to iutenoendoo in thejr ueighbonrs affairs Outslde interference from borh Enrope and North Amecica euodoned One of rhe fcw brlghr spots was the end of apallhcid in South Africa and the peaceful transitioo ro majoriry mJe lo al thiexcl~ tn quote Juliacuteus Nyerere rhe ampcmer pre~iexcldenl of Tan1ania The OAU exists outr ror tbe prorecdoo of (he Afrinllt Head~ oiacute State (cited io AlilgapPltl 1998 1 ) The relarive optimism of Maztui has giveu way ro Afriam writers examining sorne of me disrnrbing details of inaction by [be OAU and regtonal orgauiacutezatJuns nlCh as ECOWAS beiog used as doaks fu the machinations oE regional hegemou$ suth as Nigcria (Mibe 1m 61-9(1)
Radha Sinha$ problem--ortented undy Food iexcllfId PIWt11y (1976) has an IItgent message Sinha a former consultaot of the FAO prodnced an iofuacuterrned aUllyiexcljiexcl of the world$ food problem stress1Og in paniacutecular the maldistribution of food and other resources Noting he profO$ab of UNCTAD with heit muld-rommodJty approach and buffer nocks provjshySiOfli he commented rhe grearesr weakness oE the UNCTAD scheme js les Hkdy politlca1 unilcceptablliry ro me developed (ountdes parriculady che USA (Sinhil 1916 114) a propheey that has proved to he cortect He identitled a more aggresslve attitnde by Third World sutes e5pedally
WrilirrgJ on i1tternatiflii1l rHgarrtzatitmlt 163shy
after the uH prite cise of 197314 when the developing coonuies tried to maximize their own market powers by formin cartcls such as rhe Intematimlal BaurdtC Association the Intemuional Coundl of Copper Expotcing Countries aud the Intema[ional Tin Agrcrmenr He gave n qualified wekome ro the Lomeacute Convention betwcen the European (omrounities anJ cenain African Padfic and Caribbean Haces Writing in 1976 he commented
The receot cbange in rhe luirudes of tite tiche countries is largely due tu the incIeasing miliuncy of the Third World countries lt is almost ertalll utar the magnitude offuture cnnc~sions in me coune ofGAIT aud UNCTAD IV Ilegotiarioos wiU deperu mainly on (he continued solidariry uf the devdoping counlrtes
(Siha 1976 116)
Sinha was pardy correct as tbe solidatity cf rhe Tbird Workl states cracked se the induurialized wodd withheld funher Con(eampSJoru but ir was able tO do so because market condidons swung against che primaty producen
In his condusion Sinha called ror a IIDre1 shttting of wnrld t($nmes and power if confrontarion was ro he avoidOO He feared that the ffa of roshyoptradon berween [ieh and pool conntries hiid ((lT1e to an end and that batde lines were being drawn Instead he advOOIreltI majnr concessions from the dcher coumries on trnde lInd aid issues and a1so a ma~lt te$ltUcrnring of the incematiotlill organization~ aoo negoacutetiating ffiarhinery in order tu provide a much gtC2ter say fm me poorer countries in internatiooal tJ1lde invesrment and mooetaiexcly armngemenrs (SiMa 1976 132) GAn 1BRD aud IMF have been the presenoe of [he ri h with voting weighted m faacutevour of rhe OECD countries and Sinha re(()ffimended thlll GATr aoo UNCiAD be merged inro an Intemacional irade Organization (ITO) and che creatlon of a Third World permanent secrctariat iexclnvolved in all trade and aia negoriarioru Thoogh less radical than Amin Sinha aIso recomrnrnded gttter coshyoperation berween developing coulltries and an eoo ro their inkrtotity complex with instead a sense of m~ttnal sdiacute-e$teem and trust being devel~ oped (Sinha 1976 ch 10) Litde that h~ happened during the 19905 woo1d have encouraged Sinha The World iratle Organiaadon has emerged as the presenoe of the dlVelupeJ tares and lw brushed aside many of thc mucerns cf UNCTAD Debr ha~ edged on ro dlt wudd iexclagenda but mainly at the beheS[
of a non-governmental organization )ubiacutelec 2000 nd the promi$e~ of the main financill jnsrirutluru lO pursue dcbc-rclicf produred but a thiniexclmfl
In aH Third WQrld commenrarors have provided a vatied and lively approruh fOwards tne problems uf intetniexclational organizarions Their emphasis has niltntaHy beCl Qn tbe use of wurld lmtirutions to change the econornic condidon or the Southern cominents As this enndition is likely to worscn in the near filrtltf further more lJica conrtibutions on the rule oC
-- --- ~- __ _~- __- imernatIacuteonal orgaoilarions in Nonh-Smuh relarJons tOiexclghf be apected from rhe Third Worid A1ternaciveJy wrirers (mm rhat ares rmy jW ltIacuteespUacutet rm imergovemmemal orgaoizarions ar lealaquo Mee rhem $O Hrrle
Cfili~ald~heJ
Critica approadvs lO the nudy uf intetnadonal relations are (hose har rejee( the dominating vleW1iexcli repr=med by tbe realist and reformistS as oudined aboye In paHicular rhey reglUd realists as apologisu for the currem con6gutltion of power 10 (he wiexcldd sytem and considet [har rhe refOnntstS are elrher unable ro undersraoo he fUe llamee )( (hi sysrem oc ille UDwiUing to accepc rilar ir needs more rhan mooest refotlllS TIlOugh they may sympalhi-ze wirh rhe agenda of some Marxists aud Third World wt1cers chey do [lO( llave rhe hisrockal certaimy of the former not rarely do they have the experience and perspective of ehe larter TItey view intenUishy(jnl1ill nrganiutions wirh a jaundiced eye as these are mainly the lll$tmmenfS of rhose who dominare rhe syuem This section COlllaios an wcoum nf three approaches tmt of the critical rheorlsti- of kmintsc wrirshy[1185 ulld pose~mooernismlt
Cri(~1 herJrY The approach of critical theory 10 JnrematlonaJ o(ganizatiooll iSi determtoed by their wider world-view which in itsclf is explaiiexclwd by tbeir llame One of the leading exponents Roben Cox said [har ie is cririca1 in cne Jensc rha h srands apan 100m che prevailiog order of rhe wOlld and asks how tb$t oroer came iexcllPouc Ir does nor r-ake existing irucimtioM lIl1KI JIQwer relaclons rOl granred bu c311s them iacutemo queuion Ir 1S diexclrlaquoced ro rhe social itnd JIQiirshyical complex as a wItole rarhet (hall he stparate pirtt IUthet than subdiide and Imic an examination of a problem it looks al the wger pkturc of whkh rhe problem is jwt oue part and trio rO wJdeThwod the processeS uf change ill which botIt pans ulld whole ure involved laquo(ox 1993 277~S)
Ai a thoory cridQiIacute theory rejeen tbe daims of posicivism of an external Nulity and to be mue-free ror critkal rheorIacutests koowledge ti nor moraUy IleUc1ll1 ic is more che result of the social background of tbose Wt hold ir Given this ctitkal tbeory alJows foc a normarive choice in favoU of a social ancl iexclJlieiexcl(ld order diflerent f(cm rhe prevruHng arder bur it limiu the ruuse 01 chotce ti a1remative orders which are feasibJe mmsformations ofme cxvaing worJd h musr rejEC[ improbable alternadVe8 ju~t as ir rejecrs rhe pcrmanctlly nr lhe exiscing order (Cox 19 90)
Cridcal rheory differs lrom Marxist upproElchcs beCElUS( of iu tejection nf any daim to hold the objenive tru[h and betause or it~ avoidance of (he pmslllt ol il utopia Neverrhe1ess [heir analysis of incernarional relarln1l$ is one tbu hEls u numher of similariuumles wich the Marxisc pcrspecdve It regurds rhl tlistlng suucrures of world polirics as beiug oppressie not
- _ __ _-
lean because of rhe dominance of (he capitalism of che Unired StElte~ For many che USA is seco as a hegemonic power the prevailing urder - in re[ms rbar reReet he wrirings of the Itallan Marxisc writer Amonio Gramscl (1891-1932) Gramsd advanced the nodon of ln hisrori(middot bloc which in itself refilaquors che $Ocial reladons oE ptoducdoo The dominanr dass in a counrty - 01 indeed aoy social grouping - mlinrains cohesion and idenciry withio [he bloc [hrough the ptopagacion of a COIDmOfl culturegt A new bloc can be formelt when a subordinate dau can euablish tU hegeshymony over orher subotdioate gtOllpS (Cox 1993 56--7) The IDove rowuds hegemony comeS with the piexclt$ting fmm che spediacutek inrercsrs ofa gronp Ol
dass tO rhe building uf inrimdons aOO elaoorarion uf ideologies (Cox 1993 57-8) It Loiexcl rhat ptOCe$S thar embeds the incemu of the dominanc dan in an imttmrional form thae [w an appeal widet [ban that dan ine1f It the-refole repreSoems mote tlmn jUSt (he drunJnaoce oE one state ovec anocher bllt implies a cemufi acceptante of the tules arJd institutions purouized by [he hegemonic JIQwer Jo other woros it is all order wbicb most Olher Sta[e-~ (01 at 1enst those within reath of die hegernouy) couId find compatible- wirh their iexclmetem (Cox 1993 6t) h aJso involves noe just inttt-staee rueivirle5 bur rhose oiacute tlvilliOCiety (oon-Stllte socieM instishycudons) ebereby encoumging Hnks between social dus$ts iexcln the connules covered by ebe hegemony
What does Cox llave to uy about ioccmational Otgsniuciexclons 1bey Ilre scen in he oontext ofme wiacuteoo unaemanduuml18 of itnernational reUacuteltions mentloned iexcliexclhove He is direcr 000t mem Ooc mechanisru chrough wruch the universal norms of a wodd hegemony are expttssed js the interoatiooal organisation (Cox 1993 62) Why is chis so Cox U993 62) gives five teIlSons
bull They e-mbody rules cOae help (be- apwlSion of a hegemonic wodd iexclrder These insdwrians reflcct the intererts ()( the dominam social anil economic force- buc a1low a cettain amOunt oC adjusrment ro accommodare other subordinared interests TIms the USA WllS preplltoo ro mm conccssions to
bciI18 in Lhe EU srares and Japan ro rhe Wotld Trade Otganizatimt They a[e prooucrs of that order Though [he insrimrions and rules Ilce
nurITlllUy initiared by the hegemook power ir takes cate ro involve aOO comule a numbe-r of second-ronk stares and gaio theit supporc he Wotld Bank and Inte[nacional Mooetaty Fund were very much pan of [he world order thar emerged afrer [he Second World Wat and which was dominared by rhe Uoiced Stlres
They ltgidmi7e i[s nOlms by providing guidance for SllIteS and by legitshyimiuacuteulS cerraIacuten IlCdviries Ilr me narional leveL he OBCD afie rhe inrerruuiooal financia) irntuumluriom lave spread an acceptante of mllrket coodirions and sHict mOllerary iexclJlides
They co-opr elites from pelipheral counrrie Ihlented sraH commg 110m the Thiacuterd Wocld are expected tO dCCept he scriexclpt wcittttt by the domishynam power Bouuos Bourros-Ghati as Secteury General uf the Unired
166 Jiexclljiexclr1giexcl Qr1 ifJfCflrttuacutemal IWgaizati(ifJJ
Nadons stroyed too amp~r ftOm the gtip of Washinston and his second term was VCtoM by rhe USA His sucecssor Kofi Annan will no doubt undentand what 1$ n-quired of him He brings the mncerns of orhe states ro che UN bUf nor in a way thu threatt1l$ the USA
bull They absorb counter-hegemonic ideas Ideaiexcl $uch as 1iustainable dlYClop_ ment tukl even debr foTgiwness are taken 00 board by the intetnatwnal finarnial institlltion$ blu are trandirmel into pulido rhat swt them
Wh~t is ro be done Cox thinks thar the pfQblem of changiog dw world orUer 1iMuld be shlfred back from intern~tional insritutions tO niexcllriacuteooal $OIacuteishyeties where the sodo-political b~se for a new historie bloc mighr be ereated (Cox 1993 64) FaiJing the creadon of a new historie bloc of the new working cla$s and rural and urb~o marginal groups there might be tnmdorshymadon oC the curtent monopoly-libcral hegemony by adjusting to rhe demanJs oiacute local ello$ for polides 5uch as natlonaHution Cox 199~ 65) He aw advocates te-regulation of erooomies and a re-wmpositjon of civil sodery Internatiotla lnstlcutions induding organiutions can berome eontact puint1i fOr new $OCia[ furtt (Cox 1994 (11)
Critica throrJm $uch as Cox oifee a refreshing exposidon oiacute che posidofl oC imernatiooal ofganizatioos in a wocld where the main revolutionary powe~ have either collapsed (rhe Soviet Union) or se(tled into a cautious ronservatirun (China) Ir provlde~ a sceptical arf realisric world~view without acreptins tbe inevuumlahility ni a illture domlnared by mooopoly eapi~ ujsm sud the Utlired States J-Iowevtr its appllcariexclon to intemationa1 organhatJons 11 StImewha( timited tQ the maln global jnsdm(jons and th financial and economlc orgmiutions Ir has 1m (O say aboue regional nrgashynjudon Uf abour N(JUacutes Furthermore iu alternarive fu(ure testS on ourcoroes thu are far froro certain RevnJutlons in the Thied World are roore likely to be- irupired by nadondi$m oc by IsJaroic fllndamentaHfl OCalaquoely [he solid ooses for new historie blocs
Fwinuumll aNml4cbts
Feminist perspcctives 0f1 inttmatlonal rtlatioos llave in common wirh the erit~ ical rheocillu a rejclaquoion of (he dominance in rhe $Ilbjecr of the rcnHst and rdOrmisrs Although fuminist writen cover a wide 5laquolpe the gencral basis oiacute their aqurnent 1S har in interwnional relatioM ru in most politkal aud tcooomk acdvity women are diexclSJtdvantagt~l Alchoogh they own ahour 1 pet tCfH oC the worlJs lfOpeny and tiexcliexclxe heme 10 peiacute ceoc ofincome they perfurm 60 per eenr of working houn and provide 80 per eent of nfusets (petetsen and Runyan 1993 6) This is a derDOnstrndon of gender inequalitie~ the sodalJy learned behavior and expecratioos thar distioguish berween maKuliniry and femininity (Petetsen and Runpn 1993 5) Feminist aprroaches ofren So bejond the $tati~tks and examine (he mind~se[ of those engaged in the pmctice of intemadonal rdations whiexclch (bey ampee as geodered In other woros che world
Writingc Off inlmhJliofMl vrgntiZdlMm 167
illeen in a mlLlndine way thar kvrntB (he posjtiOll o( mnles in rhe hitgtranhy and devlllues the c041trihution of WQmeO (Sylvestet 1994) War in pattKular is gendered in a way chat keeps wornen and metl from qUtstioniog the essentiat pmpose and he neglltive effects of war militarization ~nd viQleme on their awn and orhers livts (Petetsen and Ruoyan J993 9 t)
What of wminist view$ uf imernationaJ organizationsr Ir IS not possible ro presem a rollf(tive vjew that eneomp3$~e~ rhe works of radicaJ femjnisu and ny iexclihetal teminists (rutead the work of one author Sandra Whitworth (1997) will be used as me pily$ rornt attrntion ro inrernarlonal organizations Aamper inrroductions ro feminilfr theory and internacional frIamiddot tiom and gendet and internacional relatlons Whirworrh examines geodet and imernational organilions She screpts Coxs vjew oiacute inrernational orgashynjzarions [har they retleltr (he dominant powet relations in che intetnational system and rhae internaliomd otgaoiution h che procelt of imcitntionaJshyiling and regulating conOice - eicher rhat which may IIrise among siexclates o( char which has iu (onU io transnationaI society (Cox 1980 375) TIte way duu pcople orgaoire themelve$ wirhin international iostirurjons reflects a variety of power relations ineludi~ of rollJSe gendec relatiull3 (Whitworth 1997 74) lbe triad of jnstirutions ideas and material rQudi~ tioru help ro hxare uSllmptiolls aboue geoocr withiu jntetmltional rewtioos Whitworth uses thesr tn examine lhe uooerstandillg oiacuteScndec io an INGO the Internadonal PlarUled ParenthooJ Federatlou (JPPF) and an intergnvemmental organilJ1rion (albcir one wlrh some oOl1-governmentJ)J represemation) the InrernatlonaL lab01lrOtganiution (no)
Whirworths studies show rhar thr IPPF tended ro accept the deshyemphasizlng oi the gendered oamfr of reproducdoo and (f) ignore rhe imponaoce ofbirth comcol foc womens reproductive freroom Instead in an effort tu popularize birth rontrol srrel~ WWl placoo on paremhooJ rather than iexclust the womans choice However IPPF poUcy beeiexcllme more radirnl in (he 19905- with Hnks beirtg made berween II1M control alld womeos ~)tu~ ality (WbJtworth 1997 ch 4 pmim)
The RO eoucerned itself with WQmen as workern It cnnsidercd that tbey oeeded spec-ial atrention and promoted ptoteCtlvt legiexcl~lacion This reiexcln~ forced me view (har [he male worxer Wall the norm with women workers nor deserving the same rights remunfration lOO mndirions Latterly however the JLO ha~ reflectoo views rhat prodaim wornens elt)ualily in rhe workforce and has sunoo tuacute assess the importanee of policies on womens role in rhe workplace as weU as in sodery more wjdely (Whlrwnrth J997 ch 5 panm) Whitworth comes [O the eondusion rhu iexclln iexcllnaLyiexcli~ of gernler in rbe IPPF and no shows how tbese rdiexcliexcldonsbips llnd definirions ni what it is to be a womltn oc man are structuted relationsrups3nd hlsrQciudly hve been scrurtured tu disadvantage women (ibid 15n
lo eommon with the critkal meorists Whitworth has useQ au examinamiddot doo of two intetnational organixations (O deroonstrate a puinr about imerflational relatiexclon~ indeed sodal rctatrol1s mOte widely The poinr is
I1
I
middot - ~-_ --___ aOOuc powec and iu use not (O balance oue SCdre ligaiOSf anorher but fm une gooup ro domiaare morher Jn chis case it 1$ ma the dominution of one dass me m culcnre over $ofU)(her (though Whirworrh recognizes those reLationshyships ti wcll) but of roen over women The crititUl uudy oiacute (wo jnceraational mganirations dealing with iSSlle5 recoSniud ti beiiexclg oiacute impocshycanee or WOfficn suggesu rha( tltOO simihu research on orher internacional organizadons could proJuce interening aOO uwfuiexcl resulrs
Pllit~ism
Thc posc-moderruacutesr $opprooch lO intetaarional rcllldon is one tlur bas (ome ro che fote Jn che perlod sinee lite end of rhe Cold War Jr is based on $o widcr imellectual viewpoim insrigated by l1rench iorcUtcruals of the 196()s gener~ ation _ Bllrrhes Derrida FouclIul and Lyorard - and whkh suggested rhat the modero era liad becn overome 11 fejeas mera-nattatives gnlud accounv- of hi5tory aoa iacuteNIacuteler subjecu as having no independem rubstance Scientifk btliefs induding [hose oiacute rhe $)(ial scJcllces are rooted in (lllxure polill(os arul mores oJ a wciery and are lherekJre subjective As rhere is 00
oblcctive reality cmpirical daims bave fl() spccial sunding in rhe rralms of koowledge IndeeJ ir i$ power aod knowledge are intimatel) incerwirud Posr-moJernism Hllnds against rhe belief of rbe modero pcfiod which LI seco as beginning wiacuterh rhe enlightenmcm of mid-eightcenth cenrufy Europe and AmeriCll Ir rheldore rejcn~ rhe COMCpr$ oC rationalirl and progrcss aSSuacutedared wi(h [he enlighrenment and [he moocrn age Thc uniry of IOOnkind iexclirW iexcldells such liS rhe untveIsWiI) of human aacuteghrs are rejcuoo lnsceadlocal aetion in smallgroups 15 advuacuteClmd
Post-modetnist ideas have affected tite srOOy of inremruionaJ rdarions as (bey have ocher social scienccs Posr-modern imeraarional relariops theoriscs havc ustd heir view$ 00 objecuumlviry (o exiexcltmine che rrmhs of international relatiom en see how rhe concepts iexclind knowledge-dairm (bar dominare the Jisdpline in faer are highiy conringenr on spccific power relatiom (Smith 1997 181) Post-modemisrs bave lltfa(red me mcta-narratives of the reelshy1m and reformlsu aHke The objectiacutevemiddot aaallses of the realim Ilnd neo-realisu are setn as being deJl(nclent on the subjective standpojnts of cheif mainly Amen(an and Europeau authors Ijcharcl amphiel (1986 258) daimed he works o[ Kenneth Waler men the leading neo-realillt trrat the glven ordcr a rhe natural nrder Jjmirs rarheE (lian 1XpawU political discllUtse negales oc rriviuliliS the signifinnce uf variely urOiS time and plue Whar emerges ii an ideology tllar anridpatcs iegirimires ancl onents a totalitarian projen 01 global ptoponioo~ che rattoualiaciuacuten of global poHcics iexclbe reformius are likcwise tainted Md have Ji mhr$lren belief in pmgress The posc-modernl$rs poinr m rh Helocausr as rhe heighr oiacute mooemism a rombimiddot Halioe of science dnd polidcal otganizillnon Il was SCruTely progreso
Given an antifllthy mwards rhe MlVe[iacute~ign srae borh as a centre of powet ll1ld as a crearioll Jiten imbutol wlth a wncepltliexcl uf progress pest~miexclJdetniexclsls
wHungJ mi Im~iexcliexclrun wgltiIRrzuJlU7iJ 1J7
can lOUcdy be expcctcd to vIacuteew intergovernmencal organiUlrions wirh sympilthy Tbe prefetted iacuteonu of internacional organizations when mentioned are those thiexcltt ltlj~plal differemes snd dlvenity in global pelitlcil duu are reginnaUy based or rhar reflec irKlividual actlOn Tndecd ir SeeIJS
rbat Michel Fomawt was involved with an alliance oiacute twO INGOs (Miquestdecin du Monde and Tertl-s do Hommes) in proresting agaiust internadonal iH~shydon over rhe boat people who flcd Vietnam in tite lare 1970s and ear1y 19S(k He is gU()[ed 11$ sayillg tbar Amnelltl Internnrlonal Teueiexcl dts Hommes Mfiiecin du Monde lHt inirilltives whiacutech have created a nrw righr rile dAht of privare individuss ro iexclntervene in [he otder of polino and internatioont snateg(eiexcl (dred in CampheH 1998 516)
Aootber researcher has exnmined ~he Europcan Communities Ilr che point wben Jr was mnslorming intO me European Unioo and askOO whether ir was a pootmodew ConJigUflHton (Nstrgaard 1994) Hi condusions wcre mar ir was gualiwiveJy a new organizarion oC human calJecrlvJties which mighr U$hec the coming of post-moderniry (Ntgttgnatd 1994 27j) The basis fO[ [bis judgemem was rhat me Ee did nO approximate anl modero form of piexcliexcl1idUll Ofpnizarion it did OOt commatld che means oiacute violence its au[hotity derives noc from die people and ir appeared to be a fCgJoo trying ro pOrecr itiexcliexclelf againsr globaliacutezadun iacuteN0rgaaro 1994 274--5) Ir remllins ro be sren whether [he BU tJf [he twenry-first cenrury wHl fu1fi1 rhtgtse hopes Ot wiU stllrr ro teVen
to a more scate-like being Generall) dIe cririolapproaches ro interruHiorud relarious hiexclJve provided
1lOOIe innovatIacuteve insigllls iexclnro rhe study uf imemarional orgsnizations The crtrical theorists llave becn sh3rpest in rheir unde[$(iexcltnding nf internarional ofgiexclt1lizacious as servsnrs of a dominiexcliexclIf power configuracion thoogh the) lave pemaps Umieed cbelr scope wllen viewing internacional organizadons Feminis[ wJiters ruave given Vltike to whac i5 after aH tbe scmi-sileut majoric) in rhe world and Ilre ouly srarting in qnest10niug the male dOmimiddot nance nuacutet iexclusr of the nmning of IGOs huc aloo of theic agenda Tite post-modemisrs are iMlSr concerned oiacute he (bree 8rOUp5 with inretnationlll organiucioru as such bllr rIacuteleic intellecrual approach is the ffiOSt tadkal aud can lelld tuuml a fnon of nihilism
GltJbaliacutesf lIiu
A gIobalisr perspective does oor viacuteew world poliacutetica as being predomishynandl arout iotergovernmemal relatlnn~ Ili would realisu or illbour inrentare aruI imersocietal rdations as a number uf reformisu llliexclll consider lnsteaacuted it cakes a more holisdc view Problems are (cmfronred ac Ji global level wlurions have tO be sou8ht here as weil This iexcls not ro neglcct (he 10tal Ol rhe ~tlte level ir is more J recognilion of the limiutshydoos of acdviuumles rhere The world-vicw like rhe reformists places empllasu on whal unIacutetes people Ilnd has lirde time for lhe demaoos of power pouumlics aad stare-cemrir orglLuiwrjollS Ir goe~ fllrther by nor
1 V WNimgJ lJ7f tIfernattmiexcliexclJ 11fK4111141tOnJ
liminog in view eirhec ro pans of che world or ro rellltions berweeo particuJar poliric~ lr ioded jlLSr m the economic social and poJitical demaods of mankind Paradoxically ir can be seen as IIn approach rhe very OppoSllC of the fimctionalist wirb whom tbere 5 much io common In nmtrast lO rhe fnnctionaHst (or neo-fllnctiooalisr or intetclependeuce srhuul) and ccrrainly in contrast ro rhe powet politks aOO MaOIacuteIt writers (be whole world approach places emphasis not 00 the discrere r~uiexclreshymems of groups SClteiexcl or individulI1s bm 00 tbe wel1-bciog of the tCOsystem in which rhf5f funnioll cbe planet Eanh The conccen of chis apptoach which is rcflccted il] in ttcumeUr of illternational urganizatiom is for the survival of lhe plunet for its effident funccioning in its widest SeILie aud fot che survival oiacute rhe myriad oiacute speoacutees - ollly one of which is homo sapiens - tbat inhabh me globe
Sinle tbe 196Os a number of wtiters on imernational affairs have expounded 00 tbis view and llave cOl1l~uendy ronsideted the implicadons for intemational organizacions Jobfl Button in bis World Society ronsldeted iflmstatt relations to be onIy a pan of wodd poli[iacutea and wrore
lf we employ rhe term world rociety imiexclreui of internanofla relarions iIacute we apptoo(h OUt study in this global way insread of the more tradi~ lonal nattonal way we will end to have a wider focos ro ask quesrions rhat are moee fundlmenral aOO imponant lO civilization and be ahle ro assess bettet me relevance of om own national bduviour ro be wider worW envifonment
(Button 1972 21)
Rkhacd Stetling posed the problem more spedfically
Nuclear esCllatiofl the popullltion explosion the pollmiofl of tbe envishyronmcnt the communkations rtvolurion rbe world~wide concentNdon of wC1llch and world~wide expansiofl of pltlvcrty are iexcliexcl11 essemially global and not 1laquo al pbellomena They have given rise jn tutn ro eartbshyspamuacutellg and revolutionary demands ror mass education rnass hesltb malts welfure and maltgts participation in che dccisions affecting roans fare
(Srerling 1974 322)
This wodd-view of rhe problems of the s)Jaceamphip EQlth begged fur global oolutlofl$ It suggcsred iexclhu not onIy iJ the system of sovereign stares as yer unable oc unwiHing to COme to grips with the above-menuontd prohlelUS but that a network of llllergoVCtn1lental organiutlom bGsed 00 me rights of statc wVfretgnt will ~lso be hammllng Globtl problems needed global solutlons based on institutinos rhat can (ake a global petsplaquoshytive Thus Sterling considetecl thllt it ~ tlOt unreasooable (O amidpate tme tbe member stares will be moved ro considft equippifllil the Unitw Nttous witb mote crunprebensive powen 1lt global pressUfes build 0974 323)
~h~ laquoo ~gt~ _- -gt bullbull (_bullbullbull __ - bullbull
A more compeluumlng cdH wus lAltiexclued by Barban Ward and Rene Dubas in their book prepared for [he UN Gmference of ehe Humafl EnVJroJlmenl 01lly UIIt EaFlh The c~ altJ Mdilllt1JatfCe (JI d Sflall Pta~t (972) 111ey stremsed the ufliry of tbe Eanh Jnd in eovironment and the )Jroblems in(ed by Jts iohabitants emntially thost oudined by SterJiog The ~uthoflgt poillted OUt rhat rhF envitonmenral qmosrion had by 1972 already had 50me impaltl on guvernments and im(rnarional organl1Jtion but the effior was somewhat ltInJOrdinated and unfocuseL In (hree particular aren - tbe global atmosphere rhe oceaml the worlds weather sysrellU - tbt-y saw [bl jmmediate neOO for (OmInOn poliey und co-ocdinared actiollS where vcerenshysions to national sovercigmy have no relevance ro ptrreived problems Bu rbefe was a need to go furrher and denl wirh other global problems di5Case srarvation iHitmcy unemployrnem ovcfllwding rntetnational poliCJcs wece at the 5tage reachOO wlrhin rhe devdoping s[ate~ of the ninettTtb (entury Elche they wiU move O to a wmmIlJlity bL~ro UiexclXIIl a more systematic sharin8 of weaJtb Ot tbey wiH break down in revoh and anareby (Wacd and Dubos 1972 295- -6) They Looked forward ro a sense of gLobal rommuniry 00seJ on he bope vf Irotecdon (from war aOO disaster) and the hope of enhancemenr (ecologic$1 as well as economid The ptlKtic~ and insrirutlofiS with whkh we are familiar inide our domestk sociecies would become suitably modlfied che basis of planetary oroer (Ward aOO Dubos 1972 297-8) This woold indude non~violent settlement of disputes witb legal arbirration ~nd polioacuteng ptocedures on an international basis jr would mea the Hansfer uf resoucces from rkh ro peor Ilnd inerCllSlaquo co-operaeion in arealt 5uch as health and edUcatIO farming uroon planning aud )JOlJution control As [befe halt been a shift of loyalty rom taroliy to dan from dan to tlation and from nation to fedctation there Wampll
hope clajmoo Wl1fd and Dubo$ for an ultimare lnyalty tuacute OUt single beau~ tifulllud vulnerable Planet Eanh (Ward and Dubas 1972 298)
Whilst the institutiona fmmework and organizational stfllCtuteS remain of necenity -ague in Oltl OM EaFtA iacutet is del( rhat the authors Wfre atming 11( a tlttwork oiacute world-wide fflnctionaUy hased organlzatiofll (both lOOs and JNGOs) char couId take on much of the work )JfCsendy done by governshymems o( rather whkh ougbt [O be dont by governmems UacuteJter writing-s have attempted (O deal wjth thc policy impliration$ of delllJng with )JrobshyJems globdly sroos (986) has poiacutenred en what 1w already been achieved in gtobal problem solving l1nd ha~ soughr ro buHd on rhis His critio have prunted out tha( what has already becn undertiacutelken has bren done more along rradicional Jntergovernmentallines (Donnelly 1990 121-30) Orbe writen have tied rubievemen[ in addressiacuteng [he global agenda more to renewed rutiviry in the UN (Rochester 1990 141-54) or to greater grass~ roots aud INOO acriviSffi Wget 1990 155-~8) Either way globaJj~m offeacuters a distinct W1ly of rackling the worlds ptublem~ It 1$ u ViIOIl thar sttesiexcles uniey and common (am( ntthet than disasreemem and roofrontashytion ir (ould thereIacuteore (oresce disputes being sruved inlernationally vety
much in (he way tbar chey are pre~ndy solvcd within tunny MtiOO iexclrares by more ro arbitratwn and Jaw and by entorcemenf ir neteS$il1) In this rhey have muh in COIDfllOfi wirh tire imerrnuiona lawyers iacuteUld idenlist writer of me eady (wenuacuteeh eemury mentioned at the beginning of tbu chaptet The globalisn are inspirecl jn rheir thinking more by ten Ot lt nudeal holocatlsr and by environmenml breakdown tnan by rhe duumleet elrpeshytieme uf wa dlllf aiacutefected rhe wricings of Woolf ol Ikierly
TIacutete globalisl appro~(h is opert ro the criticism of bcing roo idealistk jn a cynical world and lOO iIDpracrical in in uacutelstitutional sU8scsrioll5 Bur the di$mi$Slil oC rh~ words as globaloney cKleS HOt lid lite wctld oC che probw lems which hey have 50 effectively publiacutedzed They lutve uied to add anorIte dimensioacuten ro whar is possibte by showlng thar ie is nOCeSSiexcllty fOl rhe iexclurviwl of che planee
Tlle radical approach to the smdy oC iOternational orgllnizarions reflocu worIdmiddotvitws that normaUy lO beyond -dmse Jominated by rhe ltctivities of iexcltatcs or of LIte organizltuumlnns chemselves There is a sceprical view of whut is happeoing al soy one uacuteme in imernarional celarions and of he abilicy of mOfe cradicional wcifecs on imernafional cdarions ro explain let aJone llOderstand what is happeoing Ir is the feeling rhar approaches such ll1 (he MaNisr tlwt of rhe ideal theorisrs and some of rhe globuli~rs ur~ coming cber (O uodemaoding humanicys wider dilemmas rhar makes rhero so amactive They ar~ less Iikdy co apply rhemselves to rhe defais rutd wnrk~ ings oiacute p$cdcular imernatinnaJ organizations but neverrheless providt iotriguiog insighrs 00 [his phenomenoo by seeing rhem rhrollgh mol panoprk phHosophical lenses
SUMMARY
The rhree flIajor $chuols dealr wich io chis chaprer - the tcatiacuten the reformisrs iacutei1d che radical$ and rhe variarions (bey contain did not and do tlOf exJn iexcln a hiSforlcaj vacnum lde-as Wele foffilulared wirhio lhe COnten oiacute panicular sodedcs uoo in response ltO pUticular problems rbe communl (adom reYoludon of fhe nineteemb century the Finr World Wlli rhe rise of Nui Germany the spreading of nudeu weapons the deve1opmeof of plthitshy
$econd Workl War Europe fbe pnxeues of decoloniwion and deacuteteme rhe end oiacute the Cold War and rhe advaoce oiacute che inCormatton revolution In sorne CilSC$ the views oiacute rhose wdtings on inttmiddotrnational ocganUatlOHS have liad un efiecr on evenrs rhemelves pirlKulatly 00 rbe actitudes oC govetnrnents mwards tnternatiorW orgdflixauons AIl tXample is the work oC LecnarJ Woolf woose suggesnons Ctmceming a world organizatloo conttibuted lO fhe detailed preparnion oC the Lague oC Nations by me British goveltr mene Likewise Hans Morgeruhau and EK Can provided seimuli fot infiiexclrmoo US and Btirish governmcllul rhinking abom inrerruuional rela~ tiom iexclrom the 194Ck onwards In mher cases rhe general writings cJ persons lgtuch as Marx Leoin Mao Tse-tung and che dependencia school have affecred
rhe poJirk1ll dimare wirhin which govemmcncs conduce rheJe poUcy iucluding thar wwards jnternaclorull otgauj~atjon$
Orber ruCfOf$ aplft froro their historial cuntexc Iuve affencd the views of rhe schunl$ rncntioned They have differint backgtounJs io cheit ideruogy (Wesrero commllniSf Third World radical environmenralisr) and in theit level of $nalysis of inrernarional rebtions (stare Centuacutec inretesr aoo rramna~ dona groups cLitraquo dominanr global) This a(icca the typC oC inrernatiacuteonal organizariacuteon dominam io their studies (IGOs INCo) auJ thcic 8eograph~ kai $rea of interest (the Nonh Adandc Europe ThinJ WodJ Ot global)
TIte range of wcitings about intetnational organizarions has ull dte whole teflecfeJ wiJec llooersundings of imetoational ceJarions and wuumltld polidcs These io rhernselves have fed 00 tbe gtVidc iacutellccUecmal fcnnent and on developrnenrs in world affiuacuters Viewl about iacutellteftlational ocgsnizatJoos wiU continue ro take accOlnt of the ince1leeruaJ debate ill the studjes oiacute polishydes internacional re1atioO$ philosophy ecooomics imematluacutellal uw sociology histoty and geogrilphy They will also reflecto among other ampcton che stntcegk balance in tbe world [he relafIacuteve power of tiJe United Stares aod oroer nares me scate of wotld markers [be pto-ess uf Euwpeiexcliexcln tlllegrashytion che relacive positloo of the developing warIdgt iexclbe levd of cootlicc througbolc the world fhe -ratC of dte environfneot and the ahility oiacute huge StatCS to wiacutethswnd cenrrifttgal force Tbe way tIacuteult imematiornal organiuiexclshydons ret1ect tbese developrnents and tIacuteleir t1Ipability lO deal wich some of them will provide (he tllW fiWifcrial foc funue smdies
124 Writings JIJ iflJm1UtirmalIilgJ1liza1iofll
Woods iostitudons conld be eXpampted lO bear he imprinr of rhe maln bege~ monic power (in t~e CtlSes rhe Uoitw Srores) lf rbey rrled m brmk away from duacutes snaicjacker ~ as dlrl rhe otueraI Asscmbly of (he uumlN in he 197)s - fhey would find dxemselves lgtide-rnlCked by tIUt power
Tbe neo-reaiJSts accepred [har hegemoni( JXlwer could aru1 woukl decline bm wCfC les$ abJe ro deal wuumlh he consequences of rhis decline 00 rhe srruc~ tllrt1i uf iuternari01lal reJatious How mishr [bey (induding iowtnadolUll orgBnizatlolls) change aCrer hegcmony lt was ro thiiacutel (udtion rbar Roben Keobane uddressea himself He firiexclt wmited ehar Realism is patdcu1arly weak in accoundng foc ehange espc(iiexclJly where rhe sources of that chanse he in rhe wodd JOlirical economy oc in rhe domesdc srructures of smtes (Keohanc 1986b 1)9) He then referred ro his own eadie wooo un mrnpln interuependence for iospiradon CKeohnlle 1986b 160) He saw rbe (d lo $upplemenr though nor replace JeltlliSf wricings wiexclrh theoeiEs and be sHtSSCJ rhe importance of smdying inrerruuional inslitu[ioru which in particular would oeal wirh the question of how co-operation can cake place io wotW polidcs without hegemony (Keohane 19A4 14) By the early 1990s Koohllne fOUM a synthesis in elle iosriturionalist argument thal oormws e1ement5 ftcm hoth liberalism and teiexcltlil111 (Keohane 1993 271) Thi assumed (har sutes were rhe principal Qaors in world politics and acrm in rheir own self-inrerests hoth traditional eenli~t tenen Reiative capahilides - how power weaith etc was distributed berween the various nares - was impotcunt and S(Rtt5 had m rely on rheir own jUrlQns ro ensure rehuive gatos fmm coopetatioo From the Jiberal side Krohanes insrirutiQruUacuteism borrows 11 greater empbasis un the role of inrernatiunal jfl$rlIIriacuteoru in changing COnceiexclllons oftdf-interese (Keohane 1993)
During [he period from about 1945 ro 196S iexclntetna[ional imuacuterutions werc shaped by [he prevaHing American hegcmony Keohane identified as a problem the ledme in reronrces dllll lIacutele tilliced States governmellr had beeo wiUing ro devore tU the roainreoance of chis system (especially tU economic a~pect) siacutence he mid-1960s As US hegemony dedined rhere would be sn increased need for intematiooal ftgtgimes - scrs of rules norms and insrimrions ~ so [hat states could rub aJong mgether Keohane saw the regimes lefr by American hegemooy as a good scanillg poinr for future coshyopecatiiexclO and thought thar [hese should be adapred tu roCCt [he needs of (he new sicuation (J 984 244~ 6) This woulo ar leas[ make co--operatioo possible provide information foc all abotlr pnlicies inteor1ons aoO VIllues and woutd creare a depeudabiUry in intemational relarioni (Keohane 1993 259)
Keohanes wOrk has bccn critiacutecized by che more staunch feO-realistl Joseph GriecO 0993 301-38) provided a compreheruivc refundon of Koohanes leanings ro a more liberal positioo and rherehy advances a classic sratement of neo-fcalist conceros He admirs bar iU$riacuterurionalism has made imponam cOfluiburioru ir lIDs shuwo bow the dflilrchicaJ SlfUCture of iexclntershynationaJ rdarioru has Cfillted the problem of chenins fo lmerruuional
wnlngs 1m nf1hJUQrlai O1ffdl1lzamJ1U 1)
cooperario1 Setond ie has focusm on how lnternatlonal instirutions help srares manage thar problem and les symptoms Thioo they have caused che neo~realistS 00 look more carefully ar rhe relarive gains problem ihis is (he case where states are less concerned wirh rhe absolure gailll than with theit gaios ser aside [hose of orher srares which are seen as porenriaL riVus In other words le is beuer to agree tO an ums contml Healy allowing yOlJf
iexclrare ro build duee extra missiles and youe 0l1JXiuent lO build two exrra missiles rhan tu tolerate a situatiou wbere you can build five more missiacuteleiexcl (a better absolute gajn titan rhe [hree) bU your rival cnn buHd iexclnen (they have a stronger relJirive 81ljn mmpued wirh the arms control iexclreiexcliexclty outcotne) FinaJly neo-tClllim have had (O re-assess cher views of rhe signifkauce of intetnatlonal instirucions in rhe sysrem
This view of inrernarionaJ irutirutions entompasres the oeo-rett1ist IJndersranding of (he role of imernarjonaI uumltganizatioos in the international ~ystem As mendonw he realins view thero as insftumenrs oC rhe sovereign litates Neo-reaJisc$ have rehued rhis undersrandiog by poruuying tbem as refleecias che hegemony of the mese J70wcrful membe1l They can airo provide forums wirh [he poremjJi1 to be SOmewhaacutet more efficient than trnditional diplomacy or iHeguLu mnferences though a danget comes wheo they try ro he ilCroCS in ffieir own right Tbe successol1 of rhe tradimiddot donal realius such as WaltZ (1979 70-U and Mcaubeimet (1990) saw rhe EUlOpean Uo1on ptedecessor che Europeall COrnmunities me) as flour~ ishing because of rhe bipolar diviolioo of Europe by rhe USA and he Soviet Unl00 dudng the Cold War The txpecrarion was fhar with rhe end of che Cold War the Be pooject wnuld nor advance bur rache sink ioro disuse T1lltlugh the EC fiued n nurnher nf c-rlses in rhe early 1990s ir dld transfotm irsetf iexclmo the EUnlpean Unjon (EU) wich ao Boonomk and Monetary Union (EMU) 11nd a Common Foreign and Security Poky Grieco (1993 331) expIained rhis in tetms of $tates mnstitnting rollaoorariacuteve rules for a commen interese with the wCllker stares reying to consrrucr rules rhnt aUow them effenive volee opportuniries to ameLiotate tbeir dOJrunation by srronger partners Tite weaket states - sueb as Bdgium Portugal ot even France in rhe EU - wefe trying ro bind cbe stmoger Gcrmany in his (middotIl-~e lmo a form of relationship that avoids dominatioIL Crlieco (l993 335) admirtetl thaL realism hll-~ JIDC offered aIl explaoarion fm che tendeo(y uf sram tu undcrrake their coopemrion rhrough iftrituriOJiexclaited instirutions
This chaUenge has buo taken by those who nave ioaeasingly sought tO
liacutenk a fiiexclidy reaJlsr uudetstanding of wodd polides with domestic pulirles in the lcadifl8 stace actors An tlCamplc 15 Joho Richarelss Study of che regulation of dte inremarinnnl vlatioo marken in which he daims tO
refine rhe ffalm understamUugs of power io iexclmernarional bargaining 0999 33 BasiOlUy uationaJ po1iriciexclan~ Ut$te and susmin International inuJtudons induding intefflaacuteuacuteonal nrganiacutezations ro maxlmise domesshyti poliriud advamuumlge ltRicharda 1999 9) His conrendnn is har
l-V H~giexcl iexcllJJ ltifffltIltlUImal lIfglaquonlMiffIU1fJ
internatIacuteonal iusti[U[ious wiH be created whcn they are politicaUy effishyoacuteenr (mat is inrrease eleuoral support) Cor natiooa poHticians (Richards 1999 3) Rithards rejeces a loHective goods approach tO intctrtatlomuacute iuscirmiollgt (such a~ that ofZacher and SumID 1996) that See$ such insti~ clltiom al cHrrecdng lhe working$ oiacute che market internuJonally antl rherefore produciug econQmic benefirs all n1l1Od However he alro tejelttS rhe hard realist approach that daims rhat instltl1tions including internashycional organizatium merely reOeltt the power tap4biHtles in rhe international system altiexcl in Kra~nermiddots statement mar srronger Haces have simply done what they hiexcllve plea~edmiddot 0991 337) Richard srill claims rhat international imtitutlons iexcllre the iacutenstroments of stateS Because $ueb inscirucions as the internationill organiradons (hat regulate mtetoational rravel definc property rights internatiacuteonal1y they alter che marketplace leaving gains for sorne and losscs fur others This beJng ro [he building of such iexclnstirutiollS inrernationally is oound lO trigger a fiexclerce domestic political batdc (Richardll 1999 9) Thus whac happens ro and in internashytional otganizadons can be usoo by domestk politkians ro maxiacutemize eheir OWIl dmnestic advanrage This is a view that may attrac( supporr within the Ulliacuteted Srarcs though may be less reSOllant in sorne of the smaller and weaker ~tales
A similar view hdu bcen takco by the liberal intergovernmcotalistll who havt examined the European Union (EU) Moravcsik (1993 1998) has pcimoo (raquoIr tbar governrncmal strtttegies withiacuten tbe SU havc becn domi~ naced by preferences and power Cooperatiun and integration wete rhus seen as usefu strateampies if tbey furtltered a governmenrs control over its domesric alfalrs and agenda Moravcsik rhm ste$ the EU as a succc5sful imecgovernshytnelUal regime desigued ti) manage (conomt intetdcpendence rhrough negotiated poticy ctM1tdinatioo (1993 474)
The neo-res1i$tS have becn auacked OH many ground~ not leaJIt fO provIacuteltilng no WVIoce on toe works of che old realuumlt ($Ce AshJcy 1984) Like their reatist predecessors (he predicdve powcr of rheir work hal betn dlUacutelenged particulady their inabiUty (O foreste the eod uf the OJld War tand oiacute the Suviet Union (Scholte 1993 8) Scholre also cuacutetlcizs fhem fur nO addressing global iexclssucs $uch as welfnre questiorn ano poUucfon thar domishynate the world uf rbe late tweorieth and eurly twenry~first cenruries This questioos rbe descnpttve ability oiacute the oeo-realisu tS what (hey descdbe an) more (C$isritmiddot tllan thett realiacutest predelaquoSSOrs They have on rhe wbole OOen as unintere$laquod M cheir predece$sms in rIacute1f ro1e of interoatinnal ofRaniurioos The main exceptlon undl the 1990s wu Robert KeltiexclIacutellilne whose earLier worb en intetdependence stcved hun well no rIacutelar Sfilre Evel hee the critidsm can be made rha his view is b41skaHy conservative and was concerncd iexcljede iexcleh the incerests of (he Thiacuterd World Sorne of rhe Wrltel1l no economic coopshyeratino and integrauon fU tlle 1990s a(cepted many ol the nco-realiu assumptiacuteons aoout natiQna1 UlrettU$ ln Illternatllmal o~iratlon The) bave brought 00 the OeM a more refmed vlew oE rhe relatioacuternhip between govern-
Wrltingr tffl inttntaJumal ~ruZaJlflf1 ti I
menn and inrernarional orgHnizatioru and have Ieft behiod he Cnld War reain empoosis 00 the mijitruy ilSpet-ts ofpower
REFORMISTS
Tile n-alist wciters despite theit diftering valuatioos of the worth of cenain intematlonal organizstiltms have in rornrnon a state-centrk approoen ro intershyoational reiatWIlS 1bough liOIlle were CQnremed tbiacutelt govemITlents shoold renect more he (iacutenevitably) good lntentions uf their dtizens in inrerruttonmiddotd affiUfl or rbar world otgmizarions shoukI have more power (O detll wjth warlikt ()t reoegade Stares tOOr nus of artentioo is the internacional govem~ mental otganhtaacutetIDn (lOO) A nociceable devclopmenr in internariona reladons literawn inu the Second Wodd War has been (he movement away [rom mis 5tate-centred view towards ooe tIacutelat admits the impoarune of intematioroal atmiddotWrs iexcliexcltha than tite sovereign SUte 1bese indude lGOs in tbeir 0JIffi right (rnrlwr than as meeting places or inmumenn of thcir rnember tare) lNGOs trnnsaatJoual otgllnizatloru polirical group5 aod individual dtizeru Although many pl1blkadmlS just desctibe tbese new phenomena whkh llaVe herome more aniV in rhe last iacuteotty years [nere 15 a1so iI prescriptive erement to sorne oiacute [he writings They ttnd te prescribe incrmsed non-srare Jrtivity in inremashydonal relatiom ase a way uf underpinning claset relations berWfetl stattS ami socieries or undermining houlle anitudes by guvemmenrs (WeiS$ and Gordenker 1996 WlIlerrs 19~ Gordenker and WcillS 1998) Whilr this general reformist viewpoint is similar to reall~t approaches in aooopting the importafl(e uf the srate relatjons in incernational polit1cS ir does no( aoept eiexclrher fhe monopo1y oE rhe state in tbe sysrem or mar litatfS are unimry talional actors In surnrnary tbe leey aJlpeltrs of a reformist ilppftmdl to intetnational rclashytions indudes n number oE rbe folJowing
1 ihe belieE in reason in human nature and in progres$ [he [requency and level of war can be redocoo fur example
2 Inrernauumlonal relatioru can be moperative rather toon confIirtrW 3 Though seates are imponam in inrernarionaJ Ielations rhey are IJoOt [he
only aCtofS 4 ampates are Q)t ulUacuterary iexclI(tors wirh their dedsion inrematiacuteonally reflecting
intemal divisions aoJ interests They dv nve therefore neccssarHy muimize the interesrs oE che stare
~ The internacional s1gttem espl(bHy pires of iexclt comairu the elemenrl uf international society ano relies on a wriety oE international institutiollS indudjng inrernadonat Otgltlniution
The refurmist approach to the srudy (lf intemntional reladons hase conse~ quences fOl [be roruiderafIacuteon of interniexcltrnmal Otiexcliexclalization~ ano has made a notieabJe conuibwion to the lit(llIr~lre on the subjctt especiall) since [he 19508 Hnwever there is a bockgtotlnd ro the aboye idea~ char can be ICen in
j 01 Wnlmg 1m l1f1eOkllttmal urgJmuJugtnJ
me esdier writifl8~ of Grmiw Ladre Hentbam 3nd l(uiexclc (Jwkson aoo amprensen 1999 108-11 VlOtrl and Kaupi 199t) 200-4) Ao undet1randing of che curren refutmtst appruache1 ro inttmational otganiUitioos um be helped by reiacuteerente ro SOUlt of the WI1tets on internacional law wnich wiIJ mrm one section beLow
lnlernatIacutetmall8wyers
Mueh of rhe lirerarure abour mrernatioual organwoou$ 1$ descriptivc ltiren detiing with several organizacions aM giving purricuw eutpha$is te tite League ofNarioas and UN sometimes dealing with one organiacutezadoo swn lIS NATO me OAU Of rhe EU Leading woru in trus area 1m those of the intetshynariooal lawyers who give particular ronsidemcion ro rhe cowlimtiacuteoru of international organizaoons thei legal penonaliries aoo institucional probshykm Indecd ic was pmbably lhe P~ ltgtfuw ar amplinburgh Universiry J lorimer who fin coined the e~ionmiddotiexclnrernatiooal organization in 1B67
Contributions (Q cbe study of internarionai organizacions llave been made by Britisb legal exptm and bisfOrians 50ch as Zirnmern in his iexclrudy The Uacute4g~ JI NaJimn an4 the RMk of LnJiexcl (ZJmmem 19gt9) and J1 Buacuteerlys comparison of rhe newly emerged Unuumled Narions wirh rhe suurwre aod aims of lbe then dying Ieague Brierly demonnrated a strong preferenn~ for fbe inrrusioo of international law iOfO etonomk ilnd sndal affpjn gttl dat rbe generic grievances of sures ma) be removed (Btier1y t946 9n Hersrh laurerpliCht published Tbt Dwefpment ()f lntmwlftmal lJw by rhe Permanml CfJkrl el l1iImJ4lifJNiexcl-1 jllJtia in 1934 and [his was later marched in [he Ullired States by Judge Manle) O Hudseos Intmwt]iexclmal TribltllfJuacute PaJI
qniexclJ Plfum (944) WilfrEd ]ellki [be ugai Advlscr to che lLO CUIIribured noe jU$ 00 chilE organizarIacuteon (Jenks 1962a) but abo mote genernl wodcs 00 iarematiol181 orgaruzarions (leaks 1945a 1945tl 1962tl) 1 le stressed (he need [O IDaH) [he craf[ of tbe imernational lawyer wuumlh rhe Pludence uf che polirician tO develop an effective s)stem of incernadonaJ orgafiUBtion
Institutional developmeru 15 primarily cbe responsibiliry of staCesmaDshyship ir muS[ be gnided aud cootrolled b) a [fue appreciarion of political forces Tbe greaccst oflegal uadirions is still to be crearEd irs cexmre wiU be largely ltlefermined b) rhe qnaliry of [he crafesmanship which inrernatlonal lawyers place sr the disposal of sracesmen during me next geaeration
(Jenks 1945a 71-2)
laltor imernarional insrituriom cexebooks were pmvided by rwo Europcan intemalional lawyels Henry Schelmelll Professor of law at lIte Univeaiey of Amsreroam restricted himself tuacute inrernacional instuumluttonal law wbicb by roncerning irself wirh [he srrucmre and functions of inrershy
~h~ bullmiddotff~ V_middot ~f_lt~V_
fliUional organiexclttttlonstries ro explllin [he present developmem and ro promote he harmonious growth of lnafniexclldQual organization (Schermcfs 1972 2) He Jodt wim rhe partidpants in lmernadonstl orgllniexcl~lltion8 tbe general roles ror their crgaru and me activities of these Orgllus from prirruuHy a legal viewpoinr A similar approacb was adopted by rhc Bririsb iacutenternat1oniexcll1 leglll eJtpen D W Bower( whOie book Tht 14W QI lnlmwIacutePMJ lmtiJlflilJrll (970) placed grearer emphasis on pflrtkular insrishymtions - he Lcague thc UN and in spedalized ageucies che regional organizarions rile juriacutedical iacutens(iexclmdons - as weU as dealing wirh general questions such as t-he internattoual pcrsouaUt) of che organizarions and their impac( on (he doctrine of (he rovereigll equalit) of srare5 Por a blend of sociology bistoty and luretnarioOllJ lpw che work of Paul Reurer Professor uf lmernatioual Iilw pe Pileis Univcrsit) is UB$urpassed In Inml14tionaJ bmitllfiom (1958) he examined che phenomeoon ol imemashyt10nal orgaruzadon rather tban jUS( the orgilnizations and insdtutiun~ auJ thererore speut sorne time on the uature of imernariolllll ~je[) [he erigias aud foundarions of iuternational institutioll$ lS weU iexcll$ rhe posiacutediexclm of Staeeg in international society
Sorne post-Cold Wllr studies nave moved uWily from wruu tllto regllrded as csoretic descriptions of che 111w (Kn aud Djehl 1998 3) aud have insread examinEd intetnatiomJ I1lws iacuteofluence on poLirIacutelal behavior (Ku ampnd Diehl1998 3) One of rhe buses of tluch au IIpproach iN chat imtornashytionaJ organiUltions nOIl-governmenral orgllnirpriOfl$- multithltiJllUl corporations aud even privare IndividuaJiexcliexcl have come ro pliexcly Illl iexclIlcrelljiexcling role in intematioual rclations and accordingly international legal tules have evolved co engage rhese oew accors (Ku and Olebl 1998 3) Tnternarional lllv is seco both as au operatillJ system and a normative system for internariacuteona relarionll Algt the fotmet it 5eu the genernJ proshyceclures and iacutensticudons toe the conduce of incern11ltlonal relatiolls lt provides che framewotk fu estllbllshing rules lInd UOI11lS oodilles be parilmcters of interaction ancl provides (he ptocedures Ilnd furums ror re~lvlng disputes among those taking part in tnese intecllCtiacuteOO$ (Ku and Diehl 1998 6~7) As a nOttnative S)stem iuternatiouallaw giexclves rorm ro lhe aspiradOlu anu vlllues oE the partkipants of the system (Jr) is 11 proJuct oiacute the struttlltes Ind processes thar make up rbe opernting ~ystem rTt1 tllkes on a principaU) legislativc chamcret by mandating particular valueg IlnJ ditetting speciiacutek chllnges in sure bebaviQr (Ku Ilnd Diehl 1998 7) Mote tradiciunal appr03Lhel tO lnternatlonallaw rendlaquol tO de~(ribe che role 01 imelllatiuuaJ otgauJutiotu as pan of the opcradng sySLCm Legal texu pllblishcd in he laSt decade Ot so of (be rwcnrierh centUry looked lncteasingl) ae the position of inrernatlonal urganilations middotw
nor leas [hose oiacute the UN system - in a nurmanve framewnrk especiaHy in functional areas such as human righn (AJston 1995 he envilOumenr (Kin 199M) [be global commnm (Jo)ner and Manell 1998) and wOlneiexcluacute issues (Berkovith 1999 Wrighe 1993 1)~g8)
130 Writingi (f1I iexclktnati~nal I11glttftiZAtitlrlJ
Intecnationallawyers have airo given exteosive comideration ti particular instimtions The League Qf NatJons attlacted special attention as lawyen played an imporunt role jn J~ dmfting and as it had as tU aims che pmmotion of international c(K)perntion aoo the achievement of iexclnrcrna~ tionru pcace and eturity
by the ficm establishment nf the undersrnndings of imemauacuteonal law as tbe actual rule of condun among Governmenrs aOO by the maintemtnce of jnstice and a scrupulous mpect for all treaty obligations in the dcl~middot ings uforganised peoples wirh one another
(Preamble to tbe Covenant)
Furtbermoce the central pan uf che CQvenant dealing with the keeping of peace (Anide 12-16) OOopted a legalisck approoch in delining nn OCt of wu against all Ieapue membecs as being rewtt to war in disrtgaru of Anides 12 13 or 15 (Attide 16 (1raquo) In other wottb the cardina15in W$$
tbe breakiacuteng of rhe legal gretment mOOe wirh otner stares Imernational lawyeM in pIlrtkuar were ooncerned wirh how Iacutenlernarional IacuteiexcllW might be agreed judged ane enforced in lhe jnter-war perIDd lhey turned much of their atrention to the anivities oC che Permnnem Coun of Intemational Justice arul lhe league of Natlon5 Judge Hcrt(h TaureIp3cbc foc eurtlrle ronsldetetl rhat aH Jntemlltional dispures were justiciable and thus open (O
soludon by [he judicial process in internacional law He considered tbe League tu be useful 5tep in the development oE inrernational law and be sanctions 1I1lowcd Cor in Anide 16 of [he CoveOilnt as marking tbe fitn step towws he collective enEonement uf internacional law (Laurerpacht 1970 9)
The league hOO iexcles advocates among orher lega writers AlCred Zimmern wriring io 1938 set Lhe Leagues activjties and institurions against che backshydtop of the gathering 5tOrm io Europe He still found much ro ~y lor ir it had rkveloped 2ru1 expanded tbe old iquestiplomaric ystem bad enrouragro wshyoperation in many ateIlS ane $r leur represeotecl iexcllfi artempt to ellminate WIlr even duting a period of whar Zrmmern caHed cmhquukes (Limmero 1939 491-509) Lord Robert Cedl one oC the fuunders of rhe League as weU as a lawyer and Conservative poHdcim admined when wming ln 1941 rbe Cailure of the orgamzation in preventing aggressive powers Neverdreless he hoped that iexclt would be reformulaced after bosrilities with a CI)ll of confederariacutean uf European tates the cenual objecr of which should be the preservatl(m uf the European peat e Peace in cbe test oE the world would Jepeod pretty weU on tbe then jusr~eltiexclsting Covenant wirh sorne small changes Cecil did admit rhat another piece of rnachinety couid do Iittle unless [he peoples allJ govemmeots cea11y tgtlt che enforcemenr nf law ann mainrenance of pealte as me firtr and grearen nadonal Jmereus (erH 1941middot 349-51)
The hopes of (hore ho yearned fur legal soludnns tO intemartonal
WrjlingJ 1m inffll7lltJfriexclftai rltgmiwtitln-iexcl 131
dt1putes dearly dcdined a~ the UN Charter wjth iacute~ emphasis on politica1 solutions to what were palideal disputes tepiacelti tbe optimist1c legal (otmula~ uf the League Covemutt The UN Chancr was not to be without tes Internationa Jegal romrnentaluts Indeed tWO early stllndard books on rhe UN are by diJtinguished lawyers Kelsen (l950) and Goodrich ti al (969) though the hmer have admitteu that when iexclnterpreting [he ltlwrter
since rhe responsibiliry for interpretadon is VC$ted in Ofgan~ and memben alike che process is more iexcliexclkely to be politia than judishyoacutealDeciexclsiltm~ rend to renea lhe enmmon intetesu of members in achieviug cerratn results
(Goodrich If JI 1969 15)
Other legal commentators have placed emphllSis 00 [he role of jtlterna~ tional orgaoJutions in tbe development of particular aspects of innl11iexcl1tional ew ami again haltle secn tbe rleyelopment uf the rules aon notms of internashytiOfliacutell society ~ howeyer imperfeltmiddott - in tbese cases Examples are Kratochwil (1989) who who has written generally ou the 1mbject Jaebon (l997) and Thomas IInd Meyer (19J7) on the world tradins sysrern Kiss 11M Shelttm (1991) on Iacutentern8ljoual envttunmenral law aud Human Rights Watch 09921999) and Bianchi (997)on human r1ghu iSIuc
lnternaonalgotJt1tmenlfgwfINIJJlue
Anorber AmcriC3llegaI aurhority ayde Eagleton gave the Unired Nations a critJcal though romewhat undmtaning appreciarioll ~mmmiexclng np its dilemma thus Ir (he Uniled Natioru cannor do more than ir ha~ the ampult liacutees with rhe Memhccs wbo marle it and opcrllte it and who j[ SfflIW slaquon preret the tootb aOO the fang ro internationallaw and order (Eagletoo 1948 552)
Eagieron placea the record (lf che Uoited Nations in thc context of irs predecessors in the hisroey of rhe gttlwth ofinternational govemmem and of iu legal and politica background He examined pmposals to achieve the inrernational government thff the UN ailed tu rt1tCh bm condueed chet fI chaogc in he attimdes oC Stares aud their pcoples JS neerkd fipiexclt (Fagl~too 194$ 583) Eagletons wnrk uuderlioed tbe point made by Evan Ltmm in his ntemd1ifma1 A~lIaacutetJ (977) that with (he existence of the UN and its lSSfJ(lated agencies many of che wodds prohlems are Ilor wirhout jmtiexcltu~ tions exercising authority over them The powers uf (his mnge of organizadon cau bc queHioned as Ciexcl1n chejr standing in relnion tn thcir rovereign state membera bur rheir exisrence in tne ptlStmiddotwiexcliexcl[ world ~ aud tbcir grnwth (rom their niacuteneteemh-cenrury hesinnings is a reality
Thi$ inrerese in [he 8rQwth of iorernariona[ governme(l( i tleithet new nor resrricted m the legal pmCeMion Oue uf the earlier publicauumlnru on tbe subject was by the writer leonard Woolf who Walt a fOllude uf the Fahian
132 WriJil1gJ (IfI htfmtaJIacutefmal argmitAJium
Socilaquoy che reformiu discusston group witbiu rhe British Ltbout Parry Wtiting in 1916 he omllned dJe exrenr m which imerllliootlal govem~ mene had been lKcepted rhroogh diplomade garfteaacutengs rhe use of public and privQce JmefOatwllru unions and che iocrtlSe iexcln commodify ugreemellts aad he PU forward plans roe che further teguJation of JmeroadOllal OCrltty lf war is (( be prevemed he elaimed states musr submir Q mUte intetuashy[jonal conrrol alld governmenr in their poJiticnl and udrninl1litrative rdadoru (laquooolf 1916 nB) He udvanred a Fabiao Cornmirree plan for nte Stipranaciacuteonal AudlOrlty cllat wiIl Preven War eiemenrs of whih fOllnd their way into (he Lea8ue Covenane aml whieh inhJt iexcliexcllid teCtJlllmended rhe estab1ishment of an Inrernatloclal High Grua an lntemadooai Coundl of sutes represenrnrives ami JO IOtelThldonal Seltreurjlil Woolf and his Fabiao coUeagues hoped dlar wirh rhis machiuery legal justiciable disputes wouM be 5ubmined ro rhe Cona Of a similar tribunal and orher dispmes ro the Couocil foc senlemenr with che patries rn he dispute ccnsmilned from warlike actjon fue a period of a year Provision was ro be rnade fur sancrions which ali sutes shoold pm inro open1rion lind al agfCltd tO make common cause even ro he exren( oC war against any constiruent Srue which violates thi$ uacuterndamentai llgreement (laquooolf 1916 233)
Woolf mgetIacuteltr wuumlh juriiexclu iexcluch IIS Hersrb Lauterpadu and Alfred Zimmern and British poliricaJ wrIacuterers like Pbiiexclip Nod-Baker LJrd Ceei and Gilbert Murlliy represented bmh [he praccuumlal and intdlectual mpponen ni lhe League of Natiacuteom in the interwar peuacuteod wbo were ouacuteen daified as iexcldealisrs or neo~rotiam Hedley Bul 0966 ~2 5) r1esnibed the rennal Grotlan assumption (named after (he seventeenrhshycentury lesal wtiter lIugo Grotiu$) as being rhat of the solidariry OI
porential solidariry oI (he SUtes comprising imemarlonal sociery wirh respect ro che enfurcemem of [he Law and Grodws basic crjredon of juse WI bt-ing fought in order ro enforee rjghrs a fimiofl dearly edwed in tbe Pabirin Comm1rrfts The Snpmnatlonat AuthorlEY rhll will Prevenr War BuH criricized rhe way ibis group lost sighr of intemarional polirics in rhelI preoccuparion wirh 10eroational1aw international otganization and intfoiexclniexcliexclriQnlll saciery
10 deallng wirh imefIUldonal marnti~y which rhey were indined ro confn$( wirh internarional law they eon[ribu[ed only a narrow and llflcririal rlaquorimdr whkh eKalred [he jnternational inreresr over tllujoual iexcllIrert~r~ (bnt wirhorlr asking bow rhe former was ro be detershyminel) mtlltiexcltimrimwl rdorm over revolurJon as [he meaflS of ll3lliCcndinA lhe soriely of sovereiNn states (bur without considering wfteher SUtCS cOllld OCcOIlIC [he agents of rheir owo ~rincriofl) and respcu fue legaliry oler [be neoo foc chaoAe (bur wirhour fdciflg up ro r~ mer that rh~ in(~rnadooal legal sys[em as (hey construed ir could nOl aecommodate change)
(BuU 1972 36)
Wrllingr on inlmralirmal ()fganiUJliofU 133
This J5 a teUing enough asseSSffiem of che idealim views includill8 [heir writings (tri imernarional oeganiurions HOWelef [he background of [he groop $hould be remerobeted they represellteJ a genemtion devastawd by the Finl World War ud whiacutecb wa~ used ro national suciery (early twenderh-teocut adtaio) lhat had henelired through institutional chal1ge and in whiacutech the rule of law had not preduJed remrro The k-gtgue of Natioo5 che Permanenc Coun of Illternuional J1L~tjce (PCI]) and [he 110 wen for rhem part of 1 Great Expedment to we Lord Cecil~ phrale
Wrirets in the last guarter of the twentieth century picked up and develshyopoo many of he omions current in rhe aoove Jirerawre aud srr~ed how iacutenrematiunal ioceocourse had heen governoo by a body of laws nl1~ lind feguladons ano by insdturions indlldifl8 internatiotlal organizatioO$ Though they llave kcpr rhe analogy with the domescic government of cirishyzens thef have preferred rhe terro internacional governancc demoosrrating thar such a system docs nOl hnve che son of enrorcemem powers expected of naticnal govetnmencs Notions of global governarue huve becn corered above whete tefereoce has heen made tU tbe idea of an imernarional regime (Pp 108-10) Thi5 concept helped bdng internacional olgsobacions iexclmo rhe wider titerarure abom inrernadonal cooperedon 11M governance in a srate of anat(by rneaning an absence of interOlltional governmenr with signifkant er[orcemem powers
In the early and mid~1990s IiHendon was agam wrned ro che manageshymenr of che internlitional environmem in rhe wake of the UN Confetence on Environment and Development (UNCED) al Riacuteo de Janeiro BnuiL gtlhe environmem seemed ro be a classk caudidste fur global governance pardy becl1use ir was glob-al and partly because of the range of instlwdons involved in iexcltS managemem In the words of Josepb Nye etTective intet~ narional envitonmental instltudoru thu$ helped w overcome sorne Ol (he rypical narional bordenecks tbar hiacutender cootrunated meusures to revene rbe frighrening trends of global environmental degradaLion llnd improve rhe possibiluumly of susrainable develo[lmenr of OUt plaller (Nye 1995 x) The assumprion of Keohane tt al was that whlle StateS may have difnculry ad~tessiexclng jmernationaacutel erlvitorlmemaL problems coopenuion betweeo governmen[$ couid hring dividends Eff(Xtlve intetnstiooaj 111stitutions wete needed which may take rhe form of internacional orgauuations rcgimes Ol informal conventlons They were seen in che woros of Maurlce Strong (Secretary-Cener-iexcliexcl ofUNCED)Ul rhe bllsic framework for 11 world sysrem of governance whkh iexcls imItJdve to rhe effective functionmg uf our global rocieey (1990 211 l2) The aim was pragmlltlC to see whetber rhe intemational josrjmrioos coveriug the environment had made a posirive difference especially in rhe polltiad iexcleid
Case rudJes were presenred (bar exploroo the impact oiacute inrenwiotl$l insriturions witb [hree conditions essenrja lor effecuumlve acrioo on the enlirOumem high levell of gownlflmtl bullmam a hospitable 1lIiIraiexcltttal t1Iy~
rrmmml suiliexcloacuteem poIiuacuten U1d ddltiniJtY(JJM CiJpacity in national
134 Wrftln[f 111 iexclttntntiona organiufif)lfJ
governments (Keohane tt al 199 11) The case s(Jdies Weuroe seen in rerms of agendiexclt selting internacional pnliacutecies and national policy ttJpon$($ (Keohane iacutef al 1995) The three authors wtJe aware of the strong influeDce of stare powers in iexclnrernadnnal institurions and of rbeie meagre result5 in sorne areas Nevetthees~ they set down three ronditions uoder whicn inrer ootional institutions can alrer (he bchavior of state actors and in turn improye environmenral qualiry (Keobane ti a 199 19) These afe
1 gnvernmencal concern has ro be higo enough [Q pmmpt the 1lte ufscarce mources lO tllckle tht problem
2 roere haiexcl 00 be a contllcrual enviroruncfit where ~tnttS make (rediMe coounitrnttlts and make iexcllOO keep lglremerll$ rhar incorporare joiotly enacted rules withour debflitadng fuAtof ftte-riding ur cheuting by othet1l
3 states should haw the pnlitical and adminimadve capaciry to make the domestk adjusrtnents necessruy ro implemenr international norms principies and rules (Krohane et al 1995 19-20)
TOe empha~iexcls -in chis view nf glotm govemance is on rhe relncionship becween rhe internuional anQ tIte Illlt10naL
Pan oE gJobtl govemsnce - ai noted in Chapte1 3 - are lnrernntional regimt$_ Thcampe are set- of implidt o explkir principies norms rule and del ision making proctdures arounrl which actors eJCpelttadons converge in a given area of internacional relatious (Krasner 1983 2) [1tey are subSu of irttetnational sodcey and its imtitlnions Imemational reglmes which are oft~o speciacutealitecl auangemenu limicer by function oc gengraphicaJ area are amngemcnts hat BoYe1n cooperative behaviour intetnatioOldly Thee are thus mure wiJely Jrawn than internatiunal organizations The latcer accurdifl8 ro one of the most profific wrltcrs on the $ubject Oran YounS 0989 1994) can boeh stimulate the process of regime formation nnd can htlp implement thei provisiuns (Young 1994 164)
Funuitrltdlisu
An eady bff~1c with the trmJtional view of international organizations based un the state-centriacuter mudel cm be seen in Leonard Woolfs book [ttltmatiltraquoldl
Grni-17111I Alrhough srilJ primarily coruemed wich interamptate relations and the questiolll of peace and secudry a sizeable BCniacuteon o( lis wriring5 rover governlnenral tlaquohoical and economk co-operatioo and INGOs
Ve are accustnmed to regard the wodJ as neady diided iexclnto compartshymenU caUed states or nationLBut chis vjion oiacute thewodd divided into iacutesolated compllrtmenrs is nor a cme reflection of fiu 15 as they exisc in a urge pottion of the etlnh [orlay
(Wnolf 19l6 216-17)
Writtng( (111 hmmatiacute(lrul f8grllliulinnJ 13
Snch a step pladng gre-iexcllter emphasis on non-star ime~natiacuteonal rtloshytions wa~ taken furrher in duo writln8~ o( me Romanian-bom aothor David Mitrany Mitrany ideas known iexclas the functiondisr appooruh lO
internuional politics were inspired by his early Iife io dIe Ba1kans He (ouoo much imelletruaI sdmuiatinn ofter coming ro Lundon in 1912 olld working together with Lennanl Woolf among otlters in the Ieagne uf Nations Society [he labour Pattys Advisory Commiuee on [nternational Arrairs and the Fabiexclan Socieey His (WO malor eacly worlca wcrc Tin PrtlgftlJ of lt1tmutt(IIId GtM1NmAnt (first pnbl~hed in 1932 rcprinted in Mitrany ([915araquo) and A WorklNx Pem Sylttm (fiCSt published jn 1943 rcpobHshcd jn 19(6) though he abu made a 1mbstamial nmtribudon in anides unril bis dearh in 1975 Many uf his writings tQgethcr with an amobiacuteographical piecc and In inuoouctjon are guhered fogefher in Tht Funcfuumlmal TwJry of Prdilia (Mitran) 1975) In his t932 work he omHued the nlnereenrh(intury growth iacuten intertwtJonal govenmcnt ajong similar lines as Woolf
The ninereenth cenrmy prodwed that amazing growrh in che mattrial equipment of (iiiiudon whifh weldcd the wodd togaher into (me organk whoiacutee making eaclt people a partner in tire Iacuteitte uf al The outwatd CXpelsiacuteon nf that change WQ5 the ~rance nf WQrld-wide popular movements and the making nf innumerabJe privare md public imernatjonal agItemenrs
(Mitrany 1915a~ 89)
Mitrany WiacuteI$ concerned thar (he rise of the fllidon-state and the insiexcl~tence of new statcs on che doctrine uf lluvereign equality when (bey were dlldy weaker and smalJer tban the Grear Powers hindered internacional lt0shy
operation in for example the cconomic lphere HowCer he 1lW rbar the fnne ofevents wu working agaiexcln~t sta~ism
No maeter what rhe size and shape of rhe particular community lo funcrions are such thar rhey haye to be organized and the fOrres and (crors now iexcllt work no longer have llny rroe telarion tlt) rhe uld pnlitkaJ divisions wirhin or withuJ( rile state The new functiom imposed upon our puliria instiacutetutions art compelllng 11 complete recomt(Ucrion of tile technique of govemmellt on a purely practical oosis 1 teach that rondU$ion by ming at the Illltset noto what is rlte iexclden form for an imtrnadonal $odetyiexcl but mher what are 1tS C$sential ftmctions
(Mitrany 1915a 99)
He claimed hat C$$cntially the nims of intemalional governmcnt were no diffcrent from dlo~e (lf municipal gnvernmenr w aCaJt equality bcfore the iexclaw for aH rnemben of the cnrnmuni(y and ro lrumote sodal jUlltict To expen [O achieve rhe first aim in inrernatlfllltliexcl sodely whefe 5talCS wcre
l ju WrJll1Jgs en mlWnal101tJf (iexcl(gamufJf)lJJ
nei[her eqna nor unchangiug uuiu would be unreascnwtc Ir woold be far more prncriC1iL ro cmnpromise rhis aim and CSLablish a League of Nations in which Grea( pQVeri woulcl he dirlltdy representelt Secondary Jitates woulcl have group representiexcliexclrioo afld malter ~tatet w()ulcl have panel repmentatioo At the same time sfCortdary bodie$ would be ser up in varJous pam of che world 11$ orgnns (lf regionJI grouptngs of Jitares artd (hese bodies woulJ be connected with and subordInare tO the new CCOtta League organs They wouiJ aleo be iexcliexclbie ro clesl wiacuteth problems mOle teaclily especially as the unanimity of aH srares would not be needed [Ol a senlemem
These suggesdom are noe (he novel aspeltts oE Mitran)$ work They are imponam in changing (he emphasjs away from the tighu of amptate wwards rhe dude oc lit ICllSt (he actlvJries of Hates Still the conccto was wth Ilrrllnging relnrioru netween snm~s In a paper $ubmitrecl ro che 8drish foceign Office in 1941 and in hi~ study A Wking Peaa Symm (966) Mirrnny wncenrrated on how che (unctioru of gOYernment might be cnrried OUt more exptdiriously He rtcognhed chllr withio liberal 1emocrati( stare~ [he Une berween whirh futCtions are Cflrried Out by pubtic and by privare aclioll was shifriog lIod that rhi5 line unde (he prel5ure u( (rt_ih social Ileeds and demands musr be Jeft free co move with rhem A similar demamuiacuteon existed in che terrirorial spbete interlla~ dooally wme (uncdons (eJ railway systems) could best be organized cOlltinenroUy some intercontinentnll) (e8 shippillg) alld some univcnaUy (eg aviation) However there would be no need for rigid patteros exccpe perbaps io tbe exercise of negadve (unctlons -- those related ro securi[y wberc more fotmal sacle lnstltuclOns WQuld be needeJ In (he field o( positive (unctiacuteoru (dw$C tdatecl ro economic eultunl and sodal affairs) he climensions ocgans and powers of any organiorion would be deler~ miacutened by the nature oiacute the funccton and would be fairly flexible Mitrany fmfSaw tbe tStliblisbment o( functional bodies wirh auronomous ta~ks and powers which wonld do thingl joiacutently Tbis wuulcllink aucborlry tu a specific activiacutery (hUi breaking llway foom the tradicional link between authocieyand a ltIacuteeftnire ~erritory Murany 1966 125) 11iacutes move wcmlcl avoicl he sreritity uf many of rhe wartjmt suggesdons fue posr-war (ecltrn~ tions O connitudonal innovariacuteon in rhe United Nacions whlch f~eteoacute 00 he opposidon oiacute sovereign sraee reiiexcltance Mitrnny hoped rhat che number uf internarional agencies (hat had exisred before the Serend Wodd War augmenteltIacute by the A11ied board durJng rhe war lrsdf wuuld u~rve u tbe ba~lS foc (he network oiacute inremarional gOvernrnent He quoud wlrb obviow appruval the wurd$ of an Amerltlln scholar J Payson Wild Jr 00 the varlOUS warrime experiments
The Hues between domesuc anltIacute iexclnrernational actlvlty ate blurred ancl nadonal adminisuatlve agencies of the Powecs concerned Smneshytimes engnge in domestk busint-1s and at orber rimes extend theit
Wrilings Ofl hllenJdUacuteoN1J org411iatiofJJ 137
(unctioru ioro rhe uumluernarionul sphere The resuh is o conglomerashydOn o( intermnional bwrd aocl domestic staf( whose dlties Illrermiacutengle Adminisrrnr1ve offtcers o( narional lmirs deal direcdy wirh rheir opposire numbers in orher S[1l[es WirhOlU benefit o( diplo maric intermediaries and simlllmneously perEorm borh nacional and intemational tasks So fu no attempt has been made en estab1ish iexcliexcl
super~State
(Mitrany 1 6 167)
Mitranyll villion is oE a world in wruch che functiollS of ~etyday $odal 1Jfe - transport healrb care rommunicatioos agticlllture industrial developmenr sciendfic developmenr and so on - are no Jonger assidl1ou$-ly carried en witbin rhe confines oE each sovereign iexcliexcltflte but ate underuJen across fmmiers on a tegionai cominental oc univetsal bflliiiexcliexcl These acrivjw des would be overseen by international Ofganizatioru which wOIJld be more like boards oE managemenr Tbe functional agencies of rhe UN (che no WHOgt FAUacute etc) already underrake urn ro~opetative t$Sks fIli do sorne non-governmental groupings of spedalisrs (League of Red eron Sndedell World Srout Movement etc) However tbe Une berween what has been done imernationaHy aOO dome$tkally bas tuen drnwn very much ro [he beneflc oE che latter and international activitid bave tuen riddted with politicel dispureoJ rnany oE which have liule ro do wlth me good manegemem of the (unction iexclnvolved Mirranys laquoheme would fiexcludually lOwtt rhe liue ro aUow more functioos ta be Citded OUt at rhe level where they wOrk more efficieruly and woukl proide managemenr of tbere funcshytions ra[her [han poHdclI1 interference Not onty would his develQpmeof beuefit (he general social welfure of the world ir would abo hcIl (O salve rile problem o( plaCe and security The LHliputian ties o( internacional fuucrionru co-operarion would piacuteo clown me giam of conflict weakenlog [he urge ro destruction and warfare by rhe promise of consmlctJoo and cashyexistence
The (unctional approach does nor focus solely on iorergovernmenral organizacion buc aUows for a network 01 spedaliuxl agencies roany uf which could be non-governmentaL Ir difftr in emphllSi5 ftoro che mainshystream craditionalis[ wricings and Mitrany~ work praaged a move away from internare relations 10 wotld politics Whilst the functiooaJ alpoolUh does not oReod against lh sentimem 01 nationaJity )t the pride oE sovereignty (Mitrany 1965 139) lhere is no doubl chat ir is meant lO weaken the i~por(Jloce and power of the middle roan berween rile indi vidual and a world communiry che sovereign scnre The feeling o( solidarlty enrounged by functionallinks 1s nor between states but beween people or assoclatioos of individuals Each of us is ill fuer a bundle of funCflonaJ loyalties so dWt tO build a wodd communiey upoo sueh a concepdoo is merely to a(eM artd consolidare ir also betwetn societies and grollps Micrany 15 14n
138 Wriling5 fin illttrnatiQJIa1 (ffanizatio1ts
Such IIn imaginative appruach tu wodd problems aud be mundiUlc hard~ working iexclapolitical role lt implieamp fOr interuational organizadons has its fiexclruIrs To ctiexclddu Mitranys functionalism as being impronica JS IUlfalr hoth because internlltionru functiornd links hllve grown espedaUy since the S~ World Warj and blaquoarue M1tranys approach is a gradual one he did OOE expeCt ir ro be adopted overnighr Even so ir cioes have certllin 11mbiexclshyuow a~pets which shOllld be criticany eDmined
Piexclrsr de5pite rhe refere-nce to possible regional fimnionalunmgement8 Mitranys pJans ron counter ro rhe notion of aU-embraciug regional organi utJoru such as the Europcan Communities now E~n Uninn (Mitrany 1975b 53-78) Whibt these organwdons roay Hnk their iexclamhotity ro a speoacuteftc activky $ueh as the conditloO foc running (he coal iexclaud steel indusshytries nr the agriculture of the EUs member states they sta hold w the rrnditinnal1ink betw~n authodry arul a definirt territory The cooJ and sr~l polkies or tite Common Agticultural Policy uf the BU are nor extended to tbe industries and fumen of other non-member countries who mar wish lO participate in theit ochemes Vet il can be argued toar ir is prccisdy in these iexclirnited geographicill blocs that flIlCtiOruJ arrnnscments are besr executed wirh limitations un mernhetship To wnrk propedy chemes must encompuss denned aras with a good deal jn common - the flexibility of Mitranys proposal wIQutd 500n break dOWIl )l the tnembers WlJuld have $O little in cornmon in fo cxampie the runnill8 of agriculture tbat coshyopetation would be dif(kulr or lloo-proouctiacuteve Furrhermore rhfmiddotse regional atrangemenpiexcl overcorne the problems of dedding the meaning hQundaries and consequtIlCCS of any particular function (Melaren 1985 142)
Second Mitrany did not really envisagc any piexclHejcal control of the futlCtiooal des between COllntdes mus distinguishing him frorn [he more traditionaliacutest approach lO inrernational orgaruwcions lle was hopeM dw the pmblems of roshyurdillltion between ronctionalagencies could be worked out as they lllOOe
To prescribe fOI the suke of [iexcladicional ne3tleSS somtthing more dennite han the guidancc and supervision of eg the Ecooomk Md Social Couooacutel W(lU1J be ro duron he whole conetprion from [he niftJo impollC upon them (funct-lonal bodiesJ a co-otdination authoriry with anyrhing Iike comrolling scuus w(luId be ro move again roWllrd$ that JiacutecumuJarion of power ar the centre
(Mitrany 196~ 143)
Thus [he institmions uf (he Eutopean ClJmmunitic~ - the Counoacutel uf Milli~iacuteers rhe Commission che Courr of Justicc rhe European Padiamenl dre Economic md Social Comlllittce - were al analnema fO Mitmny They werc juu miacuterrnring the poluacuteical COflffOh of lhe nation state ar iexcliexcl pa-n-continenullcvel anU according to Mirrany Continental unious w(luld have a more real chance thau individual suteS to pnletise the aurarky thae makes or division Mitrany 19(Kiacute 2n This may u((end
Witi1lf1 rm imernatilmalllrgaraquoiutifJ11J 139
agains[ lhe funcrJonalisu hope (r iexcliexcl universal apprOlltIacutel tu proble[Jls but (he abhorrence of policial imtitutions is lItrange wIacutelen [he funriona agenoacutees will aftee iln be mllkJng poHtkal decisions -- declsions roncetning lile aurhontative allocafion uf resources No only will iflfetnashytional functiunal transpon organizations established accordlng to Mittany have (O decide that cerEain areas wiH bt weU served by railways and Wds orhers llOt iexcliexclorne ports bujjt up others ieft to tlceay sume airlines expanded whlle rnbers are allowed ro fOllUact blt deeisiow wilI have ta be made on how w diexcl~tribu(e 5carce re~ources betwccn fo example iacutenvemtlent in transpon ur building more hospitals or restfllcturing rhe srecl Jndustty thwughour (he area eovered by [he orgalliurions Thee arc paHdeal declsiQw ln a period of economk growth and plenry [hdr potitshykal niexcliexcltute may be le5S obviou as resources are avaiuble for almost eVery plan advanced by world 01 regional shjpping aviation heaJth or sree1 O1ganizatioos Otherwit there mn$t sllrdy he a system by which scarce mrnurce$ are aUocaced Tbis problem was flJed squardy by Mitr1ny successors iexcln the neofunctionalin school (dealr wIacuteth in the SC(tiOH tbat follows) but ir doell seem ftoro Mirranys writings fhat the world of funcshytioollJi~m is a wodd of IlnUmiacuteted resounes (Melaren 1985 146)_
A third problem in Mimuys approach i~ brought out in a eommtnt by lniacutes Claude The functiacuteonal theory uf imemariruwl nrgaruzarions 1S ultimateJy eoncernen wirh the usue of polJtiacuteeal and military srniexclggJe functionalism tneats (he promotion of we1fue as au illdirecf approach tu rlx prevenrion of warfare (Claude 1968 31--5) Mitran quoted Oaude wirh appmval implyiog rha fulletionalism would ind~ mllk( a positive contribllt1on (albeit inilitecdy) CE (he ptCveurron of war fhis profOiSitiort is open (O $(Ieral criticisms Given the level uf arrnrunems in the worJd and the porential fQf cunflict the contriburron ro pettcc made by funcrioruuacute acrjvities miexclay come too late A youth group exthange betwtn rhe USA and China ma) bode we11 fOf
tbe furure OOt wlll be uf link use if (he respective parrus are beaten ro meir destinarions by intercominental baliiacutestic missiles funhermore the pmmotion of wtlfare may inctease internatioual conflicr by i~asiacuteng expettacions Espedally if social and ecounmic changes are bmugh[ aboue by imernational runctioual 3Jencies developing muntrie poliacuterical I~derships may fJnd ir increasingly cliiHcult to meet lheir poplllatIDn~ demands fot more economic benefJts fur a ampirer distribution uf benefits or in sorne ta$(-S fOf Ol)tool uf the social consequences of laquootlumic Rrowth Imernal sttili aod unrest may chen ~iIJ over into inrernacional eontlicr Finally Miacutetrany daiffi$ that rhe Nncshyrional approach ciocumveuts ideological aOO racial diviID05 as it ltloes territorial frontiacuteers (Mitrany 1975a 226) There ls guod evidellce tiJat the opposite has been happening thae the exlsting runctiuual organimfIacuteom slch $$ tiNEKO WHO and lID hllve been riddkd with ideulogical and racial (or al lea~t Norrh-Somh) diviions wruch h~ve teflected pnlirical argnments outside he olganizarimlS bu have ncvenheless adverscly aHewod their ba~ic work (Ghebali 1986 l tR-lt6 1mber 1989)
iexclIV WHURg) W~ mltTlWilm tIampmJlaiWN
NetrfJl1iKJiOalisls
Tbc move away foom rhe srate-cenrric vjew of JlItert1arlOlal organizarion Started by WOllf and Mirany was ccetiacuteeued io rht immedijlre posr-wur perjod by social stientim applyiacuteog asJltu of functionll1(st ~heory to European nd Atiacuteantlc in~limti()m This utw fUllCtionaliu approach showed paruumlcrnsr interesc in che European Communities (Ee later nuropean Union EU)) whjch arme iu iexclhe wake of che amphuman Plan In Mily 1950 Roben Schuman rhe Frenrh Foreign Minisrer advauroo (he idea cha( West Eucopean srarcs should establish a High Authority wlrh powers ro admillshyimr theit eoai aOO stecl induscrie~ Negorjatioru on rhe detalS of chis plan led t() the signing of che Treaty cf Pariacutes in Apdiacute 1951 by FraIlee Wen Gemuny Iraly rhe Neiexclherlands Bdgium sed Luxembourg (rhe Six) Tbls gave substanre tO (he idea lbat funcrional aiexcltivicy oould be ITlltllfIged across fcomien by IUl organizadon ove and above the govemmenrs of che member sraces a supmnational amhority The idea was wldened ro cover iexclm expanded unge of etooomk activiry when he Silo esrablished rhe Bt1fOpean Ecooomk Communicy (EEC) widl the Treaty of tome in MAtch J957 An Aromic Energy Communiacutety (Euratom) was eHablished sr che sume time However ~he element of upranationiexcliexclliry was dilurelt in the High AllthoritY-s successor (rhe Commission of rhe EEe) having only Iimited deciuacuteOIl-makin8 powers anJ having mosdy the task of proposing acdon ro tbe representarives of he rnember states situumlng in (he Coulliil of Ministe13 Despire his otber Community hutitutions contsined the gerrn of supranadonaHry rhe Courr of Jllstke empJoymg Coromunity nuhe [han nacional laws a Ruropean Padiument wbkh WlS eventually electelt by ditect eleedons amoog a Communiry-wide electorate voting for Cummunity-hased parties aad 1Jueresr groups represendng mrmetSgt consumen traJe unions aruJ blliiness on a Commuiexcliexclity tatber than a nnional basis
Tht$eacute tnmwauumloos in WeBtem Europe uiggeteJ a spate uf 1 iexclretamre primaril) in he lJnireJ Sures whieh examined tbe nurure unrl purpose of the Commuuity iustituions The Jominam staacutend amongst this writing was chat of the neo-(uncrlonalisrs sJCcifically Ern~1t Haas Lean lindbetg and J05eph Nye whose works are of importance io the uudy of internacional organizacions In ronrruc tO Mitrany the OCW fuoctiooalistli tended Br (iexclrOc tuacute iexclimir rbeie study 10 developmems in Wcscetn Europe (HtIaSs ~nJhe Naion Stte (964) bcing a nruiceable exeepdon) especially the OC alshyrhough later cornparimns were tnade wirh rbe growch ofccmmon lIlltirkets iexcln Mica East Eurupe aoo Larin America On che whole the neo-fumtiooaiscs had rerreated foom Mitranys world view
fhe neo-funcrionaljgrs aiso realized rhe dilemma faeed by Mitrliny in eelihng wirh politica dcdsicms ane did nor fllnch in introducin~ a merhod of making necessary chOtees ar he imernarif)llItI leve Indeed rhis wa~ rhe kernel uf rheir ideagt lhlll 1I0l ouly sperifie functionamp would be farried OUt ar rbe subrollrinentill rarher (han (he nacional leve bul thil( lhe decisions wnrernillg (hese functioos would be made at thaf level shy
6- v n_m_ ~olo_~~W_
with imponant cOnsequences for those groups imetesred in the decisiacuteons and iexcliexclIso liffecting orher arcas of poliey Por example supprne the Ecooomk Cual and Steel Community (BeSe) required (har che sreel lodustry be orgaoized as a West Europeao endty insfead of a numher uf narional industries a1l commled by differenl ccgularions aod rbar a suprauariona surhoriry be crcared ro decide on the policy Coc che ranniog of tbe Wcsr EUlopean sfeel induStries lo ronsequeoce those involvea in say rhe French steel industIl would switch tbeir attentioo away from Parili where policy was previowly rnade ro BroS$CIacutei wbcre ECSC poliey is mude Purthermore CommwIlty ntber dUlo nadonl poliey on ueel eould spiU ovet into ereadng a Community po1iey ror cool tnmspOH IUld Othet asrod~ ared acdvities As rhe numbe oC functiacuteooal policies decided at a Commuoity rnthet than a natkmllllevd expanded so the need for political actioo at this higher level would gfOw aod thc political sysrerol of the couutries involved would becomc inexorably iexclmcnwincd lhis was the logk of rhe innovator of he $chumao Plan idea Jean Monnet wM considered rhar rhe establishment of a c001 and srec1 community foUowed by similar organitations dealing wirh otbcr Cuncrional areas - agricultute transpon nade defence - would be lreps on [he way ro building Europe The eOO would be jln economiClllly aod politicaUy integmred Rurope lo Monneriexcl scbeme a federal West Furopeao state The means would be fuoctlonal bu with a political contento
In his study of fbe ECSC Rrnst Haas examiooo this s(rlltegy and a1so dmned polldcai inregradon in its ideal typc u beiug rhe process whereby political iexclcroo in severa distinct nadooal ~tings are petsuacltd to shjft thet lnyaltielJ expecrations liod pOlidcal iexcll(tiacutevides eoWjlrd jl new centre whose insdwtions possess or derrumd jutisdktion over me pit-existiog lIatiof19l $tates (Uaas 1958 16) ihis oew cemre would be che powelshyhouse managing rhe political ptoblems oC fuoctio1llll coopeaacutedon [he Uigh Audwrity of tbe ECSC and be indrurion of me EBe The policical actcniexcl invoJved would be rhose elites leading the poliacutetical groups habirually colCerned wirh public decision-making and wooJd indooe trade uoioacuten offishydaIs busiue5$ ami Hade representatives higher civil servann and activeacute poHttdam As tlltSiacute eliteS rutneU theit aacutetrendon ro rhe ojOW policical centre chey would find tha Community pelky in olle area nm be uwde tea oo1y if che task iuelf iexcls expanded CHus 1961 368) by way of a spillover of actiVity lIltO anocllet policy atea Evenrually Communiy policy~makiog would take uvet from S(ale policy~making jo alI rhe crucial BreaS and the new centre would emerge as being potenrially more powerful dma the member srares governmenu wbich had been drained of lheir mOS( meruoshyingful polidcal ucdvides
1( this stage ir can be quetied whetbet Haas was describing an inremashylional organizadun or il poremia1 federal mlte Io discumng tms quesrjon in his book on Elle EC-S( Haas cooduJed dllU Tbe hruHnct of federal as agaiacutenst middotimergovernmemaf powers lIeeacutems tU point to che coodusioo tbat in
142 WtitingJ on mtertlatilJtJA orgamZ41iom
alJ maneo relating ro the romine regularion of rhe commOTI ~et the High Authority is independent of government (HIlaS 195R 55-gt He al50 voiced rhe opinion rhu Supranadonaliry in snueturnl ferms tberefure means the exisreuce of govemmental a~lthorirjes dlloer tuacute Ihe archetype of fdeNrhm rhan any past inrernati(mal organizar ion buc not yet ideutiacutecal Wlth it Oiaas 1)158 59) However this $upnmttionaity in pNctice has deve10ped into a hybrid in which neither the federal no the intergovernshymentai reooency has deady triumphed a-bas 19511 527) Ir is aloo denr lbat the original Coo1 and Sreel Communicy was mueh mote functional~ Wlcrnl than the lateacutet Economic (ommunicy and untiacutel the mid~19805 the unified aud expanded Communuumly romw to play Jown the elemenU o( supranatlonality iu tavour of 1ts Jiacuteltergovemmenul insutution rhe Conndl u( MiuiMm This aud othet dtVe1opmems led Haas to lcconsidcr his origshyinal view of Community inrtitutioos
In the 1968 pre3ce ro Tuacute Uniting of Ellropt (which was wIacutetten in 1958) Haas alrtady identified factors that had dllngro rhe nattlc of me European Communiries experimem in che previous ten yeacs He observed tlur during this period vario~ spiU-OVet aOO adaptive ptcKeues s(ill had nO( resulted in la pulitically united Encope and in an~werjiexclg the question what went wtlJug he outliued fuur considetdtions Fitst (he new funaiurutlJsu had filiJed w di$tinguisb between background variahle cOlditioos prevamng at rhe time when cbe Comrnnnity WU$ csnbJished and new upiratiuns and expectations that had develnped Jhe esntbliacuteshment thar had ron counrer ro the Community spitit Second the imptet o( niexcltlonaUsm had becn undereshytimawl Third Eactors within me Commuruty had becn nressed ro he dccrimenr of those coming from the outside world PintUacutely me massive transCormation oE Western socie[y raking place indepeudent o( EutoptHl integratiacuteon aIso hacl been underestimaretl (HIlaS 1968 xiv--xv)
Haass definidon of imegralion alsu bccame wmewhar more negative I1lOre stlilte-centric than bis original 195R emlhasis un nationaJ llt(on shifting their loyaJties expecratiacute(ms and poJitical activities toward a new centre By 1970 Haas considered the study ofregionallntlgrurion to be concerned
wich explaining how aud why sUtes eease to be whoUy $overeign how ~md why they volunucily mingle metgt and mix with rhcir neighbours $O as to lose che facruru attributes of sovereignty while acyuiring ncw techniqucs me resolving conilirt between themselvell
(Haa~ 1970 610)
By 1975 Haas eonsidcred regional integmtion theoty oiJsolete in Wesrern Eurupe and obsolescenr - though still urerol _ in tite teSt o( the worId (Haas 1975 l) By 1976 he had arded out n maioI reintetpuEation of uew-fuuctlonaJist lhoory as it applied to rhe Ee The definahle outcome of integtation in Wenem Eutope was secn either in ttaditiorW federaHsc temu - a Wen Enrnpean (ederal state ereated out uf yenrs of fun~-tiexclonal
Writings M ifllernuJlfJmiexcl1 (JFfIiutian 143
rutivity whkh had lcd lO J trnmrer of poliduumlll acnvity away rom (he natlon ~tates tOwarJs a new srrunure - or ltlS the imtitutiooltlUdng uf some intermMiate iexcliexcltage such as rhe present status qno whcreby atlthonty is dimlbnrro unequally between several centres Wilh tire old nation states losing their previous Ituthoriey but with no new JiacutedeOl government in ptO$~ pect Whihr the original aspecrs of the EC - rhe cuuoms union aOO (he Common Agricultura Poliey _ have tllaquoorne entrenched the spillover inm orhe policy area~ had nor occurred by Ihe mid-1970s as che neo-furutiooa1ists liad ptedicred Also common polides liad becn Jevelopetl in differem o(8ashyIliratiuns - che OFCD the summit of indurmiatiooo counrrics the Group of Ten - tarher than within the liC lhe problem according lO Bus W1IS
rurhulerue whereby rhose iuvolved io polirirs haJ found rhemselves in a littting ofgreat social complexiry where rhe nnmber of atrorr is very large and each pursues a variety uf objectives whirh are murually incompatible lmt ucn is also unsure of che ultlde-ofamp between the objectjves He continued Tnis conditiQn imJgtlics the erosion o( such interorganizarional patteacutern~ oC comensus reciacuteprocity and no(mative tegularity as may havr CXlSted eadicrEveryrhiug is up fO( grallS (Hus 1976 179) HilaS sllggested thu iu the EC polioacuteeamp and (he institutioru devised ro lmpleshymeacuteut thero iacuteU~trnre rhe attempc ro deal with lhe turbulence nather tllan achieve regional politkal inteSradon (ibid 180 original emphasis)
A similar hiacuteft lttway fmm the earHer llSp1rauumlons iiexcliexcl ICen in rhe work~ Q( Lindberg aud Nye Lindbeg wlrose book 1he Pattirai DJMmict o EroJMn Ecrmomic IntegTatia (13) had fullowed on dosely from Hws work was hy 1966 showiog tbar moves wwaros inregration wirhin the Be (ooid cause Stress within (he system l1Jtfl inCftllq the barrien to fimher integration (lJnJberg 1966 254) Togcrher with lkheingold in 1970 he desctibcJ an EC wbich had noc deveJopeJ joro a federal structute haJ difereot ltvels of integrariacuteon fut different functions and was sdl susceptible tIJ UJsis lt was ao unprecedemed but curiousy amblguoos plurruistic syttem there seem tO be no satisfrutory modcls or ronceptli in che sociaJ scienee VQ(abulary to adequa[ely define ie (Lindberg and Scheingold 1970 306) In a anide Joseph Nye coruiacutedered thac Jespite rhese and otber revisioos the neo-Euncrional approodl srjlJ embodies 11 nurober of fault tbu re1lcct jrs origins in [he 1950s (Nye 1970 767) He proposed a nUml)(l OC changes scating rhe derendent variable lels ambiguoUlUumly adding more politiul ruwn reformufating rhe Hst oF integration condiuons and pethapli mOSf
significantly drOlping che ideas ufa single path fmm qWlsi~full(tiexclonallasks tuacute politica1 uuion by meamiexcl oF 5piUove( (Nye 1970 767 He conduded rha[ shnn oF dramadc chaugc the prospect9 (or common markets or microregiorud cennomie organiutions leading in rhe shon ron (of dendes) to fedewt1nn oc m1me sOtt oE polidcal union capable of tlU indept1Ldent dcferue and foreign paliey do not seem very high (Nye 1970 1129)
There hiexclas been a long jotJJney trom the functiorudisl-fecleral nope5 of Jean Monoet back jn 1950 but it has seen the evolution of nm only the
144 WitingJ on inlernafuacutemal ttrganizafifmJ
Communiry insrirurions and policies bur aIso neo-functionalist thinking The Iogic of inregrarion gave way ro coping wich rhe crises inseirutions mixing federalisc and intecgovernmental elemenrs were replaced by a Western Europe in which instirucional tidiness is best forgorten (Haas 1976 211) and the federal elemenrs seemed ac mosc dormam The hopes of che 1950s had been replaced by rhe uncerrainties of che 1970s and the early 19805
Wirh rhe launching in 1985 of rhe idea of creating a Single European Markec wuumlhin rhe EC by rhe end of 1992 che signing of rhe Single European Acr in 1986 (which exrended EC comperence aud changed irs inscitucional balance) and che sectlement of a uumber of Common Agriculcural Policy problems in February 1988 che Iogic of inregration seemed ro be revived
Wriring in 1990 Keohane and Hoffmann resrored and refined che neomiddot funcrionalisr norion of spillover advanced by Errut H9al They were sceprical char rhe rheory of spillover could explain the ECs irucirurional developments of che late 1980s buc saw it aCling posicively in orher ways for example rhrough che incenrives ro institutional change given byenlargeshymenc of EC membenhip in rhe early 19805 (Keohane and Hoffmann 1990 289-90) They saw che pcocess cominuing and barring Clrasrrophic excernal fucrors were moderately oprimisric abour rhe Communirys furure prospecrs (Keohane and Hoffmann 1990 296)
This view was raken up by Tranholm-Mikkelsen (991) and Holland (993) borh of whom saw che revival of rhe Communicy agenda in rhe Maasrrichr Trealy - wich irs blueprinr for a move ro economic and monetary union - as being a revival of the neo-functionalism Drher wrirers on European incegration at chis time adapted che basic notions of neoshyfunccionalism bU[ broughr in extra fucrors Majone (1994) agreed char che EU had seen an upgrading of common inreresn but placed an emphasis on public choice policy ro explain particular Ouccomes Marks et aJ (996) saw a much more complex relarionship berween che Communiry and domestic decision-making leve Though rhe srare was srill very important ir no 10nger monopolizes European level policy-making or rhe aggregarion of domesric interescs 0996 346) Insread rhey idenrified rhe growrh of mulrishyleve governance wirhin che EU
Indeed rhese developmenrs in neo-funcrionalisr wrirings on international organizarions poim up sorne of the criticism~ of che schooL Firsr despice rhe besr efforrs of Ibas Schmitter and Nye it remains a rheory overwhelmingly dominaroo by an inreresr in rhe EC and larer rhe European Union In 1964 Haas and Schmirrer rried to extend sorne of che lessons uf econumic union in Westeru Europe ru Larin America Drawing on Haass 1968 preface ro The Uniring of Europe rhey discerned nine variables four relared ro background condirions (similariey in power of memben rares of rransaction pluttllism in member seares complememing elices) rwo referring ro condirions ar rhe time of economic union (similarity of governmenral purpase powers of che ecunumic uniun) and rhree ro process coudi[ions (decision-making sryle
W[J U UWltU 15
rransacrions rate rhe adaptabiliry of governmenrs) (Haas aIld Schmitcer 1964 711-19) They looked ar rhe chances of policicizarion chat is the possibilicy chat lhe acmrs seek m resolve rheir problems so as ro upgrade common inrerests and in rhe process delegare more amhoricy m che centre (Haas aIld Schmitcer 1964 707) Nye in his article Comparing Common Markecs (1970) rried ro modify che Europo-cemric narure of the neo~ funccionalis[ approach and drew on a wide range of cases of economic imegracion Larin America Cenrral America rhe Caribbean Eastern Europe and East Africa as weH as EFTA and che EC He concluded [har
The original neo-funcrionalist model was close m irs ongms in the straregies of European inregrationisrs in che 1950s and thru mighc be seen as a rempting and misleading guide for policy in orher aceas The revised neo-functionalist model is not somethiug ro be imiraced bU is simply a rool fur making comparisons We wanr ro know whac differshyence ir makes if a group of seates form a common market
(Nye 1970 830)
Though by rhe end of che 1980s rhere were few places ro be found outside Europe thac were forming common markets rhe formacion of he Norrh American Free Trade Atea (NAFTA) and rhe renewal of economic cooperarion in Latin America and Sourh-Basc Asia during rhe 1990s provided different models from the more poliricized EU These seemed ro challenge some of the basic assumptions of rhe neo-funcrionalistS aIld perhaps give some weighc ro Nyes scepcicism ciced above
Second i[ is clear chac che neo--funccionalisrs have had trouble wirh che insticudonal formacs They have rerreaced from being functional federalist almose back co Micranys eclecric approach rowards institudons They have also accepced [he durability of rhe nadon state in resisring che logic of inreshygration and have soughr compromise formulas which at leasr continued ro place emphasis on non-srare accivicies even if insticutions above che stare (supranarional) were seen to be susceptible to stare inrerference
A chird Cliricism concerns the gtOH of non-srare acrors favoured by rhe neo-functionalists They have consraudy emphasized [he imporrance of polirical acrivisrs the elites of inrerest groups and rechnocrats This may have parrially blinded chem ro a weakness in rhe ECEU rhar could have affecced neo-functionalisms earUer proguuscicarions from being fulfilled its insticurions cannoc draw on rhe day-ro-day polirical resources available tO the narional policical acrors This has led tO a gap mosr noriceable in che newer members berween perceprions of che EU by the represemarional elice and rhose of rhe ordinary vorer or consumer Whilsc some earlier srudies of opinion in the EC did inelude opinion pons rhese ofren dealt wirh easy questions (showing ones EuropeaIl idenriry) 01 soft options (whether rhere should be say a more acrive EC industrial policy) With the firH expansion of rhe EC in 1973 and rhe first major oil price iucrCdse
146 Writi~5 cm lI1lMfatleuromal orgfll1iutl1ltl
whi(h coinoacutedemally happenoo a yeat liexclater Euttiexclpean voren werc faeed increasingly wirh mu(h harder options inflation versus employment tlnde union righu againsr consumer inrerests The poISibllity was thar bcing a good European might mean aHowiog sorne other COUlltry5 ruuionals to explott ones fish or oH The crearion oiacute a Single Enropean Marker within the Ee by the end of [992 and rhe move rowards a single curteney from 1999 by eleven theo (wdve of rhe HU member litares bmught he activi~ ties of the VOlon do~er lO the wodd of tite coosnmer or worker However chis seem iexclf anything to have iocreased rhe alienariacuteon of voten from rhe institntions aM acrivilies of rhe EU The 2000 election for rne Europeao Parliamenr shnwed the lowest tnroour yer in sllfh direct elections ano Enrobarometer opini()fi poUs have demonstrnred a msative trend in public opinion on che EU rnropaeuintknmmdgl0epoebc-b531p3npdO Ir may be thar a oumbcr uf interest groups llave switched rhrir expecta6ons and poJiexclcical activirics tuwatds the 00 bllt many of the ordinary European V(l(fS seemed ro have failed ro trans[er th~ir lnyalties tu he Union
In surnmaty the neo-functlona1ists mok np Mitranys srudy of rhe a-lashydons betwren group~ and individllals in oHferent sures il5 wellas che sta(cs representativtltl They tried ro gtapple witb the queuit)O (lf political control uf such iostirurionalized funcrional re1ation5hips aod ro undrrstand how ir would affrct rhe oatnre uf tiJe nation state They arremptrd to define the statuS of [hese newfy creatoo insutution5 tnough rhry wete out always fvlped by devdopments in che ECfEU which WWl rhe focus of rheir studies Tbdr works have demun~trared rhat the EU imututioos are by 110 mratlS juse ordinary imerg()vcrnmenral ones lh~y have al) provideo a mirror ()f the hircof) of (Yents in Westetn Europe in pankultH - moviog flom unitios aod poJitkal dynruniqgt through ~rress oy$ and anguish to obsolesceuce tllrbulent fudds and back to mooerace optimism and a new dynamism
TrotJJ(l(iacutecnaUJI
Anorher Americao writer whose work dealt wirh che question oiacute integrntion is KarJ Deursch Alrhough not a neo-fotlcrionalilit his tranmctional appwmh nali dealt with sorne iOmmoo ~hemes He has been umrerned with more rhan imergovermneuul relation~ aod indeed hM str~iexcl reJations berweeo peopIes nitherthan just rhe elites favonred by manyneo-fuflctionalists Deursch concerned himltelF with m( absrnce or presence of significan orga~ oized preplttrations fol war or large-snde iolence between int~rnatiexclona1 policical commuoities It was [he secutity rommullttles lhat had elimirutted war and [he expectation o[ wat whhin rheir ixmndaries whicn Dentamph and his PrincctOll coUeagues exarnined in PeliriuJ Cfml1NJNlily dIId M NarJh lt14Jtlaquo Atia (1957) A SClttlriLy community WWl defined as a gronp of people wnich has become ~inte8rated~ io rhe sense that thete is real iacutelSSnr+ ance that (he members of that rommunity will not fight ellch oeher
Wriil1g1 (raquo1 iacutelMfatlortal tJrgaiadlMm 147
physkally but will se~tle their disputes in liOffie otber way (Deutsch 1957 5)lt loregration does not necessarily mean rhe me~ging oF peoples ot governshymental units intn a ~ogle unie an idea explicir in fooerahsr rhinking Otud implicir in much funrtionalist wtiting Jnstesd two $otS uf integrared secu~ rit communities ar~ hJemified the amalgamarelt where pteviousiy independent unlts have bcen rormaly merged lnro a larger unit wich a iexclommotl guvernment (eg tlle US) ano the pJuralisric where srparate gnvertUlleJlUl Illlioraio their iexclrgaJ indepeodence (eg uacutenada amI rhe US) In stlldying a nllmbcr of cases of anempred or octual intesratioo io tbe Nortn American and WCSt European area Dtunch conduded rhat tIacutelere werc iexclweive conditions essential fnr the rurcts of ao amalgruruued teeutity (Ommuniry and thM rhree wen nec~ry fm it5 plutalisdc COUnrfrpilrt
The1e three conslsted of rhe compaiacuteibiliry oiacute marer valU($ relevant to
politiclll decision-making tbe capacity o( the participariacuteng plt)htinl Imitl or ~mmem~ ro respood tu each othcrS oetdl messages and llaions quickly adeqwuely and without rtsort ro vlolence aad rne mutual predicrability n bchavior (Delltsch 19H 66--7) In Deutschs work emphasis was placed 00 cornmunkauun brlweEn potidca uoIacutets increased trnns1Ctions between them (such fL polirinl exchangcs toUfl(m trade and rratl~pott) brought increases in mutual dciexcl)Cl(enmiddotc fue s cummnnity ro be created (his high level of trnnsactrons must be accomgtauied by mutual responsiveness o that thr demand o( each side 00 he other mn rccdve adequate and sympatheric treatroent llthis wouk not ooiy predude the need [01 aggressive action lO acbi(Ye ends bm would aJso build up 11 feeLing u( UUSt and seturiry in che edationship
Deuucb does not have an obse~uacuteon with imernattomtl orgaoiexclZ8rion~ although his 1957 book iacutes in [he eM collcetned with the ctelltiacuteon of UCCIlshy
tity community in the NATO area rhere ate few tcferences to internatlOnal nrganiuuons Many o( the Cll5C studj( are ser io tbe pcriud before (be postshywar expansioll uf such organlurions and almost all deal ieh bilareral relatIacuteonshj~ O(utschs work has coosequences for the lUudy o( ioternuiona organizatIacuteoos govemmental ano non-goveromCotaj iO[~rnational otiianiza~ tioos can be created as a re~ult uf a plnraliacutes[ic secuciry nmunuoit) lne integracion of whkh may evtotuaUy become iacutennirurjonalized iexclu nuppened reo the ampandinaviiexclm states creand (he Nordic Counci1 There run abo be forrns of instirUti(lnalued communiratlons berween socieries wnich prOldde the transactions and undersrandinli rhat help create ji securi[y community DeUtsch wrote
li the way tu iexclnregrarion domestic or internarionat i$ through rhe achievemem of a srose of community tnut undergirdS insrirurjtms thm ir seems likely [har ao iorreased sense of cotlloounlry would hrlp to snellgtbcn whatever instirutioos - supranatiooal or internacional - are aLreAdy Oltraring
([)euriKh 1957 7--8)
ltgt -_ bullbullbullbull _- _
Demsc-hs work was mken funher in a vnluffie ediretl io 1998 by AdLer and Bllenen (l998) (lLat docs pay sorne attention to ioternariorutl otgilniushydoos Indecd their volume contairu chapters thar rekr ro rhe oseeacute NATO the EU the UN the GnU Cooperarion Cowxil (GCC) aod rhc Assodation uf Soud Eat Asian Niexclttlons (ASEAN) They daim that imetshyruHiomuacute organiexclzauumlons aud iexclnstitutiacutem~ played al lmporum role in elKiltlraging more inteo$ive and extensive ioteracrioos octwttn states rhrough theit uwt-huildiug propenies (Bnrnetr and Adler 1998 418) They lht six corulusions of this snuerneor
bull By moniroting srares agreemenu tntcmatiuacutelwl orpuuacutezatiexcloo~ give them he cooftdente tuacute cooperare io (he ahsencc of trUSt
bull Jnternational O1ganizarions allow Hi1tC$ to discover new areas of muuwl intetellls Tu ponimlar [hey cenoacute ro link panicular areai
bull Inrcmational organizatiom can hdp shape $fllre pracdces by liCtting down nOfOU Ihat define what is acnptablc
bull The iIKTeaiing nwnber of internacionaJ orgamrutions emuuragC$ muldshylatetalim
bull They dIlO eruourage smres lua societies to see rhelll$Clvcs as pan of a resion
bull 1ntildeey can abo shape lhe identiry of rheir memben (Banlett aod Adler 1998 418-20)
The aurhms cWmed char cheir stuJit$ demonmared rhe exrent 10 whkh social cnmmunicadons beomes insrimtioualileJ aOO embedded in lnreroashytional oC8linbatlooslt and in turU how (hese organizatioru express an inreot to dcvelop trUSt end mmwl identificarion (Batnm and AdJer 1998 418) TIe work on sccurity (mmnunidcs is pelhapS at ir strongcu whcn dealing wim the esrablishetl Westcrn democracies rbough llamen and Adlers work shows rhar it may hilve a wider urility
lnlerJciexclnmdcme
Furrhcr emphasi on the growrh JO cnlnsaccions berween l()Cicries can be seen in the worts of Keohane 11l1d Nye who were m che forefront of the iexclnrerocJXndcnce school in rhe lJoited Srnnt fhey puacuteirued our (he conseshyquences of the innease in tldrunarioualucdolU ro che study uf iexclnternncional rdarions Thcit statcing iexclgtoint was sLlnuuarized chus
TraM1latlowJ relations are nolaquo new alrhough che growth of tmnsna~ tklOal orgnnizarion in me twentieth centuty has been specracunr Ye-r our nmremioo iso nor ooly rlur rhe srate-centrk paradigm )$ inade~
quare bur also thar it igt becoming progttSsively more inadequate as changes io inrernational relauumloos take place
(Keohane and Nye 1971 xxv)
The) llsred five omsequemes uf this growth uf inEematiooal inrcracrions ana organizarJ(tIls fur inrerstate politks (1) rhe promntiun of attirude change amongsr driacuterens (2) ao innease io inrernacional pluralism the linkjng of nntiooal Interese groups in tnmsnational strtlCtures usuaHy involving transruttionaI organizations fOI rhe putpoampe of (04)minatioo ltKtohAne and Nyc 1971 xviii) whiacutech has heen lhe basis for much noo~(Jncdontllist wriexcling (3) me cmdon lf dependence and inrerdependcofe IS often associacuteshyarea with intetnilriorutl cranspormrioo and iexclnance Keclune and Nye 1971 xix (4) creating new insrruments fut iexclnfluence for use by sOJne governments over ()(bers (Keuhane aOO Nye 1971 xx) 1100 lt5) dJe emergence cE auronomous acrors wirh priwre ntildelreign policia thar roa) deliberarely oppose Oiacute impinge on Sla(e polides (Krohilne and Nye 1911 xvii)
In a late book (1977) Keohane and Nye dcah with che questioo of imershydependem-e in world poliacutetics io greatet depth Iorecclependencc $lnce tbe Second Wm1d War has- onen cesulted from increasetl ttaosnadonal atciviries and iexcli divided ioto twO sorrs sensltlviry iacutemerdcpeodence (dte muIy effecrs of dULOges jo tranS1lCrJons oc ~()ciacuteetiexcles or govetrunents) md vulnembHhy interdependence where he acrors Hahllhy tc suffet eO$n iacutemposed by extemal evenc~ js (aken inro accoum (Koonane ana Nyc 1977 12-13) In COntrast ro tbe reaisr view of world poHrk Keohane and Nye pm totward che idea type of complcllt imerdependence which chey claimed soroetimes comes dosee ro realiacutety chan does realism (Keohanc attd Nye 1971 23) aod whieh has three nuio characretl$tks it allows fo mulnple rhallne1smiddot- imershyStatC tiansgovernmental and trilnsnationa- conneltring sncieries there i an abserue of hierarchy ilmonS the rnany questions ac inle hetween iexcliexcltates with military securiry no 10nger dominntlng lUly agenda and Millnu-y force 15 not used by governments toward orher governmenu within me laquogion or on [he lssutS where complex intetdcpendence prevaiacutels (Keorutne aoo Nye 1971 25)
These dltee condidons are said by KCQhane aOO Nye to typify fairly weJJ 5Ome LIlAUe$ of global economk md ecological interdependence ami come dose ro chamcrerizing rhe emite relarionship hetWetn sorne cnuntdes (KeolWne and Nye 1911 25) Complex ilterdepcndente glVel rise ro oacuteininctive poliacutetical processes a sute $ goals wiacutell vary by mue arca with mmsgoYernmeotul puumllitics making goab difficut ro define as ttansgovern~ menrnl llClaquo()$ (fof cxample mtfUsrers of agr1cuJmre inte11igente agencies nariona wcather bureaux) pursue their own aims Jhe followiog facwn are reLevant iriexcl eilch issue area
bull iexclhe resourc-es of a Ncue fur thaI particular area are most relevaot radre Ihan the stares overull military ~tre-ngth
bull international nrganizatinm and uansnntional actors wHl be fruloipula[ed as malnr instrumenrs oiacute mue poHcy
bull rhe agenda of issUC$ wi11 be fOrmulated hyebltUlgcs in the power dirmi~ burlon wirhin [he issue alaquollS by rhe pururinn (lf internarional regimes
150 Writings lIlt inttn1atiQrJ41 ergdniutirll1J
by changes jn rhe importance of ttaflstlational acwtS and by linkage froro orher issues
bull linkage between 1sllor$ will be mote difficult for strong naces to undetshyrah ir[orce 1$ downgraded
ft whiJsr linkage by we$k srares rhrough internacional organuumlarions seu agendas helps coalition-wrming and provides arenas for the political acdvity oC weaker states which can use the choice of organizarional forurn [or an issue and rhe mobiliZlition of votes as a politiul resource
(Keohane and Nye 1977 37)
Thm Keuacutehane and Nt gavc inremarjonal organizaciOfls an iroporran[ role in thde compfex interdependence model of world politics a model which whilst not uSlaquo (O explaitt aIl world politics was one which rhey daitned to hllve iacutenfrtasing releYJ1nce in IIlarge and growing area 1ntildeey used an intetnUional organizadon mooel as one of the explanations ror internashytioua regime change that js che lthange in the sets of goveming flrrangernems affening relatioruhips oC interdependence In tMs C$e intershynadonal oJsanisaciolls refeued ro multilevd Iinkage norms and insritutions (Keohane and Nye 1977 54) which once euablished are harJ (O enlAlicate BeCllue o( this rhey may Stand in the way of swes using thdr capabHities In ordec 00 chauge regimes Instead powet outcomCl will be more aJfectcU by votlng power (in the UN General AssemWy for example) ability ro futtl) coalidoos llnd 00 control elite networks (ruch as that founo io clte institushydougt of the European Commnnities) Whilst the complclt illternadorull organizarion mode1 was only Ofle oiacute fOur aJvaucecl by Keohane and Nye ro explain regiffie chAoge tbey Jiu expeomiddott jr to contribute to such chaIlSC in a world where complex interdependence (onditions pertain
1he rontribmions by Keohane and Nye demonstra(e hoth the roncero pf American wtilets iexcln inremationru relariWl in the 1970$ with altemacives to
tite srare-centric model and their wiluumlngness tO draw from more rhan one approach bringiexclng rogether elementogt from che more tradidonal appnJaChes with economic models and non-stare-cenuic dements TIleir Wi)rk does however have certain weaknesle$ Perhaps the mon serious is the use of rhe cerro imerdependence and iexclrs djvisiacuteon iexclnro ~n~itivity and vuinerability imerdependence Anepting rhar inltldeperulence meUlS mutool dependeoce (and [hjs leado to discussiou a~ w how mutual maoy relationihips are) che phrase scnsiuacuteviry imcrdcpendenre scarccly wflrmnu thc use uf the term interdependcnce fhe fault lies wJth che authou loose definiuOfl of depen~ iquestcnce as a oiexcltate (lf being detetmined oc $ignificaruly affected by externa fwces The induskm 0(signi6candy atkcted w~aken5 me urillry uf me cerm so tlme che nOr1on oiacute scusltivity inrtgtrdependence seems ro refer ro any nociceshyaMe cffeltr of ooe srate and society 00 anorher A person may Ix- significandy affectcd by taking drog$ wlthout Ix-ing dependen on chem David Baldwin showcd that mis use of rhe cerro interdependence ran conrrary to the striaer
Writingt ()I inf~_Ji(J1ia ~lfizaJJom 151
lUlderstlllldings (lf the concept fuund in MirhiaveUi Montesquieu and Ronsseall as weU 115 in che works uf twentieth-cemury wrlteI$ such as Norman Angell Francis D(laisi -and Ramsay Muir (ampIdwm 1980 7-9) He snuested the U$C of rhe rerms mutnal influence mutual responsivrness ot mutual scrlitivity insread ofscnsirivity inrerdependeruemiddot (Baldwin 1980 19)
A second cuacutericism uf Keohanc and Nyes books aso concems eheie termishynology In dealing wirh rransnational influentes They [ump tngerheraH types of teiations in whieb non~8overnrnental actOrs participare chus makiflA rhe componenrs of cheir new paradigm shifting aud poorIy defined (Wagoct 1974 440-1) Wagner questioned whetber their work simply demonstrated a shifr in interesr to new areas of intetnational polidts shyespedally elttmomic ones - ana whethcr [he world hM reaUy changed or whether we have iexclUSt overlookcd sorne things a1l along (Wagner 1974 441) The atent of imerdependence wa~ also chaHenged by Waltiquest (1970) anJ Rosecratlce el al (977) in che US and by Lirrle Bnd McKinlay (1978) and Strllivan (978) in rhe Briti~h Uteramre
DespiLe any falling$ Keohlllle and Nye provided insighrs ioto ttamlflashydonal polltics they shifted atrention away fcom p~lrely govcrnmental actOts in inff$rate relarions and they poiutm OUt he impMrance of intetnational organlziexcliexclxions in the intetdepcndence oc at lcast rnurual responsiveness of =
rbe rdormist view of both international celBtiOO1l and iuternational orga- nizar1ons has always provided an rutemative lO the more conservativc cealist approach Ir tended ro be dominated jn the pre-wu petiod by internauacuteonal lawyen and ideaJists but sinee hc Second World War has laoched on to the changell in world poUtics 6tst jn the economic ficld and then in Europe thar have Mn more difficulty to explain in ICliIHst term~ It has sten intcrna~ rionnl organizarions as mlans to manage trends such as iucftI$(d economl( intlrdlpcndcoC( bar hll5 also illtceplcU rhat these organizations mar necorne impoftllm aCtoriexcl (lO che wodd st$ge lhemselves and can cettainiy Iacute)(cnrne involved iexclO changing rhe preferences o( governmeflts
RADICALS
Writers covered in this sccrion iCe rhe intcrnadonal sysrem flOt so much as being domlnlltcd by states bn( more by diUerent divisions 01 its peoplcs Thi$ is noe to Sfly fhat chey ignore surtes They cOflsider them elthet w be ks tmportant chan the iquestjjsions of diUS tit wealth or merely ro refI~ct these othcr factors ot w be roadblo(ks to unky in (he fare Qf mote impomllt chalmiddot renga Power ls seefl as belnamp cxercised by eh( wealthy II1ld privileged and open to cha1Jeuge Change in the system is possibl( but onty through srrll8ge or by an awakenjug pf peoples tQ rhetr real sitllatlon Most iexclnter~ natimal organization~ are thus regarded as (eflccrioos of the currcnt unsruisracwry stare uf aiacuteTairs though $fJme more activist orgauhatioos mar llave potential as vehicles or (hange
This SIoacuteCElOn has betn sub-middotdivided imo rhree gthe fUS( are the econ01nk srructuralists and indude Marxists and Third Wocld wruumlers cririclll of rhe cutrem imernruionallyuem They haacuteve in common a belief mar che polltshyiexclcal srructUres of me world halle leeo wbloned mainiexcly by eltonomic fiiexclctors and rhAr mere has bren an intiacuteJUIllity builr imo the presen sytem lhe recood are the cruumliral app~es who5e radicalilifl1 is mure of the iacutemellec~ cual SOrt They rejeCf - Uf at 19$[ question - Jhatly of rhe usumpcions utlderlying be lIiews ofhe world tepresented by the realists and refotmers Finally mere are the globalim Theit perspective ls planerary ana theiacuter rnain conrtrn h fM rhc survival uf Earth Agilln they challcnge che mme statemiddotbuled approaches of both realjsts and reformers
Stnuturaluacutet lIiews
Ihe srructuralist appmiexclch rO (he swcly of inrematioOlIl relations differs In imporrant wars tO thoee of me realists and refotmuu tbough ir has some elemeou in comroon with mands ofb04h schools As roany of (he neo-realistsshyemphasite (he power scructure of wudd potities this sectiacuteon willlimir jwgtlf ro (hose writers roncerned wich the impacr 00 me political S)Srem of rhe wodds ccooomic strucrure Unliacuteke che ttalist approach the erooomk srrucruralisrs are OOr jUSt concemed with swtts io wodd polilla and rhelr economic and poIitkal differencC$ but alw with the divisioru within f1tld berween SoOCieties (WiIIeas 1990 263) They are [heretOre romerncd witl the rifi berween riel iexclmd poor within scares and rhar herwtto udl and poor glohally This leads ro an interese lO trulSlUirional reladoru as well as in inrergo~romenmt links Th(f have this in corrunon wim refPrtllist views bm diexclfier foom chem in (he emphast~ placeoacute on rhe structures of world pollics beinc formuared by eltooomic fiexcliexclcmn In rhis selttion attentioo wilt be given te MarxiS[ wtlletS lIud sume Thir1 Wodd view$ - partiuilarly (hose of rhe cependency sdlOOf and rhe developmemalj~[II - who have made a cootribution quite separare from rhat of rhe Muxiacutesr uadidon
Marxill laquoewl
There is no one Marxisr interptetariacuteon of me role of imerniexcliexcltional Olganiza~ cions in world politics Sur Manis[ approschf3 have certain elements in common and form a di~dnctive 5ch001 of rhough[ about lnrernartonal telamiddot tions generaHy and therefore ahotu international ocganizadoos These appmaches are based 00 du writiflgS of Karl Marx (l818~) in coshyoperarioo witb Fuacutewrich Engels (1820-95) with perhaps tbe gtearest later conrribution being maJe by VL Lenin kader of (he 1917 fo1shevik revolushydon in Rurna They are cf importanee pany becau1e ehey ficm tlle 00515 for mmmuniSt [hinking and (hm mey have an anactunenr m rhe Soviet Unian whieh WIlS be suongc1t commnuist stare unrII 1991 and EO rhe Peoples Republic of China COlUT1UnJSl sinee 1949 Apan ftom lbis ManiS( beliefs
had a irmng inpur mm Wescern imdleltrual cruoking and conunue ro iruoan some viewi abom wodd politics in rhe Third Wodd
Neither Marx no Mancisrs took rhe stare ro be (he curtency of iacutenteInashy(iexclonal relations Unlike (he realist viewpoints chey did fiO( coruider interactions blaquoween soveteigu ltates to be ofovettidi importance UnHke tbe funcrionalists aud other modem Westetn views rbar srress non-stare actocs Marxiexclsts in particular emphasized cbus relatlonships born wiexclrhin nates and IiCOOSS Stare boundaries Indeed ie is diffku[r ro talle only of a MaIXIacutest view of inrernatiooal re1atioll5 lec ttltme of iorernarional orgnniza~ UumlOOy as rhis separares ene particular aspecr of human behavinur tor MIlIXIsr rrearment divorcing ir from the undedying relleCS of Marxlc beliefs Man-ism provides a framcwok of undemanding by whkh ir iacutes daimed ~ociery pan lind vresen can be explaioed and che furure development of mankiexclnd determined
According ro Maf1 relariooshipamp between people and the futm~ mar insdmdooallzed rhose relatienshfpamp depended on rhe economic $truCtUR of soday fhe way rhat productlon was organized He traced the history of dvilixed maokind through five hiuorical staBes - AAjade mdenr feudal capttalin and socialin - which have ditTereru dominant methods of produc~ tioll leadiog 10 a complirared arrnngement of $OCiety ioto various ordetS 11 manifuld graduadon of sociru tank (Marx llnd Boge1s 1965 40) amph form of sorlef has coutained rhe conflictual divisiQl$ which help [Q tranuacuteorm the narun of rhat $Ocjeey coRrradicrioru in the mode ofpcoducfIacuteon placed srrain nn rhe existing social nrder sharpeniug rhe divide berween economic founshydatinn of sociery and a mpld aansIacuteonnlltion of in SOpel1Ullcture in legal polidcal and re1igious it1$tirutioos Thus by 11 confronration of da$~ Conrramiddot dkeions one historlraJ form of soc1ery wus transfocmcd into a bigher stage uf social devdopmem the history of aH hitherto existing ~ociexclety is the histoty uf dass struggles (MaDI Illld Bngets 15 39) Marx and Bnsels were parriculady conceroed wich capita1i$t sociery - ac its Oeyday during theiacuter Uves - and its tmnsrormarion iexcluto ampocis1iu sodety Wlthln rrus form of SoOCiety rOete would be no division of laboU4 and no eWses Illld no SUtes no elCpropnation of labours 5urplus vruue I1nd (bus no private property 00 exploira(ion of ene clilllS ny iexcliexcloother with 00 need fue war
For Marx and fingeJs C1ass then and noiexcl fllltions or sutea are rhe bade units in hurO) llIIIl che struggle between clAssts Jnstead oiacute infeutliltl contlict ocrupies rhe centre of acrention (Berki 1971 R1iexcl From me nlneteenth celUUf onwards rhis struggle -n in Marxisr cerros has been primarUy between [his capicalist dass ([he OOurgeoisic) aOO the bbouring dw (me proletariat) AA (he trarurormatlon fmm capltalisr SoOCIety [O ~OCialiexclMl ro comrounism rook p~e (he superstruerutt of bourgtOis SoOCilaquoy - religioo national divisiacuteon boutgmis politicnl insrirudnns rhe SOlte - woold be swept flway and in Engtls pmse rhe gOlcrotnent nf persons is replaced by [he udminlsuacion of things Fetter 19 (47) with me itEte relegated lO the mmeum iexclngemer Wlth lile spinshyning wheel Qnd [he bronze axe (Feuer 1969 433)
154 WrituacutetKiexclI mJenl4tiorJal rngmZtlJilm
Mux saw the European SUtes of his own rime as being rntans by which the ruBng dass (011amp oppress the work~ng clw by using (he agentl of tht 5tare such as the iudidary the poliee the army and rhe church he (xrerual Ilctlvities of the stare wete also determined by its Chtss namre MeanwhiJe rrmllnat]onat Rlations of a more meaningfuL kind WQuld bt creared by trade rhe movement of capital and incteaiitd romac[ and llOIacuteldarity betwten the prolerariat of vanoulS nations riacuteidefd rhe internacional nriexclaniutions of which Marx and Engels hnd dire(t experiena- wtfe the Fi~t Internatiomd and for Engels the Secund lntemarional both of which atttmpted lO orgashynJxe the represemarives of wruking people aiexclros fronden Onc~ agaJn this stteAAe$ the Marxist empbois on transnarional dass relutions rnther than on intentate relarionships
Whibt Soviet writlngs on international organizatinn1 wtte falrly desulshytory in Scalins reigu 0924-53) rhey did lmerIy hernld rbe move towams peaceful co-existerne arul roreshadowffi the lartf rnrhe[ restrktive view of Imch organi2Atinm hy Soviet commentators
In the post-Second Wodd War period and In patticular in the post-Stalin era Soviet liternmre on international organiuttions bl(lSsomed This has reflected Soviet membership oC ma1ly 1osiexcl-1945 organixations the emershygence of a socialist bloc of sta[C$ and tbe incre-ase in the mlmber of Sowcreign s[ates all flUtontilde demaruHng a more sophisricared Soviet view of lnter~llate reLadoru than che survivalism of Stalins period Uuring rhe lare 19805 i( auo ret1ected the new thinking iacutemroduced by Gorbachev
StalintI suIXessor KrU$hchev developed a revised view of internacional relaCtons which gave a positio1l ro the emerging Third Wnrhl (Tbe Third Wotld was then taken to mean rhotle IItates thar had emerged ftom colo~ nialiacutesm In effect rhe terrn later induded tbe stares of Latin America Africa - exclnding the rhen apaftbeid stnre of South Africa - the Middle Rasr Oceaniacutea and South Asia) Peace(ul co-exiuence between oda1ist and (apltaJisr states WM $til comidered nece1sary but this diacuted noc predude the ideologiacutecal stmggle between rhe two campsmiddot iexclndeed lhe Soviet inter~ national lawyer GI Ihnkiacuten wrote pearcfut cocx15tence of sutes represeonng che tWO differeor rodal sysems is a slccific form uf dass struggie beween socialism and calitllllsm (Osakwe 1972 37) The Soviet Union abo deveJoped relatlons wirh rbe newly emerging exshycoloniaJ cOllntdeJ and Soviet writiog had tu take ~ount of this developmem There wru a recognirion of a third group of stattli between rhe capitalist aud the communlsr that of poteorially friendly indtptomiddot deut $tarem io Europe and Asia such as India Egypt Indnnesia and Yugoslavia which would filrm a tone of peace Although the rebtions wiacuteth rhe capitaliacutest sures sriacuteH remaioecl embedded in pelteful coshyexluencc rhere was an emphasis by postmiddotStalinist Soviet writets on the da eJement in lile telatiomhil - that is rhe wntact with progressive elements in Weste1l sodeey smh as che Jabonr mnvement Ncither diexcld peaceful co-exiucuce rule OUt ~upport o[ middotjUSt wars of nationallibcrildon
WIacuteJIacute11gs tm iacutenUrllUtional WjatlJZtiacutelJlff 155
iexclndeed ir was seen lt a strategy fo wodd reloludon Fiacutenally (he rrlashyfIacuteonhips berween the Sovier Union and East Eumpean countries vere deerned ro be based on sociali internationalism posmlating a haemony of natinnal and commllnity interests and mndllding thar jnde~ndeuce and sovereioiexclnty of a soctalist uate means aoove aH indepltndencc from capitalism (Red Star 1 December 18)
Tunkin underljned traditional Soviet thiacutenking rllar the mngtrltllenl imrrllment of an ioretnational urganization (fne example the Chaner oiacute the UN) was all-impottant in derermining tIte enene rrun the otganizauumlon bad an international legal pcntildeonaliry rhar iexcl5 a standing in internacional 1l1w 5imilar tu titar of a sovereigo staxe Examining lhe question of the antonomOllS wiU oiacute international nrganitatioll Tunldn allowed thl1 they need not jmt act as agtnts for member stares
In imernatiunal ptacrke trellties conduded by jntcrl~ational mSaniacutezashytinns take their speciaJ piare as treacies by wbkh internationsl organimtiom aequire righu and take upon themselves cerrain obligiexcllshytioos Intctnat10nal organizatiou are created by Hares hey are broughr iexclnto being by states but the actloacuteos of imcmational organi7ashydoos are nlt)( in any way de facto or de jure ro be tqt1sred lO the actions of scates
(Osakwe J972 23)
Thi did nor mean than M internadonal organiacuteiariexclon was an entity indeshypendem of its memher us[es as any powers (har they hacl were delegated by [he members In Jine wirh che ampwiet doctrine of peareful co-exiacutesteme Tunkin placed Uress pn (he nature and rhe membership of an international organiacuteution dlOSe which drew their membersbip from commlmi1t c1Ipishytalist and TIiexclird World tares could expcct tu be genel1llly mognized as having an incernarional personaliacutery He wrote
TIte namre of tontemporary international prganiurions is lO a very great exttm derefmined by [he existerue of Haces beJonging ro differem wcio-economk systems and the ioevitable muggle between them Thar is why pcaceful crexislence is now the bl-sic condition of rh~ dfVC1iexclpshyment ufgeneral interoational ntganization
(Osltuumlltwlt 1972 289)
Mor07JN Clt1ntrlbuterl sorne extra points Fintildet be iududed JNGOs in his stndy He wrote dlQt lotetnational orgaruulions have as iI rol 8t least three member coumries TheM may be government$ offidJ orgilnlzarions or 0CInshy
guvernmental organizatiow (Morowv 1977 30) In a 11Iter seccion m NGo thcy were ldencifred as che la~ group of inrerrulttonal organiuttiolls wim two aspccn rbar concttntd socuIacuteiacuteIgtt commemarors tbe NGOriexcl auirude towards the preservarion of pealaquo wkh the Wnrld Feieradon ofTrade Unions
6 _ 0
rhe Wodd Fedemion oE Democratk Youth and otber meiexclllbtrs oiacute tbe Sovittshybacked World Peace (ounaacutel gaining special mentioo and the specialiuJ chataCrer of sorne NGOs itl(h as rhe ruerrutriunal Couocil of Scientifu Unions and che Scienrifk OJmmiuee on Antnrctk Research MOrlrLOv memioned how NGOs can belp emblish a social dimate citillg their contti shybution ro (he setdemenr of a number of internacional confHcu swh as dlilr in Vietnam He aOO dealr wirh the role of che NGOs io cbe UN aud che consuJshyrative srarus [hey llave witn lGOs saying du[ smdems of internariooal affitjoiexcl
in [he socjalisr councrics m critieal of many asplaquots of (his system fur the eoruulrarive StatuS amogemenrs stiU fall shon of wha( [he deveJopmenc of modern inretnatlonal relarions in fac[ catls fur (Morozov 1977 43) Tbe specialized namre ufNGOs Wamp1 atttibuted by M((2OV tu
tht increased Jnfiuence of the pubic at large un roreign polky [he grearer iexclmpat of public opininn in imernatiunal reladuns and [he greater importante uf me ideological fiexclUtot 10 $ucb relations Accoum should abo be raen of che proccsses of cconomic developmenr and [he coosequenc~ of [he scienrific and rechnological tevolutioo which has also led ro a greatet number of speoacutealized NGOs
(Morozov 1977 42)
Second Morozov wridog jo d~ late 197amp made moU pos-irive refershyencelgt (O [he role oiacute Trurd Wodd SUtes in imemaciooa otganimrions He noted rbar rbe emetgtoce oiacute ti large oumbe of Oung natiooal stares h8ve kd fO che emetgcnce of intetnarJonal Drganizadons among develcpi08 ecuoshytries (Mororov 1977 29) aod claimed hat partkiparion in (hese organh311oos is part uf he process uf consolidating their sovereigocy and ruuional jndependenu~ aod of wlviog cheir pressing ecoOfJmic anJ orher pmbemsmiddot (Morozov 1177 31)
Finally Momzov developed the puint made by fimkin aOOut he limited llalUre of ioternationaJ organiurjQn$ - ~econd-dllSS ffitrnbers nf the inrershynarloual sysrem as opposed tu rhe firsr-diexcllSS members SQvereJgn stateiexcl by reretcme tO theit dedsioos There bave resulted froro che inrelllctioo of politicuJ euroorces within the organil1ldons and
Thecombined will uf chcse lGOs i5 disuumlnc[ from [he wllls of theuuml indishyvidual members io in eflSenlte and ln in narure The v1ilflous wills in thb case are nor agsregued arirhmetically each one exim indepenshydendy ur oside a homogeneQu~ socio-political gOUP wirbin whose frarnework (hey can be combjlled
(Murozov 1977 34)
AfLer lhe comiog ro powet ofMikhail Gorbachev in the Soviet Union io 19Bgt a Ihaoge rook place jo $oVJIl policies rowards imeroadonal relations irutuding international organi1ations and [his has been reflecred in new
~ M-- bull 6_V_
Soviet writings un [he subJect Gorbachev inttoducetl a owjor review of [he fureign poljcy uf the Soviet Union (har marchcd rhe inremiry of his dmncslic refotmS He encouraged new rhinking- based on a revjeJ vlew of che world siruation Peaceful co-existence wirh iexclhe capiralisr tirares WlCgt no looger seeo a~ being a spetjfic fum of dass srruggle as Tunkin had written bUI 35 being in the commoo intecesu oiacute all countriCl Ir WIi$ predishycued on the neOO fin surviva of (he human nce which in ShakhfUlZOlrQvmiddot$ word$ must ofCOUIse take fim place Lighe 1988 297gt- Thjs ml$or rhar a new COIKeuropt of seGldty had ro he adopreJ hy che Soviers rhar oiacute common security which wa5 based un sume of he ideas of -che Palme Comminion (see he1ow) Greater emphasis wu given ro arms control and dlsarmament agreemenrs wirh the Wesr 11nd to co-opttation in international uffuirs whilst Soviet intervention io che Third Wodd enbed and milirary 5UppOtC 1m [he East European communisr govcfomentS WlS withdrawn
Soviet wdcings on inremurionilJ relations both offidal and academic came to mirror Gorhachevs new rhJnkiog bur eho lilete iexcl$ evety sigo chut rbese id~ were dmwu no only from rhe Wesr but alw Uacutenm Moscow mink-tanks slleh as lMEMO th~ JflSIirure of World Eronomy and Inremlfona Relacions) Liacuteght 1988 29~n Gorbschev aun his forngn minisrer FQllard Shevaronadre gave rhe academiacuten a Breen light for funher diSClViiacuteon ud debare (Shevaronadre 1990 23) As II reampul srudies examlned he role of che Uniacutered Nariacuteons as sn ugem for peoce (Kolyrev 1990 12-19 NesrerenkQ 1990 65 Petoovsky 1990 42--3) and rhe mte of inrernational or811nizadons in environmental mliLffers IiLnd disurmamenc qutsdmuuml Chodsulkwsky 1988j NikitiM 1989 123-32 Roginko 1989 133-43) and internarionallaw was teassesred (Sutier 1989~ 363-75)
Once che Sovier Union collapsed many of me wrifetS losr rhe main point of political reference A nwllber Iefi academc orhets adapted thelt ideas ro WCtem oues and a few remnioed as policy rulviseni ro che new Russian goVefrutJenL However cornmunism as M imellectually dominant organiuog rotce wlch pnliiisJ dour had djsappeared in Russia togerllef with much uf the persptr1ve ir provided - wben seen thmugh me unen distotdng leos uf tbe Sovier lfulon - oiacute inrernatiooaJ relatlons and inremariooal organhattnru
Chinese Marxisr wrirers have iexclargeIy reflected rhe views of the leadershyship in Chinll sioce [he coming ro power of rhe Commun1sr Patty in 1949 Undl (he 1970$ communist China was elduded from almon aH iotttllJishytional of811nizIiLtIOns and ie is flot surpriamping tha whae lirde writing tbete WUtl on the st1bje(r Wal fairly dismiacutesampive usuaUy consisdng uf coudemnaM tinos of (he UN fnf its action tn Korea aud rhe security allianes fot teir hegernonic narure Chjnese Marxisr rhinking hiacuteu divided (he modem wotld jnro three groups ihe Birsr World consisred of rile fWQ imperialist superpowers namely he USA ano the USSR The Second World was made up uf otbet areaa uf advamed industrilllired cnuntries primariacutely EUfape aod Japa which were opea ro donunariou by lite Sllperpowers bu( which could $tan a dialogue wirh rhe Thiacuterd World Theu (here was rhe Third
158 Writings OtJ internationdl organizatioru
Wodcl iexcltreI( coruisting of the Afro-Asiacutean-Lario Americltlu sta tes supported in their muggte aAainSt Picsr World imperialism by Chinls This viexclew of the wmId colouted tyJst Chiacutenese wridngs on iacuteoternatiollill oeganharions Tbe $uperJowers were seen as cynical lTlllnipubtors Qf inrernarionaJ jnsti~ tutions Mao Tre~tuog wOre of US poliey towards such insdfutions Ir mam use or them when it neOOS rhem and kicks them 3way when ir does flot (Society (or Anglo-Chinese Underuanding 1979 42) US-domioated pill-~ such amp$ SEATO and imperialist groupiacutengs like rhe Alliance tor PfOgre~( wttt detided Spedal viuiot was saved roc the Warsaw freaty Orgaoizatiun whieh in one aetide was described as Soviet sodal~ imperialisms mol fur aggression (Ming Sung circd Jn Chen 1979 194) fhe Soviet Union was aceuseQ of trying tu manipulate che Pan and negnshydate wlth Wesrem eouorries rhmugh the Enropean Scltwiry Conferenee tn consolidare irs begemonic status in Basrern Enrope at the same time iexcliexcll dividiog Wes(ern Europe squeezing Out the USA ro as ro muSte way (0(
iu expansion and infilrmrion into Westem Europe (Ming Sung clted in Chen 1979 197)
Chinese writecs Fegatded tbe Ntildegttood Worid espedally Western Europe as being a pen force io telmS of imperialism which Ww tdponeed to the lhird World wich diaJogu as io the Jmueacute Convention berweoen tIacute1e European Commnnitiacutees and AF~ican Carib~an and Paciuacutet srUe5
Furrhermore the defensive $spects of NATO were sttessed and with growing European cohcsion the trend iexclS IJkely to ~ towatds a fuoce in which the American elemenr is seen as 1 temporary neceuity eventual1y to be phased out (Sodety fur Anglo-Chioese Undetstanding 1979 90)
lthe countries of the Third World were setn as coostirotiog rbe mluumln force comb$dng imperiaJi~m colonialism and hegemonJsm reEerring nor only to the vestiges of Wesr Etl-OOptan foloniiexcliexclJism bOl abo to US iexclnpetlshyalism and gwwiog Soviet soci$l~imperiacutea1ism Tbe Third Wodd eQuld hdp tn exclude the gre$t powers ny baoding cogecher io such otganizatinos aiexcl tht DAU aod rhey could work ro correct unequiexcliexcl nade and eeonomk reladons with che sUpetpowers through UN iexcliexclgeucies and eonferences such as UNCTAD and UNaos Abo rtlW material ancl exporting orgllnizations liexclke OPEC rbe Incernadonal Bauxilaquo Association ancl the Onion of Banana Bxporting Counuies were proised a ehanging (he old interntlrional eumomic Ome and banerlog che biggest roarerJal plunderers in rile world rhe United Srates and (he Soviet Uoleo (Ptking Rt1Jiew 26 Septtmbtr 1975 cited in Cheo 1979 309)
111e poverty oiacute ehinne study of intetnatlenal erganhuions no dounr caused by the lack of Chinese membership of such etganizacions unril the 197amp and the turmoit ef the Cultural Revulution eiexcliexclme ro an enel by the 1980s Jnstead oere was a more reaHs( viexclew (lE rbe worlcl iexclf one S~shytimes coucbed In Manlst terms In Chlnese univenittes there was a growtb io detailed studies of iutemationalntgsnizations aod the nuropean Union
WritingI un inlmullPmnl vrgrsrtilpiill1J 159
Tbird Wwld vlewJ
Many Third Wodd Afro-Asian aoo Latin Atrusican) writers 00 jntemsw
tional organizaion have adopte a structtulIist framework and are particufarly nm(etnecl abour how insdtutions can be wcd as tools of exploitadon uf rhe nitd World aud how $ome cau be used lIS agenrs of libenuion They llave nor been induded in the ~ettiexcloo un Marxist viltws (or three feamm nOI al of them are Mandst thIJM who are Manisr place particular stresS on (he posicion oF thE l1lIacuterd World and as ThJrd Worlcl eitizens they have through theit own experience unother pe~cdve rhan [Mt of writers from industri$lized srates
Yash 18ndon (1978 377) has identjfied thNf nuacuterd World penfIXrives en inrernational Olganizatiolls Fim [here is that or the bourgeois Of perry natiunalisrs who are in power in mos[ Third World statcs and who are progressive in [errru of anti-impcrialism but are rraniollary ro the C1tccnr WC they would sooner mau thcir pcaee with imperialism rhan iluwnder power (e the masses and peasancs This group uses ineernational orgllniexclm~ tions ro pur presrure 0lI imperialisc states in order to extntCt concession5 from them and appease tbe masses in their own coontries TIley see che UN as an opportunity to parley witb their entwhiacutele impecild masters t a presumed kvd uf equa1iry (Tandoo 1978 365) Thc scltond pcrspective is rhat ofthe reaIly backward regimes of thl Thitd Wodd such un Taiwiexcliexcln and Jotdan or whnm intemarional orguniacutelattnnS are of margJna1 signifieance [)t they prefet tu dea wirh impcrialism iquestirt(tiy The rhird petSPCCrive idenrified by landOll is that uf rhe masses vi thc TIlird World for wbom toterntlunaJ orgmilAriom are petiphewl fin liS Jong as hey rontinue fO reflect the muing balanlte uf clas$ forces in hvour uf impeuacuteJism (fandon J 978 378) Sioce the ene of he 196amp rorces representing thu third group have bccome lnott prominent in world polido in che form of liberarioo groop1 lttCn as tbe PLO and whilst chese have f)tgten interested in galnin8 telaquolgnJtlon rOt rhemshyselves at the UN and the spedaliled agcodes rhey are not depeuden 00 these or8ani1Jlton~ rndecd Tandoo romioeted (hat fo che revoludonary snnggles in SOUfh~E3SC A~a and AfrJctI iOfernattonal otgilnizalJons are tOO peripheml to be of much $ignilJeaoce (Tandon )9713 377)
Tancloo providcd n inrere~tiog history of the Jevelopment uf the anrishycolonialist forees in che Third Wruld sinee 1945 bur hi~ clivi~iexcl()H iexcloro he three perspenives is roo stark leaving aside rhe leil important backWllro regimes be has basiclllly grO~lped tbe Third World leadershp joto the revoshylutionaries who have Uttle netd (or imernatiooa otgllnizatiooll and those who llave suumlpped into refOrmism and have beco duped iot() bdieving (hat they elln ehaoge chelr c1ependeoce 00 industtia1i1Cd nBfiexclmL~ lhrough intemadonal organiwtions Thjs seems to undelsrare me use or ~mh organishyzations by revolutionllry groups - especiiexcliexcllIy che PLO anel tlle SoUthem African liberadon OtgllOiexcl7arionS - whieb have made substaotial use oiacute [he UN me Arah League ano the OAU tO sustain rhe polirical aspeets of theit effOrt5 1t alS(l uverestimatcs the extent tu whieh the Third World countries
J UU wnlmgl 1111 JTiUrllamm41 ergtIttJ1I0fll
have any iUwinru about imetnariooal Qrganizarioos such a~ UNC1~D
Furchermorc the identificador of 800d revolutionaries and falten refurmislS i~ tuller impliexclstjc~ rhe maIur sponrot of the UNs New Ecooomic Order l wruch Tandon hal roudemned as rhe Old Economic Order with a diffefent rltetoric WIIS the Algetian radinu governmenr of Boumediemu rhe PLO irself ha heen dependem on a numlgttr of bnurgeWs Arab goveromenrs foc financial 00 diploJUlltic suppon and ro Tandoos duumlertion that PQr narlonallibemwn movemenn guided by a proktatlan idoology such liS rhose in Chifliexcl1 lIlud Vietnam iruemarionaJ organlwtlona WtU of no 1J5e can be- added the re5ervarion until chey carne (O power Whiht ir took some twenty years belote communist Qtill1 made use nf suth organiutions the unified communiSl Stale ol Vietnam was quick fO cake up it position in the UN ro ask [Ol aid thtough UN agencies liS well as w become ji membet of he CMEA (Comecon)
Third Wodd commemscOt1l on world politics have emphasized the nature uf rheir atea$ potirical ecoOoacutemtc Ilud culmral relatloosluumlp wilh rhe iHdllsrriexcl~ alixed Nonh TitilO is iOO$t Oflltl rypified aiexcliexcl bciug OHe of ueo-folonialism _ COntrol of che Third Wtltld by lhe Nortb by indirecl means ratlet (han by direa colonial tule and of Kf)IomIacute( dRptwJmry (o dtpmdemjiexcliexcl) lntetnationaiacute rdsdOOi bcrween sures are sublumed ro relations between claue$ world wide Ixtween on rhe one lIand the expluacuteiting impetialist capitetists in rhe northcm iru1usuialized couotries 2100 rhcir middle-ltlass collaboratotS in the 50Uthem SUtes aud on the othet band he exploiced masses rhe proleuriat ol [he $Ourhern contJnems The Lurcr gmupS have been 1I1iide ecooomkaUy dependent on [he furmer so char hey lIre in rhe wuacutetds uf the Bruiliiln T Dos SantOS in a situadon jn which the economy of a cetuin group of counshytrles is condiacutedoned by rhe develOplllent aad expansion of aoother ecouomy lO which thcit own 15 subjecred (Bodenheimer 1971 327)
The uOOerdeveloped tounrries depend uacuten [be developed ror their capital nd ercperdse they find key sectors of ehdr eroooroy conrrolled from OUtsJde rhey act as a SOUfce of raw marerials lIS ji lthetip source of labour arul as a rnarket fur mllnuf8ccurers from Euttipe ]apan and North America As thejr living standards were deterrniud by rhe vicissinWeS of the Northern~ dominated wodd marker the relationship was Otle uf unequa exchange (he [esule of which was a world experiencing woequal developmenr with a developed rieh indwtriaJiud capiralisr Notthern centre and d poor underdeveklpedgt agciculrutitlly backwarn eXFloired periphery in che 50mb The dependem 80mh has been divided berween rhe ptedominanr undemeshyveloped area~ lUld a few Cenfres of deve10prnenr wirh their ttade culrural rraffie and polidcal linL to [he deveJoped North - rhe depeOOem develop~ memo omlinea by EH Cardosa (1974) allodlt~r Bruiliall Mmir Amiu (977) rejC(ted the prosptltt of aH antonomous capitalist development in [he Third Work the oew bourgeaisJe of Lacin Ametica Africa and Asia were in allianec with capitalisrs from rhe Nnnh and rhe mato $OUrce of finance ror lmported equipmem was fmm the expon of raw materials to rhe indu~rial
5 ~ _~ smiddot_middot~~
iexclred smes Amin (1977 1-21) SllW rhe can made ror a New Imernational Ecooomic Order (NIEO) by Third World leaders at rbe UN UNCTAD aod che Vilrlous North-Sourh dialogues as an nrtempt LO iexclnerease the price of chelr ntw mattIial exporrs obraio more lmpotted technol08Y snd chus finance a new srage of develQpmenr He saw this ti placing the Thitd World more in the gttp of the neo-co1onialist sysrem and iostmd recommended 11
more self~rcuumlanr development wlrh murrud assismnce between Third World sures a reducdon in [ade wirh rhe induuialized wotld and Chlll a loos~ ening of dependenre Amin lJke TaOOon had Jittle fairh in presenc imtrnruional organizaciexclon Il tools foc fasbiooing a more independent Tbiacuten Wotd His sU88tl1cion of grearer mUtual ilSlgtistaoce between ThUd WorId uate~ implied somtthing more sophillticated than a numbtr of bilateral arrmgements As rbe present orgauizarions used fu iexclncm~Thjrd World cnshyoperation (che OAU he Atab League ASEAN) are domitllued by jusr dl()llC govetnmenrg chM accept lhe eowse coodemned by Amio _ the NIEO ami greater jmegrndon iexcluro rhe world economic sysrem ~hen Amia solutloil involves like-minded deveJoping counrries or more like1y political changes leading ro such indigenous intemuional orgilniwrions
Other Trufd Wodd wdten have plllCtXl emphasls on grearer use 01 exisring insdtutions lOO can broadJy be deKfibed lIS Wopmenraluli huI Prebisch an Argentinian econOmigf has not only studied the que5iaacuteon uf ecooomic dependency but his ideas llave been used as the baJiexclis for che wotk of cwo miexclljoc iexcliexcluemariOOiexcll1 organizadons rhe UN Enmomic Commission fa utin Ameriea (ECLA) and UNCfAD Iu his smdy of Briliacutesh-Argerl(inian trading relntioflS Prebisch bad idenrified rhe unequRl tecrns ol Hade between he favoured (ndusrrislized s(ate of tbe centre and he les privj~ leged llOIl-indumialiacutewl periphery Prebisch unlike rhe dependencia gtChool of Amiacuten Dos Sancos and Cardosa believed thu this inequaLity could be overcome by political acrinn by trade pre[ereonces fuvouring the pedphery by eoo1ruooiacutery agreemenrs by intelnatiacuteowll aid and by more foreiga imvestment in che ~riphery It was thele remedies thiexcllr Prebiacutesch eneouraged when he WiIS Executive SecrCrary of ECLA from 1955 lO 1963 aOO Secrewy-Genernl ofUNCTAD ftoro 14 ro 196tL In~d rhe amoum of aid the periphery needed in omer to overeome their Unfuvoluable rrnde balance became known io UNCTAD clrcles as [he Prebiexclsch Giexcllp
The distinguished Afiican aC1ldentie Aji Mazn1i has wricren un the plighr Qf (bar conciflfnt aod j~ role in pmem~day interruUIDllfl1 afmits He soughr ro answer rhe quesdon Now rlw Imperial Order is eoming ro an end who is going tO keep rhe peaee in Aampica and tu examine he concept of Pax AfrlclllUl the African s ambidoo ro be his OWh palaman The JXIliacutecillJS and se[f~8overnment ufAfriea depended on the nodan ofan African self which Mauui discusseJ in decaH He considered how this 1ndepen~ denre might be threarened by the politicaI and cultural fragmenMion of the contillenr Ellld eronomieally by deperulence on Europe He quoted Kwame Nkntmah finr President uf Ghaniexcll on rhe Europe-Jn ECOntunir Communiry
162 Wilihgr rm intd1JatirmallJrganizatimu
ihe ireaty of Romemarks the advent of oeoKolonitJism [n Afriacuteen snd bears unqutSrlonably the marks of Freneh neo-colonuumlllism (Murui 1967 93) He moduded from tM that Wlut AfrlOlns tbelaquofore neecletl was II
renerru authotity of cheir owa tI) ((lordilJlte fheir eltonomk and policicat deCena- sgain5t trus rnreat (Mamtiexcl 1961 93)
Given this theme it is not surprising tlwt Mazrui ser srore by rhe OAU bU[ he was realistic in bis judgement
In relatioos betwlaquon African statts lIOflesr step rowards Pu Africana was taken when rhe Organiution oiacute Aftlaquolln Uniey set up in Commissiacuteon ofMediauacuteoo Conci1illtion aud Arhitmion
Anormr OAU Commissioo of relevance fot Fax AftlOlna ls che Defence Cornmission Sor me Defeme Commlnion 1w se Car been among che lean effecdve QfPan-Aiacutericun ins(kndons Afrka mar indeed aspire to be her owu ptlliceman bur she does nO seem ready as yel to par the price iacutem it
(Mauui 19612[3)
Mazrui oudined the varicd backgrounds of [he lemen oiacute newly illdepenshydent Africa and thdr radical and revolmionary ideas and it is pethaps swprising rhat the insrirutions rhey created fur me coutinenf wete so mnservative with [he p05sible exceprion oiacute the OAUs Natiomtl Libetttion Comminee Mazrui no[ed thac Africa srill has the problem of how othet powetS respond tu its behaviour and [har forcigo iotmsilm in AJtica continued Indetd the I990s proved tO be a dC(ade of disusrer for AfrieR The debiacute burden contimlld while Ilome states collapsed lnro civil war ami others took to iutenoendoo in thejr ueighbonrs affairs Outslde interference from borh Enrope and North Amecica euodoned One of rhe fcw brlghr spots was the end of apallhcid in South Africa and the peaceful transitioo ro majoriry mJe lo al thiexcl~ tn quote Juliacuteus Nyerere rhe ampcmer pre~iexcldenl of Tan1ania The OAU exists outr ror tbe prorecdoo of (he Afrinllt Head~ oiacute State (cited io AlilgapPltl 1998 1 ) The relarive optimism of Maztui has giveu way ro Afriam writers examining sorne of me disrnrbing details of inaction by [be OAU and regtonal orgauiacutezatJuns nlCh as ECOWAS beiog used as doaks fu the machinations oE regional hegemou$ suth as Nigcria (Mibe 1m 61-9(1)
Radha Sinha$ problem--ortented undy Food iexcllfId PIWt11y (1976) has an IItgent message Sinha a former consultaot of the FAO prodnced an iofuacuterrned aUllyiexcljiexcl of the world$ food problem stress1Og in paniacutecular the maldistribution of food and other resources Noting he profO$ab of UNCTAD with heit muld-rommodJty approach and buffer nocks provjshySiOfli he commented rhe grearesr weakness oE the UNCTAD scheme js les Hkdy politlca1 unilcceptablliry ro me developed (ountdes parriculady che USA (Sinhil 1916 114) a propheey that has proved to he cortect He identitled a more aggresslve attitnde by Third World sutes e5pedally
WrilirrgJ on i1tternatiflii1l rHgarrtzatitmlt 163shy
after the uH prite cise of 197314 when the developing coonuies tried to maximize their own market powers by formin cartcls such as rhe Intematimlal BaurdtC Association the Intemuional Coundl of Copper Expotcing Countries aud the Intema[ional Tin Agrcrmenr He gave n qualified wekome ro the Lomeacute Convention betwcen the European (omrounities anJ cenain African Padfic and Caribbean Haces Writing in 1976 he commented
The receot cbange in rhe luirudes of tite tiche countries is largely due tu the incIeasing miliuncy of the Third World countries lt is almost ertalll utar the magnitude offuture cnnc~sions in me coune ofGAIT aud UNCTAD IV Ilegotiarioos wiU deperu mainly on (he continued solidariry uf the devdoping counlrtes
(Siha 1976 116)
Sinha was pardy correct as tbe solidatity cf rhe Tbird Workl states cracked se the induurialized wodd withheld funher Con(eampSJoru but ir was able tO do so because market condidons swung against che primaty producen
In his condusion Sinha called ror a IIDre1 shttting of wnrld t($nmes and power if confrontarion was ro he avoidOO He feared that the ffa of roshyoptradon berween [ieh and pool conntries hiid ((lT1e to an end and that batde lines were being drawn Instead he advOOIreltI majnr concessions from the dcher coumries on trnde lInd aid issues and a1so a ma~lt te$ltUcrnring of the incematiotlill organization~ aoo negoacutetiating ffiarhinery in order tu provide a much gtC2ter say fm me poorer countries in internatiooal tJ1lde invesrment and mooetaiexcly armngemenrs (SiMa 1976 132) GAn 1BRD aud IMF have been the presenoe of [he ri h with voting weighted m faacutevour of rhe OECD countries and Sinha re(()ffimended thlll GATr aoo UNCiAD be merged inro an Intemacional irade Organization (ITO) and che creatlon of a Third World permanent secrctariat iexclnvolved in all trade and aia negoriarioru Thoogh less radical than Amin Sinha aIso recomrnrnded gttter coshyoperation berween developing coulltries and an eoo ro their inkrtotity complex with instead a sense of m~ttnal sdiacute-e$teem and trust being devel~ oped (Sinha 1976 ch 10) Litde that h~ happened during the 19905 woo1d have encouraged Sinha The World iratle Organiaadon has emerged as the presenoe of the dlVelupeJ tares and lw brushed aside many of thc mucerns cf UNCTAD Debr ha~ edged on ro dlt wudd iexclagenda but mainly at the beheS[
of a non-governmental organization )ubiacutelec 2000 nd the promi$e~ of the main financill jnsrirutluru lO pursue dcbc-rclicf produred but a thiniexclmfl
In aH Third WQrld commenrarors have provided a vatied and lively approruh fOwards tne problems uf intetniexclational organizarions Their emphasis has niltntaHy beCl Qn tbe use of wurld lmtirutions to change the econornic condidon or the Southern cominents As this enndition is likely to worscn in the near filrtltf further more lJica conrtibutions on the rule oC
-- --- ~- __ _~- __- imernatIacuteonal orgaoilarions in Nonh-Smuh relarJons tOiexclghf be apected from rhe Third Worid A1ternaciveJy wrirers (mm rhat ares rmy jW ltIacuteespUacutet rm imergovemmemal orgaoizarions ar lealaquo Mee rhem $O Hrrle
Cfili~ald~heJ
Critica approadvs lO the nudy uf intetnadonal relations are (hose har rejee( the dominating vleW1iexcli repr=med by tbe realist and reformistS as oudined aboye In paHicular rhey reglUd realists as apologisu for the currem con6gutltion of power 10 (he wiexcldd sytem and considet [har rhe refOnntstS are elrher unable ro undersraoo he fUe llamee )( (hi sysrem oc ille UDwiUing to accepc rilar ir needs more rhan mooest refotlllS TIlOugh they may sympalhi-ze wirh rhe agenda of some Marxists aud Third World wt1cers chey do [lO( llave rhe hisrockal certaimy of the former not rarely do they have the experience and perspective of ehe larter TItey view intenUishy(jnl1ill nrganiutions wirh a jaundiced eye as these are mainly the lll$tmmenfS of rhose who dominare rhe syuem This section COlllaios an wcoum nf three approaches tmt of the critical rheorlsti- of kmintsc wrirshy[1185 ulld pose~mooernismlt
Cri(~1 herJrY The approach of critical theory 10 JnrematlonaJ o(ganizatiooll iSi determtoed by their wider world-view which in itsclf is explaiiexclwd by tbeir llame One of the leading exponents Roben Cox said [har ie is cririca1 in cne Jensc rha h srands apan 100m che prevailiog order of rhe wOlld and asks how tb$t oroer came iexcllPouc Ir does nor r-ake existing irucimtioM lIl1KI JIQwer relaclons rOl granred bu c311s them iacutemo queuion Ir 1S diexclrlaquoced ro rhe social itnd JIQiirshyical complex as a wItole rarhet (hall he stparate pirtt IUthet than subdiide and Imic an examination of a problem it looks al the wger pkturc of whkh rhe problem is jwt oue part and trio rO wJdeThwod the processeS uf change ill which botIt pans ulld whole ure involved laquo(ox 1993 277~S)
Ai a thoory cridQiIacute theory rejeen tbe daims of posicivism of an external Nulity and to be mue-free ror critkal rheorIacutests koowledge ti nor moraUy IleUc1ll1 ic is more che result of the social background of tbose Wt hold ir Given this ctitkal tbeory alJows foc a normarive choice in favoU of a social ancl iexclJlieiexcl(ld order diflerent f(cm rhe prevruHng arder bur it limiu the ruuse 01 chotce ti a1remative orders which are feasibJe mmsformations ofme cxvaing worJd h musr rejEC[ improbable alternadVe8 ju~t as ir rejecrs rhe pcrmanctlly nr lhe exiscing order (Cox 19 90)
Cridcal rheory differs lrom Marxist upproElchcs beCElUS( of iu tejection nf any daim to hold the objenive tru[h and betause or it~ avoidance of (he pmslllt ol il utopia Neverrhe1ess [heir analysis of incernarional relarln1l$ is one tbu hEls u numher of similariuumles wich the Marxisc pcrspecdve It regurds rhl tlistlng suucrures of world polirics as beiug oppressie not
- _ __ _-
lean because of rhe dominance of (he capitalism of che Unired StElte~ For many che USA is seco as a hegemonic power the prevailing urder - in re[ms rbar reReet he wrirings of the Itallan Marxisc writer Amonio Gramscl (1891-1932) Gramsd advanced the nodon of ln hisrori(middot bloc which in itself refilaquors che $Ocial reladons oE ptoducdoo The dominanr dass in a counrty - 01 indeed aoy social grouping - mlinrains cohesion and idenciry withio [he bloc [hrough the ptopagacion of a COIDmOfl culturegt A new bloc can be formelt when a subordinate dau can euablish tU hegeshymony over orher subotdioate gtOllpS (Cox 1993 56--7) The IDove rowuds hegemony comeS with the piexclt$ting fmm che spediacutek inrercsrs ofa gronp Ol
dass tO rhe building uf inrimdons aOO elaoorarion uf ideologies (Cox 1993 57-8) It Loiexcl rhat ptOCe$S thar embeds the incemu of the dominanc dan in an imttmrional form thae [w an appeal widet [ban that dan ine1f It the-refole repreSoems mote tlmn jUSt (he drunJnaoce oE one state ovec anocher bllt implies a cemufi acceptante of the tules arJd institutions purouized by [he hegemonic JIQwer Jo other woros it is all order wbicb most Olher Sta[e-~ (01 at 1enst those within reath of die hegernouy) couId find compatible- wirh their iexclmetem (Cox 1993 6t) h aJso involves noe just inttt-staee rueivirle5 bur rhose oiacute tlvilliOCiety (oon-Stllte socieM instishycudons) ebereby encoumging Hnks between social dus$ts iexcln the connules covered by ebe hegemony
What does Cox llave to uy about ioccmational Otgsniuciexclons 1bey Ilre scen in he oontext ofme wiacuteoo unaemanduuml18 of itnernational reUacuteltions mentloned iexcliexclhove He is direcr 000t mem Ooc mechanisru chrough wruch the universal norms of a wodd hegemony are expttssed js the interoatiooal organisation (Cox 1993 62) Why is chis so Cox U993 62) gives five teIlSons
bull They e-mbody rules cOae help (be- apwlSion of a hegemonic wodd iexclrder These insdwrians reflcct the intererts ()( the dominam social anil economic force- buc a1low a cettain amOunt oC adjusrment ro accommodare other subordinared interests TIms the USA WllS preplltoo ro mm conccssions to
bciI18 in Lhe EU srares and Japan ro rhe Wotld Trade Otganizatimt They a[e prooucrs of that order Though [he insrimrions and rules Ilce
nurITlllUy initiared by the hegemook power ir takes cate ro involve aOO comule a numbe-r of second-ronk stares and gaio theit supporc he Wotld Bank and Inte[nacional Mooetaty Fund were very much pan of [he world order thar emerged afrer [he Second World Wat and which was dominared by rhe Uoiced Stlres
They ltgidmi7e i[s nOlms by providing guidance for SllIteS and by legitshyimiuacuteulS cerraIacuten IlCdviries Ilr me narional leveL he OBCD afie rhe inrerruuiooal financia) irntuumluriom lave spread an acceptante of mllrket coodirions and sHict mOllerary iexclJlides
They co-opr elites from pelipheral counrrie Ihlented sraH commg 110m the Thiacuterd Wocld are expected tO dCCept he scriexclpt wcittttt by the domishynam power Bouuos Bourros-Ghati as Secteury General uf the Unired
166 Jiexclljiexclr1giexcl Qr1 ifJfCflrttuacutemal IWgaizati(ifJJ
Nadons stroyed too amp~r ftOm the gtip of Washinston and his second term was VCtoM by rhe USA His sucecssor Kofi Annan will no doubt undentand what 1$ n-quired of him He brings the mncerns of orhe states ro che UN bUf nor in a way thu threatt1l$ the USA
bull They absorb counter-hegemonic ideas Ideaiexcl $uch as 1iustainable dlYClop_ ment tukl even debr foTgiwness are taken 00 board by the intetnatwnal finarnial institlltion$ blu are trandirmel into pulido rhat swt them
Wh~t is ro be done Cox thinks thar the pfQblem of changiog dw world orUer 1iMuld be shlfred back from intern~tional insritutions tO niexcllriacuteooal $OIacuteishyeties where the sodo-political b~se for a new historie bloc mighr be ereated (Cox 1993 64) FaiJing the creadon of a new historie bloc of the new working cla$s and rural and urb~o marginal groups there might be tnmdorshymadon oC the curtent monopoly-libcral hegemony by adjusting to rhe demanJs oiacute local ello$ for polides 5uch as natlonaHution Cox 199~ 65) He aw advocates te-regulation of erooomies and a re-wmpositjon of civil sodery Internatiotla lnstlcutions induding organiutions can berome eontact puint1i fOr new $OCia[ furtt (Cox 1994 (11)
Critica throrJm $uch as Cox oifee a refreshing exposidon oiacute che posidofl oC imernatiooal ofganizatioos in a wocld where the main revolutionary powe~ have either collapsed (rhe Soviet Union) or se(tled into a cautious ronservatirun (China) Ir provlde~ a sceptical arf realisric world~view without acreptins tbe inevuumlahility ni a illture domlnared by mooopoly eapi~ ujsm sud the Utlired States J-Iowevtr its appllcariexclon to intemationa1 organhatJons 11 StImewha( timited tQ the maln global jnsdm(jons and th financial and economlc orgmiutions Ir has 1m (O say aboue regional nrgashynjudon Uf abour N(JUacutes Furthermore iu alternarive fu(ure testS on ourcoroes thu are far froro certain RevnJutlons in the Thied World are roore likely to be- irupired by nadondi$m oc by IsJaroic fllndamentaHfl OCalaquoely [he solid ooses for new historie blocs
Fwinuumll aNml4cbts
Feminist perspcctives 0f1 inttmatlonal rtlatioos llave in common wirh the erit~ ical rheocillu a rejclaquoion of (he dominance in rhe $Ilbjecr of the rcnHst and rdOrmisrs Although fuminist writen cover a wide 5laquolpe the gencral basis oiacute their aqurnent 1S har in interwnional relatioM ru in most politkal aud tcooomk acdvity women are diexclSJtdvantagt~l Alchoogh they own ahour 1 pet tCfH oC the worlJs lfOpeny and tiexcliexclxe heme 10 peiacute ceoc ofincome they perfurm 60 per eenr of working houn and provide 80 per eent of nfusets (petetsen and Runyan 1993 6) This is a derDOnstrndon of gender inequalitie~ the sodalJy learned behavior and expecratioos thar distioguish berween maKuliniry and femininity (Petetsen and Runpn 1993 5) Feminist aprroaches ofren So bejond the $tati~tks and examine (he mind~se[ of those engaged in the pmctice of intemadonal rdations whiexclch (bey ampee as geodered In other woros che world
Writingc Off inlmhJliofMl vrgntiZdlMm 167
illeen in a mlLlndine way thar kvrntB (he posjtiOll o( mnles in rhe hitgtranhy and devlllues the c041trihution of WQmeO (Sylvestet 1994) War in pattKular is gendered in a way chat keeps wornen and metl from qUtstioniog the essentiat pmpose and he neglltive effects of war militarization ~nd viQleme on their awn and orhers livts (Petetsen and Ruoyan J993 9 t)
What of wminist view$ uf imernationaJ organizationsr Ir IS not possible ro presem a rollf(tive vjew that eneomp3$~e~ rhe works of radicaJ femjnisu and ny iexclihetal teminists (rutead the work of one author Sandra Whitworth (1997) will be used as me pily$ rornt attrntion ro inrernarlonal organizations Aamper inrroductions ro feminilfr theory and internacional frIamiddot tiom and gendet and internacional relatlons Whirworrh examines geodet and imernational organilions She screpts Coxs vjew oiacute inrernational orgashynjzarions [har they retleltr (he dominant powet relations in che intetnational system and rhae internaliomd otgaoiution h che procelt of imcitntionaJshyiling and regulating conOice - eicher rhat which may IIrise among siexclates o( char which has iu (onU io transnationaI society (Cox 1980 375) TIte way duu pcople orgaoire themelve$ wirhin international iostirurjons reflects a variety of power relations ineludi~ of rollJSe gendec relatiull3 (Whitworth 1997 74) lbe triad of jnstirutions ideas and material rQudi~ tioru help ro hxare uSllmptiolls aboue geoocr withiu jntetmltional rewtioos Whitworth uses thesr tn examine lhe uooerstandillg oiacuteScndec io an INGO the Internadonal PlarUled ParenthooJ Federatlou (JPPF) and an intergnvemmental organilJ1rion (albcir one wlrh some oOl1-governmentJ)J represemation) the InrernatlonaL lab01lrOtganiution (no)
Whirworths studies show rhar thr IPPF tended ro accept the deshyemphasizlng oi the gendered oamfr of reproducdoo and (f) ignore rhe imponaoce ofbirth comcol foc womens reproductive freroom Instead in an effort tu popularize birth rontrol srrel~ WWl placoo on paremhooJ rather than iexclust the womans choice However IPPF poUcy beeiexcllme more radirnl in (he 19905- with Hnks beirtg made berween II1M control alld womeos ~)tu~ ality (WbJtworth 1997 ch 4 pmim)
The RO eoucerned itself with WQmen as workern It cnnsidercd that tbey oeeded spec-ial atrention and promoted ptoteCtlvt legiexcl~lacion This reiexcln~ forced me view (har [he male worxer Wall the norm with women workers nor deserving the same rights remunfration lOO mndirions Latterly however the JLO ha~ reflectoo views rhat prodaim wornens elt)ualily in rhe workforce and has sunoo tuacute assess the importanee of policies on womens role in rhe workplace as weU as in sodery more wjdely (Whlrwnrth J997 ch 5 panm) Whitworth comes [O the eondusion rhu iexclln iexcllnaLyiexcli~ of gernler in rbe IPPF and no shows how tbese rdiexcliexcldonsbips llnd definirions ni what it is to be a womltn oc man are structuted relationsrups3nd hlsrQciudly hve been scrurtured tu disadvantage women (ibid 15n
lo eommon with the critkal meorists Whitworth has useQ au examinamiddot doo of two intetnational organixations (O deroonstrate a puinr about imerflational relatiexclon~ indeed sodal rctatrol1s mOte widely The poinr is
I1
I
middot - ~-_ --___ aOOuc powec and iu use not (O balance oue SCdre ligaiOSf anorher but fm une gooup ro domiaare morher Jn chis case it 1$ ma the dominution of one dass me m culcnre over $ofU)(her (though Whirworrh recognizes those reLationshyships ti wcll) but of roen over women The crititUl uudy oiacute (wo jnceraational mganirations dealing with iSSlle5 recoSniud ti beiiexclg oiacute impocshycanee or WOfficn suggesu rha( tltOO simihu research on orher internacional organizadons could proJuce interening aOO uwfuiexcl resulrs
Pllit~ism
Thc posc-moderruacutesr $opprooch lO intetaarional rcllldon is one tlur bas (ome ro che fote Jn che perlod sinee lite end of rhe Cold War Jr is based on $o widcr imellectual viewpoim insrigated by l1rench iorcUtcruals of the 196()s gener~ ation _ Bllrrhes Derrida FouclIul and Lyorard - and whkh suggested rhat the modero era liad becn overome 11 fejeas mera-nattatives gnlud accounv- of hi5tory aoa iacuteNIacuteler subjecu as having no independem rubstance Scientifk btliefs induding [hose oiacute rhe $)(ial scJcllces are rooted in (lllxure polill(os arul mores oJ a wciery and are lherekJre subjective As rhere is 00
oblcctive reality cmpirical daims bave fl() spccial sunding in rhe rralms of koowledge IndeeJ ir i$ power aod knowledge are intimatel) incerwirud Posr-moJernism Hllnds against rhe belief of rbe modero pcfiod which LI seco as beginning wiacuterh rhe enlightenmcm of mid-eightcenth cenrufy Europe and AmeriCll Ir rheldore rejcn~ rhe COMCpr$ oC rationalirl and progrcss aSSuacutedared wi(h [he enlighrenment and [he moocrn age Thc uniry of IOOnkind iexclirW iexcldells such liS rhe untveIsWiI) of human aacuteghrs are rejcuoo lnsceadlocal aetion in smallgroups 15 advuacuteClmd
Post-modetnist ideas have affected tite srOOy of inremruionaJ rdarions as (bey have ocher social scienccs Posr-modern imeraarional relariops theoriscs havc ustd heir view$ 00 objecuumlviry (o exiexcltmine che rrmhs of international relatiom en see how rhe concepts iexclind knowledge-dairm (bar dominare the Jisdpline in faer are highiy conringenr on spccific power relatiom (Smith 1997 181) Post-modemisrs bave lltfa(red me mcta-narratives of the reelshy1m and reformlsu aHke The objectiacutevemiddot aaallses of the realim Ilnd neo-realisu are setn as being deJl(nclent on the subjective standpojnts of cheif mainly Amen(an and Europeau authors Ijcharcl amphiel (1986 258) daimed he works o[ Kenneth Waler men the leading neo-realillt trrat the glven ordcr a rhe natural nrder Jjmirs rarheE (lian 1XpawU political discllUtse negales oc rriviuliliS the signifinnce uf variely urOiS time and plue Whar emerges ii an ideology tllar anridpatcs iegirimires ancl onents a totalitarian projen 01 global ptoponioo~ che rattoualiaciuacuten of global poHcics iexclbe reformius are likcwise tainted Md have Ji mhr$lren belief in pmgress The posc-modernl$rs poinr m rh Helocausr as rhe heighr oiacute mooemism a rombimiddot Halioe of science dnd polidcal otganizillnon Il was SCruTely progreso
Given an antifllthy mwards rhe MlVe[iacute~ign srae borh as a centre of powet ll1ld as a crearioll Jiten imbutol wlth a wncepltliexcl uf progress pest~miexclJdetniexclsls
wHungJ mi Im~iexcliexclrun wgltiIRrzuJlU7iJ 1J7
can lOUcdy be expcctcd to vIacuteew intergovernmencal organiUlrions wirh sympilthy Tbe prefetted iacuteonu of internacional organizations when mentioned are those thiexcltt ltlj~plal differemes snd dlvenity in global pelitlcil duu are reginnaUy based or rhar reflec irKlividual actlOn Tndecd ir SeeIJS
rbat Michel Fomawt was involved with an alliance oiacute twO INGOs (Miquestdecin du Monde and Tertl-s do Hommes) in proresting agaiust internadonal iH~shydon over rhe boat people who flcd Vietnam in tite lare 1970s and ear1y 19S(k He is gU()[ed 11$ sayillg tbar Amnelltl Internnrlonal Teueiexcl dts Hommes Mfiiecin du Monde lHt inirilltives whiacutech have created a nrw righr rile dAht of privare individuss ro iexclntervene in [he otder of polino and internatioont snateg(eiexcl (dred in CampheH 1998 516)
Aootber researcher has exnmined ~he Europcan Communities Ilr che point wben Jr was mnslorming intO me European Unioo and askOO whether ir was a pootmodew ConJigUflHton (Nstrgaard 1994) Hi condusions wcre mar ir was gualiwiveJy a new organizarion oC human calJecrlvJties which mighr U$hec the coming of post-moderniry (Ntgttgnatd 1994 27j) The basis fO[ [bis judgemem was rhat me Ee did nO approximate anl modero form of piexcliexcl1idUll Ofpnizarion it did OOt commatld che means oiacute violence its au[hotity derives noc from die people and ir appeared to be a fCgJoo trying ro pOrecr itiexcliexclelf againsr globaliacutezadun iacuteN0rgaaro 1994 274--5) Ir remllins ro be sren whether [he BU tJf [he twenry-first cenrury wHl fu1fi1 rhtgtse hopes Ot wiU stllrr ro teVen
to a more scate-like being Generall) dIe cririolapproaches ro interruHiorud relarious hiexclJve provided
1lOOIe innovatIacuteve insigllls iexclnro rhe study uf imemarional orgsnizations The crtrical theorists llave becn sh3rpest in rheir unde[$(iexcltnding nf internarional ofgiexclt1lizacious as servsnrs of a dominiexcliexclIf power configuracion thoogh the) lave pemaps Umieed cbelr scope wllen viewing internacional organizadons Feminis[ wJiters ruave given Vltike to whac i5 after aH tbe scmi-sileut majoric) in rhe world and Ilre ouly srarting in qnest10niug the male dOmimiddot nance nuacutet iexclusr of the nmning of IGOs huc aloo of theic agenda Tite post-modemisrs are iMlSr concerned oiacute he (bree 8rOUp5 with inretnationlll organiucioru as such bllr rIacuteleic intellecrual approach is the ffiOSt tadkal aud can lelld tuuml a fnon of nihilism
GltJbaliacutesf lIiu
A gIobalisr perspective does oor viacuteew world poliacutetica as being predomishynandl arout iotergovernmemal relatlnn~ Ili would realisu or illbour inrentare aruI imersocietal rdations as a number uf reformisu llliexclll consider lnsteaacuted it cakes a more holisdc view Problems are (cmfronred ac Ji global level wlurions have tO be sou8ht here as weil This iexcls not ro neglcct (he 10tal Ol rhe ~tlte level ir is more J recognilion of the limiutshydoos of acdviuumles rhere The world-vicw like rhe reformists places empllasu on whal unIacutetes people Ilnd has lirde time for lhe demaoos of power pouumlics aad stare-cemrir orglLuiwrjollS Ir goe~ fllrther by nor
1 V WNimgJ lJ7f tIfernattmiexcliexclJ 11fK4111141tOnJ
liminog in view eirhec ro pans of che world or ro rellltions berweeo particuJar poliric~ lr ioded jlLSr m the economic social and poJitical demaods of mankind Paradoxically ir can be seen as IIn approach rhe very OppoSllC of the fimctionalist wirb whom tbere 5 much io common In nmtrast lO rhe fnnctionaHst (or neo-fllnctiooalisr or intetclependeuce srhuul) and ccrrainly in contrast ro rhe powet politks aOO MaOIacuteIt writers (be whole world approach places emphasis not 00 the discrere r~uiexclreshymems of groups SClteiexcl or individulI1s bm 00 tbe wel1-bciog of the tCOsystem in which rhf5f funnioll cbe planet Eanh The conccen of chis apptoach which is rcflccted il] in ttcumeUr of illternational urganizatiom is for the survival of lhe plunet for its effident funccioning in its widest SeILie aud fot che survival oiacute rhe myriad oiacute speoacutees - ollly one of which is homo sapiens - tbat inhabh me globe
Sinle tbe 196Os a number of wtiters on imernational affairs have expounded 00 tbis view and llave cOl1l~uendy ronsideted the implicadons for intemational organizacions Jobfl Button in bis World Society ronsldeted iflmstatt relations to be onIy a pan of wodd poli[iacutea and wrore
lf we employ rhe term world rociety imiexclreui of internanofla relarions iIacute we apptoo(h OUt study in this global way insread of the more tradi~ lonal nattonal way we will end to have a wider focos ro ask quesrions rhat are moee fundlmenral aOO imponant lO civilization and be ahle ro assess bettet me relevance of om own national bduviour ro be wider worW envifonment
(Button 1972 21)
Rkhacd Stetling posed the problem more spedfically
Nuclear esCllatiofl the popullltion explosion the pollmiofl of tbe envishyronmcnt the communkations rtvolurion rbe world~wide concentNdon of wC1llch and world~wide expansiofl of pltlvcrty are iexcliexcl11 essemially global and not 1laquo al pbellomena They have given rise jn tutn ro eartbshyspamuacutellg and revolutionary demands ror mass education rnass hesltb malts welfure and maltgts participation in che dccisions affecting roans fare
(Srerling 1974 322)
This wodd-view of rhe problems of the s)Jaceamphip EQlth begged fur global oolutlofl$ It suggcsred iexclhu not onIy iJ the system of sovereign stares as yer unable oc unwiHing to COme to grips with the above-menuontd prohlelUS but that a network of llllergoVCtn1lental organiutlom bGsed 00 me rights of statc wVfretgnt will ~lso be hammllng Globtl problems needed global solutlons based on institutinos rhat can (ake a global petsplaquoshytive Thus Sterling considetecl thllt it ~ tlOt unreasooable (O amidpate tme tbe member stares will be moved ro considft equippifllil the Unitw Nttous witb mote crunprebensive powen 1lt global pressUfes build 0974 323)
~h~ laquoo ~gt~ _- -gt bullbull (_bullbullbull __ - bullbull
A more compeluumlng cdH wus lAltiexclued by Barban Ward and Rene Dubas in their book prepared for [he UN Gmference of ehe Humafl EnVJroJlmenl 01lly UIIt EaFlh The c~ altJ Mdilllt1JatfCe (JI d Sflall Pta~t (972) 111ey stremsed the ufliry of tbe Eanh Jnd in eovironment and the )Jroblems in(ed by Jts iohabitants emntially thost oudined by SterJiog The ~uthoflgt poillted OUt rhat rhF envitonmenral qmosrion had by 1972 already had 50me impaltl on guvernments and im(rnarional organl1Jtion but the effior was somewhat ltInJOrdinated and unfocuseL In (hree particular aren - tbe global atmosphere rhe oceaml the worlds weather sysrellU - tbt-y saw [bl jmmediate neOO for (OmInOn poliey und co-ocdinared actiollS where vcerenshysions to national sovercigmy have no relevance ro ptrreived problems Bu rbefe was a need to go furrher and denl wirh other global problems di5Case srarvation iHitmcy unemployrnem ovcfllwding rntetnational poliCJcs wece at the 5tage reachOO wlrhin rhe devdoping s[ate~ of the ninettTtb (entury Elche they wiU move O to a wmmIlJlity bL~ro UiexclXIIl a more systematic sharin8 of weaJtb Ot tbey wiH break down in revoh and anareby (Wacd and Dubos 1972 295- -6) They Looked forward ro a sense of gLobal rommuniry 00seJ on he bope vf Irotecdon (from war aOO disaster) and the hope of enhancemenr (ecologic$1 as well as economid The ptlKtic~ and insrirutlofiS with whkh we are familiar inide our domestk sociecies would become suitably modlfied che basis of planetary oroer (Ward aOO Dubos 1972 297-8) This woold indude non~violent settlement of disputes witb legal arbirration ~nd polioacuteng ptocedures on an international basis jr would mea the Hansfer uf resoucces from rkh ro peor Ilnd inerCllSlaquo co-operaeion in arealt 5uch as health and edUcatIO farming uroon planning aud )JOlJution control As [befe halt been a shift of loyalty rom taroliy to dan from dan to tlation and from nation to fedctation there Wampll
hope clajmoo Wl1fd and Dubo$ for an ultimare lnyalty tuacute OUt single beau~ tifulllud vulnerable Planet Eanh (Ward and Dubas 1972 298)
Whilst the institutiona fmmework and organizational stfllCtuteS remain of necenity -ague in Oltl OM EaFtA iacutet is del( rhat the authors Wfre atming 11( a tlttwork oiacute world-wide fflnctionaUy hased organlzatiofll (both lOOs and JNGOs) char couId take on much of the work )JfCsendy done by governshymems o( rather whkh ougbt [O be dont by governmems UacuteJter writing-s have attempted (O deal wjth thc policy impliration$ of delllJng with )JrobshyJems globdly sroos (986) has poiacutenred en what 1w already been achieved in gtobal problem solving l1nd ha~ soughr ro buHd on rhis His critio have prunted out tha( what has already becn undertiacutelken has bren done more along rradicional Jntergovernmentallines (Donnelly 1990 121-30) Orbe writen have tied rubievemen[ in addressiacuteng [he global agenda more to renewed rutiviry in the UN (Rochester 1990 141-54) or to greater grass~ roots aud INOO acriviSffi Wget 1990 155-~8) Either way globaJj~m offeacuters a distinct W1ly of rackling the worlds ptublem~ It 1$ u ViIOIl thar sttesiexcles uniey and common (am( ntthet than disasreemem and roofrontashytion ir (ould thereIacuteore (oresce disputes being sruved inlernationally vety
much in (he way tbar chey are pre~ndy solvcd within tunny MtiOO iexclrares by more ro arbitratwn and Jaw and by entorcemenf ir neteS$il1) In this rhey have muh in COIDfllOfi wirh tire imerrnuiona lawyers iacuteUld idenlist writer of me eady (wenuacuteeh eemury mentioned at the beginning of tbu chaptet The globalisn are inspirecl jn rheir thinking more by ten Ot lt nudeal holocatlsr and by environmenml breakdown tnan by rhe duumleet elrpeshytieme uf wa dlllf aiacutefected rhe wricings of Woolf ol Ikierly
TIacutete globalisl appro~(h is opert ro the criticism of bcing roo idealistk jn a cynical world and lOO iIDpracrical in in uacutelstitutional sU8scsrioll5 Bur the di$mi$Slil oC rh~ words as globaloney cKleS HOt lid lite wctld oC che probw lems which hey have 50 effectively publiacutedzed They lutve uied to add anorIte dimensioacuten ro whar is possibte by showlng thar ie is nOCeSSiexcllty fOl rhe iexclurviwl of che planee
Tlle radical approach to the smdy oC iOternational orgllnizarions reflocu worIdmiddotvitws that normaUy lO beyond -dmse Jominated by rhe ltctivities of iexcltatcs or of LIte organizltuumlnns chemselves There is a sceprical view of whut is happeoing al soy one uacuteme in imernarional celarions and of he abilicy of mOfe cradicional wcifecs on imernafional cdarions ro explain let aJone llOderstand what is happeoing Ir is the feeling rhar approaches such ll1 (he MaNisr tlwt of rhe ideal theorisrs and some of rhe globuli~rs ur~ coming cber (O uodemaoding humanicys wider dilemmas rhar makes rhero so amactive They ar~ less Iikdy co apply rhemselves to rhe defais rutd wnrk~ ings oiacute p$cdcular imernatinnaJ organizations but neverrheless providt iotriguiog insighrs 00 [his phenomenoo by seeing rhem rhrollgh mol panoprk phHosophical lenses
SUMMARY
The rhree flIajor $chuols dealr wich io chis chaprer - the tcatiacuten the reformisrs iacutei1d che radical$ and rhe variarions (bey contain did not and do tlOf exJn iexcln a hiSforlcaj vacnum lde-as Wele foffilulared wirhio lhe COnten oiacute panicular sodedcs uoo in response ltO pUticular problems rbe communl (adom reYoludon of fhe nineteemb century the Finr World Wlli rhe rise of Nui Germany the spreading of nudeu weapons the deve1opmeof of plthitshy
$econd Workl War Europe fbe pnxeues of decoloniwion and deacuteteme rhe end oiacute the Cold War and rhe advaoce oiacute che inCormatton revolution In sorne CilSC$ the views oiacute rhose wdtings on inttmiddotrnational ocganUatlOHS have liad un efiecr on evenrs rhemelves pirlKulatly 00 rbe actitudes oC govetnrnents mwards tnternatiorW orgdflixauons AIl tXample is the work oC LecnarJ Woolf woose suggesnons Ctmceming a world organizatloo conttibuted lO fhe detailed preparnion oC the Lague oC Nations by me British goveltr mene Likewise Hans Morgeruhau and EK Can provided seimuli fot infiiexclrmoo US and Btirish governmcllul rhinking abom inrerruuional rela~ tiom iexclrom the 194Ck onwards In mher cases rhe general writings cJ persons lgtuch as Marx Leoin Mao Tse-tung and che dependencia school have affecred
rhe poJirk1ll dimare wirhin which govemmcncs conduce rheJe poUcy iucluding thar wwards jnternaclorull otgauj~atjon$
Orber ruCfOf$ aplft froro their historial cuntexc Iuve affencd the views of rhe schunl$ rncntioned They have differint backgtounJs io cheit ideruogy (Wesrero commllniSf Third World radical environmenralisr) and in theit level of $nalysis of inrernarional rebtions (stare Centuacutec inretesr aoo rramna~ dona groups cLitraquo dominanr global) This a(icca the typC oC inrernatiacuteonal organizariacuteon dominam io their studies (IGOs INCo) auJ thcic 8eograph~ kai $rea of interest (the Nonh Adandc Europe ThinJ WodJ Ot global)
TIte range of wcitings about intetnational organizarions has ull dte whole teflecfeJ wiJec llooersundings of imetoational ceJarions and wuumltld polidcs These io rhernselves have fed 00 tbe gtVidc iacutellccUecmal fcnnent and on developrnenrs in world affiuacuters Viewl about iacutellteftlational ocgsnizatJoos wiU continue ro take accOlnt of the ince1leeruaJ debate ill the studjes oiacute polishydes internacional re1atioO$ philosophy ecooomics imematluacutellal uw sociology histoty and geogrilphy They will also reflecto among other ampcton che stntcegk balance in tbe world [he relafIacuteve power of tiJe United Stares aod oroer nares me scate of wotld markers [be pto-ess uf Euwpeiexcliexcln tlllegrashytion che relacive positloo of the developing warIdgt iexclbe levd of cootlicc througbolc the world fhe -ratC of dte environfneot and the ahility oiacute huge StatCS to wiacutethswnd cenrrifttgal force Tbe way tIacuteult imematiornal organiuiexclshydons ret1ect tbese developrnents and tIacuteleir t1Ipability lO deal wich some of them will provide (he tllW fiWifcrial foc funue smdies
l-V H~giexcl iexcllJJ ltifffltIltlUImal lIfglaquonlMiffIU1fJ
internatIacuteonal iusti[U[ious wiH be created whcn they are politicaUy effishyoacuteenr (mat is inrrease eleuoral support) Cor natiooa poHticians (Richards 1999 3) Rithards rejeces a loHective goods approach tO intctrtatlomuacute iuscirmiollgt (such a~ that ofZacher and SumID 1996) that See$ such insti~ clltiom al cHrrecdng lhe working$ oiacute che market internuJonally antl rherefore produciug econQmic benefirs all n1l1Od However he alro tejelttS rhe hard realist approach that daims rhat instltl1tions including internashycional organizatium merely reOeltt the power tap4biHtles in rhe international system altiexcl in Kra~nermiddots statement mar srronger Haces have simply done what they hiexcllve plea~edmiddot 0991 337) Richard srill claims rhat international imtitutlons iexcllre the iacutenstroments of stateS Because $ueb inscirucions as the internationill organiradons (hat regulate mtetoational rravel definc property rights internatiacuteonal1y they alter che marketplace leaving gains for sorne and losscs fur others This beJng ro [he building of such iexclnstirutiollS inrernationally is oound lO trigger a fiexclerce domestic political batdc (Richardll 1999 9) Thus whac happens ro and in internashytional otganizadons can be usoo by domestk politkians ro maxiacutemize eheir OWIl dmnestic advanrage This is a view that may attrac( supporr within the Ulliacuteted Srarcs though may be less reSOllant in sorne of the smaller and weaker ~tales
A similar view hdu bcen takco by the liberal intergovernmcotalistll who havt examined the European Union (EU) Moravcsik (1993 1998) has pcimoo (raquoIr tbar governrncmal strtttegies withiacuten tbe SU havc becn domi~ naced by preferences and power Cooperatiun and integration wete rhus seen as usefu strateampies if tbey furtltered a governmenrs control over its domesric alfalrs and agenda Moravcsik rhm ste$ the EU as a succc5sful imecgovernshytnelUal regime desigued ti) manage (conomt intetdcpendence rhrough negotiated poticy ctM1tdinatioo (1993 474)
The neo-res1i$tS have becn auacked OH many ground~ not leaJIt fO provIacuteltilng no WVIoce on toe works of che old realuumlt ($Ce AshJcy 1984) Like their reatist predecessors (he predicdve powcr of rheir work hal betn dlUacutelenged particulady their inabiUty (O foreste the eod uf the OJld War tand oiacute the Suviet Union (Scholte 1993 8) Scholre also cuacutetlcizs fhem fur nO addressing global iexclssucs $uch as welfnre questiorn ano poUucfon thar domishynate the world uf rbe late tweorieth and eurly twenry~first cenruries This questioos rbe descnpttve ability oiacute the oeo-realisu tS what (hey descdbe an) more (C$isritmiddot tllan thett realiacutest predelaquoSSOrs They have on rhe wbole OOen as unintere$laquod M cheir predece$sms in rIacute1f ro1e of interoatinnal ofRaniurioos The main exceptlon undl the 1990s wu Robert KeltiexclIacutellilne whose earLier worb en intetdependence stcved hun well no rIacutelar Sfilre Evel hee the critidsm can be made rha his view is b41skaHy conservative and was concerncd iexcljede iexcleh the incerests of (he Thiacuterd World Sorne of rhe Wrltel1l no economic coopshyeratino and integrauon fU tlle 1990s a(cepted many ol the nco-realiu assumptiacuteons aoout natiQna1 UlrettU$ ln Illternatllmal o~iratlon The) bave brought 00 the OeM a more refmed vlew oE rhe relatioacuternhip between govern-
Wrltingr tffl inttntaJumal ~ruZaJlflf1 ti I
menn and inrernarional orgHnizatioru and have Ieft behiod he Cnld War reain empoosis 00 the mijitruy ilSpet-ts ofpower
REFORMISTS
Tile n-alist wciters despite theit diftering valuatioos of the worth of cenain intematlonal organizstiltms have in rornrnon a state-centrk approoen ro intershyoational reiatWIlS 1bough liOIlle were CQnremed tbiacutelt govemITlents shoold renect more he (iacutenevitably) good lntentions uf their dtizens in inrerruttonmiddotd affiUfl or rbar world otgmizarions shoukI have more power (O detll wjth warlikt ()t reoegade Stares tOOr nus of artentioo is the internacional govem~ mental otganhtaacutetIDn (lOO) A nociceable devclopmenr in internariona reladons literawn inu the Second Wodd War has been (he movement away [rom mis 5tate-centred view towards ooe tIacutelat admits the impoarune of intematioroal atmiddotWrs iexcliexcltha than tite sovereign SUte 1bese indude lGOs in tbeir 0JIffi right (rnrlwr than as meeting places or inmumenn of thcir rnember tare) lNGOs trnnsaatJoual otgllnizatloru polirical group5 aod individual dtizeru Although many pl1blkadmlS just desctibe tbese new phenomena whkh llaVe herome more aniV in rhe last iacuteotty years [nere 15 a1so iI prescriptive erement to sorne oiacute [he writings They ttnd te prescribe incrmsed non-srare Jrtivity in inremashydonal relatiom ase a way uf underpinning claset relations berWfetl stattS ami socieries or undermining houlle anitudes by guvemmenrs (WeiS$ and Gordenker 1996 WlIlerrs 19~ Gordenker and WcillS 1998) Whilr this general reformist viewpoint is similar to reall~t approaches in aooopting the importafl(e uf the srate relatjons in incernational polit1cS ir does no( aoept eiexclrher fhe monopo1y oE rhe state in tbe sysrem or mar litatfS are unimry talional actors In surnrnary tbe leey aJlpeltrs of a reformist ilppftmdl to intetnational rclashytions indudes n number oE rbe folJowing
1 ihe belieE in reason in human nature and in progres$ [he [requency and level of war can be redocoo fur example
2 Inrernauumlonal relatioru can be moperative rather toon confIirtrW 3 Though seates are imponam in inrernarionaJ Ielations rhey are IJoOt [he
only aCtofS 4 ampates are Q)t ulUacuterary iexclI(tors wirh their dedsion inrematiacuteonally reflecting
intemal divisions aoJ interests They dv nve therefore neccssarHy muimize the interesrs oE che stare
~ The internacional s1gttem espl(bHy pires of iexclt comairu the elemenrl uf international society ano relies on a wriety oE international institutiollS indudjng inrernadonat Otgltlniution
The refurmist approach to the srudy (lf intemntional reladons hase conse~ quences fOl [be roruiderafIacuteon of interniexcltrnmal Otiexcliexclalization~ ano has made a notieabJe conuibwion to the lit(llIr~lre on the subjctt especiall) since [he 19508 Hnwever there is a bockgtotlnd ro the aboye idea~ char can be ICen in
j 01 Wnlmg 1m l1f1eOkllttmal urgJmuJugtnJ
me esdier writifl8~ of Grmiw Ladre Hentbam 3nd l(uiexclc (Jwkson aoo amprensen 1999 108-11 VlOtrl and Kaupi 199t) 200-4) Ao undet1randing of che curren refutmtst appruache1 ro inttmational otganiUitioos um be helped by reiacuteerente ro SOUlt of the WI1tets on internacional law wnich wiIJ mrm one section beLow
lnlernatIacutetmall8wyers
Mueh of rhe lirerarure abour mrernatioual organwoou$ 1$ descriptivc ltiren detiing with several organizacions aM giving purricuw eutpha$is te tite League ofNarioas and UN sometimes dealing with one organiacutezadoo swn lIS NATO me OAU Of rhe EU Leading woru in trus area 1m those of the intetshynariooal lawyers who give particular ronsidemcion ro rhe cowlimtiacuteoru of international organizaoons thei legal penonaliries aoo institucional probshykm Indecd ic was pmbably lhe P~ ltgtfuw ar amplinburgh Universiry J lorimer who fin coined the e~ionmiddotiexclnrernatiooal organization in 1B67
Contributions (Q cbe study of internarionai organizacions llave been made by Britisb legal exptm and bisfOrians 50ch as Zirnmern in his iexclrudy The Uacute4g~ JI NaJimn an4 the RMk of LnJiexcl (ZJmmem 19gt9) and J1 Buacuteerlys comparison of rhe newly emerged Unuumled Narions wirh rhe suurwre aod aims of lbe then dying Ieague Brierly demonnrated a strong preferenn~ for fbe inrrusioo of international law iOfO etonomk ilnd sndal affpjn gttl dat rbe generic grievances of sures ma) be removed (Btier1y t946 9n Hersrh laurerpliCht published Tbt Dwefpment ()f lntmwlftmal lJw by rhe Permanml CfJkrl el l1iImJ4lifJNiexcl-1 jllJtia in 1934 and [his was later marched in [he Ullired States by Judge Manle) O Hudseos Intmwt]iexclmal TribltllfJuacute PaJI
qniexclJ Plfum (944) WilfrEd ]ellki [be ugai Advlscr to che lLO CUIIribured noe jU$ 00 chilE organizarIacuteon (Jenks 1962a) but abo mote genernl wodcs 00 iarematiol181 orgaruzarions (leaks 1945a 1945tl 1962tl) 1 le stressed (he need [O IDaH) [he craf[ of tbe imernational lawyer wuumlh rhe Pludence uf che polirician tO develop an effective s)stem of incernadonaJ orgafiUBtion
Institutional developmeru 15 primarily cbe responsibiliry of staCesmaDshyship ir muS[ be gnided aud cootrolled b) a [fue appreciarion of political forces Tbe greaccst oflegal uadirions is still to be crearEd irs cexmre wiU be largely ltlefermined b) rhe qnaliry of [he crafesmanship which inrernatlonal lawyers place sr the disposal of sracesmen during me next geaeration
(Jenks 1945a 71-2)
laltor imernarional insrituriom cexebooks were pmvided by rwo Europcan intemalional lawyels Henry Schelmelll Professor of law at lIte Univeaiey of Amsreroam restricted himself tuacute inrernacional instuumluttonal law wbicb by roncerning irself wirh [he srrucmre and functions of inrershy
~h~ bullmiddotff~ V_middot ~f_lt~V_
fliUional organiexclttttlonstries ro explllin [he present developmem and ro promote he harmonious growth of lnafniexclldQual organization (Schermcfs 1972 2) He Jodt wim rhe partidpants in lmernadonstl orgllniexcl~lltion8 tbe general roles ror their crgaru and me activities of these Orgllus from prirruuHy a legal viewpoinr A similar approacb was adopted by rhc Bririsb iacutenternat1oniexcll1 leglll eJtpen D W Bower( whOie book Tht 14W QI lnlmwIacutePMJ lmtiJlflilJrll (970) placed grearer emphasis on pflrtkular insrishymtions - he Lcague thc UN and in spedalized ageucies che regional organizarions rile juriacutedical iacutens(iexclmdons - as weU as dealing wirh general questions such as t-he internattoual pcrsouaUt) of che organizarions and their impac( on (he doctrine of (he rovereigll equalit) of srare5 Por a blend of sociology bistoty and luretnarioOllJ lpw che work of Paul Reurer Professor uf lmernatioual Iilw pe Pileis Univcrsit) is UB$urpassed In Inml14tionaJ bmitllfiom (1958) he examined che phenomeoon ol imemashyt10nal orgaruzadon rather tban jUS( the orgilnizations and insdtutiun~ auJ thererore speut sorne time on the uature of imernariolllll ~je[) [he erigias aud foundarions of iuternational institutioll$ lS weU iexcll$ rhe posiacutediexclm of Staeeg in international society
Sorne post-Cold Wllr studies nave moved uWily from wruu tllto regllrded as csoretic descriptions of che 111w (Kn aud Djehl 1998 3) aud have insread examinEd intetnatiomJ I1lws iacuteofluence on poLirIacutelal behavior (Ku ampnd Diehl1998 3) One of rhe buses of tluch au IIpproach iN chat imtornashytionaJ organiUltions nOIl-governmenral orgllnirpriOfl$- multithltiJllUl corporations aud even privare IndividuaJiexcliexcl have come ro pliexcly Illl iexclIlcrelljiexcling role in intematioual rclations and accordingly international legal tules have evolved co engage rhese oew accors (Ku and Olebl 1998 3) Tnternarional lllv is seco both as au operatillJ system and a normative system for internariacuteona relarionll Algt the fotmet it 5eu the genernJ proshyceclures and iacutensticudons toe the conduce of incern11ltlonal relatiolls lt provides che framewotk fu estllbllshing rules lInd UOI11lS oodilles be parilmcters of interaction ancl provides (he ptocedures Ilnd furums ror re~lvlng disputes among those taking part in tnese intecllCtiacuteOO$ (Ku and Diehl 1998 6~7) As a nOttnative S)stem iuternatiouallaw giexclves rorm ro lhe aspiradOlu anu vlllues oE the partkipants of the system (Jr) is 11 proJuct oiacute the struttlltes Ind processes thar make up rbe opernting ~ystem rTt1 tllkes on a principaU) legislativc chamcret by mandating particular valueg IlnJ ditetting speciiacutek chllnges in sure bebaviQr (Ku Ilnd Diehl 1998 7) Mote tradiciunal appr03Lhel tO lnternatlonallaw rendlaquol tO de~(ribe che role 01 imelllatiuuaJ otgauJutiotu as pan of the opcradng sySLCm Legal texu pllblishcd in he laSt decade Ot so of (be rwcnrierh centUry looked lncteasingl) ae the position of inrernatlonal urganilations middotw
nor leas [hose oiacute the UN system - in a nurmanve framewnrk especiaHy in functional areas such as human righn (AJston 1995 he envilOumenr (Kin 199M) [be global commnm (Jo)ner and Manell 1998) and wOlneiexcluacute issues (Berkovith 1999 Wrighe 1993 1)~g8)
130 Writingi (f1I iexclktnati~nal I11glttftiZAtitlrlJ
Intecnationallawyers have airo given exteosive comideration ti particular instimtions The League Qf NatJons attlacted special attention as lawyen played an imporunt role jn J~ dmfting and as it had as tU aims che pmmotion of international c(K)perntion aoo the achievement of iexclnrcrna~ tionru pcace and eturity
by the ficm establishment nf the undersrnndings of imemauacuteonal law as tbe actual rule of condun among Governmenrs aOO by the maintemtnce of jnstice and a scrupulous mpect for all treaty obligations in the dcl~middot ings uforganised peoples wirh one another
(Preamble to tbe Covenant)
Furtbermoce the central pan uf che CQvenant dealing with the keeping of peace (Anide 12-16) OOopted a legalisck approoch in delining nn OCt of wu against all Ieapue membecs as being rewtt to war in disrtgaru of Anides 12 13 or 15 (Attide 16 (1raquo) In other wottb the cardina15in W$$
tbe breakiacuteng of rhe legal gretment mOOe wirh otner stares Imernational lawyeM in pIlrtkuar were ooncerned wirh how Iacutenlernarional IacuteiexcllW might be agreed judged ane enforced in lhe jnter-war perIDd lhey turned much of their atrention to the anivities oC che Permnnem Coun of Intemational Justice arul lhe league of Natlon5 Judge Hcrt(h TaureIp3cbc foc eurtlrle ronsldetetl rhat aH Jntemlltional dispures were justiciable and thus open (O
soludon by [he judicial process in internacional law He considered tbe League tu be useful 5tep in the development oE inrernational law and be sanctions 1I1lowcd Cor in Anide 16 of [he CoveOilnt as marking tbe fitn step towws he collective enEonement uf internacional law (Laurerpacht 1970 9)
The league hOO iexcles advocates among orher lega writers AlCred Zimmern wriring io 1938 set Lhe Leagues activjties and institurions against che backshydtop of the gathering 5tOrm io Europe He still found much ro ~y lor ir it had rkveloped 2ru1 expanded tbe old iquestiplomaric ystem bad enrouragro wshyoperation in many ateIlS ane $r leur represeotecl iexcllfi artempt to ellminate WIlr even duting a period of whar Zrmmern caHed cmhquukes (Limmero 1939 491-509) Lord Robert Cedl one oC the fuunders of rhe League as weU as a lawyer and Conservative poHdcim admined when wming ln 1941 rbe Cailure of the orgamzation in preventing aggressive powers Neverdreless he hoped that iexclt would be reformulaced after bosrilities with a CI)ll of confederariacutean uf European tates the cenual objecr of which should be the preservatl(m uf the European peat e Peace in cbe test oE the world would Jepeod pretty weU on tbe then jusr~eltiexclsting Covenant wirh sorne small changes Cecil did admit rhat another piece of rnachinety couid do Iittle unless [he peoples allJ govemmeots cea11y tgtlt che enforcemenr nf law ann mainrenance of pealte as me firtr and grearen nadonal Jmereus (erH 1941middot 349-51)
The hopes of (hore ho yearned fur legal soludnns tO intemartonal
WrjlingJ 1m inffll7lltJfriexclftai rltgmiwtitln-iexcl 131
dt1putes dearly dcdined a~ the UN Charter wjth iacute~ emphasis on politica1 solutions to what were palideal disputes tepiacelti tbe optimist1c legal (otmula~ uf the League Covemutt The UN Chancr was not to be without tes Internationa Jegal romrnentaluts Indeed tWO early stllndard books on rhe UN are by diJtinguished lawyers Kelsen (l950) and Goodrich ti al (969) though the hmer have admitteu that when iexclnterpreting [he ltlwrter
since rhe responsibiliry for interpretadon is VC$ted in Ofgan~ and memben alike che process is more iexcliexclkely to be politia than judishyoacutealDeciexclsiltm~ rend to renea lhe enmmon intetesu of members in achieviug cerratn results
(Goodrich If JI 1969 15)
Other legal commentators have placed emphllSis 00 [he role of jtlterna~ tional orgaoJutions in tbe development of particular aspects of innl11iexcl1tional ew ami again haltle secn tbe rleyelopment uf the rules aon notms of internashytiOfliacutell society ~ howeyer imperfeltmiddott - in tbese cases Examples are Kratochwil (1989) who who has written generally ou the 1mbject Jaebon (l997) and Thomas IInd Meyer (19J7) on the world tradins sysrern Kiss 11M Shelttm (1991) on Iacutentern8ljoual envttunmenral law aud Human Rights Watch 09921999) and Bianchi (997)on human r1ghu iSIuc
lnternaonalgotJt1tmenlfgwfINIJJlue
Anorber AmcriC3llegaI aurhority ayde Eagleton gave the Unired Nations a critJcal though romewhat undmtaning appreciarioll ~mmmiexclng np its dilemma thus Ir (he Uniled Natioru cannor do more than ir ha~ the ampult liacutees with rhe Memhccs wbo marle it and opcrllte it and who j[ SfflIW slaquon preret the tootb aOO the fang ro internationallaw and order (Eagletoo 1948 552)
Eagieron placea the record (lf che Uoited Nations in thc context of irs predecessors in the hisroey of rhe gttlwth ofinternational govemmem and of iu legal and politica background He examined pmposals to achieve the inrernational government thff the UN ailed tu rt1tCh bm condueed chet fI chaogc in he attimdes oC Stares aud their pcoples JS neerkd fipiexclt (Fagl~too 194$ 583) Eagletons wnrk uuderlioed tbe point made by Evan Ltmm in his ntemd1ifma1 A~lIaacutetJ (977) that with (he existence of the UN and its lSSfJ(lated agencies many of che wodds prohlems are Ilor wirhout jmtiexcltu~ tions exercising authority over them The powers uf (his mnge of organizadon cau bc queHioned as Ciexcl1n chejr standing in relnion tn thcir rovereign state membera bur rheir exisrence in tne ptlStmiddotwiexcliexcl[ world ~ aud tbcir grnwth (rom their niacuteneteemh-cenrury hesinnings is a reality
Thi$ inrerese in [he 8rQwth of iorernariona[ governme(l( i tleithet new nor resrricted m the legal pmCeMion Oue uf the earlier publicauumlnru on tbe subject was by the writer leonard Woolf who Walt a fOllude uf the Fahian
132 WriJil1gJ (IfI htfmtaJIacutefmal argmitAJium
Socilaquoy che reformiu discusston group witbiu rhe British Ltbout Parry Wtiting in 1916 he omllned dJe exrenr m which imerllliootlal govem~ mene had been lKcepted rhroogh diplomade garfteaacutengs rhe use of public and privQce JmefOatwllru unions and che iocrtlSe iexcln commodify ugreemellts aad he PU forward plans roe che further teguJation of JmeroadOllal OCrltty lf war is (( be prevemed he elaimed states musr submir Q mUte intetuashy[jonal conrrol alld governmenr in their poJiticnl and udrninl1litrative rdadoru (laquooolf 1916 nB) He udvanred a Fabiao Cornmirree plan for nte Stipranaciacuteonal AudlOrlty cllat wiIl Preven War eiemenrs of whih fOllnd their way into (he Lea8ue Covenane aml whieh inhJt iexcliexcllid teCtJlllmended rhe estab1ishment of an Inrernatloclal High Grua an lntemadooai Coundl of sutes represenrnrives ami JO IOtelThldonal Seltreurjlil Woolf and his Fabiao coUeagues hoped dlar wirh rhis machiuery legal justiciable disputes wouM be 5ubmined ro rhe Cona Of a similar tribunal and orher dispmes ro the Couocil foc senlemenr with che patries rn he dispute ccnsmilned from warlike actjon fue a period of a year Provision was ro be rnade fur sancrions which ali sutes shoold pm inro open1rion lind al agfCltd tO make common cause even ro he exren( oC war against any constiruent Srue which violates thi$ uacuterndamentai llgreement (laquooolf 1916 233)
Woolf mgetIacuteltr wuumlh juriiexclu iexcluch IIS Hersrb Lauterpadu and Alfred Zimmern and British poliricaJ wrIacuterers like Pbiiexclip Nod-Baker LJrd Ceei and Gilbert Murlliy represented bmh [he praccuumlal and intdlectual mpponen ni lhe League of Natiacuteom in the interwar peuacuteod wbo were ouacuteen daified as iexcldealisrs or neo~rotiam Hedley Bul 0966 ~2 5) r1esnibed the rennal Grotlan assumption (named after (he seventeenrhshycentury lesal wtiter lIugo Grotiu$) as being rhat of the solidariry OI
porential solidariry oI (he SUtes comprising imemarlonal sociery wirh respect ro che enfurcemem of [he Law and Grodws basic crjredon of juse WI bt-ing fought in order ro enforee rjghrs a fimiofl dearly edwed in tbe Pabirin Comm1rrfts The Snpmnatlonat AuthorlEY rhll will Prevenr War BuH criricized rhe way ibis group lost sighr of intemarional polirics in rhelI preoccuparion wirh 10eroational1aw international otganization and intfoiexclniexcliexclriQnlll saciery
10 deallng wirh imefIUldonal marnti~y which rhey were indined ro confn$( wirh internarional law they eon[ribu[ed only a narrow and llflcririal rlaquorimdr whkh eKalred [he jnternational inreresr over tllujoual iexcllIrert~r~ (bnt wirhorlr asking bow rhe former was ro be detershyminel) mtlltiexcltimrimwl rdorm over revolurJon as [he meaflS of ll3lliCcndinA lhe soriely of sovereiNn states (bur without considering wfteher SUtCS cOllld OCcOIlIC [he agents of rheir owo ~rincriofl) and respcu fue legaliry oler [be neoo foc chaoAe (bur wirhour fdciflg up ro r~ mer that rh~ in(~rnadooal legal sys[em as (hey construed ir could nOl aecommodate change)
(BuU 1972 36)
Wrllingr on inlmralirmal ()fganiUJliofU 133
This J5 a teUing enough asseSSffiem of che idealim views includill8 [heir writings (tri imernarional oeganiurions HOWelef [he background of [he groop $hould be remerobeted they represellteJ a genemtion devastawd by the Finl World War ud whiacutecb wa~ used ro national suciery (early twenderh-teocut adtaio) lhat had henelired through institutional chal1ge and in whiacutech the rule of law had not preduJed remrro The k-gtgue of Natioo5 che Permanenc Coun of Illternuional J1L~tjce (PCI]) and [he 110 wen for rhem part of 1 Great Expedment to we Lord Cecil~ phrale
Wrirets in the last guarter of the twentieth century picked up and develshyopoo many of he omions current in rhe aoove Jirerawre aud srr~ed how iacutenrematiunal ioceocourse had heen governoo by a body of laws nl1~ lind feguladons ano by insdturions indlldifl8 internatiotlal organizatioO$ Though they llave kcpr rhe analogy with the domescic government of cirishyzens thef have preferred rhe terro internacional governancc demoosrrating thar such a system docs nOl hnve che son of enrorcemem powers expected of naticnal govetnmencs Notions of global governarue huve becn corered above whete tefereoce has heen made tU tbe idea of an imernarional regime (Pp 108-10) Thi5 concept helped bdng internacional olgsobacions iexclmo rhe wider titerarure abom inrernadonal cooperedon 11M governance in a srate of anat(by rneaning an absence of interOlltional governmenr with signifkant er[orcemem powers
In the early and mid~1990s IiHendon was agam wrned ro che manageshymenr of che internlitional environmem in rhe wake of the UN Confetence on Environment and Development (UNCED) al Riacuteo de Janeiro BnuiL gtlhe environmem seemed ro be a classk caudidste fur global governance pardy becl1use ir was glob-al and partly because of the range of instlwdons involved in iexcltS managemem In the words of Josepb Nye etTective intet~ narional envitonmental instltudoru thu$ helped w overcome sorne Ol (he rypical narional bordenecks tbar hiacutender cootrunated meusures to revene rbe frighrening trends of global environmental degradaLion llnd improve rhe possibiluumly of susrainable develo[lmenr of OUt plaller (Nye 1995 x) The assumprion of Keohane tt al was that whlle StateS may have difnculry ad~tessiexclng jmernationaacutel erlvitorlmemaL problems coopenuion betweeo governmen[$ couid hring dividends Eff(Xtlve intetnstiooaj 111stitutions wete needed which may take rhe form of internacional orgauuations rcgimes Ol informal conventlons They were seen in che woros of Maurlce Strong (Secretary-Cener-iexcliexcl ofUNCED)Ul rhe bllsic framework for 11 world sysrem of governance whkh iexcls imItJdve to rhe effective functionmg uf our global rocieey (1990 211 l2) The aim was pragmlltlC to see whetber rhe intemational josrjmrioos coveriug the environment had made a posirive difference especially in rhe polltiad iexcleid
Case rudJes were presenred (bar exploroo the impact oiacute inrenwiotl$l insriturions witb [hree conditions essenrja lor effecuumlve acrioo on the enlirOumem high levell of gownlflmtl bullmam a hospitable 1lIiIraiexcltttal t1Iy~
rrmmml suiliexcloacuteem poIiuacuten U1d ddltiniJtY(JJM CiJpacity in national
134 Wrftln[f 111 iexclttntntiona organiufif)lfJ
governments (Keohane tt al 199 11) The case s(Jdies Weuroe seen in rerms of agendiexclt selting internacional pnliacutecies and national policy ttJpon$($ (Keohane iacutef al 1995) The three authors wtJe aware of the strong influeDce of stare powers in iexclnrernadnnal institurions and of rbeie meagre result5 in sorne areas Nevetthees~ they set down three ronditions uoder whicn inrer ootional institutions can alrer (he bchavior of state actors and in turn improye environmenral qualiry (Keobane ti a 199 19) These afe
1 gnvernmencal concern has ro be higo enough [Q pmmpt the 1lte ufscarce mources lO tllckle tht problem
2 roere haiexcl 00 be a contllcrual enviroruncfit where ~tnttS make (rediMe coounitrnttlts and make iexcllOO keep lglremerll$ rhar incorporare joiotly enacted rules withour debflitadng fuAtof ftte-riding ur cheuting by othet1l
3 states should haw the pnlitical and adminimadve capaciry to make the domestk adjusrtnents necessruy ro implemenr international norms principies and rules (Krohane et al 1995 19-20)
TOe empha~iexcls -in chis view nf glotm govemance is on rhe relncionship becween rhe internuional anQ tIte Illlt10naL
Pan oE gJobtl govemsnce - ai noted in Chapte1 3 - are lnrernntional regimt$_ Thcampe are set- of implidt o explkir principies norms rule and del ision making proctdures arounrl which actors eJCpelttadons converge in a given area of internacional relatious (Krasner 1983 2) [1tey are subSu of irttetnational sodcey and its imtitlnions Imemational reglmes which are oft~o speciacutealitecl auangemenu limicer by function oc gengraphicaJ area are amngemcnts hat BoYe1n cooperative behaviour intetnatioOldly Thee are thus mure wiJely Jrawn than internatiunal organizations The latcer accurdifl8 ro one of the most profific wrltcrs on the $ubject Oran YounS 0989 1994) can boeh stimulate the process of regime formation nnd can htlp implement thei provisiuns (Young 1994 164)
Funuitrltdlisu
An eady bff~1c with the trmJtional view of international organizations based un the state-centriacuter mudel cm be seen in Leonard Woolfs book [ttltmatiltraquoldl
Grni-17111I Alrhough srilJ primarily coruemed wich interamptate relations and the questiolll of peace and secudry a sizeable BCniacuteon o( lis wriring5 rover governlnenral tlaquohoical and economk co-operatioo and INGOs
Ve are accustnmed to regard the wodJ as neady diided iexclnto compartshymenU caUed states or nationLBut chis vjion oiacute thewodd divided into iacutesolated compllrtmenrs is nor a cme reflection of fiu 15 as they exisc in a urge pottion of the etlnh [orlay
(Wnolf 19l6 216-17)
Writtng( (111 hmmatiacute(lrul f8grllliulinnJ 13
Snch a step pladng gre-iexcllter emphasis on non-star ime~natiacuteonal rtloshytions wa~ taken furrher in duo writln8~ o( me Romanian-bom aothor David Mitrany Mitrany ideas known iexclas the functiondisr appooruh lO
internuional politics were inspired by his early Iife io dIe Ba1kans He (ouoo much imelletruaI sdmuiatinn ofter coming ro Lundon in 1912 olld working together with Lennanl Woolf among otlters in the Ieagne uf Nations Society [he labour Pattys Advisory Commiuee on [nternational Arrairs and the Fabiexclan Socieey His (WO malor eacly worlca wcrc Tin PrtlgftlJ of lt1tmutt(IIId GtM1NmAnt (first pnbl~hed in 1932 rcprinted in Mitrany ([915araquo) and A WorklNx Pem Sylttm (fiCSt published jn 1943 rcpobHshcd jn 19(6) though he abu made a 1mbstamial nmtribudon in anides unril bis dearh in 1975 Many uf his writings tQgethcr with an amobiacuteographical piecc and In inuoouctjon are guhered fogefher in Tht Funcfuumlmal TwJry of Prdilia (Mitran) 1975) In his t932 work he omHued the nlnereenrh(intury growth iacuten intertwtJonal govenmcnt ajong similar lines as Woolf
The ninereenth cenrmy prodwed that amazing growrh in che mattrial equipment of (iiiiudon whifh weldcd the wodd togaher into (me organk whoiacutee making eaclt people a partner in tire Iacuteitte uf al The outwatd CXpelsiacuteon nf that change WQ5 the ~rance nf WQrld-wide popular movements and the making nf innumerabJe privare md public imernatjonal agItemenrs
(Mitrany 1915a~ 89)
Mitrany WiacuteI$ concerned thar (he rise of the fllidon-state and the insiexcl~tence of new statcs on che doctrine uf lluvereign equality when (bey were dlldy weaker and smalJer tban the Grear Powers hindered internacional lt0shy
operation in for example the cconomic lphere HowCer he 1lW rbar the fnne ofevents wu working agaiexcln~t sta~ism
No maeter what rhe size and shape of rhe particular community lo funcrions are such thar rhey haye to be organized and the fOrres and (crors now iexcllt work no longer have llny rroe telarion tlt) rhe uld pnlitkaJ divisions wirhin or withuJ( rile state The new functiom imposed upon our puliria instiacutetutions art compelllng 11 complete recomt(Ucrion of tile technique of govemmellt on a purely practical oosis 1 teach that rondU$ion by ming at the Illltset noto what is rlte iexclden form for an imtrnadonal $odetyiexcl but mher what are 1tS C$sential ftmctions
(Mitrany 1915a 99)
He claimed hat C$$cntially the nims of intemalional governmcnt were no diffcrent from dlo~e (lf municipal gnvernmenr w aCaJt equality bcfore the iexclaw for aH rnemben of the cnrnmuni(y and ro lrumote sodal jUlltict To expen [O achieve rhe first aim in inrernatlfllltliexcl sodely whefe 5talCS wcre
l ju WrJll1Jgs en mlWnal101tJf (iexcl(gamufJf)lJJ
nei[her eqna nor unchangiug uuiu would be unreascnwtc Ir woold be far more prncriC1iL ro cmnpromise rhis aim and CSLablish a League of Nations in which Grea( pQVeri woulcl he dirlltdy representelt Secondary Jitates woulcl have group representiexcliexclrioo afld malter ~tatet w()ulcl have panel repmentatioo At the same time sfCortdary bodie$ would be ser up in varJous pam of che world 11$ orgnns (lf regionJI grouptngs of Jitares artd (hese bodies woulJ be connected with and subordInare tO the new CCOtta League organs They wouiJ aleo be iexcliexclbie ro clesl wiacuteth problems mOle teaclily especially as the unanimity of aH srares would not be needed [Ol a senlemem
These suggesdom are noe (he novel aspeltts oE Mitran)$ work They are imponam in changing (he emphasjs away from the tighu of amptate wwards rhe dude oc lit ICllSt (he actlvJries of Hates Still the conccto was wth Ilrrllnging relnrioru netween snm~s In a paper $ubmitrecl ro che 8drish foceign Office in 1941 and in hi~ study A Wking Peaa Symm (966) Mirrnny wncenrrated on how che (unctioru of gOYernment might be cnrried OUt more exptdiriously He rtcognhed chllr withio liberal 1emocrati( stare~ [he Une berween whirh futCtions are Cflrried Out by pubtic and by privare aclioll was shifriog lIod that rhi5 line unde (he prel5ure u( (rt_ih social Ileeds and demands musr be Jeft free co move with rhem A similar demamuiacuteon existed in che terrirorial spbete interlla~ dooally wme (uncdons (eJ railway systems) could best be organized cOlltinenroUy some intercontinentnll) (e8 shippillg) alld some univcnaUy (eg aviation) However there would be no need for rigid patteros exccpe perbaps io tbe exercise of negadve (unctlons -- those related ro securi[y wberc more fotmal sacle lnstltuclOns WQuld be needeJ In (he field o( positive (unctiacuteoru (dw$C tdatecl ro economic eultunl and sodal affairs) he climensions ocgans and powers of any organiorion would be deler~ miacutened by the nature oiacute the funccton and would be fairly flexible Mitrany fmfSaw tbe tStliblisbment o( functional bodies wirh auronomous ta~ks and powers which wonld do thingl joiacutently Tbis wuulcllink aucborlry tu a specific activiacutery (hUi breaking llway foom the tradicional link between authocieyand a ltIacuteeftnire ~erritory Murany 1966 125) 11iacutes move wcmlcl avoicl he sreritity uf many of rhe wartjmt suggesdons fue posr-war (ecltrn~ tions O connitudonal innovariacuteon in rhe United Nacions whlch f~eteoacute 00 he opposidon oiacute sovereign sraee reiiexcltance Mitrnny hoped rhat che number uf internarional agencies (hat had exisred before the Serend Wodd War augmenteltIacute by the A11ied board durJng rhe war lrsdf wuuld u~rve u tbe ba~lS foc (he network oiacute inremarional gOvernrnent He quoud wlrb obviow appruval the wurd$ of an Amerltlln scholar J Payson Wild Jr 00 the varlOUS warrime experiments
The Hues between domesuc anltIacute iexclnrernational actlvlty ate blurred ancl nadonal adminisuatlve agencies of the Powecs concerned Smneshytimes engnge in domestk busint-1s and at orber rimes extend theit
Wrilings Ofl hllenJdUacuteoN1J org411iatiofJJ 137
(unctioru ioro rhe uumluernarionul sphere The resuh is o conglomerashydOn o( intermnional bwrd aocl domestic staf( whose dlties Illrermiacutengle Adminisrrnr1ve offtcers o( narional lmirs deal direcdy wirh rheir opposire numbers in orher S[1l[es WirhOlU benefit o( diplo maric intermediaries and simlllmneously perEorm borh nacional and intemational tasks So fu no attempt has been made en estab1ish iexcliexcl
super~State
(Mitrany 1 6 167)
Mitranyll villion is oE a world in wruch che functiollS of ~etyday $odal 1Jfe - transport healrb care rommunicatioos agticlllture industrial developmenr sciendfic developmenr and so on - are no Jonger assidl1ou$-ly carried en witbin rhe confines oE each sovereign iexcliexcltflte but ate underuJen across fmmiers on a tegionai cominental oc univetsal bflliiiexcliexcl These acrivjw des would be overseen by international Ofganizatioru which wOIJld be more like boards oE managemenr Tbe functional agencies of rhe UN (che no WHOgt FAUacute etc) already underrake urn ro~opetative t$Sks fIli do sorne non-governmental groupings of spedalisrs (League of Red eron Sndedell World Srout Movement etc) However tbe Une berween what has been done imernationaHy aOO dome$tkally bas tuen drnwn very much ro [he beneflc oE che latter and international activitid bave tuen riddted with politicel dispureoJ rnany oE which have liule ro do wlth me good manegemem of the (unction iexclnvolved Mirranys laquoheme would fiexcludually lOwtt rhe liue ro aUow more functioos ta be Citded OUt at rhe level where they wOrk more efficieruly and woukl proide managemenr of tbere funcshytions ra[her [han poHdclI1 interference Not onty would his develQpmeof beuefit (he general social welfure of the world ir would abo hcIl (O salve rile problem o( plaCe and security The LHliputian ties o( internacional fuucrionru co-operarion would piacuteo clown me giam of conflict weakenlog [he urge ro destruction and warfare by rhe promise of consmlctJoo and cashyexistence
The (unctional approach does nor focus solely on iorergovernmenral organizacion buc aUows for a network 01 spedaliuxl agencies roany uf which could be non-governmentaL Ir difftr in emphllSi5 ftoro che mainshystream craditionalis[ wricings and Mitrany~ work praaged a move away from internare relations 10 wotld politics Whilst the functiooaJ alpoolUh does not oReod against lh sentimem 01 nationaJity )t the pride oE sovereignty (Mitrany 1965 139) lhere is no doubl chat ir is meant lO weaken the i~por(Jloce and power of the middle roan berween rile indi vidual and a world communiry che sovereign scnre The feeling o( solidarlty enrounged by functionallinks 1s nor between states but beween people or assoclatioos of individuals Each of us is ill fuer a bundle of funCflonaJ loyalties so dWt tO build a wodd communiey upoo sueh a concepdoo is merely to a(eM artd consolidare ir also betwetn societies and grollps Micrany 15 14n
138 Wriling5 fin illttrnatiQJIa1 (ffanizatio1ts
Such IIn imaginative appruach tu wodd problems aud be mundiUlc hard~ working iexclapolitical role lt implieamp fOr interuational organizadons has its fiexclruIrs To ctiexclddu Mitranys functionalism as being impronica JS IUlfalr hoth because internlltionru functiornd links hllve grown espedaUy since the S~ World Warj and blaquoarue M1tranys approach is a gradual one he did OOE expeCt ir ro be adopted overnighr Even so ir cioes have certllin 11mbiexclshyuow a~pets which shOllld be criticany eDmined
Piexclrsr de5pite rhe refere-nce to possible regional fimnionalunmgement8 Mitranys pJans ron counter ro rhe notion of aU-embraciug regional organi utJoru such as the Europcan Communities now E~n Uninn (Mitrany 1975b 53-78) Whibt these organwdons roay Hnk their iexclamhotity ro a speoacuteftc activky $ueh as the conditloO foc running (he coal iexclaud steel indusshytries nr the agriculture of the EUs member states they sta hold w the rrnditinnal1ink betw~n authodry arul a definirt territory The cooJ and sr~l polkies or tite Common Agticultural Policy uf the BU are nor extended to tbe industries and fumen of other non-member countries who mar wish lO participate in theit ochemes Vet il can be argued toar ir is prccisdy in these iexclirnited geographicill blocs that flIlCtiOruJ arrnnscments are besr executed wirh limitations un mernhetship To wnrk propedy chemes must encompuss denned aras with a good deal jn common - the flexibility of Mitranys proposal wIQutd 500n break dOWIl )l the tnembers WlJuld have $O little in cornmon in fo cxampie the runnill8 of agriculture tbat coshyopetation would be dif(kulr or lloo-proouctiacuteve Furrhermore rhfmiddotse regional atrangemenpiexcl overcorne the problems of dedding the meaning hQundaries and consequtIlCCS of any particular function (Melaren 1985 142)
Second Mitrany did not really envisagc any piexclHejcal control of the futlCtiooal des between COllntdes mus distinguishing him frorn [he more traditionaliacutest approach lO inrernational orgaruwcions lle was hopeM dw the pmblems of roshyurdillltion between ronctionalagencies could be worked out as they lllOOe
To prescribe fOI the suke of [iexcladicional ne3tleSS somtthing more dennite han the guidancc and supervision of eg the Ecooomk Md Social Couooacutel W(lU1J be ro duron he whole conetprion from [he niftJo impollC upon them (funct-lonal bodiesJ a co-otdination authoriry with anyrhing Iike comrolling scuus w(luId be ro move again roWllrd$ that JiacutecumuJarion of power ar the centre
(Mitrany 196~ 143)
Thus [he institmions uf (he Eutopean ClJmmunitic~ - the Counoacutel uf Milli~iacuteers rhe Commission che Courr of Justicc rhe European Padiamenl dre Economic md Social Comlllittce - were al analnema fO Mitmny They werc juu miacuterrnring the poluacuteical COflffOh of lhe nation state ar iexcliexcl pa-n-continenullcvel anU according to Mirrany Continental unious w(luld have a more real chance thau individual suteS to pnletise the aurarky thae makes or division Mitrany 19(Kiacute 2n This may u((end
Witi1lf1 rm imernatilmalllrgaraquoiutifJ11J 139
agains[ lhe funcrJonalisu hope (r iexcliexcl universal apprOlltIacutel tu proble[Jls but (he abhorrence of policial imtitutions is lItrange wIacutelen [he funriona agenoacutees will aftee iln be mllkJng poHtkal decisions -- declsions roncetning lile aurhontative allocafion uf resources No only will iflfetnashytional functiunal transpon organizations established accordlng to Mittany have (O decide that cerEain areas wiH bt weU served by railways and Wds orhers llOt iexcliexclorne ports bujjt up others ieft to tlceay sume airlines expanded whlle rnbers are allowed ro fOllUact blt deeisiow wilI have ta be made on how w diexcl~tribu(e 5carce re~ources betwccn fo example iacutenvemtlent in transpon ur building more hospitals or restfllcturing rhe srecl Jndustty thwughour (he area eovered by [he orgalliurions Thee arc paHdeal declsiQw ln a period of economk growth and plenry [hdr potitshykal niexcliexcltute may be le5S obviou as resources are avaiuble for almost eVery plan advanced by world 01 regional shjpping aviation heaJth or sree1 O1ganizatioos Otherwit there mn$t sllrdy he a system by which scarce mrnurce$ are aUocaced Tbis problem was flJed squardy by Mitr1ny successors iexcln the neofunctionalin school (dealr wIacuteth in the SC(tiOH tbat follows) but ir doell seem ftoro Mirranys writings fhat the world of funcshytioollJi~m is a wodd of IlnUmiacuteted resounes (Melaren 1985 146)_
A third problem in Mimuys approach i~ brought out in a eommtnt by lniacutes Claude The functiacuteonal theory uf imemariruwl nrgaruzarions 1S ultimateJy eoncernen wirh the usue of polJtiacuteeal and military srniexclggJe functionalism tneats (he promotion of we1fue as au illdirecf approach tu rlx prevenrion of warfare (Claude 1968 31--5) Mitran quoted Oaude wirh appmval implyiog rha fulletionalism would ind~ mllk( a positive contribllt1on (albeit inilitecdy) CE (he ptCveurron of war fhis profOiSitiort is open (O $(Ieral criticisms Given the level uf arrnrunems in the worJd and the porential fQf cunflict the contriburron ro pettcc made by funcrioruuacute acrjvities miexclay come too late A youth group exthange betwtn rhe USA and China ma) bode we11 fOf
tbe furure OOt wlll be uf link use if (he respective parrus are beaten ro meir destinarions by intercominental baliiacutestic missiles funhermore the pmmotion of wtlfare may inctease internatioual conflicr by i~asiacuteng expettacions Espedally if social and ecounmic changes are bmugh[ aboue by imernational runctioual 3Jencies developing muntrie poliacuterical I~derships may fJnd ir increasingly cliiHcult to meet lheir poplllatIDn~ demands fot more economic benefJts fur a ampirer distribution uf benefits or in sorne ta$(-S fOf Ol)tool uf the social consequences of laquootlumic Rrowth Imernal sttili aod unrest may chen ~iIJ over into inrernacional eontlicr Finally Miacutetrany daiffi$ that rhe Nncshyrional approach ciocumveuts ideological aOO racial diviID05 as it ltloes territorial frontiacuteers (Mitrany 1975a 226) There ls guod evidellce tiJat the opposite has been happening thae the exlsting runctiuual organimfIacuteom slch $$ tiNEKO WHO and lID hllve been riddkd with ideulogical and racial (or al lea~t Norrh-Somh) diviions wruch h~ve teflected pnlirical argnments outside he olganizarimlS bu have ncvenheless adverscly aHewod their ba~ic work (Ghebali 1986 l tR-lt6 1mber 1989)
iexclIV WHURg) W~ mltTlWilm tIampmJlaiWN
NetrfJl1iKJiOalisls
Tbc move away foom rhe srate-cenrric vjew of JlItert1arlOlal organizarion Started by WOllf and Mirany was ccetiacuteeued io rht immedijlre posr-wur perjod by social stientim applyiacuteog asJltu of functionll1(st ~heory to European nd Atiacuteantlc in~limti()m This utw fUllCtionaliu approach showed paruumlcrnsr interesc in che European Communities (Ee later nuropean Union EU)) whjch arme iu iexclhe wake of che amphuman Plan In Mily 1950 Roben Schuman rhe Frenrh Foreign Minisrer advauroo (he idea cha( West Eucopean srarcs should establish a High Authority wlrh powers ro admillshyimr theit eoai aOO stecl induscrie~ Negorjatioru on rhe detalS of chis plan led t() the signing of che Treaty cf Pariacutes in Apdiacute 1951 by FraIlee Wen Gemuny Iraly rhe Neiexclherlands Bdgium sed Luxembourg (rhe Six) Tbls gave substanre tO (he idea lbat funcrional aiexcltivicy oould be ITlltllfIged across fcomien by IUl organizadon ove and above the govemmenrs of che member sraces a supmnational amhority The idea was wldened ro cover iexclm expanded unge of etooomk activiry when he Silo esrablished rhe Bt1fOpean Ecooomk Communicy (EEC) widl the Treaty of tome in MAtch J957 An Aromic Energy Communiacutety (Euratom) was eHablished sr che sume time However ~he element of upranationiexcliexclliry was dilurelt in the High AllthoritY-s successor (rhe Commission of rhe EEe) having only Iimited deciuacuteOIl-makin8 powers anJ having mosdy the task of proposing acdon ro tbe representarives of he rnember states situumlng in (he Coulliil of Ministe13 Despire his otber Community hutitutions contsined the gerrn of supranadonaHry rhe Courr of Jllstke empJoymg Coromunity nuhe [han nacional laws a Ruropean Padiument wbkh WlS eventually electelt by ditect eleedons amoog a Communiry-wide electorate voting for Cummunity-hased parties aad 1Jueresr groups represendng mrmetSgt consumen traJe unions aruJ blliiness on a Commuiexcliexclity tatber than a nnional basis
Tht$eacute tnmwauumloos in WeBtem Europe uiggeteJ a spate uf 1 iexclretamre primaril) in he lJnireJ Sures whieh examined tbe nurure unrl purpose of the Commuuity iustituions The Jominam staacutend amongst this writing was chat of the neo-(uncrlonalisrs sJCcifically Ern~1t Haas Lean lindbetg and J05eph Nye whose works are of importance io the uudy of internacional organizacions In ronrruc tO Mitrany the OCW fuoctiooalistli tended Br (iexclrOc tuacute iexclimir rbeie study 10 developmems in Wcscetn Europe (HtIaSs ~nJhe Naion Stte (964) bcing a nruiceable exeepdon) especially the OC alshyrhough later cornparimns were tnade wirh rbe growch ofccmmon lIlltirkets iexcln Mica East Eurupe aoo Larin America On che whole the neo-fumtiooaiscs had rerreated foom Mitranys world view
fhe neo-funcrionaljgrs aiso realized rhe dilemma faeed by Mitrliny in eelihng wirh politica dcdsicms ane did nor fllnch in introducin~ a merhod of making necessary chOtees ar he imernarif)llItI leve Indeed rhis wa~ rhe kernel uf rheir ideagt lhlll 1I0l ouly sperifie functionamp would be farried OUt ar rbe subrollrinentill rarher (han (he nacional leve bul thil( lhe decisions wnrernillg (hese functioos would be made at thaf level shy
6- v n_m_ ~olo_~~W_
with imponant cOnsequences for those groups imetesred in the decisiacuteons and iexcliexclIso liffecting orher arcas of poliey Por example supprne the Ecooomk Cual and Steel Community (BeSe) required (har che sreel lodustry be orgaoized as a West Europeao endty insfead of a numher uf narional industries a1l commled by differenl ccgularions aod rbar a suprauariona surhoriry be crcared ro decide on the policy Coc che ranniog of tbe Wcsr EUlopean sfeel induStries lo ronsequeoce those involvea in say rhe French steel industIl would switch tbeir attentioo away from Parili where policy was previowly rnade ro BroS$CIacutei wbcre ECSC poliey is mude Purthermore CommwIlty ntber dUlo nadonl poliey on ueel eould spiU ovet into ereadng a Community po1iey ror cool tnmspOH IUld Othet asrod~ ared acdvities As rhe numbe oC functiacuteooal policies decided at a Commuoity rnthet than a natkmllllevd expanded so the need for political actioo at this higher level would gfOw aod thc political sysrerol of the couutries involved would becomc inexorably iexclmcnwincd lhis was the logk of rhe innovator of he $chumao Plan idea Jean Monnet wM considered rhar rhe establishment of a c001 and srec1 community foUowed by similar organitations dealing wirh otbcr Cuncrional areas - agricultute transpon nade defence - would be lreps on [he way ro building Europe The eOO would be jln economiClllly aod politicaUy integmred Rurope lo Monneriexcl scbeme a federal West Furopeao state The means would be fuoctlonal bu with a political contento
In his study of fbe ECSC Rrnst Haas examiooo this s(rlltegy and a1so dmned polldcai inregradon in its ideal typc u beiug rhe process whereby political iexclcroo in severa distinct nadooal ~tings are petsuacltd to shjft thet lnyaltielJ expecrations liod pOlidcal iexcll(tiacutevides eoWjlrd jl new centre whose insdwtions possess or derrumd jutisdktion over me pit-existiog lIatiof19l $tates (Uaas 1958 16) ihis oew cemre would be che powelshyhouse managing rhe political ptoblems oC fuoctio1llll coopeaacutedon [he Uigh Audwrity of tbe ECSC and be indrurion of me EBe The policical actcniexcl invoJved would be rhose elites leading the poliacutetical groups habirually colCerned wirh public decision-making and wooJd indooe trade uoioacuten offishydaIs busiue5$ ami Hade representatives higher civil servann and activeacute poHttdam As tlltSiacute eliteS rutneU theit aacutetrendon ro rhe ojOW policical centre chey would find tha Community pelky in olle area nm be uwde tea oo1y if che task iuelf iexcls expanded CHus 1961 368) by way of a spillover of actiVity lIltO anocllet policy atea Evenrually Communiy policy~makiog would take uvet from S(ale policy~making jo alI rhe crucial BreaS and the new centre would emerge as being potenrially more powerful dma the member srares governmenu wbich had been drained of lheir mOS( meruoshyingful polidcal ucdvides
1( this stage ir can be quetied whetbet Haas was describing an inremashylional organizadun or il poremia1 federal mlte Io discumng tms quesrjon in his book on Elle EC-S( Haas cooduJed dllU Tbe hruHnct of federal as agaiacutenst middotimergovernmemaf powers lIeeacutems tU point to che coodusioo tbat in
142 WtitingJ on mtertlatilJtJA orgamZ41iom
alJ maneo relating ro the romine regularion of rhe commOTI ~et the High Authority is independent of government (HIlaS 195R 55-gt He al50 voiced rhe opinion rhu Supranadonaliry in snueturnl ferms tberefure means the exisreuce of govemmental a~lthorirjes dlloer tuacute Ihe archetype of fdeNrhm rhan any past inrernati(mal organizar ion buc not yet ideutiacutecal Wlth it Oiaas 1)158 59) However this $upnmttionaity in pNctice has deve10ped into a hybrid in which neither the federal no the intergovernshymentai reooency has deady triumphed a-bas 19511 527) Ir is aloo denr lbat the original Coo1 and Sreel Communicy was mueh mote functional~ Wlcrnl than the lateacutet Economic (ommunicy and untiacutel the mid~19805 the unified aud expanded Communuumly romw to play Jown the elemenU o( supranatlonality iu tavour of 1ts Jiacuteltergovemmenul insutution rhe Conndl u( MiuiMm This aud othet dtVe1opmems led Haas to lcconsidcr his origshyinal view of Community inrtitutioos
In the 1968 pre3ce ro Tuacute Uniting of Ellropt (which was wIacutetten in 1958) Haas alrtady identified factors that had dllngro rhe nattlc of me European Communiries experimem in che previous ten yeacs He observed tlur during this period vario~ spiU-OVet aOO adaptive ptcKeues s(ill had nO( resulted in la pulitically united Encope and in an~werjiexclg the question what went wtlJug he outliued fuur considetdtions Fitst (he new funaiurutlJsu had filiJed w di$tinguisb between background variahle cOlditioos prevamng at rhe time when cbe Comrnnnity WU$ csnbJished and new upiratiuns and expectations that had develnped Jhe esntbliacuteshment thar had ron counrer ro the Community spitit Second the imptet o( niexcltlonaUsm had becn undereshytimawl Third Eactors within me Commuruty had becn nressed ro he dccrimenr of those coming from the outside world PintUacutely me massive transCormation oE Western socie[y raking place indepeudent o( EutoptHl integratiacuteon aIso hacl been underestimaretl (HIlaS 1968 xiv--xv)
Haass definidon of imegralion alsu bccame wmewhar more negative I1lOre stlilte-centric than bis original 195R emlhasis un nationaJ llt(on shifting their loyaJties expecratiacute(ms and poJitical activities toward a new centre By 1970 Haas considered the study ofregionallntlgrurion to be concerned
wich explaining how aud why sUtes eease to be whoUy $overeign how ~md why they volunucily mingle metgt and mix with rhcir neighbours $O as to lose che facruru attributes of sovereignty while acyuiring ncw techniqucs me resolving conilirt between themselvell
(Haa~ 1970 610)
By 1975 Haas eonsidcred regional integmtion theoty oiJsolete in Wesrern Eurupe and obsolescenr - though still urerol _ in tite teSt o( the worId (Haas 1975 l) By 1976 he had arded out n maioI reintetpuEation of uew-fuuctlonaJist lhoory as it applied to rhe Ee The definahle outcome of integtation in Wenem Eutope was secn either in ttaditiorW federaHsc temu - a Wen Enrnpean (ederal state ereated out uf yenrs of fun~-tiexclonal
Writings M ifllernuJlfJmiexcl1 (JFfIiutian 143
rutivity whkh had lcd lO J trnmrer of poliduumlll acnvity away rom (he natlon ~tates tOwarJs a new srrunure - or ltlS the imtitutiooltlUdng uf some intermMiate iexcliexcltage such as rhe present status qno whcreby atlthonty is dimlbnrro unequally between several centres Wilh tire old nation states losing their previous Ituthoriey but with no new JiacutedeOl government in ptO$~ pect Whihr the original aspecrs of the EC - rhe cuuoms union aOO (he Common Agricultura Poliey _ have tllaquoorne entrenched the spillover inm orhe policy area~ had nor occurred by Ihe mid-1970s as che neo-furutiooa1ists liad ptedicred Also common polides liad becn Jevelopetl in differem o(8ashyIliratiuns - che OFCD the summit of indurmiatiooo counrrics the Group of Ten - tarher than within the liC lhe problem according lO Bus W1IS
rurhulerue whereby rhose iuvolved io polirirs haJ found rhemselves in a littting ofgreat social complexiry where rhe nnmber of atrorr is very large and each pursues a variety uf objectives whirh are murually incompatible lmt ucn is also unsure of che ultlde-ofamp between the objectjves He continued Tnis conditiQn imJgtlics the erosion o( such interorganizarional patteacutern~ oC comensus reciacuteprocity and no(mative tegularity as may havr CXlSted eadicrEveryrhiug is up fO( grallS (Hus 1976 179) HilaS sllggested thu iu the EC polioacuteeamp and (he institutioru devised ro lmpleshymeacuteut thero iacuteU~trnre rhe attempc ro deal with lhe turbulence nather tllan achieve regional politkal inteSradon (ibid 180 original emphasis)
A similar hiacuteft lttway fmm the earHer llSp1rauumlons iiexcliexcl ICen in rhe work~ Q( Lindberg aud Nye Lindbeg wlrose book 1he Pattirai DJMmict o EroJMn Ecrmomic IntegTatia (13) had fullowed on dosely from Hws work was hy 1966 showiog tbar moves wwaros inregration wirhin the Be (ooid cause Stress within (he system l1Jtfl inCftllq the barrien to fimher integration (lJnJberg 1966 254) Togcrher with lkheingold in 1970 he desctibcJ an EC wbich had noc deveJopeJ joro a federal structute haJ difereot ltvels of integrariacuteon fut different functions and was sdl susceptible tIJ UJsis lt was ao unprecedemed but curiousy amblguoos plurruistic syttem there seem tO be no satisfrutory modcls or ronceptli in che sociaJ scienee VQ(abulary to adequa[ely define ie (Lindberg and Scheingold 1970 306) In a anide Joseph Nye coruiacutedered thac Jespite rhese and otber revisioos the neo-Euncrional approodl srjlJ embodies 11 nurober of fault tbu re1lcct jrs origins in [he 1950s (Nye 1970 767) He proposed a nUml)(l OC changes scating rhe derendent variable lels ambiguoUlUumly adding more politiul ruwn reformufating rhe Hst oF integration condiuons and pethapli mOSf
significantly drOlping che ideas ufa single path fmm qWlsi~full(tiexclonallasks tuacute politica1 uuion by meamiexcl oF 5piUove( (Nye 1970 767 He conduded rha[ shnn oF dramadc chaugc the prospect9 (or common markets or microregiorud cennomie organiutions leading in rhe shon ron (of dendes) to fedewt1nn oc m1me sOtt oE polidcal union capable of tlU indept1Ldent dcferue and foreign paliey do not seem very high (Nye 1970 1129)
There hiexclas been a long jotJJney trom the functiorudisl-fecleral nope5 of Jean Monoet back jn 1950 but it has seen the evolution of nm only the
144 WitingJ on inlernafuacutemal ttrganizafifmJ
Communiry insrirurions and policies bur aIso neo-functionalist thinking The Iogic of inregrarion gave way ro coping wich rhe crises inseirutions mixing federalisc and intecgovernmental elemenrs were replaced by a Western Europe in which instirucional tidiness is best forgorten (Haas 1976 211) and the federal elemenrs seemed ac mosc dormam The hopes of che 1950s had been replaced by rhe uncerrainties of che 1970s and the early 19805
Wirh rhe launching in 1985 of rhe idea of creating a Single European Markec wuumlhin rhe EC by rhe end of 1992 che signing of rhe Single European Acr in 1986 (which exrended EC comperence aud changed irs inscitucional balance) and che sectlement of a uumber of Common Agriculcural Policy problems in February 1988 che Iogic of inregration seemed ro be revived
Wriring in 1990 Keohane and Hoffmann resrored and refined che neomiddot funcrionalisr norion of spillover advanced by Errut H9al They were sceprical char rhe rheory of spillover could explain the ECs irucirurional developments of che late 1980s buc saw it aCling posicively in orher ways for example rhrough che incenrives ro institutional change given byenlargeshymenc of EC membenhip in rhe early 19805 (Keohane and Hoffmann 1990 289-90) They saw che pcocess cominuing and barring Clrasrrophic excernal fucrors were moderately oprimisric abour rhe Communirys furure prospecrs (Keohane and Hoffmann 1990 296)
This view was raken up by Tranholm-Mikkelsen (991) and Holland (993) borh of whom saw che revival of rhe Communicy agenda in rhe Maasrrichr Trealy - wich irs blueprinr for a move ro economic and monetary union - as being a revival of the neo-functionalism Drher wrirers on European incegration at chis time adapted che basic notions of neoshyfunccionalism bU[ broughr in extra fucrors Majone (1994) agreed char che EU had seen an upgrading of common inreresn but placed an emphasis on public choice policy ro explain particular Ouccomes Marks et aJ (996) saw a much more complex relarionship berween che Communiry and domestic decision-making leve Though rhe srare was srill very important ir no 10nger monopolizes European level policy-making or rhe aggregarion of domesric interescs 0996 346) Insread rhey idenrified rhe growrh of mulrishyleve governance wirhin che EU
Indeed rhese developmenrs in neo-funcrionalisr wrirings on international organizarions poim up sorne of the criticism~ of che schooL Firsr despice rhe besr efforrs of Ibas Schmitter and Nye it remains a rheory overwhelmingly dominaroo by an inreresr in rhe EC and larer rhe European Union In 1964 Haas and Schmirrer rried to extend sorne of che lessons uf econumic union in Westeru Europe ru Larin America Drawing on Haass 1968 preface ro The Uniring of Europe rhey discerned nine variables four relared ro background condirions (similariey in power of memben rares of rransaction pluttllism in member seares complememing elices) rwo referring ro condirions ar rhe time of economic union (similarity of governmenral purpase powers of che ecunumic uniun) and rhree ro process coudi[ions (decision-making sryle
W[J U UWltU 15
rransacrions rate rhe adaptabiliry of governmenrs) (Haas aIld Schmitcer 1964 711-19) They looked ar rhe chances of policicizarion chat is the possibilicy chat lhe acmrs seek m resolve rheir problems so as ro upgrade common inrerests and in rhe process delegare more amhoricy m che centre (Haas aIld Schmitcer 1964 707) Nye in his article Comparing Common Markecs (1970) rried ro modify che Europo-cemric narure of the neo~ funccionalis[ approach and drew on a wide range of cases of economic imegracion Larin America Cenrral America rhe Caribbean Eastern Europe and East Africa as weH as EFTA and che EC He concluded [har
The original neo-funcrionalist model was close m irs ongms in the straregies of European inregrationisrs in che 1950s and thru mighc be seen as a rempting and misleading guide for policy in orher aceas The revised neo-functionalist model is not somethiug ro be imiraced bU is simply a rool fur making comparisons We wanr ro know whac differshyence ir makes if a group of seates form a common market
(Nye 1970 830)
Though by rhe end of che 1980s rhere were few places ro be found outside Europe thac were forming common markets rhe formacion of he Norrh American Free Trade Atea (NAFTA) and rhe renewal of economic cooperarion in Latin America and Sourh-Basc Asia during rhe 1990s provided different models from the more poliricized EU These seemed ro challenge some of the basic assumptions of rhe neo-funcrionalistS aIld perhaps give some weighc ro Nyes scepcicism ciced above
Second i[ is clear chac che neo--funccionalisrs have had trouble wirh che insticudonal formacs They have rerreaced from being functional federalist almose back co Micranys eclecric approach rowards institudons They have also accepced [he durability of rhe nadon state in resisring che logic of inreshygration and have soughr compromise formulas which at leasr continued ro place emphasis on non-srare accivicies even if insticutions above che stare (supranarional) were seen to be susceptible to stare inrerference
A chird Cliricism concerns the gtOH of non-srare acrors favoured by rhe neo-functionalists They have consraudy emphasized [he imporrance of polirical acrivisrs the elites of inrerest groups and rechnocrats This may have parrially blinded chem ro a weakness in rhe ECEU rhar could have affecced neo-functionalisms earUer proguuscicarions from being fulfilled its insticurions cannoc draw on rhe day-ro-day polirical resources available tO the narional policical acrors This has led tO a gap mosr noriceable in che newer members berween perceprions of che EU by the represemarional elice and rhose of rhe ordinary vorer or consumer Whilsc some earlier srudies of opinion in the EC did inelude opinion pons rhese ofren dealt wirh easy questions (showing ones EuropeaIl idenriry) 01 soft options (whether rhere should be say a more acrive EC industrial policy) With the firH expansion of rhe EC in 1973 and rhe first major oil price iucrCdse
146 Writi~5 cm lI1lMfatleuromal orgfll1iutl1ltl
whi(h coinoacutedemally happenoo a yeat liexclater Euttiexclpean voren werc faeed increasingly wirh mu(h harder options inflation versus employment tlnde union righu againsr consumer inrerests The poISibllity was thar bcing a good European might mean aHowiog sorne other COUlltry5 ruuionals to explott ones fish or oH The crearion oiacute a Single Enropean Marker within the Ee by the end of [992 and rhe move rowards a single curteney from 1999 by eleven theo (wdve of rhe HU member litares bmught he activi~ ties of the VOlon do~er lO the wodd of tite coosnmer or worker However chis seem iexclf anything to have iocreased rhe alienariacuteon of voten from rhe institntions aM acrivilies of rhe EU The 2000 election for rne Europeao Parliamenr shnwed the lowest tnroour yer in sllfh direct elections ano Enrobarometer opini()fi poUs have demonstrnred a msative trend in public opinion on che EU rnropaeuintknmmdgl0epoebc-b531p3npdO Ir may be thar a oumbcr uf interest groups llave switched rhrir expecta6ons and poJiexclcical activirics tuwatds the 00 bllt many of the ordinary European V(l(fS seemed ro have failed ro trans[er th~ir lnyalties tu he Union
In surnmaty the neo-functlona1ists mok np Mitranys srudy of rhe a-lashydons betwren group~ and individllals in oHferent sures il5 wellas che sta(cs representativtltl They tried ro gtapple witb the queuit)O (lf political control uf such iostirurionalized funcrional re1ation5hips aod ro undrrstand how ir would affrct rhe oatnre uf tiJe nation state They arremptrd to define the statuS of [hese newfy creatoo insutution5 tnough rhry wete out always fvlped by devdopments in che ECfEU which WWl rhe focus of rheir studies Tbdr works have demun~trared rhat the EU imututioos are by 110 mratlS juse ordinary imerg()vcrnmenral ones lh~y have al) provideo a mirror ()f the hircof) of (Yents in Westetn Europe in pankultH - moviog flom unitios aod poJitkal dynruniqgt through ~rress oy$ and anguish to obsolesceuce tllrbulent fudds and back to mooerace optimism and a new dynamism
TrotJJ(l(iacutecnaUJI
Anorher Americao writer whose work dealt wirh che question oiacute integrntion is KarJ Deursch Alrhough not a neo-fotlcrionalilit his tranmctional appwmh nali dealt with sorne iOmmoo ~hemes He has been umrerned with more rhan imergovermneuul relation~ aod indeed hM str~iexcl reJations berweeo peopIes nitherthan just rhe elites favonred by manyneo-fuflctionalists Deursch concerned himltelF with m( absrnce or presence of significan orga~ oized preplttrations fol war or large-snde iolence between int~rnatiexclona1 policical commuoities It was [he secutity rommullttles lhat had elimirutted war and [he expectation o[ wat whhin rheir ixmndaries whicn Dentamph and his PrincctOll coUeagues exarnined in PeliriuJ Cfml1NJNlily dIId M NarJh lt14Jtlaquo Atia (1957) A SClttlriLy community WWl defined as a gronp of people wnich has become ~inte8rated~ io rhe sense that thete is real iacutelSSnr+ ance that (he members of that rommunity will not fight ellch oeher
Wriil1g1 (raquo1 iacutelMfatlortal tJrgaiadlMm 147
physkally but will se~tle their disputes in liOffie otber way (Deutsch 1957 5)lt loregration does not necessarily mean rhe me~ging oF peoples ot governshymental units intn a ~ogle unie an idea explicir in fooerahsr rhinking Otud implicir in much funrtionalist wtiting Jnstesd two $otS uf integrared secu~ rit communities ar~ hJemified the amalgamarelt where pteviousiy independent unlts have bcen rormaly merged lnro a larger unit wich a iexclommotl guvernment (eg tlle US) ano the pJuralisric where srparate gnvertUlleJlUl Illlioraio their iexclrgaJ indepeodence (eg uacutenada amI rhe US) In stlldying a nllmbcr of cases of anempred or octual intesratioo io tbe Nortn American and WCSt European area Dtunch conduded rhat tIacutelere werc iexclweive conditions essential fnr the rurcts of ao amalgruruued teeutity (Ommuniry and thM rhree wen nec~ry fm it5 plutalisdc COUnrfrpilrt
The1e three conslsted of rhe compaiacuteibiliry oiacute marer valU($ relevant to
politiclll decision-making tbe capacity o( the participariacuteng plt)htinl Imitl or ~mmem~ ro respood tu each othcrS oetdl messages and llaions quickly adeqwuely and without rtsort ro vlolence aad rne mutual predicrability n bchavior (Delltsch 19H 66--7) In Deutschs work emphasis was placed 00 cornmunkauun brlweEn potidca uoIacutets increased trnns1Ctions between them (such fL polirinl exchangcs toUfl(m trade and rratl~pott) brought increases in mutual dciexcl)Cl(enmiddotc fue s cummnnity ro be created (his high level of trnnsactrons must be accomgtauied by mutual responsiveness o that thr demand o( each side 00 he other mn rccdve adequate and sympatheric treatroent llthis wouk not ooiy predude the need [01 aggressive action lO acbi(Ye ends bm would aJso build up 11 feeLing u( UUSt and seturiry in che edationship
Deuucb does not have an obse~uacuteon with imernattomtl orgaoiexclZ8rion~ although his 1957 book iacutes in [he eM collcetned with the ctelltiacuteon of UCCIlshy
tity community in the NATO area rhere ate few tcferences to internatlOnal nrganiuuons Many o( the Cll5C studj( are ser io tbe pcriud before (be postshywar expansioll uf such organlurions and almost all deal ieh bilareral relatIacuteonshj~ O(utschs work has coosequences for the lUudy o( ioternuiona organizatIacuteoos govemmental ano non-goveromCotaj iO[~rnational otiianiza~ tioos can be created as a re~ult uf a plnraliacutes[ic secuciry nmunuoit) lne integracion of whkh may evtotuaUy become iacutennirurjonalized iexclu nuppened reo the ampandinaviiexclm states creand (he Nordic Counci1 There run abo be forrns of instirUti(lnalued communiratlons berween socieries wnich prOldde the transactions and undersrandinli rhat help create ji securi[y community DeUtsch wrote
li the way tu iexclnregrarion domestic or internarionat i$ through rhe achievemem of a srose of community tnut undergirdS insrirurjtms thm ir seems likely [har ao iorreased sense of cotlloounlry would hrlp to snellgtbcn whatever instirutioos - supranatiooal or internacional - are aLreAdy Oltraring
([)euriKh 1957 7--8)
ltgt -_ bullbullbullbull _- _
Demsc-hs work was mken funher in a vnluffie ediretl io 1998 by AdLer and Bllenen (l998) (lLat docs pay sorne attention to ioternariorutl otgilniushydoos Indecd their volume contairu chapters thar rekr ro rhe oseeacute NATO the EU the UN the GnU Cooperarion Cowxil (GCC) aod rhc Assodation uf Soud Eat Asian Niexclttlons (ASEAN) They daim that imetshyruHiomuacute organiexclzauumlons aud iexclnstitutiacutem~ played al lmporum role in elKiltlraging more inteo$ive and extensive ioteracrioos octwttn states rhrough theit uwt-huildiug propenies (Bnrnetr and Adler 1998 418) They lht six corulusions of this snuerneor
bull By moniroting srares agreemenu tntcmatiuacutelwl orpuuacutezatiexcloo~ give them he cooftdente tuacute cooperare io (he ahsencc of trUSt
bull Jnternational O1ganizarions allow Hi1tC$ to discover new areas of muuwl intetellls Tu ponimlar [hey cenoacute ro link panicular areai
bull Inrcmational organizatiom can hdp shape $fllre pracdces by liCtting down nOfOU Ihat define what is acnptablc
bull The iIKTeaiing nwnber of internacionaJ orgamrutions emuuragC$ muldshylatetalim
bull They dIlO eruourage smres lua societies to see rhelll$Clvcs as pan of a resion
bull 1ntildeey can abo shape lhe identiry of rheir memben (Banlett aod Adler 1998 418-20)
The aurhms cWmed char cheir stuJit$ demonmared rhe exrent 10 whkh social cnmmunicadons beomes insrimtioualileJ aOO embedded in lnreroashytional oC8linbatlooslt and in turU how (hese organizatioru express an inreot to dcvelop trUSt end mmwl identificarion (Batnm and AdJer 1998 418) TIe work on sccurity (mmnunidcs is pelhapS at ir strongcu whcn dealing wim the esrablishetl Westcrn democracies rbough llamen and Adlers work shows rhar it may hilve a wider urility
lnlerJciexclnmdcme
Furrhcr emphasi on the growrh JO cnlnsaccions berween l()Cicries can be seen in the worts of Keohane 11l1d Nye who were m che forefront of the iexclnrerocJXndcnce school in rhe lJoited Srnnt fhey puacuteirued our (he conseshyquences of the innease in tldrunarioualucdolU ro che study uf iexclnternncional rdarions Thcit statcing iexclgtoint was sLlnuuarized chus
TraM1latlowJ relations are nolaquo new alrhough che growth of tmnsna~ tklOal orgnnizarion in me twentieth centuty has been specracunr Ye-r our nmremioo iso nor ooly rlur rhe srate-centrk paradigm )$ inade~
quare bur also thar it igt becoming progttSsively more inadequate as changes io inrernational relauumloos take place
(Keohane and Nye 1971 xxv)
The) llsred five omsequemes uf this growth uf inEematiooal inrcracrions ana organizarJ(tIls fur inrerstate politks (1) rhe promntiun of attirude change amongsr driacuterens (2) ao innease io inrernacional pluralism the linkjng of nntiooal Interese groups in tnmsnational strtlCtures usuaHy involving transruttionaI organizations fOI rhe putpoampe of (04)minatioo ltKtohAne and Nyc 1971 xviii) whiacutech has heen lhe basis for much noo~(Jncdontllist wriexcling (3) me cmdon lf dependence and inrerdependcofe IS often associacuteshyarea with intetnilriorutl cranspormrioo and iexclnance Keclune and Nye 1971 xix (4) creating new insrruments fut iexclnfluence for use by sOJne governments over ()(bers (Keuhane aOO Nye 1971 xx) 1100 lt5) dJe emergence cE auronomous acrors wirh priwre ntildelreign policia thar roa) deliberarely oppose Oiacute impinge on Sla(e polides (Krohilne and Nye 1911 xvii)
In a late book (1977) Keohane and Nye dcah with che questioo of imershydependem-e in world poliacutetics io greatet depth Iorecclependencc $lnce tbe Second Wm1d War has- onen cesulted from increasetl ttaosnadonal atciviries and iexcli divided ioto twO sorrs sensltlviry iacutemerdcpeodence (dte muIy effecrs of dULOges jo tranS1lCrJons oc ~()ciacuteetiexcles or govetrunents) md vulnembHhy interdependence where he acrors Hahllhy tc suffet eO$n iacutemposed by extemal evenc~ js (aken inro accoum (Koonane ana Nyc 1977 12-13) In COntrast ro tbe reaisr view of world poHrk Keohane and Nye pm totward che idea type of complcllt imerdependence which chey claimed soroetimes comes dosee ro realiacutety chan does realism (Keohanc attd Nye 1971 23) aod whieh has three nuio characretl$tks it allows fo mulnple rhallne1smiddot- imershyStatC tiansgovernmental and trilnsnationa- conneltring sncieries there i an abserue of hierarchy ilmonS the rnany questions ac inle hetween iexcliexcltates with military securiry no 10nger dominntlng lUly agenda and Millnu-y force 15 not used by governments toward orher governmenu within me laquogion or on [he lssutS where complex intetdcpendence prevaiacutels (Keorutne aoo Nye 1971 25)
These dltee condidons are said by KCQhane aOO Nye to typify fairly weJJ 5Ome LIlAUe$ of global economk md ecological interdependence ami come dose ro chamcrerizing rhe emite relarionship hetWetn sorne cnuntdes (KeolWne and Nye 1911 25) Complex ilterdepcndente glVel rise ro oacuteininctive poliacutetical processes a sute $ goals wiacutell vary by mue arca with mmsgoYernmeotul puumllitics making goab difficut ro define as ttansgovern~ menrnl llClaquo()$ (fof cxample mtfUsrers of agr1cuJmre inte11igente agencies nariona wcather bureaux) pursue their own aims Jhe followiog facwn are reLevant iriexcl eilch issue area
bull iexclhe resourc-es of a Ncue fur thaI particular area are most relevaot radre Ihan the stares overull military ~tre-ngth
bull international nrganizatinm and uansnntional actors wHl be fruloipula[ed as malnr instrumenrs oiacute mue poHcy
bull rhe agenda of issUC$ wi11 be fOrmulated hyebltUlgcs in the power dirmi~ burlon wirhin [he issue alaquollS by rhe pururinn (lf internarional regimes
150 Writings lIlt inttn1atiQrJ41 ergdniutirll1J
by changes jn rhe importance of ttaflstlational acwtS and by linkage froro orher issues
bull linkage between 1sllor$ will be mote difficult for strong naces to undetshyrah ir[orce 1$ downgraded
ft whiJsr linkage by we$k srares rhrough internacional organuumlarions seu agendas helps coalition-wrming and provides arenas for the political acdvity oC weaker states which can use the choice of organizarional forurn [or an issue and rhe mobiliZlition of votes as a politiul resource
(Keohane and Nye 1977 37)
Thm Keuacutehane and Nt gavc inremarjonal organizaciOfls an iroporran[ role in thde compfex interdependence model of world politics a model which whilst not uSlaquo (O explaitt aIl world politics was one which rhey daitned to hllve iacutenfrtasing releYJ1nce in IIlarge and growing area 1ntildeey used an intetnUional organizadon mooel as one of the explanations ror internashytioua regime change that js che lthange in the sets of goveming flrrangernems affening relatioruhips oC interdependence In tMs C$e intershynadonal oJsanisaciolls refeued ro multilevd Iinkage norms and insritutions (Keohane and Nye 1977 54) which once euablished are harJ (O enlAlicate BeCllue o( this rhey may Stand in the way of swes using thdr capabHities In ordec 00 chauge regimes Instead powet outcomCl will be more aJfectcU by votlng power (in the UN General AssemWy for example) ability ro futtl) coalidoos llnd 00 control elite networks (ruch as that founo io clte institushydougt of the European Commnnities) Whilst the complclt illternadorull organizarion mode1 was only Ofle oiacute fOur aJvaucecl by Keohane and Nye ro explain regiffie chAoge tbey Jiu expeomiddott jr to contribute to such chaIlSC in a world where complex interdependence (onditions pertain
1he rontribmions by Keohane and Nye demonstra(e hoth the roncero pf American wtilets iexcln inremationru relariWl in the 1970$ with altemacives to
tite srare-centric model and their wiluumlngness tO draw from more rhan one approach bringiexclng rogether elementogt from che more tradidonal appnJaChes with economic models and non-stare-cenuic dements TIleir Wi)rk does however have certain weaknesle$ Perhaps the mon serious is the use of rhe cerro imerdependence and iexclrs djvisiacuteon iexclnro ~n~itivity and vuinerability imerdependence Anepting rhar inltldeperulence meUlS mutool dependeoce (and [hjs leado to discussiou a~ w how mutual maoy relationihips are) che phrase scnsiuacuteviry imcrdcpendenre scarccly wflrmnu thc use uf the term interdependcnce fhe fault lies wJth che authou loose definiuOfl of depen~ iquestcnce as a oiexcltate (lf being detetmined oc $ignificaruly affected by externa fwces The induskm 0(signi6candy atkcted w~aken5 me urillry uf me cerm so tlme che nOr1on oiacute scusltivity inrtgtrdependence seems ro refer ro any nociceshyaMe cffeltr of ooe srate and society 00 anorher A person may Ix- significandy affectcd by taking drog$ wlthout Ix-ing dependen on chem David Baldwin showcd that mis use of rhe cerro interdependence ran conrrary to the striaer
Writingt ()I inf~_Ji(J1ia ~lfizaJJom 151
lUlderstlllldings (lf the concept fuund in MirhiaveUi Montesquieu and Ronsseall as weU 115 in che works uf twentieth-cemury wrlteI$ such as Norman Angell Francis D(laisi -and Ramsay Muir (ampIdwm 1980 7-9) He snuested the U$C of rhe rerms mutnal influence mutual responsivrness ot mutual scrlitivity insread ofscnsirivity inrerdependeruemiddot (Baldwin 1980 19)
A second cuacutericism uf Keohanc and Nyes books aso concems eheie termishynology In dealing wirh rransnational influentes They [ump tngerheraH types of teiations in whieb non~8overnrnental actOrs participare chus makiflA rhe componenrs of cheir new paradigm shifting aud poorIy defined (Wagoct 1974 440-1) Wagner questioned whetber their work simply demonstrated a shifr in interesr to new areas of intetnational polidts shyespedally elttmomic ones - ana whethcr [he world hM reaUy changed or whether we have iexclUSt overlookcd sorne things a1l along (Wagner 1974 441) The atent of imerdependence wa~ also chaHenged by Waltiquest (1970) anJ Rosecratlce el al (977) in che US and by Lirrle Bnd McKinlay (1978) and Strllivan (978) in rhe Briti~h Uteramre
DespiLe any falling$ Keohlllle and Nye provided insighrs ioto ttamlflashydonal polltics they shifted atrention away fcom p~lrely govcrnmental actOts in inff$rate relarions and they poiutm OUt he impMrance of intetnational organlziexcliexclxions in the intetdepcndence oc at lcast rnurual responsiveness of =
rbe rdormist view of both international celBtiOO1l and iuternational orga- nizar1ons has always provided an rutemative lO the more conservativc cealist approach Ir tended ro be dominated jn the pre-wu petiod by internauacuteonal lawyen and ideaJists but sinee hc Second World War has laoched on to the changell in world poUtics 6tst jn the economic ficld and then in Europe thar have Mn more difficulty to explain in ICliIHst term~ It has sten intcrna~ rionnl organizarions as mlans to manage trends such as iucftI$(d economl( intlrdlpcndcoC( bar hll5 also illtceplcU rhat these organizations mar necorne impoftllm aCtoriexcl (lO che wodd st$ge lhemselves and can cettainiy Iacute)(cnrne involved iexclO changing rhe preferences o( governmeflts
RADICALS
Writers covered in this sccrion iCe rhe intcrnadonal sysrem flOt so much as being domlnlltcd by states bn( more by diUerent divisions 01 its peoplcs Thi$ is noe to Sfly fhat chey ignore surtes They cOflsider them elthet w be ks tmportant chan the iquestjjsions of diUS tit wealth or merely ro refI~ct these othcr factors ot w be roadblo(ks to unky in (he fare Qf mote impomllt chalmiddot renga Power ls seefl as belnamp cxercised by eh( wealthy II1ld privileged and open to cha1Jeuge Change in the system is possibl( but onty through srrll8ge or by an awakenjug pf peoples tQ rhetr real sitllatlon Most iexclnter~ natimal organization~ are thus regarded as (eflccrioos of the currcnt unsruisracwry stare uf aiacuteTairs though $fJme more activist orgauhatioos mar llave potential as vehicles or (hange
This SIoacuteCElOn has betn sub-middotdivided imo rhree gthe fUS( are the econ01nk srructuralists and indude Marxists and Third Wocld wruumlers cririclll of rhe cutrem imernruionallyuem They haacuteve in common a belief mar che polltshyiexclcal srructUres of me world halle leeo wbloned mainiexcly by eltonomic fiiexclctors and rhAr mere has bren an intiacuteJUIllity builr imo the presen sytem lhe recood are the cruumliral app~es who5e radicalilifl1 is mure of the iacutemellec~ cual SOrt They rejeCf - Uf at 19$[ question - Jhatly of rhe usumpcions utlderlying be lIiews ofhe world tepresented by the realists and refotmers Finally mere are the globalim Theit perspective ls planerary ana theiacuter rnain conrtrn h fM rhc survival uf Earth Agilln they challcnge che mme statemiddotbuled approaches of both realjsts and reformers
Stnuturaluacutet lIiews
Ihe srructuralist appmiexclch rO (he swcly of inrematioOlIl relations differs In imporrant wars tO thoee of me realists and refotmuu tbough ir has some elemeou in comroon with mands ofb04h schools As roany of (he neo-realistsshyemphasite (he power scructure of wudd potities this sectiacuteon willlimir jwgtlf ro (hose writers roncerned wich the impacr 00 me political S)Srem of rhe wodds ccooomic strucrure Unliacuteke che ttalist approach the erooomk srrucruralisrs are OOr jUSt concemed with swtts io wodd polilla and rhelr economic and poIitkal differencC$ but alw with the divisioru within f1tld berween SoOCieties (WiIIeas 1990 263) They are [heretOre romerncd witl the rifi berween riel iexclmd poor within scares and rhar herwtto udl and poor glohally This leads ro an interese lO trulSlUirional reladoru as well as in inrergo~romenmt links Th(f have this in corrunon wim refPrtllist views bm diexclfier foom chem in (he emphast~ placeoacute on rhe structures of world pollics beinc formuared by eltooomic fiexcliexclcmn In rhis selttion attentioo wilt be given te MarxiS[ wtlletS lIud sume Thir1 Wodd view$ - partiuilarly (hose of rhe cependency sdlOOf and rhe developmemalj~[II - who have made a cootribution quite separare from rhat of rhe Muxiacutesr uadidon
Marxill laquoewl
There is no one Marxisr interptetariacuteon of me role of imerniexcliexcltional Olganiza~ cions in world politics Sur Manis[ approschf3 have certain elements in common and form a di~dnctive 5ch001 of rhough[ about lnrernartonal telamiddot tions generaHy and therefore ahotu international ocganizadoos These appmaches are based 00 du writiflgS of Karl Marx (l818~) in coshyoperarioo witb Fuacutewrich Engels (1820-95) with perhaps tbe gtearest later conrribution being maJe by VL Lenin kader of (he 1917 fo1shevik revolushydon in Rurna They are cf importanee pany becau1e ehey ficm tlle 00515 for mmmuniSt [hinking and (hm mey have an anactunenr m rhe Soviet Unian whieh WIlS be suongc1t commnuist stare unrII 1991 and EO rhe Peoples Republic of China COlUT1UnJSl sinee 1949 Apan ftom lbis ManiS( beliefs
had a irmng inpur mm Wescern imdleltrual cruoking and conunue ro iruoan some viewi abom wodd politics in rhe Third Wodd
Neither Marx no Mancisrs took rhe stare ro be (he curtency of iacutenteInashy(iexclonal relations Unlike (he realist viewpoints chey did fiO( coruider interactions blaquoween soveteigu ltates to be ofovettidi importance UnHke tbe funcrionalists aud other modem Westetn views rbar srress non-stare actocs Marxiexclsts in particular emphasized cbus relatlonships born wiexclrhin nates and IiCOOSS Stare boundaries Indeed ie is diffku[r ro talle only of a MaIXIacutest view of inrernatiooal re1atioll5 lec ttltme of iorernarional orgnniza~ UumlOOy as rhis separares ene particular aspecr of human behavinur tor MIlIXIsr rrearment divorcing ir from the undedying relleCS of Marxlc beliefs Man-ism provides a framcwok of undemanding by whkh ir iacutes daimed ~ociery pan lind vresen can be explaioed and che furure development of mankiexclnd determined
According ro Maf1 relariooshipamp between people and the futm~ mar insdmdooallzed rhose relatienshfpamp depended on rhe economic $truCtUR of soday fhe way rhat productlon was organized He traced the history of dvilixed maokind through five hiuorical staBes - AAjade mdenr feudal capttalin and socialin - which have ditTereru dominant methods of produc~ tioll leadiog 10 a complirared arrnngement of $OCiety ioto various ordetS 11 manifuld graduadon of sociru tank (Marx llnd Boge1s 1965 40) amph form of sorlef has coutained rhe conflictual divisiQl$ which help [Q tranuacuteorm the narun of rhat $Ocjeey coRrradicrioru in the mode ofpcoducfIacuteon placed srrain nn rhe existing social nrder sharpeniug rhe divide berween economic founshydatinn of sociery and a mpld aansIacuteonnlltion of in SOpel1Ullcture in legal polidcal and re1igious it1$tirutioos Thus by 11 confronration of da$~ Conrramiddot dkeions one historlraJ form of soc1ery wus transfocmcd into a bigher stage uf social devdopmem the history of aH hitherto existing ~ociexclety is the histoty uf dass struggles (MaDI Illld Bngets 15 39) Marx and Bnsels were parriculady conceroed wich capita1i$t sociery - ac its Oeyday during theiacuter Uves - and its tmnsrormarion iexcluto ampocis1iu sodety Wlthln rrus form of SoOCiety rOete would be no division of laboU4 and no eWses Illld no SUtes no elCpropnation of labours 5urplus vruue I1nd (bus no private property 00 exploira(ion of ene clilllS ny iexcliexcloother with 00 need fue war
For Marx and fingeJs C1ass then and noiexcl fllltions or sutea are rhe bade units in hurO) llIIIl che struggle between clAssts Jnstead oiacute infeutliltl contlict ocrupies rhe centre of acrention (Berki 1971 R1iexcl From me nlneteenth celUUf onwards rhis struggle -n in Marxisr cerros has been primarUy between [his capicalist dass ([he OOurgeoisic) aOO the bbouring dw (me proletariat) AA (he trarurormatlon fmm capltalisr SoOCIety [O ~OCialiexclMl ro comrounism rook p~e (he superstruerutt of bourgtOis SoOCilaquoy - religioo national divisiacuteon boutgmis politicnl insrirudnns rhe SOlte - woold be swept flway and in Engtls pmse rhe gOlcrotnent nf persons is replaced by [he udminlsuacion of things Fetter 19 (47) with me itEte relegated lO the mmeum iexclngemer Wlth lile spinshyning wheel Qnd [he bronze axe (Feuer 1969 433)
154 WrituacutetKiexclI mJenl4tiorJal rngmZtlJilm
Mux saw the European SUtes of his own rime as being rntans by which the ruBng dass (011amp oppress the work~ng clw by using (he agentl of tht 5tare such as the iudidary the poliee the army and rhe church he (xrerual Ilctlvities of the stare wete also determined by its Chtss namre MeanwhiJe rrmllnat]onat Rlations of a more meaningfuL kind WQuld bt creared by trade rhe movement of capital and incteaiitd romac[ and llOIacuteldarity betwten the prolerariat of vanoulS nations riacuteidefd rhe internacional nriexclaniutions of which Marx and Engels hnd dire(t experiena- wtfe the Fi~t Internatiomd and for Engels the Secund lntemarional both of which atttmpted lO orgashynJxe the represemarives of wruking people aiexclros fronden Onc~ agaJn this stteAAe$ the Marxist empbois on transnarional dass relutions rnther than on intentate relarionships
Whibt Soviet writlngs on international organizatinn1 wtte falrly desulshytory in Scalins reigu 0924-53) rhey did lmerIy hernld rbe move towams peaceful co-existerne arul roreshadowffi the lartf rnrhe[ restrktive view of Imch organi2Atinm hy Soviet commentators
In the post-Second Wodd War period and In patticular in the post-Stalin era Soviet liternmre on international organiuttions bl(lSsomed This has reflected Soviet membership oC ma1ly 1osiexcl-1945 organixations the emershygence of a socialist bloc of sta[C$ and tbe incre-ase in the mlmber of Sowcreign s[ates all flUtontilde demaruHng a more sophisricared Soviet view of lnter~llate reLadoru than che survivalism of Stalins period Uuring rhe lare 19805 i( auo ret1ected the new thinking iacutemroduced by Gorbachev
StalintI suIXessor KrU$hchev developed a revised view of internacional relaCtons which gave a positio1l ro the emerging Third Wnrhl (Tbe Third Wotld was then taken to mean rhotle IItates thar had emerged ftom colo~ nialiacutesm In effect rhe terrn later induded tbe stares of Latin America Africa - exclnding the rhen apaftbeid stnre of South Africa - the Middle Rasr Oceaniacutea and South Asia) Peace(ul co-exiuence between oda1ist and (apltaJisr states WM $til comidered nece1sary but this diacuted noc predude the ideologiacutecal stmggle between rhe two campsmiddot iexclndeed lhe Soviet inter~ national lawyer GI Ihnkiacuten wrote pearcfut cocx15tence of sutes represeonng che tWO differeor rodal sysems is a slccific form uf dass struggie beween socialism and calitllllsm (Osakwe 1972 37) The Soviet Union abo deveJoped relatlons wirh rbe newly emerging exshycoloniaJ cOllntdeJ and Soviet writiog had tu take ~ount of this developmem There wru a recognirion of a third group of stattli between rhe capitalist aud the communlsr that of poteorially friendly indtptomiddot deut $tarem io Europe and Asia such as India Egypt Indnnesia and Yugoslavia which would filrm a tone of peace Although the rebtions wiacuteth rhe capitaliacutest sures sriacuteH remaioecl embedded in pelteful coshyexluencc rhere was an emphasis by postmiddotStalinist Soviet writets on the da eJement in lile telatiomhil - that is rhe wntact with progressive elements in Weste1l sodeey smh as che Jabonr mnvement Ncither diexcld peaceful co-exiucuce rule OUt ~upport o[ middotjUSt wars of nationallibcrildon
WIacuteJIacute11gs tm iacutenUrllUtional WjatlJZtiacutelJlff 155
iexclndeed ir was seen lt a strategy fo wodd reloludon Fiacutenally (he rrlashyfIacuteonhips berween the Sovier Union and East Eumpean countries vere deerned ro be based on sociali internationalism posmlating a haemony of natinnal and commllnity interests and mndllding thar jnde~ndeuce and sovereioiexclnty of a soctalist uate means aoove aH indepltndencc from capitalism (Red Star 1 December 18)
Tunkin underljned traditional Soviet thiacutenking rllar the mngtrltllenl imrrllment of an ioretnational urganization (fne example the Chaner oiacute the UN) was all-impottant in derermining tIte enene rrun the otganizauumlon bad an international legal pcntildeonaliry rhar iexcl5 a standing in internacional 1l1w 5imilar tu titar of a sovereigo staxe Examining lhe question of the antonomOllS wiU oiacute international nrganitatioll Tunldn allowed thl1 they need not jmt act as agtnts for member stares
In imernatiunal ptacrke trellties conduded by jntcrl~ational mSaniacutezashytinns take their speciaJ piare as treacies by wbkh internationsl organimtiom aequire righu and take upon themselves cerrain obligiexcllshytioos Intctnat10nal organizatiou are created by Hares hey are broughr iexclnto being by states but the actloacuteos of imcmational organi7ashydoos are nlt)( in any way de facto or de jure ro be tqt1sred lO the actions of scates
(Osakwe J972 23)
Thi did nor mean than M internadonal organiacuteiariexclon was an entity indeshypendem of its memher us[es as any powers (har they hacl were delegated by [he members In Jine wirh che ampwiet doctrine of peareful co-exiacutesteme Tunkin placed Uress pn (he nature and rhe membership of an international organiacuteution dlOSe which drew their membersbip from commlmi1t c1Ipishytalist and TIiexclird World tares could expcct tu be genel1llly mognized as having an incernarional personaliacutery He wrote
TIte namre of tontemporary international prganiurions is lO a very great exttm derefmined by [he existerue of Haces beJonging ro differem wcio-economk systems and the ioevitable muggle between them Thar is why pcaceful crexislence is now the bl-sic condition of rh~ dfVC1iexclpshyment ufgeneral interoational ntganization
(Osltuumlltwlt 1972 289)
Mor07JN Clt1ntrlbuterl sorne extra points Fintildet be iududed JNGOs in his stndy He wrote dlQt lotetnational orgaruulions have as iI rol 8t least three member coumries TheM may be government$ offidJ orgilnlzarions or 0CInshy
guvernmental organizatiow (Morowv 1977 30) In a 11Iter seccion m NGo thcy were ldencifred as che la~ group of inrerrulttonal organiuttiolls wim two aspccn rbar concttntd socuIacuteiacuteIgtt commemarors tbe NGOriexcl auirude towards the preservarion of pealaquo wkh the Wnrld Feieradon ofTrade Unions
6 _ 0
rhe Wodd Fedemion oE Democratk Youth and otber meiexclllbtrs oiacute tbe Sovittshybacked World Peace (ounaacutel gaining special mentioo and the specialiuJ chataCrer of sorne NGOs itl(h as rhe ruerrutriunal Couocil of Scientifu Unions and che Scienrifk OJmmiuee on Antnrctk Research MOrlrLOv memioned how NGOs can belp emblish a social dimate citillg their contti shybution ro (he setdemenr of a number of internacional confHcu swh as dlilr in Vietnam He aOO dealr wirh the role of che NGOs io cbe UN aud che consuJshyrative srarus [hey llave witn lGOs saying du[ smdems of internariooal affitjoiexcl
in [he socjalisr councrics m critieal of many asplaquots of (his system fur the eoruulrarive StatuS amogemenrs stiU fall shon of wha( [he deveJopmenc of modern inretnatlonal relarions in fac[ catls fur (Morozov 1977 43) Tbe specialized namre ufNGOs Wamp1 atttibuted by M((2OV tu
tht increased Jnfiuence of the pubic at large un roreign polky [he grearer iexclmpat of public opininn in imernatiunal reladuns and [he greater importante uf me ideological fiexclUtot 10 $ucb relations Accoum should abo be raen of che proccsses of cconomic developmenr and [he coosequenc~ of [he scienrific and rechnological tevolutioo which has also led ro a greatet number of speoacutealized NGOs
(Morozov 1977 42)
Second Morozov wridog jo d~ late 197amp made moU pos-irive refershyencelgt (O [he role oiacute Trurd Wodd SUtes in imemaciooa otganimrions He noted rbar rbe emetgtoce oiacute ti large oumbe of Oung natiooal stares h8ve kd fO che emetgcnce of intetnarJonal Drganizadons among develcpi08 ecuoshytries (Mororov 1977 29) aod claimed hat partkiparion in (hese organh311oos is part uf he process uf consolidating their sovereigocy and ruuional jndependenu~ aod of wlviog cheir pressing ecoOfJmic anJ orher pmbemsmiddot (Morozov 1177 31)
Finally Momzov developed the puint made by fimkin aOOut he limited llalUre of ioternationaJ organiurjQn$ - ~econd-dllSS ffitrnbers nf the inrershynarloual sysrem as opposed tu rhe firsr-diexcllSS members SQvereJgn stateiexcl by reretcme tO theit dedsioos There bave resulted froro che inrelllctioo of politicuJ euroorces within the organil1ldons and
Thecombined will uf chcse lGOs i5 disuumlnc[ from [he wllls of theuuml indishyvidual members io in eflSenlte and ln in narure The v1ilflous wills in thb case are nor agsregued arirhmetically each one exim indepenshydendy ur oside a homogeneQu~ socio-political gOUP wirbin whose frarnework (hey can be combjlled
(Murozov 1977 34)
AfLer lhe comiog ro powet ofMikhail Gorbachev in the Soviet Union io 19Bgt a Ihaoge rook place jo $oVJIl policies rowards imeroadonal relations irutuding international organi1ations and [his has been reflecred in new
~ M-- bull 6_V_
Soviet writings un [he subJect Gorbachev inttoducetl a owjor review of [he fureign poljcy uf the Soviet Union (har marchcd rhe inremiry of his dmncslic refotmS He encouraged new rhinking- based on a revjeJ vlew of che world siruation Peaceful co-existence wirh iexclhe capiralisr tirares WlCgt no looger seeo a~ being a spetjfic fum of dass srruggle as Tunkin had written bUI 35 being in the commoo intecesu oiacute all countriCl Ir WIi$ predishycued on the neOO fin surviva of (he human nce which in ShakhfUlZOlrQvmiddot$ word$ must ofCOUIse take fim place Lighe 1988 297gt- Thjs ml$or rhar a new COIKeuropt of seGldty had ro he adopreJ hy che Soviers rhar oiacute common security which wa5 based un sume of he ideas of -che Palme Comminion (see he1ow) Greater emphasis wu given ro arms control and dlsarmament agreemenrs wirh the Wesr 11nd to co-opttation in international uffuirs whilst Soviet intervention io che Third Wodd enbed and milirary 5UppOtC 1m [he East European communisr govcfomentS WlS withdrawn
Soviet wdcings on inremurionilJ relations both offidal and academic came to mirror Gorhachevs new rhJnkiog bur eho lilete iexcl$ evety sigo chut rbese id~ were dmwu no only from rhe Wesr but alw Uacutenm Moscow mink-tanks slleh as lMEMO th~ JflSIirure of World Eronomy and Inremlfona Relacions) Liacuteght 1988 29~n Gorbschev aun his forngn minisrer FQllard Shevaronadre gave rhe academiacuten a Breen light for funher diSClViiacuteon ud debare (Shevaronadre 1990 23) As II reampul srudies examlned he role of che Uniacutered Nariacuteons as sn ugem for peoce (Kolyrev 1990 12-19 NesrerenkQ 1990 65 Petoovsky 1990 42--3) and rhe mte of inrernational or811nizadons in environmental mliLffers IiLnd disurmamenc qutsdmuuml Chodsulkwsky 1988j NikitiM 1989 123-32 Roginko 1989 133-43) and internarionallaw was teassesred (Sutier 1989~ 363-75)
Once che Sovier Union collapsed many of me wrifetS losr rhe main point of political reference A nwllber Iefi academc orhets adapted thelt ideas ro WCtem oues and a few remnioed as policy rulviseni ro che new Russian goVefrutJenL However cornmunism as M imellectually dominant organiuog rotce wlch pnliiisJ dour had djsappeared in Russia togerllef with much uf the persptr1ve ir provided - wben seen thmugh me unen distotdng leos uf tbe Sovier lfulon - oiacute inrernatiooaJ relatlons and inremariooal organhattnru
Chinese Marxisr wrirers have iexclargeIy reflected rhe views of the leadershyship in Chinll sioce [he coming ro power of rhe Commun1sr Patty in 1949 Undl (he 1970$ communist China was elduded from almon aH iotttllJishytional of811nizIiLtIOns and ie is flot surpriamping tha whae lirde writing tbete WUtl on the st1bje(r Wal fairly dismiacutesampive usuaUy consisdng uf coudemnaM tinos of (he UN fnf its action tn Korea aud rhe security allianes fot teir hegernonic narure Chjnese Marxisr rhinking hiacuteu divided (he modem wotld jnro three groups ihe Birsr World consisred of rile fWQ imperialist superpowers namely he USA ano the USSR The Second World was made up uf otbet areaa uf advamed industrilllired cnuntries primariacutely EUfape aod Japa which were opea ro donunariou by lite Sllperpowers bu( which could $tan a dialogue wirh rhe Thiacuterd World Theu (here was rhe Third
158 Writings OtJ internationdl organizatioru
Wodcl iexcltreI( coruisting of the Afro-Asiacutean-Lario Americltlu sta tes supported in their muggte aAainSt Picsr World imperialism by Chinls This viexclew of the wmId colouted tyJst Chiacutenese wridngs on iacuteoternatiollill oeganharions Tbe $uperJowers were seen as cynical lTlllnipubtors Qf inrernarionaJ jnsti~ tutions Mao Tre~tuog wOre of US poliey towards such insdfutions Ir mam use or them when it neOOS rhem and kicks them 3way when ir does flot (Society (or Anglo-Chinese Underuanding 1979 42) US-domioated pill-~ such amp$ SEATO and imperialist groupiacutengs like rhe Alliance tor PfOgre~( wttt detided Spedal viuiot was saved roc the Warsaw freaty Orgaoizatiun whieh in one aetide was described as Soviet sodal~ imperialisms mol fur aggression (Ming Sung circd Jn Chen 1979 194) fhe Soviet Union was aceuseQ of trying tu manipulate che Pan and negnshydate wlth Wesrem eouorries rhmugh the Enropean Scltwiry Conferenee tn consolidare irs begemonic status in Basrern Enrope at the same time iexcliexcll dividiog Wes(ern Europe squeezing Out the USA ro as ro muSte way (0(
iu expansion and infilrmrion into Westem Europe (Ming Sung clted in Chen 1979 197)
Chinese writecs Fegatded tbe Ntildegttood Worid espedally Western Europe as being a pen force io telmS of imperialism which Ww tdponeed to the lhird World wich diaJogu as io the Jmueacute Convention berweoen tIacute1e European Commnnitiacutees and AF~ican Carib~an and Paciuacutet srUe5
Furrhermore the defensive $spects of NATO were sttessed and with growing European cohcsion the trend iexclS IJkely to ~ towatds a fuoce in which the American elemenr is seen as 1 temporary neceuity eventual1y to be phased out (Sodety fur Anglo-Chioese Undetstanding 1979 90)
lthe countries of the Third World were setn as coostirotiog rbe mluumln force comb$dng imperiaJi~m colonialism and hegemonJsm reEerring nor only to the vestiges of Wesr Etl-OOptan foloniiexcliexclJism bOl abo to US iexclnpetlshyalism and gwwiog Soviet soci$l~imperiacutea1ism Tbe Third Wodd eQuld hdp tn exclude the gre$t powers ny baoding cogecher io such otganizatinos aiexcl tht DAU aod rhey could work ro correct unequiexcliexcl nade and eeonomk reladons with che sUpetpowers through UN iexcliexclgeucies and eonferences such as UNCTAD and UNaos Abo rtlW material ancl exporting orgllnizations liexclke OPEC rbe Incernadonal Bauxilaquo Association ancl the Onion of Banana Bxporting Counuies were proised a ehanging (he old interntlrional eumomic Ome and banerlog che biggest roarerJal plunderers in rile world rhe United Srates and (he Soviet Uoleo (Ptking Rt1Jiew 26 Septtmbtr 1975 cited in Cheo 1979 309)
111e poverty oiacute ehinne study of intetnatlenal erganhuions no dounr caused by the lack of Chinese membership of such etganizacions unril the 197amp and the turmoit ef the Cultural Revulution eiexcliexclme ro an enel by the 1980s Jnstead oere was a more reaHs( viexclew (lE rbe worlcl iexclf one S~shytimes coucbed In Manlst terms In Chlnese univenittes there was a growtb io detailed studies of iutemationalntgsnizations aod the nuropean Union
WritingI un inlmullPmnl vrgrsrtilpiill1J 159
Tbird Wwld vlewJ
Many Third Wodd Afro-Asian aoo Latin Atrusican) writers 00 jntemsw
tional organizaion have adopte a structtulIist framework and are particufarly nm(etnecl abour how insdtutions can be wcd as tools of exploitadon uf rhe nitd World aud how $ome cau be used lIS agenrs of libenuion They llave nor been induded in the ~ettiexcloo un Marxist viltws (or three feamm nOI al of them are Mandst thIJM who are Manisr place particular stresS on (he posicion oF thE l1lIacuterd World and as ThJrd Worlcl eitizens they have through theit own experience unother pe~cdve rhan [Mt of writers from industri$lized srates
Yash 18ndon (1978 377) has identjfied thNf nuacuterd World penfIXrives en inrernational Olganizatiolls Fim [here is that or the bourgeois Of perry natiunalisrs who are in power in mos[ Third World statcs and who are progressive in [errru of anti-impcrialism but are rraniollary ro the C1tccnr WC they would sooner mau thcir pcaee with imperialism rhan iluwnder power (e the masses and peasancs This group uses ineernational orgllniexclm~ tions ro pur presrure 0lI imperialisc states in order to extntCt concession5 from them and appease tbe masses in their own coontries TIley see che UN as an opportunity to parley witb their entwhiacutele impecild masters t a presumed kvd uf equa1iry (Tandoo 1978 365) Thc scltond pcrspective is rhat ofthe reaIly backward regimes of thl Thitd Wodd such un Taiwiexcliexcln and Jotdan or whnm intemarional orguniacutelattnnS are of margJna1 signifieance [)t they prefet tu dea wirh impcrialism iquestirt(tiy The rhird petSPCCrive idenrified by landOll is that uf rhe masses vi thc TIlird World for wbom toterntlunaJ orgmilAriom are petiphewl fin liS Jong as hey rontinue fO reflect the muing balanlte uf clas$ forces in hvour uf impeuacuteJism (fandon J 978 378) Sioce the ene of he 196amp rorces representing thu third group have bccome lnott prominent in world polido in che form of liberarioo groop1 lttCn as tbe PLO and whilst chese have f)tgten interested in galnin8 telaquolgnJtlon rOt rhemshyselves at the UN and the spedaliled agcodes rhey are not depeuden 00 these or8ani1Jlton~ rndecd Tandoo romioeted (hat fo che revoludonary snnggles in SOUfh~E3SC A~a and AfrJctI iOfernattonal otgilnizalJons are tOO peripheml to be of much $ignilJeaoce (Tandon )9713 377)
Tancloo providcd n inrere~tiog history of the Jevelopment uf the anrishycolonialist forees in che Third Wruld sinee 1945 bur hi~ clivi~iexcl()H iexcloro he three perspenives is roo stark leaving aside rhe leil important backWllro regimes be has basiclllly grO~lped tbe Third World leadershp joto the revoshylutionaries who have Uttle netd (or imernatiooa otgllnizatiooll and those who llave suumlpped into refOrmism and have beco duped iot() bdieving (hat they elln ehaoge chelr c1ependeoce 00 industtia1i1Cd nBfiexclmL~ lhrough intemadonal organiwtions Thjs seems to undelsrare me use or ~mh organishyzations by revolutionllry groups - especiiexcliexcllIy che PLO anel tlle SoUthem African liberadon OtgllOiexcl7arionS - whieb have made substaotial use oiacute [he UN me Arah League ano the OAU tO sustain rhe polirical aspeets of theit effOrt5 1t alS(l uverestimatcs the extent tu whieh the Third World countries
J UU wnlmgl 1111 JTiUrllamm41 ergtIttJ1I0fll
have any iUwinru about imetnariooal Qrganizarioos such a~ UNC1~D
Furchermorc the identificador of 800d revolutionaries and falten refurmislS i~ tuller impliexclstjc~ rhe maIur sponrot of the UNs New Ecooomic Order l wruch Tandon hal roudemned as rhe Old Economic Order with a diffefent rltetoric WIIS the Algetian radinu governmenr of Boumediemu rhe PLO irself ha heen dependem on a numlgttr of bnurgeWs Arab goveromenrs foc financial 00 diploJUlltic suppon and ro Tandoos duumlertion that PQr narlonallibemwn movemenn guided by a proktatlan idoology such liS rhose in Chifliexcl1 lIlud Vietnam iruemarionaJ organlwtlona WtU of no 1J5e can be- added the re5ervarion until chey carne (O power Whiht ir took some twenty years belote communist Qtill1 made use nf suth organiutions the unified communiSl Stale ol Vietnam was quick fO cake up it position in the UN ro ask [Ol aid thtough UN agencies liS well as w become ji membet of he CMEA (Comecon)
Third Wodd commemscOt1l on world politics have emphasized the nature uf rheir atea$ potirical ecoOoacutemtc Ilud culmral relatloosluumlp wilh rhe iHdllsrriexcl~ alixed Nonh TitilO is iOO$t Oflltl rypified aiexcliexcl bciug OHe of ueo-folonialism _ COntrol of che Third Wtltld by lhe Nortb by indirecl means ratlet (han by direa colonial tule and of Kf)IomIacute( dRptwJmry (o dtpmdemjiexcliexcl) lntetnationaiacute rdsdOOi bcrween sures are sublumed ro relations between claue$ world wide Ixtween on rhe one lIand the expluacuteiting impetialist capitetists in rhe northcm iru1usuialized couotries 2100 rhcir middle-ltlass collaboratotS in the 50Uthem SUtes aud on the othet band he exploiced masses rhe proleuriat ol [he $Ourhern contJnems The Lurcr gmupS have been 1I1iide ecooomkaUy dependent on [he furmer so char hey lIre in rhe wuacutetds uf the Bruiliiln T Dos SantOS in a situadon jn which the economy of a cetuin group of counshytrles is condiacutedoned by rhe develOplllent aad expansion of aoother ecouomy lO which thcit own 15 subjecred (Bodenheimer 1971 327)
The uOOerdeveloped tounrries depend uacuten [be developed ror their capital nd ercperdse they find key sectors of ehdr eroooroy conrrolled from OUtsJde rhey act as a SOUfce of raw marerials lIS ji lthetip source of labour arul as a rnarket fur mllnuf8ccurers from Euttipe ]apan and North America As thejr living standards were deterrniud by rhe vicissinWeS of the Northern~ dominated wodd marker the relationship was Otle uf unequa exchange (he [esule of which was a world experiencing woequal developmenr with a developed rieh indwtriaJiud capiralisr Notthern centre and d poor underdeveklpedgt agciculrutitlly backwarn eXFloired periphery in che 50mb The dependem 80mh has been divided berween rhe ptedominanr undemeshyveloped area~ lUld a few Cenfres of deve10prnenr wirh their ttade culrural rraffie and polidcal linL to [he deveJoped North - rhe depeOOem develop~ memo omlinea by EH Cardosa (1974) allodlt~r Bruiliall Mmir Amiu (977) rejC(ted the prosptltt of aH antonomous capitalist development in [he Third Work the oew bourgeaisJe of Lacin Ametica Africa and Asia were in allianec with capitalisrs from rhe Nnnh and rhe mato $OUrce of finance ror lmported equipmem was fmm the expon of raw materials to rhe indu~rial
5 ~ _~ smiddot_middot~~
iexclred smes Amin (1977 1-21) SllW rhe can made ror a New Imernational Ecooomic Order (NIEO) by Third World leaders at rbe UN UNCTAD aod che Vilrlous North-Sourh dialogues as an nrtempt LO iexclnerease the price of chelr ntw mattIial exporrs obraio more lmpotted technol08Y snd chus finance a new srage of develQpmenr He saw this ti placing the Thitd World more in the gttp of the neo-co1onialist sysrem and iostmd recommended 11
more self~rcuumlanr development wlrh murrud assismnce between Third World sures a reducdon in [ade wirh rhe induuialized wotld and Chlll a loos~ ening of dependenre Amin lJke TaOOon had Jittle fairh in presenc imtrnruional organizaciexclon Il tools foc fasbiooing a more independent Tbiacuten Wotd His sU88tl1cion of grearer mUtual ilSlgtistaoce between ThUd WorId uate~ implied somtthing more sophillticated than a numbtr of bilateral arrmgements As rbe present orgauizarions used fu iexclncm~Thjrd World cnshyoperation (che OAU he Atab League ASEAN) are domitllued by jusr dl()llC govetnmenrg chM accept lhe eowse coodemned by Amio _ the NIEO ami greater jmegrndon iexcluro rhe world economic sysrem ~hen Amia solutloil involves like-minded deveJoping counrries or more like1y political changes leading ro such indigenous intemuional orgilniwrions
Other Trufd Wodd wdten have plllCtXl emphasls on grearer use 01 exisring insdtutions lOO can broadJy be deKfibed lIS Wopmenraluli huI Prebisch an Argentinian econOmigf has not only studied the que5iaacuteon uf ecooomic dependency but his ideas llave been used as the baJiexclis for che wotk of cwo miexclljoc iexcliexcluemariOOiexcll1 organizadons rhe UN Enmomic Commission fa utin Ameriea (ECLA) and UNCfAD Iu his smdy of Briliacutesh-Argerl(inian trading relntioflS Prebisch bad idenrified rhe unequRl tecrns ol Hade between he favoured (ndusrrislized s(ate of tbe centre and he les privj~ leged llOIl-indumialiacutewl periphery Prebisch unlike rhe dependencia gtChool of Amiacuten Dos Sancos and Cardosa believed thu this inequaLity could be overcome by political acrinn by trade pre[ereonces fuvouring the pedphery by eoo1ruooiacutery agreemenrs by intelnatiacuteowll aid and by more foreiga imvestment in che ~riphery It was thele remedies thiexcllr Prebiacutesch eneouraged when he WiIS Executive SecrCrary of ECLA from 1955 lO 1963 aOO Secrewy-Genernl ofUNCTAD ftoro 14 ro 196tL In~d rhe amoum of aid the periphery needed in omer to overeome their Unfuvoluable rrnde balance became known io UNCTAD clrcles as [he Prebiexclsch Giexcllp
The distinguished Afiican aC1ldentie Aji Mazn1i has wricren un the plighr Qf (bar conciflfnt aod j~ role in pmem~day interruUIDllfl1 afmits He soughr ro answer rhe quesdon Now rlw Imperial Order is eoming ro an end who is going tO keep rhe peaee in Aampica and tu examine he concept of Pax AfrlclllUl the African s ambidoo ro be his OWh palaman The JXIliacutecillJS and se[f~8overnment ufAfriea depended on the nodan ofan African self which Mauui discusseJ in decaH He considered how this 1ndepen~ denre might be threarened by the politicaI and cultural fragmenMion of the contillenr Ellld eronomieally by deperulence on Europe He quoted Kwame Nkntmah finr President uf Ghaniexcll on rhe Europe-Jn ECOntunir Communiry
162 Wilihgr rm intd1JatirmallJrganizatimu
ihe ireaty of Romemarks the advent of oeoKolonitJism [n Afriacuteen snd bears unqutSrlonably the marks of Freneh neo-colonuumlllism (Murui 1967 93) He moduded from tM that Wlut AfrlOlns tbelaquofore neecletl was II
renerru authotity of cheir owa tI) ((lordilJlte fheir eltonomk and policicat deCena- sgain5t trus rnreat (Mamtiexcl 1961 93)
Given this theme it is not surprising tlwt Mazrui ser srore by rhe OAU bU[ he was realistic in bis judgement
In relatioos betwlaquon African statts lIOflesr step rowards Pu Africana was taken when rhe Organiution oiacute Aftlaquolln Uniey set up in Commissiacuteon ofMediauacuteoo Conci1illtion aud Arhitmion
Anormr OAU Commissioo of relevance fot Fax AftlOlna ls che Defence Cornmission Sor me Defeme Commlnion 1w se Car been among che lean effecdve QfPan-Aiacutericun ins(kndons Afrka mar indeed aspire to be her owu ptlliceman bur she does nO seem ready as yel to par the price iacutem it
(Mauui 19612[3)
Mazrui oudined the varicd backgrounds of [he lemen oiacute newly illdepenshydent Africa and thdr radical and revolmionary ideas and it is pethaps swprising rhat the insrirutions rhey created fur me coutinenf wete so mnservative with [he p05sible exceprion oiacute the OAUs Natiomtl Libetttion Comminee Mazrui no[ed thac Africa srill has the problem of how othet powetS respond tu its behaviour and [har forcigo iotmsilm in AJtica continued Indetd the I990s proved tO be a dC(ade of disusrer for AfrieR The debiacute burden contimlld while Ilome states collapsed lnro civil war ami others took to iutenoendoo in thejr ueighbonrs affairs Outslde interference from borh Enrope and North Amecica euodoned One of rhe fcw brlghr spots was the end of apallhcid in South Africa and the peaceful transitioo ro majoriry mJe lo al thiexcl~ tn quote Juliacuteus Nyerere rhe ampcmer pre~iexcldenl of Tan1ania The OAU exists outr ror tbe prorecdoo of (he Afrinllt Head~ oiacute State (cited io AlilgapPltl 1998 1 ) The relarive optimism of Maztui has giveu way ro Afriam writers examining sorne of me disrnrbing details of inaction by [be OAU and regtonal orgauiacutezatJuns nlCh as ECOWAS beiog used as doaks fu the machinations oE regional hegemou$ suth as Nigcria (Mibe 1m 61-9(1)
Radha Sinha$ problem--ortented undy Food iexcllfId PIWt11y (1976) has an IItgent message Sinha a former consultaot of the FAO prodnced an iofuacuterrned aUllyiexcljiexcl of the world$ food problem stress1Og in paniacutecular the maldistribution of food and other resources Noting he profO$ab of UNCTAD with heit muld-rommodJty approach and buffer nocks provjshySiOfli he commented rhe grearesr weakness oE the UNCTAD scheme js les Hkdy politlca1 unilcceptablliry ro me developed (ountdes parriculady che USA (Sinhil 1916 114) a propheey that has proved to he cortect He identitled a more aggresslve attitnde by Third World sutes e5pedally
WrilirrgJ on i1tternatiflii1l rHgarrtzatitmlt 163shy
after the uH prite cise of 197314 when the developing coonuies tried to maximize their own market powers by formin cartcls such as rhe Intematimlal BaurdtC Association the Intemuional Coundl of Copper Expotcing Countries aud the Intema[ional Tin Agrcrmenr He gave n qualified wekome ro the Lomeacute Convention betwcen the European (omrounities anJ cenain African Padfic and Caribbean Haces Writing in 1976 he commented
The receot cbange in rhe luirudes of tite tiche countries is largely due tu the incIeasing miliuncy of the Third World countries lt is almost ertalll utar the magnitude offuture cnnc~sions in me coune ofGAIT aud UNCTAD IV Ilegotiarioos wiU deperu mainly on (he continued solidariry uf the devdoping counlrtes
(Siha 1976 116)
Sinha was pardy correct as tbe solidatity cf rhe Tbird Workl states cracked se the induurialized wodd withheld funher Con(eampSJoru but ir was able tO do so because market condidons swung against che primaty producen
In his condusion Sinha called ror a IIDre1 shttting of wnrld t($nmes and power if confrontarion was ro he avoidOO He feared that the ffa of roshyoptradon berween [ieh and pool conntries hiid ((lT1e to an end and that batde lines were being drawn Instead he advOOIreltI majnr concessions from the dcher coumries on trnde lInd aid issues and a1so a ma~lt te$ltUcrnring of the incematiotlill organization~ aoo negoacutetiating ffiarhinery in order tu provide a much gtC2ter say fm me poorer countries in internatiooal tJ1lde invesrment and mooetaiexcly armngemenrs (SiMa 1976 132) GAn 1BRD aud IMF have been the presenoe of [he ri h with voting weighted m faacutevour of rhe OECD countries and Sinha re(()ffimended thlll GATr aoo UNCiAD be merged inro an Intemacional irade Organization (ITO) and che creatlon of a Third World permanent secrctariat iexclnvolved in all trade and aia negoriarioru Thoogh less radical than Amin Sinha aIso recomrnrnded gttter coshyoperation berween developing coulltries and an eoo ro their inkrtotity complex with instead a sense of m~ttnal sdiacute-e$teem and trust being devel~ oped (Sinha 1976 ch 10) Litde that h~ happened during the 19905 woo1d have encouraged Sinha The World iratle Organiaadon has emerged as the presenoe of the dlVelupeJ tares and lw brushed aside many of thc mucerns cf UNCTAD Debr ha~ edged on ro dlt wudd iexclagenda but mainly at the beheS[
of a non-governmental organization )ubiacutelec 2000 nd the promi$e~ of the main financill jnsrirutluru lO pursue dcbc-rclicf produred but a thiniexclmfl
In aH Third WQrld commenrarors have provided a vatied and lively approruh fOwards tne problems uf intetniexclational organizarions Their emphasis has niltntaHy beCl Qn tbe use of wurld lmtirutions to change the econornic condidon or the Southern cominents As this enndition is likely to worscn in the near filrtltf further more lJica conrtibutions on the rule oC
-- --- ~- __ _~- __- imernatIacuteonal orgaoilarions in Nonh-Smuh relarJons tOiexclghf be apected from rhe Third Worid A1ternaciveJy wrirers (mm rhat ares rmy jW ltIacuteespUacutet rm imergovemmemal orgaoizarions ar lealaquo Mee rhem $O Hrrle
Cfili~ald~heJ
Critica approadvs lO the nudy uf intetnadonal relations are (hose har rejee( the dominating vleW1iexcli repr=med by tbe realist and reformistS as oudined aboye In paHicular rhey reglUd realists as apologisu for the currem con6gutltion of power 10 (he wiexcldd sytem and considet [har rhe refOnntstS are elrher unable ro undersraoo he fUe llamee )( (hi sysrem oc ille UDwiUing to accepc rilar ir needs more rhan mooest refotlllS TIlOugh they may sympalhi-ze wirh rhe agenda of some Marxists aud Third World wt1cers chey do [lO( llave rhe hisrockal certaimy of the former not rarely do they have the experience and perspective of ehe larter TItey view intenUishy(jnl1ill nrganiutions wirh a jaundiced eye as these are mainly the lll$tmmenfS of rhose who dominare rhe syuem This section COlllaios an wcoum nf three approaches tmt of the critical rheorlsti- of kmintsc wrirshy[1185 ulld pose~mooernismlt
Cri(~1 herJrY The approach of critical theory 10 JnrematlonaJ o(ganizatiooll iSi determtoed by their wider world-view which in itsclf is explaiiexclwd by tbeir llame One of the leading exponents Roben Cox said [har ie is cririca1 in cne Jensc rha h srands apan 100m che prevailiog order of rhe wOlld and asks how tb$t oroer came iexcllPouc Ir does nor r-ake existing irucimtioM lIl1KI JIQwer relaclons rOl granred bu c311s them iacutemo queuion Ir 1S diexclrlaquoced ro rhe social itnd JIQiirshyical complex as a wItole rarhet (hall he stparate pirtt IUthet than subdiide and Imic an examination of a problem it looks al the wger pkturc of whkh rhe problem is jwt oue part and trio rO wJdeThwod the processeS uf change ill which botIt pans ulld whole ure involved laquo(ox 1993 277~S)
Ai a thoory cridQiIacute theory rejeen tbe daims of posicivism of an external Nulity and to be mue-free ror critkal rheorIacutests koowledge ti nor moraUy IleUc1ll1 ic is more che result of the social background of tbose Wt hold ir Given this ctitkal tbeory alJows foc a normarive choice in favoU of a social ancl iexclJlieiexcl(ld order diflerent f(cm rhe prevruHng arder bur it limiu the ruuse 01 chotce ti a1remative orders which are feasibJe mmsformations ofme cxvaing worJd h musr rejEC[ improbable alternadVe8 ju~t as ir rejecrs rhe pcrmanctlly nr lhe exiscing order (Cox 19 90)
Cridcal rheory differs lrom Marxist upproElchcs beCElUS( of iu tejection nf any daim to hold the objenive tru[h and betause or it~ avoidance of (he pmslllt ol il utopia Neverrhe1ess [heir analysis of incernarional relarln1l$ is one tbu hEls u numher of similariuumles wich the Marxisc pcrspecdve It regurds rhl tlistlng suucrures of world polirics as beiug oppressie not
- _ __ _-
lean because of rhe dominance of (he capitalism of che Unired StElte~ For many che USA is seco as a hegemonic power the prevailing urder - in re[ms rbar reReet he wrirings of the Itallan Marxisc writer Amonio Gramscl (1891-1932) Gramsd advanced the nodon of ln hisrori(middot bloc which in itself refilaquors che $Ocial reladons oE ptoducdoo The dominanr dass in a counrty - 01 indeed aoy social grouping - mlinrains cohesion and idenciry withio [he bloc [hrough the ptopagacion of a COIDmOfl culturegt A new bloc can be formelt when a subordinate dau can euablish tU hegeshymony over orher subotdioate gtOllpS (Cox 1993 56--7) The IDove rowuds hegemony comeS with the piexclt$ting fmm che spediacutek inrercsrs ofa gronp Ol
dass tO rhe building uf inrimdons aOO elaoorarion uf ideologies (Cox 1993 57-8) It Loiexcl rhat ptOCe$S thar embeds the incemu of the dominanc dan in an imttmrional form thae [w an appeal widet [ban that dan ine1f It the-refole repreSoems mote tlmn jUSt (he drunJnaoce oE one state ovec anocher bllt implies a cemufi acceptante of the tules arJd institutions purouized by [he hegemonic JIQwer Jo other woros it is all order wbicb most Olher Sta[e-~ (01 at 1enst those within reath of die hegernouy) couId find compatible- wirh their iexclmetem (Cox 1993 6t) h aJso involves noe just inttt-staee rueivirle5 bur rhose oiacute tlvilliOCiety (oon-Stllte socieM instishycudons) ebereby encoumging Hnks between social dus$ts iexcln the connules covered by ebe hegemony
What does Cox llave to uy about ioccmational Otgsniuciexclons 1bey Ilre scen in he oontext ofme wiacuteoo unaemanduuml18 of itnernational reUacuteltions mentloned iexcliexclhove He is direcr 000t mem Ooc mechanisru chrough wruch the universal norms of a wodd hegemony are expttssed js the interoatiooal organisation (Cox 1993 62) Why is chis so Cox U993 62) gives five teIlSons
bull They e-mbody rules cOae help (be- apwlSion of a hegemonic wodd iexclrder These insdwrians reflcct the intererts ()( the dominam social anil economic force- buc a1low a cettain amOunt oC adjusrment ro accommodare other subordinared interests TIms the USA WllS preplltoo ro mm conccssions to
bciI18 in Lhe EU srares and Japan ro rhe Wotld Trade Otganizatimt They a[e prooucrs of that order Though [he insrimrions and rules Ilce
nurITlllUy initiared by the hegemook power ir takes cate ro involve aOO comule a numbe-r of second-ronk stares and gaio theit supporc he Wotld Bank and Inte[nacional Mooetaty Fund were very much pan of [he world order thar emerged afrer [he Second World Wat and which was dominared by rhe Uoiced Stlres
They ltgidmi7e i[s nOlms by providing guidance for SllIteS and by legitshyimiuacuteulS cerraIacuten IlCdviries Ilr me narional leveL he OBCD afie rhe inrerruuiooal financia) irntuumluriom lave spread an acceptante of mllrket coodirions and sHict mOllerary iexclJlides
They co-opr elites from pelipheral counrrie Ihlented sraH commg 110m the Thiacuterd Wocld are expected tO dCCept he scriexclpt wcittttt by the domishynam power Bouuos Bourros-Ghati as Secteury General uf the Unired
166 Jiexclljiexclr1giexcl Qr1 ifJfCflrttuacutemal IWgaizati(ifJJ
Nadons stroyed too amp~r ftOm the gtip of Washinston and his second term was VCtoM by rhe USA His sucecssor Kofi Annan will no doubt undentand what 1$ n-quired of him He brings the mncerns of orhe states ro che UN bUf nor in a way thu threatt1l$ the USA
bull They absorb counter-hegemonic ideas Ideaiexcl $uch as 1iustainable dlYClop_ ment tukl even debr foTgiwness are taken 00 board by the intetnatwnal finarnial institlltion$ blu are trandirmel into pulido rhat swt them
Wh~t is ro be done Cox thinks thar the pfQblem of changiog dw world orUer 1iMuld be shlfred back from intern~tional insritutions tO niexcllriacuteooal $OIacuteishyeties where the sodo-political b~se for a new historie bloc mighr be ereated (Cox 1993 64) FaiJing the creadon of a new historie bloc of the new working cla$s and rural and urb~o marginal groups there might be tnmdorshymadon oC the curtent monopoly-libcral hegemony by adjusting to rhe demanJs oiacute local ello$ for polides 5uch as natlonaHution Cox 199~ 65) He aw advocates te-regulation of erooomies and a re-wmpositjon of civil sodery Internatiotla lnstlcutions induding organiutions can berome eontact puint1i fOr new $OCia[ furtt (Cox 1994 (11)
Critica throrJm $uch as Cox oifee a refreshing exposidon oiacute che posidofl oC imernatiooal ofganizatioos in a wocld where the main revolutionary powe~ have either collapsed (rhe Soviet Union) or se(tled into a cautious ronservatirun (China) Ir provlde~ a sceptical arf realisric world~view without acreptins tbe inevuumlahility ni a illture domlnared by mooopoly eapi~ ujsm sud the Utlired States J-Iowevtr its appllcariexclon to intemationa1 organhatJons 11 StImewha( timited tQ the maln global jnsdm(jons and th financial and economlc orgmiutions Ir has 1m (O say aboue regional nrgashynjudon Uf abour N(JUacutes Furthermore iu alternarive fu(ure testS on ourcoroes thu are far froro certain RevnJutlons in the Thied World are roore likely to be- irupired by nadondi$m oc by IsJaroic fllndamentaHfl OCalaquoely [he solid ooses for new historie blocs
Fwinuumll aNml4cbts
Feminist perspcctives 0f1 inttmatlonal rtlatioos llave in common wirh the erit~ ical rheocillu a rejclaquoion of (he dominance in rhe $Ilbjecr of the rcnHst and rdOrmisrs Although fuminist writen cover a wide 5laquolpe the gencral basis oiacute their aqurnent 1S har in interwnional relatioM ru in most politkal aud tcooomk acdvity women are diexclSJtdvantagt~l Alchoogh they own ahour 1 pet tCfH oC the worlJs lfOpeny and tiexcliexclxe heme 10 peiacute ceoc ofincome they perfurm 60 per eenr of working houn and provide 80 per eent of nfusets (petetsen and Runyan 1993 6) This is a derDOnstrndon of gender inequalitie~ the sodalJy learned behavior and expecratioos thar distioguish berween maKuliniry and femininity (Petetsen and Runpn 1993 5) Feminist aprroaches ofren So bejond the $tati~tks and examine (he mind~se[ of those engaged in the pmctice of intemadonal rdations whiexclch (bey ampee as geodered In other woros che world
Writingc Off inlmhJliofMl vrgntiZdlMm 167
illeen in a mlLlndine way thar kvrntB (he posjtiOll o( mnles in rhe hitgtranhy and devlllues the c041trihution of WQmeO (Sylvestet 1994) War in pattKular is gendered in a way chat keeps wornen and metl from qUtstioniog the essentiat pmpose and he neglltive effects of war militarization ~nd viQleme on their awn and orhers livts (Petetsen and Ruoyan J993 9 t)
What of wminist view$ uf imernationaJ organizationsr Ir IS not possible ro presem a rollf(tive vjew that eneomp3$~e~ rhe works of radicaJ femjnisu and ny iexclihetal teminists (rutead the work of one author Sandra Whitworth (1997) will be used as me pily$ rornt attrntion ro inrernarlonal organizations Aamper inrroductions ro feminilfr theory and internacional frIamiddot tiom and gendet and internacional relatlons Whirworrh examines geodet and imernational organilions She screpts Coxs vjew oiacute inrernational orgashynjzarions [har they retleltr (he dominant powet relations in che intetnational system and rhae internaliomd otgaoiution h che procelt of imcitntionaJshyiling and regulating conOice - eicher rhat which may IIrise among siexclates o( char which has iu (onU io transnationaI society (Cox 1980 375) TIte way duu pcople orgaoire themelve$ wirhin international iostirurjons reflects a variety of power relations ineludi~ of rollJSe gendec relatiull3 (Whitworth 1997 74) lbe triad of jnstirutions ideas and material rQudi~ tioru help ro hxare uSllmptiolls aboue geoocr withiu jntetmltional rewtioos Whitworth uses thesr tn examine lhe uooerstandillg oiacuteScndec io an INGO the Internadonal PlarUled ParenthooJ Federatlou (JPPF) and an intergnvemmental organilJ1rion (albcir one wlrh some oOl1-governmentJ)J represemation) the InrernatlonaL lab01lrOtganiution (no)
Whirworths studies show rhar thr IPPF tended ro accept the deshyemphasizlng oi the gendered oamfr of reproducdoo and (f) ignore rhe imponaoce ofbirth comcol foc womens reproductive freroom Instead in an effort tu popularize birth rontrol srrel~ WWl placoo on paremhooJ rather than iexclust the womans choice However IPPF poUcy beeiexcllme more radirnl in (he 19905- with Hnks beirtg made berween II1M control alld womeos ~)tu~ ality (WbJtworth 1997 ch 4 pmim)
The RO eoucerned itself with WQmen as workern It cnnsidercd that tbey oeeded spec-ial atrention and promoted ptoteCtlvt legiexcl~lacion This reiexcln~ forced me view (har [he male worxer Wall the norm with women workers nor deserving the same rights remunfration lOO mndirions Latterly however the JLO ha~ reflectoo views rhat prodaim wornens elt)ualily in rhe workforce and has sunoo tuacute assess the importanee of policies on womens role in rhe workplace as weU as in sodery more wjdely (Whlrwnrth J997 ch 5 panm) Whitworth comes [O the eondusion rhu iexclln iexcllnaLyiexcli~ of gernler in rbe IPPF and no shows how tbese rdiexcliexcldonsbips llnd definirions ni what it is to be a womltn oc man are structuted relationsrups3nd hlsrQciudly hve been scrurtured tu disadvantage women (ibid 15n
lo eommon with the critkal meorists Whitworth has useQ au examinamiddot doo of two intetnational organixations (O deroonstrate a puinr about imerflational relatiexclon~ indeed sodal rctatrol1s mOte widely The poinr is
I1
I
middot - ~-_ --___ aOOuc powec and iu use not (O balance oue SCdre ligaiOSf anorher but fm une gooup ro domiaare morher Jn chis case it 1$ ma the dominution of one dass me m culcnre over $ofU)(her (though Whirworrh recognizes those reLationshyships ti wcll) but of roen over women The crititUl uudy oiacute (wo jnceraational mganirations dealing with iSSlle5 recoSniud ti beiiexclg oiacute impocshycanee or WOfficn suggesu rha( tltOO simihu research on orher internacional organizadons could proJuce interening aOO uwfuiexcl resulrs
Pllit~ism
Thc posc-moderruacutesr $opprooch lO intetaarional rcllldon is one tlur bas (ome ro che fote Jn che perlod sinee lite end of rhe Cold War Jr is based on $o widcr imellectual viewpoim insrigated by l1rench iorcUtcruals of the 196()s gener~ ation _ Bllrrhes Derrida FouclIul and Lyorard - and whkh suggested rhat the modero era liad becn overome 11 fejeas mera-nattatives gnlud accounv- of hi5tory aoa iacuteNIacuteler subjecu as having no independem rubstance Scientifk btliefs induding [hose oiacute rhe $)(ial scJcllces are rooted in (lllxure polill(os arul mores oJ a wciery and are lherekJre subjective As rhere is 00
oblcctive reality cmpirical daims bave fl() spccial sunding in rhe rralms of koowledge IndeeJ ir i$ power aod knowledge are intimatel) incerwirud Posr-moJernism Hllnds against rhe belief of rbe modero pcfiod which LI seco as beginning wiacuterh rhe enlightenmcm of mid-eightcenth cenrufy Europe and AmeriCll Ir rheldore rejcn~ rhe COMCpr$ oC rationalirl and progrcss aSSuacutedared wi(h [he enlighrenment and [he moocrn age Thc uniry of IOOnkind iexclirW iexcldells such liS rhe untveIsWiI) of human aacuteghrs are rejcuoo lnsceadlocal aetion in smallgroups 15 advuacuteClmd
Post-modetnist ideas have affected tite srOOy of inremruionaJ rdarions as (bey have ocher social scienccs Posr-modern imeraarional relariops theoriscs havc ustd heir view$ 00 objecuumlviry (o exiexcltmine che rrmhs of international relatiom en see how rhe concepts iexclind knowledge-dairm (bar dominare the Jisdpline in faer are highiy conringenr on spccific power relatiom (Smith 1997 181) Post-modemisrs bave lltfa(red me mcta-narratives of the reelshy1m and reformlsu aHke The objectiacutevemiddot aaallses of the realim Ilnd neo-realisu are setn as being deJl(nclent on the subjective standpojnts of cheif mainly Amen(an and Europeau authors Ijcharcl amphiel (1986 258) daimed he works o[ Kenneth Waler men the leading neo-realillt trrat the glven ordcr a rhe natural nrder Jjmirs rarheE (lian 1XpawU political discllUtse negales oc rriviuliliS the signifinnce uf variely urOiS time and plue Whar emerges ii an ideology tllar anridpatcs iegirimires ancl onents a totalitarian projen 01 global ptoponioo~ che rattoualiaciuacuten of global poHcics iexclbe reformius are likcwise tainted Md have Ji mhr$lren belief in pmgress The posc-modernl$rs poinr m rh Helocausr as rhe heighr oiacute mooemism a rombimiddot Halioe of science dnd polidcal otganizillnon Il was SCruTely progreso
Given an antifllthy mwards rhe MlVe[iacute~ign srae borh as a centre of powet ll1ld as a crearioll Jiten imbutol wlth a wncepltliexcl uf progress pest~miexclJdetniexclsls
wHungJ mi Im~iexcliexclrun wgltiIRrzuJlU7iJ 1J7
can lOUcdy be expcctcd to vIacuteew intergovernmencal organiUlrions wirh sympilthy Tbe prefetted iacuteonu of internacional organizations when mentioned are those thiexcltt ltlj~plal differemes snd dlvenity in global pelitlcil duu are reginnaUy based or rhar reflec irKlividual actlOn Tndecd ir SeeIJS
rbat Michel Fomawt was involved with an alliance oiacute twO INGOs (Miquestdecin du Monde and Tertl-s do Hommes) in proresting agaiust internadonal iH~shydon over rhe boat people who flcd Vietnam in tite lare 1970s and ear1y 19S(k He is gU()[ed 11$ sayillg tbar Amnelltl Internnrlonal Teueiexcl dts Hommes Mfiiecin du Monde lHt inirilltives whiacutech have created a nrw righr rile dAht of privare individuss ro iexclntervene in [he otder of polino and internatioont snateg(eiexcl (dred in CampheH 1998 516)
Aootber researcher has exnmined ~he Europcan Communities Ilr che point wben Jr was mnslorming intO me European Unioo and askOO whether ir was a pootmodew ConJigUflHton (Nstrgaard 1994) Hi condusions wcre mar ir was gualiwiveJy a new organizarion oC human calJecrlvJties which mighr U$hec the coming of post-moderniry (Ntgttgnatd 1994 27j) The basis fO[ [bis judgemem was rhat me Ee did nO approximate anl modero form of piexcliexcl1idUll Ofpnizarion it did OOt commatld che means oiacute violence its au[hotity derives noc from die people and ir appeared to be a fCgJoo trying ro pOrecr itiexcliexclelf againsr globaliacutezadun iacuteN0rgaaro 1994 274--5) Ir remllins ro be sren whether [he BU tJf [he twenry-first cenrury wHl fu1fi1 rhtgtse hopes Ot wiU stllrr ro teVen
to a more scate-like being Generall) dIe cririolapproaches ro interruHiorud relarious hiexclJve provided
1lOOIe innovatIacuteve insigllls iexclnro rhe study uf imemarional orgsnizations The crtrical theorists llave becn sh3rpest in rheir unde[$(iexcltnding nf internarional ofgiexclt1lizacious as servsnrs of a dominiexcliexclIf power configuracion thoogh the) lave pemaps Umieed cbelr scope wllen viewing internacional organizadons Feminis[ wJiters ruave given Vltike to whac i5 after aH tbe scmi-sileut majoric) in rhe world and Ilre ouly srarting in qnest10niug the male dOmimiddot nance nuacutet iexclusr of the nmning of IGOs huc aloo of theic agenda Tite post-modemisrs are iMlSr concerned oiacute he (bree 8rOUp5 with inretnationlll organiucioru as such bllr rIacuteleic intellecrual approach is the ffiOSt tadkal aud can lelld tuuml a fnon of nihilism
GltJbaliacutesf lIiu
A gIobalisr perspective does oor viacuteew world poliacutetica as being predomishynandl arout iotergovernmemal relatlnn~ Ili would realisu or illbour inrentare aruI imersocietal rdations as a number uf reformisu llliexclll consider lnsteaacuted it cakes a more holisdc view Problems are (cmfronred ac Ji global level wlurions have tO be sou8ht here as weil This iexcls not ro neglcct (he 10tal Ol rhe ~tlte level ir is more J recognilion of the limiutshydoos of acdviuumles rhere The world-vicw like rhe reformists places empllasu on whal unIacutetes people Ilnd has lirde time for lhe demaoos of power pouumlics aad stare-cemrir orglLuiwrjollS Ir goe~ fllrther by nor
1 V WNimgJ lJ7f tIfernattmiexcliexclJ 11fK4111141tOnJ
liminog in view eirhec ro pans of che world or ro rellltions berweeo particuJar poliric~ lr ioded jlLSr m the economic social and poJitical demaods of mankind Paradoxically ir can be seen as IIn approach rhe very OppoSllC of the fimctionalist wirb whom tbere 5 much io common In nmtrast lO rhe fnnctionaHst (or neo-fllnctiooalisr or intetclependeuce srhuul) and ccrrainly in contrast ro rhe powet politks aOO MaOIacuteIt writers (be whole world approach places emphasis not 00 the discrere r~uiexclreshymems of groups SClteiexcl or individulI1s bm 00 tbe wel1-bciog of the tCOsystem in which rhf5f funnioll cbe planet Eanh The conccen of chis apptoach which is rcflccted il] in ttcumeUr of illternational urganizatiom is for the survival of lhe plunet for its effident funccioning in its widest SeILie aud fot che survival oiacute rhe myriad oiacute speoacutees - ollly one of which is homo sapiens - tbat inhabh me globe
Sinle tbe 196Os a number of wtiters on imernational affairs have expounded 00 tbis view and llave cOl1l~uendy ronsideted the implicadons for intemational organizacions Jobfl Button in bis World Society ronsldeted iflmstatt relations to be onIy a pan of wodd poli[iacutea and wrore
lf we employ rhe term world rociety imiexclreui of internanofla relarions iIacute we apptoo(h OUt study in this global way insread of the more tradi~ lonal nattonal way we will end to have a wider focos ro ask quesrions rhat are moee fundlmenral aOO imponant lO civilization and be ahle ro assess bettet me relevance of om own national bduviour ro be wider worW envifonment
(Button 1972 21)
Rkhacd Stetling posed the problem more spedfically
Nuclear esCllatiofl the popullltion explosion the pollmiofl of tbe envishyronmcnt the communkations rtvolurion rbe world~wide concentNdon of wC1llch and world~wide expansiofl of pltlvcrty are iexcliexcl11 essemially global and not 1laquo al pbellomena They have given rise jn tutn ro eartbshyspamuacutellg and revolutionary demands ror mass education rnass hesltb malts welfure and maltgts participation in che dccisions affecting roans fare
(Srerling 1974 322)
This wodd-view of rhe problems of the s)Jaceamphip EQlth begged fur global oolutlofl$ It suggcsred iexclhu not onIy iJ the system of sovereign stares as yer unable oc unwiHing to COme to grips with the above-menuontd prohlelUS but that a network of llllergoVCtn1lental organiutlom bGsed 00 me rights of statc wVfretgnt will ~lso be hammllng Globtl problems needed global solutlons based on institutinos rhat can (ake a global petsplaquoshytive Thus Sterling considetecl thllt it ~ tlOt unreasooable (O amidpate tme tbe member stares will be moved ro considft equippifllil the Unitw Nttous witb mote crunprebensive powen 1lt global pressUfes build 0974 323)
~h~ laquoo ~gt~ _- -gt bullbull (_bullbullbull __ - bullbull
A more compeluumlng cdH wus lAltiexclued by Barban Ward and Rene Dubas in their book prepared for [he UN Gmference of ehe Humafl EnVJroJlmenl 01lly UIIt EaFlh The c~ altJ Mdilllt1JatfCe (JI d Sflall Pta~t (972) 111ey stremsed the ufliry of tbe Eanh Jnd in eovironment and the )Jroblems in(ed by Jts iohabitants emntially thost oudined by SterJiog The ~uthoflgt poillted OUt rhat rhF envitonmenral qmosrion had by 1972 already had 50me impaltl on guvernments and im(rnarional organl1Jtion but the effior was somewhat ltInJOrdinated and unfocuseL In (hree particular aren - tbe global atmosphere rhe oceaml the worlds weather sysrellU - tbt-y saw [bl jmmediate neOO for (OmInOn poliey und co-ocdinared actiollS where vcerenshysions to national sovercigmy have no relevance ro ptrreived problems Bu rbefe was a need to go furrher and denl wirh other global problems di5Case srarvation iHitmcy unemployrnem ovcfllwding rntetnational poliCJcs wece at the 5tage reachOO wlrhin rhe devdoping s[ate~ of the ninettTtb (entury Elche they wiU move O to a wmmIlJlity bL~ro UiexclXIIl a more systematic sharin8 of weaJtb Ot tbey wiH break down in revoh and anareby (Wacd and Dubos 1972 295- -6) They Looked forward ro a sense of gLobal rommuniry 00seJ on he bope vf Irotecdon (from war aOO disaster) and the hope of enhancemenr (ecologic$1 as well as economid The ptlKtic~ and insrirutlofiS with whkh we are familiar inide our domestk sociecies would become suitably modlfied che basis of planetary oroer (Ward aOO Dubos 1972 297-8) This woold indude non~violent settlement of disputes witb legal arbirration ~nd polioacuteng ptocedures on an international basis jr would mea the Hansfer uf resoucces from rkh ro peor Ilnd inerCllSlaquo co-operaeion in arealt 5uch as health and edUcatIO farming uroon planning aud )JOlJution control As [befe halt been a shift of loyalty rom taroliy to dan from dan to tlation and from nation to fedctation there Wampll
hope clajmoo Wl1fd and Dubo$ for an ultimare lnyalty tuacute OUt single beau~ tifulllud vulnerable Planet Eanh (Ward and Dubas 1972 298)
Whilst the institutiona fmmework and organizational stfllCtuteS remain of necenity -ague in Oltl OM EaFtA iacutet is del( rhat the authors Wfre atming 11( a tlttwork oiacute world-wide fflnctionaUy hased organlzatiofll (both lOOs and JNGOs) char couId take on much of the work )JfCsendy done by governshymems o( rather whkh ougbt [O be dont by governmems UacuteJter writing-s have attempted (O deal wjth thc policy impliration$ of delllJng with )JrobshyJems globdly sroos (986) has poiacutenred en what 1w already been achieved in gtobal problem solving l1nd ha~ soughr ro buHd on rhis His critio have prunted out tha( what has already becn undertiacutelken has bren done more along rradicional Jntergovernmentallines (Donnelly 1990 121-30) Orbe writen have tied rubievemen[ in addressiacuteng [he global agenda more to renewed rutiviry in the UN (Rochester 1990 141-54) or to greater grass~ roots aud INOO acriviSffi Wget 1990 155-~8) Either way globaJj~m offeacuters a distinct W1ly of rackling the worlds ptublem~ It 1$ u ViIOIl thar sttesiexcles uniey and common (am( ntthet than disasreemem and roofrontashytion ir (ould thereIacuteore (oresce disputes being sruved inlernationally vety
much in (he way tbar chey are pre~ndy solvcd within tunny MtiOO iexclrares by more ro arbitratwn and Jaw and by entorcemenf ir neteS$il1) In this rhey have muh in COIDfllOfi wirh tire imerrnuiona lawyers iacuteUld idenlist writer of me eady (wenuacuteeh eemury mentioned at the beginning of tbu chaptet The globalisn are inspirecl jn rheir thinking more by ten Ot lt nudeal holocatlsr and by environmenml breakdown tnan by rhe duumleet elrpeshytieme uf wa dlllf aiacutefected rhe wricings of Woolf ol Ikierly
TIacutete globalisl appro~(h is opert ro the criticism of bcing roo idealistk jn a cynical world and lOO iIDpracrical in in uacutelstitutional sU8scsrioll5 Bur the di$mi$Slil oC rh~ words as globaloney cKleS HOt lid lite wctld oC che probw lems which hey have 50 effectively publiacutedzed They lutve uied to add anorIte dimensioacuten ro whar is possibte by showlng thar ie is nOCeSSiexcllty fOl rhe iexclurviwl of che planee
Tlle radical approach to the smdy oC iOternational orgllnizarions reflocu worIdmiddotvitws that normaUy lO beyond -dmse Jominated by rhe ltctivities of iexcltatcs or of LIte organizltuumlnns chemselves There is a sceprical view of whut is happeoing al soy one uacuteme in imernarional celarions and of he abilicy of mOfe cradicional wcifecs on imernafional cdarions ro explain let aJone llOderstand what is happeoing Ir is the feeling rhar approaches such ll1 (he MaNisr tlwt of rhe ideal theorisrs and some of rhe globuli~rs ur~ coming cber (O uodemaoding humanicys wider dilemmas rhar makes rhero so amactive They ar~ less Iikdy co apply rhemselves to rhe defais rutd wnrk~ ings oiacute p$cdcular imernatinnaJ organizations but neverrheless providt iotriguiog insighrs 00 [his phenomenoo by seeing rhem rhrollgh mol panoprk phHosophical lenses
SUMMARY
The rhree flIajor $chuols dealr wich io chis chaprer - the tcatiacuten the reformisrs iacutei1d che radical$ and rhe variarions (bey contain did not and do tlOf exJn iexcln a hiSforlcaj vacnum lde-as Wele foffilulared wirhio lhe COnten oiacute panicular sodedcs uoo in response ltO pUticular problems rbe communl (adom reYoludon of fhe nineteemb century the Finr World Wlli rhe rise of Nui Germany the spreading of nudeu weapons the deve1opmeof of plthitshy
$econd Workl War Europe fbe pnxeues of decoloniwion and deacuteteme rhe end oiacute the Cold War and rhe advaoce oiacute che inCormatton revolution In sorne CilSC$ the views oiacute rhose wdtings on inttmiddotrnational ocganUatlOHS have liad un efiecr on evenrs rhemelves pirlKulatly 00 rbe actitudes oC govetnrnents mwards tnternatiorW orgdflixauons AIl tXample is the work oC LecnarJ Woolf woose suggesnons Ctmceming a world organizatloo conttibuted lO fhe detailed preparnion oC the Lague oC Nations by me British goveltr mene Likewise Hans Morgeruhau and EK Can provided seimuli fot infiiexclrmoo US and Btirish governmcllul rhinking abom inrerruuional rela~ tiom iexclrom the 194Ck onwards In mher cases rhe general writings cJ persons lgtuch as Marx Leoin Mao Tse-tung and che dependencia school have affecred
rhe poJirk1ll dimare wirhin which govemmcncs conduce rheJe poUcy iucluding thar wwards jnternaclorull otgauj~atjon$
Orber ruCfOf$ aplft froro their historial cuntexc Iuve affencd the views of rhe schunl$ rncntioned They have differint backgtounJs io cheit ideruogy (Wesrero commllniSf Third World radical environmenralisr) and in theit level of $nalysis of inrernarional rebtions (stare Centuacutec inretesr aoo rramna~ dona groups cLitraquo dominanr global) This a(icca the typC oC inrernatiacuteonal organizariacuteon dominam io their studies (IGOs INCo) auJ thcic 8eograph~ kai $rea of interest (the Nonh Adandc Europe ThinJ WodJ Ot global)
TIte range of wcitings about intetnational organizarions has ull dte whole teflecfeJ wiJec llooersundings of imetoational ceJarions and wuumltld polidcs These io rhernselves have fed 00 tbe gtVidc iacutellccUecmal fcnnent and on developrnenrs in world affiuacuters Viewl about iacutellteftlational ocgsnizatJoos wiU continue ro take accOlnt of the ince1leeruaJ debate ill the studjes oiacute polishydes internacional re1atioO$ philosophy ecooomics imematluacutellal uw sociology histoty and geogrilphy They will also reflecto among other ampcton che stntcegk balance in tbe world [he relafIacuteve power of tiJe United Stares aod oroer nares me scate of wotld markers [be pto-ess uf Euwpeiexcliexcln tlllegrashytion che relacive positloo of the developing warIdgt iexclbe levd of cootlicc througbolc the world fhe -ratC of dte environfneot and the ahility oiacute huge StatCS to wiacutethswnd cenrrifttgal force Tbe way tIacuteult imematiornal organiuiexclshydons ret1ect tbese developrnents and tIacuteleir t1Ipability lO deal wich some of them will provide (he tllW fiWifcrial foc funue smdies
j 01 Wnlmg 1m l1f1eOkllttmal urgJmuJugtnJ
me esdier writifl8~ of Grmiw Ladre Hentbam 3nd l(uiexclc (Jwkson aoo amprensen 1999 108-11 VlOtrl and Kaupi 199t) 200-4) Ao undet1randing of che curren refutmtst appruache1 ro inttmational otganiUitioos um be helped by reiacuteerente ro SOUlt of the WI1tets on internacional law wnich wiIJ mrm one section beLow
lnlernatIacutetmall8wyers
Mueh of rhe lirerarure abour mrernatioual organwoou$ 1$ descriptivc ltiren detiing with several organizacions aM giving purricuw eutpha$is te tite League ofNarioas and UN sometimes dealing with one organiacutezadoo swn lIS NATO me OAU Of rhe EU Leading woru in trus area 1m those of the intetshynariooal lawyers who give particular ronsidemcion ro rhe cowlimtiacuteoru of international organizaoons thei legal penonaliries aoo institucional probshykm Indecd ic was pmbably lhe P~ ltgtfuw ar amplinburgh Universiry J lorimer who fin coined the e~ionmiddotiexclnrernatiooal organization in 1B67
Contributions (Q cbe study of internarionai organizacions llave been made by Britisb legal exptm and bisfOrians 50ch as Zirnmern in his iexclrudy The Uacute4g~ JI NaJimn an4 the RMk of LnJiexcl (ZJmmem 19gt9) and J1 Buacuteerlys comparison of rhe newly emerged Unuumled Narions wirh rhe suurwre aod aims of lbe then dying Ieague Brierly demonnrated a strong preferenn~ for fbe inrrusioo of international law iOfO etonomk ilnd sndal affpjn gttl dat rbe generic grievances of sures ma) be removed (Btier1y t946 9n Hersrh laurerpliCht published Tbt Dwefpment ()f lntmwlftmal lJw by rhe Permanml CfJkrl el l1iImJ4lifJNiexcl-1 jllJtia in 1934 and [his was later marched in [he Ullired States by Judge Manle) O Hudseos Intmwt]iexclmal TribltllfJuacute PaJI
qniexclJ Plfum (944) WilfrEd ]ellki [be ugai Advlscr to che lLO CUIIribured noe jU$ 00 chilE organizarIacuteon (Jenks 1962a) but abo mote genernl wodcs 00 iarematiol181 orgaruzarions (leaks 1945a 1945tl 1962tl) 1 le stressed (he need [O IDaH) [he craf[ of tbe imernational lawyer wuumlh rhe Pludence uf che polirician tO develop an effective s)stem of incernadonaJ orgafiUBtion
Institutional developmeru 15 primarily cbe responsibiliry of staCesmaDshyship ir muS[ be gnided aud cootrolled b) a [fue appreciarion of political forces Tbe greaccst oflegal uadirions is still to be crearEd irs cexmre wiU be largely ltlefermined b) rhe qnaliry of [he crafesmanship which inrernatlonal lawyers place sr the disposal of sracesmen during me next geaeration
(Jenks 1945a 71-2)
laltor imernarional insrituriom cexebooks were pmvided by rwo Europcan intemalional lawyels Henry Schelmelll Professor of law at lIte Univeaiey of Amsreroam restricted himself tuacute inrernacional instuumluttonal law wbicb by roncerning irself wirh [he srrucmre and functions of inrershy
~h~ bullmiddotff~ V_middot ~f_lt~V_
fliUional organiexclttttlonstries ro explllin [he present developmem and ro promote he harmonious growth of lnafniexclldQual organization (Schermcfs 1972 2) He Jodt wim rhe partidpants in lmernadonstl orgllniexcl~lltion8 tbe general roles ror their crgaru and me activities of these Orgllus from prirruuHy a legal viewpoinr A similar approacb was adopted by rhc Bririsb iacutenternat1oniexcll1 leglll eJtpen D W Bower( whOie book Tht 14W QI lnlmwIacutePMJ lmtiJlflilJrll (970) placed grearer emphasis on pflrtkular insrishymtions - he Lcague thc UN and in spedalized ageucies che regional organizarions rile juriacutedical iacutens(iexclmdons - as weU as dealing wirh general questions such as t-he internattoual pcrsouaUt) of che organizarions and their impac( on (he doctrine of (he rovereigll equalit) of srare5 Por a blend of sociology bistoty and luretnarioOllJ lpw che work of Paul Reurer Professor uf lmernatioual Iilw pe Pileis Univcrsit) is UB$urpassed In Inml14tionaJ bmitllfiom (1958) he examined che phenomeoon ol imemashyt10nal orgaruzadon rather tban jUS( the orgilnizations and insdtutiun~ auJ thererore speut sorne time on the uature of imernariolllll ~je[) [he erigias aud foundarions of iuternational institutioll$ lS weU iexcll$ rhe posiacutediexclm of Staeeg in international society
Sorne post-Cold Wllr studies nave moved uWily from wruu tllto regllrded as csoretic descriptions of che 111w (Kn aud Djehl 1998 3) aud have insread examinEd intetnatiomJ I1lws iacuteofluence on poLirIacutelal behavior (Ku ampnd Diehl1998 3) One of rhe buses of tluch au IIpproach iN chat imtornashytionaJ organiUltions nOIl-governmenral orgllnirpriOfl$- multithltiJllUl corporations aud even privare IndividuaJiexcliexcl have come ro pliexcly Illl iexclIlcrelljiexcling role in intematioual rclations and accordingly international legal tules have evolved co engage rhese oew accors (Ku and Olebl 1998 3) Tnternarional lllv is seco both as au operatillJ system and a normative system for internariacuteona relarionll Algt the fotmet it 5eu the genernJ proshyceclures and iacutensticudons toe the conduce of incern11ltlonal relatiolls lt provides che framewotk fu estllbllshing rules lInd UOI11lS oodilles be parilmcters of interaction ancl provides (he ptocedures Ilnd furums ror re~lvlng disputes among those taking part in tnese intecllCtiacuteOO$ (Ku and Diehl 1998 6~7) As a nOttnative S)stem iuternatiouallaw giexclves rorm ro lhe aspiradOlu anu vlllues oE the partkipants of the system (Jr) is 11 proJuct oiacute the struttlltes Ind processes thar make up rbe opernting ~ystem rTt1 tllkes on a principaU) legislativc chamcret by mandating particular valueg IlnJ ditetting speciiacutek chllnges in sure bebaviQr (Ku Ilnd Diehl 1998 7) Mote tradiciunal appr03Lhel tO lnternatlonallaw rendlaquol tO de~(ribe che role 01 imelllatiuuaJ otgauJutiotu as pan of the opcradng sySLCm Legal texu pllblishcd in he laSt decade Ot so of (be rwcnrierh centUry looked lncteasingl) ae the position of inrernatlonal urganilations middotw
nor leas [hose oiacute the UN system - in a nurmanve framewnrk especiaHy in functional areas such as human righn (AJston 1995 he envilOumenr (Kin 199M) [be global commnm (Jo)ner and Manell 1998) and wOlneiexcluacute issues (Berkovith 1999 Wrighe 1993 1)~g8)
130 Writingi (f1I iexclktnati~nal I11glttftiZAtitlrlJ
Intecnationallawyers have airo given exteosive comideration ti particular instimtions The League Qf NatJons attlacted special attention as lawyen played an imporunt role jn J~ dmfting and as it had as tU aims che pmmotion of international c(K)perntion aoo the achievement of iexclnrcrna~ tionru pcace and eturity
by the ficm establishment nf the undersrnndings of imemauacuteonal law as tbe actual rule of condun among Governmenrs aOO by the maintemtnce of jnstice and a scrupulous mpect for all treaty obligations in the dcl~middot ings uforganised peoples wirh one another
(Preamble to tbe Covenant)
Furtbermoce the central pan uf che CQvenant dealing with the keeping of peace (Anide 12-16) OOopted a legalisck approoch in delining nn OCt of wu against all Ieapue membecs as being rewtt to war in disrtgaru of Anides 12 13 or 15 (Attide 16 (1raquo) In other wottb the cardina15in W$$
tbe breakiacuteng of rhe legal gretment mOOe wirh otner stares Imernational lawyeM in pIlrtkuar were ooncerned wirh how Iacutenlernarional IacuteiexcllW might be agreed judged ane enforced in lhe jnter-war perIDd lhey turned much of their atrention to the anivities oC che Permnnem Coun of Intemational Justice arul lhe league of Natlon5 Judge Hcrt(h TaureIp3cbc foc eurtlrle ronsldetetl rhat aH Jntemlltional dispures were justiciable and thus open (O
soludon by [he judicial process in internacional law He considered tbe League tu be useful 5tep in the development oE inrernational law and be sanctions 1I1lowcd Cor in Anide 16 of [he CoveOilnt as marking tbe fitn step towws he collective enEonement uf internacional law (Laurerpacht 1970 9)
The league hOO iexcles advocates among orher lega writers AlCred Zimmern wriring io 1938 set Lhe Leagues activjties and institurions against che backshydtop of the gathering 5tOrm io Europe He still found much ro ~y lor ir it had rkveloped 2ru1 expanded tbe old iquestiplomaric ystem bad enrouragro wshyoperation in many ateIlS ane $r leur represeotecl iexcllfi artempt to ellminate WIlr even duting a period of whar Zrmmern caHed cmhquukes (Limmero 1939 491-509) Lord Robert Cedl one oC the fuunders of rhe League as weU as a lawyer and Conservative poHdcim admined when wming ln 1941 rbe Cailure of the orgamzation in preventing aggressive powers Neverdreless he hoped that iexclt would be reformulaced after bosrilities with a CI)ll of confederariacutean uf European tates the cenual objecr of which should be the preservatl(m uf the European peat e Peace in cbe test oE the world would Jepeod pretty weU on tbe then jusr~eltiexclsting Covenant wirh sorne small changes Cecil did admit rhat another piece of rnachinety couid do Iittle unless [he peoples allJ govemmeots cea11y tgtlt che enforcemenr nf law ann mainrenance of pealte as me firtr and grearen nadonal Jmereus (erH 1941middot 349-51)
The hopes of (hore ho yearned fur legal soludnns tO intemartonal
WrjlingJ 1m inffll7lltJfriexclftai rltgmiwtitln-iexcl 131
dt1putes dearly dcdined a~ the UN Charter wjth iacute~ emphasis on politica1 solutions to what were palideal disputes tepiacelti tbe optimist1c legal (otmula~ uf the League Covemutt The UN Chancr was not to be without tes Internationa Jegal romrnentaluts Indeed tWO early stllndard books on rhe UN are by diJtinguished lawyers Kelsen (l950) and Goodrich ti al (969) though the hmer have admitteu that when iexclnterpreting [he ltlwrter
since rhe responsibiliry for interpretadon is VC$ted in Ofgan~ and memben alike che process is more iexcliexclkely to be politia than judishyoacutealDeciexclsiltm~ rend to renea lhe enmmon intetesu of members in achieviug cerratn results
(Goodrich If JI 1969 15)
Other legal commentators have placed emphllSis 00 [he role of jtlterna~ tional orgaoJutions in tbe development of particular aspects of innl11iexcl1tional ew ami again haltle secn tbe rleyelopment uf the rules aon notms of internashytiOfliacutell society ~ howeyer imperfeltmiddott - in tbese cases Examples are Kratochwil (1989) who who has written generally ou the 1mbject Jaebon (l997) and Thomas IInd Meyer (19J7) on the world tradins sysrern Kiss 11M Shelttm (1991) on Iacutentern8ljoual envttunmenral law aud Human Rights Watch 09921999) and Bianchi (997)on human r1ghu iSIuc
lnternaonalgotJt1tmenlfgwfINIJJlue
Anorber AmcriC3llegaI aurhority ayde Eagleton gave the Unired Nations a critJcal though romewhat undmtaning appreciarioll ~mmmiexclng np its dilemma thus Ir (he Uniled Natioru cannor do more than ir ha~ the ampult liacutees with rhe Memhccs wbo marle it and opcrllte it and who j[ SfflIW slaquon preret the tootb aOO the fang ro internationallaw and order (Eagletoo 1948 552)
Eagieron placea the record (lf che Uoited Nations in thc context of irs predecessors in the hisroey of rhe gttlwth ofinternational govemmem and of iu legal and politica background He examined pmposals to achieve the inrernational government thff the UN ailed tu rt1tCh bm condueed chet fI chaogc in he attimdes oC Stares aud their pcoples JS neerkd fipiexclt (Fagl~too 194$ 583) Eagletons wnrk uuderlioed tbe point made by Evan Ltmm in his ntemd1ifma1 A~lIaacutetJ (977) that with (he existence of the UN and its lSSfJ(lated agencies many of che wodds prohlems are Ilor wirhout jmtiexcltu~ tions exercising authority over them The powers uf (his mnge of organizadon cau bc queHioned as Ciexcl1n chejr standing in relnion tn thcir rovereign state membera bur rheir exisrence in tne ptlStmiddotwiexcliexcl[ world ~ aud tbcir grnwth (rom their niacuteneteemh-cenrury hesinnings is a reality
Thi$ inrerese in [he 8rQwth of iorernariona[ governme(l( i tleithet new nor resrricted m the legal pmCeMion Oue uf the earlier publicauumlnru on tbe subject was by the writer leonard Woolf who Walt a fOllude uf the Fahian
132 WriJil1gJ (IfI htfmtaJIacutefmal argmitAJium
Socilaquoy che reformiu discusston group witbiu rhe British Ltbout Parry Wtiting in 1916 he omllned dJe exrenr m which imerllliootlal govem~ mene had been lKcepted rhroogh diplomade garfteaacutengs rhe use of public and privQce JmefOatwllru unions and che iocrtlSe iexcln commodify ugreemellts aad he PU forward plans roe che further teguJation of JmeroadOllal OCrltty lf war is (( be prevemed he elaimed states musr submir Q mUte intetuashy[jonal conrrol alld governmenr in their poJiticnl and udrninl1litrative rdadoru (laquooolf 1916 nB) He udvanred a Fabiao Cornmirree plan for nte Stipranaciacuteonal AudlOrlty cllat wiIl Preven War eiemenrs of whih fOllnd their way into (he Lea8ue Covenane aml whieh inhJt iexcliexcllid teCtJlllmended rhe estab1ishment of an Inrernatloclal High Grua an lntemadooai Coundl of sutes represenrnrives ami JO IOtelThldonal Seltreurjlil Woolf and his Fabiao coUeagues hoped dlar wirh rhis machiuery legal justiciable disputes wouM be 5ubmined ro rhe Cona Of a similar tribunal and orher dispmes ro the Couocil foc senlemenr with che patries rn he dispute ccnsmilned from warlike actjon fue a period of a year Provision was ro be rnade fur sancrions which ali sutes shoold pm inro open1rion lind al agfCltd tO make common cause even ro he exren( oC war against any constiruent Srue which violates thi$ uacuterndamentai llgreement (laquooolf 1916 233)
Woolf mgetIacuteltr wuumlh juriiexclu iexcluch IIS Hersrb Lauterpadu and Alfred Zimmern and British poliricaJ wrIacuterers like Pbiiexclip Nod-Baker LJrd Ceei and Gilbert Murlliy represented bmh [he praccuumlal and intdlectual mpponen ni lhe League of Natiacuteom in the interwar peuacuteod wbo were ouacuteen daified as iexcldealisrs or neo~rotiam Hedley Bul 0966 ~2 5) r1esnibed the rennal Grotlan assumption (named after (he seventeenrhshycentury lesal wtiter lIugo Grotiu$) as being rhat of the solidariry OI
porential solidariry oI (he SUtes comprising imemarlonal sociery wirh respect ro che enfurcemem of [he Law and Grodws basic crjredon of juse WI bt-ing fought in order ro enforee rjghrs a fimiofl dearly edwed in tbe Pabirin Comm1rrfts The Snpmnatlonat AuthorlEY rhll will Prevenr War BuH criricized rhe way ibis group lost sighr of intemarional polirics in rhelI preoccuparion wirh 10eroational1aw international otganization and intfoiexclniexcliexclriQnlll saciery
10 deallng wirh imefIUldonal marnti~y which rhey were indined ro confn$( wirh internarional law they eon[ribu[ed only a narrow and llflcririal rlaquorimdr whkh eKalred [he jnternational inreresr over tllujoual iexcllIrert~r~ (bnt wirhorlr asking bow rhe former was ro be detershyminel) mtlltiexcltimrimwl rdorm over revolurJon as [he meaflS of ll3lliCcndinA lhe soriely of sovereiNn states (bur without considering wfteher SUtCS cOllld OCcOIlIC [he agents of rheir owo ~rincriofl) and respcu fue legaliry oler [be neoo foc chaoAe (bur wirhour fdciflg up ro r~ mer that rh~ in(~rnadooal legal sys[em as (hey construed ir could nOl aecommodate change)
(BuU 1972 36)
Wrllingr on inlmralirmal ()fganiUJliofU 133
This J5 a teUing enough asseSSffiem of che idealim views includill8 [heir writings (tri imernarional oeganiurions HOWelef [he background of [he groop $hould be remerobeted they represellteJ a genemtion devastawd by the Finl World War ud whiacutecb wa~ used ro national suciery (early twenderh-teocut adtaio) lhat had henelired through institutional chal1ge and in whiacutech the rule of law had not preduJed remrro The k-gtgue of Natioo5 che Permanenc Coun of Illternuional J1L~tjce (PCI]) and [he 110 wen for rhem part of 1 Great Expedment to we Lord Cecil~ phrale
Wrirets in the last guarter of the twentieth century picked up and develshyopoo many of he omions current in rhe aoove Jirerawre aud srr~ed how iacutenrematiunal ioceocourse had heen governoo by a body of laws nl1~ lind feguladons ano by insdturions indlldifl8 internatiotlal organizatioO$ Though they llave kcpr rhe analogy with the domescic government of cirishyzens thef have preferred rhe terro internacional governancc demoosrrating thar such a system docs nOl hnve che son of enrorcemem powers expected of naticnal govetnmencs Notions of global governarue huve becn corered above whete tefereoce has heen made tU tbe idea of an imernarional regime (Pp 108-10) Thi5 concept helped bdng internacional olgsobacions iexclmo rhe wider titerarure abom inrernadonal cooperedon 11M governance in a srate of anat(by rneaning an absence of interOlltional governmenr with signifkant er[orcemem powers
In the early and mid~1990s IiHendon was agam wrned ro che manageshymenr of che internlitional environmem in rhe wake of the UN Confetence on Environment and Development (UNCED) al Riacuteo de Janeiro BnuiL gtlhe environmem seemed ro be a classk caudidste fur global governance pardy becl1use ir was glob-al and partly because of the range of instlwdons involved in iexcltS managemem In the words of Josepb Nye etTective intet~ narional envitonmental instltudoru thu$ helped w overcome sorne Ol (he rypical narional bordenecks tbar hiacutender cootrunated meusures to revene rbe frighrening trends of global environmental degradaLion llnd improve rhe possibiluumly of susrainable develo[lmenr of OUt plaller (Nye 1995 x) The assumprion of Keohane tt al was that whlle StateS may have difnculry ad~tessiexclng jmernationaacutel erlvitorlmemaL problems coopenuion betweeo governmen[$ couid hring dividends Eff(Xtlve intetnstiooaj 111stitutions wete needed which may take rhe form of internacional orgauuations rcgimes Ol informal conventlons They were seen in che woros of Maurlce Strong (Secretary-Cener-iexcliexcl ofUNCED)Ul rhe bllsic framework for 11 world sysrem of governance whkh iexcls imItJdve to rhe effective functionmg uf our global rocieey (1990 211 l2) The aim was pragmlltlC to see whetber rhe intemational josrjmrioos coveriug the environment had made a posirive difference especially in rhe polltiad iexcleid
Case rudJes were presenred (bar exploroo the impact oiacute inrenwiotl$l insriturions witb [hree conditions essenrja lor effecuumlve acrioo on the enlirOumem high levell of gownlflmtl bullmam a hospitable 1lIiIraiexcltttal t1Iy~
rrmmml suiliexcloacuteem poIiuacuten U1d ddltiniJtY(JJM CiJpacity in national
134 Wrftln[f 111 iexclttntntiona organiufif)lfJ
governments (Keohane tt al 199 11) The case s(Jdies Weuroe seen in rerms of agendiexclt selting internacional pnliacutecies and national policy ttJpon$($ (Keohane iacutef al 1995) The three authors wtJe aware of the strong influeDce of stare powers in iexclnrernadnnal institurions and of rbeie meagre result5 in sorne areas Nevetthees~ they set down three ronditions uoder whicn inrer ootional institutions can alrer (he bchavior of state actors and in turn improye environmenral qualiry (Keobane ti a 199 19) These afe
1 gnvernmencal concern has ro be higo enough [Q pmmpt the 1lte ufscarce mources lO tllckle tht problem
2 roere haiexcl 00 be a contllcrual enviroruncfit where ~tnttS make (rediMe coounitrnttlts and make iexcllOO keep lglremerll$ rhar incorporare joiotly enacted rules withour debflitadng fuAtof ftte-riding ur cheuting by othet1l
3 states should haw the pnlitical and adminimadve capaciry to make the domestk adjusrtnents necessruy ro implemenr international norms principies and rules (Krohane et al 1995 19-20)
TOe empha~iexcls -in chis view nf glotm govemance is on rhe relncionship becween rhe internuional anQ tIte Illlt10naL
Pan oE gJobtl govemsnce - ai noted in Chapte1 3 - are lnrernntional regimt$_ Thcampe are set- of implidt o explkir principies norms rule and del ision making proctdures arounrl which actors eJCpelttadons converge in a given area of internacional relatious (Krasner 1983 2) [1tey are subSu of irttetnational sodcey and its imtitlnions Imemational reglmes which are oft~o speciacutealitecl auangemenu limicer by function oc gengraphicaJ area are amngemcnts hat BoYe1n cooperative behaviour intetnatioOldly Thee are thus mure wiJely Jrawn than internatiunal organizations The latcer accurdifl8 ro one of the most profific wrltcrs on the $ubject Oran YounS 0989 1994) can boeh stimulate the process of regime formation nnd can htlp implement thei provisiuns (Young 1994 164)
Funuitrltdlisu
An eady bff~1c with the trmJtional view of international organizations based un the state-centriacuter mudel cm be seen in Leonard Woolfs book [ttltmatiltraquoldl
Grni-17111I Alrhough srilJ primarily coruemed wich interamptate relations and the questiolll of peace and secudry a sizeable BCniacuteon o( lis wriring5 rover governlnenral tlaquohoical and economk co-operatioo and INGOs
Ve are accustnmed to regard the wodJ as neady diided iexclnto compartshymenU caUed states or nationLBut chis vjion oiacute thewodd divided into iacutesolated compllrtmenrs is nor a cme reflection of fiu 15 as they exisc in a urge pottion of the etlnh [orlay
(Wnolf 19l6 216-17)
Writtng( (111 hmmatiacute(lrul f8grllliulinnJ 13
Snch a step pladng gre-iexcllter emphasis on non-star ime~natiacuteonal rtloshytions wa~ taken furrher in duo writln8~ o( me Romanian-bom aothor David Mitrany Mitrany ideas known iexclas the functiondisr appooruh lO
internuional politics were inspired by his early Iife io dIe Ba1kans He (ouoo much imelletruaI sdmuiatinn ofter coming ro Lundon in 1912 olld working together with Lennanl Woolf among otlters in the Ieagne uf Nations Society [he labour Pattys Advisory Commiuee on [nternational Arrairs and the Fabiexclan Socieey His (WO malor eacly worlca wcrc Tin PrtlgftlJ of lt1tmutt(IIId GtM1NmAnt (first pnbl~hed in 1932 rcprinted in Mitrany ([915araquo) and A WorklNx Pem Sylttm (fiCSt published jn 1943 rcpobHshcd jn 19(6) though he abu made a 1mbstamial nmtribudon in anides unril bis dearh in 1975 Many uf his writings tQgethcr with an amobiacuteographical piecc and In inuoouctjon are guhered fogefher in Tht Funcfuumlmal TwJry of Prdilia (Mitran) 1975) In his t932 work he omHued the nlnereenrh(intury growth iacuten intertwtJonal govenmcnt ajong similar lines as Woolf
The ninereenth cenrmy prodwed that amazing growrh in che mattrial equipment of (iiiiudon whifh weldcd the wodd togaher into (me organk whoiacutee making eaclt people a partner in tire Iacuteitte uf al The outwatd CXpelsiacuteon nf that change WQ5 the ~rance nf WQrld-wide popular movements and the making nf innumerabJe privare md public imernatjonal agItemenrs
(Mitrany 1915a~ 89)
Mitrany WiacuteI$ concerned thar (he rise of the fllidon-state and the insiexcl~tence of new statcs on che doctrine uf lluvereign equality when (bey were dlldy weaker and smalJer tban the Grear Powers hindered internacional lt0shy
operation in for example the cconomic lphere HowCer he 1lW rbar the fnne ofevents wu working agaiexcln~t sta~ism
No maeter what rhe size and shape of rhe particular community lo funcrions are such thar rhey haye to be organized and the fOrres and (crors now iexcllt work no longer have llny rroe telarion tlt) rhe uld pnlitkaJ divisions wirhin or withuJ( rile state The new functiom imposed upon our puliria instiacutetutions art compelllng 11 complete recomt(Ucrion of tile technique of govemmellt on a purely practical oosis 1 teach that rondU$ion by ming at the Illltset noto what is rlte iexclden form for an imtrnadonal $odetyiexcl but mher what are 1tS C$sential ftmctions
(Mitrany 1915a 99)
He claimed hat C$$cntially the nims of intemalional governmcnt were no diffcrent from dlo~e (lf municipal gnvernmenr w aCaJt equality bcfore the iexclaw for aH rnemben of the cnrnmuni(y and ro lrumote sodal jUlltict To expen [O achieve rhe first aim in inrernatlfllltliexcl sodely whefe 5talCS wcre
l ju WrJll1Jgs en mlWnal101tJf (iexcl(gamufJf)lJJ
nei[her eqna nor unchangiug uuiu would be unreascnwtc Ir woold be far more prncriC1iL ro cmnpromise rhis aim and CSLablish a League of Nations in which Grea( pQVeri woulcl he dirlltdy representelt Secondary Jitates woulcl have group representiexcliexclrioo afld malter ~tatet w()ulcl have panel repmentatioo At the same time sfCortdary bodie$ would be ser up in varJous pam of che world 11$ orgnns (lf regionJI grouptngs of Jitares artd (hese bodies woulJ be connected with and subordInare tO the new CCOtta League organs They wouiJ aleo be iexcliexclbie ro clesl wiacuteth problems mOle teaclily especially as the unanimity of aH srares would not be needed [Ol a senlemem
These suggesdom are noe (he novel aspeltts oE Mitran)$ work They are imponam in changing (he emphasjs away from the tighu of amptate wwards rhe dude oc lit ICllSt (he actlvJries of Hates Still the conccto was wth Ilrrllnging relnrioru netween snm~s In a paper $ubmitrecl ro che 8drish foceign Office in 1941 and in hi~ study A Wking Peaa Symm (966) Mirrnny wncenrrated on how che (unctioru of gOYernment might be cnrried OUt more exptdiriously He rtcognhed chllr withio liberal 1emocrati( stare~ [he Une berween whirh futCtions are Cflrried Out by pubtic and by privare aclioll was shifriog lIod that rhi5 line unde (he prel5ure u( (rt_ih social Ileeds and demands musr be Jeft free co move with rhem A similar demamuiacuteon existed in che terrirorial spbete interlla~ dooally wme (uncdons (eJ railway systems) could best be organized cOlltinenroUy some intercontinentnll) (e8 shippillg) alld some univcnaUy (eg aviation) However there would be no need for rigid patteros exccpe perbaps io tbe exercise of negadve (unctlons -- those related ro securi[y wberc more fotmal sacle lnstltuclOns WQuld be needeJ In (he field o( positive (unctiacuteoru (dw$C tdatecl ro economic eultunl and sodal affairs) he climensions ocgans and powers of any organiorion would be deler~ miacutened by the nature oiacute the funccton and would be fairly flexible Mitrany fmfSaw tbe tStliblisbment o( functional bodies wirh auronomous ta~ks and powers which wonld do thingl joiacutently Tbis wuulcllink aucborlry tu a specific activiacutery (hUi breaking llway foom the tradicional link between authocieyand a ltIacuteeftnire ~erritory Murany 1966 125) 11iacutes move wcmlcl avoicl he sreritity uf many of rhe wartjmt suggesdons fue posr-war (ecltrn~ tions O connitudonal innovariacuteon in rhe United Nacions whlch f~eteoacute 00 he opposidon oiacute sovereign sraee reiiexcltance Mitrnny hoped rhat che number uf internarional agencies (hat had exisred before the Serend Wodd War augmenteltIacute by the A11ied board durJng rhe war lrsdf wuuld u~rve u tbe ba~lS foc (he network oiacute inremarional gOvernrnent He quoud wlrb obviow appruval the wurd$ of an Amerltlln scholar J Payson Wild Jr 00 the varlOUS warrime experiments
The Hues between domesuc anltIacute iexclnrernational actlvlty ate blurred ancl nadonal adminisuatlve agencies of the Powecs concerned Smneshytimes engnge in domestk busint-1s and at orber rimes extend theit
Wrilings Ofl hllenJdUacuteoN1J org411iatiofJJ 137
(unctioru ioro rhe uumluernarionul sphere The resuh is o conglomerashydOn o( intermnional bwrd aocl domestic staf( whose dlties Illrermiacutengle Adminisrrnr1ve offtcers o( narional lmirs deal direcdy wirh rheir opposire numbers in orher S[1l[es WirhOlU benefit o( diplo maric intermediaries and simlllmneously perEorm borh nacional and intemational tasks So fu no attempt has been made en estab1ish iexcliexcl
super~State
(Mitrany 1 6 167)
Mitranyll villion is oE a world in wruch che functiollS of ~etyday $odal 1Jfe - transport healrb care rommunicatioos agticlllture industrial developmenr sciendfic developmenr and so on - are no Jonger assidl1ou$-ly carried en witbin rhe confines oE each sovereign iexcliexcltflte but ate underuJen across fmmiers on a tegionai cominental oc univetsal bflliiiexcliexcl These acrivjw des would be overseen by international Ofganizatioru which wOIJld be more like boards oE managemenr Tbe functional agencies of rhe UN (che no WHOgt FAUacute etc) already underrake urn ro~opetative t$Sks fIli do sorne non-governmental groupings of spedalisrs (League of Red eron Sndedell World Srout Movement etc) However tbe Une berween what has been done imernationaHy aOO dome$tkally bas tuen drnwn very much ro [he beneflc oE che latter and international activitid bave tuen riddted with politicel dispureoJ rnany oE which have liule ro do wlth me good manegemem of the (unction iexclnvolved Mirranys laquoheme would fiexcludually lOwtt rhe liue ro aUow more functioos ta be Citded OUt at rhe level where they wOrk more efficieruly and woukl proide managemenr of tbere funcshytions ra[her [han poHdclI1 interference Not onty would his develQpmeof beuefit (he general social welfure of the world ir would abo hcIl (O salve rile problem o( plaCe and security The LHliputian ties o( internacional fuucrionru co-operarion would piacuteo clown me giam of conflict weakenlog [he urge ro destruction and warfare by rhe promise of consmlctJoo and cashyexistence
The (unctional approach does nor focus solely on iorergovernmenral organizacion buc aUows for a network 01 spedaliuxl agencies roany uf which could be non-governmentaL Ir difftr in emphllSi5 ftoro che mainshystream craditionalis[ wricings and Mitrany~ work praaged a move away from internare relations 10 wotld politics Whilst the functiooaJ alpoolUh does not oReod against lh sentimem 01 nationaJity )t the pride oE sovereignty (Mitrany 1965 139) lhere is no doubl chat ir is meant lO weaken the i~por(Jloce and power of the middle roan berween rile indi vidual and a world communiry che sovereign scnre The feeling o( solidarlty enrounged by functionallinks 1s nor between states but beween people or assoclatioos of individuals Each of us is ill fuer a bundle of funCflonaJ loyalties so dWt tO build a wodd communiey upoo sueh a concepdoo is merely to a(eM artd consolidare ir also betwetn societies and grollps Micrany 15 14n
138 Wriling5 fin illttrnatiQJIa1 (ffanizatio1ts
Such IIn imaginative appruach tu wodd problems aud be mundiUlc hard~ working iexclapolitical role lt implieamp fOr interuational organizadons has its fiexclruIrs To ctiexclddu Mitranys functionalism as being impronica JS IUlfalr hoth because internlltionru functiornd links hllve grown espedaUy since the S~ World Warj and blaquoarue M1tranys approach is a gradual one he did OOE expeCt ir ro be adopted overnighr Even so ir cioes have certllin 11mbiexclshyuow a~pets which shOllld be criticany eDmined
Piexclrsr de5pite rhe refere-nce to possible regional fimnionalunmgement8 Mitranys pJans ron counter ro rhe notion of aU-embraciug regional organi utJoru such as the Europcan Communities now E~n Uninn (Mitrany 1975b 53-78) Whibt these organwdons roay Hnk their iexclamhotity ro a speoacuteftc activky $ueh as the conditloO foc running (he coal iexclaud steel indusshytries nr the agriculture of the EUs member states they sta hold w the rrnditinnal1ink betw~n authodry arul a definirt territory The cooJ and sr~l polkies or tite Common Agticultural Policy uf the BU are nor extended to tbe industries and fumen of other non-member countries who mar wish lO participate in theit ochemes Vet il can be argued toar ir is prccisdy in these iexclirnited geographicill blocs that flIlCtiOruJ arrnnscments are besr executed wirh limitations un mernhetship To wnrk propedy chemes must encompuss denned aras with a good deal jn common - the flexibility of Mitranys proposal wIQutd 500n break dOWIl )l the tnembers WlJuld have $O little in cornmon in fo cxampie the runnill8 of agriculture tbat coshyopetation would be dif(kulr or lloo-proouctiacuteve Furrhermore rhfmiddotse regional atrangemenpiexcl overcorne the problems of dedding the meaning hQundaries and consequtIlCCS of any particular function (Melaren 1985 142)
Second Mitrany did not really envisagc any piexclHejcal control of the futlCtiooal des between COllntdes mus distinguishing him frorn [he more traditionaliacutest approach lO inrernational orgaruwcions lle was hopeM dw the pmblems of roshyurdillltion between ronctionalagencies could be worked out as they lllOOe
To prescribe fOI the suke of [iexcladicional ne3tleSS somtthing more dennite han the guidancc and supervision of eg the Ecooomk Md Social Couooacutel W(lU1J be ro duron he whole conetprion from [he niftJo impollC upon them (funct-lonal bodiesJ a co-otdination authoriry with anyrhing Iike comrolling scuus w(luId be ro move again roWllrd$ that JiacutecumuJarion of power ar the centre
(Mitrany 196~ 143)
Thus [he institmions uf (he Eutopean ClJmmunitic~ - the Counoacutel uf Milli~iacuteers rhe Commission che Courr of Justicc rhe European Padiamenl dre Economic md Social Comlllittce - were al analnema fO Mitmny They werc juu miacuterrnring the poluacuteical COflffOh of lhe nation state ar iexcliexcl pa-n-continenullcvel anU according to Mirrany Continental unious w(luld have a more real chance thau individual suteS to pnletise the aurarky thae makes or division Mitrany 19(Kiacute 2n This may u((end
Witi1lf1 rm imernatilmalllrgaraquoiutifJ11J 139
agains[ lhe funcrJonalisu hope (r iexcliexcl universal apprOlltIacutel tu proble[Jls but (he abhorrence of policial imtitutions is lItrange wIacutelen [he funriona agenoacutees will aftee iln be mllkJng poHtkal decisions -- declsions roncetning lile aurhontative allocafion uf resources No only will iflfetnashytional functiunal transpon organizations established accordlng to Mittany have (O decide that cerEain areas wiH bt weU served by railways and Wds orhers llOt iexcliexclorne ports bujjt up others ieft to tlceay sume airlines expanded whlle rnbers are allowed ro fOllUact blt deeisiow wilI have ta be made on how w diexcl~tribu(e 5carce re~ources betwccn fo example iacutenvemtlent in transpon ur building more hospitals or restfllcturing rhe srecl Jndustty thwughour (he area eovered by [he orgalliurions Thee arc paHdeal declsiQw ln a period of economk growth and plenry [hdr potitshykal niexcliexcltute may be le5S obviou as resources are avaiuble for almost eVery plan advanced by world 01 regional shjpping aviation heaJth or sree1 O1ganizatioos Otherwit there mn$t sllrdy he a system by which scarce mrnurce$ are aUocaced Tbis problem was flJed squardy by Mitr1ny successors iexcln the neofunctionalin school (dealr wIacuteth in the SC(tiOH tbat follows) but ir doell seem ftoro Mirranys writings fhat the world of funcshytioollJi~m is a wodd of IlnUmiacuteted resounes (Melaren 1985 146)_
A third problem in Mimuys approach i~ brought out in a eommtnt by lniacutes Claude The functiacuteonal theory uf imemariruwl nrgaruzarions 1S ultimateJy eoncernen wirh the usue of polJtiacuteeal and military srniexclggJe functionalism tneats (he promotion of we1fue as au illdirecf approach tu rlx prevenrion of warfare (Claude 1968 31--5) Mitran quoted Oaude wirh appmval implyiog rha fulletionalism would ind~ mllk( a positive contribllt1on (albeit inilitecdy) CE (he ptCveurron of war fhis profOiSitiort is open (O $(Ieral criticisms Given the level uf arrnrunems in the worJd and the porential fQf cunflict the contriburron ro pettcc made by funcrioruuacute acrjvities miexclay come too late A youth group exthange betwtn rhe USA and China ma) bode we11 fOf
tbe furure OOt wlll be uf link use if (he respective parrus are beaten ro meir destinarions by intercominental baliiacutestic missiles funhermore the pmmotion of wtlfare may inctease internatioual conflicr by i~asiacuteng expettacions Espedally if social and ecounmic changes are bmugh[ aboue by imernational runctioual 3Jencies developing muntrie poliacuterical I~derships may fJnd ir increasingly cliiHcult to meet lheir poplllatIDn~ demands fot more economic benefJts fur a ampirer distribution uf benefits or in sorne ta$(-S fOf Ol)tool uf the social consequences of laquootlumic Rrowth Imernal sttili aod unrest may chen ~iIJ over into inrernacional eontlicr Finally Miacutetrany daiffi$ that rhe Nncshyrional approach ciocumveuts ideological aOO racial diviID05 as it ltloes territorial frontiacuteers (Mitrany 1975a 226) There ls guod evidellce tiJat the opposite has been happening thae the exlsting runctiuual organimfIacuteom slch $$ tiNEKO WHO and lID hllve been riddkd with ideulogical and racial (or al lea~t Norrh-Somh) diviions wruch h~ve teflected pnlirical argnments outside he olganizarimlS bu have ncvenheless adverscly aHewod their ba~ic work (Ghebali 1986 l tR-lt6 1mber 1989)
iexclIV WHURg) W~ mltTlWilm tIampmJlaiWN
NetrfJl1iKJiOalisls
Tbc move away foom rhe srate-cenrric vjew of JlItert1arlOlal organizarion Started by WOllf and Mirany was ccetiacuteeued io rht immedijlre posr-wur perjod by social stientim applyiacuteog asJltu of functionll1(st ~heory to European nd Atiacuteantlc in~limti()m This utw fUllCtionaliu approach showed paruumlcrnsr interesc in che European Communities (Ee later nuropean Union EU)) whjch arme iu iexclhe wake of che amphuman Plan In Mily 1950 Roben Schuman rhe Frenrh Foreign Minisrer advauroo (he idea cha( West Eucopean srarcs should establish a High Authority wlrh powers ro admillshyimr theit eoai aOO stecl induscrie~ Negorjatioru on rhe detalS of chis plan led t() the signing of che Treaty cf Pariacutes in Apdiacute 1951 by FraIlee Wen Gemuny Iraly rhe Neiexclherlands Bdgium sed Luxembourg (rhe Six) Tbls gave substanre tO (he idea lbat funcrional aiexcltivicy oould be ITlltllfIged across fcomien by IUl organizadon ove and above the govemmenrs of che member sraces a supmnational amhority The idea was wldened ro cover iexclm expanded unge of etooomk activiry when he Silo esrablished rhe Bt1fOpean Ecooomk Communicy (EEC) widl the Treaty of tome in MAtch J957 An Aromic Energy Communiacutety (Euratom) was eHablished sr che sume time However ~he element of upranationiexcliexclliry was dilurelt in the High AllthoritY-s successor (rhe Commission of rhe EEe) having only Iimited deciuacuteOIl-makin8 powers anJ having mosdy the task of proposing acdon ro tbe representarives of he rnember states situumlng in (he Coulliil of Ministe13 Despire his otber Community hutitutions contsined the gerrn of supranadonaHry rhe Courr of Jllstke empJoymg Coromunity nuhe [han nacional laws a Ruropean Padiument wbkh WlS eventually electelt by ditect eleedons amoog a Communiry-wide electorate voting for Cummunity-hased parties aad 1Jueresr groups represendng mrmetSgt consumen traJe unions aruJ blliiness on a Commuiexcliexclity tatber than a nnional basis
Tht$eacute tnmwauumloos in WeBtem Europe uiggeteJ a spate uf 1 iexclretamre primaril) in he lJnireJ Sures whieh examined tbe nurure unrl purpose of the Commuuity iustituions The Jominam staacutend amongst this writing was chat of the neo-(uncrlonalisrs sJCcifically Ern~1t Haas Lean lindbetg and J05eph Nye whose works are of importance io the uudy of internacional organizacions In ronrruc tO Mitrany the OCW fuoctiooalistli tended Br (iexclrOc tuacute iexclimir rbeie study 10 developmems in Wcscetn Europe (HtIaSs ~nJhe Naion Stte (964) bcing a nruiceable exeepdon) especially the OC alshyrhough later cornparimns were tnade wirh rbe growch ofccmmon lIlltirkets iexcln Mica East Eurupe aoo Larin America On che whole the neo-fumtiooaiscs had rerreated foom Mitranys world view
fhe neo-funcrionaljgrs aiso realized rhe dilemma faeed by Mitrliny in eelihng wirh politica dcdsicms ane did nor fllnch in introducin~ a merhod of making necessary chOtees ar he imernarif)llItI leve Indeed rhis wa~ rhe kernel uf rheir ideagt lhlll 1I0l ouly sperifie functionamp would be farried OUt ar rbe subrollrinentill rarher (han (he nacional leve bul thil( lhe decisions wnrernillg (hese functioos would be made at thaf level shy
6- v n_m_ ~olo_~~W_
with imponant cOnsequences for those groups imetesred in the decisiacuteons and iexcliexclIso liffecting orher arcas of poliey Por example supprne the Ecooomk Cual and Steel Community (BeSe) required (har che sreel lodustry be orgaoized as a West Europeao endty insfead of a numher uf narional industries a1l commled by differenl ccgularions aod rbar a suprauariona surhoriry be crcared ro decide on the policy Coc che ranniog of tbe Wcsr EUlopean sfeel induStries lo ronsequeoce those involvea in say rhe French steel industIl would switch tbeir attentioo away from Parili where policy was previowly rnade ro BroS$CIacutei wbcre ECSC poliey is mude Purthermore CommwIlty ntber dUlo nadonl poliey on ueel eould spiU ovet into ereadng a Community po1iey ror cool tnmspOH IUld Othet asrod~ ared acdvities As rhe numbe oC functiacuteooal policies decided at a Commuoity rnthet than a natkmllllevd expanded so the need for political actioo at this higher level would gfOw aod thc political sysrerol of the couutries involved would becomc inexorably iexclmcnwincd lhis was the logk of rhe innovator of he $chumao Plan idea Jean Monnet wM considered rhar rhe establishment of a c001 and srec1 community foUowed by similar organitations dealing wirh otbcr Cuncrional areas - agricultute transpon nade defence - would be lreps on [he way ro building Europe The eOO would be jln economiClllly aod politicaUy integmred Rurope lo Monneriexcl scbeme a federal West Furopeao state The means would be fuoctlonal bu with a political contento
In his study of fbe ECSC Rrnst Haas examiooo this s(rlltegy and a1so dmned polldcai inregradon in its ideal typc u beiug rhe process whereby political iexclcroo in severa distinct nadooal ~tings are petsuacltd to shjft thet lnyaltielJ expecrations liod pOlidcal iexcll(tiacutevides eoWjlrd jl new centre whose insdwtions possess or derrumd jutisdktion over me pit-existiog lIatiof19l $tates (Uaas 1958 16) ihis oew cemre would be che powelshyhouse managing rhe political ptoblems oC fuoctio1llll coopeaacutedon [he Uigh Audwrity of tbe ECSC and be indrurion of me EBe The policical actcniexcl invoJved would be rhose elites leading the poliacutetical groups habirually colCerned wirh public decision-making and wooJd indooe trade uoioacuten offishydaIs busiue5$ ami Hade representatives higher civil servann and activeacute poHttdam As tlltSiacute eliteS rutneU theit aacutetrendon ro rhe ojOW policical centre chey would find tha Community pelky in olle area nm be uwde tea oo1y if che task iuelf iexcls expanded CHus 1961 368) by way of a spillover of actiVity lIltO anocllet policy atea Evenrually Communiy policy~makiog would take uvet from S(ale policy~making jo alI rhe crucial BreaS and the new centre would emerge as being potenrially more powerful dma the member srares governmenu wbich had been drained of lheir mOS( meruoshyingful polidcal ucdvides
1( this stage ir can be quetied whetbet Haas was describing an inremashylional organizadun or il poremia1 federal mlte Io discumng tms quesrjon in his book on Elle EC-S( Haas cooduJed dllU Tbe hruHnct of federal as agaiacutenst middotimergovernmemaf powers lIeeacutems tU point to che coodusioo tbat in
142 WtitingJ on mtertlatilJtJA orgamZ41iom
alJ maneo relating ro the romine regularion of rhe commOTI ~et the High Authority is independent of government (HIlaS 195R 55-gt He al50 voiced rhe opinion rhu Supranadonaliry in snueturnl ferms tberefure means the exisreuce of govemmental a~lthorirjes dlloer tuacute Ihe archetype of fdeNrhm rhan any past inrernati(mal organizar ion buc not yet ideutiacutecal Wlth it Oiaas 1)158 59) However this $upnmttionaity in pNctice has deve10ped into a hybrid in which neither the federal no the intergovernshymentai reooency has deady triumphed a-bas 19511 527) Ir is aloo denr lbat the original Coo1 and Sreel Communicy was mueh mote functional~ Wlcrnl than the lateacutet Economic (ommunicy and untiacutel the mid~19805 the unified aud expanded Communuumly romw to play Jown the elemenU o( supranatlonality iu tavour of 1ts Jiacuteltergovemmenul insutution rhe Conndl u( MiuiMm This aud othet dtVe1opmems led Haas to lcconsidcr his origshyinal view of Community inrtitutioos
In the 1968 pre3ce ro Tuacute Uniting of Ellropt (which was wIacutetten in 1958) Haas alrtady identified factors that had dllngro rhe nattlc of me European Communiries experimem in che previous ten yeacs He observed tlur during this period vario~ spiU-OVet aOO adaptive ptcKeues s(ill had nO( resulted in la pulitically united Encope and in an~werjiexclg the question what went wtlJug he outliued fuur considetdtions Fitst (he new funaiurutlJsu had filiJed w di$tinguisb between background variahle cOlditioos prevamng at rhe time when cbe Comrnnnity WU$ csnbJished and new upiratiuns and expectations that had develnped Jhe esntbliacuteshment thar had ron counrer ro the Community spitit Second the imptet o( niexcltlonaUsm had becn undereshytimawl Third Eactors within me Commuruty had becn nressed ro he dccrimenr of those coming from the outside world PintUacutely me massive transCormation oE Western socie[y raking place indepeudent o( EutoptHl integratiacuteon aIso hacl been underestimaretl (HIlaS 1968 xiv--xv)
Haass definidon of imegralion alsu bccame wmewhar more negative I1lOre stlilte-centric than bis original 195R emlhasis un nationaJ llt(on shifting their loyaJties expecratiacute(ms and poJitical activities toward a new centre By 1970 Haas considered the study ofregionallntlgrurion to be concerned
wich explaining how aud why sUtes eease to be whoUy $overeign how ~md why they volunucily mingle metgt and mix with rhcir neighbours $O as to lose che facruru attributes of sovereignty while acyuiring ncw techniqucs me resolving conilirt between themselvell
(Haa~ 1970 610)
By 1975 Haas eonsidcred regional integmtion theoty oiJsolete in Wesrern Eurupe and obsolescenr - though still urerol _ in tite teSt o( the worId (Haas 1975 l) By 1976 he had arded out n maioI reintetpuEation of uew-fuuctlonaJist lhoory as it applied to rhe Ee The definahle outcome of integtation in Wenem Eutope was secn either in ttaditiorW federaHsc temu - a Wen Enrnpean (ederal state ereated out uf yenrs of fun~-tiexclonal
Writings M ifllernuJlfJmiexcl1 (JFfIiutian 143
rutivity whkh had lcd lO J trnmrer of poliduumlll acnvity away rom (he natlon ~tates tOwarJs a new srrunure - or ltlS the imtitutiooltlUdng uf some intermMiate iexcliexcltage such as rhe present status qno whcreby atlthonty is dimlbnrro unequally between several centres Wilh tire old nation states losing their previous Ituthoriey but with no new JiacutedeOl government in ptO$~ pect Whihr the original aspecrs of the EC - rhe cuuoms union aOO (he Common Agricultura Poliey _ have tllaquoorne entrenched the spillover inm orhe policy area~ had nor occurred by Ihe mid-1970s as che neo-furutiooa1ists liad ptedicred Also common polides liad becn Jevelopetl in differem o(8ashyIliratiuns - che OFCD the summit of indurmiatiooo counrrics the Group of Ten - tarher than within the liC lhe problem according lO Bus W1IS
rurhulerue whereby rhose iuvolved io polirirs haJ found rhemselves in a littting ofgreat social complexiry where rhe nnmber of atrorr is very large and each pursues a variety uf objectives whirh are murually incompatible lmt ucn is also unsure of che ultlde-ofamp between the objectjves He continued Tnis conditiQn imJgtlics the erosion o( such interorganizarional patteacutern~ oC comensus reciacuteprocity and no(mative tegularity as may havr CXlSted eadicrEveryrhiug is up fO( grallS (Hus 1976 179) HilaS sllggested thu iu the EC polioacuteeamp and (he institutioru devised ro lmpleshymeacuteut thero iacuteU~trnre rhe attempc ro deal with lhe turbulence nather tllan achieve regional politkal inteSradon (ibid 180 original emphasis)
A similar hiacuteft lttway fmm the earHer llSp1rauumlons iiexcliexcl ICen in rhe work~ Q( Lindberg aud Nye Lindbeg wlrose book 1he Pattirai DJMmict o EroJMn Ecrmomic IntegTatia (13) had fullowed on dosely from Hws work was hy 1966 showiog tbar moves wwaros inregration wirhin the Be (ooid cause Stress within (he system l1Jtfl inCftllq the barrien to fimher integration (lJnJberg 1966 254) Togcrher with lkheingold in 1970 he desctibcJ an EC wbich had noc deveJopeJ joro a federal structute haJ difereot ltvels of integrariacuteon fut different functions and was sdl susceptible tIJ UJsis lt was ao unprecedemed but curiousy amblguoos plurruistic syttem there seem tO be no satisfrutory modcls or ronceptli in che sociaJ scienee VQ(abulary to adequa[ely define ie (Lindberg and Scheingold 1970 306) In a anide Joseph Nye coruiacutedered thac Jespite rhese and otber revisioos the neo-Euncrional approodl srjlJ embodies 11 nurober of fault tbu re1lcct jrs origins in [he 1950s (Nye 1970 767) He proposed a nUml)(l OC changes scating rhe derendent variable lels ambiguoUlUumly adding more politiul ruwn reformufating rhe Hst oF integration condiuons and pethapli mOSf
significantly drOlping che ideas ufa single path fmm qWlsi~full(tiexclonallasks tuacute politica1 uuion by meamiexcl oF 5piUove( (Nye 1970 767 He conduded rha[ shnn oF dramadc chaugc the prospect9 (or common markets or microregiorud cennomie organiutions leading in rhe shon ron (of dendes) to fedewt1nn oc m1me sOtt oE polidcal union capable of tlU indept1Ldent dcferue and foreign paliey do not seem very high (Nye 1970 1129)
There hiexclas been a long jotJJney trom the functiorudisl-fecleral nope5 of Jean Monoet back jn 1950 but it has seen the evolution of nm only the
144 WitingJ on inlernafuacutemal ttrganizafifmJ
Communiry insrirurions and policies bur aIso neo-functionalist thinking The Iogic of inregrarion gave way ro coping wich rhe crises inseirutions mixing federalisc and intecgovernmental elemenrs were replaced by a Western Europe in which instirucional tidiness is best forgorten (Haas 1976 211) and the federal elemenrs seemed ac mosc dormam The hopes of che 1950s had been replaced by rhe uncerrainties of che 1970s and the early 19805
Wirh rhe launching in 1985 of rhe idea of creating a Single European Markec wuumlhin rhe EC by rhe end of 1992 che signing of rhe Single European Acr in 1986 (which exrended EC comperence aud changed irs inscitucional balance) and che sectlement of a uumber of Common Agriculcural Policy problems in February 1988 che Iogic of inregration seemed ro be revived
Wriring in 1990 Keohane and Hoffmann resrored and refined che neomiddot funcrionalisr norion of spillover advanced by Errut H9al They were sceprical char rhe rheory of spillover could explain the ECs irucirurional developments of che late 1980s buc saw it aCling posicively in orher ways for example rhrough che incenrives ro institutional change given byenlargeshymenc of EC membenhip in rhe early 19805 (Keohane and Hoffmann 1990 289-90) They saw che pcocess cominuing and barring Clrasrrophic excernal fucrors were moderately oprimisric abour rhe Communirys furure prospecrs (Keohane and Hoffmann 1990 296)
This view was raken up by Tranholm-Mikkelsen (991) and Holland (993) borh of whom saw che revival of rhe Communicy agenda in rhe Maasrrichr Trealy - wich irs blueprinr for a move ro economic and monetary union - as being a revival of the neo-functionalism Drher wrirers on European incegration at chis time adapted che basic notions of neoshyfunccionalism bU[ broughr in extra fucrors Majone (1994) agreed char che EU had seen an upgrading of common inreresn but placed an emphasis on public choice policy ro explain particular Ouccomes Marks et aJ (996) saw a much more complex relarionship berween che Communiry and domestic decision-making leve Though rhe srare was srill very important ir no 10nger monopolizes European level policy-making or rhe aggregarion of domesric interescs 0996 346) Insread rhey idenrified rhe growrh of mulrishyleve governance wirhin che EU
Indeed rhese developmenrs in neo-funcrionalisr wrirings on international organizarions poim up sorne of the criticism~ of che schooL Firsr despice rhe besr efforrs of Ibas Schmitter and Nye it remains a rheory overwhelmingly dominaroo by an inreresr in rhe EC and larer rhe European Union In 1964 Haas and Schmirrer rried to extend sorne of che lessons uf econumic union in Westeru Europe ru Larin America Drawing on Haass 1968 preface ro The Uniring of Europe rhey discerned nine variables four relared ro background condirions (similariey in power of memben rares of rransaction pluttllism in member seares complememing elices) rwo referring ro condirions ar rhe time of economic union (similarity of governmenral purpase powers of che ecunumic uniun) and rhree ro process coudi[ions (decision-making sryle
W[J U UWltU 15
rransacrions rate rhe adaptabiliry of governmenrs) (Haas aIld Schmitcer 1964 711-19) They looked ar rhe chances of policicizarion chat is the possibilicy chat lhe acmrs seek m resolve rheir problems so as ro upgrade common inrerests and in rhe process delegare more amhoricy m che centre (Haas aIld Schmitcer 1964 707) Nye in his article Comparing Common Markecs (1970) rried ro modify che Europo-cemric narure of the neo~ funccionalis[ approach and drew on a wide range of cases of economic imegracion Larin America Cenrral America rhe Caribbean Eastern Europe and East Africa as weH as EFTA and che EC He concluded [har
The original neo-funcrionalist model was close m irs ongms in the straregies of European inregrationisrs in che 1950s and thru mighc be seen as a rempting and misleading guide for policy in orher aceas The revised neo-functionalist model is not somethiug ro be imiraced bU is simply a rool fur making comparisons We wanr ro know whac differshyence ir makes if a group of seates form a common market
(Nye 1970 830)
Though by rhe end of che 1980s rhere were few places ro be found outside Europe thac were forming common markets rhe formacion of he Norrh American Free Trade Atea (NAFTA) and rhe renewal of economic cooperarion in Latin America and Sourh-Basc Asia during rhe 1990s provided different models from the more poliricized EU These seemed ro challenge some of the basic assumptions of rhe neo-funcrionalistS aIld perhaps give some weighc ro Nyes scepcicism ciced above
Second i[ is clear chac che neo--funccionalisrs have had trouble wirh che insticudonal formacs They have rerreaced from being functional federalist almose back co Micranys eclecric approach rowards institudons They have also accepced [he durability of rhe nadon state in resisring che logic of inreshygration and have soughr compromise formulas which at leasr continued ro place emphasis on non-srare accivicies even if insticutions above che stare (supranarional) were seen to be susceptible to stare inrerference
A chird Cliricism concerns the gtOH of non-srare acrors favoured by rhe neo-functionalists They have consraudy emphasized [he imporrance of polirical acrivisrs the elites of inrerest groups and rechnocrats This may have parrially blinded chem ro a weakness in rhe ECEU rhar could have affecced neo-functionalisms earUer proguuscicarions from being fulfilled its insticurions cannoc draw on rhe day-ro-day polirical resources available tO the narional policical acrors This has led tO a gap mosr noriceable in che newer members berween perceprions of che EU by the represemarional elice and rhose of rhe ordinary vorer or consumer Whilsc some earlier srudies of opinion in the EC did inelude opinion pons rhese ofren dealt wirh easy questions (showing ones EuropeaIl idenriry) 01 soft options (whether rhere should be say a more acrive EC industrial policy) With the firH expansion of rhe EC in 1973 and rhe first major oil price iucrCdse
146 Writi~5 cm lI1lMfatleuromal orgfll1iutl1ltl
whi(h coinoacutedemally happenoo a yeat liexclater Euttiexclpean voren werc faeed increasingly wirh mu(h harder options inflation versus employment tlnde union righu againsr consumer inrerests The poISibllity was thar bcing a good European might mean aHowiog sorne other COUlltry5 ruuionals to explott ones fish or oH The crearion oiacute a Single Enropean Marker within the Ee by the end of [992 and rhe move rowards a single curteney from 1999 by eleven theo (wdve of rhe HU member litares bmught he activi~ ties of the VOlon do~er lO the wodd of tite coosnmer or worker However chis seem iexclf anything to have iocreased rhe alienariacuteon of voten from rhe institntions aM acrivilies of rhe EU The 2000 election for rne Europeao Parliamenr shnwed the lowest tnroour yer in sllfh direct elections ano Enrobarometer opini()fi poUs have demonstrnred a msative trend in public opinion on che EU rnropaeuintknmmdgl0epoebc-b531p3npdO Ir may be thar a oumbcr uf interest groups llave switched rhrir expecta6ons and poJiexclcical activirics tuwatds the 00 bllt many of the ordinary European V(l(fS seemed ro have failed ro trans[er th~ir lnyalties tu he Union
In surnmaty the neo-functlona1ists mok np Mitranys srudy of rhe a-lashydons betwren group~ and individllals in oHferent sures il5 wellas che sta(cs representativtltl They tried ro gtapple witb the queuit)O (lf political control uf such iostirurionalized funcrional re1ation5hips aod ro undrrstand how ir would affrct rhe oatnre uf tiJe nation state They arremptrd to define the statuS of [hese newfy creatoo insutution5 tnough rhry wete out always fvlped by devdopments in che ECfEU which WWl rhe focus of rheir studies Tbdr works have demun~trared rhat the EU imututioos are by 110 mratlS juse ordinary imerg()vcrnmenral ones lh~y have al) provideo a mirror ()f the hircof) of (Yents in Westetn Europe in pankultH - moviog flom unitios aod poJitkal dynruniqgt through ~rress oy$ and anguish to obsolesceuce tllrbulent fudds and back to mooerace optimism and a new dynamism
TrotJJ(l(iacutecnaUJI
Anorher Americao writer whose work dealt wirh che question oiacute integrntion is KarJ Deursch Alrhough not a neo-fotlcrionalilit his tranmctional appwmh nali dealt with sorne iOmmoo ~hemes He has been umrerned with more rhan imergovermneuul relation~ aod indeed hM str~iexcl reJations berweeo peopIes nitherthan just rhe elites favonred by manyneo-fuflctionalists Deursch concerned himltelF with m( absrnce or presence of significan orga~ oized preplttrations fol war or large-snde iolence between int~rnatiexclona1 policical commuoities It was [he secutity rommullttles lhat had elimirutted war and [he expectation o[ wat whhin rheir ixmndaries whicn Dentamph and his PrincctOll coUeagues exarnined in PeliriuJ Cfml1NJNlily dIId M NarJh lt14Jtlaquo Atia (1957) A SClttlriLy community WWl defined as a gronp of people wnich has become ~inte8rated~ io rhe sense that thete is real iacutelSSnr+ ance that (he members of that rommunity will not fight ellch oeher
Wriil1g1 (raquo1 iacutelMfatlortal tJrgaiadlMm 147
physkally but will se~tle their disputes in liOffie otber way (Deutsch 1957 5)lt loregration does not necessarily mean rhe me~ging oF peoples ot governshymental units intn a ~ogle unie an idea explicir in fooerahsr rhinking Otud implicir in much funrtionalist wtiting Jnstesd two $otS uf integrared secu~ rit communities ar~ hJemified the amalgamarelt where pteviousiy independent unlts have bcen rormaly merged lnro a larger unit wich a iexclommotl guvernment (eg tlle US) ano the pJuralisric where srparate gnvertUlleJlUl Illlioraio their iexclrgaJ indepeodence (eg uacutenada amI rhe US) In stlldying a nllmbcr of cases of anempred or octual intesratioo io tbe Nortn American and WCSt European area Dtunch conduded rhat tIacutelere werc iexclweive conditions essential fnr the rurcts of ao amalgruruued teeutity (Ommuniry and thM rhree wen nec~ry fm it5 plutalisdc COUnrfrpilrt
The1e three conslsted of rhe compaiacuteibiliry oiacute marer valU($ relevant to
politiclll decision-making tbe capacity o( the participariacuteng plt)htinl Imitl or ~mmem~ ro respood tu each othcrS oetdl messages and llaions quickly adeqwuely and without rtsort ro vlolence aad rne mutual predicrability n bchavior (Delltsch 19H 66--7) In Deutschs work emphasis was placed 00 cornmunkauun brlweEn potidca uoIacutets increased trnns1Ctions between them (such fL polirinl exchangcs toUfl(m trade and rratl~pott) brought increases in mutual dciexcl)Cl(enmiddotc fue s cummnnity ro be created (his high level of trnnsactrons must be accomgtauied by mutual responsiveness o that thr demand o( each side 00 he other mn rccdve adequate and sympatheric treatroent llthis wouk not ooiy predude the need [01 aggressive action lO acbi(Ye ends bm would aJso build up 11 feeLing u( UUSt and seturiry in che edationship
Deuucb does not have an obse~uacuteon with imernattomtl orgaoiexclZ8rion~ although his 1957 book iacutes in [he eM collcetned with the ctelltiacuteon of UCCIlshy
tity community in the NATO area rhere ate few tcferences to internatlOnal nrganiuuons Many o( the Cll5C studj( are ser io tbe pcriud before (be postshywar expansioll uf such organlurions and almost all deal ieh bilareral relatIacuteonshj~ O(utschs work has coosequences for the lUudy o( ioternuiona organizatIacuteoos govemmental ano non-goveromCotaj iO[~rnational otiianiza~ tioos can be created as a re~ult uf a plnraliacutes[ic secuciry nmunuoit) lne integracion of whkh may evtotuaUy become iacutennirurjonalized iexclu nuppened reo the ampandinaviiexclm states creand (he Nordic Counci1 There run abo be forrns of instirUti(lnalued communiratlons berween socieries wnich prOldde the transactions and undersrandinli rhat help create ji securi[y community DeUtsch wrote
li the way tu iexclnregrarion domestic or internarionat i$ through rhe achievemem of a srose of community tnut undergirdS insrirurjtms thm ir seems likely [har ao iorreased sense of cotlloounlry would hrlp to snellgtbcn whatever instirutioos - supranatiooal or internacional - are aLreAdy Oltraring
([)euriKh 1957 7--8)
ltgt -_ bullbullbullbull _- _
Demsc-hs work was mken funher in a vnluffie ediretl io 1998 by AdLer and Bllenen (l998) (lLat docs pay sorne attention to ioternariorutl otgilniushydoos Indecd their volume contairu chapters thar rekr ro rhe oseeacute NATO the EU the UN the GnU Cooperarion Cowxil (GCC) aod rhc Assodation uf Soud Eat Asian Niexclttlons (ASEAN) They daim that imetshyruHiomuacute organiexclzauumlons aud iexclnstitutiacutem~ played al lmporum role in elKiltlraging more inteo$ive and extensive ioteracrioos octwttn states rhrough theit uwt-huildiug propenies (Bnrnetr and Adler 1998 418) They lht six corulusions of this snuerneor
bull By moniroting srares agreemenu tntcmatiuacutelwl orpuuacutezatiexcloo~ give them he cooftdente tuacute cooperare io (he ahsencc of trUSt
bull Jnternational O1ganizarions allow Hi1tC$ to discover new areas of muuwl intetellls Tu ponimlar [hey cenoacute ro link panicular areai
bull Inrcmational organizatiom can hdp shape $fllre pracdces by liCtting down nOfOU Ihat define what is acnptablc
bull The iIKTeaiing nwnber of internacionaJ orgamrutions emuuragC$ muldshylatetalim
bull They dIlO eruourage smres lua societies to see rhelll$Clvcs as pan of a resion
bull 1ntildeey can abo shape lhe identiry of rheir memben (Banlett aod Adler 1998 418-20)
The aurhms cWmed char cheir stuJit$ demonmared rhe exrent 10 whkh social cnmmunicadons beomes insrimtioualileJ aOO embedded in lnreroashytional oC8linbatlooslt and in turU how (hese organizatioru express an inreot to dcvelop trUSt end mmwl identificarion (Batnm and AdJer 1998 418) TIe work on sccurity (mmnunidcs is pelhapS at ir strongcu whcn dealing wim the esrablishetl Westcrn democracies rbough llamen and Adlers work shows rhar it may hilve a wider urility
lnlerJciexclnmdcme
Furrhcr emphasi on the growrh JO cnlnsaccions berween l()Cicries can be seen in the worts of Keohane 11l1d Nye who were m che forefront of the iexclnrerocJXndcnce school in rhe lJoited Srnnt fhey puacuteirued our (he conseshyquences of the innease in tldrunarioualucdolU ro che study uf iexclnternncional rdarions Thcit statcing iexclgtoint was sLlnuuarized chus
TraM1latlowJ relations are nolaquo new alrhough che growth of tmnsna~ tklOal orgnnizarion in me twentieth centuty has been specracunr Ye-r our nmremioo iso nor ooly rlur rhe srate-centrk paradigm )$ inade~
quare bur also thar it igt becoming progttSsively more inadequate as changes io inrernational relauumloos take place
(Keohane and Nye 1971 xxv)
The) llsred five omsequemes uf this growth uf inEematiooal inrcracrions ana organizarJ(tIls fur inrerstate politks (1) rhe promntiun of attirude change amongsr driacuterens (2) ao innease io inrernacional pluralism the linkjng of nntiooal Interese groups in tnmsnational strtlCtures usuaHy involving transruttionaI organizations fOI rhe putpoampe of (04)minatioo ltKtohAne and Nyc 1971 xviii) whiacutech has heen lhe basis for much noo~(Jncdontllist wriexcling (3) me cmdon lf dependence and inrerdependcofe IS often associacuteshyarea with intetnilriorutl cranspormrioo and iexclnance Keclune and Nye 1971 xix (4) creating new insrruments fut iexclnfluence for use by sOJne governments over ()(bers (Keuhane aOO Nye 1971 xx) 1100 lt5) dJe emergence cE auronomous acrors wirh priwre ntildelreign policia thar roa) deliberarely oppose Oiacute impinge on Sla(e polides (Krohilne and Nye 1911 xvii)
In a late book (1977) Keohane and Nye dcah with che questioo of imershydependem-e in world poliacutetics io greatet depth Iorecclependencc $lnce tbe Second Wm1d War has- onen cesulted from increasetl ttaosnadonal atciviries and iexcli divided ioto twO sorrs sensltlviry iacutemerdcpeodence (dte muIy effecrs of dULOges jo tranS1lCrJons oc ~()ciacuteetiexcles or govetrunents) md vulnembHhy interdependence where he acrors Hahllhy tc suffet eO$n iacutemposed by extemal evenc~ js (aken inro accoum (Koonane ana Nyc 1977 12-13) In COntrast ro tbe reaisr view of world poHrk Keohane and Nye pm totward che idea type of complcllt imerdependence which chey claimed soroetimes comes dosee ro realiacutety chan does realism (Keohanc attd Nye 1971 23) aod whieh has three nuio characretl$tks it allows fo mulnple rhallne1smiddot- imershyStatC tiansgovernmental and trilnsnationa- conneltring sncieries there i an abserue of hierarchy ilmonS the rnany questions ac inle hetween iexcliexcltates with military securiry no 10nger dominntlng lUly agenda and Millnu-y force 15 not used by governments toward orher governmenu within me laquogion or on [he lssutS where complex intetdcpendence prevaiacutels (Keorutne aoo Nye 1971 25)
These dltee condidons are said by KCQhane aOO Nye to typify fairly weJJ 5Ome LIlAUe$ of global economk md ecological interdependence ami come dose ro chamcrerizing rhe emite relarionship hetWetn sorne cnuntdes (KeolWne and Nye 1911 25) Complex ilterdepcndente glVel rise ro oacuteininctive poliacutetical processes a sute $ goals wiacutell vary by mue arca with mmsgoYernmeotul puumllitics making goab difficut ro define as ttansgovern~ menrnl llClaquo()$ (fof cxample mtfUsrers of agr1cuJmre inte11igente agencies nariona wcather bureaux) pursue their own aims Jhe followiog facwn are reLevant iriexcl eilch issue area
bull iexclhe resourc-es of a Ncue fur thaI particular area are most relevaot radre Ihan the stares overull military ~tre-ngth
bull international nrganizatinm and uansnntional actors wHl be fruloipula[ed as malnr instrumenrs oiacute mue poHcy
bull rhe agenda of issUC$ wi11 be fOrmulated hyebltUlgcs in the power dirmi~ burlon wirhin [he issue alaquollS by rhe pururinn (lf internarional regimes
150 Writings lIlt inttn1atiQrJ41 ergdniutirll1J
by changes jn rhe importance of ttaflstlational acwtS and by linkage froro orher issues
bull linkage between 1sllor$ will be mote difficult for strong naces to undetshyrah ir[orce 1$ downgraded
ft whiJsr linkage by we$k srares rhrough internacional organuumlarions seu agendas helps coalition-wrming and provides arenas for the political acdvity oC weaker states which can use the choice of organizarional forurn [or an issue and rhe mobiliZlition of votes as a politiul resource
(Keohane and Nye 1977 37)
Thm Keuacutehane and Nt gavc inremarjonal organizaciOfls an iroporran[ role in thde compfex interdependence model of world politics a model which whilst not uSlaquo (O explaitt aIl world politics was one which rhey daitned to hllve iacutenfrtasing releYJ1nce in IIlarge and growing area 1ntildeey used an intetnUional organizadon mooel as one of the explanations ror internashytioua regime change that js che lthange in the sets of goveming flrrangernems affening relatioruhips oC interdependence In tMs C$e intershynadonal oJsanisaciolls refeued ro multilevd Iinkage norms and insritutions (Keohane and Nye 1977 54) which once euablished are harJ (O enlAlicate BeCllue o( this rhey may Stand in the way of swes using thdr capabHities In ordec 00 chauge regimes Instead powet outcomCl will be more aJfectcU by votlng power (in the UN General AssemWy for example) ability ro futtl) coalidoos llnd 00 control elite networks (ruch as that founo io clte institushydougt of the European Commnnities) Whilst the complclt illternadorull organizarion mode1 was only Ofle oiacute fOur aJvaucecl by Keohane and Nye ro explain regiffie chAoge tbey Jiu expeomiddott jr to contribute to such chaIlSC in a world where complex interdependence (onditions pertain
1he rontribmions by Keohane and Nye demonstra(e hoth the roncero pf American wtilets iexcln inremationru relariWl in the 1970$ with altemacives to
tite srare-centric model and their wiluumlngness tO draw from more rhan one approach bringiexclng rogether elementogt from che more tradidonal appnJaChes with economic models and non-stare-cenuic dements TIleir Wi)rk does however have certain weaknesle$ Perhaps the mon serious is the use of rhe cerro imerdependence and iexclrs djvisiacuteon iexclnro ~n~itivity and vuinerability imerdependence Anepting rhar inltldeperulence meUlS mutool dependeoce (and [hjs leado to discussiou a~ w how mutual maoy relationihips are) che phrase scnsiuacuteviry imcrdcpendenre scarccly wflrmnu thc use uf the term interdependcnce fhe fault lies wJth che authou loose definiuOfl of depen~ iquestcnce as a oiexcltate (lf being detetmined oc $ignificaruly affected by externa fwces The induskm 0(signi6candy atkcted w~aken5 me urillry uf me cerm so tlme che nOr1on oiacute scusltivity inrtgtrdependence seems ro refer ro any nociceshyaMe cffeltr of ooe srate and society 00 anorher A person may Ix- significandy affectcd by taking drog$ wlthout Ix-ing dependen on chem David Baldwin showcd that mis use of rhe cerro interdependence ran conrrary to the striaer
Writingt ()I inf~_Ji(J1ia ~lfizaJJom 151
lUlderstlllldings (lf the concept fuund in MirhiaveUi Montesquieu and Ronsseall as weU 115 in che works uf twentieth-cemury wrlteI$ such as Norman Angell Francis D(laisi -and Ramsay Muir (ampIdwm 1980 7-9) He snuested the U$C of rhe rerms mutnal influence mutual responsivrness ot mutual scrlitivity insread ofscnsirivity inrerdependeruemiddot (Baldwin 1980 19)
A second cuacutericism uf Keohanc and Nyes books aso concems eheie termishynology In dealing wirh rransnational influentes They [ump tngerheraH types of teiations in whieb non~8overnrnental actOrs participare chus makiflA rhe componenrs of cheir new paradigm shifting aud poorIy defined (Wagoct 1974 440-1) Wagner questioned whetber their work simply demonstrated a shifr in interesr to new areas of intetnational polidts shyespedally elttmomic ones - ana whethcr [he world hM reaUy changed or whether we have iexclUSt overlookcd sorne things a1l along (Wagner 1974 441) The atent of imerdependence wa~ also chaHenged by Waltiquest (1970) anJ Rosecratlce el al (977) in che US and by Lirrle Bnd McKinlay (1978) and Strllivan (978) in rhe Briti~h Uteramre
DespiLe any falling$ Keohlllle and Nye provided insighrs ioto ttamlflashydonal polltics they shifted atrention away fcom p~lrely govcrnmental actOts in inff$rate relarions and they poiutm OUt he impMrance of intetnational organlziexcliexclxions in the intetdepcndence oc at lcast rnurual responsiveness of =
rbe rdormist view of both international celBtiOO1l and iuternational orga- nizar1ons has always provided an rutemative lO the more conservativc cealist approach Ir tended ro be dominated jn the pre-wu petiod by internauacuteonal lawyen and ideaJists but sinee hc Second World War has laoched on to the changell in world poUtics 6tst jn the economic ficld and then in Europe thar have Mn more difficulty to explain in ICliIHst term~ It has sten intcrna~ rionnl organizarions as mlans to manage trends such as iucftI$(d economl( intlrdlpcndcoC( bar hll5 also illtceplcU rhat these organizations mar necorne impoftllm aCtoriexcl (lO che wodd st$ge lhemselves and can cettainiy Iacute)(cnrne involved iexclO changing rhe preferences o( governmeflts
RADICALS
Writers covered in this sccrion iCe rhe intcrnadonal sysrem flOt so much as being domlnlltcd by states bn( more by diUerent divisions 01 its peoplcs Thi$ is noe to Sfly fhat chey ignore surtes They cOflsider them elthet w be ks tmportant chan the iquestjjsions of diUS tit wealth or merely ro refI~ct these othcr factors ot w be roadblo(ks to unky in (he fare Qf mote impomllt chalmiddot renga Power ls seefl as belnamp cxercised by eh( wealthy II1ld privileged and open to cha1Jeuge Change in the system is possibl( but onty through srrll8ge or by an awakenjug pf peoples tQ rhetr real sitllatlon Most iexclnter~ natimal organization~ are thus regarded as (eflccrioos of the currcnt unsruisracwry stare uf aiacuteTairs though $fJme more activist orgauhatioos mar llave potential as vehicles or (hange
This SIoacuteCElOn has betn sub-middotdivided imo rhree gthe fUS( are the econ01nk srructuralists and indude Marxists and Third Wocld wruumlers cririclll of rhe cutrem imernruionallyuem They haacuteve in common a belief mar che polltshyiexclcal srructUres of me world halle leeo wbloned mainiexcly by eltonomic fiiexclctors and rhAr mere has bren an intiacuteJUIllity builr imo the presen sytem lhe recood are the cruumliral app~es who5e radicalilifl1 is mure of the iacutemellec~ cual SOrt They rejeCf - Uf at 19$[ question - Jhatly of rhe usumpcions utlderlying be lIiews ofhe world tepresented by the realists and refotmers Finally mere are the globalim Theit perspective ls planerary ana theiacuter rnain conrtrn h fM rhc survival uf Earth Agilln they challcnge che mme statemiddotbuled approaches of both realjsts and reformers
Stnuturaluacutet lIiews
Ihe srructuralist appmiexclch rO (he swcly of inrematioOlIl relations differs In imporrant wars tO thoee of me realists and refotmuu tbough ir has some elemeou in comroon with mands ofb04h schools As roany of (he neo-realistsshyemphasite (he power scructure of wudd potities this sectiacuteon willlimir jwgtlf ro (hose writers roncerned wich the impacr 00 me political S)Srem of rhe wodds ccooomic strucrure Unliacuteke che ttalist approach the erooomk srrucruralisrs are OOr jUSt concemed with swtts io wodd polilla and rhelr economic and poIitkal differencC$ but alw with the divisioru within f1tld berween SoOCieties (WiIIeas 1990 263) They are [heretOre romerncd witl the rifi berween riel iexclmd poor within scares and rhar herwtto udl and poor glohally This leads ro an interese lO trulSlUirional reladoru as well as in inrergo~romenmt links Th(f have this in corrunon wim refPrtllist views bm diexclfier foom chem in (he emphast~ placeoacute on rhe structures of world pollics beinc formuared by eltooomic fiexcliexclcmn In rhis selttion attentioo wilt be given te MarxiS[ wtlletS lIud sume Thir1 Wodd view$ - partiuilarly (hose of rhe cependency sdlOOf and rhe developmemalj~[II - who have made a cootribution quite separare from rhat of rhe Muxiacutesr uadidon
Marxill laquoewl
There is no one Marxisr interptetariacuteon of me role of imerniexcliexcltional Olganiza~ cions in world politics Sur Manis[ approschf3 have certain elements in common and form a di~dnctive 5ch001 of rhough[ about lnrernartonal telamiddot tions generaHy and therefore ahotu international ocganizadoos These appmaches are based 00 du writiflgS of Karl Marx (l818~) in coshyoperarioo witb Fuacutewrich Engels (1820-95) with perhaps tbe gtearest later conrribution being maJe by VL Lenin kader of (he 1917 fo1shevik revolushydon in Rurna They are cf importanee pany becau1e ehey ficm tlle 00515 for mmmuniSt [hinking and (hm mey have an anactunenr m rhe Soviet Unian whieh WIlS be suongc1t commnuist stare unrII 1991 and EO rhe Peoples Republic of China COlUT1UnJSl sinee 1949 Apan ftom lbis ManiS( beliefs
had a irmng inpur mm Wescern imdleltrual cruoking and conunue ro iruoan some viewi abom wodd politics in rhe Third Wodd
Neither Marx no Mancisrs took rhe stare ro be (he curtency of iacutenteInashy(iexclonal relations Unlike (he realist viewpoints chey did fiO( coruider interactions blaquoween soveteigu ltates to be ofovettidi importance UnHke tbe funcrionalists aud other modem Westetn views rbar srress non-stare actocs Marxiexclsts in particular emphasized cbus relatlonships born wiexclrhin nates and IiCOOSS Stare boundaries Indeed ie is diffku[r ro talle only of a MaIXIacutest view of inrernatiooal re1atioll5 lec ttltme of iorernarional orgnniza~ UumlOOy as rhis separares ene particular aspecr of human behavinur tor MIlIXIsr rrearment divorcing ir from the undedying relleCS of Marxlc beliefs Man-ism provides a framcwok of undemanding by whkh ir iacutes daimed ~ociery pan lind vresen can be explaioed and che furure development of mankiexclnd determined
According ro Maf1 relariooshipamp between people and the futm~ mar insdmdooallzed rhose relatienshfpamp depended on rhe economic $truCtUR of soday fhe way rhat productlon was organized He traced the history of dvilixed maokind through five hiuorical staBes - AAjade mdenr feudal capttalin and socialin - which have ditTereru dominant methods of produc~ tioll leadiog 10 a complirared arrnngement of $OCiety ioto various ordetS 11 manifuld graduadon of sociru tank (Marx llnd Boge1s 1965 40) amph form of sorlef has coutained rhe conflictual divisiQl$ which help [Q tranuacuteorm the narun of rhat $Ocjeey coRrradicrioru in the mode ofpcoducfIacuteon placed srrain nn rhe existing social nrder sharpeniug rhe divide berween economic founshydatinn of sociery and a mpld aansIacuteonnlltion of in SOpel1Ullcture in legal polidcal and re1igious it1$tirutioos Thus by 11 confronration of da$~ Conrramiddot dkeions one historlraJ form of soc1ery wus transfocmcd into a bigher stage uf social devdopmem the history of aH hitherto existing ~ociexclety is the histoty uf dass struggles (MaDI Illld Bngets 15 39) Marx and Bnsels were parriculady conceroed wich capita1i$t sociery - ac its Oeyday during theiacuter Uves - and its tmnsrormarion iexcluto ampocis1iu sodety Wlthln rrus form of SoOCiety rOete would be no division of laboU4 and no eWses Illld no SUtes no elCpropnation of labours 5urplus vruue I1nd (bus no private property 00 exploira(ion of ene clilllS ny iexcliexcloother with 00 need fue war
For Marx and fingeJs C1ass then and noiexcl fllltions or sutea are rhe bade units in hurO) llIIIl che struggle between clAssts Jnstead oiacute infeutliltl contlict ocrupies rhe centre of acrention (Berki 1971 R1iexcl From me nlneteenth celUUf onwards rhis struggle -n in Marxisr cerros has been primarUy between [his capicalist dass ([he OOurgeoisic) aOO the bbouring dw (me proletariat) AA (he trarurormatlon fmm capltalisr SoOCIety [O ~OCialiexclMl ro comrounism rook p~e (he superstruerutt of bourgtOis SoOCilaquoy - religioo national divisiacuteon boutgmis politicnl insrirudnns rhe SOlte - woold be swept flway and in Engtls pmse rhe gOlcrotnent nf persons is replaced by [he udminlsuacion of things Fetter 19 (47) with me itEte relegated lO the mmeum iexclngemer Wlth lile spinshyning wheel Qnd [he bronze axe (Feuer 1969 433)
154 WrituacutetKiexclI mJenl4tiorJal rngmZtlJilm
Mux saw the European SUtes of his own rime as being rntans by which the ruBng dass (011amp oppress the work~ng clw by using (he agentl of tht 5tare such as the iudidary the poliee the army and rhe church he (xrerual Ilctlvities of the stare wete also determined by its Chtss namre MeanwhiJe rrmllnat]onat Rlations of a more meaningfuL kind WQuld bt creared by trade rhe movement of capital and incteaiitd romac[ and llOIacuteldarity betwten the prolerariat of vanoulS nations riacuteidefd rhe internacional nriexclaniutions of which Marx and Engels hnd dire(t experiena- wtfe the Fi~t Internatiomd and for Engels the Secund lntemarional both of which atttmpted lO orgashynJxe the represemarives of wruking people aiexclros fronden Onc~ agaJn this stteAAe$ the Marxist empbois on transnarional dass relutions rnther than on intentate relarionships
Whibt Soviet writlngs on international organizatinn1 wtte falrly desulshytory in Scalins reigu 0924-53) rhey did lmerIy hernld rbe move towams peaceful co-existerne arul roreshadowffi the lartf rnrhe[ restrktive view of Imch organi2Atinm hy Soviet commentators
In the post-Second Wodd War period and In patticular in the post-Stalin era Soviet liternmre on international organiuttions bl(lSsomed This has reflected Soviet membership oC ma1ly 1osiexcl-1945 organixations the emershygence of a socialist bloc of sta[C$ and tbe incre-ase in the mlmber of Sowcreign s[ates all flUtontilde demaruHng a more sophisricared Soviet view of lnter~llate reLadoru than che survivalism of Stalins period Uuring rhe lare 19805 i( auo ret1ected the new thinking iacutemroduced by Gorbachev
StalintI suIXessor KrU$hchev developed a revised view of internacional relaCtons which gave a positio1l ro the emerging Third Wnrhl (Tbe Third Wotld was then taken to mean rhotle IItates thar had emerged ftom colo~ nialiacutesm In effect rhe terrn later induded tbe stares of Latin America Africa - exclnding the rhen apaftbeid stnre of South Africa - the Middle Rasr Oceaniacutea and South Asia) Peace(ul co-exiuence between oda1ist and (apltaJisr states WM $til comidered nece1sary but this diacuted noc predude the ideologiacutecal stmggle between rhe two campsmiddot iexclndeed lhe Soviet inter~ national lawyer GI Ihnkiacuten wrote pearcfut cocx15tence of sutes represeonng che tWO differeor rodal sysems is a slccific form uf dass struggie beween socialism and calitllllsm (Osakwe 1972 37) The Soviet Union abo deveJoped relatlons wirh rbe newly emerging exshycoloniaJ cOllntdeJ and Soviet writiog had tu take ~ount of this developmem There wru a recognirion of a third group of stattli between rhe capitalist aud the communlsr that of poteorially friendly indtptomiddot deut $tarem io Europe and Asia such as India Egypt Indnnesia and Yugoslavia which would filrm a tone of peace Although the rebtions wiacuteth rhe capitaliacutest sures sriacuteH remaioecl embedded in pelteful coshyexluencc rhere was an emphasis by postmiddotStalinist Soviet writets on the da eJement in lile telatiomhil - that is rhe wntact with progressive elements in Weste1l sodeey smh as che Jabonr mnvement Ncither diexcld peaceful co-exiucuce rule OUt ~upport o[ middotjUSt wars of nationallibcrildon
WIacuteJIacute11gs tm iacutenUrllUtional WjatlJZtiacutelJlff 155
iexclndeed ir was seen lt a strategy fo wodd reloludon Fiacutenally (he rrlashyfIacuteonhips berween the Sovier Union and East Eumpean countries vere deerned ro be based on sociali internationalism posmlating a haemony of natinnal and commllnity interests and mndllding thar jnde~ndeuce and sovereioiexclnty of a soctalist uate means aoove aH indepltndencc from capitalism (Red Star 1 December 18)
Tunkin underljned traditional Soviet thiacutenking rllar the mngtrltllenl imrrllment of an ioretnational urganization (fne example the Chaner oiacute the UN) was all-impottant in derermining tIte enene rrun the otganizauumlon bad an international legal pcntildeonaliry rhar iexcl5 a standing in internacional 1l1w 5imilar tu titar of a sovereigo staxe Examining lhe question of the antonomOllS wiU oiacute international nrganitatioll Tunldn allowed thl1 they need not jmt act as agtnts for member stares
In imernatiunal ptacrke trellties conduded by jntcrl~ational mSaniacutezashytinns take their speciaJ piare as treacies by wbkh internationsl organimtiom aequire righu and take upon themselves cerrain obligiexcllshytioos Intctnat10nal organizatiou are created by Hares hey are broughr iexclnto being by states but the actloacuteos of imcmational organi7ashydoos are nlt)( in any way de facto or de jure ro be tqt1sred lO the actions of scates
(Osakwe J972 23)
Thi did nor mean than M internadonal organiacuteiariexclon was an entity indeshypendem of its memher us[es as any powers (har they hacl were delegated by [he members In Jine wirh che ampwiet doctrine of peareful co-exiacutesteme Tunkin placed Uress pn (he nature and rhe membership of an international organiacuteution dlOSe which drew their membersbip from commlmi1t c1Ipishytalist and TIiexclird World tares could expcct tu be genel1llly mognized as having an incernarional personaliacutery He wrote
TIte namre of tontemporary international prganiurions is lO a very great exttm derefmined by [he existerue of Haces beJonging ro differem wcio-economk systems and the ioevitable muggle between them Thar is why pcaceful crexislence is now the bl-sic condition of rh~ dfVC1iexclpshyment ufgeneral interoational ntganization
(Osltuumlltwlt 1972 289)
Mor07JN Clt1ntrlbuterl sorne extra points Fintildet be iududed JNGOs in his stndy He wrote dlQt lotetnational orgaruulions have as iI rol 8t least three member coumries TheM may be government$ offidJ orgilnlzarions or 0CInshy
guvernmental organizatiow (Morowv 1977 30) In a 11Iter seccion m NGo thcy were ldencifred as che la~ group of inrerrulttonal organiuttiolls wim two aspccn rbar concttntd socuIacuteiacuteIgtt commemarors tbe NGOriexcl auirude towards the preservarion of pealaquo wkh the Wnrld Feieradon ofTrade Unions
6 _ 0
rhe Wodd Fedemion oE Democratk Youth and otber meiexclllbtrs oiacute tbe Sovittshybacked World Peace (ounaacutel gaining special mentioo and the specialiuJ chataCrer of sorne NGOs itl(h as rhe ruerrutriunal Couocil of Scientifu Unions and che Scienrifk OJmmiuee on Antnrctk Research MOrlrLOv memioned how NGOs can belp emblish a social dimate citillg their contti shybution ro (he setdemenr of a number of internacional confHcu swh as dlilr in Vietnam He aOO dealr wirh the role of che NGOs io cbe UN aud che consuJshyrative srarus [hey llave witn lGOs saying du[ smdems of internariooal affitjoiexcl
in [he socjalisr councrics m critieal of many asplaquots of (his system fur the eoruulrarive StatuS amogemenrs stiU fall shon of wha( [he deveJopmenc of modern inretnatlonal relarions in fac[ catls fur (Morozov 1977 43) Tbe specialized namre ufNGOs Wamp1 atttibuted by M((2OV tu
tht increased Jnfiuence of the pubic at large un roreign polky [he grearer iexclmpat of public opininn in imernatiunal reladuns and [he greater importante uf me ideological fiexclUtot 10 $ucb relations Accoum should abo be raen of che proccsses of cconomic developmenr and [he coosequenc~ of [he scienrific and rechnological tevolutioo which has also led ro a greatet number of speoacutealized NGOs
(Morozov 1977 42)
Second Morozov wridog jo d~ late 197amp made moU pos-irive refershyencelgt (O [he role oiacute Trurd Wodd SUtes in imemaciooa otganimrions He noted rbar rbe emetgtoce oiacute ti large oumbe of Oung natiooal stares h8ve kd fO che emetgcnce of intetnarJonal Drganizadons among develcpi08 ecuoshytries (Mororov 1977 29) aod claimed hat partkiparion in (hese organh311oos is part uf he process uf consolidating their sovereigocy and ruuional jndependenu~ aod of wlviog cheir pressing ecoOfJmic anJ orher pmbemsmiddot (Morozov 1177 31)
Finally Momzov developed the puint made by fimkin aOOut he limited llalUre of ioternationaJ organiurjQn$ - ~econd-dllSS ffitrnbers nf the inrershynarloual sysrem as opposed tu rhe firsr-diexcllSS members SQvereJgn stateiexcl by reretcme tO theit dedsioos There bave resulted froro che inrelllctioo of politicuJ euroorces within the organil1ldons and
Thecombined will uf chcse lGOs i5 disuumlnc[ from [he wllls of theuuml indishyvidual members io in eflSenlte and ln in narure The v1ilflous wills in thb case are nor agsregued arirhmetically each one exim indepenshydendy ur oside a homogeneQu~ socio-political gOUP wirbin whose frarnework (hey can be combjlled
(Murozov 1977 34)
AfLer lhe comiog ro powet ofMikhail Gorbachev in the Soviet Union io 19Bgt a Ihaoge rook place jo $oVJIl policies rowards imeroadonal relations irutuding international organi1ations and [his has been reflecred in new
~ M-- bull 6_V_
Soviet writings un [he subJect Gorbachev inttoducetl a owjor review of [he fureign poljcy uf the Soviet Union (har marchcd rhe inremiry of his dmncslic refotmS He encouraged new rhinking- based on a revjeJ vlew of che world siruation Peaceful co-existence wirh iexclhe capiralisr tirares WlCgt no looger seeo a~ being a spetjfic fum of dass srruggle as Tunkin had written bUI 35 being in the commoo intecesu oiacute all countriCl Ir WIi$ predishycued on the neOO fin surviva of (he human nce which in ShakhfUlZOlrQvmiddot$ word$ must ofCOUIse take fim place Lighe 1988 297gt- Thjs ml$or rhar a new COIKeuropt of seGldty had ro he adopreJ hy che Soviers rhar oiacute common security which wa5 based un sume of he ideas of -che Palme Comminion (see he1ow) Greater emphasis wu given ro arms control and dlsarmament agreemenrs wirh the Wesr 11nd to co-opttation in international uffuirs whilst Soviet intervention io che Third Wodd enbed and milirary 5UppOtC 1m [he East European communisr govcfomentS WlS withdrawn
Soviet wdcings on inremurionilJ relations both offidal and academic came to mirror Gorhachevs new rhJnkiog bur eho lilete iexcl$ evety sigo chut rbese id~ were dmwu no only from rhe Wesr but alw Uacutenm Moscow mink-tanks slleh as lMEMO th~ JflSIirure of World Eronomy and Inremlfona Relacions) Liacuteght 1988 29~n Gorbschev aun his forngn minisrer FQllard Shevaronadre gave rhe academiacuten a Breen light for funher diSClViiacuteon ud debare (Shevaronadre 1990 23) As II reampul srudies examlned he role of che Uniacutered Nariacuteons as sn ugem for peoce (Kolyrev 1990 12-19 NesrerenkQ 1990 65 Petoovsky 1990 42--3) and rhe mte of inrernational or811nizadons in environmental mliLffers IiLnd disurmamenc qutsdmuuml Chodsulkwsky 1988j NikitiM 1989 123-32 Roginko 1989 133-43) and internarionallaw was teassesred (Sutier 1989~ 363-75)
Once che Sovier Union collapsed many of me wrifetS losr rhe main point of political reference A nwllber Iefi academc orhets adapted thelt ideas ro WCtem oues and a few remnioed as policy rulviseni ro che new Russian goVefrutJenL However cornmunism as M imellectually dominant organiuog rotce wlch pnliiisJ dour had djsappeared in Russia togerllef with much uf the persptr1ve ir provided - wben seen thmugh me unen distotdng leos uf tbe Sovier lfulon - oiacute inrernatiooaJ relatlons and inremariooal organhattnru
Chinese Marxisr wrirers have iexclargeIy reflected rhe views of the leadershyship in Chinll sioce [he coming ro power of rhe Commun1sr Patty in 1949 Undl (he 1970$ communist China was elduded from almon aH iotttllJishytional of811nizIiLtIOns and ie is flot surpriamping tha whae lirde writing tbete WUtl on the st1bje(r Wal fairly dismiacutesampive usuaUy consisdng uf coudemnaM tinos of (he UN fnf its action tn Korea aud rhe security allianes fot teir hegernonic narure Chjnese Marxisr rhinking hiacuteu divided (he modem wotld jnro three groups ihe Birsr World consisred of rile fWQ imperialist superpowers namely he USA ano the USSR The Second World was made up uf otbet areaa uf advamed industrilllired cnuntries primariacutely EUfape aod Japa which were opea ro donunariou by lite Sllperpowers bu( which could $tan a dialogue wirh rhe Thiacuterd World Theu (here was rhe Third
158 Writings OtJ internationdl organizatioru
Wodcl iexcltreI( coruisting of the Afro-Asiacutean-Lario Americltlu sta tes supported in their muggte aAainSt Picsr World imperialism by Chinls This viexclew of the wmId colouted tyJst Chiacutenese wridngs on iacuteoternatiollill oeganharions Tbe $uperJowers were seen as cynical lTlllnipubtors Qf inrernarionaJ jnsti~ tutions Mao Tre~tuog wOre of US poliey towards such insdfutions Ir mam use or them when it neOOS rhem and kicks them 3way when ir does flot (Society (or Anglo-Chinese Underuanding 1979 42) US-domioated pill-~ such amp$ SEATO and imperialist groupiacutengs like rhe Alliance tor PfOgre~( wttt detided Spedal viuiot was saved roc the Warsaw freaty Orgaoizatiun whieh in one aetide was described as Soviet sodal~ imperialisms mol fur aggression (Ming Sung circd Jn Chen 1979 194) fhe Soviet Union was aceuseQ of trying tu manipulate che Pan and negnshydate wlth Wesrem eouorries rhmugh the Enropean Scltwiry Conferenee tn consolidare irs begemonic status in Basrern Enrope at the same time iexcliexcll dividiog Wes(ern Europe squeezing Out the USA ro as ro muSte way (0(
iu expansion and infilrmrion into Westem Europe (Ming Sung clted in Chen 1979 197)
Chinese writecs Fegatded tbe Ntildegttood Worid espedally Western Europe as being a pen force io telmS of imperialism which Ww tdponeed to the lhird World wich diaJogu as io the Jmueacute Convention berweoen tIacute1e European Commnnitiacutees and AF~ican Carib~an and Paciuacutet srUe5
Furrhermore the defensive $spects of NATO were sttessed and with growing European cohcsion the trend iexclS IJkely to ~ towatds a fuoce in which the American elemenr is seen as 1 temporary neceuity eventual1y to be phased out (Sodety fur Anglo-Chioese Undetstanding 1979 90)
lthe countries of the Third World were setn as coostirotiog rbe mluumln force comb$dng imperiaJi~m colonialism and hegemonJsm reEerring nor only to the vestiges of Wesr Etl-OOptan foloniiexcliexclJism bOl abo to US iexclnpetlshyalism and gwwiog Soviet soci$l~imperiacutea1ism Tbe Third Wodd eQuld hdp tn exclude the gre$t powers ny baoding cogecher io such otganizatinos aiexcl tht DAU aod rhey could work ro correct unequiexcliexcl nade and eeonomk reladons with che sUpetpowers through UN iexcliexclgeucies and eonferences such as UNCTAD and UNaos Abo rtlW material ancl exporting orgllnizations liexclke OPEC rbe Incernadonal Bauxilaquo Association ancl the Onion of Banana Bxporting Counuies were proised a ehanging (he old interntlrional eumomic Ome and banerlog che biggest roarerJal plunderers in rile world rhe United Srates and (he Soviet Uoleo (Ptking Rt1Jiew 26 Septtmbtr 1975 cited in Cheo 1979 309)
111e poverty oiacute ehinne study of intetnatlenal erganhuions no dounr caused by the lack of Chinese membership of such etganizacions unril the 197amp and the turmoit ef the Cultural Revulution eiexcliexclme ro an enel by the 1980s Jnstead oere was a more reaHs( viexclew (lE rbe worlcl iexclf one S~shytimes coucbed In Manlst terms In Chlnese univenittes there was a growtb io detailed studies of iutemationalntgsnizations aod the nuropean Union
WritingI un inlmullPmnl vrgrsrtilpiill1J 159
Tbird Wwld vlewJ
Many Third Wodd Afro-Asian aoo Latin Atrusican) writers 00 jntemsw
tional organizaion have adopte a structtulIist framework and are particufarly nm(etnecl abour how insdtutions can be wcd as tools of exploitadon uf rhe nitd World aud how $ome cau be used lIS agenrs of libenuion They llave nor been induded in the ~ettiexcloo un Marxist viltws (or three feamm nOI al of them are Mandst thIJM who are Manisr place particular stresS on (he posicion oF thE l1lIacuterd World and as ThJrd Worlcl eitizens they have through theit own experience unother pe~cdve rhan [Mt of writers from industri$lized srates
Yash 18ndon (1978 377) has identjfied thNf nuacuterd World penfIXrives en inrernational Olganizatiolls Fim [here is that or the bourgeois Of perry natiunalisrs who are in power in mos[ Third World statcs and who are progressive in [errru of anti-impcrialism but are rraniollary ro the C1tccnr WC they would sooner mau thcir pcaee with imperialism rhan iluwnder power (e the masses and peasancs This group uses ineernational orgllniexclm~ tions ro pur presrure 0lI imperialisc states in order to extntCt concession5 from them and appease tbe masses in their own coontries TIley see che UN as an opportunity to parley witb their entwhiacutele impecild masters t a presumed kvd uf equa1iry (Tandoo 1978 365) Thc scltond pcrspective is rhat ofthe reaIly backward regimes of thl Thitd Wodd such un Taiwiexcliexcln and Jotdan or whnm intemarional orguniacutelattnnS are of margJna1 signifieance [)t they prefet tu dea wirh impcrialism iquestirt(tiy The rhird petSPCCrive idenrified by landOll is that uf rhe masses vi thc TIlird World for wbom toterntlunaJ orgmilAriom are petiphewl fin liS Jong as hey rontinue fO reflect the muing balanlte uf clas$ forces in hvour uf impeuacuteJism (fandon J 978 378) Sioce the ene of he 196amp rorces representing thu third group have bccome lnott prominent in world polido in che form of liberarioo groop1 lttCn as tbe PLO and whilst chese have f)tgten interested in galnin8 telaquolgnJtlon rOt rhemshyselves at the UN and the spedaliled agcodes rhey are not depeuden 00 these or8ani1Jlton~ rndecd Tandoo romioeted (hat fo che revoludonary snnggles in SOUfh~E3SC A~a and AfrJctI iOfernattonal otgilnizalJons are tOO peripheml to be of much $ignilJeaoce (Tandon )9713 377)
Tancloo providcd n inrere~tiog history of the Jevelopment uf the anrishycolonialist forees in che Third Wruld sinee 1945 bur hi~ clivi~iexcl()H iexcloro he three perspenives is roo stark leaving aside rhe leil important backWllro regimes be has basiclllly grO~lped tbe Third World leadershp joto the revoshylutionaries who have Uttle netd (or imernatiooa otgllnizatiooll and those who llave suumlpped into refOrmism and have beco duped iot() bdieving (hat they elln ehaoge chelr c1ependeoce 00 industtia1i1Cd nBfiexclmL~ lhrough intemadonal organiwtions Thjs seems to undelsrare me use or ~mh organishyzations by revolutionllry groups - especiiexcliexcllIy che PLO anel tlle SoUthem African liberadon OtgllOiexcl7arionS - whieb have made substaotial use oiacute [he UN me Arah League ano the OAU tO sustain rhe polirical aspeets of theit effOrt5 1t alS(l uverestimatcs the extent tu whieh the Third World countries
J UU wnlmgl 1111 JTiUrllamm41 ergtIttJ1I0fll
have any iUwinru about imetnariooal Qrganizarioos such a~ UNC1~D
Furchermorc the identificador of 800d revolutionaries and falten refurmislS i~ tuller impliexclstjc~ rhe maIur sponrot of the UNs New Ecooomic Order l wruch Tandon hal roudemned as rhe Old Economic Order with a diffefent rltetoric WIIS the Algetian radinu governmenr of Boumediemu rhe PLO irself ha heen dependem on a numlgttr of bnurgeWs Arab goveromenrs foc financial 00 diploJUlltic suppon and ro Tandoos duumlertion that PQr narlonallibemwn movemenn guided by a proktatlan idoology such liS rhose in Chifliexcl1 lIlud Vietnam iruemarionaJ organlwtlona WtU of no 1J5e can be- added the re5ervarion until chey carne (O power Whiht ir took some twenty years belote communist Qtill1 made use nf suth organiutions the unified communiSl Stale ol Vietnam was quick fO cake up it position in the UN ro ask [Ol aid thtough UN agencies liS well as w become ji membet of he CMEA (Comecon)
Third Wodd commemscOt1l on world politics have emphasized the nature uf rheir atea$ potirical ecoOoacutemtc Ilud culmral relatloosluumlp wilh rhe iHdllsrriexcl~ alixed Nonh TitilO is iOO$t Oflltl rypified aiexcliexcl bciug OHe of ueo-folonialism _ COntrol of che Third Wtltld by lhe Nortb by indirecl means ratlet (han by direa colonial tule and of Kf)IomIacute( dRptwJmry (o dtpmdemjiexcliexcl) lntetnationaiacute rdsdOOi bcrween sures are sublumed ro relations between claue$ world wide Ixtween on rhe one lIand the expluacuteiting impetialist capitetists in rhe northcm iru1usuialized couotries 2100 rhcir middle-ltlass collaboratotS in the 50Uthem SUtes aud on the othet band he exploiced masses rhe proleuriat ol [he $Ourhern contJnems The Lurcr gmupS have been 1I1iide ecooomkaUy dependent on [he furmer so char hey lIre in rhe wuacutetds uf the Bruiliiln T Dos SantOS in a situadon jn which the economy of a cetuin group of counshytrles is condiacutedoned by rhe develOplllent aad expansion of aoother ecouomy lO which thcit own 15 subjecred (Bodenheimer 1971 327)
The uOOerdeveloped tounrries depend uacuten [be developed ror their capital nd ercperdse they find key sectors of ehdr eroooroy conrrolled from OUtsJde rhey act as a SOUfce of raw marerials lIS ji lthetip source of labour arul as a rnarket fur mllnuf8ccurers from Euttipe ]apan and North America As thejr living standards were deterrniud by rhe vicissinWeS of the Northern~ dominated wodd marker the relationship was Otle uf unequa exchange (he [esule of which was a world experiencing woequal developmenr with a developed rieh indwtriaJiud capiralisr Notthern centre and d poor underdeveklpedgt agciculrutitlly backwarn eXFloired periphery in che 50mb The dependem 80mh has been divided berween rhe ptedominanr undemeshyveloped area~ lUld a few Cenfres of deve10prnenr wirh their ttade culrural rraffie and polidcal linL to [he deveJoped North - rhe depeOOem develop~ memo omlinea by EH Cardosa (1974) allodlt~r Bruiliall Mmir Amiu (977) rejC(ted the prosptltt of aH antonomous capitalist development in [he Third Work the oew bourgeaisJe of Lacin Ametica Africa and Asia were in allianec with capitalisrs from rhe Nnnh and rhe mato $OUrce of finance ror lmported equipmem was fmm the expon of raw materials to rhe indu~rial
5 ~ _~ smiddot_middot~~
iexclred smes Amin (1977 1-21) SllW rhe can made ror a New Imernational Ecooomic Order (NIEO) by Third World leaders at rbe UN UNCTAD aod che Vilrlous North-Sourh dialogues as an nrtempt LO iexclnerease the price of chelr ntw mattIial exporrs obraio more lmpotted technol08Y snd chus finance a new srage of develQpmenr He saw this ti placing the Thitd World more in the gttp of the neo-co1onialist sysrem and iostmd recommended 11
more self~rcuumlanr development wlrh murrud assismnce between Third World sures a reducdon in [ade wirh rhe induuialized wotld and Chlll a loos~ ening of dependenre Amin lJke TaOOon had Jittle fairh in presenc imtrnruional organizaciexclon Il tools foc fasbiooing a more independent Tbiacuten Wotd His sU88tl1cion of grearer mUtual ilSlgtistaoce between ThUd WorId uate~ implied somtthing more sophillticated than a numbtr of bilateral arrmgements As rbe present orgauizarions used fu iexclncm~Thjrd World cnshyoperation (che OAU he Atab League ASEAN) are domitllued by jusr dl()llC govetnmenrg chM accept lhe eowse coodemned by Amio _ the NIEO ami greater jmegrndon iexcluro rhe world economic sysrem ~hen Amia solutloil involves like-minded deveJoping counrries or more like1y political changes leading ro such indigenous intemuional orgilniwrions
Other Trufd Wodd wdten have plllCtXl emphasls on grearer use 01 exisring insdtutions lOO can broadJy be deKfibed lIS Wopmenraluli huI Prebisch an Argentinian econOmigf has not only studied the que5iaacuteon uf ecooomic dependency but his ideas llave been used as the baJiexclis for che wotk of cwo miexclljoc iexcliexcluemariOOiexcll1 organizadons rhe UN Enmomic Commission fa utin Ameriea (ECLA) and UNCfAD Iu his smdy of Briliacutesh-Argerl(inian trading relntioflS Prebisch bad idenrified rhe unequRl tecrns ol Hade between he favoured (ndusrrislized s(ate of tbe centre and he les privj~ leged llOIl-indumialiacutewl periphery Prebisch unlike rhe dependencia gtChool of Amiacuten Dos Sancos and Cardosa believed thu this inequaLity could be overcome by political acrinn by trade pre[ereonces fuvouring the pedphery by eoo1ruooiacutery agreemenrs by intelnatiacuteowll aid and by more foreiga imvestment in che ~riphery It was thele remedies thiexcllr Prebiacutesch eneouraged when he WiIS Executive SecrCrary of ECLA from 1955 lO 1963 aOO Secrewy-Genernl ofUNCTAD ftoro 14 ro 196tL In~d rhe amoum of aid the periphery needed in omer to overeome their Unfuvoluable rrnde balance became known io UNCTAD clrcles as [he Prebiexclsch Giexcllp
The distinguished Afiican aC1ldentie Aji Mazn1i has wricren un the plighr Qf (bar conciflfnt aod j~ role in pmem~day interruUIDllfl1 afmits He soughr ro answer rhe quesdon Now rlw Imperial Order is eoming ro an end who is going tO keep rhe peaee in Aampica and tu examine he concept of Pax AfrlclllUl the African s ambidoo ro be his OWh palaman The JXIliacutecillJS and se[f~8overnment ufAfriea depended on the nodan ofan African self which Mauui discusseJ in decaH He considered how this 1ndepen~ denre might be threarened by the politicaI and cultural fragmenMion of the contillenr Ellld eronomieally by deperulence on Europe He quoted Kwame Nkntmah finr President uf Ghaniexcll on rhe Europe-Jn ECOntunir Communiry
162 Wilihgr rm intd1JatirmallJrganizatimu
ihe ireaty of Romemarks the advent of oeoKolonitJism [n Afriacuteen snd bears unqutSrlonably the marks of Freneh neo-colonuumlllism (Murui 1967 93) He moduded from tM that Wlut AfrlOlns tbelaquofore neecletl was II
renerru authotity of cheir owa tI) ((lordilJlte fheir eltonomk and policicat deCena- sgain5t trus rnreat (Mamtiexcl 1961 93)
Given this theme it is not surprising tlwt Mazrui ser srore by rhe OAU bU[ he was realistic in bis judgement
In relatioos betwlaquon African statts lIOflesr step rowards Pu Africana was taken when rhe Organiution oiacute Aftlaquolln Uniey set up in Commissiacuteon ofMediauacuteoo Conci1illtion aud Arhitmion
Anormr OAU Commissioo of relevance fot Fax AftlOlna ls che Defence Cornmission Sor me Defeme Commlnion 1w se Car been among che lean effecdve QfPan-Aiacutericun ins(kndons Afrka mar indeed aspire to be her owu ptlliceman bur she does nO seem ready as yel to par the price iacutem it
(Mauui 19612[3)
Mazrui oudined the varicd backgrounds of [he lemen oiacute newly illdepenshydent Africa and thdr radical and revolmionary ideas and it is pethaps swprising rhat the insrirutions rhey created fur me coutinenf wete so mnservative with [he p05sible exceprion oiacute the OAUs Natiomtl Libetttion Comminee Mazrui no[ed thac Africa srill has the problem of how othet powetS respond tu its behaviour and [har forcigo iotmsilm in AJtica continued Indetd the I990s proved tO be a dC(ade of disusrer for AfrieR The debiacute burden contimlld while Ilome states collapsed lnro civil war ami others took to iutenoendoo in thejr ueighbonrs affairs Outslde interference from borh Enrope and North Amecica euodoned One of rhe fcw brlghr spots was the end of apallhcid in South Africa and the peaceful transitioo ro majoriry mJe lo al thiexcl~ tn quote Juliacuteus Nyerere rhe ampcmer pre~iexcldenl of Tan1ania The OAU exists outr ror tbe prorecdoo of (he Afrinllt Head~ oiacute State (cited io AlilgapPltl 1998 1 ) The relarive optimism of Maztui has giveu way ro Afriam writers examining sorne of me disrnrbing details of inaction by [be OAU and regtonal orgauiacutezatJuns nlCh as ECOWAS beiog used as doaks fu the machinations oE regional hegemou$ suth as Nigcria (Mibe 1m 61-9(1)
Radha Sinha$ problem--ortented undy Food iexcllfId PIWt11y (1976) has an IItgent message Sinha a former consultaot of the FAO prodnced an iofuacuterrned aUllyiexcljiexcl of the world$ food problem stress1Og in paniacutecular the maldistribution of food and other resources Noting he profO$ab of UNCTAD with heit muld-rommodJty approach and buffer nocks provjshySiOfli he commented rhe grearesr weakness oE the UNCTAD scheme js les Hkdy politlca1 unilcceptablliry ro me developed (ountdes parriculady che USA (Sinhil 1916 114) a propheey that has proved to he cortect He identitled a more aggresslve attitnde by Third World sutes e5pedally
WrilirrgJ on i1tternatiflii1l rHgarrtzatitmlt 163shy
after the uH prite cise of 197314 when the developing coonuies tried to maximize their own market powers by formin cartcls such as rhe Intematimlal BaurdtC Association the Intemuional Coundl of Copper Expotcing Countries aud the Intema[ional Tin Agrcrmenr He gave n qualified wekome ro the Lomeacute Convention betwcen the European (omrounities anJ cenain African Padfic and Caribbean Haces Writing in 1976 he commented
The receot cbange in rhe luirudes of tite tiche countries is largely due tu the incIeasing miliuncy of the Third World countries lt is almost ertalll utar the magnitude offuture cnnc~sions in me coune ofGAIT aud UNCTAD IV Ilegotiarioos wiU deperu mainly on (he continued solidariry uf the devdoping counlrtes
(Siha 1976 116)
Sinha was pardy correct as tbe solidatity cf rhe Tbird Workl states cracked se the induurialized wodd withheld funher Con(eampSJoru but ir was able tO do so because market condidons swung against che primaty producen
In his condusion Sinha called ror a IIDre1 shttting of wnrld t($nmes and power if confrontarion was ro he avoidOO He feared that the ffa of roshyoptradon berween [ieh and pool conntries hiid ((lT1e to an end and that batde lines were being drawn Instead he advOOIreltI majnr concessions from the dcher coumries on trnde lInd aid issues and a1so a ma~lt te$ltUcrnring of the incematiotlill organization~ aoo negoacutetiating ffiarhinery in order tu provide a much gtC2ter say fm me poorer countries in internatiooal tJ1lde invesrment and mooetaiexcly armngemenrs (SiMa 1976 132) GAn 1BRD aud IMF have been the presenoe of [he ri h with voting weighted m faacutevour of rhe OECD countries and Sinha re(()ffimended thlll GATr aoo UNCiAD be merged inro an Intemacional irade Organization (ITO) and che creatlon of a Third World permanent secrctariat iexclnvolved in all trade and aia negoriarioru Thoogh less radical than Amin Sinha aIso recomrnrnded gttter coshyoperation berween developing coulltries and an eoo ro their inkrtotity complex with instead a sense of m~ttnal sdiacute-e$teem and trust being devel~ oped (Sinha 1976 ch 10) Litde that h~ happened during the 19905 woo1d have encouraged Sinha The World iratle Organiaadon has emerged as the presenoe of the dlVelupeJ tares and lw brushed aside many of thc mucerns cf UNCTAD Debr ha~ edged on ro dlt wudd iexclagenda but mainly at the beheS[
of a non-governmental organization )ubiacutelec 2000 nd the promi$e~ of the main financill jnsrirutluru lO pursue dcbc-rclicf produred but a thiniexclmfl
In aH Third WQrld commenrarors have provided a vatied and lively approruh fOwards tne problems uf intetniexclational organizarions Their emphasis has niltntaHy beCl Qn tbe use of wurld lmtirutions to change the econornic condidon or the Southern cominents As this enndition is likely to worscn in the near filrtltf further more lJica conrtibutions on the rule oC
-- --- ~- __ _~- __- imernatIacuteonal orgaoilarions in Nonh-Smuh relarJons tOiexclghf be apected from rhe Third Worid A1ternaciveJy wrirers (mm rhat ares rmy jW ltIacuteespUacutet rm imergovemmemal orgaoizarions ar lealaquo Mee rhem $O Hrrle
Cfili~ald~heJ
Critica approadvs lO the nudy uf intetnadonal relations are (hose har rejee( the dominating vleW1iexcli repr=med by tbe realist and reformistS as oudined aboye In paHicular rhey reglUd realists as apologisu for the currem con6gutltion of power 10 (he wiexcldd sytem and considet [har rhe refOnntstS are elrher unable ro undersraoo he fUe llamee )( (hi sysrem oc ille UDwiUing to accepc rilar ir needs more rhan mooest refotlllS TIlOugh they may sympalhi-ze wirh rhe agenda of some Marxists aud Third World wt1cers chey do [lO( llave rhe hisrockal certaimy of the former not rarely do they have the experience and perspective of ehe larter TItey view intenUishy(jnl1ill nrganiutions wirh a jaundiced eye as these are mainly the lll$tmmenfS of rhose who dominare rhe syuem This section COlllaios an wcoum nf three approaches tmt of the critical rheorlsti- of kmintsc wrirshy[1185 ulld pose~mooernismlt
Cri(~1 herJrY The approach of critical theory 10 JnrematlonaJ o(ganizatiooll iSi determtoed by their wider world-view which in itsclf is explaiiexclwd by tbeir llame One of the leading exponents Roben Cox said [har ie is cririca1 in cne Jensc rha h srands apan 100m che prevailiog order of rhe wOlld and asks how tb$t oroer came iexcllPouc Ir does nor r-ake existing irucimtioM lIl1KI JIQwer relaclons rOl granred bu c311s them iacutemo queuion Ir 1S diexclrlaquoced ro rhe social itnd JIQiirshyical complex as a wItole rarhet (hall he stparate pirtt IUthet than subdiide and Imic an examination of a problem it looks al the wger pkturc of whkh rhe problem is jwt oue part and trio rO wJdeThwod the processeS uf change ill which botIt pans ulld whole ure involved laquo(ox 1993 277~S)
Ai a thoory cridQiIacute theory rejeen tbe daims of posicivism of an external Nulity and to be mue-free ror critkal rheorIacutests koowledge ti nor moraUy IleUc1ll1 ic is more che result of the social background of tbose Wt hold ir Given this ctitkal tbeory alJows foc a normarive choice in favoU of a social ancl iexclJlieiexcl(ld order diflerent f(cm rhe prevruHng arder bur it limiu the ruuse 01 chotce ti a1remative orders which are feasibJe mmsformations ofme cxvaing worJd h musr rejEC[ improbable alternadVe8 ju~t as ir rejecrs rhe pcrmanctlly nr lhe exiscing order (Cox 19 90)
Cridcal rheory differs lrom Marxist upproElchcs beCElUS( of iu tejection nf any daim to hold the objenive tru[h and betause or it~ avoidance of (he pmslllt ol il utopia Neverrhe1ess [heir analysis of incernarional relarln1l$ is one tbu hEls u numher of similariuumles wich the Marxisc pcrspecdve It regurds rhl tlistlng suucrures of world polirics as beiug oppressie not
- _ __ _-
lean because of rhe dominance of (he capitalism of che Unired StElte~ For many che USA is seco as a hegemonic power the prevailing urder - in re[ms rbar reReet he wrirings of the Itallan Marxisc writer Amonio Gramscl (1891-1932) Gramsd advanced the nodon of ln hisrori(middot bloc which in itself refilaquors che $Ocial reladons oE ptoducdoo The dominanr dass in a counrty - 01 indeed aoy social grouping - mlinrains cohesion and idenciry withio [he bloc [hrough the ptopagacion of a COIDmOfl culturegt A new bloc can be formelt when a subordinate dau can euablish tU hegeshymony over orher subotdioate gtOllpS (Cox 1993 56--7) The IDove rowuds hegemony comeS with the piexclt$ting fmm che spediacutek inrercsrs ofa gronp Ol
dass tO rhe building uf inrimdons aOO elaoorarion uf ideologies (Cox 1993 57-8) It Loiexcl rhat ptOCe$S thar embeds the incemu of the dominanc dan in an imttmrional form thae [w an appeal widet [ban that dan ine1f It the-refole repreSoems mote tlmn jUSt (he drunJnaoce oE one state ovec anocher bllt implies a cemufi acceptante of the tules arJd institutions purouized by [he hegemonic JIQwer Jo other woros it is all order wbicb most Olher Sta[e-~ (01 at 1enst those within reath of die hegernouy) couId find compatible- wirh their iexclmetem (Cox 1993 6t) h aJso involves noe just inttt-staee rueivirle5 bur rhose oiacute tlvilliOCiety (oon-Stllte socieM instishycudons) ebereby encoumging Hnks between social dus$ts iexcln the connules covered by ebe hegemony
What does Cox llave to uy about ioccmational Otgsniuciexclons 1bey Ilre scen in he oontext ofme wiacuteoo unaemanduuml18 of itnernational reUacuteltions mentloned iexcliexclhove He is direcr 000t mem Ooc mechanisru chrough wruch the universal norms of a wodd hegemony are expttssed js the interoatiooal organisation (Cox 1993 62) Why is chis so Cox U993 62) gives five teIlSons
bull They e-mbody rules cOae help (be- apwlSion of a hegemonic wodd iexclrder These insdwrians reflcct the intererts ()( the dominam social anil economic force- buc a1low a cettain amOunt oC adjusrment ro accommodare other subordinared interests TIms the USA WllS preplltoo ro mm conccssions to
bciI18 in Lhe EU srares and Japan ro rhe Wotld Trade Otganizatimt They a[e prooucrs of that order Though [he insrimrions and rules Ilce
nurITlllUy initiared by the hegemook power ir takes cate ro involve aOO comule a numbe-r of second-ronk stares and gaio theit supporc he Wotld Bank and Inte[nacional Mooetaty Fund were very much pan of [he world order thar emerged afrer [he Second World Wat and which was dominared by rhe Uoiced Stlres
They ltgidmi7e i[s nOlms by providing guidance for SllIteS and by legitshyimiuacuteulS cerraIacuten IlCdviries Ilr me narional leveL he OBCD afie rhe inrerruuiooal financia) irntuumluriom lave spread an acceptante of mllrket coodirions and sHict mOllerary iexclJlides
They co-opr elites from pelipheral counrrie Ihlented sraH commg 110m the Thiacuterd Wocld are expected tO dCCept he scriexclpt wcittttt by the domishynam power Bouuos Bourros-Ghati as Secteury General uf the Unired
166 Jiexclljiexclr1giexcl Qr1 ifJfCflrttuacutemal IWgaizati(ifJJ
Nadons stroyed too amp~r ftOm the gtip of Washinston and his second term was VCtoM by rhe USA His sucecssor Kofi Annan will no doubt undentand what 1$ n-quired of him He brings the mncerns of orhe states ro che UN bUf nor in a way thu threatt1l$ the USA
bull They absorb counter-hegemonic ideas Ideaiexcl $uch as 1iustainable dlYClop_ ment tukl even debr foTgiwness are taken 00 board by the intetnatwnal finarnial institlltion$ blu are trandirmel into pulido rhat swt them
Wh~t is ro be done Cox thinks thar the pfQblem of changiog dw world orUer 1iMuld be shlfred back from intern~tional insritutions tO niexcllriacuteooal $OIacuteishyeties where the sodo-political b~se for a new historie bloc mighr be ereated (Cox 1993 64) FaiJing the creadon of a new historie bloc of the new working cla$s and rural and urb~o marginal groups there might be tnmdorshymadon oC the curtent monopoly-libcral hegemony by adjusting to rhe demanJs oiacute local ello$ for polides 5uch as natlonaHution Cox 199~ 65) He aw advocates te-regulation of erooomies and a re-wmpositjon of civil sodery Internatiotla lnstlcutions induding organiutions can berome eontact puint1i fOr new $OCia[ furtt (Cox 1994 (11)
Critica throrJm $uch as Cox oifee a refreshing exposidon oiacute che posidofl oC imernatiooal ofganizatioos in a wocld where the main revolutionary powe~ have either collapsed (rhe Soviet Union) or se(tled into a cautious ronservatirun (China) Ir provlde~ a sceptical arf realisric world~view without acreptins tbe inevuumlahility ni a illture domlnared by mooopoly eapi~ ujsm sud the Utlired States J-Iowevtr its appllcariexclon to intemationa1 organhatJons 11 StImewha( timited tQ the maln global jnsdm(jons and th financial and economlc orgmiutions Ir has 1m (O say aboue regional nrgashynjudon Uf abour N(JUacutes Furthermore iu alternarive fu(ure testS on ourcoroes thu are far froro certain RevnJutlons in the Thied World are roore likely to be- irupired by nadondi$m oc by IsJaroic fllndamentaHfl OCalaquoely [he solid ooses for new historie blocs
Fwinuumll aNml4cbts
Feminist perspcctives 0f1 inttmatlonal rtlatioos llave in common wirh the erit~ ical rheocillu a rejclaquoion of (he dominance in rhe $Ilbjecr of the rcnHst and rdOrmisrs Although fuminist writen cover a wide 5laquolpe the gencral basis oiacute their aqurnent 1S har in interwnional relatioM ru in most politkal aud tcooomk acdvity women are diexclSJtdvantagt~l Alchoogh they own ahour 1 pet tCfH oC the worlJs lfOpeny and tiexcliexclxe heme 10 peiacute ceoc ofincome they perfurm 60 per eenr of working houn and provide 80 per eent of nfusets (petetsen and Runyan 1993 6) This is a derDOnstrndon of gender inequalitie~ the sodalJy learned behavior and expecratioos thar distioguish berween maKuliniry and femininity (Petetsen and Runpn 1993 5) Feminist aprroaches ofren So bejond the $tati~tks and examine (he mind~se[ of those engaged in the pmctice of intemadonal rdations whiexclch (bey ampee as geodered In other woros che world
Writingc Off inlmhJliofMl vrgntiZdlMm 167
illeen in a mlLlndine way thar kvrntB (he posjtiOll o( mnles in rhe hitgtranhy and devlllues the c041trihution of WQmeO (Sylvestet 1994) War in pattKular is gendered in a way chat keeps wornen and metl from qUtstioniog the essentiat pmpose and he neglltive effects of war militarization ~nd viQleme on their awn and orhers livts (Petetsen and Ruoyan J993 9 t)
What of wminist view$ uf imernationaJ organizationsr Ir IS not possible ro presem a rollf(tive vjew that eneomp3$~e~ rhe works of radicaJ femjnisu and ny iexclihetal teminists (rutead the work of one author Sandra Whitworth (1997) will be used as me pily$ rornt attrntion ro inrernarlonal organizations Aamper inrroductions ro feminilfr theory and internacional frIamiddot tiom and gendet and internacional relatlons Whirworrh examines geodet and imernational organilions She screpts Coxs vjew oiacute inrernational orgashynjzarions [har they retleltr (he dominant powet relations in che intetnational system and rhae internaliomd otgaoiution h che procelt of imcitntionaJshyiling and regulating conOice - eicher rhat which may IIrise among siexclates o( char which has iu (onU io transnationaI society (Cox 1980 375) TIte way duu pcople orgaoire themelve$ wirhin international iostirurjons reflects a variety of power relations ineludi~ of rollJSe gendec relatiull3 (Whitworth 1997 74) lbe triad of jnstirutions ideas and material rQudi~ tioru help ro hxare uSllmptiolls aboue geoocr withiu jntetmltional rewtioos Whitworth uses thesr tn examine lhe uooerstandillg oiacuteScndec io an INGO the Internadonal PlarUled ParenthooJ Federatlou (JPPF) and an intergnvemmental organilJ1rion (albcir one wlrh some oOl1-governmentJ)J represemation) the InrernatlonaL lab01lrOtganiution (no)
Whirworths studies show rhar thr IPPF tended ro accept the deshyemphasizlng oi the gendered oamfr of reproducdoo and (f) ignore rhe imponaoce ofbirth comcol foc womens reproductive freroom Instead in an effort tu popularize birth rontrol srrel~ WWl placoo on paremhooJ rather than iexclust the womans choice However IPPF poUcy beeiexcllme more radirnl in (he 19905- with Hnks beirtg made berween II1M control alld womeos ~)tu~ ality (WbJtworth 1997 ch 4 pmim)
The RO eoucerned itself with WQmen as workern It cnnsidercd that tbey oeeded spec-ial atrention and promoted ptoteCtlvt legiexcl~lacion This reiexcln~ forced me view (har [he male worxer Wall the norm with women workers nor deserving the same rights remunfration lOO mndirions Latterly however the JLO ha~ reflectoo views rhat prodaim wornens elt)ualily in rhe workforce and has sunoo tuacute assess the importanee of policies on womens role in rhe workplace as weU as in sodery more wjdely (Whlrwnrth J997 ch 5 panm) Whitworth comes [O the eondusion rhu iexclln iexcllnaLyiexcli~ of gernler in rbe IPPF and no shows how tbese rdiexcliexcldonsbips llnd definirions ni what it is to be a womltn oc man are structuted relationsrups3nd hlsrQciudly hve been scrurtured tu disadvantage women (ibid 15n
lo eommon with the critkal meorists Whitworth has useQ au examinamiddot doo of two intetnational organixations (O deroonstrate a puinr about imerflational relatiexclon~ indeed sodal rctatrol1s mOte widely The poinr is
I1
I
middot - ~-_ --___ aOOuc powec and iu use not (O balance oue SCdre ligaiOSf anorher but fm une gooup ro domiaare morher Jn chis case it 1$ ma the dominution of one dass me m culcnre over $ofU)(her (though Whirworrh recognizes those reLationshyships ti wcll) but of roen over women The crititUl uudy oiacute (wo jnceraational mganirations dealing with iSSlle5 recoSniud ti beiiexclg oiacute impocshycanee or WOfficn suggesu rha( tltOO simihu research on orher internacional organizadons could proJuce interening aOO uwfuiexcl resulrs
Pllit~ism
Thc posc-moderruacutesr $opprooch lO intetaarional rcllldon is one tlur bas (ome ro che fote Jn che perlod sinee lite end of rhe Cold War Jr is based on $o widcr imellectual viewpoim insrigated by l1rench iorcUtcruals of the 196()s gener~ ation _ Bllrrhes Derrida FouclIul and Lyorard - and whkh suggested rhat the modero era liad becn overome 11 fejeas mera-nattatives gnlud accounv- of hi5tory aoa iacuteNIacuteler subjecu as having no independem rubstance Scientifk btliefs induding [hose oiacute rhe $)(ial scJcllces are rooted in (lllxure polill(os arul mores oJ a wciery and are lherekJre subjective As rhere is 00
oblcctive reality cmpirical daims bave fl() spccial sunding in rhe rralms of koowledge IndeeJ ir i$ power aod knowledge are intimatel) incerwirud Posr-moJernism Hllnds against rhe belief of rbe modero pcfiod which LI seco as beginning wiacuterh rhe enlightenmcm of mid-eightcenth cenrufy Europe and AmeriCll Ir rheldore rejcn~ rhe COMCpr$ oC rationalirl and progrcss aSSuacutedared wi(h [he enlighrenment and [he moocrn age Thc uniry of IOOnkind iexclirW iexcldells such liS rhe untveIsWiI) of human aacuteghrs are rejcuoo lnsceadlocal aetion in smallgroups 15 advuacuteClmd
Post-modetnist ideas have affected tite srOOy of inremruionaJ rdarions as (bey have ocher social scienccs Posr-modern imeraarional relariops theoriscs havc ustd heir view$ 00 objecuumlviry (o exiexcltmine che rrmhs of international relatiom en see how rhe concepts iexclind knowledge-dairm (bar dominare the Jisdpline in faer are highiy conringenr on spccific power relatiom (Smith 1997 181) Post-modemisrs bave lltfa(red me mcta-narratives of the reelshy1m and reformlsu aHke The objectiacutevemiddot aaallses of the realim Ilnd neo-realisu are setn as being deJl(nclent on the subjective standpojnts of cheif mainly Amen(an and Europeau authors Ijcharcl amphiel (1986 258) daimed he works o[ Kenneth Waler men the leading neo-realillt trrat the glven ordcr a rhe natural nrder Jjmirs rarheE (lian 1XpawU political discllUtse negales oc rriviuliliS the signifinnce uf variely urOiS time and plue Whar emerges ii an ideology tllar anridpatcs iegirimires ancl onents a totalitarian projen 01 global ptoponioo~ che rattoualiaciuacuten of global poHcics iexclbe reformius are likcwise tainted Md have Ji mhr$lren belief in pmgress The posc-modernl$rs poinr m rh Helocausr as rhe heighr oiacute mooemism a rombimiddot Halioe of science dnd polidcal otganizillnon Il was SCruTely progreso
Given an antifllthy mwards rhe MlVe[iacute~ign srae borh as a centre of powet ll1ld as a crearioll Jiten imbutol wlth a wncepltliexcl uf progress pest~miexclJdetniexclsls
wHungJ mi Im~iexcliexclrun wgltiIRrzuJlU7iJ 1J7
can lOUcdy be expcctcd to vIacuteew intergovernmencal organiUlrions wirh sympilthy Tbe prefetted iacuteonu of internacional organizations when mentioned are those thiexcltt ltlj~plal differemes snd dlvenity in global pelitlcil duu are reginnaUy based or rhar reflec irKlividual actlOn Tndecd ir SeeIJS
rbat Michel Fomawt was involved with an alliance oiacute twO INGOs (Miquestdecin du Monde and Tertl-s do Hommes) in proresting agaiust internadonal iH~shydon over rhe boat people who flcd Vietnam in tite lare 1970s and ear1y 19S(k He is gU()[ed 11$ sayillg tbar Amnelltl Internnrlonal Teueiexcl dts Hommes Mfiiecin du Monde lHt inirilltives whiacutech have created a nrw righr rile dAht of privare individuss ro iexclntervene in [he otder of polino and internatioont snateg(eiexcl (dred in CampheH 1998 516)
Aootber researcher has exnmined ~he Europcan Communities Ilr che point wben Jr was mnslorming intO me European Unioo and askOO whether ir was a pootmodew ConJigUflHton (Nstrgaard 1994) Hi condusions wcre mar ir was gualiwiveJy a new organizarion oC human calJecrlvJties which mighr U$hec the coming of post-moderniry (Ntgttgnatd 1994 27j) The basis fO[ [bis judgemem was rhat me Ee did nO approximate anl modero form of piexcliexcl1idUll Ofpnizarion it did OOt commatld che means oiacute violence its au[hotity derives noc from die people and ir appeared to be a fCgJoo trying ro pOrecr itiexcliexclelf againsr globaliacutezadun iacuteN0rgaaro 1994 274--5) Ir remllins ro be sren whether [he BU tJf [he twenry-first cenrury wHl fu1fi1 rhtgtse hopes Ot wiU stllrr ro teVen
to a more scate-like being Generall) dIe cririolapproaches ro interruHiorud relarious hiexclJve provided
1lOOIe innovatIacuteve insigllls iexclnro rhe study uf imemarional orgsnizations The crtrical theorists llave becn sh3rpest in rheir unde[$(iexcltnding nf internarional ofgiexclt1lizacious as servsnrs of a dominiexcliexclIf power configuracion thoogh the) lave pemaps Umieed cbelr scope wllen viewing internacional organizadons Feminis[ wJiters ruave given Vltike to whac i5 after aH tbe scmi-sileut majoric) in rhe world and Ilre ouly srarting in qnest10niug the male dOmimiddot nance nuacutet iexclusr of the nmning of IGOs huc aloo of theic agenda Tite post-modemisrs are iMlSr concerned oiacute he (bree 8rOUp5 with inretnationlll organiucioru as such bllr rIacuteleic intellecrual approach is the ffiOSt tadkal aud can lelld tuuml a fnon of nihilism
GltJbaliacutesf lIiu
A gIobalisr perspective does oor viacuteew world poliacutetica as being predomishynandl arout iotergovernmemal relatlnn~ Ili would realisu or illbour inrentare aruI imersocietal rdations as a number uf reformisu llliexclll consider lnsteaacuted it cakes a more holisdc view Problems are (cmfronred ac Ji global level wlurions have tO be sou8ht here as weil This iexcls not ro neglcct (he 10tal Ol rhe ~tlte level ir is more J recognilion of the limiutshydoos of acdviuumles rhere The world-vicw like rhe reformists places empllasu on whal unIacutetes people Ilnd has lirde time for lhe demaoos of power pouumlics aad stare-cemrir orglLuiwrjollS Ir goe~ fllrther by nor
1 V WNimgJ lJ7f tIfernattmiexcliexclJ 11fK4111141tOnJ
liminog in view eirhec ro pans of che world or ro rellltions berweeo particuJar poliric~ lr ioded jlLSr m the economic social and poJitical demaods of mankind Paradoxically ir can be seen as IIn approach rhe very OppoSllC of the fimctionalist wirb whom tbere 5 much io common In nmtrast lO rhe fnnctionaHst (or neo-fllnctiooalisr or intetclependeuce srhuul) and ccrrainly in contrast ro rhe powet politks aOO MaOIacuteIt writers (be whole world approach places emphasis not 00 the discrere r~uiexclreshymems of groups SClteiexcl or individulI1s bm 00 tbe wel1-bciog of the tCOsystem in which rhf5f funnioll cbe planet Eanh The conccen of chis apptoach which is rcflccted il] in ttcumeUr of illternational urganizatiom is for the survival of lhe plunet for its effident funccioning in its widest SeILie aud fot che survival oiacute rhe myriad oiacute speoacutees - ollly one of which is homo sapiens - tbat inhabh me globe
Sinle tbe 196Os a number of wtiters on imernational affairs have expounded 00 tbis view and llave cOl1l~uendy ronsideted the implicadons for intemational organizacions Jobfl Button in bis World Society ronsldeted iflmstatt relations to be onIy a pan of wodd poli[iacutea and wrore
lf we employ rhe term world rociety imiexclreui of internanofla relarions iIacute we apptoo(h OUt study in this global way insread of the more tradi~ lonal nattonal way we will end to have a wider focos ro ask quesrions rhat are moee fundlmenral aOO imponant lO civilization and be ahle ro assess bettet me relevance of om own national bduviour ro be wider worW envifonment
(Button 1972 21)
Rkhacd Stetling posed the problem more spedfically
Nuclear esCllatiofl the popullltion explosion the pollmiofl of tbe envishyronmcnt the communkations rtvolurion rbe world~wide concentNdon of wC1llch and world~wide expansiofl of pltlvcrty are iexcliexcl11 essemially global and not 1laquo al pbellomena They have given rise jn tutn ro eartbshyspamuacutellg and revolutionary demands ror mass education rnass hesltb malts welfure and maltgts participation in che dccisions affecting roans fare
(Srerling 1974 322)
This wodd-view of rhe problems of the s)Jaceamphip EQlth begged fur global oolutlofl$ It suggcsred iexclhu not onIy iJ the system of sovereign stares as yer unable oc unwiHing to COme to grips with the above-menuontd prohlelUS but that a network of llllergoVCtn1lental organiutlom bGsed 00 me rights of statc wVfretgnt will ~lso be hammllng Globtl problems needed global solutlons based on institutinos rhat can (ake a global petsplaquoshytive Thus Sterling considetecl thllt it ~ tlOt unreasooable (O amidpate tme tbe member stares will be moved ro considft equippifllil the Unitw Nttous witb mote crunprebensive powen 1lt global pressUfes build 0974 323)
~h~ laquoo ~gt~ _- -gt bullbull (_bullbullbull __ - bullbull
A more compeluumlng cdH wus lAltiexclued by Barban Ward and Rene Dubas in their book prepared for [he UN Gmference of ehe Humafl EnVJroJlmenl 01lly UIIt EaFlh The c~ altJ Mdilllt1JatfCe (JI d Sflall Pta~t (972) 111ey stremsed the ufliry of tbe Eanh Jnd in eovironment and the )Jroblems in(ed by Jts iohabitants emntially thost oudined by SterJiog The ~uthoflgt poillted OUt rhat rhF envitonmenral qmosrion had by 1972 already had 50me impaltl on guvernments and im(rnarional organl1Jtion but the effior was somewhat ltInJOrdinated and unfocuseL In (hree particular aren - tbe global atmosphere rhe oceaml the worlds weather sysrellU - tbt-y saw [bl jmmediate neOO for (OmInOn poliey und co-ocdinared actiollS where vcerenshysions to national sovercigmy have no relevance ro ptrreived problems Bu rbefe was a need to go furrher and denl wirh other global problems di5Case srarvation iHitmcy unemployrnem ovcfllwding rntetnational poliCJcs wece at the 5tage reachOO wlrhin rhe devdoping s[ate~ of the ninettTtb (entury Elche they wiU move O to a wmmIlJlity bL~ro UiexclXIIl a more systematic sharin8 of weaJtb Ot tbey wiH break down in revoh and anareby (Wacd and Dubos 1972 295- -6) They Looked forward ro a sense of gLobal rommuniry 00seJ on he bope vf Irotecdon (from war aOO disaster) and the hope of enhancemenr (ecologic$1 as well as economid The ptlKtic~ and insrirutlofiS with whkh we are familiar inide our domestk sociecies would become suitably modlfied che basis of planetary oroer (Ward aOO Dubos 1972 297-8) This woold indude non~violent settlement of disputes witb legal arbirration ~nd polioacuteng ptocedures on an international basis jr would mea the Hansfer uf resoucces from rkh ro peor Ilnd inerCllSlaquo co-operaeion in arealt 5uch as health and edUcatIO farming uroon planning aud )JOlJution control As [befe halt been a shift of loyalty rom taroliy to dan from dan to tlation and from nation to fedctation there Wampll
hope clajmoo Wl1fd and Dubo$ for an ultimare lnyalty tuacute OUt single beau~ tifulllud vulnerable Planet Eanh (Ward and Dubas 1972 298)
Whilst the institutiona fmmework and organizational stfllCtuteS remain of necenity -ague in Oltl OM EaFtA iacutet is del( rhat the authors Wfre atming 11( a tlttwork oiacute world-wide fflnctionaUy hased organlzatiofll (both lOOs and JNGOs) char couId take on much of the work )JfCsendy done by governshymems o( rather whkh ougbt [O be dont by governmems UacuteJter writing-s have attempted (O deal wjth thc policy impliration$ of delllJng with )JrobshyJems globdly sroos (986) has poiacutenred en what 1w already been achieved in gtobal problem solving l1nd ha~ soughr ro buHd on rhis His critio have prunted out tha( what has already becn undertiacutelken has bren done more along rradicional Jntergovernmentallines (Donnelly 1990 121-30) Orbe writen have tied rubievemen[ in addressiacuteng [he global agenda more to renewed rutiviry in the UN (Rochester 1990 141-54) or to greater grass~ roots aud INOO acriviSffi Wget 1990 155-~8) Either way globaJj~m offeacuters a distinct W1ly of rackling the worlds ptublem~ It 1$ u ViIOIl thar sttesiexcles uniey and common (am( ntthet than disasreemem and roofrontashytion ir (ould thereIacuteore (oresce disputes being sruved inlernationally vety
much in (he way tbar chey are pre~ndy solvcd within tunny MtiOO iexclrares by more ro arbitratwn and Jaw and by entorcemenf ir neteS$il1) In this rhey have muh in COIDfllOfi wirh tire imerrnuiona lawyers iacuteUld idenlist writer of me eady (wenuacuteeh eemury mentioned at the beginning of tbu chaptet The globalisn are inspirecl jn rheir thinking more by ten Ot lt nudeal holocatlsr and by environmenml breakdown tnan by rhe duumleet elrpeshytieme uf wa dlllf aiacutefected rhe wricings of Woolf ol Ikierly
TIacutete globalisl appro~(h is opert ro the criticism of bcing roo idealistk jn a cynical world and lOO iIDpracrical in in uacutelstitutional sU8scsrioll5 Bur the di$mi$Slil oC rh~ words as globaloney cKleS HOt lid lite wctld oC che probw lems which hey have 50 effectively publiacutedzed They lutve uied to add anorIte dimensioacuten ro whar is possibte by showlng thar ie is nOCeSSiexcllty fOl rhe iexclurviwl of che planee
Tlle radical approach to the smdy oC iOternational orgllnizarions reflocu worIdmiddotvitws that normaUy lO beyond -dmse Jominated by rhe ltctivities of iexcltatcs or of LIte organizltuumlnns chemselves There is a sceprical view of whut is happeoing al soy one uacuteme in imernarional celarions and of he abilicy of mOfe cradicional wcifecs on imernafional cdarions ro explain let aJone llOderstand what is happeoing Ir is the feeling rhar approaches such ll1 (he MaNisr tlwt of rhe ideal theorisrs and some of rhe globuli~rs ur~ coming cber (O uodemaoding humanicys wider dilemmas rhar makes rhero so amactive They ar~ less Iikdy co apply rhemselves to rhe defais rutd wnrk~ ings oiacute p$cdcular imernatinnaJ organizations but neverrheless providt iotriguiog insighrs 00 [his phenomenoo by seeing rhem rhrollgh mol panoprk phHosophical lenses
SUMMARY
The rhree flIajor $chuols dealr wich io chis chaprer - the tcatiacuten the reformisrs iacutei1d che radical$ and rhe variarions (bey contain did not and do tlOf exJn iexcln a hiSforlcaj vacnum lde-as Wele foffilulared wirhio lhe COnten oiacute panicular sodedcs uoo in response ltO pUticular problems rbe communl (adom reYoludon of fhe nineteemb century the Finr World Wlli rhe rise of Nui Germany the spreading of nudeu weapons the deve1opmeof of plthitshy
$econd Workl War Europe fbe pnxeues of decoloniwion and deacuteteme rhe end oiacute the Cold War and rhe advaoce oiacute che inCormatton revolution In sorne CilSC$ the views oiacute rhose wdtings on inttmiddotrnational ocganUatlOHS have liad un efiecr on evenrs rhemelves pirlKulatly 00 rbe actitudes oC govetnrnents mwards tnternatiorW orgdflixauons AIl tXample is the work oC LecnarJ Woolf woose suggesnons Ctmceming a world organizatloo conttibuted lO fhe detailed preparnion oC the Lague oC Nations by me British goveltr mene Likewise Hans Morgeruhau and EK Can provided seimuli fot infiiexclrmoo US and Btirish governmcllul rhinking abom inrerruuional rela~ tiom iexclrom the 194Ck onwards In mher cases rhe general writings cJ persons lgtuch as Marx Leoin Mao Tse-tung and che dependencia school have affecred
rhe poJirk1ll dimare wirhin which govemmcncs conduce rheJe poUcy iucluding thar wwards jnternaclorull otgauj~atjon$
Orber ruCfOf$ aplft froro their historial cuntexc Iuve affencd the views of rhe schunl$ rncntioned They have differint backgtounJs io cheit ideruogy (Wesrero commllniSf Third World radical environmenralisr) and in theit level of $nalysis of inrernarional rebtions (stare Centuacutec inretesr aoo rramna~ dona groups cLitraquo dominanr global) This a(icca the typC oC inrernatiacuteonal organizariacuteon dominam io their studies (IGOs INCo) auJ thcic 8eograph~ kai $rea of interest (the Nonh Adandc Europe ThinJ WodJ Ot global)
TIte range of wcitings about intetnational organizarions has ull dte whole teflecfeJ wiJec llooersundings of imetoational ceJarions and wuumltld polidcs These io rhernselves have fed 00 tbe gtVidc iacutellccUecmal fcnnent and on developrnenrs in world affiuacuters Viewl about iacutellteftlational ocgsnizatJoos wiU continue ro take accOlnt of the ince1leeruaJ debate ill the studjes oiacute polishydes internacional re1atioO$ philosophy ecooomics imematluacutellal uw sociology histoty and geogrilphy They will also reflecto among other ampcton che stntcegk balance in tbe world [he relafIacuteve power of tiJe United Stares aod oroer nares me scate of wotld markers [be pto-ess uf Euwpeiexcliexcln tlllegrashytion che relacive positloo of the developing warIdgt iexclbe levd of cootlicc througbolc the world fhe -ratC of dte environfneot and the ahility oiacute huge StatCS to wiacutethswnd cenrrifttgal force Tbe way tIacuteult imematiornal organiuiexclshydons ret1ect tbese developrnents and tIacuteleir t1Ipability lO deal wich some of them will provide (he tllW fiWifcrial foc funue smdies
130 Writingi (f1I iexclktnati~nal I11glttftiZAtitlrlJ
Intecnationallawyers have airo given exteosive comideration ti particular instimtions The League Qf NatJons attlacted special attention as lawyen played an imporunt role jn J~ dmfting and as it had as tU aims che pmmotion of international c(K)perntion aoo the achievement of iexclnrcrna~ tionru pcace and eturity
by the ficm establishment nf the undersrnndings of imemauacuteonal law as tbe actual rule of condun among Governmenrs aOO by the maintemtnce of jnstice and a scrupulous mpect for all treaty obligations in the dcl~middot ings uforganised peoples wirh one another
(Preamble to tbe Covenant)
Furtbermoce the central pan uf che CQvenant dealing with the keeping of peace (Anide 12-16) OOopted a legalisck approoch in delining nn OCt of wu against all Ieapue membecs as being rewtt to war in disrtgaru of Anides 12 13 or 15 (Attide 16 (1raquo) In other wottb the cardina15in W$$
tbe breakiacuteng of rhe legal gretment mOOe wirh otner stares Imernational lawyeM in pIlrtkuar were ooncerned wirh how Iacutenlernarional IacuteiexcllW might be agreed judged ane enforced in lhe jnter-war perIDd lhey turned much of their atrention to the anivities oC che Permnnem Coun of Intemational Justice arul lhe league of Natlon5 Judge Hcrt(h TaureIp3cbc foc eurtlrle ronsldetetl rhat aH Jntemlltional dispures were justiciable and thus open (O
soludon by [he judicial process in internacional law He considered tbe League tu be useful 5tep in the development oE inrernational law and be sanctions 1I1lowcd Cor in Anide 16 of [he CoveOilnt as marking tbe fitn step towws he collective enEonement uf internacional law (Laurerpacht 1970 9)
The league hOO iexcles advocates among orher lega writers AlCred Zimmern wriring io 1938 set Lhe Leagues activjties and institurions against che backshydtop of the gathering 5tOrm io Europe He still found much ro ~y lor ir it had rkveloped 2ru1 expanded tbe old iquestiplomaric ystem bad enrouragro wshyoperation in many ateIlS ane $r leur represeotecl iexcllfi artempt to ellminate WIlr even duting a period of whar Zrmmern caHed cmhquukes (Limmero 1939 491-509) Lord Robert Cedl one oC the fuunders of rhe League as weU as a lawyer and Conservative poHdcim admined when wming ln 1941 rbe Cailure of the orgamzation in preventing aggressive powers Neverdreless he hoped that iexclt would be reformulaced after bosrilities with a CI)ll of confederariacutean uf European tates the cenual objecr of which should be the preservatl(m uf the European peat e Peace in cbe test oE the world would Jepeod pretty weU on tbe then jusr~eltiexclsting Covenant wirh sorne small changes Cecil did admit rhat another piece of rnachinety couid do Iittle unless [he peoples allJ govemmeots cea11y tgtlt che enforcemenr nf law ann mainrenance of pealte as me firtr and grearen nadonal Jmereus (erH 1941middot 349-51)
The hopes of (hore ho yearned fur legal soludnns tO intemartonal
WrjlingJ 1m inffll7lltJfriexclftai rltgmiwtitln-iexcl 131
dt1putes dearly dcdined a~ the UN Charter wjth iacute~ emphasis on politica1 solutions to what were palideal disputes tepiacelti tbe optimist1c legal (otmula~ uf the League Covemutt The UN Chancr was not to be without tes Internationa Jegal romrnentaluts Indeed tWO early stllndard books on rhe UN are by diJtinguished lawyers Kelsen (l950) and Goodrich ti al (969) though the hmer have admitteu that when iexclnterpreting [he ltlwrter
since rhe responsibiliry for interpretadon is VC$ted in Ofgan~ and memben alike che process is more iexcliexclkely to be politia than judishyoacutealDeciexclsiltm~ rend to renea lhe enmmon intetesu of members in achieviug cerratn results
(Goodrich If JI 1969 15)
Other legal commentators have placed emphllSis 00 [he role of jtlterna~ tional orgaoJutions in tbe development of particular aspects of innl11iexcl1tional ew ami again haltle secn tbe rleyelopment uf the rules aon notms of internashytiOfliacutell society ~ howeyer imperfeltmiddott - in tbese cases Examples are Kratochwil (1989) who who has written generally ou the 1mbject Jaebon (l997) and Thomas IInd Meyer (19J7) on the world tradins sysrern Kiss 11M Shelttm (1991) on Iacutentern8ljoual envttunmenral law aud Human Rights Watch 09921999) and Bianchi (997)on human r1ghu iSIuc
lnternaonalgotJt1tmenlfgwfINIJJlue
Anorber AmcriC3llegaI aurhority ayde Eagleton gave the Unired Nations a critJcal though romewhat undmtaning appreciarioll ~mmmiexclng np its dilemma thus Ir (he Uniled Natioru cannor do more than ir ha~ the ampult liacutees with rhe Memhccs wbo marle it and opcrllte it and who j[ SfflIW slaquon preret the tootb aOO the fang ro internationallaw and order (Eagletoo 1948 552)
Eagieron placea the record (lf che Uoited Nations in thc context of irs predecessors in the hisroey of rhe gttlwth ofinternational govemmem and of iu legal and politica background He examined pmposals to achieve the inrernational government thff the UN ailed tu rt1tCh bm condueed chet fI chaogc in he attimdes oC Stares aud their pcoples JS neerkd fipiexclt (Fagl~too 194$ 583) Eagletons wnrk uuderlioed tbe point made by Evan Ltmm in his ntemd1ifma1 A~lIaacutetJ (977) that with (he existence of the UN and its lSSfJ(lated agencies many of che wodds prohlems are Ilor wirhout jmtiexcltu~ tions exercising authority over them The powers uf (his mnge of organizadon cau bc queHioned as Ciexcl1n chejr standing in relnion tn thcir rovereign state membera bur rheir exisrence in tne ptlStmiddotwiexcliexcl[ world ~ aud tbcir grnwth (rom their niacuteneteemh-cenrury hesinnings is a reality
Thi$ inrerese in [he 8rQwth of iorernariona[ governme(l( i tleithet new nor resrricted m the legal pmCeMion Oue uf the earlier publicauumlnru on tbe subject was by the writer leonard Woolf who Walt a fOllude uf the Fahian
132 WriJil1gJ (IfI htfmtaJIacutefmal argmitAJium
Socilaquoy che reformiu discusston group witbiu rhe British Ltbout Parry Wtiting in 1916 he omllned dJe exrenr m which imerllliootlal govem~ mene had been lKcepted rhroogh diplomade garfteaacutengs rhe use of public and privQce JmefOatwllru unions and che iocrtlSe iexcln commodify ugreemellts aad he PU forward plans roe che further teguJation of JmeroadOllal OCrltty lf war is (( be prevemed he elaimed states musr submir Q mUte intetuashy[jonal conrrol alld governmenr in their poJiticnl and udrninl1litrative rdadoru (laquooolf 1916 nB) He udvanred a Fabiao Cornmirree plan for nte Stipranaciacuteonal AudlOrlty cllat wiIl Preven War eiemenrs of whih fOllnd their way into (he Lea8ue Covenane aml whieh inhJt iexcliexcllid teCtJlllmended rhe estab1ishment of an Inrernatloclal High Grua an lntemadooai Coundl of sutes represenrnrives ami JO IOtelThldonal Seltreurjlil Woolf and his Fabiao coUeagues hoped dlar wirh rhis machiuery legal justiciable disputes wouM be 5ubmined ro rhe Cona Of a similar tribunal and orher dispmes ro the Couocil foc senlemenr with che patries rn he dispute ccnsmilned from warlike actjon fue a period of a year Provision was ro be rnade fur sancrions which ali sutes shoold pm inro open1rion lind al agfCltd tO make common cause even ro he exren( oC war against any constiruent Srue which violates thi$ uacuterndamentai llgreement (laquooolf 1916 233)
Woolf mgetIacuteltr wuumlh juriiexclu iexcluch IIS Hersrb Lauterpadu and Alfred Zimmern and British poliricaJ wrIacuterers like Pbiiexclip Nod-Baker LJrd Ceei and Gilbert Murlliy represented bmh [he praccuumlal and intdlectual mpponen ni lhe League of Natiacuteom in the interwar peuacuteod wbo were ouacuteen daified as iexcldealisrs or neo~rotiam Hedley Bul 0966 ~2 5) r1esnibed the rennal Grotlan assumption (named after (he seventeenrhshycentury lesal wtiter lIugo Grotiu$) as being rhat of the solidariry OI
porential solidariry oI (he SUtes comprising imemarlonal sociery wirh respect ro che enfurcemem of [he Law and Grodws basic crjredon of juse WI bt-ing fought in order ro enforee rjghrs a fimiofl dearly edwed in tbe Pabirin Comm1rrfts The Snpmnatlonat AuthorlEY rhll will Prevenr War BuH criricized rhe way ibis group lost sighr of intemarional polirics in rhelI preoccuparion wirh 10eroational1aw international otganization and intfoiexclniexcliexclriQnlll saciery
10 deallng wirh imefIUldonal marnti~y which rhey were indined ro confn$( wirh internarional law they eon[ribu[ed only a narrow and llflcririal rlaquorimdr whkh eKalred [he jnternational inreresr over tllujoual iexcllIrert~r~ (bnt wirhorlr asking bow rhe former was ro be detershyminel) mtlltiexcltimrimwl rdorm over revolurJon as [he meaflS of ll3lliCcndinA lhe soriely of sovereiNn states (bur without considering wfteher SUtCS cOllld OCcOIlIC [he agents of rheir owo ~rincriofl) and respcu fue legaliry oler [be neoo foc chaoAe (bur wirhour fdciflg up ro r~ mer that rh~ in(~rnadooal legal sys[em as (hey construed ir could nOl aecommodate change)
(BuU 1972 36)
Wrllingr on inlmralirmal ()fganiUJliofU 133
This J5 a teUing enough asseSSffiem of che idealim views includill8 [heir writings (tri imernarional oeganiurions HOWelef [he background of [he groop $hould be remerobeted they represellteJ a genemtion devastawd by the Finl World War ud whiacutecb wa~ used ro national suciery (early twenderh-teocut adtaio) lhat had henelired through institutional chal1ge and in whiacutech the rule of law had not preduJed remrro The k-gtgue of Natioo5 che Permanenc Coun of Illternuional J1L~tjce (PCI]) and [he 110 wen for rhem part of 1 Great Expedment to we Lord Cecil~ phrale
Wrirets in the last guarter of the twentieth century picked up and develshyopoo many of he omions current in rhe aoove Jirerawre aud srr~ed how iacutenrematiunal ioceocourse had heen governoo by a body of laws nl1~ lind feguladons ano by insdturions indlldifl8 internatiotlal organizatioO$ Though they llave kcpr rhe analogy with the domescic government of cirishyzens thef have preferred rhe terro internacional governancc demoosrrating thar such a system docs nOl hnve che son of enrorcemem powers expected of naticnal govetnmencs Notions of global governarue huve becn corered above whete tefereoce has heen made tU tbe idea of an imernarional regime (Pp 108-10) Thi5 concept helped bdng internacional olgsobacions iexclmo rhe wider titerarure abom inrernadonal cooperedon 11M governance in a srate of anat(by rneaning an absence of interOlltional governmenr with signifkant er[orcemem powers
In the early and mid~1990s IiHendon was agam wrned ro che manageshymenr of che internlitional environmem in rhe wake of the UN Confetence on Environment and Development (UNCED) al Riacuteo de Janeiro BnuiL gtlhe environmem seemed ro be a classk caudidste fur global governance pardy becl1use ir was glob-al and partly because of the range of instlwdons involved in iexcltS managemem In the words of Josepb Nye etTective intet~ narional envitonmental instltudoru thu$ helped w overcome sorne Ol (he rypical narional bordenecks tbar hiacutender cootrunated meusures to revene rbe frighrening trends of global environmental degradaLion llnd improve rhe possibiluumly of susrainable develo[lmenr of OUt plaller (Nye 1995 x) The assumprion of Keohane tt al was that whlle StateS may have difnculry ad~tessiexclng jmernationaacutel erlvitorlmemaL problems coopenuion betweeo governmen[$ couid hring dividends Eff(Xtlve intetnstiooaj 111stitutions wete needed which may take rhe form of internacional orgauuations rcgimes Ol informal conventlons They were seen in che woros of Maurlce Strong (Secretary-Cener-iexcliexcl ofUNCED)Ul rhe bllsic framework for 11 world sysrem of governance whkh iexcls imItJdve to rhe effective functionmg uf our global rocieey (1990 211 l2) The aim was pragmlltlC to see whetber rhe intemational josrjmrioos coveriug the environment had made a posirive difference especially in rhe polltiad iexcleid
Case rudJes were presenred (bar exploroo the impact oiacute inrenwiotl$l insriturions witb [hree conditions essenrja lor effecuumlve acrioo on the enlirOumem high levell of gownlflmtl bullmam a hospitable 1lIiIraiexcltttal t1Iy~
rrmmml suiliexcloacuteem poIiuacuten U1d ddltiniJtY(JJM CiJpacity in national
134 Wrftln[f 111 iexclttntntiona organiufif)lfJ
governments (Keohane tt al 199 11) The case s(Jdies Weuroe seen in rerms of agendiexclt selting internacional pnliacutecies and national policy ttJpon$($ (Keohane iacutef al 1995) The three authors wtJe aware of the strong influeDce of stare powers in iexclnrernadnnal institurions and of rbeie meagre result5 in sorne areas Nevetthees~ they set down three ronditions uoder whicn inrer ootional institutions can alrer (he bchavior of state actors and in turn improye environmenral qualiry (Keobane ti a 199 19) These afe
1 gnvernmencal concern has ro be higo enough [Q pmmpt the 1lte ufscarce mources lO tllckle tht problem
2 roere haiexcl 00 be a contllcrual enviroruncfit where ~tnttS make (rediMe coounitrnttlts and make iexcllOO keep lglremerll$ rhar incorporare joiotly enacted rules withour debflitadng fuAtof ftte-riding ur cheuting by othet1l
3 states should haw the pnlitical and adminimadve capaciry to make the domestk adjusrtnents necessruy ro implemenr international norms principies and rules (Krohane et al 1995 19-20)
TOe empha~iexcls -in chis view nf glotm govemance is on rhe relncionship becween rhe internuional anQ tIte Illlt10naL
Pan oE gJobtl govemsnce - ai noted in Chapte1 3 - are lnrernntional regimt$_ Thcampe are set- of implidt o explkir principies norms rule and del ision making proctdures arounrl which actors eJCpelttadons converge in a given area of internacional relatious (Krasner 1983 2) [1tey are subSu of irttetnational sodcey and its imtitlnions Imemational reglmes which are oft~o speciacutealitecl auangemenu limicer by function oc gengraphicaJ area are amngemcnts hat BoYe1n cooperative behaviour intetnatioOldly Thee are thus mure wiJely Jrawn than internatiunal organizations The latcer accurdifl8 ro one of the most profific wrltcrs on the $ubject Oran YounS 0989 1994) can boeh stimulate the process of regime formation nnd can htlp implement thei provisiuns (Young 1994 164)
Funuitrltdlisu
An eady bff~1c with the trmJtional view of international organizations based un the state-centriacuter mudel cm be seen in Leonard Woolfs book [ttltmatiltraquoldl
Grni-17111I Alrhough srilJ primarily coruemed wich interamptate relations and the questiolll of peace and secudry a sizeable BCniacuteon o( lis wriring5 rover governlnenral tlaquohoical and economk co-operatioo and INGOs
Ve are accustnmed to regard the wodJ as neady diided iexclnto compartshymenU caUed states or nationLBut chis vjion oiacute thewodd divided into iacutesolated compllrtmenrs is nor a cme reflection of fiu 15 as they exisc in a urge pottion of the etlnh [orlay
(Wnolf 19l6 216-17)
Writtng( (111 hmmatiacute(lrul f8grllliulinnJ 13
Snch a step pladng gre-iexcllter emphasis on non-star ime~natiacuteonal rtloshytions wa~ taken furrher in duo writln8~ o( me Romanian-bom aothor David Mitrany Mitrany ideas known iexclas the functiondisr appooruh lO
internuional politics were inspired by his early Iife io dIe Ba1kans He (ouoo much imelletruaI sdmuiatinn ofter coming ro Lundon in 1912 olld working together with Lennanl Woolf among otlters in the Ieagne uf Nations Society [he labour Pattys Advisory Commiuee on [nternational Arrairs and the Fabiexclan Socieey His (WO malor eacly worlca wcrc Tin PrtlgftlJ of lt1tmutt(IIId GtM1NmAnt (first pnbl~hed in 1932 rcprinted in Mitrany ([915araquo) and A WorklNx Pem Sylttm (fiCSt published jn 1943 rcpobHshcd jn 19(6) though he abu made a 1mbstamial nmtribudon in anides unril bis dearh in 1975 Many uf his writings tQgethcr with an amobiacuteographical piecc and In inuoouctjon are guhered fogefher in Tht Funcfuumlmal TwJry of Prdilia (Mitran) 1975) In his t932 work he omHued the nlnereenrh(intury growth iacuten intertwtJonal govenmcnt ajong similar lines as Woolf
The ninereenth cenrmy prodwed that amazing growrh in che mattrial equipment of (iiiiudon whifh weldcd the wodd togaher into (me organk whoiacutee making eaclt people a partner in tire Iacuteitte uf al The outwatd CXpelsiacuteon nf that change WQ5 the ~rance nf WQrld-wide popular movements and the making nf innumerabJe privare md public imernatjonal agItemenrs
(Mitrany 1915a~ 89)
Mitrany WiacuteI$ concerned thar (he rise of the fllidon-state and the insiexcl~tence of new statcs on che doctrine uf lluvereign equality when (bey were dlldy weaker and smalJer tban the Grear Powers hindered internacional lt0shy
operation in for example the cconomic lphere HowCer he 1lW rbar the fnne ofevents wu working agaiexcln~t sta~ism
No maeter what rhe size and shape of rhe particular community lo funcrions are such thar rhey haye to be organized and the fOrres and (crors now iexcllt work no longer have llny rroe telarion tlt) rhe uld pnlitkaJ divisions wirhin or withuJ( rile state The new functiom imposed upon our puliria instiacutetutions art compelllng 11 complete recomt(Ucrion of tile technique of govemmellt on a purely practical oosis 1 teach that rondU$ion by ming at the Illltset noto what is rlte iexclden form for an imtrnadonal $odetyiexcl but mher what are 1tS C$sential ftmctions
(Mitrany 1915a 99)
He claimed hat C$$cntially the nims of intemalional governmcnt were no diffcrent from dlo~e (lf municipal gnvernmenr w aCaJt equality bcfore the iexclaw for aH rnemben of the cnrnmuni(y and ro lrumote sodal jUlltict To expen [O achieve rhe first aim in inrernatlfllltliexcl sodely whefe 5talCS wcre
l ju WrJll1Jgs en mlWnal101tJf (iexcl(gamufJf)lJJ
nei[her eqna nor unchangiug uuiu would be unreascnwtc Ir woold be far more prncriC1iL ro cmnpromise rhis aim and CSLablish a League of Nations in which Grea( pQVeri woulcl he dirlltdy representelt Secondary Jitates woulcl have group representiexcliexclrioo afld malter ~tatet w()ulcl have panel repmentatioo At the same time sfCortdary bodie$ would be ser up in varJous pam of che world 11$ orgnns (lf regionJI grouptngs of Jitares artd (hese bodies woulJ be connected with and subordInare tO the new CCOtta League organs They wouiJ aleo be iexcliexclbie ro clesl wiacuteth problems mOle teaclily especially as the unanimity of aH srares would not be needed [Ol a senlemem
These suggesdom are noe (he novel aspeltts oE Mitran)$ work They are imponam in changing (he emphasjs away from the tighu of amptate wwards rhe dude oc lit ICllSt (he actlvJries of Hates Still the conccto was wth Ilrrllnging relnrioru netween snm~s In a paper $ubmitrecl ro che 8drish foceign Office in 1941 and in hi~ study A Wking Peaa Symm (966) Mirrnny wncenrrated on how che (unctioru of gOYernment might be cnrried OUt more exptdiriously He rtcognhed chllr withio liberal 1emocrati( stare~ [he Une berween whirh futCtions are Cflrried Out by pubtic and by privare aclioll was shifriog lIod that rhi5 line unde (he prel5ure u( (rt_ih social Ileeds and demands musr be Jeft free co move with rhem A similar demamuiacuteon existed in che terrirorial spbete interlla~ dooally wme (uncdons (eJ railway systems) could best be organized cOlltinenroUy some intercontinentnll) (e8 shippillg) alld some univcnaUy (eg aviation) However there would be no need for rigid patteros exccpe perbaps io tbe exercise of negadve (unctlons -- those related ro securi[y wberc more fotmal sacle lnstltuclOns WQuld be needeJ In (he field o( positive (unctiacuteoru (dw$C tdatecl ro economic eultunl and sodal affairs) he climensions ocgans and powers of any organiorion would be deler~ miacutened by the nature oiacute the funccton and would be fairly flexible Mitrany fmfSaw tbe tStliblisbment o( functional bodies wirh auronomous ta~ks and powers which wonld do thingl joiacutently Tbis wuulcllink aucborlry tu a specific activiacutery (hUi breaking llway foom the tradicional link between authocieyand a ltIacuteeftnire ~erritory Murany 1966 125) 11iacutes move wcmlcl avoicl he sreritity uf many of rhe wartjmt suggesdons fue posr-war (ecltrn~ tions O connitudonal innovariacuteon in rhe United Nacions whlch f~eteoacute 00 he opposidon oiacute sovereign sraee reiiexcltance Mitrnny hoped rhat che number uf internarional agencies (hat had exisred before the Serend Wodd War augmenteltIacute by the A11ied board durJng rhe war lrsdf wuuld u~rve u tbe ba~lS foc (he network oiacute inremarional gOvernrnent He quoud wlrb obviow appruval the wurd$ of an Amerltlln scholar J Payson Wild Jr 00 the varlOUS warrime experiments
The Hues between domesuc anltIacute iexclnrernational actlvlty ate blurred ancl nadonal adminisuatlve agencies of the Powecs concerned Smneshytimes engnge in domestk busint-1s and at orber rimes extend theit
Wrilings Ofl hllenJdUacuteoN1J org411iatiofJJ 137
(unctioru ioro rhe uumluernarionul sphere The resuh is o conglomerashydOn o( intermnional bwrd aocl domestic staf( whose dlties Illrermiacutengle Adminisrrnr1ve offtcers o( narional lmirs deal direcdy wirh rheir opposire numbers in orher S[1l[es WirhOlU benefit o( diplo maric intermediaries and simlllmneously perEorm borh nacional and intemational tasks So fu no attempt has been made en estab1ish iexcliexcl
super~State
(Mitrany 1 6 167)
Mitranyll villion is oE a world in wruch che functiollS of ~etyday $odal 1Jfe - transport healrb care rommunicatioos agticlllture industrial developmenr sciendfic developmenr and so on - are no Jonger assidl1ou$-ly carried en witbin rhe confines oE each sovereign iexcliexcltflte but ate underuJen across fmmiers on a tegionai cominental oc univetsal bflliiiexcliexcl These acrivjw des would be overseen by international Ofganizatioru which wOIJld be more like boards oE managemenr Tbe functional agencies of rhe UN (che no WHOgt FAUacute etc) already underrake urn ro~opetative t$Sks fIli do sorne non-governmental groupings of spedalisrs (League of Red eron Sndedell World Srout Movement etc) However tbe Une berween what has been done imernationaHy aOO dome$tkally bas tuen drnwn very much ro [he beneflc oE che latter and international activitid bave tuen riddted with politicel dispureoJ rnany oE which have liule ro do wlth me good manegemem of the (unction iexclnvolved Mirranys laquoheme would fiexcludually lOwtt rhe liue ro aUow more functioos ta be Citded OUt at rhe level where they wOrk more efficieruly and woukl proide managemenr of tbere funcshytions ra[her [han poHdclI1 interference Not onty would his develQpmeof beuefit (he general social welfure of the world ir would abo hcIl (O salve rile problem o( plaCe and security The LHliputian ties o( internacional fuucrionru co-operarion would piacuteo clown me giam of conflict weakenlog [he urge ro destruction and warfare by rhe promise of consmlctJoo and cashyexistence
The (unctional approach does nor focus solely on iorergovernmenral organizacion buc aUows for a network 01 spedaliuxl agencies roany uf which could be non-governmentaL Ir difftr in emphllSi5 ftoro che mainshystream craditionalis[ wricings and Mitrany~ work praaged a move away from internare relations 10 wotld politics Whilst the functiooaJ alpoolUh does not oReod against lh sentimem 01 nationaJity )t the pride oE sovereignty (Mitrany 1965 139) lhere is no doubl chat ir is meant lO weaken the i~por(Jloce and power of the middle roan berween rile indi vidual and a world communiry che sovereign scnre The feeling o( solidarlty enrounged by functionallinks 1s nor between states but beween people or assoclatioos of individuals Each of us is ill fuer a bundle of funCflonaJ loyalties so dWt tO build a wodd communiey upoo sueh a concepdoo is merely to a(eM artd consolidare ir also betwetn societies and grollps Micrany 15 14n
138 Wriling5 fin illttrnatiQJIa1 (ffanizatio1ts
Such IIn imaginative appruach tu wodd problems aud be mundiUlc hard~ working iexclapolitical role lt implieamp fOr interuational organizadons has its fiexclruIrs To ctiexclddu Mitranys functionalism as being impronica JS IUlfalr hoth because internlltionru functiornd links hllve grown espedaUy since the S~ World Warj and blaquoarue M1tranys approach is a gradual one he did OOE expeCt ir ro be adopted overnighr Even so ir cioes have certllin 11mbiexclshyuow a~pets which shOllld be criticany eDmined
Piexclrsr de5pite rhe refere-nce to possible regional fimnionalunmgement8 Mitranys pJans ron counter ro rhe notion of aU-embraciug regional organi utJoru such as the Europcan Communities now E~n Uninn (Mitrany 1975b 53-78) Whibt these organwdons roay Hnk their iexclamhotity ro a speoacuteftc activky $ueh as the conditloO foc running (he coal iexclaud steel indusshytries nr the agriculture of the EUs member states they sta hold w the rrnditinnal1ink betw~n authodry arul a definirt territory The cooJ and sr~l polkies or tite Common Agticultural Policy uf the BU are nor extended to tbe industries and fumen of other non-member countries who mar wish lO participate in theit ochemes Vet il can be argued toar ir is prccisdy in these iexclirnited geographicill blocs that flIlCtiOruJ arrnnscments are besr executed wirh limitations un mernhetship To wnrk propedy chemes must encompuss denned aras with a good deal jn common - the flexibility of Mitranys proposal wIQutd 500n break dOWIl )l the tnembers WlJuld have $O little in cornmon in fo cxampie the runnill8 of agriculture tbat coshyopetation would be dif(kulr or lloo-proouctiacuteve Furrhermore rhfmiddotse regional atrangemenpiexcl overcorne the problems of dedding the meaning hQundaries and consequtIlCCS of any particular function (Melaren 1985 142)
Second Mitrany did not really envisagc any piexclHejcal control of the futlCtiooal des between COllntdes mus distinguishing him frorn [he more traditionaliacutest approach lO inrernational orgaruwcions lle was hopeM dw the pmblems of roshyurdillltion between ronctionalagencies could be worked out as they lllOOe
To prescribe fOI the suke of [iexcladicional ne3tleSS somtthing more dennite han the guidancc and supervision of eg the Ecooomk Md Social Couooacutel W(lU1J be ro duron he whole conetprion from [he niftJo impollC upon them (funct-lonal bodiesJ a co-otdination authoriry with anyrhing Iike comrolling scuus w(luId be ro move again roWllrd$ that JiacutecumuJarion of power ar the centre
(Mitrany 196~ 143)
Thus [he institmions uf (he Eutopean ClJmmunitic~ - the Counoacutel uf Milli~iacuteers rhe Commission che Courr of Justicc rhe European Padiamenl dre Economic md Social Comlllittce - were al analnema fO Mitmny They werc juu miacuterrnring the poluacuteical COflffOh of lhe nation state ar iexcliexcl pa-n-continenullcvel anU according to Mirrany Continental unious w(luld have a more real chance thau individual suteS to pnletise the aurarky thae makes or division Mitrany 19(Kiacute 2n This may u((end
Witi1lf1 rm imernatilmalllrgaraquoiutifJ11J 139
agains[ lhe funcrJonalisu hope (r iexcliexcl universal apprOlltIacutel tu proble[Jls but (he abhorrence of policial imtitutions is lItrange wIacutelen [he funriona agenoacutees will aftee iln be mllkJng poHtkal decisions -- declsions roncetning lile aurhontative allocafion uf resources No only will iflfetnashytional functiunal transpon organizations established accordlng to Mittany have (O decide that cerEain areas wiH bt weU served by railways and Wds orhers llOt iexcliexclorne ports bujjt up others ieft to tlceay sume airlines expanded whlle rnbers are allowed ro fOllUact blt deeisiow wilI have ta be made on how w diexcl~tribu(e 5carce re~ources betwccn fo example iacutenvemtlent in transpon ur building more hospitals or restfllcturing rhe srecl Jndustty thwughour (he area eovered by [he orgalliurions Thee arc paHdeal declsiQw ln a period of economk growth and plenry [hdr potitshykal niexcliexcltute may be le5S obviou as resources are avaiuble for almost eVery plan advanced by world 01 regional shjpping aviation heaJth or sree1 O1ganizatioos Otherwit there mn$t sllrdy he a system by which scarce mrnurce$ are aUocaced Tbis problem was flJed squardy by Mitr1ny successors iexcln the neofunctionalin school (dealr wIacuteth in the SC(tiOH tbat follows) but ir doell seem ftoro Mirranys writings fhat the world of funcshytioollJi~m is a wodd of IlnUmiacuteted resounes (Melaren 1985 146)_
A third problem in Mimuys approach i~ brought out in a eommtnt by lniacutes Claude The functiacuteonal theory uf imemariruwl nrgaruzarions 1S ultimateJy eoncernen wirh the usue of polJtiacuteeal and military srniexclggJe functionalism tneats (he promotion of we1fue as au illdirecf approach tu rlx prevenrion of warfare (Claude 1968 31--5) Mitran quoted Oaude wirh appmval implyiog rha fulletionalism would ind~ mllk( a positive contribllt1on (albeit inilitecdy) CE (he ptCveurron of war fhis profOiSitiort is open (O $(Ieral criticisms Given the level uf arrnrunems in the worJd and the porential fQf cunflict the contriburron ro pettcc made by funcrioruuacute acrjvities miexclay come too late A youth group exthange betwtn rhe USA and China ma) bode we11 fOf
tbe furure OOt wlll be uf link use if (he respective parrus are beaten ro meir destinarions by intercominental baliiacutestic missiles funhermore the pmmotion of wtlfare may inctease internatioual conflicr by i~asiacuteng expettacions Espedally if social and ecounmic changes are bmugh[ aboue by imernational runctioual 3Jencies developing muntrie poliacuterical I~derships may fJnd ir increasingly cliiHcult to meet lheir poplllatIDn~ demands fot more economic benefJts fur a ampirer distribution uf benefits or in sorne ta$(-S fOf Ol)tool uf the social consequences of laquootlumic Rrowth Imernal sttili aod unrest may chen ~iIJ over into inrernacional eontlicr Finally Miacutetrany daiffi$ that rhe Nncshyrional approach ciocumveuts ideological aOO racial diviID05 as it ltloes territorial frontiacuteers (Mitrany 1975a 226) There ls guod evidellce tiJat the opposite has been happening thae the exlsting runctiuual organimfIacuteom slch $$ tiNEKO WHO and lID hllve been riddkd with ideulogical and racial (or al lea~t Norrh-Somh) diviions wruch h~ve teflected pnlirical argnments outside he olganizarimlS bu have ncvenheless adverscly aHewod their ba~ic work (Ghebali 1986 l tR-lt6 1mber 1989)
iexclIV WHURg) W~ mltTlWilm tIampmJlaiWN
NetrfJl1iKJiOalisls
Tbc move away foom rhe srate-cenrric vjew of JlItert1arlOlal organizarion Started by WOllf and Mirany was ccetiacuteeued io rht immedijlre posr-wur perjod by social stientim applyiacuteog asJltu of functionll1(st ~heory to European nd Atiacuteantlc in~limti()m This utw fUllCtionaliu approach showed paruumlcrnsr interesc in che European Communities (Ee later nuropean Union EU)) whjch arme iu iexclhe wake of che amphuman Plan In Mily 1950 Roben Schuman rhe Frenrh Foreign Minisrer advauroo (he idea cha( West Eucopean srarcs should establish a High Authority wlrh powers ro admillshyimr theit eoai aOO stecl induscrie~ Negorjatioru on rhe detalS of chis plan led t() the signing of che Treaty cf Pariacutes in Apdiacute 1951 by FraIlee Wen Gemuny Iraly rhe Neiexclherlands Bdgium sed Luxembourg (rhe Six) Tbls gave substanre tO (he idea lbat funcrional aiexcltivicy oould be ITlltllfIged across fcomien by IUl organizadon ove and above the govemmenrs of che member sraces a supmnational amhority The idea was wldened ro cover iexclm expanded unge of etooomk activiry when he Silo esrablished rhe Bt1fOpean Ecooomk Communicy (EEC) widl the Treaty of tome in MAtch J957 An Aromic Energy Communiacutety (Euratom) was eHablished sr che sume time However ~he element of upranationiexcliexclliry was dilurelt in the High AllthoritY-s successor (rhe Commission of rhe EEe) having only Iimited deciuacuteOIl-makin8 powers anJ having mosdy the task of proposing acdon ro tbe representarives of he rnember states situumlng in (he Coulliil of Ministe13 Despire his otber Community hutitutions contsined the gerrn of supranadonaHry rhe Courr of Jllstke empJoymg Coromunity nuhe [han nacional laws a Ruropean Padiument wbkh WlS eventually electelt by ditect eleedons amoog a Communiry-wide electorate voting for Cummunity-hased parties aad 1Jueresr groups represendng mrmetSgt consumen traJe unions aruJ blliiness on a Commuiexcliexclity tatber than a nnional basis
Tht$eacute tnmwauumloos in WeBtem Europe uiggeteJ a spate uf 1 iexclretamre primaril) in he lJnireJ Sures whieh examined tbe nurure unrl purpose of the Commuuity iustituions The Jominam staacutend amongst this writing was chat of the neo-(uncrlonalisrs sJCcifically Ern~1t Haas Lean lindbetg and J05eph Nye whose works are of importance io the uudy of internacional organizacions In ronrruc tO Mitrany the OCW fuoctiooalistli tended Br (iexclrOc tuacute iexclimir rbeie study 10 developmems in Wcscetn Europe (HtIaSs ~nJhe Naion Stte (964) bcing a nruiceable exeepdon) especially the OC alshyrhough later cornparimns were tnade wirh rbe growch ofccmmon lIlltirkets iexcln Mica East Eurupe aoo Larin America On che whole the neo-fumtiooaiscs had rerreated foom Mitranys world view
fhe neo-funcrionaljgrs aiso realized rhe dilemma faeed by Mitrliny in eelihng wirh politica dcdsicms ane did nor fllnch in introducin~ a merhod of making necessary chOtees ar he imernarif)llItI leve Indeed rhis wa~ rhe kernel uf rheir ideagt lhlll 1I0l ouly sperifie functionamp would be farried OUt ar rbe subrollrinentill rarher (han (he nacional leve bul thil( lhe decisions wnrernillg (hese functioos would be made at thaf level shy
6- v n_m_ ~olo_~~W_
with imponant cOnsequences for those groups imetesred in the decisiacuteons and iexcliexclIso liffecting orher arcas of poliey Por example supprne the Ecooomk Cual and Steel Community (BeSe) required (har che sreel lodustry be orgaoized as a West Europeao endty insfead of a numher uf narional industries a1l commled by differenl ccgularions aod rbar a suprauariona surhoriry be crcared ro decide on the policy Coc che ranniog of tbe Wcsr EUlopean sfeel induStries lo ronsequeoce those involvea in say rhe French steel industIl would switch tbeir attentioo away from Parili where policy was previowly rnade ro BroS$CIacutei wbcre ECSC poliey is mude Purthermore CommwIlty ntber dUlo nadonl poliey on ueel eould spiU ovet into ereadng a Community po1iey ror cool tnmspOH IUld Othet asrod~ ared acdvities As rhe numbe oC functiacuteooal policies decided at a Commuoity rnthet than a natkmllllevd expanded so the need for political actioo at this higher level would gfOw aod thc political sysrerol of the couutries involved would becomc inexorably iexclmcnwincd lhis was the logk of rhe innovator of he $chumao Plan idea Jean Monnet wM considered rhar rhe establishment of a c001 and srec1 community foUowed by similar organitations dealing wirh otbcr Cuncrional areas - agricultute transpon nade defence - would be lreps on [he way ro building Europe The eOO would be jln economiClllly aod politicaUy integmred Rurope lo Monneriexcl scbeme a federal West Furopeao state The means would be fuoctlonal bu with a political contento
In his study of fbe ECSC Rrnst Haas examiooo this s(rlltegy and a1so dmned polldcai inregradon in its ideal typc u beiug rhe process whereby political iexclcroo in severa distinct nadooal ~tings are petsuacltd to shjft thet lnyaltielJ expecrations liod pOlidcal iexcll(tiacutevides eoWjlrd jl new centre whose insdwtions possess or derrumd jutisdktion over me pit-existiog lIatiof19l $tates (Uaas 1958 16) ihis oew cemre would be che powelshyhouse managing rhe political ptoblems oC fuoctio1llll coopeaacutedon [he Uigh Audwrity of tbe ECSC and be indrurion of me EBe The policical actcniexcl invoJved would be rhose elites leading the poliacutetical groups habirually colCerned wirh public decision-making and wooJd indooe trade uoioacuten offishydaIs busiue5$ ami Hade representatives higher civil servann and activeacute poHttdam As tlltSiacute eliteS rutneU theit aacutetrendon ro rhe ojOW policical centre chey would find tha Community pelky in olle area nm be uwde tea oo1y if che task iuelf iexcls expanded CHus 1961 368) by way of a spillover of actiVity lIltO anocllet policy atea Evenrually Communiy policy~makiog would take uvet from S(ale policy~making jo alI rhe crucial BreaS and the new centre would emerge as being potenrially more powerful dma the member srares governmenu wbich had been drained of lheir mOS( meruoshyingful polidcal ucdvides
1( this stage ir can be quetied whetbet Haas was describing an inremashylional organizadun or il poremia1 federal mlte Io discumng tms quesrjon in his book on Elle EC-S( Haas cooduJed dllU Tbe hruHnct of federal as agaiacutenst middotimergovernmemaf powers lIeeacutems tU point to che coodusioo tbat in
142 WtitingJ on mtertlatilJtJA orgamZ41iom
alJ maneo relating ro the romine regularion of rhe commOTI ~et the High Authority is independent of government (HIlaS 195R 55-gt He al50 voiced rhe opinion rhu Supranadonaliry in snueturnl ferms tberefure means the exisreuce of govemmental a~lthorirjes dlloer tuacute Ihe archetype of fdeNrhm rhan any past inrernati(mal organizar ion buc not yet ideutiacutecal Wlth it Oiaas 1)158 59) However this $upnmttionaity in pNctice has deve10ped into a hybrid in which neither the federal no the intergovernshymentai reooency has deady triumphed a-bas 19511 527) Ir is aloo denr lbat the original Coo1 and Sreel Communicy was mueh mote functional~ Wlcrnl than the lateacutet Economic (ommunicy and untiacutel the mid~19805 the unified aud expanded Communuumly romw to play Jown the elemenU o( supranatlonality iu tavour of 1ts Jiacuteltergovemmenul insutution rhe Conndl u( MiuiMm This aud othet dtVe1opmems led Haas to lcconsidcr his origshyinal view of Community inrtitutioos
In the 1968 pre3ce ro Tuacute Uniting of Ellropt (which was wIacutetten in 1958) Haas alrtady identified factors that had dllngro rhe nattlc of me European Communiries experimem in che previous ten yeacs He observed tlur during this period vario~ spiU-OVet aOO adaptive ptcKeues s(ill had nO( resulted in la pulitically united Encope and in an~werjiexclg the question what went wtlJug he outliued fuur considetdtions Fitst (he new funaiurutlJsu had filiJed w di$tinguisb between background variahle cOlditioos prevamng at rhe time when cbe Comrnnnity WU$ csnbJished and new upiratiuns and expectations that had develnped Jhe esntbliacuteshment thar had ron counrer ro the Community spitit Second the imptet o( niexcltlonaUsm had becn undereshytimawl Third Eactors within me Commuruty had becn nressed ro he dccrimenr of those coming from the outside world PintUacutely me massive transCormation oE Western socie[y raking place indepeudent o( EutoptHl integratiacuteon aIso hacl been underestimaretl (HIlaS 1968 xiv--xv)
Haass definidon of imegralion alsu bccame wmewhar more negative I1lOre stlilte-centric than bis original 195R emlhasis un nationaJ llt(on shifting their loyaJties expecratiacute(ms and poJitical activities toward a new centre By 1970 Haas considered the study ofregionallntlgrurion to be concerned
wich explaining how aud why sUtes eease to be whoUy $overeign how ~md why they volunucily mingle metgt and mix with rhcir neighbours $O as to lose che facruru attributes of sovereignty while acyuiring ncw techniqucs me resolving conilirt between themselvell
(Haa~ 1970 610)
By 1975 Haas eonsidcred regional integmtion theoty oiJsolete in Wesrern Eurupe and obsolescenr - though still urerol _ in tite teSt o( the worId (Haas 1975 l) By 1976 he had arded out n maioI reintetpuEation of uew-fuuctlonaJist lhoory as it applied to rhe Ee The definahle outcome of integtation in Wenem Eutope was secn either in ttaditiorW federaHsc temu - a Wen Enrnpean (ederal state ereated out uf yenrs of fun~-tiexclonal
Writings M ifllernuJlfJmiexcl1 (JFfIiutian 143
rutivity whkh had lcd lO J trnmrer of poliduumlll acnvity away rom (he natlon ~tates tOwarJs a new srrunure - or ltlS the imtitutiooltlUdng uf some intermMiate iexcliexcltage such as rhe present status qno whcreby atlthonty is dimlbnrro unequally between several centres Wilh tire old nation states losing their previous Ituthoriey but with no new JiacutedeOl government in ptO$~ pect Whihr the original aspecrs of the EC - rhe cuuoms union aOO (he Common Agricultura Poliey _ have tllaquoorne entrenched the spillover inm orhe policy area~ had nor occurred by Ihe mid-1970s as che neo-furutiooa1ists liad ptedicred Also common polides liad becn Jevelopetl in differem o(8ashyIliratiuns - che OFCD the summit of indurmiatiooo counrrics the Group of Ten - tarher than within the liC lhe problem according lO Bus W1IS
rurhulerue whereby rhose iuvolved io polirirs haJ found rhemselves in a littting ofgreat social complexiry where rhe nnmber of atrorr is very large and each pursues a variety uf objectives whirh are murually incompatible lmt ucn is also unsure of che ultlde-ofamp between the objectjves He continued Tnis conditiQn imJgtlics the erosion o( such interorganizarional patteacutern~ oC comensus reciacuteprocity and no(mative tegularity as may havr CXlSted eadicrEveryrhiug is up fO( grallS (Hus 1976 179) HilaS sllggested thu iu the EC polioacuteeamp and (he institutioru devised ro lmpleshymeacuteut thero iacuteU~trnre rhe attempc ro deal with lhe turbulence nather tllan achieve regional politkal inteSradon (ibid 180 original emphasis)
A similar hiacuteft lttway fmm the earHer llSp1rauumlons iiexcliexcl ICen in rhe work~ Q( Lindberg aud Nye Lindbeg wlrose book 1he Pattirai DJMmict o EroJMn Ecrmomic IntegTatia (13) had fullowed on dosely from Hws work was hy 1966 showiog tbar moves wwaros inregration wirhin the Be (ooid cause Stress within (he system l1Jtfl inCftllq the barrien to fimher integration (lJnJberg 1966 254) Togcrher with lkheingold in 1970 he desctibcJ an EC wbich had noc deveJopeJ joro a federal structute haJ difereot ltvels of integrariacuteon fut different functions and was sdl susceptible tIJ UJsis lt was ao unprecedemed but curiousy amblguoos plurruistic syttem there seem tO be no satisfrutory modcls or ronceptli in che sociaJ scienee VQ(abulary to adequa[ely define ie (Lindberg and Scheingold 1970 306) In a anide Joseph Nye coruiacutedered thac Jespite rhese and otber revisioos the neo-Euncrional approodl srjlJ embodies 11 nurober of fault tbu re1lcct jrs origins in [he 1950s (Nye 1970 767) He proposed a nUml)(l OC changes scating rhe derendent variable lels ambiguoUlUumly adding more politiul ruwn reformufating rhe Hst oF integration condiuons and pethapli mOSf
significantly drOlping che ideas ufa single path fmm qWlsi~full(tiexclonallasks tuacute politica1 uuion by meamiexcl oF 5piUove( (Nye 1970 767 He conduded rha[ shnn oF dramadc chaugc the prospect9 (or common markets or microregiorud cennomie organiutions leading in rhe shon ron (of dendes) to fedewt1nn oc m1me sOtt oE polidcal union capable of tlU indept1Ldent dcferue and foreign paliey do not seem very high (Nye 1970 1129)
There hiexclas been a long jotJJney trom the functiorudisl-fecleral nope5 of Jean Monoet back jn 1950 but it has seen the evolution of nm only the
144 WitingJ on inlernafuacutemal ttrganizafifmJ
Communiry insrirurions and policies bur aIso neo-functionalist thinking The Iogic of inregrarion gave way ro coping wich rhe crises inseirutions mixing federalisc and intecgovernmental elemenrs were replaced by a Western Europe in which instirucional tidiness is best forgorten (Haas 1976 211) and the federal elemenrs seemed ac mosc dormam The hopes of che 1950s had been replaced by rhe uncerrainties of che 1970s and the early 19805
Wirh rhe launching in 1985 of rhe idea of creating a Single European Markec wuumlhin rhe EC by rhe end of 1992 che signing of rhe Single European Acr in 1986 (which exrended EC comperence aud changed irs inscitucional balance) and che sectlement of a uumber of Common Agriculcural Policy problems in February 1988 che Iogic of inregration seemed ro be revived
Wriring in 1990 Keohane and Hoffmann resrored and refined che neomiddot funcrionalisr norion of spillover advanced by Errut H9al They were sceprical char rhe rheory of spillover could explain the ECs irucirurional developments of che late 1980s buc saw it aCling posicively in orher ways for example rhrough che incenrives ro institutional change given byenlargeshymenc of EC membenhip in rhe early 19805 (Keohane and Hoffmann 1990 289-90) They saw che pcocess cominuing and barring Clrasrrophic excernal fucrors were moderately oprimisric abour rhe Communirys furure prospecrs (Keohane and Hoffmann 1990 296)
This view was raken up by Tranholm-Mikkelsen (991) and Holland (993) borh of whom saw che revival of rhe Communicy agenda in rhe Maasrrichr Trealy - wich irs blueprinr for a move ro economic and monetary union - as being a revival of the neo-functionalism Drher wrirers on European incegration at chis time adapted che basic notions of neoshyfunccionalism bU[ broughr in extra fucrors Majone (1994) agreed char che EU had seen an upgrading of common inreresn but placed an emphasis on public choice policy ro explain particular Ouccomes Marks et aJ (996) saw a much more complex relarionship berween che Communiry and domestic decision-making leve Though rhe srare was srill very important ir no 10nger monopolizes European level policy-making or rhe aggregarion of domesric interescs 0996 346) Insread rhey idenrified rhe growrh of mulrishyleve governance wirhin che EU
Indeed rhese developmenrs in neo-funcrionalisr wrirings on international organizarions poim up sorne of the criticism~ of che schooL Firsr despice rhe besr efforrs of Ibas Schmitter and Nye it remains a rheory overwhelmingly dominaroo by an inreresr in rhe EC and larer rhe European Union In 1964 Haas and Schmirrer rried to extend sorne of che lessons uf econumic union in Westeru Europe ru Larin America Drawing on Haass 1968 preface ro The Uniring of Europe rhey discerned nine variables four relared ro background condirions (similariey in power of memben rares of rransaction pluttllism in member seares complememing elices) rwo referring ro condirions ar rhe time of economic union (similarity of governmenral purpase powers of che ecunumic uniun) and rhree ro process coudi[ions (decision-making sryle
W[J U UWltU 15
rransacrions rate rhe adaptabiliry of governmenrs) (Haas aIld Schmitcer 1964 711-19) They looked ar rhe chances of policicizarion chat is the possibilicy chat lhe acmrs seek m resolve rheir problems so as ro upgrade common inrerests and in rhe process delegare more amhoricy m che centre (Haas aIld Schmitcer 1964 707) Nye in his article Comparing Common Markecs (1970) rried ro modify che Europo-cemric narure of the neo~ funccionalis[ approach and drew on a wide range of cases of economic imegracion Larin America Cenrral America rhe Caribbean Eastern Europe and East Africa as weH as EFTA and che EC He concluded [har
The original neo-funcrionalist model was close m irs ongms in the straregies of European inregrationisrs in che 1950s and thru mighc be seen as a rempting and misleading guide for policy in orher aceas The revised neo-functionalist model is not somethiug ro be imiraced bU is simply a rool fur making comparisons We wanr ro know whac differshyence ir makes if a group of seates form a common market
(Nye 1970 830)
Though by rhe end of che 1980s rhere were few places ro be found outside Europe thac were forming common markets rhe formacion of he Norrh American Free Trade Atea (NAFTA) and rhe renewal of economic cooperarion in Latin America and Sourh-Basc Asia during rhe 1990s provided different models from the more poliricized EU These seemed ro challenge some of the basic assumptions of rhe neo-funcrionalistS aIld perhaps give some weighc ro Nyes scepcicism ciced above
Second i[ is clear chac che neo--funccionalisrs have had trouble wirh che insticudonal formacs They have rerreaced from being functional federalist almose back co Micranys eclecric approach rowards institudons They have also accepced [he durability of rhe nadon state in resisring che logic of inreshygration and have soughr compromise formulas which at leasr continued ro place emphasis on non-srare accivicies even if insticutions above che stare (supranarional) were seen to be susceptible to stare inrerference
A chird Cliricism concerns the gtOH of non-srare acrors favoured by rhe neo-functionalists They have consraudy emphasized [he imporrance of polirical acrivisrs the elites of inrerest groups and rechnocrats This may have parrially blinded chem ro a weakness in rhe ECEU rhar could have affecced neo-functionalisms earUer proguuscicarions from being fulfilled its insticurions cannoc draw on rhe day-ro-day polirical resources available tO the narional policical acrors This has led tO a gap mosr noriceable in che newer members berween perceprions of che EU by the represemarional elice and rhose of rhe ordinary vorer or consumer Whilsc some earlier srudies of opinion in the EC did inelude opinion pons rhese ofren dealt wirh easy questions (showing ones EuropeaIl idenriry) 01 soft options (whether rhere should be say a more acrive EC industrial policy) With the firH expansion of rhe EC in 1973 and rhe first major oil price iucrCdse
146 Writi~5 cm lI1lMfatleuromal orgfll1iutl1ltl
whi(h coinoacutedemally happenoo a yeat liexclater Euttiexclpean voren werc faeed increasingly wirh mu(h harder options inflation versus employment tlnde union righu againsr consumer inrerests The poISibllity was thar bcing a good European might mean aHowiog sorne other COUlltry5 ruuionals to explott ones fish or oH The crearion oiacute a Single Enropean Marker within the Ee by the end of [992 and rhe move rowards a single curteney from 1999 by eleven theo (wdve of rhe HU member litares bmught he activi~ ties of the VOlon do~er lO the wodd of tite coosnmer or worker However chis seem iexclf anything to have iocreased rhe alienariacuteon of voten from rhe institntions aM acrivilies of rhe EU The 2000 election for rne Europeao Parliamenr shnwed the lowest tnroour yer in sllfh direct elections ano Enrobarometer opini()fi poUs have demonstrnred a msative trend in public opinion on che EU rnropaeuintknmmdgl0epoebc-b531p3npdO Ir may be thar a oumbcr uf interest groups llave switched rhrir expecta6ons and poJiexclcical activirics tuwatds the 00 bllt many of the ordinary European V(l(fS seemed ro have failed ro trans[er th~ir lnyalties tu he Union
In surnmaty the neo-functlona1ists mok np Mitranys srudy of rhe a-lashydons betwren group~ and individllals in oHferent sures il5 wellas che sta(cs representativtltl They tried ro gtapple witb the queuit)O (lf political control uf such iostirurionalized funcrional re1ation5hips aod ro undrrstand how ir would affrct rhe oatnre uf tiJe nation state They arremptrd to define the statuS of [hese newfy creatoo insutution5 tnough rhry wete out always fvlped by devdopments in che ECfEU which WWl rhe focus of rheir studies Tbdr works have demun~trared rhat the EU imututioos are by 110 mratlS juse ordinary imerg()vcrnmenral ones lh~y have al) provideo a mirror ()f the hircof) of (Yents in Westetn Europe in pankultH - moviog flom unitios aod poJitkal dynruniqgt through ~rress oy$ and anguish to obsolesceuce tllrbulent fudds and back to mooerace optimism and a new dynamism
TrotJJ(l(iacutecnaUJI
Anorher Americao writer whose work dealt wirh che question oiacute integrntion is KarJ Deursch Alrhough not a neo-fotlcrionalilit his tranmctional appwmh nali dealt with sorne iOmmoo ~hemes He has been umrerned with more rhan imergovermneuul relation~ aod indeed hM str~iexcl reJations berweeo peopIes nitherthan just rhe elites favonred by manyneo-fuflctionalists Deursch concerned himltelF with m( absrnce or presence of significan orga~ oized preplttrations fol war or large-snde iolence between int~rnatiexclona1 policical commuoities It was [he secutity rommullttles lhat had elimirutted war and [he expectation o[ wat whhin rheir ixmndaries whicn Dentamph and his PrincctOll coUeagues exarnined in PeliriuJ Cfml1NJNlily dIId M NarJh lt14Jtlaquo Atia (1957) A SClttlriLy community WWl defined as a gronp of people wnich has become ~inte8rated~ io rhe sense that thete is real iacutelSSnr+ ance that (he members of that rommunity will not fight ellch oeher
Wriil1g1 (raquo1 iacutelMfatlortal tJrgaiadlMm 147
physkally but will se~tle their disputes in liOffie otber way (Deutsch 1957 5)lt loregration does not necessarily mean rhe me~ging oF peoples ot governshymental units intn a ~ogle unie an idea explicir in fooerahsr rhinking Otud implicir in much funrtionalist wtiting Jnstesd two $otS uf integrared secu~ rit communities ar~ hJemified the amalgamarelt where pteviousiy independent unlts have bcen rormaly merged lnro a larger unit wich a iexclommotl guvernment (eg tlle US) ano the pJuralisric where srparate gnvertUlleJlUl Illlioraio their iexclrgaJ indepeodence (eg uacutenada amI rhe US) In stlldying a nllmbcr of cases of anempred or octual intesratioo io tbe Nortn American and WCSt European area Dtunch conduded rhat tIacutelere werc iexclweive conditions essential fnr the rurcts of ao amalgruruued teeutity (Ommuniry and thM rhree wen nec~ry fm it5 plutalisdc COUnrfrpilrt
The1e three conslsted of rhe compaiacuteibiliry oiacute marer valU($ relevant to
politiclll decision-making tbe capacity o( the participariacuteng plt)htinl Imitl or ~mmem~ ro respood tu each othcrS oetdl messages and llaions quickly adeqwuely and without rtsort ro vlolence aad rne mutual predicrability n bchavior (Delltsch 19H 66--7) In Deutschs work emphasis was placed 00 cornmunkauun brlweEn potidca uoIacutets increased trnns1Ctions between them (such fL polirinl exchangcs toUfl(m trade and rratl~pott) brought increases in mutual dciexcl)Cl(enmiddotc fue s cummnnity ro be created (his high level of trnnsactrons must be accomgtauied by mutual responsiveness o that thr demand o( each side 00 he other mn rccdve adequate and sympatheric treatroent llthis wouk not ooiy predude the need [01 aggressive action lO acbi(Ye ends bm would aJso build up 11 feeLing u( UUSt and seturiry in che edationship
Deuucb does not have an obse~uacuteon with imernattomtl orgaoiexclZ8rion~ although his 1957 book iacutes in [he eM collcetned with the ctelltiacuteon of UCCIlshy
tity community in the NATO area rhere ate few tcferences to internatlOnal nrganiuuons Many o( the Cll5C studj( are ser io tbe pcriud before (be postshywar expansioll uf such organlurions and almost all deal ieh bilareral relatIacuteonshj~ O(utschs work has coosequences for the lUudy o( ioternuiona organizatIacuteoos govemmental ano non-goveromCotaj iO[~rnational otiianiza~ tioos can be created as a re~ult uf a plnraliacutes[ic secuciry nmunuoit) lne integracion of whkh may evtotuaUy become iacutennirurjonalized iexclu nuppened reo the ampandinaviiexclm states creand (he Nordic Counci1 There run abo be forrns of instirUti(lnalued communiratlons berween socieries wnich prOldde the transactions and undersrandinli rhat help create ji securi[y community DeUtsch wrote
li the way tu iexclnregrarion domestic or internarionat i$ through rhe achievemem of a srose of community tnut undergirdS insrirurjtms thm ir seems likely [har ao iorreased sense of cotlloounlry would hrlp to snellgtbcn whatever instirutioos - supranatiooal or internacional - are aLreAdy Oltraring
([)euriKh 1957 7--8)
ltgt -_ bullbullbullbull _- _
Demsc-hs work was mken funher in a vnluffie ediretl io 1998 by AdLer and Bllenen (l998) (lLat docs pay sorne attention to ioternariorutl otgilniushydoos Indecd their volume contairu chapters thar rekr ro rhe oseeacute NATO the EU the UN the GnU Cooperarion Cowxil (GCC) aod rhc Assodation uf Soud Eat Asian Niexclttlons (ASEAN) They daim that imetshyruHiomuacute organiexclzauumlons aud iexclnstitutiacutem~ played al lmporum role in elKiltlraging more inteo$ive and extensive ioteracrioos octwttn states rhrough theit uwt-huildiug propenies (Bnrnetr and Adler 1998 418) They lht six corulusions of this snuerneor
bull By moniroting srares agreemenu tntcmatiuacutelwl orpuuacutezatiexcloo~ give them he cooftdente tuacute cooperare io (he ahsencc of trUSt
bull Jnternational O1ganizarions allow Hi1tC$ to discover new areas of muuwl intetellls Tu ponimlar [hey cenoacute ro link panicular areai
bull Inrcmational organizatiom can hdp shape $fllre pracdces by liCtting down nOfOU Ihat define what is acnptablc
bull The iIKTeaiing nwnber of internacionaJ orgamrutions emuuragC$ muldshylatetalim
bull They dIlO eruourage smres lua societies to see rhelll$Clvcs as pan of a resion
bull 1ntildeey can abo shape lhe identiry of rheir memben (Banlett aod Adler 1998 418-20)
The aurhms cWmed char cheir stuJit$ demonmared rhe exrent 10 whkh social cnmmunicadons beomes insrimtioualileJ aOO embedded in lnreroashytional oC8linbatlooslt and in turU how (hese organizatioru express an inreot to dcvelop trUSt end mmwl identificarion (Batnm and AdJer 1998 418) TIe work on sccurity (mmnunidcs is pelhapS at ir strongcu whcn dealing wim the esrablishetl Westcrn democracies rbough llamen and Adlers work shows rhar it may hilve a wider urility
lnlerJciexclnmdcme
Furrhcr emphasi on the growrh JO cnlnsaccions berween l()Cicries can be seen in the worts of Keohane 11l1d Nye who were m che forefront of the iexclnrerocJXndcnce school in rhe lJoited Srnnt fhey puacuteirued our (he conseshyquences of the innease in tldrunarioualucdolU ro che study uf iexclnternncional rdarions Thcit statcing iexclgtoint was sLlnuuarized chus
TraM1latlowJ relations are nolaquo new alrhough che growth of tmnsna~ tklOal orgnnizarion in me twentieth centuty has been specracunr Ye-r our nmremioo iso nor ooly rlur rhe srate-centrk paradigm )$ inade~
quare bur also thar it igt becoming progttSsively more inadequate as changes io inrernational relauumloos take place
(Keohane and Nye 1971 xxv)
The) llsred five omsequemes uf this growth uf inEematiooal inrcracrions ana organizarJ(tIls fur inrerstate politks (1) rhe promntiun of attirude change amongsr driacuterens (2) ao innease io inrernacional pluralism the linkjng of nntiooal Interese groups in tnmsnational strtlCtures usuaHy involving transruttionaI organizations fOI rhe putpoampe of (04)minatioo ltKtohAne and Nyc 1971 xviii) whiacutech has heen lhe basis for much noo~(Jncdontllist wriexcling (3) me cmdon lf dependence and inrerdependcofe IS often associacuteshyarea with intetnilriorutl cranspormrioo and iexclnance Keclune and Nye 1971 xix (4) creating new insrruments fut iexclnfluence for use by sOJne governments over ()(bers (Keuhane aOO Nye 1971 xx) 1100 lt5) dJe emergence cE auronomous acrors wirh priwre ntildelreign policia thar roa) deliberarely oppose Oiacute impinge on Sla(e polides (Krohilne and Nye 1911 xvii)
In a late book (1977) Keohane and Nye dcah with che questioo of imershydependem-e in world poliacutetics io greatet depth Iorecclependencc $lnce tbe Second Wm1d War has- onen cesulted from increasetl ttaosnadonal atciviries and iexcli divided ioto twO sorrs sensltlviry iacutemerdcpeodence (dte muIy effecrs of dULOges jo tranS1lCrJons oc ~()ciacuteetiexcles or govetrunents) md vulnembHhy interdependence where he acrors Hahllhy tc suffet eO$n iacutemposed by extemal evenc~ js (aken inro accoum (Koonane ana Nyc 1977 12-13) In COntrast ro tbe reaisr view of world poHrk Keohane and Nye pm totward che idea type of complcllt imerdependence which chey claimed soroetimes comes dosee ro realiacutety chan does realism (Keohanc attd Nye 1971 23) aod whieh has three nuio characretl$tks it allows fo mulnple rhallne1smiddot- imershyStatC tiansgovernmental and trilnsnationa- conneltring sncieries there i an abserue of hierarchy ilmonS the rnany questions ac inle hetween iexcliexcltates with military securiry no 10nger dominntlng lUly agenda and Millnu-y force 15 not used by governments toward orher governmenu within me laquogion or on [he lssutS where complex intetdcpendence prevaiacutels (Keorutne aoo Nye 1971 25)
These dltee condidons are said by KCQhane aOO Nye to typify fairly weJJ 5Ome LIlAUe$ of global economk md ecological interdependence ami come dose ro chamcrerizing rhe emite relarionship hetWetn sorne cnuntdes (KeolWne and Nye 1911 25) Complex ilterdepcndente glVel rise ro oacuteininctive poliacutetical processes a sute $ goals wiacutell vary by mue arca with mmsgoYernmeotul puumllitics making goab difficut ro define as ttansgovern~ menrnl llClaquo()$ (fof cxample mtfUsrers of agr1cuJmre inte11igente agencies nariona wcather bureaux) pursue their own aims Jhe followiog facwn are reLevant iriexcl eilch issue area
bull iexclhe resourc-es of a Ncue fur thaI particular area are most relevaot radre Ihan the stares overull military ~tre-ngth
bull international nrganizatinm and uansnntional actors wHl be fruloipula[ed as malnr instrumenrs oiacute mue poHcy
bull rhe agenda of issUC$ wi11 be fOrmulated hyebltUlgcs in the power dirmi~ burlon wirhin [he issue alaquollS by rhe pururinn (lf internarional regimes
150 Writings lIlt inttn1atiQrJ41 ergdniutirll1J
by changes jn rhe importance of ttaflstlational acwtS and by linkage froro orher issues
bull linkage between 1sllor$ will be mote difficult for strong naces to undetshyrah ir[orce 1$ downgraded
ft whiJsr linkage by we$k srares rhrough internacional organuumlarions seu agendas helps coalition-wrming and provides arenas for the political acdvity oC weaker states which can use the choice of organizarional forurn [or an issue and rhe mobiliZlition of votes as a politiul resource
(Keohane and Nye 1977 37)
Thm Keuacutehane and Nt gavc inremarjonal organizaciOfls an iroporran[ role in thde compfex interdependence model of world politics a model which whilst not uSlaquo (O explaitt aIl world politics was one which rhey daitned to hllve iacutenfrtasing releYJ1nce in IIlarge and growing area 1ntildeey used an intetnUional organizadon mooel as one of the explanations ror internashytioua regime change that js che lthange in the sets of goveming flrrangernems affening relatioruhips oC interdependence In tMs C$e intershynadonal oJsanisaciolls refeued ro multilevd Iinkage norms and insritutions (Keohane and Nye 1977 54) which once euablished are harJ (O enlAlicate BeCllue o( this rhey may Stand in the way of swes using thdr capabHities In ordec 00 chauge regimes Instead powet outcomCl will be more aJfectcU by votlng power (in the UN General AssemWy for example) ability ro futtl) coalidoos llnd 00 control elite networks (ruch as that founo io clte institushydougt of the European Commnnities) Whilst the complclt illternadorull organizarion mode1 was only Ofle oiacute fOur aJvaucecl by Keohane and Nye ro explain regiffie chAoge tbey Jiu expeomiddott jr to contribute to such chaIlSC in a world where complex interdependence (onditions pertain
1he rontribmions by Keohane and Nye demonstra(e hoth the roncero pf American wtilets iexcln inremationru relariWl in the 1970$ with altemacives to
tite srare-centric model and their wiluumlngness tO draw from more rhan one approach bringiexclng rogether elementogt from che more tradidonal appnJaChes with economic models and non-stare-cenuic dements TIleir Wi)rk does however have certain weaknesle$ Perhaps the mon serious is the use of rhe cerro imerdependence and iexclrs djvisiacuteon iexclnro ~n~itivity and vuinerability imerdependence Anepting rhar inltldeperulence meUlS mutool dependeoce (and [hjs leado to discussiou a~ w how mutual maoy relationihips are) che phrase scnsiuacuteviry imcrdcpendenre scarccly wflrmnu thc use uf the term interdependcnce fhe fault lies wJth che authou loose definiuOfl of depen~ iquestcnce as a oiexcltate (lf being detetmined oc $ignificaruly affected by externa fwces The induskm 0(signi6candy atkcted w~aken5 me urillry uf me cerm so tlme che nOr1on oiacute scusltivity inrtgtrdependence seems ro refer ro any nociceshyaMe cffeltr of ooe srate and society 00 anorher A person may Ix- significandy affectcd by taking drog$ wlthout Ix-ing dependen on chem David Baldwin showcd that mis use of rhe cerro interdependence ran conrrary to the striaer
Writingt ()I inf~_Ji(J1ia ~lfizaJJom 151
lUlderstlllldings (lf the concept fuund in MirhiaveUi Montesquieu and Ronsseall as weU 115 in che works uf twentieth-cemury wrlteI$ such as Norman Angell Francis D(laisi -and Ramsay Muir (ampIdwm 1980 7-9) He snuested the U$C of rhe rerms mutnal influence mutual responsivrness ot mutual scrlitivity insread ofscnsirivity inrerdependeruemiddot (Baldwin 1980 19)
A second cuacutericism uf Keohanc and Nyes books aso concems eheie termishynology In dealing wirh rransnational influentes They [ump tngerheraH types of teiations in whieb non~8overnrnental actOrs participare chus makiflA rhe componenrs of cheir new paradigm shifting aud poorIy defined (Wagoct 1974 440-1) Wagner questioned whetber their work simply demonstrated a shifr in interesr to new areas of intetnational polidts shyespedally elttmomic ones - ana whethcr [he world hM reaUy changed or whether we have iexclUSt overlookcd sorne things a1l along (Wagner 1974 441) The atent of imerdependence wa~ also chaHenged by Waltiquest (1970) anJ Rosecratlce el al (977) in che US and by Lirrle Bnd McKinlay (1978) and Strllivan (978) in rhe Briti~h Uteramre
DespiLe any falling$ Keohlllle and Nye provided insighrs ioto ttamlflashydonal polltics they shifted atrention away fcom p~lrely govcrnmental actOts in inff$rate relarions and they poiutm OUt he impMrance of intetnational organlziexcliexclxions in the intetdepcndence oc at lcast rnurual responsiveness of =
rbe rdormist view of both international celBtiOO1l and iuternational orga- nizar1ons has always provided an rutemative lO the more conservativc cealist approach Ir tended ro be dominated jn the pre-wu petiod by internauacuteonal lawyen and ideaJists but sinee hc Second World War has laoched on to the changell in world poUtics 6tst jn the economic ficld and then in Europe thar have Mn more difficulty to explain in ICliIHst term~ It has sten intcrna~ rionnl organizarions as mlans to manage trends such as iucftI$(d economl( intlrdlpcndcoC( bar hll5 also illtceplcU rhat these organizations mar necorne impoftllm aCtoriexcl (lO che wodd st$ge lhemselves and can cettainiy Iacute)(cnrne involved iexclO changing rhe preferences o( governmeflts
RADICALS
Writers covered in this sccrion iCe rhe intcrnadonal sysrem flOt so much as being domlnlltcd by states bn( more by diUerent divisions 01 its peoplcs Thi$ is noe to Sfly fhat chey ignore surtes They cOflsider them elthet w be ks tmportant chan the iquestjjsions of diUS tit wealth or merely ro refI~ct these othcr factors ot w be roadblo(ks to unky in (he fare Qf mote impomllt chalmiddot renga Power ls seefl as belnamp cxercised by eh( wealthy II1ld privileged and open to cha1Jeuge Change in the system is possibl( but onty through srrll8ge or by an awakenjug pf peoples tQ rhetr real sitllatlon Most iexclnter~ natimal organization~ are thus regarded as (eflccrioos of the currcnt unsruisracwry stare uf aiacuteTairs though $fJme more activist orgauhatioos mar llave potential as vehicles or (hange
This SIoacuteCElOn has betn sub-middotdivided imo rhree gthe fUS( are the econ01nk srructuralists and indude Marxists and Third Wocld wruumlers cririclll of rhe cutrem imernruionallyuem They haacuteve in common a belief mar che polltshyiexclcal srructUres of me world halle leeo wbloned mainiexcly by eltonomic fiiexclctors and rhAr mere has bren an intiacuteJUIllity builr imo the presen sytem lhe recood are the cruumliral app~es who5e radicalilifl1 is mure of the iacutemellec~ cual SOrt They rejeCf - Uf at 19$[ question - Jhatly of rhe usumpcions utlderlying be lIiews ofhe world tepresented by the realists and refotmers Finally mere are the globalim Theit perspective ls planerary ana theiacuter rnain conrtrn h fM rhc survival uf Earth Agilln they challcnge che mme statemiddotbuled approaches of both realjsts and reformers
Stnuturaluacutet lIiews
Ihe srructuralist appmiexclch rO (he swcly of inrematioOlIl relations differs In imporrant wars tO thoee of me realists and refotmuu tbough ir has some elemeou in comroon with mands ofb04h schools As roany of (he neo-realistsshyemphasite (he power scructure of wudd potities this sectiacuteon willlimir jwgtlf ro (hose writers roncerned wich the impacr 00 me political S)Srem of rhe wodds ccooomic strucrure Unliacuteke che ttalist approach the erooomk srrucruralisrs are OOr jUSt concemed with swtts io wodd polilla and rhelr economic and poIitkal differencC$ but alw with the divisioru within f1tld berween SoOCieties (WiIIeas 1990 263) They are [heretOre romerncd witl the rifi berween riel iexclmd poor within scares and rhar herwtto udl and poor glohally This leads ro an interese lO trulSlUirional reladoru as well as in inrergo~romenmt links Th(f have this in corrunon wim refPrtllist views bm diexclfier foom chem in (he emphast~ placeoacute on rhe structures of world pollics beinc formuared by eltooomic fiexcliexclcmn In rhis selttion attentioo wilt be given te MarxiS[ wtlletS lIud sume Thir1 Wodd view$ - partiuilarly (hose of rhe cependency sdlOOf and rhe developmemalj~[II - who have made a cootribution quite separare from rhat of rhe Muxiacutesr uadidon
Marxill laquoewl
There is no one Marxisr interptetariacuteon of me role of imerniexcliexcltional Olganiza~ cions in world politics Sur Manis[ approschf3 have certain elements in common and form a di~dnctive 5ch001 of rhough[ about lnrernartonal telamiddot tions generaHy and therefore ahotu international ocganizadoos These appmaches are based 00 du writiflgS of Karl Marx (l818~) in coshyoperarioo witb Fuacutewrich Engels (1820-95) with perhaps tbe gtearest later conrribution being maJe by VL Lenin kader of (he 1917 fo1shevik revolushydon in Rurna They are cf importanee pany becau1e ehey ficm tlle 00515 for mmmuniSt [hinking and (hm mey have an anactunenr m rhe Soviet Unian whieh WIlS be suongc1t commnuist stare unrII 1991 and EO rhe Peoples Republic of China COlUT1UnJSl sinee 1949 Apan ftom lbis ManiS( beliefs
had a irmng inpur mm Wescern imdleltrual cruoking and conunue ro iruoan some viewi abom wodd politics in rhe Third Wodd
Neither Marx no Mancisrs took rhe stare ro be (he curtency of iacutenteInashy(iexclonal relations Unlike (he realist viewpoints chey did fiO( coruider interactions blaquoween soveteigu ltates to be ofovettidi importance UnHke tbe funcrionalists aud other modem Westetn views rbar srress non-stare actocs Marxiexclsts in particular emphasized cbus relatlonships born wiexclrhin nates and IiCOOSS Stare boundaries Indeed ie is diffku[r ro talle only of a MaIXIacutest view of inrernatiooal re1atioll5 lec ttltme of iorernarional orgnniza~ UumlOOy as rhis separares ene particular aspecr of human behavinur tor MIlIXIsr rrearment divorcing ir from the undedying relleCS of Marxlc beliefs Man-ism provides a framcwok of undemanding by whkh ir iacutes daimed ~ociery pan lind vresen can be explaioed and che furure development of mankiexclnd determined
According ro Maf1 relariooshipamp between people and the futm~ mar insdmdooallzed rhose relatienshfpamp depended on rhe economic $truCtUR of soday fhe way rhat productlon was organized He traced the history of dvilixed maokind through five hiuorical staBes - AAjade mdenr feudal capttalin and socialin - which have ditTereru dominant methods of produc~ tioll leadiog 10 a complirared arrnngement of $OCiety ioto various ordetS 11 manifuld graduadon of sociru tank (Marx llnd Boge1s 1965 40) amph form of sorlef has coutained rhe conflictual divisiQl$ which help [Q tranuacuteorm the narun of rhat $Ocjeey coRrradicrioru in the mode ofpcoducfIacuteon placed srrain nn rhe existing social nrder sharpeniug rhe divide berween economic founshydatinn of sociery and a mpld aansIacuteonnlltion of in SOpel1Ullcture in legal polidcal and re1igious it1$tirutioos Thus by 11 confronration of da$~ Conrramiddot dkeions one historlraJ form of soc1ery wus transfocmcd into a bigher stage uf social devdopmem the history of aH hitherto existing ~ociexclety is the histoty uf dass struggles (MaDI Illld Bngets 15 39) Marx and Bnsels were parriculady conceroed wich capita1i$t sociery - ac its Oeyday during theiacuter Uves - and its tmnsrormarion iexcluto ampocis1iu sodety Wlthln rrus form of SoOCiety rOete would be no division of laboU4 and no eWses Illld no SUtes no elCpropnation of labours 5urplus vruue I1nd (bus no private property 00 exploira(ion of ene clilllS ny iexcliexcloother with 00 need fue war
For Marx and fingeJs C1ass then and noiexcl fllltions or sutea are rhe bade units in hurO) llIIIl che struggle between clAssts Jnstead oiacute infeutliltl contlict ocrupies rhe centre of acrention (Berki 1971 R1iexcl From me nlneteenth celUUf onwards rhis struggle -n in Marxisr cerros has been primarUy between [his capicalist dass ([he OOurgeoisic) aOO the bbouring dw (me proletariat) AA (he trarurormatlon fmm capltalisr SoOCIety [O ~OCialiexclMl ro comrounism rook p~e (he superstruerutt of bourgtOis SoOCilaquoy - religioo national divisiacuteon boutgmis politicnl insrirudnns rhe SOlte - woold be swept flway and in Engtls pmse rhe gOlcrotnent nf persons is replaced by [he udminlsuacion of things Fetter 19 (47) with me itEte relegated lO the mmeum iexclngemer Wlth lile spinshyning wheel Qnd [he bronze axe (Feuer 1969 433)
154 WrituacutetKiexclI mJenl4tiorJal rngmZtlJilm
Mux saw the European SUtes of his own rime as being rntans by which the ruBng dass (011amp oppress the work~ng clw by using (he agentl of tht 5tare such as the iudidary the poliee the army and rhe church he (xrerual Ilctlvities of the stare wete also determined by its Chtss namre MeanwhiJe rrmllnat]onat Rlations of a more meaningfuL kind WQuld bt creared by trade rhe movement of capital and incteaiitd romac[ and llOIacuteldarity betwten the prolerariat of vanoulS nations riacuteidefd rhe internacional nriexclaniutions of which Marx and Engels hnd dire(t experiena- wtfe the Fi~t Internatiomd and for Engels the Secund lntemarional both of which atttmpted lO orgashynJxe the represemarives of wruking people aiexclros fronden Onc~ agaJn this stteAAe$ the Marxist empbois on transnarional dass relutions rnther than on intentate relarionships
Whibt Soviet writlngs on international organizatinn1 wtte falrly desulshytory in Scalins reigu 0924-53) rhey did lmerIy hernld rbe move towams peaceful co-existerne arul roreshadowffi the lartf rnrhe[ restrktive view of Imch organi2Atinm hy Soviet commentators
In the post-Second Wodd War period and In patticular in the post-Stalin era Soviet liternmre on international organiuttions bl(lSsomed This has reflected Soviet membership oC ma1ly 1osiexcl-1945 organixations the emershygence of a socialist bloc of sta[C$ and tbe incre-ase in the mlmber of Sowcreign s[ates all flUtontilde demaruHng a more sophisricared Soviet view of lnter~llate reLadoru than che survivalism of Stalins period Uuring rhe lare 19805 i( auo ret1ected the new thinking iacutemroduced by Gorbachev
StalintI suIXessor KrU$hchev developed a revised view of internacional relaCtons which gave a positio1l ro the emerging Third Wnrhl (Tbe Third Wotld was then taken to mean rhotle IItates thar had emerged ftom colo~ nialiacutesm In effect rhe terrn later induded tbe stares of Latin America Africa - exclnding the rhen apaftbeid stnre of South Africa - the Middle Rasr Oceaniacutea and South Asia) Peace(ul co-exiuence between oda1ist and (apltaJisr states WM $til comidered nece1sary but this diacuted noc predude the ideologiacutecal stmggle between rhe two campsmiddot iexclndeed lhe Soviet inter~ national lawyer GI Ihnkiacuten wrote pearcfut cocx15tence of sutes represeonng che tWO differeor rodal sysems is a slccific form uf dass struggie beween socialism and calitllllsm (Osakwe 1972 37) The Soviet Union abo deveJoped relatlons wirh rbe newly emerging exshycoloniaJ cOllntdeJ and Soviet writiog had tu take ~ount of this developmem There wru a recognirion of a third group of stattli between rhe capitalist aud the communlsr that of poteorially friendly indtptomiddot deut $tarem io Europe and Asia such as India Egypt Indnnesia and Yugoslavia which would filrm a tone of peace Although the rebtions wiacuteth rhe capitaliacutest sures sriacuteH remaioecl embedded in pelteful coshyexluencc rhere was an emphasis by postmiddotStalinist Soviet writets on the da eJement in lile telatiomhil - that is rhe wntact with progressive elements in Weste1l sodeey smh as che Jabonr mnvement Ncither diexcld peaceful co-exiucuce rule OUt ~upport o[ middotjUSt wars of nationallibcrildon
WIacuteJIacute11gs tm iacutenUrllUtional WjatlJZtiacutelJlff 155
iexclndeed ir was seen lt a strategy fo wodd reloludon Fiacutenally (he rrlashyfIacuteonhips berween the Sovier Union and East Eumpean countries vere deerned ro be based on sociali internationalism posmlating a haemony of natinnal and commllnity interests and mndllding thar jnde~ndeuce and sovereioiexclnty of a soctalist uate means aoove aH indepltndencc from capitalism (Red Star 1 December 18)
Tunkin underljned traditional Soviet thiacutenking rllar the mngtrltllenl imrrllment of an ioretnational urganization (fne example the Chaner oiacute the UN) was all-impottant in derermining tIte enene rrun the otganizauumlon bad an international legal pcntildeonaliry rhar iexcl5 a standing in internacional 1l1w 5imilar tu titar of a sovereigo staxe Examining lhe question of the antonomOllS wiU oiacute international nrganitatioll Tunldn allowed thl1 they need not jmt act as agtnts for member stares
In imernatiunal ptacrke trellties conduded by jntcrl~ational mSaniacutezashytinns take their speciaJ piare as treacies by wbkh internationsl organimtiom aequire righu and take upon themselves cerrain obligiexcllshytioos Intctnat10nal organizatiou are created by Hares hey are broughr iexclnto being by states but the actloacuteos of imcmational organi7ashydoos are nlt)( in any way de facto or de jure ro be tqt1sred lO the actions of scates
(Osakwe J972 23)
Thi did nor mean than M internadonal organiacuteiariexclon was an entity indeshypendem of its memher us[es as any powers (har they hacl were delegated by [he members In Jine wirh che ampwiet doctrine of peareful co-exiacutesteme Tunkin placed Uress pn (he nature and rhe membership of an international organiacuteution dlOSe which drew their membersbip from commlmi1t c1Ipishytalist and TIiexclird World tares could expcct tu be genel1llly mognized as having an incernarional personaliacutery He wrote
TIte namre of tontemporary international prganiurions is lO a very great exttm derefmined by [he existerue of Haces beJonging ro differem wcio-economk systems and the ioevitable muggle between them Thar is why pcaceful crexislence is now the bl-sic condition of rh~ dfVC1iexclpshyment ufgeneral interoational ntganization
(Osltuumlltwlt 1972 289)
Mor07JN Clt1ntrlbuterl sorne extra points Fintildet be iududed JNGOs in his stndy He wrote dlQt lotetnational orgaruulions have as iI rol 8t least three member coumries TheM may be government$ offidJ orgilnlzarions or 0CInshy
guvernmental organizatiow (Morowv 1977 30) In a 11Iter seccion m NGo thcy were ldencifred as che la~ group of inrerrulttonal organiuttiolls wim two aspccn rbar concttntd socuIacuteiacuteIgtt commemarors tbe NGOriexcl auirude towards the preservarion of pealaquo wkh the Wnrld Feieradon ofTrade Unions
6 _ 0
rhe Wodd Fedemion oE Democratk Youth and otber meiexclllbtrs oiacute tbe Sovittshybacked World Peace (ounaacutel gaining special mentioo and the specialiuJ chataCrer of sorne NGOs itl(h as rhe ruerrutriunal Couocil of Scientifu Unions and che Scienrifk OJmmiuee on Antnrctk Research MOrlrLOv memioned how NGOs can belp emblish a social dimate citillg their contti shybution ro (he setdemenr of a number of internacional confHcu swh as dlilr in Vietnam He aOO dealr wirh the role of che NGOs io cbe UN aud che consuJshyrative srarus [hey llave witn lGOs saying du[ smdems of internariooal affitjoiexcl
in [he socjalisr councrics m critieal of many asplaquots of (his system fur the eoruulrarive StatuS amogemenrs stiU fall shon of wha( [he deveJopmenc of modern inretnatlonal relarions in fac[ catls fur (Morozov 1977 43) Tbe specialized namre ufNGOs Wamp1 atttibuted by M((2OV tu
tht increased Jnfiuence of the pubic at large un roreign polky [he grearer iexclmpat of public opininn in imernatiunal reladuns and [he greater importante uf me ideological fiexclUtot 10 $ucb relations Accoum should abo be raen of che proccsses of cconomic developmenr and [he coosequenc~ of [he scienrific and rechnological tevolutioo which has also led ro a greatet number of speoacutealized NGOs
(Morozov 1977 42)
Second Morozov wridog jo d~ late 197amp made moU pos-irive refershyencelgt (O [he role oiacute Trurd Wodd SUtes in imemaciooa otganimrions He noted rbar rbe emetgtoce oiacute ti large oumbe of Oung natiooal stares h8ve kd fO che emetgcnce of intetnarJonal Drganizadons among develcpi08 ecuoshytries (Mororov 1977 29) aod claimed hat partkiparion in (hese organh311oos is part uf he process uf consolidating their sovereigocy and ruuional jndependenu~ aod of wlviog cheir pressing ecoOfJmic anJ orher pmbemsmiddot (Morozov 1177 31)
Finally Momzov developed the puint made by fimkin aOOut he limited llalUre of ioternationaJ organiurjQn$ - ~econd-dllSS ffitrnbers nf the inrershynarloual sysrem as opposed tu rhe firsr-diexcllSS members SQvereJgn stateiexcl by reretcme tO theit dedsioos There bave resulted froro che inrelllctioo of politicuJ euroorces within the organil1ldons and
Thecombined will uf chcse lGOs i5 disuumlnc[ from [he wllls of theuuml indishyvidual members io in eflSenlte and ln in narure The v1ilflous wills in thb case are nor agsregued arirhmetically each one exim indepenshydendy ur oside a homogeneQu~ socio-political gOUP wirbin whose frarnework (hey can be combjlled
(Murozov 1977 34)
AfLer lhe comiog ro powet ofMikhail Gorbachev in the Soviet Union io 19Bgt a Ihaoge rook place jo $oVJIl policies rowards imeroadonal relations irutuding international organi1ations and [his has been reflecred in new
~ M-- bull 6_V_
Soviet writings un [he subJect Gorbachev inttoducetl a owjor review of [he fureign poljcy uf the Soviet Union (har marchcd rhe inremiry of his dmncslic refotmS He encouraged new rhinking- based on a revjeJ vlew of che world siruation Peaceful co-existence wirh iexclhe capiralisr tirares WlCgt no looger seeo a~ being a spetjfic fum of dass srruggle as Tunkin had written bUI 35 being in the commoo intecesu oiacute all countriCl Ir WIi$ predishycued on the neOO fin surviva of (he human nce which in ShakhfUlZOlrQvmiddot$ word$ must ofCOUIse take fim place Lighe 1988 297gt- Thjs ml$or rhar a new COIKeuropt of seGldty had ro he adopreJ hy che Soviers rhar oiacute common security which wa5 based un sume of he ideas of -che Palme Comminion (see he1ow) Greater emphasis wu given ro arms control and dlsarmament agreemenrs wirh the Wesr 11nd to co-opttation in international uffuirs whilst Soviet intervention io che Third Wodd enbed and milirary 5UppOtC 1m [he East European communisr govcfomentS WlS withdrawn
Soviet wdcings on inremurionilJ relations both offidal and academic came to mirror Gorhachevs new rhJnkiog bur eho lilete iexcl$ evety sigo chut rbese id~ were dmwu no only from rhe Wesr but alw Uacutenm Moscow mink-tanks slleh as lMEMO th~ JflSIirure of World Eronomy and Inremlfona Relacions) Liacuteght 1988 29~n Gorbschev aun his forngn minisrer FQllard Shevaronadre gave rhe academiacuten a Breen light for funher diSClViiacuteon ud debare (Shevaronadre 1990 23) As II reampul srudies examlned he role of che Uniacutered Nariacuteons as sn ugem for peoce (Kolyrev 1990 12-19 NesrerenkQ 1990 65 Petoovsky 1990 42--3) and rhe mte of inrernational or811nizadons in environmental mliLffers IiLnd disurmamenc qutsdmuuml Chodsulkwsky 1988j NikitiM 1989 123-32 Roginko 1989 133-43) and internarionallaw was teassesred (Sutier 1989~ 363-75)
Once che Sovier Union collapsed many of me wrifetS losr rhe main point of political reference A nwllber Iefi academc orhets adapted thelt ideas ro WCtem oues and a few remnioed as policy rulviseni ro che new Russian goVefrutJenL However cornmunism as M imellectually dominant organiuog rotce wlch pnliiisJ dour had djsappeared in Russia togerllef with much uf the persptr1ve ir provided - wben seen thmugh me unen distotdng leos uf tbe Sovier lfulon - oiacute inrernatiooaJ relatlons and inremariooal organhattnru
Chinese Marxisr wrirers have iexclargeIy reflected rhe views of the leadershyship in Chinll sioce [he coming ro power of rhe Commun1sr Patty in 1949 Undl (he 1970$ communist China was elduded from almon aH iotttllJishytional of811nizIiLtIOns and ie is flot surpriamping tha whae lirde writing tbete WUtl on the st1bje(r Wal fairly dismiacutesampive usuaUy consisdng uf coudemnaM tinos of (he UN fnf its action tn Korea aud rhe security allianes fot teir hegernonic narure Chjnese Marxisr rhinking hiacuteu divided (he modem wotld jnro three groups ihe Birsr World consisred of rile fWQ imperialist superpowers namely he USA ano the USSR The Second World was made up uf otbet areaa uf advamed industrilllired cnuntries primariacutely EUfape aod Japa which were opea ro donunariou by lite Sllperpowers bu( which could $tan a dialogue wirh rhe Thiacuterd World Theu (here was rhe Third
158 Writings OtJ internationdl organizatioru
Wodcl iexcltreI( coruisting of the Afro-Asiacutean-Lario Americltlu sta tes supported in their muggte aAainSt Picsr World imperialism by Chinls This viexclew of the wmId colouted tyJst Chiacutenese wridngs on iacuteoternatiollill oeganharions Tbe $uperJowers were seen as cynical lTlllnipubtors Qf inrernarionaJ jnsti~ tutions Mao Tre~tuog wOre of US poliey towards such insdfutions Ir mam use or them when it neOOS rhem and kicks them 3way when ir does flot (Society (or Anglo-Chinese Underuanding 1979 42) US-domioated pill-~ such amp$ SEATO and imperialist groupiacutengs like rhe Alliance tor PfOgre~( wttt detided Spedal viuiot was saved roc the Warsaw freaty Orgaoizatiun whieh in one aetide was described as Soviet sodal~ imperialisms mol fur aggression (Ming Sung circd Jn Chen 1979 194) fhe Soviet Union was aceuseQ of trying tu manipulate che Pan and negnshydate wlth Wesrem eouorries rhmugh the Enropean Scltwiry Conferenee tn consolidare irs begemonic status in Basrern Enrope at the same time iexcliexcll dividiog Wes(ern Europe squeezing Out the USA ro as ro muSte way (0(
iu expansion and infilrmrion into Westem Europe (Ming Sung clted in Chen 1979 197)
Chinese writecs Fegatded tbe Ntildegttood Worid espedally Western Europe as being a pen force io telmS of imperialism which Ww tdponeed to the lhird World wich diaJogu as io the Jmueacute Convention berweoen tIacute1e European Commnnitiacutees and AF~ican Carib~an and Paciuacutet srUe5
Furrhermore the defensive $spects of NATO were sttessed and with growing European cohcsion the trend iexclS IJkely to ~ towatds a fuoce in which the American elemenr is seen as 1 temporary neceuity eventual1y to be phased out (Sodety fur Anglo-Chioese Undetstanding 1979 90)
lthe countries of the Third World were setn as coostirotiog rbe mluumln force comb$dng imperiaJi~m colonialism and hegemonJsm reEerring nor only to the vestiges of Wesr Etl-OOptan foloniiexcliexclJism bOl abo to US iexclnpetlshyalism and gwwiog Soviet soci$l~imperiacutea1ism Tbe Third Wodd eQuld hdp tn exclude the gre$t powers ny baoding cogecher io such otganizatinos aiexcl tht DAU aod rhey could work ro correct unequiexcliexcl nade and eeonomk reladons with che sUpetpowers through UN iexcliexclgeucies and eonferences such as UNCTAD and UNaos Abo rtlW material ancl exporting orgllnizations liexclke OPEC rbe Incernadonal Bauxilaquo Association ancl the Onion of Banana Bxporting Counuies were proised a ehanging (he old interntlrional eumomic Ome and banerlog che biggest roarerJal plunderers in rile world rhe United Srates and (he Soviet Uoleo (Ptking Rt1Jiew 26 Septtmbtr 1975 cited in Cheo 1979 309)
111e poverty oiacute ehinne study of intetnatlenal erganhuions no dounr caused by the lack of Chinese membership of such etganizacions unril the 197amp and the turmoit ef the Cultural Revulution eiexcliexclme ro an enel by the 1980s Jnstead oere was a more reaHs( viexclew (lE rbe worlcl iexclf one S~shytimes coucbed In Manlst terms In Chlnese univenittes there was a growtb io detailed studies of iutemationalntgsnizations aod the nuropean Union
WritingI un inlmullPmnl vrgrsrtilpiill1J 159
Tbird Wwld vlewJ
Many Third Wodd Afro-Asian aoo Latin Atrusican) writers 00 jntemsw
tional organizaion have adopte a structtulIist framework and are particufarly nm(etnecl abour how insdtutions can be wcd as tools of exploitadon uf rhe nitd World aud how $ome cau be used lIS agenrs of libenuion They llave nor been induded in the ~ettiexcloo un Marxist viltws (or three feamm nOI al of them are Mandst thIJM who are Manisr place particular stresS on (he posicion oF thE l1lIacuterd World and as ThJrd Worlcl eitizens they have through theit own experience unother pe~cdve rhan [Mt of writers from industri$lized srates
Yash 18ndon (1978 377) has identjfied thNf nuacuterd World penfIXrives en inrernational Olganizatiolls Fim [here is that or the bourgeois Of perry natiunalisrs who are in power in mos[ Third World statcs and who are progressive in [errru of anti-impcrialism but are rraniollary ro the C1tccnr WC they would sooner mau thcir pcaee with imperialism rhan iluwnder power (e the masses and peasancs This group uses ineernational orgllniexclm~ tions ro pur presrure 0lI imperialisc states in order to extntCt concession5 from them and appease tbe masses in their own coontries TIley see che UN as an opportunity to parley witb their entwhiacutele impecild masters t a presumed kvd uf equa1iry (Tandoo 1978 365) Thc scltond pcrspective is rhat ofthe reaIly backward regimes of thl Thitd Wodd such un Taiwiexcliexcln and Jotdan or whnm intemarional orguniacutelattnnS are of margJna1 signifieance [)t they prefet tu dea wirh impcrialism iquestirt(tiy The rhird petSPCCrive idenrified by landOll is that uf rhe masses vi thc TIlird World for wbom toterntlunaJ orgmilAriom are petiphewl fin liS Jong as hey rontinue fO reflect the muing balanlte uf clas$ forces in hvour uf impeuacuteJism (fandon J 978 378) Sioce the ene of he 196amp rorces representing thu third group have bccome lnott prominent in world polido in che form of liberarioo groop1 lttCn as tbe PLO and whilst chese have f)tgten interested in galnin8 telaquolgnJtlon rOt rhemshyselves at the UN and the spedaliled agcodes rhey are not depeuden 00 these or8ani1Jlton~ rndecd Tandoo romioeted (hat fo che revoludonary snnggles in SOUfh~E3SC A~a and AfrJctI iOfernattonal otgilnizalJons are tOO peripheml to be of much $ignilJeaoce (Tandon )9713 377)
Tancloo providcd n inrere~tiog history of the Jevelopment uf the anrishycolonialist forees in che Third Wruld sinee 1945 bur hi~ clivi~iexcl()H iexcloro he three perspenives is roo stark leaving aside rhe leil important backWllro regimes be has basiclllly grO~lped tbe Third World leadershp joto the revoshylutionaries who have Uttle netd (or imernatiooa otgllnizatiooll and those who llave suumlpped into refOrmism and have beco duped iot() bdieving (hat they elln ehaoge chelr c1ependeoce 00 industtia1i1Cd nBfiexclmL~ lhrough intemadonal organiwtions Thjs seems to undelsrare me use or ~mh organishyzations by revolutionllry groups - especiiexcliexcllIy che PLO anel tlle SoUthem African liberadon OtgllOiexcl7arionS - whieb have made substaotial use oiacute [he UN me Arah League ano the OAU tO sustain rhe polirical aspeets of theit effOrt5 1t alS(l uverestimatcs the extent tu whieh the Third World countries
J UU wnlmgl 1111 JTiUrllamm41 ergtIttJ1I0fll
have any iUwinru about imetnariooal Qrganizarioos such a~ UNC1~D
Furchermorc the identificador of 800d revolutionaries and falten refurmislS i~ tuller impliexclstjc~ rhe maIur sponrot of the UNs New Ecooomic Order l wruch Tandon hal roudemned as rhe Old Economic Order with a diffefent rltetoric WIIS the Algetian radinu governmenr of Boumediemu rhe PLO irself ha heen dependem on a numlgttr of bnurgeWs Arab goveromenrs foc financial 00 diploJUlltic suppon and ro Tandoos duumlertion that PQr narlonallibemwn movemenn guided by a proktatlan idoology such liS rhose in Chifliexcl1 lIlud Vietnam iruemarionaJ organlwtlona WtU of no 1J5e can be- added the re5ervarion until chey carne (O power Whiht ir took some twenty years belote communist Qtill1 made use nf suth organiutions the unified communiSl Stale ol Vietnam was quick fO cake up it position in the UN ro ask [Ol aid thtough UN agencies liS well as w become ji membet of he CMEA (Comecon)
Third Wodd commemscOt1l on world politics have emphasized the nature uf rheir atea$ potirical ecoOoacutemtc Ilud culmral relatloosluumlp wilh rhe iHdllsrriexcl~ alixed Nonh TitilO is iOO$t Oflltl rypified aiexcliexcl bciug OHe of ueo-folonialism _ COntrol of che Third Wtltld by lhe Nortb by indirecl means ratlet (han by direa colonial tule and of Kf)IomIacute( dRptwJmry (o dtpmdemjiexcliexcl) lntetnationaiacute rdsdOOi bcrween sures are sublumed ro relations between claue$ world wide Ixtween on rhe one lIand the expluacuteiting impetialist capitetists in rhe northcm iru1usuialized couotries 2100 rhcir middle-ltlass collaboratotS in the 50Uthem SUtes aud on the othet band he exploiced masses rhe proleuriat ol [he $Ourhern contJnems The Lurcr gmupS have been 1I1iide ecooomkaUy dependent on [he furmer so char hey lIre in rhe wuacutetds uf the Bruiliiln T Dos SantOS in a situadon jn which the economy of a cetuin group of counshytrles is condiacutedoned by rhe develOplllent aad expansion of aoother ecouomy lO which thcit own 15 subjecred (Bodenheimer 1971 327)
The uOOerdeveloped tounrries depend uacuten [be developed ror their capital nd ercperdse they find key sectors of ehdr eroooroy conrrolled from OUtsJde rhey act as a SOUfce of raw marerials lIS ji lthetip source of labour arul as a rnarket fur mllnuf8ccurers from Euttipe ]apan and North America As thejr living standards were deterrniud by rhe vicissinWeS of the Northern~ dominated wodd marker the relationship was Otle uf unequa exchange (he [esule of which was a world experiencing woequal developmenr with a developed rieh indwtriaJiud capiralisr Notthern centre and d poor underdeveklpedgt agciculrutitlly backwarn eXFloired periphery in che 50mb The dependem 80mh has been divided berween rhe ptedominanr undemeshyveloped area~ lUld a few Cenfres of deve10prnenr wirh their ttade culrural rraffie and polidcal linL to [he deveJoped North - rhe depeOOem develop~ memo omlinea by EH Cardosa (1974) allodlt~r Bruiliall Mmir Amiu (977) rejC(ted the prosptltt of aH antonomous capitalist development in [he Third Work the oew bourgeaisJe of Lacin Ametica Africa and Asia were in allianec with capitalisrs from rhe Nnnh and rhe mato $OUrce of finance ror lmported equipmem was fmm the expon of raw materials to rhe indu~rial
5 ~ _~ smiddot_middot~~
iexclred smes Amin (1977 1-21) SllW rhe can made ror a New Imernational Ecooomic Order (NIEO) by Third World leaders at rbe UN UNCTAD aod che Vilrlous North-Sourh dialogues as an nrtempt LO iexclnerease the price of chelr ntw mattIial exporrs obraio more lmpotted technol08Y snd chus finance a new srage of develQpmenr He saw this ti placing the Thitd World more in the gttp of the neo-co1onialist sysrem and iostmd recommended 11
more self~rcuumlanr development wlrh murrud assismnce between Third World sures a reducdon in [ade wirh rhe induuialized wotld and Chlll a loos~ ening of dependenre Amin lJke TaOOon had Jittle fairh in presenc imtrnruional organizaciexclon Il tools foc fasbiooing a more independent Tbiacuten Wotd His sU88tl1cion of grearer mUtual ilSlgtistaoce between ThUd WorId uate~ implied somtthing more sophillticated than a numbtr of bilateral arrmgements As rbe present orgauizarions used fu iexclncm~Thjrd World cnshyoperation (che OAU he Atab League ASEAN) are domitllued by jusr dl()llC govetnmenrg chM accept lhe eowse coodemned by Amio _ the NIEO ami greater jmegrndon iexcluro rhe world economic sysrem ~hen Amia solutloil involves like-minded deveJoping counrries or more like1y political changes leading ro such indigenous intemuional orgilniwrions
Other Trufd Wodd wdten have plllCtXl emphasls on grearer use 01 exisring insdtutions lOO can broadJy be deKfibed lIS Wopmenraluli huI Prebisch an Argentinian econOmigf has not only studied the que5iaacuteon uf ecooomic dependency but his ideas llave been used as the baJiexclis for che wotk of cwo miexclljoc iexcliexcluemariOOiexcll1 organizadons rhe UN Enmomic Commission fa utin Ameriea (ECLA) and UNCfAD Iu his smdy of Briliacutesh-Argerl(inian trading relntioflS Prebisch bad idenrified rhe unequRl tecrns ol Hade between he favoured (ndusrrislized s(ate of tbe centre and he les privj~ leged llOIl-indumialiacutewl periphery Prebisch unlike rhe dependencia gtChool of Amiacuten Dos Sancos and Cardosa believed thu this inequaLity could be overcome by political acrinn by trade pre[ereonces fuvouring the pedphery by eoo1ruooiacutery agreemenrs by intelnatiacuteowll aid and by more foreiga imvestment in che ~riphery It was thele remedies thiexcllr Prebiacutesch eneouraged when he WiIS Executive SecrCrary of ECLA from 1955 lO 1963 aOO Secrewy-Genernl ofUNCTAD ftoro 14 ro 196tL In~d rhe amoum of aid the periphery needed in omer to overeome their Unfuvoluable rrnde balance became known io UNCTAD clrcles as [he Prebiexclsch Giexcllp
The distinguished Afiican aC1ldentie Aji Mazn1i has wricren un the plighr Qf (bar conciflfnt aod j~ role in pmem~day interruUIDllfl1 afmits He soughr ro answer rhe quesdon Now rlw Imperial Order is eoming ro an end who is going tO keep rhe peaee in Aampica and tu examine he concept of Pax AfrlclllUl the African s ambidoo ro be his OWh palaman The JXIliacutecillJS and se[f~8overnment ufAfriea depended on the nodan ofan African self which Mauui discusseJ in decaH He considered how this 1ndepen~ denre might be threarened by the politicaI and cultural fragmenMion of the contillenr Ellld eronomieally by deperulence on Europe He quoted Kwame Nkntmah finr President uf Ghaniexcll on rhe Europe-Jn ECOntunir Communiry
162 Wilihgr rm intd1JatirmallJrganizatimu
ihe ireaty of Romemarks the advent of oeoKolonitJism [n Afriacuteen snd bears unqutSrlonably the marks of Freneh neo-colonuumlllism (Murui 1967 93) He moduded from tM that Wlut AfrlOlns tbelaquofore neecletl was II
renerru authotity of cheir owa tI) ((lordilJlte fheir eltonomk and policicat deCena- sgain5t trus rnreat (Mamtiexcl 1961 93)
Given this theme it is not surprising tlwt Mazrui ser srore by rhe OAU bU[ he was realistic in bis judgement
In relatioos betwlaquon African statts lIOflesr step rowards Pu Africana was taken when rhe Organiution oiacute Aftlaquolln Uniey set up in Commissiacuteon ofMediauacuteoo Conci1illtion aud Arhitmion
Anormr OAU Commissioo of relevance fot Fax AftlOlna ls che Defence Cornmission Sor me Defeme Commlnion 1w se Car been among che lean effecdve QfPan-Aiacutericun ins(kndons Afrka mar indeed aspire to be her owu ptlliceman bur she does nO seem ready as yel to par the price iacutem it
(Mauui 19612[3)
Mazrui oudined the varicd backgrounds of [he lemen oiacute newly illdepenshydent Africa and thdr radical and revolmionary ideas and it is pethaps swprising rhat the insrirutions rhey created fur me coutinenf wete so mnservative with [he p05sible exceprion oiacute the OAUs Natiomtl Libetttion Comminee Mazrui no[ed thac Africa srill has the problem of how othet powetS respond tu its behaviour and [har forcigo iotmsilm in AJtica continued Indetd the I990s proved tO be a dC(ade of disusrer for AfrieR The debiacute burden contimlld while Ilome states collapsed lnro civil war ami others took to iutenoendoo in thejr ueighbonrs affairs Outslde interference from borh Enrope and North Amecica euodoned One of rhe fcw brlghr spots was the end of apallhcid in South Africa and the peaceful transitioo ro majoriry mJe lo al thiexcl~ tn quote Juliacuteus Nyerere rhe ampcmer pre~iexcldenl of Tan1ania The OAU exists outr ror tbe prorecdoo of (he Afrinllt Head~ oiacute State (cited io AlilgapPltl 1998 1 ) The relarive optimism of Maztui has giveu way ro Afriam writers examining sorne of me disrnrbing details of inaction by [be OAU and regtonal orgauiacutezatJuns nlCh as ECOWAS beiog used as doaks fu the machinations oE regional hegemou$ suth as Nigcria (Mibe 1m 61-9(1)
Radha Sinha$ problem--ortented undy Food iexcllfId PIWt11y (1976) has an IItgent message Sinha a former consultaot of the FAO prodnced an iofuacuterrned aUllyiexcljiexcl of the world$ food problem stress1Og in paniacutecular the maldistribution of food and other resources Noting he profO$ab of UNCTAD with heit muld-rommodJty approach and buffer nocks provjshySiOfli he commented rhe grearesr weakness oE the UNCTAD scheme js les Hkdy politlca1 unilcceptablliry ro me developed (ountdes parriculady che USA (Sinhil 1916 114) a propheey that has proved to he cortect He identitled a more aggresslve attitnde by Third World sutes e5pedally
WrilirrgJ on i1tternatiflii1l rHgarrtzatitmlt 163shy
after the uH prite cise of 197314 when the developing coonuies tried to maximize their own market powers by formin cartcls such as rhe Intematimlal BaurdtC Association the Intemuional Coundl of Copper Expotcing Countries aud the Intema[ional Tin Agrcrmenr He gave n qualified wekome ro the Lomeacute Convention betwcen the European (omrounities anJ cenain African Padfic and Caribbean Haces Writing in 1976 he commented
The receot cbange in rhe luirudes of tite tiche countries is largely due tu the incIeasing miliuncy of the Third World countries lt is almost ertalll utar the magnitude offuture cnnc~sions in me coune ofGAIT aud UNCTAD IV Ilegotiarioos wiU deperu mainly on (he continued solidariry uf the devdoping counlrtes
(Siha 1976 116)
Sinha was pardy correct as tbe solidatity cf rhe Tbird Workl states cracked se the induurialized wodd withheld funher Con(eampSJoru but ir was able tO do so because market condidons swung against che primaty producen
In his condusion Sinha called ror a IIDre1 shttting of wnrld t($nmes and power if confrontarion was ro he avoidOO He feared that the ffa of roshyoptradon berween [ieh and pool conntries hiid ((lT1e to an end and that batde lines were being drawn Instead he advOOIreltI majnr concessions from the dcher coumries on trnde lInd aid issues and a1so a ma~lt te$ltUcrnring of the incematiotlill organization~ aoo negoacutetiating ffiarhinery in order tu provide a much gtC2ter say fm me poorer countries in internatiooal tJ1lde invesrment and mooetaiexcly armngemenrs (SiMa 1976 132) GAn 1BRD aud IMF have been the presenoe of [he ri h with voting weighted m faacutevour of rhe OECD countries and Sinha re(()ffimended thlll GATr aoo UNCiAD be merged inro an Intemacional irade Organization (ITO) and che creatlon of a Third World permanent secrctariat iexclnvolved in all trade and aia negoriarioru Thoogh less radical than Amin Sinha aIso recomrnrnded gttter coshyoperation berween developing coulltries and an eoo ro their inkrtotity complex with instead a sense of m~ttnal sdiacute-e$teem and trust being devel~ oped (Sinha 1976 ch 10) Litde that h~ happened during the 19905 woo1d have encouraged Sinha The World iratle Organiaadon has emerged as the presenoe of the dlVelupeJ tares and lw brushed aside many of thc mucerns cf UNCTAD Debr ha~ edged on ro dlt wudd iexclagenda but mainly at the beheS[
of a non-governmental organization )ubiacutelec 2000 nd the promi$e~ of the main financill jnsrirutluru lO pursue dcbc-rclicf produred but a thiniexclmfl
In aH Third WQrld commenrarors have provided a vatied and lively approruh fOwards tne problems uf intetniexclational organizarions Their emphasis has niltntaHy beCl Qn tbe use of wurld lmtirutions to change the econornic condidon or the Southern cominents As this enndition is likely to worscn in the near filrtltf further more lJica conrtibutions on the rule oC
-- --- ~- __ _~- __- imernatIacuteonal orgaoilarions in Nonh-Smuh relarJons tOiexclghf be apected from rhe Third Worid A1ternaciveJy wrirers (mm rhat ares rmy jW ltIacuteespUacutet rm imergovemmemal orgaoizarions ar lealaquo Mee rhem $O Hrrle
Cfili~ald~heJ
Critica approadvs lO the nudy uf intetnadonal relations are (hose har rejee( the dominating vleW1iexcli repr=med by tbe realist and reformistS as oudined aboye In paHicular rhey reglUd realists as apologisu for the currem con6gutltion of power 10 (he wiexcldd sytem and considet [har rhe refOnntstS are elrher unable ro undersraoo he fUe llamee )( (hi sysrem oc ille UDwiUing to accepc rilar ir needs more rhan mooest refotlllS TIlOugh they may sympalhi-ze wirh rhe agenda of some Marxists aud Third World wt1cers chey do [lO( llave rhe hisrockal certaimy of the former not rarely do they have the experience and perspective of ehe larter TItey view intenUishy(jnl1ill nrganiutions wirh a jaundiced eye as these are mainly the lll$tmmenfS of rhose who dominare rhe syuem This section COlllaios an wcoum nf three approaches tmt of the critical rheorlsti- of kmintsc wrirshy[1185 ulld pose~mooernismlt
Cri(~1 herJrY The approach of critical theory 10 JnrematlonaJ o(ganizatiooll iSi determtoed by their wider world-view which in itsclf is explaiiexclwd by tbeir llame One of the leading exponents Roben Cox said [har ie is cririca1 in cne Jensc rha h srands apan 100m che prevailiog order of rhe wOlld and asks how tb$t oroer came iexcllPouc Ir does nor r-ake existing irucimtioM lIl1KI JIQwer relaclons rOl granred bu c311s them iacutemo queuion Ir 1S diexclrlaquoced ro rhe social itnd JIQiirshyical complex as a wItole rarhet (hall he stparate pirtt IUthet than subdiide and Imic an examination of a problem it looks al the wger pkturc of whkh rhe problem is jwt oue part and trio rO wJdeThwod the processeS uf change ill which botIt pans ulld whole ure involved laquo(ox 1993 277~S)
Ai a thoory cridQiIacute theory rejeen tbe daims of posicivism of an external Nulity and to be mue-free ror critkal rheorIacutests koowledge ti nor moraUy IleUc1ll1 ic is more che result of the social background of tbose Wt hold ir Given this ctitkal tbeory alJows foc a normarive choice in favoU of a social ancl iexclJlieiexcl(ld order diflerent f(cm rhe prevruHng arder bur it limiu the ruuse 01 chotce ti a1remative orders which are feasibJe mmsformations ofme cxvaing worJd h musr rejEC[ improbable alternadVe8 ju~t as ir rejecrs rhe pcrmanctlly nr lhe exiscing order (Cox 19 90)
Cridcal rheory differs lrom Marxist upproElchcs beCElUS( of iu tejection nf any daim to hold the objenive tru[h and betause or it~ avoidance of (he pmslllt ol il utopia Neverrhe1ess [heir analysis of incernarional relarln1l$ is one tbu hEls u numher of similariuumles wich the Marxisc pcrspecdve It regurds rhl tlistlng suucrures of world polirics as beiug oppressie not
- _ __ _-
lean because of rhe dominance of (he capitalism of che Unired StElte~ For many che USA is seco as a hegemonic power the prevailing urder - in re[ms rbar reReet he wrirings of the Itallan Marxisc writer Amonio Gramscl (1891-1932) Gramsd advanced the nodon of ln hisrori(middot bloc which in itself refilaquors che $Ocial reladons oE ptoducdoo The dominanr dass in a counrty - 01 indeed aoy social grouping - mlinrains cohesion and idenciry withio [he bloc [hrough the ptopagacion of a COIDmOfl culturegt A new bloc can be formelt when a subordinate dau can euablish tU hegeshymony over orher subotdioate gtOllpS (Cox 1993 56--7) The IDove rowuds hegemony comeS with the piexclt$ting fmm che spediacutek inrercsrs ofa gronp Ol
dass tO rhe building uf inrimdons aOO elaoorarion uf ideologies (Cox 1993 57-8) It Loiexcl rhat ptOCe$S thar embeds the incemu of the dominanc dan in an imttmrional form thae [w an appeal widet [ban that dan ine1f It the-refole repreSoems mote tlmn jUSt (he drunJnaoce oE one state ovec anocher bllt implies a cemufi acceptante of the tules arJd institutions purouized by [he hegemonic JIQwer Jo other woros it is all order wbicb most Olher Sta[e-~ (01 at 1enst those within reath of die hegernouy) couId find compatible- wirh their iexclmetem (Cox 1993 6t) h aJso involves noe just inttt-staee rueivirle5 bur rhose oiacute tlvilliOCiety (oon-Stllte socieM instishycudons) ebereby encoumging Hnks between social dus$ts iexcln the connules covered by ebe hegemony
What does Cox llave to uy about ioccmational Otgsniuciexclons 1bey Ilre scen in he oontext ofme wiacuteoo unaemanduuml18 of itnernational reUacuteltions mentloned iexcliexclhove He is direcr 000t mem Ooc mechanisru chrough wruch the universal norms of a wodd hegemony are expttssed js the interoatiooal organisation (Cox 1993 62) Why is chis so Cox U993 62) gives five teIlSons
bull They e-mbody rules cOae help (be- apwlSion of a hegemonic wodd iexclrder These insdwrians reflcct the intererts ()( the dominam social anil economic force- buc a1low a cettain amOunt oC adjusrment ro accommodare other subordinared interests TIms the USA WllS preplltoo ro mm conccssions to
bciI18 in Lhe EU srares and Japan ro rhe Wotld Trade Otganizatimt They a[e prooucrs of that order Though [he insrimrions and rules Ilce
nurITlllUy initiared by the hegemook power ir takes cate ro involve aOO comule a numbe-r of second-ronk stares and gaio theit supporc he Wotld Bank and Inte[nacional Mooetaty Fund were very much pan of [he world order thar emerged afrer [he Second World Wat and which was dominared by rhe Uoiced Stlres
They ltgidmi7e i[s nOlms by providing guidance for SllIteS and by legitshyimiuacuteulS cerraIacuten IlCdviries Ilr me narional leveL he OBCD afie rhe inrerruuiooal financia) irntuumluriom lave spread an acceptante of mllrket coodirions and sHict mOllerary iexclJlides
They co-opr elites from pelipheral counrrie Ihlented sraH commg 110m the Thiacuterd Wocld are expected tO dCCept he scriexclpt wcittttt by the domishynam power Bouuos Bourros-Ghati as Secteury General uf the Unired
166 Jiexclljiexclr1giexcl Qr1 ifJfCflrttuacutemal IWgaizati(ifJJ
Nadons stroyed too amp~r ftOm the gtip of Washinston and his second term was VCtoM by rhe USA His sucecssor Kofi Annan will no doubt undentand what 1$ n-quired of him He brings the mncerns of orhe states ro che UN bUf nor in a way thu threatt1l$ the USA
bull They absorb counter-hegemonic ideas Ideaiexcl $uch as 1iustainable dlYClop_ ment tukl even debr foTgiwness are taken 00 board by the intetnatwnal finarnial institlltion$ blu are trandirmel into pulido rhat swt them
Wh~t is ro be done Cox thinks thar the pfQblem of changiog dw world orUer 1iMuld be shlfred back from intern~tional insritutions tO niexcllriacuteooal $OIacuteishyeties where the sodo-political b~se for a new historie bloc mighr be ereated (Cox 1993 64) FaiJing the creadon of a new historie bloc of the new working cla$s and rural and urb~o marginal groups there might be tnmdorshymadon oC the curtent monopoly-libcral hegemony by adjusting to rhe demanJs oiacute local ello$ for polides 5uch as natlonaHution Cox 199~ 65) He aw advocates te-regulation of erooomies and a re-wmpositjon of civil sodery Internatiotla lnstlcutions induding organiutions can berome eontact puint1i fOr new $OCia[ furtt (Cox 1994 (11)
Critica throrJm $uch as Cox oifee a refreshing exposidon oiacute che posidofl oC imernatiooal ofganizatioos in a wocld where the main revolutionary powe~ have either collapsed (rhe Soviet Union) or se(tled into a cautious ronservatirun (China) Ir provlde~ a sceptical arf realisric world~view without acreptins tbe inevuumlahility ni a illture domlnared by mooopoly eapi~ ujsm sud the Utlired States J-Iowevtr its appllcariexclon to intemationa1 organhatJons 11 StImewha( timited tQ the maln global jnsdm(jons and th financial and economlc orgmiutions Ir has 1m (O say aboue regional nrgashynjudon Uf abour N(JUacutes Furthermore iu alternarive fu(ure testS on ourcoroes thu are far froro certain RevnJutlons in the Thied World are roore likely to be- irupired by nadondi$m oc by IsJaroic fllndamentaHfl OCalaquoely [he solid ooses for new historie blocs
Fwinuumll aNml4cbts
Feminist perspcctives 0f1 inttmatlonal rtlatioos llave in common wirh the erit~ ical rheocillu a rejclaquoion of (he dominance in rhe $Ilbjecr of the rcnHst and rdOrmisrs Although fuminist writen cover a wide 5laquolpe the gencral basis oiacute their aqurnent 1S har in interwnional relatioM ru in most politkal aud tcooomk acdvity women are diexclSJtdvantagt~l Alchoogh they own ahour 1 pet tCfH oC the worlJs lfOpeny and tiexcliexclxe heme 10 peiacute ceoc ofincome they perfurm 60 per eenr of working houn and provide 80 per eent of nfusets (petetsen and Runyan 1993 6) This is a derDOnstrndon of gender inequalitie~ the sodalJy learned behavior and expecratioos thar distioguish berween maKuliniry and femininity (Petetsen and Runpn 1993 5) Feminist aprroaches ofren So bejond the $tati~tks and examine (he mind~se[ of those engaged in the pmctice of intemadonal rdations whiexclch (bey ampee as geodered In other woros che world
Writingc Off inlmhJliofMl vrgntiZdlMm 167
illeen in a mlLlndine way thar kvrntB (he posjtiOll o( mnles in rhe hitgtranhy and devlllues the c041trihution of WQmeO (Sylvestet 1994) War in pattKular is gendered in a way chat keeps wornen and metl from qUtstioniog the essentiat pmpose and he neglltive effects of war militarization ~nd viQleme on their awn and orhers livts (Petetsen and Ruoyan J993 9 t)
What of wminist view$ uf imernationaJ organizationsr Ir IS not possible ro presem a rollf(tive vjew that eneomp3$~e~ rhe works of radicaJ femjnisu and ny iexclihetal teminists (rutead the work of one author Sandra Whitworth (1997) will be used as me pily$ rornt attrntion ro inrernarlonal organizations Aamper inrroductions ro feminilfr theory and internacional frIamiddot tiom and gendet and internacional relatlons Whirworrh examines geodet and imernational organilions She screpts Coxs vjew oiacute inrernational orgashynjzarions [har they retleltr (he dominant powet relations in che intetnational system and rhae internaliomd otgaoiution h che procelt of imcitntionaJshyiling and regulating conOice - eicher rhat which may IIrise among siexclates o( char which has iu (onU io transnationaI society (Cox 1980 375) TIte way duu pcople orgaoire themelve$ wirhin international iostirurjons reflects a variety of power relations ineludi~ of rollJSe gendec relatiull3 (Whitworth 1997 74) lbe triad of jnstirutions ideas and material rQudi~ tioru help ro hxare uSllmptiolls aboue geoocr withiu jntetmltional rewtioos Whitworth uses thesr tn examine lhe uooerstandillg oiacuteScndec io an INGO the Internadonal PlarUled ParenthooJ Federatlou (JPPF) and an intergnvemmental organilJ1rion (albcir one wlrh some oOl1-governmentJ)J represemation) the InrernatlonaL lab01lrOtganiution (no)
Whirworths studies show rhar thr IPPF tended ro accept the deshyemphasizlng oi the gendered oamfr of reproducdoo and (f) ignore rhe imponaoce ofbirth comcol foc womens reproductive freroom Instead in an effort tu popularize birth rontrol srrel~ WWl placoo on paremhooJ rather than iexclust the womans choice However IPPF poUcy beeiexcllme more radirnl in (he 19905- with Hnks beirtg made berween II1M control alld womeos ~)tu~ ality (WbJtworth 1997 ch 4 pmim)
The RO eoucerned itself with WQmen as workern It cnnsidercd that tbey oeeded spec-ial atrention and promoted ptoteCtlvt legiexcl~lacion This reiexcln~ forced me view (har [he male worxer Wall the norm with women workers nor deserving the same rights remunfration lOO mndirions Latterly however the JLO ha~ reflectoo views rhat prodaim wornens elt)ualily in rhe workforce and has sunoo tuacute assess the importanee of policies on womens role in rhe workplace as weU as in sodery more wjdely (Whlrwnrth J997 ch 5 panm) Whitworth comes [O the eondusion rhu iexclln iexcllnaLyiexcli~ of gernler in rbe IPPF and no shows how tbese rdiexcliexcldonsbips llnd definirions ni what it is to be a womltn oc man are structuted relationsrups3nd hlsrQciudly hve been scrurtured tu disadvantage women (ibid 15n
lo eommon with the critkal meorists Whitworth has useQ au examinamiddot doo of two intetnational organixations (O deroonstrate a puinr about imerflational relatiexclon~ indeed sodal rctatrol1s mOte widely The poinr is
I1
I
middot - ~-_ --___ aOOuc powec and iu use not (O balance oue SCdre ligaiOSf anorher but fm une gooup ro domiaare morher Jn chis case it 1$ ma the dominution of one dass me m culcnre over $ofU)(her (though Whirworrh recognizes those reLationshyships ti wcll) but of roen over women The crititUl uudy oiacute (wo jnceraational mganirations dealing with iSSlle5 recoSniud ti beiiexclg oiacute impocshycanee or WOfficn suggesu rha( tltOO simihu research on orher internacional organizadons could proJuce interening aOO uwfuiexcl resulrs
Pllit~ism
Thc posc-moderruacutesr $opprooch lO intetaarional rcllldon is one tlur bas (ome ro che fote Jn che perlod sinee lite end of rhe Cold War Jr is based on $o widcr imellectual viewpoim insrigated by l1rench iorcUtcruals of the 196()s gener~ ation _ Bllrrhes Derrida FouclIul and Lyorard - and whkh suggested rhat the modero era liad becn overome 11 fejeas mera-nattatives gnlud accounv- of hi5tory aoa iacuteNIacuteler subjecu as having no independem rubstance Scientifk btliefs induding [hose oiacute rhe $)(ial scJcllces are rooted in (lllxure polill(os arul mores oJ a wciery and are lherekJre subjective As rhere is 00
oblcctive reality cmpirical daims bave fl() spccial sunding in rhe rralms of koowledge IndeeJ ir i$ power aod knowledge are intimatel) incerwirud Posr-moJernism Hllnds against rhe belief of rbe modero pcfiod which LI seco as beginning wiacuterh rhe enlightenmcm of mid-eightcenth cenrufy Europe and AmeriCll Ir rheldore rejcn~ rhe COMCpr$ oC rationalirl and progrcss aSSuacutedared wi(h [he enlighrenment and [he moocrn age Thc uniry of IOOnkind iexclirW iexcldells such liS rhe untveIsWiI) of human aacuteghrs are rejcuoo lnsceadlocal aetion in smallgroups 15 advuacuteClmd
Post-modetnist ideas have affected tite srOOy of inremruionaJ rdarions as (bey have ocher social scienccs Posr-modern imeraarional relariops theoriscs havc ustd heir view$ 00 objecuumlviry (o exiexcltmine che rrmhs of international relatiom en see how rhe concepts iexclind knowledge-dairm (bar dominare the Jisdpline in faer are highiy conringenr on spccific power relatiom (Smith 1997 181) Post-modemisrs bave lltfa(red me mcta-narratives of the reelshy1m and reformlsu aHke The objectiacutevemiddot aaallses of the realim Ilnd neo-realisu are setn as being deJl(nclent on the subjective standpojnts of cheif mainly Amen(an and Europeau authors Ijcharcl amphiel (1986 258) daimed he works o[ Kenneth Waler men the leading neo-realillt trrat the glven ordcr a rhe natural nrder Jjmirs rarheE (lian 1XpawU political discllUtse negales oc rriviuliliS the signifinnce uf variely urOiS time and plue Whar emerges ii an ideology tllar anridpatcs iegirimires ancl onents a totalitarian projen 01 global ptoponioo~ che rattoualiaciuacuten of global poHcics iexclbe reformius are likcwise tainted Md have Ji mhr$lren belief in pmgress The posc-modernl$rs poinr m rh Helocausr as rhe heighr oiacute mooemism a rombimiddot Halioe of science dnd polidcal otganizillnon Il was SCruTely progreso
Given an antifllthy mwards rhe MlVe[iacute~ign srae borh as a centre of powet ll1ld as a crearioll Jiten imbutol wlth a wncepltliexcl uf progress pest~miexclJdetniexclsls
wHungJ mi Im~iexcliexclrun wgltiIRrzuJlU7iJ 1J7
can lOUcdy be expcctcd to vIacuteew intergovernmencal organiUlrions wirh sympilthy Tbe prefetted iacuteonu of internacional organizations when mentioned are those thiexcltt ltlj~plal differemes snd dlvenity in global pelitlcil duu are reginnaUy based or rhar reflec irKlividual actlOn Tndecd ir SeeIJS
rbat Michel Fomawt was involved with an alliance oiacute twO INGOs (Miquestdecin du Monde and Tertl-s do Hommes) in proresting agaiust internadonal iH~shydon over rhe boat people who flcd Vietnam in tite lare 1970s and ear1y 19S(k He is gU()[ed 11$ sayillg tbar Amnelltl Internnrlonal Teueiexcl dts Hommes Mfiiecin du Monde lHt inirilltives whiacutech have created a nrw righr rile dAht of privare individuss ro iexclntervene in [he otder of polino and internatioont snateg(eiexcl (dred in CampheH 1998 516)
Aootber researcher has exnmined ~he Europcan Communities Ilr che point wben Jr was mnslorming intO me European Unioo and askOO whether ir was a pootmodew ConJigUflHton (Nstrgaard 1994) Hi condusions wcre mar ir was gualiwiveJy a new organizarion oC human calJecrlvJties which mighr U$hec the coming of post-moderniry (Ntgttgnatd 1994 27j) The basis fO[ [bis judgemem was rhat me Ee did nO approximate anl modero form of piexcliexcl1idUll Ofpnizarion it did OOt commatld che means oiacute violence its au[hotity derives noc from die people and ir appeared to be a fCgJoo trying ro pOrecr itiexcliexclelf againsr globaliacutezadun iacuteN0rgaaro 1994 274--5) Ir remllins ro be sren whether [he BU tJf [he twenry-first cenrury wHl fu1fi1 rhtgtse hopes Ot wiU stllrr ro teVen
to a more scate-like being Generall) dIe cririolapproaches ro interruHiorud relarious hiexclJve provided
1lOOIe innovatIacuteve insigllls iexclnro rhe study uf imemarional orgsnizations The crtrical theorists llave becn sh3rpest in rheir unde[$(iexcltnding nf internarional ofgiexclt1lizacious as servsnrs of a dominiexcliexclIf power configuracion thoogh the) lave pemaps Umieed cbelr scope wllen viewing internacional organizadons Feminis[ wJiters ruave given Vltike to whac i5 after aH tbe scmi-sileut majoric) in rhe world and Ilre ouly srarting in qnest10niug the male dOmimiddot nance nuacutet iexclusr of the nmning of IGOs huc aloo of theic agenda Tite post-modemisrs are iMlSr concerned oiacute he (bree 8rOUp5 with inretnationlll organiucioru as such bllr rIacuteleic intellecrual approach is the ffiOSt tadkal aud can lelld tuuml a fnon of nihilism
GltJbaliacutesf lIiu
A gIobalisr perspective does oor viacuteew world poliacutetica as being predomishynandl arout iotergovernmemal relatlnn~ Ili would realisu or illbour inrentare aruI imersocietal rdations as a number uf reformisu llliexclll consider lnsteaacuted it cakes a more holisdc view Problems are (cmfronred ac Ji global level wlurions have tO be sou8ht here as weil This iexcls not ro neglcct (he 10tal Ol rhe ~tlte level ir is more J recognilion of the limiutshydoos of acdviuumles rhere The world-vicw like rhe reformists places empllasu on whal unIacutetes people Ilnd has lirde time for lhe demaoos of power pouumlics aad stare-cemrir orglLuiwrjollS Ir goe~ fllrther by nor
1 V WNimgJ lJ7f tIfernattmiexcliexclJ 11fK4111141tOnJ
liminog in view eirhec ro pans of che world or ro rellltions berweeo particuJar poliric~ lr ioded jlLSr m the economic social and poJitical demaods of mankind Paradoxically ir can be seen as IIn approach rhe very OppoSllC of the fimctionalist wirb whom tbere 5 much io common In nmtrast lO rhe fnnctionaHst (or neo-fllnctiooalisr or intetclependeuce srhuul) and ccrrainly in contrast ro rhe powet politks aOO MaOIacuteIt writers (be whole world approach places emphasis not 00 the discrere r~uiexclreshymems of groups SClteiexcl or individulI1s bm 00 tbe wel1-bciog of the tCOsystem in which rhf5f funnioll cbe planet Eanh The conccen of chis apptoach which is rcflccted il] in ttcumeUr of illternational urganizatiom is for the survival of lhe plunet for its effident funccioning in its widest SeILie aud fot che survival oiacute rhe myriad oiacute speoacutees - ollly one of which is homo sapiens - tbat inhabh me globe
Sinle tbe 196Os a number of wtiters on imernational affairs have expounded 00 tbis view and llave cOl1l~uendy ronsideted the implicadons for intemational organizacions Jobfl Button in bis World Society ronsldeted iflmstatt relations to be onIy a pan of wodd poli[iacutea and wrore
lf we employ rhe term world rociety imiexclreui of internanofla relarions iIacute we apptoo(h OUt study in this global way insread of the more tradi~ lonal nattonal way we will end to have a wider focos ro ask quesrions rhat are moee fundlmenral aOO imponant lO civilization and be ahle ro assess bettet me relevance of om own national bduviour ro be wider worW envifonment
(Button 1972 21)
Rkhacd Stetling posed the problem more spedfically
Nuclear esCllatiofl the popullltion explosion the pollmiofl of tbe envishyronmcnt the communkations rtvolurion rbe world~wide concentNdon of wC1llch and world~wide expansiofl of pltlvcrty are iexcliexcl11 essemially global and not 1laquo al pbellomena They have given rise jn tutn ro eartbshyspamuacutellg and revolutionary demands ror mass education rnass hesltb malts welfure and maltgts participation in che dccisions affecting roans fare
(Srerling 1974 322)
This wodd-view of rhe problems of the s)Jaceamphip EQlth begged fur global oolutlofl$ It suggcsred iexclhu not onIy iJ the system of sovereign stares as yer unable oc unwiHing to COme to grips with the above-menuontd prohlelUS but that a network of llllergoVCtn1lental organiutlom bGsed 00 me rights of statc wVfretgnt will ~lso be hammllng Globtl problems needed global solutlons based on institutinos rhat can (ake a global petsplaquoshytive Thus Sterling considetecl thllt it ~ tlOt unreasooable (O amidpate tme tbe member stares will be moved ro considft equippifllil the Unitw Nttous witb mote crunprebensive powen 1lt global pressUfes build 0974 323)
~h~ laquoo ~gt~ _- -gt bullbull (_bullbullbull __ - bullbull
A more compeluumlng cdH wus lAltiexclued by Barban Ward and Rene Dubas in their book prepared for [he UN Gmference of ehe Humafl EnVJroJlmenl 01lly UIIt EaFlh The c~ altJ Mdilllt1JatfCe (JI d Sflall Pta~t (972) 111ey stremsed the ufliry of tbe Eanh Jnd in eovironment and the )Jroblems in(ed by Jts iohabitants emntially thost oudined by SterJiog The ~uthoflgt poillted OUt rhat rhF envitonmenral qmosrion had by 1972 already had 50me impaltl on guvernments and im(rnarional organl1Jtion but the effior was somewhat ltInJOrdinated and unfocuseL In (hree particular aren - tbe global atmosphere rhe oceaml the worlds weather sysrellU - tbt-y saw [bl jmmediate neOO for (OmInOn poliey und co-ocdinared actiollS where vcerenshysions to national sovercigmy have no relevance ro ptrreived problems Bu rbefe was a need to go furrher and denl wirh other global problems di5Case srarvation iHitmcy unemployrnem ovcfllwding rntetnational poliCJcs wece at the 5tage reachOO wlrhin rhe devdoping s[ate~ of the ninettTtb (entury Elche they wiU move O to a wmmIlJlity bL~ro UiexclXIIl a more systematic sharin8 of weaJtb Ot tbey wiH break down in revoh and anareby (Wacd and Dubos 1972 295- -6) They Looked forward ro a sense of gLobal rommuniry 00seJ on he bope vf Irotecdon (from war aOO disaster) and the hope of enhancemenr (ecologic$1 as well as economid The ptlKtic~ and insrirutlofiS with whkh we are familiar inide our domestk sociecies would become suitably modlfied che basis of planetary oroer (Ward aOO Dubos 1972 297-8) This woold indude non~violent settlement of disputes witb legal arbirration ~nd polioacuteng ptocedures on an international basis jr would mea the Hansfer uf resoucces from rkh ro peor Ilnd inerCllSlaquo co-operaeion in arealt 5uch as health and edUcatIO farming uroon planning aud )JOlJution control As [befe halt been a shift of loyalty rom taroliy to dan from dan to tlation and from nation to fedctation there Wampll
hope clajmoo Wl1fd and Dubo$ for an ultimare lnyalty tuacute OUt single beau~ tifulllud vulnerable Planet Eanh (Ward and Dubas 1972 298)
Whilst the institutiona fmmework and organizational stfllCtuteS remain of necenity -ague in Oltl OM EaFtA iacutet is del( rhat the authors Wfre atming 11( a tlttwork oiacute world-wide fflnctionaUy hased organlzatiofll (both lOOs and JNGOs) char couId take on much of the work )JfCsendy done by governshymems o( rather whkh ougbt [O be dont by governmems UacuteJter writing-s have attempted (O deal wjth thc policy impliration$ of delllJng with )JrobshyJems globdly sroos (986) has poiacutenred en what 1w already been achieved in gtobal problem solving l1nd ha~ soughr ro buHd on rhis His critio have prunted out tha( what has already becn undertiacutelken has bren done more along rradicional Jntergovernmentallines (Donnelly 1990 121-30) Orbe writen have tied rubievemen[ in addressiacuteng [he global agenda more to renewed rutiviry in the UN (Rochester 1990 141-54) or to greater grass~ roots aud INOO acriviSffi Wget 1990 155-~8) Either way globaJj~m offeacuters a distinct W1ly of rackling the worlds ptublem~ It 1$ u ViIOIl thar sttesiexcles uniey and common (am( ntthet than disasreemem and roofrontashytion ir (ould thereIacuteore (oresce disputes being sruved inlernationally vety
much in (he way tbar chey are pre~ndy solvcd within tunny MtiOO iexclrares by more ro arbitratwn and Jaw and by entorcemenf ir neteS$il1) In this rhey have muh in COIDfllOfi wirh tire imerrnuiona lawyers iacuteUld idenlist writer of me eady (wenuacuteeh eemury mentioned at the beginning of tbu chaptet The globalisn are inspirecl jn rheir thinking more by ten Ot lt nudeal holocatlsr and by environmenml breakdown tnan by rhe duumleet elrpeshytieme uf wa dlllf aiacutefected rhe wricings of Woolf ol Ikierly
TIacutete globalisl appro~(h is opert ro the criticism of bcing roo idealistk jn a cynical world and lOO iIDpracrical in in uacutelstitutional sU8scsrioll5 Bur the di$mi$Slil oC rh~ words as globaloney cKleS HOt lid lite wctld oC che probw lems which hey have 50 effectively publiacutedzed They lutve uied to add anorIte dimensioacuten ro whar is possibte by showlng thar ie is nOCeSSiexcllty fOl rhe iexclurviwl of che planee
Tlle radical approach to the smdy oC iOternational orgllnizarions reflocu worIdmiddotvitws that normaUy lO beyond -dmse Jominated by rhe ltctivities of iexcltatcs or of LIte organizltuumlnns chemselves There is a sceprical view of whut is happeoing al soy one uacuteme in imernarional celarions and of he abilicy of mOfe cradicional wcifecs on imernafional cdarions ro explain let aJone llOderstand what is happeoing Ir is the feeling rhar approaches such ll1 (he MaNisr tlwt of rhe ideal theorisrs and some of rhe globuli~rs ur~ coming cber (O uodemaoding humanicys wider dilemmas rhar makes rhero so amactive They ar~ less Iikdy co apply rhemselves to rhe defais rutd wnrk~ ings oiacute p$cdcular imernatinnaJ organizations but neverrheless providt iotriguiog insighrs 00 [his phenomenoo by seeing rhem rhrollgh mol panoprk phHosophical lenses
SUMMARY
The rhree flIajor $chuols dealr wich io chis chaprer - the tcatiacuten the reformisrs iacutei1d che radical$ and rhe variarions (bey contain did not and do tlOf exJn iexcln a hiSforlcaj vacnum lde-as Wele foffilulared wirhio lhe COnten oiacute panicular sodedcs uoo in response ltO pUticular problems rbe communl (adom reYoludon of fhe nineteemb century the Finr World Wlli rhe rise of Nui Germany the spreading of nudeu weapons the deve1opmeof of plthitshy
$econd Workl War Europe fbe pnxeues of decoloniwion and deacuteteme rhe end oiacute the Cold War and rhe advaoce oiacute che inCormatton revolution In sorne CilSC$ the views oiacute rhose wdtings on inttmiddotrnational ocganUatlOHS have liad un efiecr on evenrs rhemelves pirlKulatly 00 rbe actitudes oC govetnrnents mwards tnternatiorW orgdflixauons AIl tXample is the work oC LecnarJ Woolf woose suggesnons Ctmceming a world organizatloo conttibuted lO fhe detailed preparnion oC the Lague oC Nations by me British goveltr mene Likewise Hans Morgeruhau and EK Can provided seimuli fot infiiexclrmoo US and Btirish governmcllul rhinking abom inrerruuional rela~ tiom iexclrom the 194Ck onwards In mher cases rhe general writings cJ persons lgtuch as Marx Leoin Mao Tse-tung and che dependencia school have affecred
rhe poJirk1ll dimare wirhin which govemmcncs conduce rheJe poUcy iucluding thar wwards jnternaclorull otgauj~atjon$
Orber ruCfOf$ aplft froro their historial cuntexc Iuve affencd the views of rhe schunl$ rncntioned They have differint backgtounJs io cheit ideruogy (Wesrero commllniSf Third World radical environmenralisr) and in theit level of $nalysis of inrernarional rebtions (stare Centuacutec inretesr aoo rramna~ dona groups cLitraquo dominanr global) This a(icca the typC oC inrernatiacuteonal organizariacuteon dominam io their studies (IGOs INCo) auJ thcic 8eograph~ kai $rea of interest (the Nonh Adandc Europe ThinJ WodJ Ot global)
TIte range of wcitings about intetnational organizarions has ull dte whole teflecfeJ wiJec llooersundings of imetoational ceJarions and wuumltld polidcs These io rhernselves have fed 00 tbe gtVidc iacutellccUecmal fcnnent and on developrnenrs in world affiuacuters Viewl about iacutellteftlational ocgsnizatJoos wiU continue ro take accOlnt of the ince1leeruaJ debate ill the studjes oiacute polishydes internacional re1atioO$ philosophy ecooomics imematluacutellal uw sociology histoty and geogrilphy They will also reflecto among other ampcton che stntcegk balance in tbe world [he relafIacuteve power of tiJe United Stares aod oroer nares me scate of wotld markers [be pto-ess uf Euwpeiexcliexcln tlllegrashytion che relacive positloo of the developing warIdgt iexclbe levd of cootlicc througbolc the world fhe -ratC of dte environfneot and the ahility oiacute huge StatCS to wiacutethswnd cenrrifttgal force Tbe way tIacuteult imematiornal organiuiexclshydons ret1ect tbese developrnents and tIacuteleir t1Ipability lO deal wich some of them will provide (he tllW fiWifcrial foc funue smdies
132 WriJil1gJ (IfI htfmtaJIacutefmal argmitAJium
Socilaquoy che reformiu discusston group witbiu rhe British Ltbout Parry Wtiting in 1916 he omllned dJe exrenr m which imerllliootlal govem~ mene had been lKcepted rhroogh diplomade garfteaacutengs rhe use of public and privQce JmefOatwllru unions and che iocrtlSe iexcln commodify ugreemellts aad he PU forward plans roe che further teguJation of JmeroadOllal OCrltty lf war is (( be prevemed he elaimed states musr submir Q mUte intetuashy[jonal conrrol alld governmenr in their poJiticnl and udrninl1litrative rdadoru (laquooolf 1916 nB) He udvanred a Fabiao Cornmirree plan for nte Stipranaciacuteonal AudlOrlty cllat wiIl Preven War eiemenrs of whih fOllnd their way into (he Lea8ue Covenane aml whieh inhJt iexcliexcllid teCtJlllmended rhe estab1ishment of an Inrernatloclal High Grua an lntemadooai Coundl of sutes represenrnrives ami JO IOtelThldonal Seltreurjlil Woolf and his Fabiao coUeagues hoped dlar wirh rhis machiuery legal justiciable disputes wouM be 5ubmined ro rhe Cona Of a similar tribunal and orher dispmes ro the Couocil foc senlemenr with che patries rn he dispute ccnsmilned from warlike actjon fue a period of a year Provision was ro be rnade fur sancrions which ali sutes shoold pm inro open1rion lind al agfCltd tO make common cause even ro he exren( oC war against any constiruent Srue which violates thi$ uacuterndamentai llgreement (laquooolf 1916 233)
Woolf mgetIacuteltr wuumlh juriiexclu iexcluch IIS Hersrb Lauterpadu and Alfred Zimmern and British poliricaJ wrIacuterers like Pbiiexclip Nod-Baker LJrd Ceei and Gilbert Murlliy represented bmh [he praccuumlal and intdlectual mpponen ni lhe League of Natiacuteom in the interwar peuacuteod wbo were ouacuteen daified as iexcldealisrs or neo~rotiam Hedley Bul 0966 ~2 5) r1esnibed the rennal Grotlan assumption (named after (he seventeenrhshycentury lesal wtiter lIugo Grotiu$) as being rhat of the solidariry OI
porential solidariry oI (he SUtes comprising imemarlonal sociery wirh respect ro che enfurcemem of [he Law and Grodws basic crjredon of juse WI bt-ing fought in order ro enforee rjghrs a fimiofl dearly edwed in tbe Pabirin Comm1rrfts The Snpmnatlonat AuthorlEY rhll will Prevenr War BuH criricized rhe way ibis group lost sighr of intemarional polirics in rhelI preoccuparion wirh 10eroational1aw international otganization and intfoiexclniexcliexclriQnlll saciery
10 deallng wirh imefIUldonal marnti~y which rhey were indined ro confn$( wirh internarional law they eon[ribu[ed only a narrow and llflcririal rlaquorimdr whkh eKalred [he jnternational inreresr over tllujoual iexcllIrert~r~ (bnt wirhorlr asking bow rhe former was ro be detershyminel) mtlltiexcltimrimwl rdorm over revolurJon as [he meaflS of ll3lliCcndinA lhe soriely of sovereiNn states (bur without considering wfteher SUtCS cOllld OCcOIlIC [he agents of rheir owo ~rincriofl) and respcu fue legaliry oler [be neoo foc chaoAe (bur wirhour fdciflg up ro r~ mer that rh~ in(~rnadooal legal sys[em as (hey construed ir could nOl aecommodate change)
(BuU 1972 36)
Wrllingr on inlmralirmal ()fganiUJliofU 133
This J5 a teUing enough asseSSffiem of che idealim views includill8 [heir writings (tri imernarional oeganiurions HOWelef [he background of [he groop $hould be remerobeted they represellteJ a genemtion devastawd by the Finl World War ud whiacutecb wa~ used ro national suciery (early twenderh-teocut adtaio) lhat had henelired through institutional chal1ge and in whiacutech the rule of law had not preduJed remrro The k-gtgue of Natioo5 che Permanenc Coun of Illternuional J1L~tjce (PCI]) and [he 110 wen for rhem part of 1 Great Expedment to we Lord Cecil~ phrale
Wrirets in the last guarter of the twentieth century picked up and develshyopoo many of he omions current in rhe aoove Jirerawre aud srr~ed how iacutenrematiunal ioceocourse had heen governoo by a body of laws nl1~ lind feguladons ano by insdturions indlldifl8 internatiotlal organizatioO$ Though they llave kcpr rhe analogy with the domescic government of cirishyzens thef have preferred rhe terro internacional governancc demoosrrating thar such a system docs nOl hnve che son of enrorcemem powers expected of naticnal govetnmencs Notions of global governarue huve becn corered above whete tefereoce has heen made tU tbe idea of an imernarional regime (Pp 108-10) Thi5 concept helped bdng internacional olgsobacions iexclmo rhe wider titerarure abom inrernadonal cooperedon 11M governance in a srate of anat(by rneaning an absence of interOlltional governmenr with signifkant er[orcemem powers
In the early and mid~1990s IiHendon was agam wrned ro che manageshymenr of che internlitional environmem in rhe wake of the UN Confetence on Environment and Development (UNCED) al Riacuteo de Janeiro BnuiL gtlhe environmem seemed ro be a classk caudidste fur global governance pardy becl1use ir was glob-al and partly because of the range of instlwdons involved in iexcltS managemem In the words of Josepb Nye etTective intet~ narional envitonmental instltudoru thu$ helped w overcome sorne Ol (he rypical narional bordenecks tbar hiacutender cootrunated meusures to revene rbe frighrening trends of global environmental degradaLion llnd improve rhe possibiluumly of susrainable develo[lmenr of OUt plaller (Nye 1995 x) The assumprion of Keohane tt al was that whlle StateS may have difnculry ad~tessiexclng jmernationaacutel erlvitorlmemaL problems coopenuion betweeo governmen[$ couid hring dividends Eff(Xtlve intetnstiooaj 111stitutions wete needed which may take rhe form of internacional orgauuations rcgimes Ol informal conventlons They were seen in che woros of Maurlce Strong (Secretary-Cener-iexcliexcl ofUNCED)Ul rhe bllsic framework for 11 world sysrem of governance whkh iexcls imItJdve to rhe effective functionmg uf our global rocieey (1990 211 l2) The aim was pragmlltlC to see whetber rhe intemational josrjmrioos coveriug the environment had made a posirive difference especially in rhe polltiad iexcleid
Case rudJes were presenred (bar exploroo the impact oiacute inrenwiotl$l insriturions witb [hree conditions essenrja lor effecuumlve acrioo on the enlirOumem high levell of gownlflmtl bullmam a hospitable 1lIiIraiexcltttal t1Iy~
rrmmml suiliexcloacuteem poIiuacuten U1d ddltiniJtY(JJM CiJpacity in national
134 Wrftln[f 111 iexclttntntiona organiufif)lfJ
governments (Keohane tt al 199 11) The case s(Jdies Weuroe seen in rerms of agendiexclt selting internacional pnliacutecies and national policy ttJpon$($ (Keohane iacutef al 1995) The three authors wtJe aware of the strong influeDce of stare powers in iexclnrernadnnal institurions and of rbeie meagre result5 in sorne areas Nevetthees~ they set down three ronditions uoder whicn inrer ootional institutions can alrer (he bchavior of state actors and in turn improye environmenral qualiry (Keobane ti a 199 19) These afe
1 gnvernmencal concern has ro be higo enough [Q pmmpt the 1lte ufscarce mources lO tllckle tht problem
2 roere haiexcl 00 be a contllcrual enviroruncfit where ~tnttS make (rediMe coounitrnttlts and make iexcllOO keep lglremerll$ rhar incorporare joiotly enacted rules withour debflitadng fuAtof ftte-riding ur cheuting by othet1l
3 states should haw the pnlitical and adminimadve capaciry to make the domestk adjusrtnents necessruy ro implemenr international norms principies and rules (Krohane et al 1995 19-20)
TOe empha~iexcls -in chis view nf glotm govemance is on rhe relncionship becween rhe internuional anQ tIte Illlt10naL
Pan oE gJobtl govemsnce - ai noted in Chapte1 3 - are lnrernntional regimt$_ Thcampe are set- of implidt o explkir principies norms rule and del ision making proctdures arounrl which actors eJCpelttadons converge in a given area of internacional relatious (Krasner 1983 2) [1tey are subSu of irttetnational sodcey and its imtitlnions Imemational reglmes which are oft~o speciacutealitecl auangemenu limicer by function oc gengraphicaJ area are amngemcnts hat BoYe1n cooperative behaviour intetnatioOldly Thee are thus mure wiJely Jrawn than internatiunal organizations The latcer accurdifl8 ro one of the most profific wrltcrs on the $ubject Oran YounS 0989 1994) can boeh stimulate the process of regime formation nnd can htlp implement thei provisiuns (Young 1994 164)
Funuitrltdlisu
An eady bff~1c with the trmJtional view of international organizations based un the state-centriacuter mudel cm be seen in Leonard Woolfs book [ttltmatiltraquoldl
Grni-17111I Alrhough srilJ primarily coruemed wich interamptate relations and the questiolll of peace and secudry a sizeable BCniacuteon o( lis wriring5 rover governlnenral tlaquohoical and economk co-operatioo and INGOs
Ve are accustnmed to regard the wodJ as neady diided iexclnto compartshymenU caUed states or nationLBut chis vjion oiacute thewodd divided into iacutesolated compllrtmenrs is nor a cme reflection of fiu 15 as they exisc in a urge pottion of the etlnh [orlay
(Wnolf 19l6 216-17)
Writtng( (111 hmmatiacute(lrul f8grllliulinnJ 13
Snch a step pladng gre-iexcllter emphasis on non-star ime~natiacuteonal rtloshytions wa~ taken furrher in duo writln8~ o( me Romanian-bom aothor David Mitrany Mitrany ideas known iexclas the functiondisr appooruh lO
internuional politics were inspired by his early Iife io dIe Ba1kans He (ouoo much imelletruaI sdmuiatinn ofter coming ro Lundon in 1912 olld working together with Lennanl Woolf among otlters in the Ieagne uf Nations Society [he labour Pattys Advisory Commiuee on [nternational Arrairs and the Fabiexclan Socieey His (WO malor eacly worlca wcrc Tin PrtlgftlJ of lt1tmutt(IIId GtM1NmAnt (first pnbl~hed in 1932 rcprinted in Mitrany ([915araquo) and A WorklNx Pem Sylttm (fiCSt published jn 1943 rcpobHshcd jn 19(6) though he abu made a 1mbstamial nmtribudon in anides unril bis dearh in 1975 Many uf his writings tQgethcr with an amobiacuteographical piecc and In inuoouctjon are guhered fogefher in Tht Funcfuumlmal TwJry of Prdilia (Mitran) 1975) In his t932 work he omHued the nlnereenrh(intury growth iacuten intertwtJonal govenmcnt ajong similar lines as Woolf
The ninereenth cenrmy prodwed that amazing growrh in che mattrial equipment of (iiiiudon whifh weldcd the wodd togaher into (me organk whoiacutee making eaclt people a partner in tire Iacuteitte uf al The outwatd CXpelsiacuteon nf that change WQ5 the ~rance nf WQrld-wide popular movements and the making nf innumerabJe privare md public imernatjonal agItemenrs
(Mitrany 1915a~ 89)
Mitrany WiacuteI$ concerned thar (he rise of the fllidon-state and the insiexcl~tence of new statcs on che doctrine uf lluvereign equality when (bey were dlldy weaker and smalJer tban the Grear Powers hindered internacional lt0shy
operation in for example the cconomic lphere HowCer he 1lW rbar the fnne ofevents wu working agaiexcln~t sta~ism
No maeter what rhe size and shape of rhe particular community lo funcrions are such thar rhey haye to be organized and the fOrres and (crors now iexcllt work no longer have llny rroe telarion tlt) rhe uld pnlitkaJ divisions wirhin or withuJ( rile state The new functiom imposed upon our puliria instiacutetutions art compelllng 11 complete recomt(Ucrion of tile technique of govemmellt on a purely practical oosis 1 teach that rondU$ion by ming at the Illltset noto what is rlte iexclden form for an imtrnadonal $odetyiexcl but mher what are 1tS C$sential ftmctions
(Mitrany 1915a 99)
He claimed hat C$$cntially the nims of intemalional governmcnt were no diffcrent from dlo~e (lf municipal gnvernmenr w aCaJt equality bcfore the iexclaw for aH rnemben of the cnrnmuni(y and ro lrumote sodal jUlltict To expen [O achieve rhe first aim in inrernatlfllltliexcl sodely whefe 5talCS wcre
l ju WrJll1Jgs en mlWnal101tJf (iexcl(gamufJf)lJJ
nei[her eqna nor unchangiug uuiu would be unreascnwtc Ir woold be far more prncriC1iL ro cmnpromise rhis aim and CSLablish a League of Nations in which Grea( pQVeri woulcl he dirlltdy representelt Secondary Jitates woulcl have group representiexcliexclrioo afld malter ~tatet w()ulcl have panel repmentatioo At the same time sfCortdary bodie$ would be ser up in varJous pam of che world 11$ orgnns (lf regionJI grouptngs of Jitares artd (hese bodies woulJ be connected with and subordInare tO the new CCOtta League organs They wouiJ aleo be iexcliexclbie ro clesl wiacuteth problems mOle teaclily especially as the unanimity of aH srares would not be needed [Ol a senlemem
These suggesdom are noe (he novel aspeltts oE Mitran)$ work They are imponam in changing (he emphasjs away from the tighu of amptate wwards rhe dude oc lit ICllSt (he actlvJries of Hates Still the conccto was wth Ilrrllnging relnrioru netween snm~s In a paper $ubmitrecl ro che 8drish foceign Office in 1941 and in hi~ study A Wking Peaa Symm (966) Mirrnny wncenrrated on how che (unctioru of gOYernment might be cnrried OUt more exptdiriously He rtcognhed chllr withio liberal 1emocrati( stare~ [he Une berween whirh futCtions are Cflrried Out by pubtic and by privare aclioll was shifriog lIod that rhi5 line unde (he prel5ure u( (rt_ih social Ileeds and demands musr be Jeft free co move with rhem A similar demamuiacuteon existed in che terrirorial spbete interlla~ dooally wme (uncdons (eJ railway systems) could best be organized cOlltinenroUy some intercontinentnll) (e8 shippillg) alld some univcnaUy (eg aviation) However there would be no need for rigid patteros exccpe perbaps io tbe exercise of negadve (unctlons -- those related ro securi[y wberc more fotmal sacle lnstltuclOns WQuld be needeJ In (he field o( positive (unctiacuteoru (dw$C tdatecl ro economic eultunl and sodal affairs) he climensions ocgans and powers of any organiorion would be deler~ miacutened by the nature oiacute the funccton and would be fairly flexible Mitrany fmfSaw tbe tStliblisbment o( functional bodies wirh auronomous ta~ks and powers which wonld do thingl joiacutently Tbis wuulcllink aucborlry tu a specific activiacutery (hUi breaking llway foom the tradicional link between authocieyand a ltIacuteeftnire ~erritory Murany 1966 125) 11iacutes move wcmlcl avoicl he sreritity uf many of rhe wartjmt suggesdons fue posr-war (ecltrn~ tions O connitudonal innovariacuteon in rhe United Nacions whlch f~eteoacute 00 he opposidon oiacute sovereign sraee reiiexcltance Mitrnny hoped rhat che number uf internarional agencies (hat had exisred before the Serend Wodd War augmenteltIacute by the A11ied board durJng rhe war lrsdf wuuld u~rve u tbe ba~lS foc (he network oiacute inremarional gOvernrnent He quoud wlrb obviow appruval the wurd$ of an Amerltlln scholar J Payson Wild Jr 00 the varlOUS warrime experiments
The Hues between domesuc anltIacute iexclnrernational actlvlty ate blurred ancl nadonal adminisuatlve agencies of the Powecs concerned Smneshytimes engnge in domestk busint-1s and at orber rimes extend theit
Wrilings Ofl hllenJdUacuteoN1J org411iatiofJJ 137
(unctioru ioro rhe uumluernarionul sphere The resuh is o conglomerashydOn o( intermnional bwrd aocl domestic staf( whose dlties Illrermiacutengle Adminisrrnr1ve offtcers o( narional lmirs deal direcdy wirh rheir opposire numbers in orher S[1l[es WirhOlU benefit o( diplo maric intermediaries and simlllmneously perEorm borh nacional and intemational tasks So fu no attempt has been made en estab1ish iexcliexcl
super~State
(Mitrany 1 6 167)
Mitranyll villion is oE a world in wruch che functiollS of ~etyday $odal 1Jfe - transport healrb care rommunicatioos agticlllture industrial developmenr sciendfic developmenr and so on - are no Jonger assidl1ou$-ly carried en witbin rhe confines oE each sovereign iexcliexcltflte but ate underuJen across fmmiers on a tegionai cominental oc univetsal bflliiiexcliexcl These acrivjw des would be overseen by international Ofganizatioru which wOIJld be more like boards oE managemenr Tbe functional agencies of rhe UN (che no WHOgt FAUacute etc) already underrake urn ro~opetative t$Sks fIli do sorne non-governmental groupings of spedalisrs (League of Red eron Sndedell World Srout Movement etc) However tbe Une berween what has been done imernationaHy aOO dome$tkally bas tuen drnwn very much ro [he beneflc oE che latter and international activitid bave tuen riddted with politicel dispureoJ rnany oE which have liule ro do wlth me good manegemem of the (unction iexclnvolved Mirranys laquoheme would fiexcludually lOwtt rhe liue ro aUow more functioos ta be Citded OUt at rhe level where they wOrk more efficieruly and woukl proide managemenr of tbere funcshytions ra[her [han poHdclI1 interference Not onty would his develQpmeof beuefit (he general social welfure of the world ir would abo hcIl (O salve rile problem o( plaCe and security The LHliputian ties o( internacional fuucrionru co-operarion would piacuteo clown me giam of conflict weakenlog [he urge ro destruction and warfare by rhe promise of consmlctJoo and cashyexistence
The (unctional approach does nor focus solely on iorergovernmenral organizacion buc aUows for a network 01 spedaliuxl agencies roany uf which could be non-governmentaL Ir difftr in emphllSi5 ftoro che mainshystream craditionalis[ wricings and Mitrany~ work praaged a move away from internare relations 10 wotld politics Whilst the functiooaJ alpoolUh does not oReod against lh sentimem 01 nationaJity )t the pride oE sovereignty (Mitrany 1965 139) lhere is no doubl chat ir is meant lO weaken the i~por(Jloce and power of the middle roan berween rile indi vidual and a world communiry che sovereign scnre The feeling o( solidarlty enrounged by functionallinks 1s nor between states but beween people or assoclatioos of individuals Each of us is ill fuer a bundle of funCflonaJ loyalties so dWt tO build a wodd communiey upoo sueh a concepdoo is merely to a(eM artd consolidare ir also betwetn societies and grollps Micrany 15 14n
138 Wriling5 fin illttrnatiQJIa1 (ffanizatio1ts
Such IIn imaginative appruach tu wodd problems aud be mundiUlc hard~ working iexclapolitical role lt implieamp fOr interuational organizadons has its fiexclruIrs To ctiexclddu Mitranys functionalism as being impronica JS IUlfalr hoth because internlltionru functiornd links hllve grown espedaUy since the S~ World Warj and blaquoarue M1tranys approach is a gradual one he did OOE expeCt ir ro be adopted overnighr Even so ir cioes have certllin 11mbiexclshyuow a~pets which shOllld be criticany eDmined
Piexclrsr de5pite rhe refere-nce to possible regional fimnionalunmgement8 Mitranys pJans ron counter ro rhe notion of aU-embraciug regional organi utJoru such as the Europcan Communities now E~n Uninn (Mitrany 1975b 53-78) Whibt these organwdons roay Hnk their iexclamhotity ro a speoacuteftc activky $ueh as the conditloO foc running (he coal iexclaud steel indusshytries nr the agriculture of the EUs member states they sta hold w the rrnditinnal1ink betw~n authodry arul a definirt territory The cooJ and sr~l polkies or tite Common Agticultural Policy uf the BU are nor extended to tbe industries and fumen of other non-member countries who mar wish lO participate in theit ochemes Vet il can be argued toar ir is prccisdy in these iexclirnited geographicill blocs that flIlCtiOruJ arrnnscments are besr executed wirh limitations un mernhetship To wnrk propedy chemes must encompuss denned aras with a good deal jn common - the flexibility of Mitranys proposal wIQutd 500n break dOWIl )l the tnembers WlJuld have $O little in cornmon in fo cxampie the runnill8 of agriculture tbat coshyopetation would be dif(kulr or lloo-proouctiacuteve Furrhermore rhfmiddotse regional atrangemenpiexcl overcorne the problems of dedding the meaning hQundaries and consequtIlCCS of any particular function (Melaren 1985 142)
Second Mitrany did not really envisagc any piexclHejcal control of the futlCtiooal des between COllntdes mus distinguishing him frorn [he more traditionaliacutest approach lO inrernational orgaruwcions lle was hopeM dw the pmblems of roshyurdillltion between ronctionalagencies could be worked out as they lllOOe
To prescribe fOI the suke of [iexcladicional ne3tleSS somtthing more dennite han the guidancc and supervision of eg the Ecooomk Md Social Couooacutel W(lU1J be ro duron he whole conetprion from [he niftJo impollC upon them (funct-lonal bodiesJ a co-otdination authoriry with anyrhing Iike comrolling scuus w(luId be ro move again roWllrd$ that JiacutecumuJarion of power ar the centre
(Mitrany 196~ 143)
Thus [he institmions uf (he Eutopean ClJmmunitic~ - the Counoacutel uf Milli~iacuteers rhe Commission che Courr of Justicc rhe European Padiamenl dre Economic md Social Comlllittce - were al analnema fO Mitmny They werc juu miacuterrnring the poluacuteical COflffOh of lhe nation state ar iexcliexcl pa-n-continenullcvel anU according to Mirrany Continental unious w(luld have a more real chance thau individual suteS to pnletise the aurarky thae makes or division Mitrany 19(Kiacute 2n This may u((end
Witi1lf1 rm imernatilmalllrgaraquoiutifJ11J 139
agains[ lhe funcrJonalisu hope (r iexcliexcl universal apprOlltIacutel tu proble[Jls but (he abhorrence of policial imtitutions is lItrange wIacutelen [he funriona agenoacutees will aftee iln be mllkJng poHtkal decisions -- declsions roncetning lile aurhontative allocafion uf resources No only will iflfetnashytional functiunal transpon organizations established accordlng to Mittany have (O decide that cerEain areas wiH bt weU served by railways and Wds orhers llOt iexcliexclorne ports bujjt up others ieft to tlceay sume airlines expanded whlle rnbers are allowed ro fOllUact blt deeisiow wilI have ta be made on how w diexcl~tribu(e 5carce re~ources betwccn fo example iacutenvemtlent in transpon ur building more hospitals or restfllcturing rhe srecl Jndustty thwughour (he area eovered by [he orgalliurions Thee arc paHdeal declsiQw ln a period of economk growth and plenry [hdr potitshykal niexcliexcltute may be le5S obviou as resources are avaiuble for almost eVery plan advanced by world 01 regional shjpping aviation heaJth or sree1 O1ganizatioos Otherwit there mn$t sllrdy he a system by which scarce mrnurce$ are aUocaced Tbis problem was flJed squardy by Mitr1ny successors iexcln the neofunctionalin school (dealr wIacuteth in the SC(tiOH tbat follows) but ir doell seem ftoro Mirranys writings fhat the world of funcshytioollJi~m is a wodd of IlnUmiacuteted resounes (Melaren 1985 146)_
A third problem in Mimuys approach i~ brought out in a eommtnt by lniacutes Claude The functiacuteonal theory uf imemariruwl nrgaruzarions 1S ultimateJy eoncernen wirh the usue of polJtiacuteeal and military srniexclggJe functionalism tneats (he promotion of we1fue as au illdirecf approach tu rlx prevenrion of warfare (Claude 1968 31--5) Mitran quoted Oaude wirh appmval implyiog rha fulletionalism would ind~ mllk( a positive contribllt1on (albeit inilitecdy) CE (he ptCveurron of war fhis profOiSitiort is open (O $(Ieral criticisms Given the level uf arrnrunems in the worJd and the porential fQf cunflict the contriburron ro pettcc made by funcrioruuacute acrjvities miexclay come too late A youth group exthange betwtn rhe USA and China ma) bode we11 fOf
tbe furure OOt wlll be uf link use if (he respective parrus are beaten ro meir destinarions by intercominental baliiacutestic missiles funhermore the pmmotion of wtlfare may inctease internatioual conflicr by i~asiacuteng expettacions Espedally if social and ecounmic changes are bmugh[ aboue by imernational runctioual 3Jencies developing muntrie poliacuterical I~derships may fJnd ir increasingly cliiHcult to meet lheir poplllatIDn~ demands fot more economic benefJts fur a ampirer distribution uf benefits or in sorne ta$(-S fOf Ol)tool uf the social consequences of laquootlumic Rrowth Imernal sttili aod unrest may chen ~iIJ over into inrernacional eontlicr Finally Miacutetrany daiffi$ that rhe Nncshyrional approach ciocumveuts ideological aOO racial diviID05 as it ltloes territorial frontiacuteers (Mitrany 1975a 226) There ls guod evidellce tiJat the opposite has been happening thae the exlsting runctiuual organimfIacuteom slch $$ tiNEKO WHO and lID hllve been riddkd with ideulogical and racial (or al lea~t Norrh-Somh) diviions wruch h~ve teflected pnlirical argnments outside he olganizarimlS bu have ncvenheless adverscly aHewod their ba~ic work (Ghebali 1986 l tR-lt6 1mber 1989)
iexclIV WHURg) W~ mltTlWilm tIampmJlaiWN
NetrfJl1iKJiOalisls
Tbc move away foom rhe srate-cenrric vjew of JlItert1arlOlal organizarion Started by WOllf and Mirany was ccetiacuteeued io rht immedijlre posr-wur perjod by social stientim applyiacuteog asJltu of functionll1(st ~heory to European nd Atiacuteantlc in~limti()m This utw fUllCtionaliu approach showed paruumlcrnsr interesc in che European Communities (Ee later nuropean Union EU)) whjch arme iu iexclhe wake of che amphuman Plan In Mily 1950 Roben Schuman rhe Frenrh Foreign Minisrer advauroo (he idea cha( West Eucopean srarcs should establish a High Authority wlrh powers ro admillshyimr theit eoai aOO stecl induscrie~ Negorjatioru on rhe detalS of chis plan led t() the signing of che Treaty cf Pariacutes in Apdiacute 1951 by FraIlee Wen Gemuny Iraly rhe Neiexclherlands Bdgium sed Luxembourg (rhe Six) Tbls gave substanre tO (he idea lbat funcrional aiexcltivicy oould be ITlltllfIged across fcomien by IUl organizadon ove and above the govemmenrs of che member sraces a supmnational amhority The idea was wldened ro cover iexclm expanded unge of etooomk activiry when he Silo esrablished rhe Bt1fOpean Ecooomk Communicy (EEC) widl the Treaty of tome in MAtch J957 An Aromic Energy Communiacutety (Euratom) was eHablished sr che sume time However ~he element of upranationiexcliexclliry was dilurelt in the High AllthoritY-s successor (rhe Commission of rhe EEe) having only Iimited deciuacuteOIl-makin8 powers anJ having mosdy the task of proposing acdon ro tbe representarives of he rnember states situumlng in (he Coulliil of Ministe13 Despire his otber Community hutitutions contsined the gerrn of supranadonaHry rhe Courr of Jllstke empJoymg Coromunity nuhe [han nacional laws a Ruropean Padiument wbkh WlS eventually electelt by ditect eleedons amoog a Communiry-wide electorate voting for Cummunity-hased parties aad 1Jueresr groups represendng mrmetSgt consumen traJe unions aruJ blliiness on a Commuiexcliexclity tatber than a nnional basis
Tht$eacute tnmwauumloos in WeBtem Europe uiggeteJ a spate uf 1 iexclretamre primaril) in he lJnireJ Sures whieh examined tbe nurure unrl purpose of the Commuuity iustituions The Jominam staacutend amongst this writing was chat of the neo-(uncrlonalisrs sJCcifically Ern~1t Haas Lean lindbetg and J05eph Nye whose works are of importance io the uudy of internacional organizacions In ronrruc tO Mitrany the OCW fuoctiooalistli tended Br (iexclrOc tuacute iexclimir rbeie study 10 developmems in Wcscetn Europe (HtIaSs ~nJhe Naion Stte (964) bcing a nruiceable exeepdon) especially the OC alshyrhough later cornparimns were tnade wirh rbe growch ofccmmon lIlltirkets iexcln Mica East Eurupe aoo Larin America On che whole the neo-fumtiooaiscs had rerreated foom Mitranys world view
fhe neo-funcrionaljgrs aiso realized rhe dilemma faeed by Mitrliny in eelihng wirh politica dcdsicms ane did nor fllnch in introducin~ a merhod of making necessary chOtees ar he imernarif)llItI leve Indeed rhis wa~ rhe kernel uf rheir ideagt lhlll 1I0l ouly sperifie functionamp would be farried OUt ar rbe subrollrinentill rarher (han (he nacional leve bul thil( lhe decisions wnrernillg (hese functioos would be made at thaf level shy
6- v n_m_ ~olo_~~W_
with imponant cOnsequences for those groups imetesred in the decisiacuteons and iexcliexclIso liffecting orher arcas of poliey Por example supprne the Ecooomk Cual and Steel Community (BeSe) required (har che sreel lodustry be orgaoized as a West Europeao endty insfead of a numher uf narional industries a1l commled by differenl ccgularions aod rbar a suprauariona surhoriry be crcared ro decide on the policy Coc che ranniog of tbe Wcsr EUlopean sfeel induStries lo ronsequeoce those involvea in say rhe French steel industIl would switch tbeir attentioo away from Parili where policy was previowly rnade ro BroS$CIacutei wbcre ECSC poliey is mude Purthermore CommwIlty ntber dUlo nadonl poliey on ueel eould spiU ovet into ereadng a Community po1iey ror cool tnmspOH IUld Othet asrod~ ared acdvities As rhe numbe oC functiacuteooal policies decided at a Commuoity rnthet than a natkmllllevd expanded so the need for political actioo at this higher level would gfOw aod thc political sysrerol of the couutries involved would becomc inexorably iexclmcnwincd lhis was the logk of rhe innovator of he $chumao Plan idea Jean Monnet wM considered rhar rhe establishment of a c001 and srec1 community foUowed by similar organitations dealing wirh otbcr Cuncrional areas - agricultute transpon nade defence - would be lreps on [he way ro building Europe The eOO would be jln economiClllly aod politicaUy integmred Rurope lo Monneriexcl scbeme a federal West Furopeao state The means would be fuoctlonal bu with a political contento
In his study of fbe ECSC Rrnst Haas examiooo this s(rlltegy and a1so dmned polldcai inregradon in its ideal typc u beiug rhe process whereby political iexclcroo in severa distinct nadooal ~tings are petsuacltd to shjft thet lnyaltielJ expecrations liod pOlidcal iexcll(tiacutevides eoWjlrd jl new centre whose insdwtions possess or derrumd jutisdktion over me pit-existiog lIatiof19l $tates (Uaas 1958 16) ihis oew cemre would be che powelshyhouse managing rhe political ptoblems oC fuoctio1llll coopeaacutedon [he Uigh Audwrity of tbe ECSC and be indrurion of me EBe The policical actcniexcl invoJved would be rhose elites leading the poliacutetical groups habirually colCerned wirh public decision-making and wooJd indooe trade uoioacuten offishydaIs busiue5$ ami Hade representatives higher civil servann and activeacute poHttdam As tlltSiacute eliteS rutneU theit aacutetrendon ro rhe ojOW policical centre chey would find tha Community pelky in olle area nm be uwde tea oo1y if che task iuelf iexcls expanded CHus 1961 368) by way of a spillover of actiVity lIltO anocllet policy atea Evenrually Communiy policy~makiog would take uvet from S(ale policy~making jo alI rhe crucial BreaS and the new centre would emerge as being potenrially more powerful dma the member srares governmenu wbich had been drained of lheir mOS( meruoshyingful polidcal ucdvides
1( this stage ir can be quetied whetbet Haas was describing an inremashylional organizadun or il poremia1 federal mlte Io discumng tms quesrjon in his book on Elle EC-S( Haas cooduJed dllU Tbe hruHnct of federal as agaiacutenst middotimergovernmemaf powers lIeeacutems tU point to che coodusioo tbat in
142 WtitingJ on mtertlatilJtJA orgamZ41iom
alJ maneo relating ro the romine regularion of rhe commOTI ~et the High Authority is independent of government (HIlaS 195R 55-gt He al50 voiced rhe opinion rhu Supranadonaliry in snueturnl ferms tberefure means the exisreuce of govemmental a~lthorirjes dlloer tuacute Ihe archetype of fdeNrhm rhan any past inrernati(mal organizar ion buc not yet ideutiacutecal Wlth it Oiaas 1)158 59) However this $upnmttionaity in pNctice has deve10ped into a hybrid in which neither the federal no the intergovernshymentai reooency has deady triumphed a-bas 19511 527) Ir is aloo denr lbat the original Coo1 and Sreel Communicy was mueh mote functional~ Wlcrnl than the lateacutet Economic (ommunicy and untiacutel the mid~19805 the unified aud expanded Communuumly romw to play Jown the elemenU o( supranatlonality iu tavour of 1ts Jiacuteltergovemmenul insutution rhe Conndl u( MiuiMm This aud othet dtVe1opmems led Haas to lcconsidcr his origshyinal view of Community inrtitutioos
In the 1968 pre3ce ro Tuacute Uniting of Ellropt (which was wIacutetten in 1958) Haas alrtady identified factors that had dllngro rhe nattlc of me European Communiries experimem in che previous ten yeacs He observed tlur during this period vario~ spiU-OVet aOO adaptive ptcKeues s(ill had nO( resulted in la pulitically united Encope and in an~werjiexclg the question what went wtlJug he outliued fuur considetdtions Fitst (he new funaiurutlJsu had filiJed w di$tinguisb between background variahle cOlditioos prevamng at rhe time when cbe Comrnnnity WU$ csnbJished and new upiratiuns and expectations that had develnped Jhe esntbliacuteshment thar had ron counrer ro the Community spitit Second the imptet o( niexcltlonaUsm had becn undereshytimawl Third Eactors within me Commuruty had becn nressed ro he dccrimenr of those coming from the outside world PintUacutely me massive transCormation oE Western socie[y raking place indepeudent o( EutoptHl integratiacuteon aIso hacl been underestimaretl (HIlaS 1968 xiv--xv)
Haass definidon of imegralion alsu bccame wmewhar more negative I1lOre stlilte-centric than bis original 195R emlhasis un nationaJ llt(on shifting their loyaJties expecratiacute(ms and poJitical activities toward a new centre By 1970 Haas considered the study ofregionallntlgrurion to be concerned
wich explaining how aud why sUtes eease to be whoUy $overeign how ~md why they volunucily mingle metgt and mix with rhcir neighbours $O as to lose che facruru attributes of sovereignty while acyuiring ncw techniqucs me resolving conilirt between themselvell
(Haa~ 1970 610)
By 1975 Haas eonsidcred regional integmtion theoty oiJsolete in Wesrern Eurupe and obsolescenr - though still urerol _ in tite teSt o( the worId (Haas 1975 l) By 1976 he had arded out n maioI reintetpuEation of uew-fuuctlonaJist lhoory as it applied to rhe Ee The definahle outcome of integtation in Wenem Eutope was secn either in ttaditiorW federaHsc temu - a Wen Enrnpean (ederal state ereated out uf yenrs of fun~-tiexclonal
Writings M ifllernuJlfJmiexcl1 (JFfIiutian 143
rutivity whkh had lcd lO J trnmrer of poliduumlll acnvity away rom (he natlon ~tates tOwarJs a new srrunure - or ltlS the imtitutiooltlUdng uf some intermMiate iexcliexcltage such as rhe present status qno whcreby atlthonty is dimlbnrro unequally between several centres Wilh tire old nation states losing their previous Ituthoriey but with no new JiacutedeOl government in ptO$~ pect Whihr the original aspecrs of the EC - rhe cuuoms union aOO (he Common Agricultura Poliey _ have tllaquoorne entrenched the spillover inm orhe policy area~ had nor occurred by Ihe mid-1970s as che neo-furutiooa1ists liad ptedicred Also common polides liad becn Jevelopetl in differem o(8ashyIliratiuns - che OFCD the summit of indurmiatiooo counrrics the Group of Ten - tarher than within the liC lhe problem according lO Bus W1IS
rurhulerue whereby rhose iuvolved io polirirs haJ found rhemselves in a littting ofgreat social complexiry where rhe nnmber of atrorr is very large and each pursues a variety uf objectives whirh are murually incompatible lmt ucn is also unsure of che ultlde-ofamp between the objectjves He continued Tnis conditiQn imJgtlics the erosion o( such interorganizarional patteacutern~ oC comensus reciacuteprocity and no(mative tegularity as may havr CXlSted eadicrEveryrhiug is up fO( grallS (Hus 1976 179) HilaS sllggested thu iu the EC polioacuteeamp and (he institutioru devised ro lmpleshymeacuteut thero iacuteU~trnre rhe attempc ro deal with lhe turbulence nather tllan achieve regional politkal inteSradon (ibid 180 original emphasis)
A similar hiacuteft lttway fmm the earHer llSp1rauumlons iiexcliexcl ICen in rhe work~ Q( Lindberg aud Nye Lindbeg wlrose book 1he Pattirai DJMmict o EroJMn Ecrmomic IntegTatia (13) had fullowed on dosely from Hws work was hy 1966 showiog tbar moves wwaros inregration wirhin the Be (ooid cause Stress within (he system l1Jtfl inCftllq the barrien to fimher integration (lJnJberg 1966 254) Togcrher with lkheingold in 1970 he desctibcJ an EC wbich had noc deveJopeJ joro a federal structute haJ difereot ltvels of integrariacuteon fut different functions and was sdl susceptible tIJ UJsis lt was ao unprecedemed but curiousy amblguoos plurruistic syttem there seem tO be no satisfrutory modcls or ronceptli in che sociaJ scienee VQ(abulary to adequa[ely define ie (Lindberg and Scheingold 1970 306) In a anide Joseph Nye coruiacutedered thac Jespite rhese and otber revisioos the neo-Euncrional approodl srjlJ embodies 11 nurober of fault tbu re1lcct jrs origins in [he 1950s (Nye 1970 767) He proposed a nUml)(l OC changes scating rhe derendent variable lels ambiguoUlUumly adding more politiul ruwn reformufating rhe Hst oF integration condiuons and pethapli mOSf
significantly drOlping che ideas ufa single path fmm qWlsi~full(tiexclonallasks tuacute politica1 uuion by meamiexcl oF 5piUove( (Nye 1970 767 He conduded rha[ shnn oF dramadc chaugc the prospect9 (or common markets or microregiorud cennomie organiutions leading in rhe shon ron (of dendes) to fedewt1nn oc m1me sOtt oE polidcal union capable of tlU indept1Ldent dcferue and foreign paliey do not seem very high (Nye 1970 1129)
There hiexclas been a long jotJJney trom the functiorudisl-fecleral nope5 of Jean Monoet back jn 1950 but it has seen the evolution of nm only the
144 WitingJ on inlernafuacutemal ttrganizafifmJ
Communiry insrirurions and policies bur aIso neo-functionalist thinking The Iogic of inregrarion gave way ro coping wich rhe crises inseirutions mixing federalisc and intecgovernmental elemenrs were replaced by a Western Europe in which instirucional tidiness is best forgorten (Haas 1976 211) and the federal elemenrs seemed ac mosc dormam The hopes of che 1950s had been replaced by rhe uncerrainties of che 1970s and the early 19805
Wirh rhe launching in 1985 of rhe idea of creating a Single European Markec wuumlhin rhe EC by rhe end of 1992 che signing of rhe Single European Acr in 1986 (which exrended EC comperence aud changed irs inscitucional balance) and che sectlement of a uumber of Common Agriculcural Policy problems in February 1988 che Iogic of inregration seemed ro be revived
Wriring in 1990 Keohane and Hoffmann resrored and refined che neomiddot funcrionalisr norion of spillover advanced by Errut H9al They were sceprical char rhe rheory of spillover could explain the ECs irucirurional developments of che late 1980s buc saw it aCling posicively in orher ways for example rhrough che incenrives ro institutional change given byenlargeshymenc of EC membenhip in rhe early 19805 (Keohane and Hoffmann 1990 289-90) They saw che pcocess cominuing and barring Clrasrrophic excernal fucrors were moderately oprimisric abour rhe Communirys furure prospecrs (Keohane and Hoffmann 1990 296)
This view was raken up by Tranholm-Mikkelsen (991) and Holland (993) borh of whom saw che revival of rhe Communicy agenda in rhe Maasrrichr Trealy - wich irs blueprinr for a move ro economic and monetary union - as being a revival of the neo-functionalism Drher wrirers on European incegration at chis time adapted che basic notions of neoshyfunccionalism bU[ broughr in extra fucrors Majone (1994) agreed char che EU had seen an upgrading of common inreresn but placed an emphasis on public choice policy ro explain particular Ouccomes Marks et aJ (996) saw a much more complex relarionship berween che Communiry and domestic decision-making leve Though rhe srare was srill very important ir no 10nger monopolizes European level policy-making or rhe aggregarion of domesric interescs 0996 346) Insread rhey idenrified rhe growrh of mulrishyleve governance wirhin che EU
Indeed rhese developmenrs in neo-funcrionalisr wrirings on international organizarions poim up sorne of the criticism~ of che schooL Firsr despice rhe besr efforrs of Ibas Schmitter and Nye it remains a rheory overwhelmingly dominaroo by an inreresr in rhe EC and larer rhe European Union In 1964 Haas and Schmirrer rried to extend sorne of che lessons uf econumic union in Westeru Europe ru Larin America Drawing on Haass 1968 preface ro The Uniring of Europe rhey discerned nine variables four relared ro background condirions (similariey in power of memben rares of rransaction pluttllism in member seares complememing elices) rwo referring ro condirions ar rhe time of economic union (similarity of governmenral purpase powers of che ecunumic uniun) and rhree ro process coudi[ions (decision-making sryle
W[J U UWltU 15
rransacrions rate rhe adaptabiliry of governmenrs) (Haas aIld Schmitcer 1964 711-19) They looked ar rhe chances of policicizarion chat is the possibilicy chat lhe acmrs seek m resolve rheir problems so as ro upgrade common inrerests and in rhe process delegare more amhoricy m che centre (Haas aIld Schmitcer 1964 707) Nye in his article Comparing Common Markecs (1970) rried ro modify che Europo-cemric narure of the neo~ funccionalis[ approach and drew on a wide range of cases of economic imegracion Larin America Cenrral America rhe Caribbean Eastern Europe and East Africa as weH as EFTA and che EC He concluded [har
The original neo-funcrionalist model was close m irs ongms in the straregies of European inregrationisrs in che 1950s and thru mighc be seen as a rempting and misleading guide for policy in orher aceas The revised neo-functionalist model is not somethiug ro be imiraced bU is simply a rool fur making comparisons We wanr ro know whac differshyence ir makes if a group of seates form a common market
(Nye 1970 830)
Though by rhe end of che 1980s rhere were few places ro be found outside Europe thac were forming common markets rhe formacion of he Norrh American Free Trade Atea (NAFTA) and rhe renewal of economic cooperarion in Latin America and Sourh-Basc Asia during rhe 1990s provided different models from the more poliricized EU These seemed ro challenge some of the basic assumptions of rhe neo-funcrionalistS aIld perhaps give some weighc ro Nyes scepcicism ciced above
Second i[ is clear chac che neo--funccionalisrs have had trouble wirh che insticudonal formacs They have rerreaced from being functional federalist almose back co Micranys eclecric approach rowards institudons They have also accepced [he durability of rhe nadon state in resisring che logic of inreshygration and have soughr compromise formulas which at leasr continued ro place emphasis on non-srare accivicies even if insticutions above che stare (supranarional) were seen to be susceptible to stare inrerference
A chird Cliricism concerns the gtOH of non-srare acrors favoured by rhe neo-functionalists They have consraudy emphasized [he imporrance of polirical acrivisrs the elites of inrerest groups and rechnocrats This may have parrially blinded chem ro a weakness in rhe ECEU rhar could have affecced neo-functionalisms earUer proguuscicarions from being fulfilled its insticurions cannoc draw on rhe day-ro-day polirical resources available tO the narional policical acrors This has led tO a gap mosr noriceable in che newer members berween perceprions of che EU by the represemarional elice and rhose of rhe ordinary vorer or consumer Whilsc some earlier srudies of opinion in the EC did inelude opinion pons rhese ofren dealt wirh easy questions (showing ones EuropeaIl idenriry) 01 soft options (whether rhere should be say a more acrive EC industrial policy) With the firH expansion of rhe EC in 1973 and rhe first major oil price iucrCdse
146 Writi~5 cm lI1lMfatleuromal orgfll1iutl1ltl
whi(h coinoacutedemally happenoo a yeat liexclater Euttiexclpean voren werc faeed increasingly wirh mu(h harder options inflation versus employment tlnde union righu againsr consumer inrerests The poISibllity was thar bcing a good European might mean aHowiog sorne other COUlltry5 ruuionals to explott ones fish or oH The crearion oiacute a Single Enropean Marker within the Ee by the end of [992 and rhe move rowards a single curteney from 1999 by eleven theo (wdve of rhe HU member litares bmught he activi~ ties of the VOlon do~er lO the wodd of tite coosnmer or worker However chis seem iexclf anything to have iocreased rhe alienariacuteon of voten from rhe institntions aM acrivilies of rhe EU The 2000 election for rne Europeao Parliamenr shnwed the lowest tnroour yer in sllfh direct elections ano Enrobarometer opini()fi poUs have demonstrnred a msative trend in public opinion on che EU rnropaeuintknmmdgl0epoebc-b531p3npdO Ir may be thar a oumbcr uf interest groups llave switched rhrir expecta6ons and poJiexclcical activirics tuwatds the 00 bllt many of the ordinary European V(l(fS seemed ro have failed ro trans[er th~ir lnyalties tu he Union
In surnmaty the neo-functlona1ists mok np Mitranys srudy of rhe a-lashydons betwren group~ and individllals in oHferent sures il5 wellas che sta(cs representativtltl They tried ro gtapple witb the queuit)O (lf political control uf such iostirurionalized funcrional re1ation5hips aod ro undrrstand how ir would affrct rhe oatnre uf tiJe nation state They arremptrd to define the statuS of [hese newfy creatoo insutution5 tnough rhry wete out always fvlped by devdopments in che ECfEU which WWl rhe focus of rheir studies Tbdr works have demun~trared rhat the EU imututioos are by 110 mratlS juse ordinary imerg()vcrnmenral ones lh~y have al) provideo a mirror ()f the hircof) of (Yents in Westetn Europe in pankultH - moviog flom unitios aod poJitkal dynruniqgt through ~rress oy$ and anguish to obsolesceuce tllrbulent fudds and back to mooerace optimism and a new dynamism
TrotJJ(l(iacutecnaUJI
Anorher Americao writer whose work dealt wirh che question oiacute integrntion is KarJ Deursch Alrhough not a neo-fotlcrionalilit his tranmctional appwmh nali dealt with sorne iOmmoo ~hemes He has been umrerned with more rhan imergovermneuul relation~ aod indeed hM str~iexcl reJations berweeo peopIes nitherthan just rhe elites favonred by manyneo-fuflctionalists Deursch concerned himltelF with m( absrnce or presence of significan orga~ oized preplttrations fol war or large-snde iolence between int~rnatiexclona1 policical commuoities It was [he secutity rommullttles lhat had elimirutted war and [he expectation o[ wat whhin rheir ixmndaries whicn Dentamph and his PrincctOll coUeagues exarnined in PeliriuJ Cfml1NJNlily dIId M NarJh lt14Jtlaquo Atia (1957) A SClttlriLy community WWl defined as a gronp of people wnich has become ~inte8rated~ io rhe sense that thete is real iacutelSSnr+ ance that (he members of that rommunity will not fight ellch oeher
Wriil1g1 (raquo1 iacutelMfatlortal tJrgaiadlMm 147
physkally but will se~tle their disputes in liOffie otber way (Deutsch 1957 5)lt loregration does not necessarily mean rhe me~ging oF peoples ot governshymental units intn a ~ogle unie an idea explicir in fooerahsr rhinking Otud implicir in much funrtionalist wtiting Jnstesd two $otS uf integrared secu~ rit communities ar~ hJemified the amalgamarelt where pteviousiy independent unlts have bcen rormaly merged lnro a larger unit wich a iexclommotl guvernment (eg tlle US) ano the pJuralisric where srparate gnvertUlleJlUl Illlioraio their iexclrgaJ indepeodence (eg uacutenada amI rhe US) In stlldying a nllmbcr of cases of anempred or octual intesratioo io tbe Nortn American and WCSt European area Dtunch conduded rhat tIacutelere werc iexclweive conditions essential fnr the rurcts of ao amalgruruued teeutity (Ommuniry and thM rhree wen nec~ry fm it5 plutalisdc COUnrfrpilrt
The1e three conslsted of rhe compaiacuteibiliry oiacute marer valU($ relevant to
politiclll decision-making tbe capacity o( the participariacuteng plt)htinl Imitl or ~mmem~ ro respood tu each othcrS oetdl messages and llaions quickly adeqwuely and without rtsort ro vlolence aad rne mutual predicrability n bchavior (Delltsch 19H 66--7) In Deutschs work emphasis was placed 00 cornmunkauun brlweEn potidca uoIacutets increased trnns1Ctions between them (such fL polirinl exchangcs toUfl(m trade and rratl~pott) brought increases in mutual dciexcl)Cl(enmiddotc fue s cummnnity ro be created (his high level of trnnsactrons must be accomgtauied by mutual responsiveness o that thr demand o( each side 00 he other mn rccdve adequate and sympatheric treatroent llthis wouk not ooiy predude the need [01 aggressive action lO acbi(Ye ends bm would aJso build up 11 feeLing u( UUSt and seturiry in che edationship
Deuucb does not have an obse~uacuteon with imernattomtl orgaoiexclZ8rion~ although his 1957 book iacutes in [he eM collcetned with the ctelltiacuteon of UCCIlshy
tity community in the NATO area rhere ate few tcferences to internatlOnal nrganiuuons Many o( the Cll5C studj( are ser io tbe pcriud before (be postshywar expansioll uf such organlurions and almost all deal ieh bilareral relatIacuteonshj~ O(utschs work has coosequences for the lUudy o( ioternuiona organizatIacuteoos govemmental ano non-goveromCotaj iO[~rnational otiianiza~ tioos can be created as a re~ult uf a plnraliacutes[ic secuciry nmunuoit) lne integracion of whkh may evtotuaUy become iacutennirurjonalized iexclu nuppened reo the ampandinaviiexclm states creand (he Nordic Counci1 There run abo be forrns of instirUti(lnalued communiratlons berween socieries wnich prOldde the transactions and undersrandinli rhat help create ji securi[y community DeUtsch wrote
li the way tu iexclnregrarion domestic or internarionat i$ through rhe achievemem of a srose of community tnut undergirdS insrirurjtms thm ir seems likely [har ao iorreased sense of cotlloounlry would hrlp to snellgtbcn whatever instirutioos - supranatiooal or internacional - are aLreAdy Oltraring
([)euriKh 1957 7--8)
ltgt -_ bullbullbullbull _- _
Demsc-hs work was mken funher in a vnluffie ediretl io 1998 by AdLer and Bllenen (l998) (lLat docs pay sorne attention to ioternariorutl otgilniushydoos Indecd their volume contairu chapters thar rekr ro rhe oseeacute NATO the EU the UN the GnU Cooperarion Cowxil (GCC) aod rhc Assodation uf Soud Eat Asian Niexclttlons (ASEAN) They daim that imetshyruHiomuacute organiexclzauumlons aud iexclnstitutiacutem~ played al lmporum role in elKiltlraging more inteo$ive and extensive ioteracrioos octwttn states rhrough theit uwt-huildiug propenies (Bnrnetr and Adler 1998 418) They lht six corulusions of this snuerneor
bull By moniroting srares agreemenu tntcmatiuacutelwl orpuuacutezatiexcloo~ give them he cooftdente tuacute cooperare io (he ahsencc of trUSt
bull Jnternational O1ganizarions allow Hi1tC$ to discover new areas of muuwl intetellls Tu ponimlar [hey cenoacute ro link panicular areai
bull Inrcmational organizatiom can hdp shape $fllre pracdces by liCtting down nOfOU Ihat define what is acnptablc
bull The iIKTeaiing nwnber of internacionaJ orgamrutions emuuragC$ muldshylatetalim
bull They dIlO eruourage smres lua societies to see rhelll$Clvcs as pan of a resion
bull 1ntildeey can abo shape lhe identiry of rheir memben (Banlett aod Adler 1998 418-20)
The aurhms cWmed char cheir stuJit$ demonmared rhe exrent 10 whkh social cnmmunicadons beomes insrimtioualileJ aOO embedded in lnreroashytional oC8linbatlooslt and in turU how (hese organizatioru express an inreot to dcvelop trUSt end mmwl identificarion (Batnm and AdJer 1998 418) TIe work on sccurity (mmnunidcs is pelhapS at ir strongcu whcn dealing wim the esrablishetl Westcrn democracies rbough llamen and Adlers work shows rhar it may hilve a wider urility
lnlerJciexclnmdcme
Furrhcr emphasi on the growrh JO cnlnsaccions berween l()Cicries can be seen in the worts of Keohane 11l1d Nye who were m che forefront of the iexclnrerocJXndcnce school in rhe lJoited Srnnt fhey puacuteirued our (he conseshyquences of the innease in tldrunarioualucdolU ro che study uf iexclnternncional rdarions Thcit statcing iexclgtoint was sLlnuuarized chus
TraM1latlowJ relations are nolaquo new alrhough che growth of tmnsna~ tklOal orgnnizarion in me twentieth centuty has been specracunr Ye-r our nmremioo iso nor ooly rlur rhe srate-centrk paradigm )$ inade~
quare bur also thar it igt becoming progttSsively more inadequate as changes io inrernational relauumloos take place
(Keohane and Nye 1971 xxv)
The) llsred five omsequemes uf this growth uf inEematiooal inrcracrions ana organizarJ(tIls fur inrerstate politks (1) rhe promntiun of attirude change amongsr driacuterens (2) ao innease io inrernacional pluralism the linkjng of nntiooal Interese groups in tnmsnational strtlCtures usuaHy involving transruttionaI organizations fOI rhe putpoampe of (04)minatioo ltKtohAne and Nyc 1971 xviii) whiacutech has heen lhe basis for much noo~(Jncdontllist wriexcling (3) me cmdon lf dependence and inrerdependcofe IS often associacuteshyarea with intetnilriorutl cranspormrioo and iexclnance Keclune and Nye 1971 xix (4) creating new insrruments fut iexclnfluence for use by sOJne governments over ()(bers (Keuhane aOO Nye 1971 xx) 1100 lt5) dJe emergence cE auronomous acrors wirh priwre ntildelreign policia thar roa) deliberarely oppose Oiacute impinge on Sla(e polides (Krohilne and Nye 1911 xvii)
In a late book (1977) Keohane and Nye dcah with che questioo of imershydependem-e in world poliacutetics io greatet depth Iorecclependencc $lnce tbe Second Wm1d War has- onen cesulted from increasetl ttaosnadonal atciviries and iexcli divided ioto twO sorrs sensltlviry iacutemerdcpeodence (dte muIy effecrs of dULOges jo tranS1lCrJons oc ~()ciacuteetiexcles or govetrunents) md vulnembHhy interdependence where he acrors Hahllhy tc suffet eO$n iacutemposed by extemal evenc~ js (aken inro accoum (Koonane ana Nyc 1977 12-13) In COntrast ro tbe reaisr view of world poHrk Keohane and Nye pm totward che idea type of complcllt imerdependence which chey claimed soroetimes comes dosee ro realiacutety chan does realism (Keohanc attd Nye 1971 23) aod whieh has three nuio characretl$tks it allows fo mulnple rhallne1smiddot- imershyStatC tiansgovernmental and trilnsnationa- conneltring sncieries there i an abserue of hierarchy ilmonS the rnany questions ac inle hetween iexcliexcltates with military securiry no 10nger dominntlng lUly agenda and Millnu-y force 15 not used by governments toward orher governmenu within me laquogion or on [he lssutS where complex intetdcpendence prevaiacutels (Keorutne aoo Nye 1971 25)
These dltee condidons are said by KCQhane aOO Nye to typify fairly weJJ 5Ome LIlAUe$ of global economk md ecological interdependence ami come dose ro chamcrerizing rhe emite relarionship hetWetn sorne cnuntdes (KeolWne and Nye 1911 25) Complex ilterdepcndente glVel rise ro oacuteininctive poliacutetical processes a sute $ goals wiacutell vary by mue arca with mmsgoYernmeotul puumllitics making goab difficut ro define as ttansgovern~ menrnl llClaquo()$ (fof cxample mtfUsrers of agr1cuJmre inte11igente agencies nariona wcather bureaux) pursue their own aims Jhe followiog facwn are reLevant iriexcl eilch issue area
bull iexclhe resourc-es of a Ncue fur thaI particular area are most relevaot radre Ihan the stares overull military ~tre-ngth
bull international nrganizatinm and uansnntional actors wHl be fruloipula[ed as malnr instrumenrs oiacute mue poHcy
bull rhe agenda of issUC$ wi11 be fOrmulated hyebltUlgcs in the power dirmi~ burlon wirhin [he issue alaquollS by rhe pururinn (lf internarional regimes
150 Writings lIlt inttn1atiQrJ41 ergdniutirll1J
by changes jn rhe importance of ttaflstlational acwtS and by linkage froro orher issues
bull linkage between 1sllor$ will be mote difficult for strong naces to undetshyrah ir[orce 1$ downgraded
ft whiJsr linkage by we$k srares rhrough internacional organuumlarions seu agendas helps coalition-wrming and provides arenas for the political acdvity oC weaker states which can use the choice of organizarional forurn [or an issue and rhe mobiliZlition of votes as a politiul resource
(Keohane and Nye 1977 37)
Thm Keuacutehane and Nt gavc inremarjonal organizaciOfls an iroporran[ role in thde compfex interdependence model of world politics a model which whilst not uSlaquo (O explaitt aIl world politics was one which rhey daitned to hllve iacutenfrtasing releYJ1nce in IIlarge and growing area 1ntildeey used an intetnUional organizadon mooel as one of the explanations ror internashytioua regime change that js che lthange in the sets of goveming flrrangernems affening relatioruhips oC interdependence In tMs C$e intershynadonal oJsanisaciolls refeued ro multilevd Iinkage norms and insritutions (Keohane and Nye 1977 54) which once euablished are harJ (O enlAlicate BeCllue o( this rhey may Stand in the way of swes using thdr capabHities In ordec 00 chauge regimes Instead powet outcomCl will be more aJfectcU by votlng power (in the UN General AssemWy for example) ability ro futtl) coalidoos llnd 00 control elite networks (ruch as that founo io clte institushydougt of the European Commnnities) Whilst the complclt illternadorull organizarion mode1 was only Ofle oiacute fOur aJvaucecl by Keohane and Nye ro explain regiffie chAoge tbey Jiu expeomiddott jr to contribute to such chaIlSC in a world where complex interdependence (onditions pertain
1he rontribmions by Keohane and Nye demonstra(e hoth the roncero pf American wtilets iexcln inremationru relariWl in the 1970$ with altemacives to
tite srare-centric model and their wiluumlngness tO draw from more rhan one approach bringiexclng rogether elementogt from che more tradidonal appnJaChes with economic models and non-stare-cenuic dements TIleir Wi)rk does however have certain weaknesle$ Perhaps the mon serious is the use of rhe cerro imerdependence and iexclrs djvisiacuteon iexclnro ~n~itivity and vuinerability imerdependence Anepting rhar inltldeperulence meUlS mutool dependeoce (and [hjs leado to discussiou a~ w how mutual maoy relationihips are) che phrase scnsiuacuteviry imcrdcpendenre scarccly wflrmnu thc use uf the term interdependcnce fhe fault lies wJth che authou loose definiuOfl of depen~ iquestcnce as a oiexcltate (lf being detetmined oc $ignificaruly affected by externa fwces The induskm 0(signi6candy atkcted w~aken5 me urillry uf me cerm so tlme che nOr1on oiacute scusltivity inrtgtrdependence seems ro refer ro any nociceshyaMe cffeltr of ooe srate and society 00 anorher A person may Ix- significandy affectcd by taking drog$ wlthout Ix-ing dependen on chem David Baldwin showcd that mis use of rhe cerro interdependence ran conrrary to the striaer
Writingt ()I inf~_Ji(J1ia ~lfizaJJom 151
lUlderstlllldings (lf the concept fuund in MirhiaveUi Montesquieu and Ronsseall as weU 115 in che works uf twentieth-cemury wrlteI$ such as Norman Angell Francis D(laisi -and Ramsay Muir (ampIdwm 1980 7-9) He snuested the U$C of rhe rerms mutnal influence mutual responsivrness ot mutual scrlitivity insread ofscnsirivity inrerdependeruemiddot (Baldwin 1980 19)
A second cuacutericism uf Keohanc and Nyes books aso concems eheie termishynology In dealing wirh rransnational influentes They [ump tngerheraH types of teiations in whieb non~8overnrnental actOrs participare chus makiflA rhe componenrs of cheir new paradigm shifting aud poorIy defined (Wagoct 1974 440-1) Wagner questioned whetber their work simply demonstrated a shifr in interesr to new areas of intetnational polidts shyespedally elttmomic ones - ana whethcr [he world hM reaUy changed or whether we have iexclUSt overlookcd sorne things a1l along (Wagner 1974 441) The atent of imerdependence wa~ also chaHenged by Waltiquest (1970) anJ Rosecratlce el al (977) in che US and by Lirrle Bnd McKinlay (1978) and Strllivan (978) in rhe Briti~h Uteramre
DespiLe any falling$ Keohlllle and Nye provided insighrs ioto ttamlflashydonal polltics they shifted atrention away fcom p~lrely govcrnmental actOts in inff$rate relarions and they poiutm OUt he impMrance of intetnational organlziexcliexclxions in the intetdepcndence oc at lcast rnurual responsiveness of =
rbe rdormist view of both international celBtiOO1l and iuternational orga- nizar1ons has always provided an rutemative lO the more conservativc cealist approach Ir tended ro be dominated jn the pre-wu petiod by internauacuteonal lawyen and ideaJists but sinee hc Second World War has laoched on to the changell in world poUtics 6tst jn the economic ficld and then in Europe thar have Mn more difficulty to explain in ICliIHst term~ It has sten intcrna~ rionnl organizarions as mlans to manage trends such as iucftI$(d economl( intlrdlpcndcoC( bar hll5 also illtceplcU rhat these organizations mar necorne impoftllm aCtoriexcl (lO che wodd st$ge lhemselves and can cettainiy Iacute)(cnrne involved iexclO changing rhe preferences o( governmeflts
RADICALS
Writers covered in this sccrion iCe rhe intcrnadonal sysrem flOt so much as being domlnlltcd by states bn( more by diUerent divisions 01 its peoplcs Thi$ is noe to Sfly fhat chey ignore surtes They cOflsider them elthet w be ks tmportant chan the iquestjjsions of diUS tit wealth or merely ro refI~ct these othcr factors ot w be roadblo(ks to unky in (he fare Qf mote impomllt chalmiddot renga Power ls seefl as belnamp cxercised by eh( wealthy II1ld privileged and open to cha1Jeuge Change in the system is possibl( but onty through srrll8ge or by an awakenjug pf peoples tQ rhetr real sitllatlon Most iexclnter~ natimal organization~ are thus regarded as (eflccrioos of the currcnt unsruisracwry stare uf aiacuteTairs though $fJme more activist orgauhatioos mar llave potential as vehicles or (hange
This SIoacuteCElOn has betn sub-middotdivided imo rhree gthe fUS( are the econ01nk srructuralists and indude Marxists and Third Wocld wruumlers cririclll of rhe cutrem imernruionallyuem They haacuteve in common a belief mar che polltshyiexclcal srructUres of me world halle leeo wbloned mainiexcly by eltonomic fiiexclctors and rhAr mere has bren an intiacuteJUIllity builr imo the presen sytem lhe recood are the cruumliral app~es who5e radicalilifl1 is mure of the iacutemellec~ cual SOrt They rejeCf - Uf at 19$[ question - Jhatly of rhe usumpcions utlderlying be lIiews ofhe world tepresented by the realists and refotmers Finally mere are the globalim Theit perspective ls planerary ana theiacuter rnain conrtrn h fM rhc survival uf Earth Agilln they challcnge che mme statemiddotbuled approaches of both realjsts and reformers
Stnuturaluacutet lIiews
Ihe srructuralist appmiexclch rO (he swcly of inrematioOlIl relations differs In imporrant wars tO thoee of me realists and refotmuu tbough ir has some elemeou in comroon with mands ofb04h schools As roany of (he neo-realistsshyemphasite (he power scructure of wudd potities this sectiacuteon willlimir jwgtlf ro (hose writers roncerned wich the impacr 00 me political S)Srem of rhe wodds ccooomic strucrure Unliacuteke che ttalist approach the erooomk srrucruralisrs are OOr jUSt concemed with swtts io wodd polilla and rhelr economic and poIitkal differencC$ but alw with the divisioru within f1tld berween SoOCieties (WiIIeas 1990 263) They are [heretOre romerncd witl the rifi berween riel iexclmd poor within scares and rhar herwtto udl and poor glohally This leads ro an interese lO trulSlUirional reladoru as well as in inrergo~romenmt links Th(f have this in corrunon wim refPrtllist views bm diexclfier foom chem in (he emphast~ placeoacute on rhe structures of world pollics beinc formuared by eltooomic fiexcliexclcmn In rhis selttion attentioo wilt be given te MarxiS[ wtlletS lIud sume Thir1 Wodd view$ - partiuilarly (hose of rhe cependency sdlOOf and rhe developmemalj~[II - who have made a cootribution quite separare from rhat of rhe Muxiacutesr uadidon
Marxill laquoewl
There is no one Marxisr interptetariacuteon of me role of imerniexcliexcltional Olganiza~ cions in world politics Sur Manis[ approschf3 have certain elements in common and form a di~dnctive 5ch001 of rhough[ about lnrernartonal telamiddot tions generaHy and therefore ahotu international ocganizadoos These appmaches are based 00 du writiflgS of Karl Marx (l818~) in coshyoperarioo witb Fuacutewrich Engels (1820-95) with perhaps tbe gtearest later conrribution being maJe by VL Lenin kader of (he 1917 fo1shevik revolushydon in Rurna They are cf importanee pany becau1e ehey ficm tlle 00515 for mmmuniSt [hinking and (hm mey have an anactunenr m rhe Soviet Unian whieh WIlS be suongc1t commnuist stare unrII 1991 and EO rhe Peoples Republic of China COlUT1UnJSl sinee 1949 Apan ftom lbis ManiS( beliefs
had a irmng inpur mm Wescern imdleltrual cruoking and conunue ro iruoan some viewi abom wodd politics in rhe Third Wodd
Neither Marx no Mancisrs took rhe stare ro be (he curtency of iacutenteInashy(iexclonal relations Unlike (he realist viewpoints chey did fiO( coruider interactions blaquoween soveteigu ltates to be ofovettidi importance UnHke tbe funcrionalists aud other modem Westetn views rbar srress non-stare actocs Marxiexclsts in particular emphasized cbus relatlonships born wiexclrhin nates and IiCOOSS Stare boundaries Indeed ie is diffku[r ro talle only of a MaIXIacutest view of inrernatiooal re1atioll5 lec ttltme of iorernarional orgnniza~ UumlOOy as rhis separares ene particular aspecr of human behavinur tor MIlIXIsr rrearment divorcing ir from the undedying relleCS of Marxlc beliefs Man-ism provides a framcwok of undemanding by whkh ir iacutes daimed ~ociery pan lind vresen can be explaioed and che furure development of mankiexclnd determined
According ro Maf1 relariooshipamp between people and the futm~ mar insdmdooallzed rhose relatienshfpamp depended on rhe economic $truCtUR of soday fhe way rhat productlon was organized He traced the history of dvilixed maokind through five hiuorical staBes - AAjade mdenr feudal capttalin and socialin - which have ditTereru dominant methods of produc~ tioll leadiog 10 a complirared arrnngement of $OCiety ioto various ordetS 11 manifuld graduadon of sociru tank (Marx llnd Boge1s 1965 40) amph form of sorlef has coutained rhe conflictual divisiQl$ which help [Q tranuacuteorm the narun of rhat $Ocjeey coRrradicrioru in the mode ofpcoducfIacuteon placed srrain nn rhe existing social nrder sharpeniug rhe divide berween economic founshydatinn of sociery and a mpld aansIacuteonnlltion of in SOpel1Ullcture in legal polidcal and re1igious it1$tirutioos Thus by 11 confronration of da$~ Conrramiddot dkeions one historlraJ form of soc1ery wus transfocmcd into a bigher stage uf social devdopmem the history of aH hitherto existing ~ociexclety is the histoty uf dass struggles (MaDI Illld Bngets 15 39) Marx and Bnsels were parriculady conceroed wich capita1i$t sociery - ac its Oeyday during theiacuter Uves - and its tmnsrormarion iexcluto ampocis1iu sodety Wlthln rrus form of SoOCiety rOete would be no division of laboU4 and no eWses Illld no SUtes no elCpropnation of labours 5urplus vruue I1nd (bus no private property 00 exploira(ion of ene clilllS ny iexcliexcloother with 00 need fue war
For Marx and fingeJs C1ass then and noiexcl fllltions or sutea are rhe bade units in hurO) llIIIl che struggle between clAssts Jnstead oiacute infeutliltl contlict ocrupies rhe centre of acrention (Berki 1971 R1iexcl From me nlneteenth celUUf onwards rhis struggle -n in Marxisr cerros has been primarUy between [his capicalist dass ([he OOurgeoisic) aOO the bbouring dw (me proletariat) AA (he trarurormatlon fmm capltalisr SoOCIety [O ~OCialiexclMl ro comrounism rook p~e (he superstruerutt of bourgtOis SoOCilaquoy - religioo national divisiacuteon boutgmis politicnl insrirudnns rhe SOlte - woold be swept flway and in Engtls pmse rhe gOlcrotnent nf persons is replaced by [he udminlsuacion of things Fetter 19 (47) with me itEte relegated lO the mmeum iexclngemer Wlth lile spinshyning wheel Qnd [he bronze axe (Feuer 1969 433)
154 WrituacutetKiexclI mJenl4tiorJal rngmZtlJilm
Mux saw the European SUtes of his own rime as being rntans by which the ruBng dass (011amp oppress the work~ng clw by using (he agentl of tht 5tare such as the iudidary the poliee the army and rhe church he (xrerual Ilctlvities of the stare wete also determined by its Chtss namre MeanwhiJe rrmllnat]onat Rlations of a more meaningfuL kind WQuld bt creared by trade rhe movement of capital and incteaiitd romac[ and llOIacuteldarity betwten the prolerariat of vanoulS nations riacuteidefd rhe internacional nriexclaniutions of which Marx and Engels hnd dire(t experiena- wtfe the Fi~t Internatiomd and for Engels the Secund lntemarional both of which atttmpted lO orgashynJxe the represemarives of wruking people aiexclros fronden Onc~ agaJn this stteAAe$ the Marxist empbois on transnarional dass relutions rnther than on intentate relarionships
Whibt Soviet writlngs on international organizatinn1 wtte falrly desulshytory in Scalins reigu 0924-53) rhey did lmerIy hernld rbe move towams peaceful co-existerne arul roreshadowffi the lartf rnrhe[ restrktive view of Imch organi2Atinm hy Soviet commentators
In the post-Second Wodd War period and In patticular in the post-Stalin era Soviet liternmre on international organiuttions bl(lSsomed This has reflected Soviet membership oC ma1ly 1osiexcl-1945 organixations the emershygence of a socialist bloc of sta[C$ and tbe incre-ase in the mlmber of Sowcreign s[ates all flUtontilde demaruHng a more sophisricared Soviet view of lnter~llate reLadoru than che survivalism of Stalins period Uuring rhe lare 19805 i( auo ret1ected the new thinking iacutemroduced by Gorbachev
StalintI suIXessor KrU$hchev developed a revised view of internacional relaCtons which gave a positio1l ro the emerging Third Wnrhl (Tbe Third Wotld was then taken to mean rhotle IItates thar had emerged ftom colo~ nialiacutesm In effect rhe terrn later induded tbe stares of Latin America Africa - exclnding the rhen apaftbeid stnre of South Africa - the Middle Rasr Oceaniacutea and South Asia) Peace(ul co-exiuence between oda1ist and (apltaJisr states WM $til comidered nece1sary but this diacuted noc predude the ideologiacutecal stmggle between rhe two campsmiddot iexclndeed lhe Soviet inter~ national lawyer GI Ihnkiacuten wrote pearcfut cocx15tence of sutes represeonng che tWO differeor rodal sysems is a slccific form uf dass struggie beween socialism and calitllllsm (Osakwe 1972 37) The Soviet Union abo deveJoped relatlons wirh rbe newly emerging exshycoloniaJ cOllntdeJ and Soviet writiog had tu take ~ount of this developmem There wru a recognirion of a third group of stattli between rhe capitalist aud the communlsr that of poteorially friendly indtptomiddot deut $tarem io Europe and Asia such as India Egypt Indnnesia and Yugoslavia which would filrm a tone of peace Although the rebtions wiacuteth rhe capitaliacutest sures sriacuteH remaioecl embedded in pelteful coshyexluencc rhere was an emphasis by postmiddotStalinist Soviet writets on the da eJement in lile telatiomhil - that is rhe wntact with progressive elements in Weste1l sodeey smh as che Jabonr mnvement Ncither diexcld peaceful co-exiucuce rule OUt ~upport o[ middotjUSt wars of nationallibcrildon
WIacuteJIacute11gs tm iacutenUrllUtional WjatlJZtiacutelJlff 155
iexclndeed ir was seen lt a strategy fo wodd reloludon Fiacutenally (he rrlashyfIacuteonhips berween the Sovier Union and East Eumpean countries vere deerned ro be based on sociali internationalism posmlating a haemony of natinnal and commllnity interests and mndllding thar jnde~ndeuce and sovereioiexclnty of a soctalist uate means aoove aH indepltndencc from capitalism (Red Star 1 December 18)
Tunkin underljned traditional Soviet thiacutenking rllar the mngtrltllenl imrrllment of an ioretnational urganization (fne example the Chaner oiacute the UN) was all-impottant in derermining tIte enene rrun the otganizauumlon bad an international legal pcntildeonaliry rhar iexcl5 a standing in internacional 1l1w 5imilar tu titar of a sovereigo staxe Examining lhe question of the antonomOllS wiU oiacute international nrganitatioll Tunldn allowed thl1 they need not jmt act as agtnts for member stares
In imernatiunal ptacrke trellties conduded by jntcrl~ational mSaniacutezashytinns take their speciaJ piare as treacies by wbkh internationsl organimtiom aequire righu and take upon themselves cerrain obligiexcllshytioos Intctnat10nal organizatiou are created by Hares hey are broughr iexclnto being by states but the actloacuteos of imcmational organi7ashydoos are nlt)( in any way de facto or de jure ro be tqt1sred lO the actions of scates
(Osakwe J972 23)
Thi did nor mean than M internadonal organiacuteiariexclon was an entity indeshypendem of its memher us[es as any powers (har they hacl were delegated by [he members In Jine wirh che ampwiet doctrine of peareful co-exiacutesteme Tunkin placed Uress pn (he nature and rhe membership of an international organiacuteution dlOSe which drew their membersbip from commlmi1t c1Ipishytalist and TIiexclird World tares could expcct tu be genel1llly mognized as having an incernarional personaliacutery He wrote
TIte namre of tontemporary international prganiurions is lO a very great exttm derefmined by [he existerue of Haces beJonging ro differem wcio-economk systems and the ioevitable muggle between them Thar is why pcaceful crexislence is now the bl-sic condition of rh~ dfVC1iexclpshyment ufgeneral interoational ntganization
(Osltuumlltwlt 1972 289)
Mor07JN Clt1ntrlbuterl sorne extra points Fintildet be iududed JNGOs in his stndy He wrote dlQt lotetnational orgaruulions have as iI rol 8t least three member coumries TheM may be government$ offidJ orgilnlzarions or 0CInshy
guvernmental organizatiow (Morowv 1977 30) In a 11Iter seccion m NGo thcy were ldencifred as che la~ group of inrerrulttonal organiuttiolls wim two aspccn rbar concttntd socuIacuteiacuteIgtt commemarors tbe NGOriexcl auirude towards the preservarion of pealaquo wkh the Wnrld Feieradon ofTrade Unions
6 _ 0
rhe Wodd Fedemion oE Democratk Youth and otber meiexclllbtrs oiacute tbe Sovittshybacked World Peace (ounaacutel gaining special mentioo and the specialiuJ chataCrer of sorne NGOs itl(h as rhe ruerrutriunal Couocil of Scientifu Unions and che Scienrifk OJmmiuee on Antnrctk Research MOrlrLOv memioned how NGOs can belp emblish a social dimate citillg their contti shybution ro (he setdemenr of a number of internacional confHcu swh as dlilr in Vietnam He aOO dealr wirh the role of che NGOs io cbe UN aud che consuJshyrative srarus [hey llave witn lGOs saying du[ smdems of internariooal affitjoiexcl
in [he socjalisr councrics m critieal of many asplaquots of (his system fur the eoruulrarive StatuS amogemenrs stiU fall shon of wha( [he deveJopmenc of modern inretnatlonal relarions in fac[ catls fur (Morozov 1977 43) Tbe specialized namre ufNGOs Wamp1 atttibuted by M((2OV tu
tht increased Jnfiuence of the pubic at large un roreign polky [he grearer iexclmpat of public opininn in imernatiunal reladuns and [he greater importante uf me ideological fiexclUtot 10 $ucb relations Accoum should abo be raen of che proccsses of cconomic developmenr and [he coosequenc~ of [he scienrific and rechnological tevolutioo which has also led ro a greatet number of speoacutealized NGOs
(Morozov 1977 42)
Second Morozov wridog jo d~ late 197amp made moU pos-irive refershyencelgt (O [he role oiacute Trurd Wodd SUtes in imemaciooa otganimrions He noted rbar rbe emetgtoce oiacute ti large oumbe of Oung natiooal stares h8ve kd fO che emetgcnce of intetnarJonal Drganizadons among develcpi08 ecuoshytries (Mororov 1977 29) aod claimed hat partkiparion in (hese organh311oos is part uf he process uf consolidating their sovereigocy and ruuional jndependenu~ aod of wlviog cheir pressing ecoOfJmic anJ orher pmbemsmiddot (Morozov 1177 31)
Finally Momzov developed the puint made by fimkin aOOut he limited llalUre of ioternationaJ organiurjQn$ - ~econd-dllSS ffitrnbers nf the inrershynarloual sysrem as opposed tu rhe firsr-diexcllSS members SQvereJgn stateiexcl by reretcme tO theit dedsioos There bave resulted froro che inrelllctioo of politicuJ euroorces within the organil1ldons and
Thecombined will uf chcse lGOs i5 disuumlnc[ from [he wllls of theuuml indishyvidual members io in eflSenlte and ln in narure The v1ilflous wills in thb case are nor agsregued arirhmetically each one exim indepenshydendy ur oside a homogeneQu~ socio-political gOUP wirbin whose frarnework (hey can be combjlled
(Murozov 1977 34)
AfLer lhe comiog ro powet ofMikhail Gorbachev in the Soviet Union io 19Bgt a Ihaoge rook place jo $oVJIl policies rowards imeroadonal relations irutuding international organi1ations and [his has been reflecred in new
~ M-- bull 6_V_
Soviet writings un [he subJect Gorbachev inttoducetl a owjor review of [he fureign poljcy uf the Soviet Union (har marchcd rhe inremiry of his dmncslic refotmS He encouraged new rhinking- based on a revjeJ vlew of che world siruation Peaceful co-existence wirh iexclhe capiralisr tirares WlCgt no looger seeo a~ being a spetjfic fum of dass srruggle as Tunkin had written bUI 35 being in the commoo intecesu oiacute all countriCl Ir WIi$ predishycued on the neOO fin surviva of (he human nce which in ShakhfUlZOlrQvmiddot$ word$ must ofCOUIse take fim place Lighe 1988 297gt- Thjs ml$or rhar a new COIKeuropt of seGldty had ro he adopreJ hy che Soviers rhar oiacute common security which wa5 based un sume of he ideas of -che Palme Comminion (see he1ow) Greater emphasis wu given ro arms control and dlsarmament agreemenrs wirh the Wesr 11nd to co-opttation in international uffuirs whilst Soviet intervention io che Third Wodd enbed and milirary 5UppOtC 1m [he East European communisr govcfomentS WlS withdrawn
Soviet wdcings on inremurionilJ relations both offidal and academic came to mirror Gorhachevs new rhJnkiog bur eho lilete iexcl$ evety sigo chut rbese id~ were dmwu no only from rhe Wesr but alw Uacutenm Moscow mink-tanks slleh as lMEMO th~ JflSIirure of World Eronomy and Inremlfona Relacions) Liacuteght 1988 29~n Gorbschev aun his forngn minisrer FQllard Shevaronadre gave rhe academiacuten a Breen light for funher diSClViiacuteon ud debare (Shevaronadre 1990 23) As II reampul srudies examlned he role of che Uniacutered Nariacuteons as sn ugem for peoce (Kolyrev 1990 12-19 NesrerenkQ 1990 65 Petoovsky 1990 42--3) and rhe mte of inrernational or811nizadons in environmental mliLffers IiLnd disurmamenc qutsdmuuml Chodsulkwsky 1988j NikitiM 1989 123-32 Roginko 1989 133-43) and internarionallaw was teassesred (Sutier 1989~ 363-75)
Once che Sovier Union collapsed many of me wrifetS losr rhe main point of political reference A nwllber Iefi academc orhets adapted thelt ideas ro WCtem oues and a few remnioed as policy rulviseni ro che new Russian goVefrutJenL However cornmunism as M imellectually dominant organiuog rotce wlch pnliiisJ dour had djsappeared in Russia togerllef with much uf the persptr1ve ir provided - wben seen thmugh me unen distotdng leos uf tbe Sovier lfulon - oiacute inrernatiooaJ relatlons and inremariooal organhattnru
Chinese Marxisr wrirers have iexclargeIy reflected rhe views of the leadershyship in Chinll sioce [he coming ro power of rhe Commun1sr Patty in 1949 Undl (he 1970$ communist China was elduded from almon aH iotttllJishytional of811nizIiLtIOns and ie is flot surpriamping tha whae lirde writing tbete WUtl on the st1bje(r Wal fairly dismiacutesampive usuaUy consisdng uf coudemnaM tinos of (he UN fnf its action tn Korea aud rhe security allianes fot teir hegernonic narure Chjnese Marxisr rhinking hiacuteu divided (he modem wotld jnro three groups ihe Birsr World consisred of rile fWQ imperialist superpowers namely he USA ano the USSR The Second World was made up uf otbet areaa uf advamed industrilllired cnuntries primariacutely EUfape aod Japa which were opea ro donunariou by lite Sllperpowers bu( which could $tan a dialogue wirh rhe Thiacuterd World Theu (here was rhe Third
158 Writings OtJ internationdl organizatioru
Wodcl iexcltreI( coruisting of the Afro-Asiacutean-Lario Americltlu sta tes supported in their muggte aAainSt Picsr World imperialism by Chinls This viexclew of the wmId colouted tyJst Chiacutenese wridngs on iacuteoternatiollill oeganharions Tbe $uperJowers were seen as cynical lTlllnipubtors Qf inrernarionaJ jnsti~ tutions Mao Tre~tuog wOre of US poliey towards such insdfutions Ir mam use or them when it neOOS rhem and kicks them 3way when ir does flot (Society (or Anglo-Chinese Underuanding 1979 42) US-domioated pill-~ such amp$ SEATO and imperialist groupiacutengs like rhe Alliance tor PfOgre~( wttt detided Spedal viuiot was saved roc the Warsaw freaty Orgaoizatiun whieh in one aetide was described as Soviet sodal~ imperialisms mol fur aggression (Ming Sung circd Jn Chen 1979 194) fhe Soviet Union was aceuseQ of trying tu manipulate che Pan and negnshydate wlth Wesrem eouorries rhmugh the Enropean Scltwiry Conferenee tn consolidare irs begemonic status in Basrern Enrope at the same time iexcliexcll dividiog Wes(ern Europe squeezing Out the USA ro as ro muSte way (0(
iu expansion and infilrmrion into Westem Europe (Ming Sung clted in Chen 1979 197)
Chinese writecs Fegatded tbe Ntildegttood Worid espedally Western Europe as being a pen force io telmS of imperialism which Ww tdponeed to the lhird World wich diaJogu as io the Jmueacute Convention berweoen tIacute1e European Commnnitiacutees and AF~ican Carib~an and Paciuacutet srUe5
Furrhermore the defensive $spects of NATO were sttessed and with growing European cohcsion the trend iexclS IJkely to ~ towatds a fuoce in which the American elemenr is seen as 1 temporary neceuity eventual1y to be phased out (Sodety fur Anglo-Chioese Undetstanding 1979 90)
lthe countries of the Third World were setn as coostirotiog rbe mluumln force comb$dng imperiaJi~m colonialism and hegemonJsm reEerring nor only to the vestiges of Wesr Etl-OOptan foloniiexcliexclJism bOl abo to US iexclnpetlshyalism and gwwiog Soviet soci$l~imperiacutea1ism Tbe Third Wodd eQuld hdp tn exclude the gre$t powers ny baoding cogecher io such otganizatinos aiexcl tht DAU aod rhey could work ro correct unequiexcliexcl nade and eeonomk reladons with che sUpetpowers through UN iexcliexclgeucies and eonferences such as UNCTAD and UNaos Abo rtlW material ancl exporting orgllnizations liexclke OPEC rbe Incernadonal Bauxilaquo Association ancl the Onion of Banana Bxporting Counuies were proised a ehanging (he old interntlrional eumomic Ome and banerlog che biggest roarerJal plunderers in rile world rhe United Srates and (he Soviet Uoleo (Ptking Rt1Jiew 26 Septtmbtr 1975 cited in Cheo 1979 309)
111e poverty oiacute ehinne study of intetnatlenal erganhuions no dounr caused by the lack of Chinese membership of such etganizacions unril the 197amp and the turmoit ef the Cultural Revulution eiexcliexclme ro an enel by the 1980s Jnstead oere was a more reaHs( viexclew (lE rbe worlcl iexclf one S~shytimes coucbed In Manlst terms In Chlnese univenittes there was a growtb io detailed studies of iutemationalntgsnizations aod the nuropean Union
WritingI un inlmullPmnl vrgrsrtilpiill1J 159
Tbird Wwld vlewJ
Many Third Wodd Afro-Asian aoo Latin Atrusican) writers 00 jntemsw
tional organizaion have adopte a structtulIist framework and are particufarly nm(etnecl abour how insdtutions can be wcd as tools of exploitadon uf rhe nitd World aud how $ome cau be used lIS agenrs of libenuion They llave nor been induded in the ~ettiexcloo un Marxist viltws (or three feamm nOI al of them are Mandst thIJM who are Manisr place particular stresS on (he posicion oF thE l1lIacuterd World and as ThJrd Worlcl eitizens they have through theit own experience unother pe~cdve rhan [Mt of writers from industri$lized srates
Yash 18ndon (1978 377) has identjfied thNf nuacuterd World penfIXrives en inrernational Olganizatiolls Fim [here is that or the bourgeois Of perry natiunalisrs who are in power in mos[ Third World statcs and who are progressive in [errru of anti-impcrialism but are rraniollary ro the C1tccnr WC they would sooner mau thcir pcaee with imperialism rhan iluwnder power (e the masses and peasancs This group uses ineernational orgllniexclm~ tions ro pur presrure 0lI imperialisc states in order to extntCt concession5 from them and appease tbe masses in their own coontries TIley see che UN as an opportunity to parley witb their entwhiacutele impecild masters t a presumed kvd uf equa1iry (Tandoo 1978 365) Thc scltond pcrspective is rhat ofthe reaIly backward regimes of thl Thitd Wodd such un Taiwiexcliexcln and Jotdan or whnm intemarional orguniacutelattnnS are of margJna1 signifieance [)t they prefet tu dea wirh impcrialism iquestirt(tiy The rhird petSPCCrive idenrified by landOll is that uf rhe masses vi thc TIlird World for wbom toterntlunaJ orgmilAriom are petiphewl fin liS Jong as hey rontinue fO reflect the muing balanlte uf clas$ forces in hvour uf impeuacuteJism (fandon J 978 378) Sioce the ene of he 196amp rorces representing thu third group have bccome lnott prominent in world polido in che form of liberarioo groop1 lttCn as tbe PLO and whilst chese have f)tgten interested in galnin8 telaquolgnJtlon rOt rhemshyselves at the UN and the spedaliled agcodes rhey are not depeuden 00 these or8ani1Jlton~ rndecd Tandoo romioeted (hat fo che revoludonary snnggles in SOUfh~E3SC A~a and AfrJctI iOfernattonal otgilnizalJons are tOO peripheml to be of much $ignilJeaoce (Tandon )9713 377)
Tancloo providcd n inrere~tiog history of the Jevelopment uf the anrishycolonialist forees in che Third Wruld sinee 1945 bur hi~ clivi~iexcl()H iexcloro he three perspenives is roo stark leaving aside rhe leil important backWllro regimes be has basiclllly grO~lped tbe Third World leadershp joto the revoshylutionaries who have Uttle netd (or imernatiooa otgllnizatiooll and those who llave suumlpped into refOrmism and have beco duped iot() bdieving (hat they elln ehaoge chelr c1ependeoce 00 industtia1i1Cd nBfiexclmL~ lhrough intemadonal organiwtions Thjs seems to undelsrare me use or ~mh organishyzations by revolutionllry groups - especiiexcliexcllIy che PLO anel tlle SoUthem African liberadon OtgllOiexcl7arionS - whieb have made substaotial use oiacute [he UN me Arah League ano the OAU tO sustain rhe polirical aspeets of theit effOrt5 1t alS(l uverestimatcs the extent tu whieh the Third World countries
J UU wnlmgl 1111 JTiUrllamm41 ergtIttJ1I0fll
have any iUwinru about imetnariooal Qrganizarioos such a~ UNC1~D
Furchermorc the identificador of 800d revolutionaries and falten refurmislS i~ tuller impliexclstjc~ rhe maIur sponrot of the UNs New Ecooomic Order l wruch Tandon hal roudemned as rhe Old Economic Order with a diffefent rltetoric WIIS the Algetian radinu governmenr of Boumediemu rhe PLO irself ha heen dependem on a numlgttr of bnurgeWs Arab goveromenrs foc financial 00 diploJUlltic suppon and ro Tandoos duumlertion that PQr narlonallibemwn movemenn guided by a proktatlan idoology such liS rhose in Chifliexcl1 lIlud Vietnam iruemarionaJ organlwtlona WtU of no 1J5e can be- added the re5ervarion until chey carne (O power Whiht ir took some twenty years belote communist Qtill1 made use nf suth organiutions the unified communiSl Stale ol Vietnam was quick fO cake up it position in the UN ro ask [Ol aid thtough UN agencies liS well as w become ji membet of he CMEA (Comecon)
Third Wodd commemscOt1l on world politics have emphasized the nature uf rheir atea$ potirical ecoOoacutemtc Ilud culmral relatloosluumlp wilh rhe iHdllsrriexcl~ alixed Nonh TitilO is iOO$t Oflltl rypified aiexcliexcl bciug OHe of ueo-folonialism _ COntrol of che Third Wtltld by lhe Nortb by indirecl means ratlet (han by direa colonial tule and of Kf)IomIacute( dRptwJmry (o dtpmdemjiexcliexcl) lntetnationaiacute rdsdOOi bcrween sures are sublumed ro relations between claue$ world wide Ixtween on rhe one lIand the expluacuteiting impetialist capitetists in rhe northcm iru1usuialized couotries 2100 rhcir middle-ltlass collaboratotS in the 50Uthem SUtes aud on the othet band he exploiced masses rhe proleuriat ol [he $Ourhern contJnems The Lurcr gmupS have been 1I1iide ecooomkaUy dependent on [he furmer so char hey lIre in rhe wuacutetds uf the Bruiliiln T Dos SantOS in a situadon jn which the economy of a cetuin group of counshytrles is condiacutedoned by rhe develOplllent aad expansion of aoother ecouomy lO which thcit own 15 subjecred (Bodenheimer 1971 327)
The uOOerdeveloped tounrries depend uacuten [be developed ror their capital nd ercperdse they find key sectors of ehdr eroooroy conrrolled from OUtsJde rhey act as a SOUfce of raw marerials lIS ji lthetip source of labour arul as a rnarket fur mllnuf8ccurers from Euttipe ]apan and North America As thejr living standards were deterrniud by rhe vicissinWeS of the Northern~ dominated wodd marker the relationship was Otle uf unequa exchange (he [esule of which was a world experiencing woequal developmenr with a developed rieh indwtriaJiud capiralisr Notthern centre and d poor underdeveklpedgt agciculrutitlly backwarn eXFloired periphery in che 50mb The dependem 80mh has been divided berween rhe ptedominanr undemeshyveloped area~ lUld a few Cenfres of deve10prnenr wirh their ttade culrural rraffie and polidcal linL to [he deveJoped North - rhe depeOOem develop~ memo omlinea by EH Cardosa (1974) allodlt~r Bruiliall Mmir Amiu (977) rejC(ted the prosptltt of aH antonomous capitalist development in [he Third Work the oew bourgeaisJe of Lacin Ametica Africa and Asia were in allianec with capitalisrs from rhe Nnnh and rhe mato $OUrce of finance ror lmported equipmem was fmm the expon of raw materials to rhe indu~rial
5 ~ _~ smiddot_middot~~
iexclred smes Amin (1977 1-21) SllW rhe can made ror a New Imernational Ecooomic Order (NIEO) by Third World leaders at rbe UN UNCTAD aod che Vilrlous North-Sourh dialogues as an nrtempt LO iexclnerease the price of chelr ntw mattIial exporrs obraio more lmpotted technol08Y snd chus finance a new srage of develQpmenr He saw this ti placing the Thitd World more in the gttp of the neo-co1onialist sysrem and iostmd recommended 11
more self~rcuumlanr development wlrh murrud assismnce between Third World sures a reducdon in [ade wirh rhe induuialized wotld and Chlll a loos~ ening of dependenre Amin lJke TaOOon had Jittle fairh in presenc imtrnruional organizaciexclon Il tools foc fasbiooing a more independent Tbiacuten Wotd His sU88tl1cion of grearer mUtual ilSlgtistaoce between ThUd WorId uate~ implied somtthing more sophillticated than a numbtr of bilateral arrmgements As rbe present orgauizarions used fu iexclncm~Thjrd World cnshyoperation (che OAU he Atab League ASEAN) are domitllued by jusr dl()llC govetnmenrg chM accept lhe eowse coodemned by Amio _ the NIEO ami greater jmegrndon iexcluro rhe world economic sysrem ~hen Amia solutloil involves like-minded deveJoping counrries or more like1y political changes leading ro such indigenous intemuional orgilniwrions
Other Trufd Wodd wdten have plllCtXl emphasls on grearer use 01 exisring insdtutions lOO can broadJy be deKfibed lIS Wopmenraluli huI Prebisch an Argentinian econOmigf has not only studied the que5iaacuteon uf ecooomic dependency but his ideas llave been used as the baJiexclis for che wotk of cwo miexclljoc iexcliexcluemariOOiexcll1 organizadons rhe UN Enmomic Commission fa utin Ameriea (ECLA) and UNCfAD Iu his smdy of Briliacutesh-Argerl(inian trading relntioflS Prebisch bad idenrified rhe unequRl tecrns ol Hade between he favoured (ndusrrislized s(ate of tbe centre and he les privj~ leged llOIl-indumialiacutewl periphery Prebisch unlike rhe dependencia gtChool of Amiacuten Dos Sancos and Cardosa believed thu this inequaLity could be overcome by political acrinn by trade pre[ereonces fuvouring the pedphery by eoo1ruooiacutery agreemenrs by intelnatiacuteowll aid and by more foreiga imvestment in che ~riphery It was thele remedies thiexcllr Prebiacutesch eneouraged when he WiIS Executive SecrCrary of ECLA from 1955 lO 1963 aOO Secrewy-Genernl ofUNCTAD ftoro 14 ro 196tL In~d rhe amoum of aid the periphery needed in omer to overeome their Unfuvoluable rrnde balance became known io UNCTAD clrcles as [he Prebiexclsch Giexcllp
The distinguished Afiican aC1ldentie Aji Mazn1i has wricren un the plighr Qf (bar conciflfnt aod j~ role in pmem~day interruUIDllfl1 afmits He soughr ro answer rhe quesdon Now rlw Imperial Order is eoming ro an end who is going tO keep rhe peaee in Aampica and tu examine he concept of Pax AfrlclllUl the African s ambidoo ro be his OWh palaman The JXIliacutecillJS and se[f~8overnment ufAfriea depended on the nodan ofan African self which Mauui discusseJ in decaH He considered how this 1ndepen~ denre might be threarened by the politicaI and cultural fragmenMion of the contillenr Ellld eronomieally by deperulence on Europe He quoted Kwame Nkntmah finr President uf Ghaniexcll on rhe Europe-Jn ECOntunir Communiry
162 Wilihgr rm intd1JatirmallJrganizatimu
ihe ireaty of Romemarks the advent of oeoKolonitJism [n Afriacuteen snd bears unqutSrlonably the marks of Freneh neo-colonuumlllism (Murui 1967 93) He moduded from tM that Wlut AfrlOlns tbelaquofore neecletl was II
renerru authotity of cheir owa tI) ((lordilJlte fheir eltonomk and policicat deCena- sgain5t trus rnreat (Mamtiexcl 1961 93)
Given this theme it is not surprising tlwt Mazrui ser srore by rhe OAU bU[ he was realistic in bis judgement
In relatioos betwlaquon African statts lIOflesr step rowards Pu Africana was taken when rhe Organiution oiacute Aftlaquolln Uniey set up in Commissiacuteon ofMediauacuteoo Conci1illtion aud Arhitmion
Anormr OAU Commissioo of relevance fot Fax AftlOlna ls che Defence Cornmission Sor me Defeme Commlnion 1w se Car been among che lean effecdve QfPan-Aiacutericun ins(kndons Afrka mar indeed aspire to be her owu ptlliceman bur she does nO seem ready as yel to par the price iacutem it
(Mauui 19612[3)
Mazrui oudined the varicd backgrounds of [he lemen oiacute newly illdepenshydent Africa and thdr radical and revolmionary ideas and it is pethaps swprising rhat the insrirutions rhey created fur me coutinenf wete so mnservative with [he p05sible exceprion oiacute the OAUs Natiomtl Libetttion Comminee Mazrui no[ed thac Africa srill has the problem of how othet powetS respond tu its behaviour and [har forcigo iotmsilm in AJtica continued Indetd the I990s proved tO be a dC(ade of disusrer for AfrieR The debiacute burden contimlld while Ilome states collapsed lnro civil war ami others took to iutenoendoo in thejr ueighbonrs affairs Outslde interference from borh Enrope and North Amecica euodoned One of rhe fcw brlghr spots was the end of apallhcid in South Africa and the peaceful transitioo ro majoriry mJe lo al thiexcl~ tn quote Juliacuteus Nyerere rhe ampcmer pre~iexcldenl of Tan1ania The OAU exists outr ror tbe prorecdoo of (he Afrinllt Head~ oiacute State (cited io AlilgapPltl 1998 1 ) The relarive optimism of Maztui has giveu way ro Afriam writers examining sorne of me disrnrbing details of inaction by [be OAU and regtonal orgauiacutezatJuns nlCh as ECOWAS beiog used as doaks fu the machinations oE regional hegemou$ suth as Nigcria (Mibe 1m 61-9(1)
Radha Sinha$ problem--ortented undy Food iexcllfId PIWt11y (1976) has an IItgent message Sinha a former consultaot of the FAO prodnced an iofuacuterrned aUllyiexcljiexcl of the world$ food problem stress1Og in paniacutecular the maldistribution of food and other resources Noting he profO$ab of UNCTAD with heit muld-rommodJty approach and buffer nocks provjshySiOfli he commented rhe grearesr weakness oE the UNCTAD scheme js les Hkdy politlca1 unilcceptablliry ro me developed (ountdes parriculady che USA (Sinhil 1916 114) a propheey that has proved to he cortect He identitled a more aggresslve attitnde by Third World sutes e5pedally
WrilirrgJ on i1tternatiflii1l rHgarrtzatitmlt 163shy
after the uH prite cise of 197314 when the developing coonuies tried to maximize their own market powers by formin cartcls such as rhe Intematimlal BaurdtC Association the Intemuional Coundl of Copper Expotcing Countries aud the Intema[ional Tin Agrcrmenr He gave n qualified wekome ro the Lomeacute Convention betwcen the European (omrounities anJ cenain African Padfic and Caribbean Haces Writing in 1976 he commented
The receot cbange in rhe luirudes of tite tiche countries is largely due tu the incIeasing miliuncy of the Third World countries lt is almost ertalll utar the magnitude offuture cnnc~sions in me coune ofGAIT aud UNCTAD IV Ilegotiarioos wiU deperu mainly on (he continued solidariry uf the devdoping counlrtes
(Siha 1976 116)
Sinha was pardy correct as tbe solidatity cf rhe Tbird Workl states cracked se the induurialized wodd withheld funher Con(eampSJoru but ir was able tO do so because market condidons swung against che primaty producen
In his condusion Sinha called ror a IIDre1 shttting of wnrld t($nmes and power if confrontarion was ro he avoidOO He feared that the ffa of roshyoptradon berween [ieh and pool conntries hiid ((lT1e to an end and that batde lines were being drawn Instead he advOOIreltI majnr concessions from the dcher coumries on trnde lInd aid issues and a1so a ma~lt te$ltUcrnring of the incematiotlill organization~ aoo negoacutetiating ffiarhinery in order tu provide a much gtC2ter say fm me poorer countries in internatiooal tJ1lde invesrment and mooetaiexcly armngemenrs (SiMa 1976 132) GAn 1BRD aud IMF have been the presenoe of [he ri h with voting weighted m faacutevour of rhe OECD countries and Sinha re(()ffimended thlll GATr aoo UNCiAD be merged inro an Intemacional irade Organization (ITO) and che creatlon of a Third World permanent secrctariat iexclnvolved in all trade and aia negoriarioru Thoogh less radical than Amin Sinha aIso recomrnrnded gttter coshyoperation berween developing coulltries and an eoo ro their inkrtotity complex with instead a sense of m~ttnal sdiacute-e$teem and trust being devel~ oped (Sinha 1976 ch 10) Litde that h~ happened during the 19905 woo1d have encouraged Sinha The World iratle Organiaadon has emerged as the presenoe of the dlVelupeJ tares and lw brushed aside many of thc mucerns cf UNCTAD Debr ha~ edged on ro dlt wudd iexclagenda but mainly at the beheS[
of a non-governmental organization )ubiacutelec 2000 nd the promi$e~ of the main financill jnsrirutluru lO pursue dcbc-rclicf produred but a thiniexclmfl
In aH Third WQrld commenrarors have provided a vatied and lively approruh fOwards tne problems uf intetniexclational organizarions Their emphasis has niltntaHy beCl Qn tbe use of wurld lmtirutions to change the econornic condidon or the Southern cominents As this enndition is likely to worscn in the near filrtltf further more lJica conrtibutions on the rule oC
-- --- ~- __ _~- __- imernatIacuteonal orgaoilarions in Nonh-Smuh relarJons tOiexclghf be apected from rhe Third Worid A1ternaciveJy wrirers (mm rhat ares rmy jW ltIacuteespUacutet rm imergovemmemal orgaoizarions ar lealaquo Mee rhem $O Hrrle
Cfili~ald~heJ
Critica approadvs lO the nudy uf intetnadonal relations are (hose har rejee( the dominating vleW1iexcli repr=med by tbe realist and reformistS as oudined aboye In paHicular rhey reglUd realists as apologisu for the currem con6gutltion of power 10 (he wiexcldd sytem and considet [har rhe refOnntstS are elrher unable ro undersraoo he fUe llamee )( (hi sysrem oc ille UDwiUing to accepc rilar ir needs more rhan mooest refotlllS TIlOugh they may sympalhi-ze wirh rhe agenda of some Marxists aud Third World wt1cers chey do [lO( llave rhe hisrockal certaimy of the former not rarely do they have the experience and perspective of ehe larter TItey view intenUishy(jnl1ill nrganiutions wirh a jaundiced eye as these are mainly the lll$tmmenfS of rhose who dominare rhe syuem This section COlllaios an wcoum nf three approaches tmt of the critical rheorlsti- of kmintsc wrirshy[1185 ulld pose~mooernismlt
Cri(~1 herJrY The approach of critical theory 10 JnrematlonaJ o(ganizatiooll iSi determtoed by their wider world-view which in itsclf is explaiiexclwd by tbeir llame One of the leading exponents Roben Cox said [har ie is cririca1 in cne Jensc rha h srands apan 100m che prevailiog order of rhe wOlld and asks how tb$t oroer came iexcllPouc Ir does nor r-ake existing irucimtioM lIl1KI JIQwer relaclons rOl granred bu c311s them iacutemo queuion Ir 1S diexclrlaquoced ro rhe social itnd JIQiirshyical complex as a wItole rarhet (hall he stparate pirtt IUthet than subdiide and Imic an examination of a problem it looks al the wger pkturc of whkh rhe problem is jwt oue part and trio rO wJdeThwod the processeS uf change ill which botIt pans ulld whole ure involved laquo(ox 1993 277~S)
Ai a thoory cridQiIacute theory rejeen tbe daims of posicivism of an external Nulity and to be mue-free ror critkal rheorIacutests koowledge ti nor moraUy IleUc1ll1 ic is more che result of the social background of tbose Wt hold ir Given this ctitkal tbeory alJows foc a normarive choice in favoU of a social ancl iexclJlieiexcl(ld order diflerent f(cm rhe prevruHng arder bur it limiu the ruuse 01 chotce ti a1remative orders which are feasibJe mmsformations ofme cxvaing worJd h musr rejEC[ improbable alternadVe8 ju~t as ir rejecrs rhe pcrmanctlly nr lhe exiscing order (Cox 19 90)
Cridcal rheory differs lrom Marxist upproElchcs beCElUS( of iu tejection nf any daim to hold the objenive tru[h and betause or it~ avoidance of (he pmslllt ol il utopia Neverrhe1ess [heir analysis of incernarional relarln1l$ is one tbu hEls u numher of similariuumles wich the Marxisc pcrspecdve It regurds rhl tlistlng suucrures of world polirics as beiug oppressie not
- _ __ _-
lean because of rhe dominance of (he capitalism of che Unired StElte~ For many che USA is seco as a hegemonic power the prevailing urder - in re[ms rbar reReet he wrirings of the Itallan Marxisc writer Amonio Gramscl (1891-1932) Gramsd advanced the nodon of ln hisrori(middot bloc which in itself refilaquors che $Ocial reladons oE ptoducdoo The dominanr dass in a counrty - 01 indeed aoy social grouping - mlinrains cohesion and idenciry withio [he bloc [hrough the ptopagacion of a COIDmOfl culturegt A new bloc can be formelt when a subordinate dau can euablish tU hegeshymony over orher subotdioate gtOllpS (Cox 1993 56--7) The IDove rowuds hegemony comeS with the piexclt$ting fmm che spediacutek inrercsrs ofa gronp Ol
dass tO rhe building uf inrimdons aOO elaoorarion uf ideologies (Cox 1993 57-8) It Loiexcl rhat ptOCe$S thar embeds the incemu of the dominanc dan in an imttmrional form thae [w an appeal widet [ban that dan ine1f It the-refole repreSoems mote tlmn jUSt (he drunJnaoce oE one state ovec anocher bllt implies a cemufi acceptante of the tules arJd institutions purouized by [he hegemonic JIQwer Jo other woros it is all order wbicb most Olher Sta[e-~ (01 at 1enst those within reath of die hegernouy) couId find compatible- wirh their iexclmetem (Cox 1993 6t) h aJso involves noe just inttt-staee rueivirle5 bur rhose oiacute tlvilliOCiety (oon-Stllte socieM instishycudons) ebereby encoumging Hnks between social dus$ts iexcln the connules covered by ebe hegemony
What does Cox llave to uy about ioccmational Otgsniuciexclons 1bey Ilre scen in he oontext ofme wiacuteoo unaemanduuml18 of itnernational reUacuteltions mentloned iexcliexclhove He is direcr 000t mem Ooc mechanisru chrough wruch the universal norms of a wodd hegemony are expttssed js the interoatiooal organisation (Cox 1993 62) Why is chis so Cox U993 62) gives five teIlSons
bull They e-mbody rules cOae help (be- apwlSion of a hegemonic wodd iexclrder These insdwrians reflcct the intererts ()( the dominam social anil economic force- buc a1low a cettain amOunt oC adjusrment ro accommodare other subordinared interests TIms the USA WllS preplltoo ro mm conccssions to
bciI18 in Lhe EU srares and Japan ro rhe Wotld Trade Otganizatimt They a[e prooucrs of that order Though [he insrimrions and rules Ilce
nurITlllUy initiared by the hegemook power ir takes cate ro involve aOO comule a numbe-r of second-ronk stares and gaio theit supporc he Wotld Bank and Inte[nacional Mooetaty Fund were very much pan of [he world order thar emerged afrer [he Second World Wat and which was dominared by rhe Uoiced Stlres
They ltgidmi7e i[s nOlms by providing guidance for SllIteS and by legitshyimiuacuteulS cerraIacuten IlCdviries Ilr me narional leveL he OBCD afie rhe inrerruuiooal financia) irntuumluriom lave spread an acceptante of mllrket coodirions and sHict mOllerary iexclJlides
They co-opr elites from pelipheral counrrie Ihlented sraH commg 110m the Thiacuterd Wocld are expected tO dCCept he scriexclpt wcittttt by the domishynam power Bouuos Bourros-Ghati as Secteury General uf the Unired
166 Jiexclljiexclr1giexcl Qr1 ifJfCflrttuacutemal IWgaizati(ifJJ
Nadons stroyed too amp~r ftOm the gtip of Washinston and his second term was VCtoM by rhe USA His sucecssor Kofi Annan will no doubt undentand what 1$ n-quired of him He brings the mncerns of orhe states ro che UN bUf nor in a way thu threatt1l$ the USA
bull They absorb counter-hegemonic ideas Ideaiexcl $uch as 1iustainable dlYClop_ ment tukl even debr foTgiwness are taken 00 board by the intetnatwnal finarnial institlltion$ blu are trandirmel into pulido rhat swt them
Wh~t is ro be done Cox thinks thar the pfQblem of changiog dw world orUer 1iMuld be shlfred back from intern~tional insritutions tO niexcllriacuteooal $OIacuteishyeties where the sodo-political b~se for a new historie bloc mighr be ereated (Cox 1993 64) FaiJing the creadon of a new historie bloc of the new working cla$s and rural and urb~o marginal groups there might be tnmdorshymadon oC the curtent monopoly-libcral hegemony by adjusting to rhe demanJs oiacute local ello$ for polides 5uch as natlonaHution Cox 199~ 65) He aw advocates te-regulation of erooomies and a re-wmpositjon of civil sodery Internatiotla lnstlcutions induding organiutions can berome eontact puint1i fOr new $OCia[ furtt (Cox 1994 (11)
Critica throrJm $uch as Cox oifee a refreshing exposidon oiacute che posidofl oC imernatiooal ofganizatioos in a wocld where the main revolutionary powe~ have either collapsed (rhe Soviet Union) or se(tled into a cautious ronservatirun (China) Ir provlde~ a sceptical arf realisric world~view without acreptins tbe inevuumlahility ni a illture domlnared by mooopoly eapi~ ujsm sud the Utlired States J-Iowevtr its appllcariexclon to intemationa1 organhatJons 11 StImewha( timited tQ the maln global jnsdm(jons and th financial and economlc orgmiutions Ir has 1m (O say aboue regional nrgashynjudon Uf abour N(JUacutes Furthermore iu alternarive fu(ure testS on ourcoroes thu are far froro certain RevnJutlons in the Thied World are roore likely to be- irupired by nadondi$m oc by IsJaroic fllndamentaHfl OCalaquoely [he solid ooses for new historie blocs
Fwinuumll aNml4cbts
Feminist perspcctives 0f1 inttmatlonal rtlatioos llave in common wirh the erit~ ical rheocillu a rejclaquoion of (he dominance in rhe $Ilbjecr of the rcnHst and rdOrmisrs Although fuminist writen cover a wide 5laquolpe the gencral basis oiacute their aqurnent 1S har in interwnional relatioM ru in most politkal aud tcooomk acdvity women are diexclSJtdvantagt~l Alchoogh they own ahour 1 pet tCfH oC the worlJs lfOpeny and tiexcliexclxe heme 10 peiacute ceoc ofincome they perfurm 60 per eenr of working houn and provide 80 per eent of nfusets (petetsen and Runyan 1993 6) This is a derDOnstrndon of gender inequalitie~ the sodalJy learned behavior and expecratioos thar distioguish berween maKuliniry and femininity (Petetsen and Runpn 1993 5) Feminist aprroaches ofren So bejond the $tati~tks and examine (he mind~se[ of those engaged in the pmctice of intemadonal rdations whiexclch (bey ampee as geodered In other woros che world
Writingc Off inlmhJliofMl vrgntiZdlMm 167
illeen in a mlLlndine way thar kvrntB (he posjtiOll o( mnles in rhe hitgtranhy and devlllues the c041trihution of WQmeO (Sylvestet 1994) War in pattKular is gendered in a way chat keeps wornen and metl from qUtstioniog the essentiat pmpose and he neglltive effects of war militarization ~nd viQleme on their awn and orhers livts (Petetsen and Ruoyan J993 9 t)
What of wminist view$ uf imernationaJ organizationsr Ir IS not possible ro presem a rollf(tive vjew that eneomp3$~e~ rhe works of radicaJ femjnisu and ny iexclihetal teminists (rutead the work of one author Sandra Whitworth (1997) will be used as me pily$ rornt attrntion ro inrernarlonal organizations Aamper inrroductions ro feminilfr theory and internacional frIamiddot tiom and gendet and internacional relatlons Whirworrh examines geodet and imernational organilions She screpts Coxs vjew oiacute inrernational orgashynjzarions [har they retleltr (he dominant powet relations in che intetnational system and rhae internaliomd otgaoiution h che procelt of imcitntionaJshyiling and regulating conOice - eicher rhat which may IIrise among siexclates o( char which has iu (onU io transnationaI society (Cox 1980 375) TIte way duu pcople orgaoire themelve$ wirhin international iostirurjons reflects a variety of power relations ineludi~ of rollJSe gendec relatiull3 (Whitworth 1997 74) lbe triad of jnstirutions ideas and material rQudi~ tioru help ro hxare uSllmptiolls aboue geoocr withiu jntetmltional rewtioos Whitworth uses thesr tn examine lhe uooerstandillg oiacuteScndec io an INGO the Internadonal PlarUled ParenthooJ Federatlou (JPPF) and an intergnvemmental organilJ1rion (albcir one wlrh some oOl1-governmentJ)J represemation) the InrernatlonaL lab01lrOtganiution (no)
Whirworths studies show rhar thr IPPF tended ro accept the deshyemphasizlng oi the gendered oamfr of reproducdoo and (f) ignore rhe imponaoce ofbirth comcol foc womens reproductive freroom Instead in an effort tu popularize birth rontrol srrel~ WWl placoo on paremhooJ rather than iexclust the womans choice However IPPF poUcy beeiexcllme more radirnl in (he 19905- with Hnks beirtg made berween II1M control alld womeos ~)tu~ ality (WbJtworth 1997 ch 4 pmim)
The RO eoucerned itself with WQmen as workern It cnnsidercd that tbey oeeded spec-ial atrention and promoted ptoteCtlvt legiexcl~lacion This reiexcln~ forced me view (har [he male worxer Wall the norm with women workers nor deserving the same rights remunfration lOO mndirions Latterly however the JLO ha~ reflectoo views rhat prodaim wornens elt)ualily in rhe workforce and has sunoo tuacute assess the importanee of policies on womens role in rhe workplace as weU as in sodery more wjdely (Whlrwnrth J997 ch 5 panm) Whitworth comes [O the eondusion rhu iexclln iexcllnaLyiexcli~ of gernler in rbe IPPF and no shows how tbese rdiexcliexcldonsbips llnd definirions ni what it is to be a womltn oc man are structuted relationsrups3nd hlsrQciudly hve been scrurtured tu disadvantage women (ibid 15n
lo eommon with the critkal meorists Whitworth has useQ au examinamiddot doo of two intetnational organixations (O deroonstrate a puinr about imerflational relatiexclon~ indeed sodal rctatrol1s mOte widely The poinr is
I1
I
middot - ~-_ --___ aOOuc powec and iu use not (O balance oue SCdre ligaiOSf anorher but fm une gooup ro domiaare morher Jn chis case it 1$ ma the dominution of one dass me m culcnre over $ofU)(her (though Whirworrh recognizes those reLationshyships ti wcll) but of roen over women The crititUl uudy oiacute (wo jnceraational mganirations dealing with iSSlle5 recoSniud ti beiiexclg oiacute impocshycanee or WOfficn suggesu rha( tltOO simihu research on orher internacional organizadons could proJuce interening aOO uwfuiexcl resulrs
Pllit~ism
Thc posc-moderruacutesr $opprooch lO intetaarional rcllldon is one tlur bas (ome ro che fote Jn che perlod sinee lite end of rhe Cold War Jr is based on $o widcr imellectual viewpoim insrigated by l1rench iorcUtcruals of the 196()s gener~ ation _ Bllrrhes Derrida FouclIul and Lyorard - and whkh suggested rhat the modero era liad becn overome 11 fejeas mera-nattatives gnlud accounv- of hi5tory aoa iacuteNIacuteler subjecu as having no independem rubstance Scientifk btliefs induding [hose oiacute rhe $)(ial scJcllces are rooted in (lllxure polill(os arul mores oJ a wciery and are lherekJre subjective As rhere is 00
oblcctive reality cmpirical daims bave fl() spccial sunding in rhe rralms of koowledge IndeeJ ir i$ power aod knowledge are intimatel) incerwirud Posr-moJernism Hllnds against rhe belief of rbe modero pcfiod which LI seco as beginning wiacuterh rhe enlightenmcm of mid-eightcenth cenrufy Europe and AmeriCll Ir rheldore rejcn~ rhe COMCpr$ oC rationalirl and progrcss aSSuacutedared wi(h [he enlighrenment and [he moocrn age Thc uniry of IOOnkind iexclirW iexcldells such liS rhe untveIsWiI) of human aacuteghrs are rejcuoo lnsceadlocal aetion in smallgroups 15 advuacuteClmd
Post-modetnist ideas have affected tite srOOy of inremruionaJ rdarions as (bey have ocher social scienccs Posr-modern imeraarional relariops theoriscs havc ustd heir view$ 00 objecuumlviry (o exiexcltmine che rrmhs of international relatiom en see how rhe concepts iexclind knowledge-dairm (bar dominare the Jisdpline in faer are highiy conringenr on spccific power relatiom (Smith 1997 181) Post-modemisrs bave lltfa(red me mcta-narratives of the reelshy1m and reformlsu aHke The objectiacutevemiddot aaallses of the realim Ilnd neo-realisu are setn as being deJl(nclent on the subjective standpojnts of cheif mainly Amen(an and Europeau authors Ijcharcl amphiel (1986 258) daimed he works o[ Kenneth Waler men the leading neo-realillt trrat the glven ordcr a rhe natural nrder Jjmirs rarheE (lian 1XpawU political discllUtse negales oc rriviuliliS the signifinnce uf variely urOiS time and plue Whar emerges ii an ideology tllar anridpatcs iegirimires ancl onents a totalitarian projen 01 global ptoponioo~ che rattoualiaciuacuten of global poHcics iexclbe reformius are likcwise tainted Md have Ji mhr$lren belief in pmgress The posc-modernl$rs poinr m rh Helocausr as rhe heighr oiacute mooemism a rombimiddot Halioe of science dnd polidcal otganizillnon Il was SCruTely progreso
Given an antifllthy mwards rhe MlVe[iacute~ign srae borh as a centre of powet ll1ld as a crearioll Jiten imbutol wlth a wncepltliexcl uf progress pest~miexclJdetniexclsls
wHungJ mi Im~iexcliexclrun wgltiIRrzuJlU7iJ 1J7
can lOUcdy be expcctcd to vIacuteew intergovernmencal organiUlrions wirh sympilthy Tbe prefetted iacuteonu of internacional organizations when mentioned are those thiexcltt ltlj~plal differemes snd dlvenity in global pelitlcil duu are reginnaUy based or rhar reflec irKlividual actlOn Tndecd ir SeeIJS
rbat Michel Fomawt was involved with an alliance oiacute twO INGOs (Miquestdecin du Monde and Tertl-s do Hommes) in proresting agaiust internadonal iH~shydon over rhe boat people who flcd Vietnam in tite lare 1970s and ear1y 19S(k He is gU()[ed 11$ sayillg tbar Amnelltl Internnrlonal Teueiexcl dts Hommes Mfiiecin du Monde lHt inirilltives whiacutech have created a nrw righr rile dAht of privare individuss ro iexclntervene in [he otder of polino and internatioont snateg(eiexcl (dred in CampheH 1998 516)
Aootber researcher has exnmined ~he Europcan Communities Ilr che point wben Jr was mnslorming intO me European Unioo and askOO whether ir was a pootmodew ConJigUflHton (Nstrgaard 1994) Hi condusions wcre mar ir was gualiwiveJy a new organizarion oC human calJecrlvJties which mighr U$hec the coming of post-moderniry (Ntgttgnatd 1994 27j) The basis fO[ [bis judgemem was rhat me Ee did nO approximate anl modero form of piexcliexcl1idUll Ofpnizarion it did OOt commatld che means oiacute violence its au[hotity derives noc from die people and ir appeared to be a fCgJoo trying ro pOrecr itiexcliexclelf againsr globaliacutezadun iacuteN0rgaaro 1994 274--5) Ir remllins ro be sren whether [he BU tJf [he twenry-first cenrury wHl fu1fi1 rhtgtse hopes Ot wiU stllrr ro teVen
to a more scate-like being Generall) dIe cririolapproaches ro interruHiorud relarious hiexclJve provided
1lOOIe innovatIacuteve insigllls iexclnro rhe study uf imemarional orgsnizations The crtrical theorists llave becn sh3rpest in rheir unde[$(iexcltnding nf internarional ofgiexclt1lizacious as servsnrs of a dominiexcliexclIf power configuracion thoogh the) lave pemaps Umieed cbelr scope wllen viewing internacional organizadons Feminis[ wJiters ruave given Vltike to whac i5 after aH tbe scmi-sileut majoric) in rhe world and Ilre ouly srarting in qnest10niug the male dOmimiddot nance nuacutet iexclusr of the nmning of IGOs huc aloo of theic agenda Tite post-modemisrs are iMlSr concerned oiacute he (bree 8rOUp5 with inretnationlll organiucioru as such bllr rIacuteleic intellecrual approach is the ffiOSt tadkal aud can lelld tuuml a fnon of nihilism
GltJbaliacutesf lIiu
A gIobalisr perspective does oor viacuteew world poliacutetica as being predomishynandl arout iotergovernmemal relatlnn~ Ili would realisu or illbour inrentare aruI imersocietal rdations as a number uf reformisu llliexclll consider lnsteaacuted it cakes a more holisdc view Problems are (cmfronred ac Ji global level wlurions have tO be sou8ht here as weil This iexcls not ro neglcct (he 10tal Ol rhe ~tlte level ir is more J recognilion of the limiutshydoos of acdviuumles rhere The world-vicw like rhe reformists places empllasu on whal unIacutetes people Ilnd has lirde time for lhe demaoos of power pouumlics aad stare-cemrir orglLuiwrjollS Ir goe~ fllrther by nor
1 V WNimgJ lJ7f tIfernattmiexcliexclJ 11fK4111141tOnJ
liminog in view eirhec ro pans of che world or ro rellltions berweeo particuJar poliric~ lr ioded jlLSr m the economic social and poJitical demaods of mankind Paradoxically ir can be seen as IIn approach rhe very OppoSllC of the fimctionalist wirb whom tbere 5 much io common In nmtrast lO rhe fnnctionaHst (or neo-fllnctiooalisr or intetclependeuce srhuul) and ccrrainly in contrast ro rhe powet politks aOO MaOIacuteIt writers (be whole world approach places emphasis not 00 the discrere r~uiexclreshymems of groups SClteiexcl or individulI1s bm 00 tbe wel1-bciog of the tCOsystem in which rhf5f funnioll cbe planet Eanh The conccen of chis apptoach which is rcflccted il] in ttcumeUr of illternational urganizatiom is for the survival of lhe plunet for its effident funccioning in its widest SeILie aud fot che survival oiacute rhe myriad oiacute speoacutees - ollly one of which is homo sapiens - tbat inhabh me globe
Sinle tbe 196Os a number of wtiters on imernational affairs have expounded 00 tbis view and llave cOl1l~uendy ronsideted the implicadons for intemational organizacions Jobfl Button in bis World Society ronsldeted iflmstatt relations to be onIy a pan of wodd poli[iacutea and wrore
lf we employ rhe term world rociety imiexclreui of internanofla relarions iIacute we apptoo(h OUt study in this global way insread of the more tradi~ lonal nattonal way we will end to have a wider focos ro ask quesrions rhat are moee fundlmenral aOO imponant lO civilization and be ahle ro assess bettet me relevance of om own national bduviour ro be wider worW envifonment
(Button 1972 21)
Rkhacd Stetling posed the problem more spedfically
Nuclear esCllatiofl the popullltion explosion the pollmiofl of tbe envishyronmcnt the communkations rtvolurion rbe world~wide concentNdon of wC1llch and world~wide expansiofl of pltlvcrty are iexcliexcl11 essemially global and not 1laquo al pbellomena They have given rise jn tutn ro eartbshyspamuacutellg and revolutionary demands ror mass education rnass hesltb malts welfure and maltgts participation in che dccisions affecting roans fare
(Srerling 1974 322)
This wodd-view of rhe problems of the s)Jaceamphip EQlth begged fur global oolutlofl$ It suggcsred iexclhu not onIy iJ the system of sovereign stares as yer unable oc unwiHing to COme to grips with the above-menuontd prohlelUS but that a network of llllergoVCtn1lental organiutlom bGsed 00 me rights of statc wVfretgnt will ~lso be hammllng Globtl problems needed global solutlons based on institutinos rhat can (ake a global petsplaquoshytive Thus Sterling considetecl thllt it ~ tlOt unreasooable (O amidpate tme tbe member stares will be moved ro considft equippifllil the Unitw Nttous witb mote crunprebensive powen 1lt global pressUfes build 0974 323)
~h~ laquoo ~gt~ _- -gt bullbull (_bullbullbull __ - bullbull
A more compeluumlng cdH wus lAltiexclued by Barban Ward and Rene Dubas in their book prepared for [he UN Gmference of ehe Humafl EnVJroJlmenl 01lly UIIt EaFlh The c~ altJ Mdilllt1JatfCe (JI d Sflall Pta~t (972) 111ey stremsed the ufliry of tbe Eanh Jnd in eovironment and the )Jroblems in(ed by Jts iohabitants emntially thost oudined by SterJiog The ~uthoflgt poillted OUt rhat rhF envitonmenral qmosrion had by 1972 already had 50me impaltl on guvernments and im(rnarional organl1Jtion but the effior was somewhat ltInJOrdinated and unfocuseL In (hree particular aren - tbe global atmosphere rhe oceaml the worlds weather sysrellU - tbt-y saw [bl jmmediate neOO for (OmInOn poliey und co-ocdinared actiollS where vcerenshysions to national sovercigmy have no relevance ro ptrreived problems Bu rbefe was a need to go furrher and denl wirh other global problems di5Case srarvation iHitmcy unemployrnem ovcfllwding rntetnational poliCJcs wece at the 5tage reachOO wlrhin rhe devdoping s[ate~ of the ninettTtb (entury Elche they wiU move O to a wmmIlJlity bL~ro UiexclXIIl a more systematic sharin8 of weaJtb Ot tbey wiH break down in revoh and anareby (Wacd and Dubos 1972 295- -6) They Looked forward ro a sense of gLobal rommuniry 00seJ on he bope vf Irotecdon (from war aOO disaster) and the hope of enhancemenr (ecologic$1 as well as economid The ptlKtic~ and insrirutlofiS with whkh we are familiar inide our domestk sociecies would become suitably modlfied che basis of planetary oroer (Ward aOO Dubos 1972 297-8) This woold indude non~violent settlement of disputes witb legal arbirration ~nd polioacuteng ptocedures on an international basis jr would mea the Hansfer uf resoucces from rkh ro peor Ilnd inerCllSlaquo co-operaeion in arealt 5uch as health and edUcatIO farming uroon planning aud )JOlJution control As [befe halt been a shift of loyalty rom taroliy to dan from dan to tlation and from nation to fedctation there Wampll
hope clajmoo Wl1fd and Dubo$ for an ultimare lnyalty tuacute OUt single beau~ tifulllud vulnerable Planet Eanh (Ward and Dubas 1972 298)
Whilst the institutiona fmmework and organizational stfllCtuteS remain of necenity -ague in Oltl OM EaFtA iacutet is del( rhat the authors Wfre atming 11( a tlttwork oiacute world-wide fflnctionaUy hased organlzatiofll (both lOOs and JNGOs) char couId take on much of the work )JfCsendy done by governshymems o( rather whkh ougbt [O be dont by governmems UacuteJter writing-s have attempted (O deal wjth thc policy impliration$ of delllJng with )JrobshyJems globdly sroos (986) has poiacutenred en what 1w already been achieved in gtobal problem solving l1nd ha~ soughr ro buHd on rhis His critio have prunted out tha( what has already becn undertiacutelken has bren done more along rradicional Jntergovernmentallines (Donnelly 1990 121-30) Orbe writen have tied rubievemen[ in addressiacuteng [he global agenda more to renewed rutiviry in the UN (Rochester 1990 141-54) or to greater grass~ roots aud INOO acriviSffi Wget 1990 155-~8) Either way globaJj~m offeacuters a distinct W1ly of rackling the worlds ptublem~ It 1$ u ViIOIl thar sttesiexcles uniey and common (am( ntthet than disasreemem and roofrontashytion ir (ould thereIacuteore (oresce disputes being sruved inlernationally vety
much in (he way tbar chey are pre~ndy solvcd within tunny MtiOO iexclrares by more ro arbitratwn and Jaw and by entorcemenf ir neteS$il1) In this rhey have muh in COIDfllOfi wirh tire imerrnuiona lawyers iacuteUld idenlist writer of me eady (wenuacuteeh eemury mentioned at the beginning of tbu chaptet The globalisn are inspirecl jn rheir thinking more by ten Ot lt nudeal holocatlsr and by environmenml breakdown tnan by rhe duumleet elrpeshytieme uf wa dlllf aiacutefected rhe wricings of Woolf ol Ikierly
TIacutete globalisl appro~(h is opert ro the criticism of bcing roo idealistk jn a cynical world and lOO iIDpracrical in in uacutelstitutional sU8scsrioll5 Bur the di$mi$Slil oC rh~ words as globaloney cKleS HOt lid lite wctld oC che probw lems which hey have 50 effectively publiacutedzed They lutve uied to add anorIte dimensioacuten ro whar is possibte by showlng thar ie is nOCeSSiexcllty fOl rhe iexclurviwl of che planee
Tlle radical approach to the smdy oC iOternational orgllnizarions reflocu worIdmiddotvitws that normaUy lO beyond -dmse Jominated by rhe ltctivities of iexcltatcs or of LIte organizltuumlnns chemselves There is a sceprical view of whut is happeoing al soy one uacuteme in imernarional celarions and of he abilicy of mOfe cradicional wcifecs on imernafional cdarions ro explain let aJone llOderstand what is happeoing Ir is the feeling rhar approaches such ll1 (he MaNisr tlwt of rhe ideal theorisrs and some of rhe globuli~rs ur~ coming cber (O uodemaoding humanicys wider dilemmas rhar makes rhero so amactive They ar~ less Iikdy co apply rhemselves to rhe defais rutd wnrk~ ings oiacute p$cdcular imernatinnaJ organizations but neverrheless providt iotriguiog insighrs 00 [his phenomenoo by seeing rhem rhrollgh mol panoprk phHosophical lenses
SUMMARY
The rhree flIajor $chuols dealr wich io chis chaprer - the tcatiacuten the reformisrs iacutei1d che radical$ and rhe variarions (bey contain did not and do tlOf exJn iexcln a hiSforlcaj vacnum lde-as Wele foffilulared wirhio lhe COnten oiacute panicular sodedcs uoo in response ltO pUticular problems rbe communl (adom reYoludon of fhe nineteemb century the Finr World Wlli rhe rise of Nui Germany the spreading of nudeu weapons the deve1opmeof of plthitshy
$econd Workl War Europe fbe pnxeues of decoloniwion and deacuteteme rhe end oiacute the Cold War and rhe advaoce oiacute che inCormatton revolution In sorne CilSC$ the views oiacute rhose wdtings on inttmiddotrnational ocganUatlOHS have liad un efiecr on evenrs rhemelves pirlKulatly 00 rbe actitudes oC govetnrnents mwards tnternatiorW orgdflixauons AIl tXample is the work oC LecnarJ Woolf woose suggesnons Ctmceming a world organizatloo conttibuted lO fhe detailed preparnion oC the Lague oC Nations by me British goveltr mene Likewise Hans Morgeruhau and EK Can provided seimuli fot infiiexclrmoo US and Btirish governmcllul rhinking abom inrerruuional rela~ tiom iexclrom the 194Ck onwards In mher cases rhe general writings cJ persons lgtuch as Marx Leoin Mao Tse-tung and che dependencia school have affecred
rhe poJirk1ll dimare wirhin which govemmcncs conduce rheJe poUcy iucluding thar wwards jnternaclorull otgauj~atjon$
Orber ruCfOf$ aplft froro their historial cuntexc Iuve affencd the views of rhe schunl$ rncntioned They have differint backgtounJs io cheit ideruogy (Wesrero commllniSf Third World radical environmenralisr) and in theit level of $nalysis of inrernarional rebtions (stare Centuacutec inretesr aoo rramna~ dona groups cLitraquo dominanr global) This a(icca the typC oC inrernatiacuteonal organizariacuteon dominam io their studies (IGOs INCo) auJ thcic 8eograph~ kai $rea of interest (the Nonh Adandc Europe ThinJ WodJ Ot global)
TIte range of wcitings about intetnational organizarions has ull dte whole teflecfeJ wiJec llooersundings of imetoational ceJarions and wuumltld polidcs These io rhernselves have fed 00 tbe gtVidc iacutellccUecmal fcnnent and on developrnenrs in world affiuacuters Viewl about iacutellteftlational ocgsnizatJoos wiU continue ro take accOlnt of the ince1leeruaJ debate ill the studjes oiacute polishydes internacional re1atioO$ philosophy ecooomics imematluacutellal uw sociology histoty and geogrilphy They will also reflecto among other ampcton che stntcegk balance in tbe world [he relafIacuteve power of tiJe United Stares aod oroer nares me scate of wotld markers [be pto-ess uf Euwpeiexcliexcln tlllegrashytion che relacive positloo of the developing warIdgt iexclbe levd of cootlicc througbolc the world fhe -ratC of dte environfneot and the ahility oiacute huge StatCS to wiacutethswnd cenrrifttgal force Tbe way tIacuteult imematiornal organiuiexclshydons ret1ect tbese developrnents and tIacuteleir t1Ipability lO deal wich some of them will provide (he tllW fiWifcrial foc funue smdies
134 Wrftln[f 111 iexclttntntiona organiufif)lfJ
governments (Keohane tt al 199 11) The case s(Jdies Weuroe seen in rerms of agendiexclt selting internacional pnliacutecies and national policy ttJpon$($ (Keohane iacutef al 1995) The three authors wtJe aware of the strong influeDce of stare powers in iexclnrernadnnal institurions and of rbeie meagre result5 in sorne areas Nevetthees~ they set down three ronditions uoder whicn inrer ootional institutions can alrer (he bchavior of state actors and in turn improye environmenral qualiry (Keobane ti a 199 19) These afe
1 gnvernmencal concern has ro be higo enough [Q pmmpt the 1lte ufscarce mources lO tllckle tht problem
2 roere haiexcl 00 be a contllcrual enviroruncfit where ~tnttS make (rediMe coounitrnttlts and make iexcllOO keep lglremerll$ rhar incorporare joiotly enacted rules withour debflitadng fuAtof ftte-riding ur cheuting by othet1l
3 states should haw the pnlitical and adminimadve capaciry to make the domestk adjusrtnents necessruy ro implemenr international norms principies and rules (Krohane et al 1995 19-20)
TOe empha~iexcls -in chis view nf glotm govemance is on rhe relncionship becween rhe internuional anQ tIte Illlt10naL
Pan oE gJobtl govemsnce - ai noted in Chapte1 3 - are lnrernntional regimt$_ Thcampe are set- of implidt o explkir principies norms rule and del ision making proctdures arounrl which actors eJCpelttadons converge in a given area of internacional relatious (Krasner 1983 2) [1tey are subSu of irttetnational sodcey and its imtitlnions Imemational reglmes which are oft~o speciacutealitecl auangemenu limicer by function oc gengraphicaJ area are amngemcnts hat BoYe1n cooperative behaviour intetnatioOldly Thee are thus mure wiJely Jrawn than internatiunal organizations The latcer accurdifl8 ro one of the most profific wrltcrs on the $ubject Oran YounS 0989 1994) can boeh stimulate the process of regime formation nnd can htlp implement thei provisiuns (Young 1994 164)
Funuitrltdlisu
An eady bff~1c with the trmJtional view of international organizations based un the state-centriacuter mudel cm be seen in Leonard Woolfs book [ttltmatiltraquoldl
Grni-17111I Alrhough srilJ primarily coruemed wich interamptate relations and the questiolll of peace and secudry a sizeable BCniacuteon o( lis wriring5 rover governlnenral tlaquohoical and economk co-operatioo and INGOs
Ve are accustnmed to regard the wodJ as neady diided iexclnto compartshymenU caUed states or nationLBut chis vjion oiacute thewodd divided into iacutesolated compllrtmenrs is nor a cme reflection of fiu 15 as they exisc in a urge pottion of the etlnh [orlay
(Wnolf 19l6 216-17)
Writtng( (111 hmmatiacute(lrul f8grllliulinnJ 13
Snch a step pladng gre-iexcllter emphasis on non-star ime~natiacuteonal rtloshytions wa~ taken furrher in duo writln8~ o( me Romanian-bom aothor David Mitrany Mitrany ideas known iexclas the functiondisr appooruh lO
internuional politics were inspired by his early Iife io dIe Ba1kans He (ouoo much imelletruaI sdmuiatinn ofter coming ro Lundon in 1912 olld working together with Lennanl Woolf among otlters in the Ieagne uf Nations Society [he labour Pattys Advisory Commiuee on [nternational Arrairs and the Fabiexclan Socieey His (WO malor eacly worlca wcrc Tin PrtlgftlJ of lt1tmutt(IIId GtM1NmAnt (first pnbl~hed in 1932 rcprinted in Mitrany ([915araquo) and A WorklNx Pem Sylttm (fiCSt published jn 1943 rcpobHshcd jn 19(6) though he abu made a 1mbstamial nmtribudon in anides unril bis dearh in 1975 Many uf his writings tQgethcr with an amobiacuteographical piecc and In inuoouctjon are guhered fogefher in Tht Funcfuumlmal TwJry of Prdilia (Mitran) 1975) In his t932 work he omHued the nlnereenrh(intury growth iacuten intertwtJonal govenmcnt ajong similar lines as Woolf
The ninereenth cenrmy prodwed that amazing growrh in che mattrial equipment of (iiiiudon whifh weldcd the wodd togaher into (me organk whoiacutee making eaclt people a partner in tire Iacuteitte uf al The outwatd CXpelsiacuteon nf that change WQ5 the ~rance nf WQrld-wide popular movements and the making nf innumerabJe privare md public imernatjonal agItemenrs
(Mitrany 1915a~ 89)
Mitrany WiacuteI$ concerned thar (he rise of the fllidon-state and the insiexcl~tence of new statcs on che doctrine uf lluvereign equality when (bey were dlldy weaker and smalJer tban the Grear Powers hindered internacional lt0shy
operation in for example the cconomic lphere HowCer he 1lW rbar the fnne ofevents wu working agaiexcln~t sta~ism
No maeter what rhe size and shape of rhe particular community lo funcrions are such thar rhey haye to be organized and the fOrres and (crors now iexcllt work no longer have llny rroe telarion tlt) rhe uld pnlitkaJ divisions wirhin or withuJ( rile state The new functiom imposed upon our puliria instiacutetutions art compelllng 11 complete recomt(Ucrion of tile technique of govemmellt on a purely practical oosis 1 teach that rondU$ion by ming at the Illltset noto what is rlte iexclden form for an imtrnadonal $odetyiexcl but mher what are 1tS C$sential ftmctions
(Mitrany 1915a 99)
He claimed hat C$$cntially the nims of intemalional governmcnt were no diffcrent from dlo~e (lf municipal gnvernmenr w aCaJt equality bcfore the iexclaw for aH rnemben of the cnrnmuni(y and ro lrumote sodal jUlltict To expen [O achieve rhe first aim in inrernatlfllltliexcl sodely whefe 5talCS wcre
l ju WrJll1Jgs en mlWnal101tJf (iexcl(gamufJf)lJJ
nei[her eqna nor unchangiug uuiu would be unreascnwtc Ir woold be far more prncriC1iL ro cmnpromise rhis aim and CSLablish a League of Nations in which Grea( pQVeri woulcl he dirlltdy representelt Secondary Jitates woulcl have group representiexcliexclrioo afld malter ~tatet w()ulcl have panel repmentatioo At the same time sfCortdary bodie$ would be ser up in varJous pam of che world 11$ orgnns (lf regionJI grouptngs of Jitares artd (hese bodies woulJ be connected with and subordInare tO the new CCOtta League organs They wouiJ aleo be iexcliexclbie ro clesl wiacuteth problems mOle teaclily especially as the unanimity of aH srares would not be needed [Ol a senlemem
These suggesdom are noe (he novel aspeltts oE Mitran)$ work They are imponam in changing (he emphasjs away from the tighu of amptate wwards rhe dude oc lit ICllSt (he actlvJries of Hates Still the conccto was wth Ilrrllnging relnrioru netween snm~s In a paper $ubmitrecl ro che 8drish foceign Office in 1941 and in hi~ study A Wking Peaa Symm (966) Mirrnny wncenrrated on how che (unctioru of gOYernment might be cnrried OUt more exptdiriously He rtcognhed chllr withio liberal 1emocrati( stare~ [he Une berween whirh futCtions are Cflrried Out by pubtic and by privare aclioll was shifriog lIod that rhi5 line unde (he prel5ure u( (rt_ih social Ileeds and demands musr be Jeft free co move with rhem A similar demamuiacuteon existed in che terrirorial spbete interlla~ dooally wme (uncdons (eJ railway systems) could best be organized cOlltinenroUy some intercontinentnll) (e8 shippillg) alld some univcnaUy (eg aviation) However there would be no need for rigid patteros exccpe perbaps io tbe exercise of negadve (unctlons -- those related ro securi[y wberc more fotmal sacle lnstltuclOns WQuld be needeJ In (he field o( positive (unctiacuteoru (dw$C tdatecl ro economic eultunl and sodal affairs) he climensions ocgans and powers of any organiorion would be deler~ miacutened by the nature oiacute the funccton and would be fairly flexible Mitrany fmfSaw tbe tStliblisbment o( functional bodies wirh auronomous ta~ks and powers which wonld do thingl joiacutently Tbis wuulcllink aucborlry tu a specific activiacutery (hUi breaking llway foom the tradicional link between authocieyand a ltIacuteeftnire ~erritory Murany 1966 125) 11iacutes move wcmlcl avoicl he sreritity uf many of rhe wartjmt suggesdons fue posr-war (ecltrn~ tions O connitudonal innovariacuteon in rhe United Nacions whlch f~eteoacute 00 he opposidon oiacute sovereign sraee reiiexcltance Mitrnny hoped rhat che number uf internarional agencies (hat had exisred before the Serend Wodd War augmenteltIacute by the A11ied board durJng rhe war lrsdf wuuld u~rve u tbe ba~lS foc (he network oiacute inremarional gOvernrnent He quoud wlrb obviow appruval the wurd$ of an Amerltlln scholar J Payson Wild Jr 00 the varlOUS warrime experiments
The Hues between domesuc anltIacute iexclnrernational actlvlty ate blurred ancl nadonal adminisuatlve agencies of the Powecs concerned Smneshytimes engnge in domestk busint-1s and at orber rimes extend theit
Wrilings Ofl hllenJdUacuteoN1J org411iatiofJJ 137
(unctioru ioro rhe uumluernarionul sphere The resuh is o conglomerashydOn o( intermnional bwrd aocl domestic staf( whose dlties Illrermiacutengle Adminisrrnr1ve offtcers o( narional lmirs deal direcdy wirh rheir opposire numbers in orher S[1l[es WirhOlU benefit o( diplo maric intermediaries and simlllmneously perEorm borh nacional and intemational tasks So fu no attempt has been made en estab1ish iexcliexcl
super~State
(Mitrany 1 6 167)
Mitranyll villion is oE a world in wruch che functiollS of ~etyday $odal 1Jfe - transport healrb care rommunicatioos agticlllture industrial developmenr sciendfic developmenr and so on - are no Jonger assidl1ou$-ly carried en witbin rhe confines oE each sovereign iexcliexcltflte but ate underuJen across fmmiers on a tegionai cominental oc univetsal bflliiiexcliexcl These acrivjw des would be overseen by international Ofganizatioru which wOIJld be more like boards oE managemenr Tbe functional agencies of rhe UN (che no WHOgt FAUacute etc) already underrake urn ro~opetative t$Sks fIli do sorne non-governmental groupings of spedalisrs (League of Red eron Sndedell World Srout Movement etc) However tbe Une berween what has been done imernationaHy aOO dome$tkally bas tuen drnwn very much ro [he beneflc oE che latter and international activitid bave tuen riddted with politicel dispureoJ rnany oE which have liule ro do wlth me good manegemem of the (unction iexclnvolved Mirranys laquoheme would fiexcludually lOwtt rhe liue ro aUow more functioos ta be Citded OUt at rhe level where they wOrk more efficieruly and woukl proide managemenr of tbere funcshytions ra[her [han poHdclI1 interference Not onty would his develQpmeof beuefit (he general social welfure of the world ir would abo hcIl (O salve rile problem o( plaCe and security The LHliputian ties o( internacional fuucrionru co-operarion would piacuteo clown me giam of conflict weakenlog [he urge ro destruction and warfare by rhe promise of consmlctJoo and cashyexistence
The (unctional approach does nor focus solely on iorergovernmenral organizacion buc aUows for a network 01 spedaliuxl agencies roany uf which could be non-governmentaL Ir difftr in emphllSi5 ftoro che mainshystream craditionalis[ wricings and Mitrany~ work praaged a move away from internare relations 10 wotld politics Whilst the functiooaJ alpoolUh does not oReod against lh sentimem 01 nationaJity )t the pride oE sovereignty (Mitrany 1965 139) lhere is no doubl chat ir is meant lO weaken the i~por(Jloce and power of the middle roan berween rile indi vidual and a world communiry che sovereign scnre The feeling o( solidarlty enrounged by functionallinks 1s nor between states but beween people or assoclatioos of individuals Each of us is ill fuer a bundle of funCflonaJ loyalties so dWt tO build a wodd communiey upoo sueh a concepdoo is merely to a(eM artd consolidare ir also betwetn societies and grollps Micrany 15 14n
138 Wriling5 fin illttrnatiQJIa1 (ffanizatio1ts
Such IIn imaginative appruach tu wodd problems aud be mundiUlc hard~ working iexclapolitical role lt implieamp fOr interuational organizadons has its fiexclruIrs To ctiexclddu Mitranys functionalism as being impronica JS IUlfalr hoth because internlltionru functiornd links hllve grown espedaUy since the S~ World Warj and blaquoarue M1tranys approach is a gradual one he did OOE expeCt ir ro be adopted overnighr Even so ir cioes have certllin 11mbiexclshyuow a~pets which shOllld be criticany eDmined
Piexclrsr de5pite rhe refere-nce to possible regional fimnionalunmgement8 Mitranys pJans ron counter ro rhe notion of aU-embraciug regional organi utJoru such as the Europcan Communities now E~n Uninn (Mitrany 1975b 53-78) Whibt these organwdons roay Hnk their iexclamhotity ro a speoacuteftc activky $ueh as the conditloO foc running (he coal iexclaud steel indusshytries nr the agriculture of the EUs member states they sta hold w the rrnditinnal1ink betw~n authodry arul a definirt territory The cooJ and sr~l polkies or tite Common Agticultural Policy uf the BU are nor extended to tbe industries and fumen of other non-member countries who mar wish lO participate in theit ochemes Vet il can be argued toar ir is prccisdy in these iexclirnited geographicill blocs that flIlCtiOruJ arrnnscments are besr executed wirh limitations un mernhetship To wnrk propedy chemes must encompuss denned aras with a good deal jn common - the flexibility of Mitranys proposal wIQutd 500n break dOWIl )l the tnembers WlJuld have $O little in cornmon in fo cxampie the runnill8 of agriculture tbat coshyopetation would be dif(kulr or lloo-proouctiacuteve Furrhermore rhfmiddotse regional atrangemenpiexcl overcorne the problems of dedding the meaning hQundaries and consequtIlCCS of any particular function (Melaren 1985 142)
Second Mitrany did not really envisagc any piexclHejcal control of the futlCtiooal des between COllntdes mus distinguishing him frorn [he more traditionaliacutest approach lO inrernational orgaruwcions lle was hopeM dw the pmblems of roshyurdillltion between ronctionalagencies could be worked out as they lllOOe
To prescribe fOI the suke of [iexcladicional ne3tleSS somtthing more dennite han the guidancc and supervision of eg the Ecooomk Md Social Couooacutel W(lU1J be ro duron he whole conetprion from [he niftJo impollC upon them (funct-lonal bodiesJ a co-otdination authoriry with anyrhing Iike comrolling scuus w(luId be ro move again roWllrd$ that JiacutecumuJarion of power ar the centre
(Mitrany 196~ 143)
Thus [he institmions uf (he Eutopean ClJmmunitic~ - the Counoacutel uf Milli~iacuteers rhe Commission che Courr of Justicc rhe European Padiamenl dre Economic md Social Comlllittce - were al analnema fO Mitmny They werc juu miacuterrnring the poluacuteical COflffOh of lhe nation state ar iexcliexcl pa-n-continenullcvel anU according to Mirrany Continental unious w(luld have a more real chance thau individual suteS to pnletise the aurarky thae makes or division Mitrany 19(Kiacute 2n This may u((end
Witi1lf1 rm imernatilmalllrgaraquoiutifJ11J 139
agains[ lhe funcrJonalisu hope (r iexcliexcl universal apprOlltIacutel tu proble[Jls but (he abhorrence of policial imtitutions is lItrange wIacutelen [he funriona agenoacutees will aftee iln be mllkJng poHtkal decisions -- declsions roncetning lile aurhontative allocafion uf resources No only will iflfetnashytional functiunal transpon organizations established accordlng to Mittany have (O decide that cerEain areas wiH bt weU served by railways and Wds orhers llOt iexcliexclorne ports bujjt up others ieft to tlceay sume airlines expanded whlle rnbers are allowed ro fOllUact blt deeisiow wilI have ta be made on how w diexcl~tribu(e 5carce re~ources betwccn fo example iacutenvemtlent in transpon ur building more hospitals or restfllcturing rhe srecl Jndustty thwughour (he area eovered by [he orgalliurions Thee arc paHdeal declsiQw ln a period of economk growth and plenry [hdr potitshykal niexcliexcltute may be le5S obviou as resources are avaiuble for almost eVery plan advanced by world 01 regional shjpping aviation heaJth or sree1 O1ganizatioos Otherwit there mn$t sllrdy he a system by which scarce mrnurce$ are aUocaced Tbis problem was flJed squardy by Mitr1ny successors iexcln the neofunctionalin school (dealr wIacuteth in the SC(tiOH tbat follows) but ir doell seem ftoro Mirranys writings fhat the world of funcshytioollJi~m is a wodd of IlnUmiacuteted resounes (Melaren 1985 146)_
A third problem in Mimuys approach i~ brought out in a eommtnt by lniacutes Claude The functiacuteonal theory uf imemariruwl nrgaruzarions 1S ultimateJy eoncernen wirh the usue of polJtiacuteeal and military srniexclggJe functionalism tneats (he promotion of we1fue as au illdirecf approach tu rlx prevenrion of warfare (Claude 1968 31--5) Mitran quoted Oaude wirh appmval implyiog rha fulletionalism would ind~ mllk( a positive contribllt1on (albeit inilitecdy) CE (he ptCveurron of war fhis profOiSitiort is open (O $(Ieral criticisms Given the level uf arrnrunems in the worJd and the porential fQf cunflict the contriburron ro pettcc made by funcrioruuacute acrjvities miexclay come too late A youth group exthange betwtn rhe USA and China ma) bode we11 fOf
tbe furure OOt wlll be uf link use if (he respective parrus are beaten ro meir destinarions by intercominental baliiacutestic missiles funhermore the pmmotion of wtlfare may inctease internatioual conflicr by i~asiacuteng expettacions Espedally if social and ecounmic changes are bmugh[ aboue by imernational runctioual 3Jencies developing muntrie poliacuterical I~derships may fJnd ir increasingly cliiHcult to meet lheir poplllatIDn~ demands fot more economic benefJts fur a ampirer distribution uf benefits or in sorne ta$(-S fOf Ol)tool uf the social consequences of laquootlumic Rrowth Imernal sttili aod unrest may chen ~iIJ over into inrernacional eontlicr Finally Miacutetrany daiffi$ that rhe Nncshyrional approach ciocumveuts ideological aOO racial diviID05 as it ltloes territorial frontiacuteers (Mitrany 1975a 226) There ls guod evidellce tiJat the opposite has been happening thae the exlsting runctiuual organimfIacuteom slch $$ tiNEKO WHO and lID hllve been riddkd with ideulogical and racial (or al lea~t Norrh-Somh) diviions wruch h~ve teflected pnlirical argnments outside he olganizarimlS bu have ncvenheless adverscly aHewod their ba~ic work (Ghebali 1986 l tR-lt6 1mber 1989)
iexclIV WHURg) W~ mltTlWilm tIampmJlaiWN
NetrfJl1iKJiOalisls
Tbc move away foom rhe srate-cenrric vjew of JlItert1arlOlal organizarion Started by WOllf and Mirany was ccetiacuteeued io rht immedijlre posr-wur perjod by social stientim applyiacuteog asJltu of functionll1(st ~heory to European nd Atiacuteantlc in~limti()m This utw fUllCtionaliu approach showed paruumlcrnsr interesc in che European Communities (Ee later nuropean Union EU)) whjch arme iu iexclhe wake of che amphuman Plan In Mily 1950 Roben Schuman rhe Frenrh Foreign Minisrer advauroo (he idea cha( West Eucopean srarcs should establish a High Authority wlrh powers ro admillshyimr theit eoai aOO stecl induscrie~ Negorjatioru on rhe detalS of chis plan led t() the signing of che Treaty cf Pariacutes in Apdiacute 1951 by FraIlee Wen Gemuny Iraly rhe Neiexclherlands Bdgium sed Luxembourg (rhe Six) Tbls gave substanre tO (he idea lbat funcrional aiexcltivicy oould be ITlltllfIged across fcomien by IUl organizadon ove and above the govemmenrs of che member sraces a supmnational amhority The idea was wldened ro cover iexclm expanded unge of etooomk activiry when he Silo esrablished rhe Bt1fOpean Ecooomk Communicy (EEC) widl the Treaty of tome in MAtch J957 An Aromic Energy Communiacutety (Euratom) was eHablished sr che sume time However ~he element of upranationiexcliexclliry was dilurelt in the High AllthoritY-s successor (rhe Commission of rhe EEe) having only Iimited deciuacuteOIl-makin8 powers anJ having mosdy the task of proposing acdon ro tbe representarives of he rnember states situumlng in (he Coulliil of Ministe13 Despire his otber Community hutitutions contsined the gerrn of supranadonaHry rhe Courr of Jllstke empJoymg Coromunity nuhe [han nacional laws a Ruropean Padiument wbkh WlS eventually electelt by ditect eleedons amoog a Communiry-wide electorate voting for Cummunity-hased parties aad 1Jueresr groups represendng mrmetSgt consumen traJe unions aruJ blliiness on a Commuiexcliexclity tatber than a nnional basis
Tht$eacute tnmwauumloos in WeBtem Europe uiggeteJ a spate uf 1 iexclretamre primaril) in he lJnireJ Sures whieh examined tbe nurure unrl purpose of the Commuuity iustituions The Jominam staacutend amongst this writing was chat of the neo-(uncrlonalisrs sJCcifically Ern~1t Haas Lean lindbetg and J05eph Nye whose works are of importance io the uudy of internacional organizacions In ronrruc tO Mitrany the OCW fuoctiooalistli tended Br (iexclrOc tuacute iexclimir rbeie study 10 developmems in Wcscetn Europe (HtIaSs ~nJhe Naion Stte (964) bcing a nruiceable exeepdon) especially the OC alshyrhough later cornparimns were tnade wirh rbe growch ofccmmon lIlltirkets iexcln Mica East Eurupe aoo Larin America On che whole the neo-fumtiooaiscs had rerreated foom Mitranys world view
fhe neo-funcrionaljgrs aiso realized rhe dilemma faeed by Mitrliny in eelihng wirh politica dcdsicms ane did nor fllnch in introducin~ a merhod of making necessary chOtees ar he imernarif)llItI leve Indeed rhis wa~ rhe kernel uf rheir ideagt lhlll 1I0l ouly sperifie functionamp would be farried OUt ar rbe subrollrinentill rarher (han (he nacional leve bul thil( lhe decisions wnrernillg (hese functioos would be made at thaf level shy
6- v n_m_ ~olo_~~W_
with imponant cOnsequences for those groups imetesred in the decisiacuteons and iexcliexclIso liffecting orher arcas of poliey Por example supprne the Ecooomk Cual and Steel Community (BeSe) required (har che sreel lodustry be orgaoized as a West Europeao endty insfead of a numher uf narional industries a1l commled by differenl ccgularions aod rbar a suprauariona surhoriry be crcared ro decide on the policy Coc che ranniog of tbe Wcsr EUlopean sfeel induStries lo ronsequeoce those involvea in say rhe French steel industIl would switch tbeir attentioo away from Parili where policy was previowly rnade ro BroS$CIacutei wbcre ECSC poliey is mude Purthermore CommwIlty ntber dUlo nadonl poliey on ueel eould spiU ovet into ereadng a Community po1iey ror cool tnmspOH IUld Othet asrod~ ared acdvities As rhe numbe oC functiacuteooal policies decided at a Commuoity rnthet than a natkmllllevd expanded so the need for political actioo at this higher level would gfOw aod thc political sysrerol of the couutries involved would becomc inexorably iexclmcnwincd lhis was the logk of rhe innovator of he $chumao Plan idea Jean Monnet wM considered rhar rhe establishment of a c001 and srec1 community foUowed by similar organitations dealing wirh otbcr Cuncrional areas - agricultute transpon nade defence - would be lreps on [he way ro building Europe The eOO would be jln economiClllly aod politicaUy integmred Rurope lo Monneriexcl scbeme a federal West Furopeao state The means would be fuoctlonal bu with a political contento
In his study of fbe ECSC Rrnst Haas examiooo this s(rlltegy and a1so dmned polldcai inregradon in its ideal typc u beiug rhe process whereby political iexclcroo in severa distinct nadooal ~tings are petsuacltd to shjft thet lnyaltielJ expecrations liod pOlidcal iexcll(tiacutevides eoWjlrd jl new centre whose insdwtions possess or derrumd jutisdktion over me pit-existiog lIatiof19l $tates (Uaas 1958 16) ihis oew cemre would be che powelshyhouse managing rhe political ptoblems oC fuoctio1llll coopeaacutedon [he Uigh Audwrity of tbe ECSC and be indrurion of me EBe The policical actcniexcl invoJved would be rhose elites leading the poliacutetical groups habirually colCerned wirh public decision-making and wooJd indooe trade uoioacuten offishydaIs busiue5$ ami Hade representatives higher civil servann and activeacute poHttdam As tlltSiacute eliteS rutneU theit aacutetrendon ro rhe ojOW policical centre chey would find tha Community pelky in olle area nm be uwde tea oo1y if che task iuelf iexcls expanded CHus 1961 368) by way of a spillover of actiVity lIltO anocllet policy atea Evenrually Communiy policy~makiog would take uvet from S(ale policy~making jo alI rhe crucial BreaS and the new centre would emerge as being potenrially more powerful dma the member srares governmenu wbich had been drained of lheir mOS( meruoshyingful polidcal ucdvides
1( this stage ir can be quetied whetbet Haas was describing an inremashylional organizadun or il poremia1 federal mlte Io discumng tms quesrjon in his book on Elle EC-S( Haas cooduJed dllU Tbe hruHnct of federal as agaiacutenst middotimergovernmemaf powers lIeeacutems tU point to che coodusioo tbat in
142 WtitingJ on mtertlatilJtJA orgamZ41iom
alJ maneo relating ro the romine regularion of rhe commOTI ~et the High Authority is independent of government (HIlaS 195R 55-gt He al50 voiced rhe opinion rhu Supranadonaliry in snueturnl ferms tberefure means the exisreuce of govemmental a~lthorirjes dlloer tuacute Ihe archetype of fdeNrhm rhan any past inrernati(mal organizar ion buc not yet ideutiacutecal Wlth it Oiaas 1)158 59) However this $upnmttionaity in pNctice has deve10ped into a hybrid in which neither the federal no the intergovernshymentai reooency has deady triumphed a-bas 19511 527) Ir is aloo denr lbat the original Coo1 and Sreel Communicy was mueh mote functional~ Wlcrnl than the lateacutet Economic (ommunicy and untiacutel the mid~19805 the unified aud expanded Communuumly romw to play Jown the elemenU o( supranatlonality iu tavour of 1ts Jiacuteltergovemmenul insutution rhe Conndl u( MiuiMm This aud othet dtVe1opmems led Haas to lcconsidcr his origshyinal view of Community inrtitutioos
In the 1968 pre3ce ro Tuacute Uniting of Ellropt (which was wIacutetten in 1958) Haas alrtady identified factors that had dllngro rhe nattlc of me European Communiries experimem in che previous ten yeacs He observed tlur during this period vario~ spiU-OVet aOO adaptive ptcKeues s(ill had nO( resulted in la pulitically united Encope and in an~werjiexclg the question what went wtlJug he outliued fuur considetdtions Fitst (he new funaiurutlJsu had filiJed w di$tinguisb between background variahle cOlditioos prevamng at rhe time when cbe Comrnnnity WU$ csnbJished and new upiratiuns and expectations that had develnped Jhe esntbliacuteshment thar had ron counrer ro the Community spitit Second the imptet o( niexcltlonaUsm had becn undereshytimawl Third Eactors within me Commuruty had becn nressed ro he dccrimenr of those coming from the outside world PintUacutely me massive transCormation oE Western socie[y raking place indepeudent o( EutoptHl integratiacuteon aIso hacl been underestimaretl (HIlaS 1968 xiv--xv)
Haass definidon of imegralion alsu bccame wmewhar more negative I1lOre stlilte-centric than bis original 195R emlhasis un nationaJ llt(on shifting their loyaJties expecratiacute(ms and poJitical activities toward a new centre By 1970 Haas considered the study ofregionallntlgrurion to be concerned
wich explaining how aud why sUtes eease to be whoUy $overeign how ~md why they volunucily mingle metgt and mix with rhcir neighbours $O as to lose che facruru attributes of sovereignty while acyuiring ncw techniqucs me resolving conilirt between themselvell
(Haa~ 1970 610)
By 1975 Haas eonsidcred regional integmtion theoty oiJsolete in Wesrern Eurupe and obsolescenr - though still urerol _ in tite teSt o( the worId (Haas 1975 l) By 1976 he had arded out n maioI reintetpuEation of uew-fuuctlonaJist lhoory as it applied to rhe Ee The definahle outcome of integtation in Wenem Eutope was secn either in ttaditiorW federaHsc temu - a Wen Enrnpean (ederal state ereated out uf yenrs of fun~-tiexclonal
Writings M ifllernuJlfJmiexcl1 (JFfIiutian 143
rutivity whkh had lcd lO J trnmrer of poliduumlll acnvity away rom (he natlon ~tates tOwarJs a new srrunure - or ltlS the imtitutiooltlUdng uf some intermMiate iexcliexcltage such as rhe present status qno whcreby atlthonty is dimlbnrro unequally between several centres Wilh tire old nation states losing their previous Ituthoriey but with no new JiacutedeOl government in ptO$~ pect Whihr the original aspecrs of the EC - rhe cuuoms union aOO (he Common Agricultura Poliey _ have tllaquoorne entrenched the spillover inm orhe policy area~ had nor occurred by Ihe mid-1970s as che neo-furutiooa1ists liad ptedicred Also common polides liad becn Jevelopetl in differem o(8ashyIliratiuns - che OFCD the summit of indurmiatiooo counrrics the Group of Ten - tarher than within the liC lhe problem according lO Bus W1IS
rurhulerue whereby rhose iuvolved io polirirs haJ found rhemselves in a littting ofgreat social complexiry where rhe nnmber of atrorr is very large and each pursues a variety uf objectives whirh are murually incompatible lmt ucn is also unsure of che ultlde-ofamp between the objectjves He continued Tnis conditiQn imJgtlics the erosion o( such interorganizarional patteacutern~ oC comensus reciacuteprocity and no(mative tegularity as may havr CXlSted eadicrEveryrhiug is up fO( grallS (Hus 1976 179) HilaS sllggested thu iu the EC polioacuteeamp and (he institutioru devised ro lmpleshymeacuteut thero iacuteU~trnre rhe attempc ro deal with lhe turbulence nather tllan achieve regional politkal inteSradon (ibid 180 original emphasis)
A similar hiacuteft lttway fmm the earHer llSp1rauumlons iiexcliexcl ICen in rhe work~ Q( Lindberg aud Nye Lindbeg wlrose book 1he Pattirai DJMmict o EroJMn Ecrmomic IntegTatia (13) had fullowed on dosely from Hws work was hy 1966 showiog tbar moves wwaros inregration wirhin the Be (ooid cause Stress within (he system l1Jtfl inCftllq the barrien to fimher integration (lJnJberg 1966 254) Togcrher with lkheingold in 1970 he desctibcJ an EC wbich had noc deveJopeJ joro a federal structute haJ difereot ltvels of integrariacuteon fut different functions and was sdl susceptible tIJ UJsis lt was ao unprecedemed but curiousy amblguoos plurruistic syttem there seem tO be no satisfrutory modcls or ronceptli in che sociaJ scienee VQ(abulary to adequa[ely define ie (Lindberg and Scheingold 1970 306) In a anide Joseph Nye coruiacutedered thac Jespite rhese and otber revisioos the neo-Euncrional approodl srjlJ embodies 11 nurober of fault tbu re1lcct jrs origins in [he 1950s (Nye 1970 767) He proposed a nUml)(l OC changes scating rhe derendent variable lels ambiguoUlUumly adding more politiul ruwn reformufating rhe Hst oF integration condiuons and pethapli mOSf
significantly drOlping che ideas ufa single path fmm qWlsi~full(tiexclonallasks tuacute politica1 uuion by meamiexcl oF 5piUove( (Nye 1970 767 He conduded rha[ shnn oF dramadc chaugc the prospect9 (or common markets or microregiorud cennomie organiutions leading in rhe shon ron (of dendes) to fedewt1nn oc m1me sOtt oE polidcal union capable of tlU indept1Ldent dcferue and foreign paliey do not seem very high (Nye 1970 1129)
There hiexclas been a long jotJJney trom the functiorudisl-fecleral nope5 of Jean Monoet back jn 1950 but it has seen the evolution of nm only the
144 WitingJ on inlernafuacutemal ttrganizafifmJ
Communiry insrirurions and policies bur aIso neo-functionalist thinking The Iogic of inregrarion gave way ro coping wich rhe crises inseirutions mixing federalisc and intecgovernmental elemenrs were replaced by a Western Europe in which instirucional tidiness is best forgorten (Haas 1976 211) and the federal elemenrs seemed ac mosc dormam The hopes of che 1950s had been replaced by rhe uncerrainties of che 1970s and the early 19805
Wirh rhe launching in 1985 of rhe idea of creating a Single European Markec wuumlhin rhe EC by rhe end of 1992 che signing of rhe Single European Acr in 1986 (which exrended EC comperence aud changed irs inscitucional balance) and che sectlement of a uumber of Common Agriculcural Policy problems in February 1988 che Iogic of inregration seemed ro be revived
Wriring in 1990 Keohane and Hoffmann resrored and refined che neomiddot funcrionalisr norion of spillover advanced by Errut H9al They were sceprical char rhe rheory of spillover could explain the ECs irucirurional developments of che late 1980s buc saw it aCling posicively in orher ways for example rhrough che incenrives ro institutional change given byenlargeshymenc of EC membenhip in rhe early 19805 (Keohane and Hoffmann 1990 289-90) They saw che pcocess cominuing and barring Clrasrrophic excernal fucrors were moderately oprimisric abour rhe Communirys furure prospecrs (Keohane and Hoffmann 1990 296)
This view was raken up by Tranholm-Mikkelsen (991) and Holland (993) borh of whom saw che revival of rhe Communicy agenda in rhe Maasrrichr Trealy - wich irs blueprinr for a move ro economic and monetary union - as being a revival of the neo-functionalism Drher wrirers on European incegration at chis time adapted che basic notions of neoshyfunccionalism bU[ broughr in extra fucrors Majone (1994) agreed char che EU had seen an upgrading of common inreresn but placed an emphasis on public choice policy ro explain particular Ouccomes Marks et aJ (996) saw a much more complex relarionship berween che Communiry and domestic decision-making leve Though rhe srare was srill very important ir no 10nger monopolizes European level policy-making or rhe aggregarion of domesric interescs 0996 346) Insread rhey idenrified rhe growrh of mulrishyleve governance wirhin che EU
Indeed rhese developmenrs in neo-funcrionalisr wrirings on international organizarions poim up sorne of the criticism~ of che schooL Firsr despice rhe besr efforrs of Ibas Schmitter and Nye it remains a rheory overwhelmingly dominaroo by an inreresr in rhe EC and larer rhe European Union In 1964 Haas and Schmirrer rried to extend sorne of che lessons uf econumic union in Westeru Europe ru Larin America Drawing on Haass 1968 preface ro The Uniring of Europe rhey discerned nine variables four relared ro background condirions (similariey in power of memben rares of rransaction pluttllism in member seares complememing elices) rwo referring ro condirions ar rhe time of economic union (similarity of governmenral purpase powers of che ecunumic uniun) and rhree ro process coudi[ions (decision-making sryle
W[J U UWltU 15
rransacrions rate rhe adaptabiliry of governmenrs) (Haas aIld Schmitcer 1964 711-19) They looked ar rhe chances of policicizarion chat is the possibilicy chat lhe acmrs seek m resolve rheir problems so as ro upgrade common inrerests and in rhe process delegare more amhoricy m che centre (Haas aIld Schmitcer 1964 707) Nye in his article Comparing Common Markecs (1970) rried ro modify che Europo-cemric narure of the neo~ funccionalis[ approach and drew on a wide range of cases of economic imegracion Larin America Cenrral America rhe Caribbean Eastern Europe and East Africa as weH as EFTA and che EC He concluded [har
The original neo-funcrionalist model was close m irs ongms in the straregies of European inregrationisrs in che 1950s and thru mighc be seen as a rempting and misleading guide for policy in orher aceas The revised neo-functionalist model is not somethiug ro be imiraced bU is simply a rool fur making comparisons We wanr ro know whac differshyence ir makes if a group of seates form a common market
(Nye 1970 830)
Though by rhe end of che 1980s rhere were few places ro be found outside Europe thac were forming common markets rhe formacion of he Norrh American Free Trade Atea (NAFTA) and rhe renewal of economic cooperarion in Latin America and Sourh-Basc Asia during rhe 1990s provided different models from the more poliricized EU These seemed ro challenge some of the basic assumptions of rhe neo-funcrionalistS aIld perhaps give some weighc ro Nyes scepcicism ciced above
Second i[ is clear chac che neo--funccionalisrs have had trouble wirh che insticudonal formacs They have rerreaced from being functional federalist almose back co Micranys eclecric approach rowards institudons They have also accepced [he durability of rhe nadon state in resisring che logic of inreshygration and have soughr compromise formulas which at leasr continued ro place emphasis on non-srare accivicies even if insticutions above che stare (supranarional) were seen to be susceptible to stare inrerference
A chird Cliricism concerns the gtOH of non-srare acrors favoured by rhe neo-functionalists They have consraudy emphasized [he imporrance of polirical acrivisrs the elites of inrerest groups and rechnocrats This may have parrially blinded chem ro a weakness in rhe ECEU rhar could have affecced neo-functionalisms earUer proguuscicarions from being fulfilled its insticurions cannoc draw on rhe day-ro-day polirical resources available tO the narional policical acrors This has led tO a gap mosr noriceable in che newer members berween perceprions of che EU by the represemarional elice and rhose of rhe ordinary vorer or consumer Whilsc some earlier srudies of opinion in the EC did inelude opinion pons rhese ofren dealt wirh easy questions (showing ones EuropeaIl idenriry) 01 soft options (whether rhere should be say a more acrive EC industrial policy) With the firH expansion of rhe EC in 1973 and rhe first major oil price iucrCdse
146 Writi~5 cm lI1lMfatleuromal orgfll1iutl1ltl
whi(h coinoacutedemally happenoo a yeat liexclater Euttiexclpean voren werc faeed increasingly wirh mu(h harder options inflation versus employment tlnde union righu againsr consumer inrerests The poISibllity was thar bcing a good European might mean aHowiog sorne other COUlltry5 ruuionals to explott ones fish or oH The crearion oiacute a Single Enropean Marker within the Ee by the end of [992 and rhe move rowards a single curteney from 1999 by eleven theo (wdve of rhe HU member litares bmught he activi~ ties of the VOlon do~er lO the wodd of tite coosnmer or worker However chis seem iexclf anything to have iocreased rhe alienariacuteon of voten from rhe institntions aM acrivilies of rhe EU The 2000 election for rne Europeao Parliamenr shnwed the lowest tnroour yer in sllfh direct elections ano Enrobarometer opini()fi poUs have demonstrnred a msative trend in public opinion on che EU rnropaeuintknmmdgl0epoebc-b531p3npdO Ir may be thar a oumbcr uf interest groups llave switched rhrir expecta6ons and poJiexclcical activirics tuwatds the 00 bllt many of the ordinary European V(l(fS seemed ro have failed ro trans[er th~ir lnyalties tu he Union
In surnmaty the neo-functlona1ists mok np Mitranys srudy of rhe a-lashydons betwren group~ and individllals in oHferent sures il5 wellas che sta(cs representativtltl They tried ro gtapple witb the queuit)O (lf political control uf such iostirurionalized funcrional re1ation5hips aod ro undrrstand how ir would affrct rhe oatnre uf tiJe nation state They arremptrd to define the statuS of [hese newfy creatoo insutution5 tnough rhry wete out always fvlped by devdopments in che ECfEU which WWl rhe focus of rheir studies Tbdr works have demun~trared rhat the EU imututioos are by 110 mratlS juse ordinary imerg()vcrnmenral ones lh~y have al) provideo a mirror ()f the hircof) of (Yents in Westetn Europe in pankultH - moviog flom unitios aod poJitkal dynruniqgt through ~rress oy$ and anguish to obsolesceuce tllrbulent fudds and back to mooerace optimism and a new dynamism
TrotJJ(l(iacutecnaUJI
Anorher Americao writer whose work dealt wirh che question oiacute integrntion is KarJ Deursch Alrhough not a neo-fotlcrionalilit his tranmctional appwmh nali dealt with sorne iOmmoo ~hemes He has been umrerned with more rhan imergovermneuul relation~ aod indeed hM str~iexcl reJations berweeo peopIes nitherthan just rhe elites favonred by manyneo-fuflctionalists Deursch concerned himltelF with m( absrnce or presence of significan orga~ oized preplttrations fol war or large-snde iolence between int~rnatiexclona1 policical commuoities It was [he secutity rommullttles lhat had elimirutted war and [he expectation o[ wat whhin rheir ixmndaries whicn Dentamph and his PrincctOll coUeagues exarnined in PeliriuJ Cfml1NJNlily dIId M NarJh lt14Jtlaquo Atia (1957) A SClttlriLy community WWl defined as a gronp of people wnich has become ~inte8rated~ io rhe sense that thete is real iacutelSSnr+ ance that (he members of that rommunity will not fight ellch oeher
Wriil1g1 (raquo1 iacutelMfatlortal tJrgaiadlMm 147
physkally but will se~tle their disputes in liOffie otber way (Deutsch 1957 5)lt loregration does not necessarily mean rhe me~ging oF peoples ot governshymental units intn a ~ogle unie an idea explicir in fooerahsr rhinking Otud implicir in much funrtionalist wtiting Jnstesd two $otS uf integrared secu~ rit communities ar~ hJemified the amalgamarelt where pteviousiy independent unlts have bcen rormaly merged lnro a larger unit wich a iexclommotl guvernment (eg tlle US) ano the pJuralisric where srparate gnvertUlleJlUl Illlioraio their iexclrgaJ indepeodence (eg uacutenada amI rhe US) In stlldying a nllmbcr of cases of anempred or octual intesratioo io tbe Nortn American and WCSt European area Dtunch conduded rhat tIacutelere werc iexclweive conditions essential fnr the rurcts of ao amalgruruued teeutity (Ommuniry and thM rhree wen nec~ry fm it5 plutalisdc COUnrfrpilrt
The1e three conslsted of rhe compaiacuteibiliry oiacute marer valU($ relevant to
politiclll decision-making tbe capacity o( the participariacuteng plt)htinl Imitl or ~mmem~ ro respood tu each othcrS oetdl messages and llaions quickly adeqwuely and without rtsort ro vlolence aad rne mutual predicrability n bchavior (Delltsch 19H 66--7) In Deutschs work emphasis was placed 00 cornmunkauun brlweEn potidca uoIacutets increased trnns1Ctions between them (such fL polirinl exchangcs toUfl(m trade and rratl~pott) brought increases in mutual dciexcl)Cl(enmiddotc fue s cummnnity ro be created (his high level of trnnsactrons must be accomgtauied by mutual responsiveness o that thr demand o( each side 00 he other mn rccdve adequate and sympatheric treatroent llthis wouk not ooiy predude the need [01 aggressive action lO acbi(Ye ends bm would aJso build up 11 feeLing u( UUSt and seturiry in che edationship
Deuucb does not have an obse~uacuteon with imernattomtl orgaoiexclZ8rion~ although his 1957 book iacutes in [he eM collcetned with the ctelltiacuteon of UCCIlshy
tity community in the NATO area rhere ate few tcferences to internatlOnal nrganiuuons Many o( the Cll5C studj( are ser io tbe pcriud before (be postshywar expansioll uf such organlurions and almost all deal ieh bilareral relatIacuteonshj~ O(utschs work has coosequences for the lUudy o( ioternuiona organizatIacuteoos govemmental ano non-goveromCotaj iO[~rnational otiianiza~ tioos can be created as a re~ult uf a plnraliacutes[ic secuciry nmunuoit) lne integracion of whkh may evtotuaUy become iacutennirurjonalized iexclu nuppened reo the ampandinaviiexclm states creand (he Nordic Counci1 There run abo be forrns of instirUti(lnalued communiratlons berween socieries wnich prOldde the transactions and undersrandinli rhat help create ji securi[y community DeUtsch wrote
li the way tu iexclnregrarion domestic or internarionat i$ through rhe achievemem of a srose of community tnut undergirdS insrirurjtms thm ir seems likely [har ao iorreased sense of cotlloounlry would hrlp to snellgtbcn whatever instirutioos - supranatiooal or internacional - are aLreAdy Oltraring
([)euriKh 1957 7--8)
ltgt -_ bullbullbullbull _- _
Demsc-hs work was mken funher in a vnluffie ediretl io 1998 by AdLer and Bllenen (l998) (lLat docs pay sorne attention to ioternariorutl otgilniushydoos Indecd their volume contairu chapters thar rekr ro rhe oseeacute NATO the EU the UN the GnU Cooperarion Cowxil (GCC) aod rhc Assodation uf Soud Eat Asian Niexclttlons (ASEAN) They daim that imetshyruHiomuacute organiexclzauumlons aud iexclnstitutiacutem~ played al lmporum role in elKiltlraging more inteo$ive and extensive ioteracrioos octwttn states rhrough theit uwt-huildiug propenies (Bnrnetr and Adler 1998 418) They lht six corulusions of this snuerneor
bull By moniroting srares agreemenu tntcmatiuacutelwl orpuuacutezatiexcloo~ give them he cooftdente tuacute cooperare io (he ahsencc of trUSt
bull Jnternational O1ganizarions allow Hi1tC$ to discover new areas of muuwl intetellls Tu ponimlar [hey cenoacute ro link panicular areai
bull Inrcmational organizatiom can hdp shape $fllre pracdces by liCtting down nOfOU Ihat define what is acnptablc
bull The iIKTeaiing nwnber of internacionaJ orgamrutions emuuragC$ muldshylatetalim
bull They dIlO eruourage smres lua societies to see rhelll$Clvcs as pan of a resion
bull 1ntildeey can abo shape lhe identiry of rheir memben (Banlett aod Adler 1998 418-20)
The aurhms cWmed char cheir stuJit$ demonmared rhe exrent 10 whkh social cnmmunicadons beomes insrimtioualileJ aOO embedded in lnreroashytional oC8linbatlooslt and in turU how (hese organizatioru express an inreot to dcvelop trUSt end mmwl identificarion (Batnm and AdJer 1998 418) TIe work on sccurity (mmnunidcs is pelhapS at ir strongcu whcn dealing wim the esrablishetl Westcrn democracies rbough llamen and Adlers work shows rhar it may hilve a wider urility
lnlerJciexclnmdcme
Furrhcr emphasi on the growrh JO cnlnsaccions berween l()Cicries can be seen in the worts of Keohane 11l1d Nye who were m che forefront of the iexclnrerocJXndcnce school in rhe lJoited Srnnt fhey puacuteirued our (he conseshyquences of the innease in tldrunarioualucdolU ro che study uf iexclnternncional rdarions Thcit statcing iexclgtoint was sLlnuuarized chus
TraM1latlowJ relations are nolaquo new alrhough che growth of tmnsna~ tklOal orgnnizarion in me twentieth centuty has been specracunr Ye-r our nmremioo iso nor ooly rlur rhe srate-centrk paradigm )$ inade~
quare bur also thar it igt becoming progttSsively more inadequate as changes io inrernational relauumloos take place
(Keohane and Nye 1971 xxv)
The) llsred five omsequemes uf this growth uf inEematiooal inrcracrions ana organizarJ(tIls fur inrerstate politks (1) rhe promntiun of attirude change amongsr driacuterens (2) ao innease io inrernacional pluralism the linkjng of nntiooal Interese groups in tnmsnational strtlCtures usuaHy involving transruttionaI organizations fOI rhe putpoampe of (04)minatioo ltKtohAne and Nyc 1971 xviii) whiacutech has heen lhe basis for much noo~(Jncdontllist wriexcling (3) me cmdon lf dependence and inrerdependcofe IS often associacuteshyarea with intetnilriorutl cranspormrioo and iexclnance Keclune and Nye 1971 xix (4) creating new insrruments fut iexclnfluence for use by sOJne governments over ()(bers (Keuhane aOO Nye 1971 xx) 1100 lt5) dJe emergence cE auronomous acrors wirh priwre ntildelreign policia thar roa) deliberarely oppose Oiacute impinge on Sla(e polides (Krohilne and Nye 1911 xvii)
In a late book (1977) Keohane and Nye dcah with che questioo of imershydependem-e in world poliacutetics io greatet depth Iorecclependencc $lnce tbe Second Wm1d War has- onen cesulted from increasetl ttaosnadonal atciviries and iexcli divided ioto twO sorrs sensltlviry iacutemerdcpeodence (dte muIy effecrs of dULOges jo tranS1lCrJons oc ~()ciacuteetiexcles or govetrunents) md vulnembHhy interdependence where he acrors Hahllhy tc suffet eO$n iacutemposed by extemal evenc~ js (aken inro accoum (Koonane ana Nyc 1977 12-13) In COntrast ro tbe reaisr view of world poHrk Keohane and Nye pm totward che idea type of complcllt imerdependence which chey claimed soroetimes comes dosee ro realiacutety chan does realism (Keohanc attd Nye 1971 23) aod whieh has three nuio characretl$tks it allows fo mulnple rhallne1smiddot- imershyStatC tiansgovernmental and trilnsnationa- conneltring sncieries there i an abserue of hierarchy ilmonS the rnany questions ac inle hetween iexcliexcltates with military securiry no 10nger dominntlng lUly agenda and Millnu-y force 15 not used by governments toward orher governmenu within me laquogion or on [he lssutS where complex intetdcpendence prevaiacutels (Keorutne aoo Nye 1971 25)
These dltee condidons are said by KCQhane aOO Nye to typify fairly weJJ 5Ome LIlAUe$ of global economk md ecological interdependence ami come dose ro chamcrerizing rhe emite relarionship hetWetn sorne cnuntdes (KeolWne and Nye 1911 25) Complex ilterdepcndente glVel rise ro oacuteininctive poliacutetical processes a sute $ goals wiacutell vary by mue arca with mmsgoYernmeotul puumllitics making goab difficut ro define as ttansgovern~ menrnl llClaquo()$ (fof cxample mtfUsrers of agr1cuJmre inte11igente agencies nariona wcather bureaux) pursue their own aims Jhe followiog facwn are reLevant iriexcl eilch issue area
bull iexclhe resourc-es of a Ncue fur thaI particular area are most relevaot radre Ihan the stares overull military ~tre-ngth
bull international nrganizatinm and uansnntional actors wHl be fruloipula[ed as malnr instrumenrs oiacute mue poHcy
bull rhe agenda of issUC$ wi11 be fOrmulated hyebltUlgcs in the power dirmi~ burlon wirhin [he issue alaquollS by rhe pururinn (lf internarional regimes
150 Writings lIlt inttn1atiQrJ41 ergdniutirll1J
by changes jn rhe importance of ttaflstlational acwtS and by linkage froro orher issues
bull linkage between 1sllor$ will be mote difficult for strong naces to undetshyrah ir[orce 1$ downgraded
ft whiJsr linkage by we$k srares rhrough internacional organuumlarions seu agendas helps coalition-wrming and provides arenas for the political acdvity oC weaker states which can use the choice of organizarional forurn [or an issue and rhe mobiliZlition of votes as a politiul resource
(Keohane and Nye 1977 37)
Thm Keuacutehane and Nt gavc inremarjonal organizaciOfls an iroporran[ role in thde compfex interdependence model of world politics a model which whilst not uSlaquo (O explaitt aIl world politics was one which rhey daitned to hllve iacutenfrtasing releYJ1nce in IIlarge and growing area 1ntildeey used an intetnUional organizadon mooel as one of the explanations ror internashytioua regime change that js che lthange in the sets of goveming flrrangernems affening relatioruhips oC interdependence In tMs C$e intershynadonal oJsanisaciolls refeued ro multilevd Iinkage norms and insritutions (Keohane and Nye 1977 54) which once euablished are harJ (O enlAlicate BeCllue o( this rhey may Stand in the way of swes using thdr capabHities In ordec 00 chauge regimes Instead powet outcomCl will be more aJfectcU by votlng power (in the UN General AssemWy for example) ability ro futtl) coalidoos llnd 00 control elite networks (ruch as that founo io clte institushydougt of the European Commnnities) Whilst the complclt illternadorull organizarion mode1 was only Ofle oiacute fOur aJvaucecl by Keohane and Nye ro explain regiffie chAoge tbey Jiu expeomiddott jr to contribute to such chaIlSC in a world where complex interdependence (onditions pertain
1he rontribmions by Keohane and Nye demonstra(e hoth the roncero pf American wtilets iexcln inremationru relariWl in the 1970$ with altemacives to
tite srare-centric model and their wiluumlngness tO draw from more rhan one approach bringiexclng rogether elementogt from che more tradidonal appnJaChes with economic models and non-stare-cenuic dements TIleir Wi)rk does however have certain weaknesle$ Perhaps the mon serious is the use of rhe cerro imerdependence and iexclrs djvisiacuteon iexclnro ~n~itivity and vuinerability imerdependence Anepting rhar inltldeperulence meUlS mutool dependeoce (and [hjs leado to discussiou a~ w how mutual maoy relationihips are) che phrase scnsiuacuteviry imcrdcpendenre scarccly wflrmnu thc use uf the term interdependcnce fhe fault lies wJth che authou loose definiuOfl of depen~ iquestcnce as a oiexcltate (lf being detetmined oc $ignificaruly affected by externa fwces The induskm 0(signi6candy atkcted w~aken5 me urillry uf me cerm so tlme che nOr1on oiacute scusltivity inrtgtrdependence seems ro refer ro any nociceshyaMe cffeltr of ooe srate and society 00 anorher A person may Ix- significandy affectcd by taking drog$ wlthout Ix-ing dependen on chem David Baldwin showcd that mis use of rhe cerro interdependence ran conrrary to the striaer
Writingt ()I inf~_Ji(J1ia ~lfizaJJom 151
lUlderstlllldings (lf the concept fuund in MirhiaveUi Montesquieu and Ronsseall as weU 115 in che works uf twentieth-cemury wrlteI$ such as Norman Angell Francis D(laisi -and Ramsay Muir (ampIdwm 1980 7-9) He snuested the U$C of rhe rerms mutnal influence mutual responsivrness ot mutual scrlitivity insread ofscnsirivity inrerdependeruemiddot (Baldwin 1980 19)
A second cuacutericism uf Keohanc and Nyes books aso concems eheie termishynology In dealing wirh rransnational influentes They [ump tngerheraH types of teiations in whieb non~8overnrnental actOrs participare chus makiflA rhe componenrs of cheir new paradigm shifting aud poorIy defined (Wagoct 1974 440-1) Wagner questioned whetber their work simply demonstrated a shifr in interesr to new areas of intetnational polidts shyespedally elttmomic ones - ana whethcr [he world hM reaUy changed or whether we have iexclUSt overlookcd sorne things a1l along (Wagner 1974 441) The atent of imerdependence wa~ also chaHenged by Waltiquest (1970) anJ Rosecratlce el al (977) in che US and by Lirrle Bnd McKinlay (1978) and Strllivan (978) in rhe Briti~h Uteramre
DespiLe any falling$ Keohlllle and Nye provided insighrs ioto ttamlflashydonal polltics they shifted atrention away fcom p~lrely govcrnmental actOts in inff$rate relarions and they poiutm OUt he impMrance of intetnational organlziexcliexclxions in the intetdepcndence oc at lcast rnurual responsiveness of =
rbe rdormist view of both international celBtiOO1l and iuternational orga- nizar1ons has always provided an rutemative lO the more conservativc cealist approach Ir tended ro be dominated jn the pre-wu petiod by internauacuteonal lawyen and ideaJists but sinee hc Second World War has laoched on to the changell in world poUtics 6tst jn the economic ficld and then in Europe thar have Mn more difficulty to explain in ICliIHst term~ It has sten intcrna~ rionnl organizarions as mlans to manage trends such as iucftI$(d economl( intlrdlpcndcoC( bar hll5 also illtceplcU rhat these organizations mar necorne impoftllm aCtoriexcl (lO che wodd st$ge lhemselves and can cettainiy Iacute)(cnrne involved iexclO changing rhe preferences o( governmeflts
RADICALS
Writers covered in this sccrion iCe rhe intcrnadonal sysrem flOt so much as being domlnlltcd by states bn( more by diUerent divisions 01 its peoplcs Thi$ is noe to Sfly fhat chey ignore surtes They cOflsider them elthet w be ks tmportant chan the iquestjjsions of diUS tit wealth or merely ro refI~ct these othcr factors ot w be roadblo(ks to unky in (he fare Qf mote impomllt chalmiddot renga Power ls seefl as belnamp cxercised by eh( wealthy II1ld privileged and open to cha1Jeuge Change in the system is possibl( but onty through srrll8ge or by an awakenjug pf peoples tQ rhetr real sitllatlon Most iexclnter~ natimal organization~ are thus regarded as (eflccrioos of the currcnt unsruisracwry stare uf aiacuteTairs though $fJme more activist orgauhatioos mar llave potential as vehicles or (hange
This SIoacuteCElOn has betn sub-middotdivided imo rhree gthe fUS( are the econ01nk srructuralists and indude Marxists and Third Wocld wruumlers cririclll of rhe cutrem imernruionallyuem They haacuteve in common a belief mar che polltshyiexclcal srructUres of me world halle leeo wbloned mainiexcly by eltonomic fiiexclctors and rhAr mere has bren an intiacuteJUIllity builr imo the presen sytem lhe recood are the cruumliral app~es who5e radicalilifl1 is mure of the iacutemellec~ cual SOrt They rejeCf - Uf at 19$[ question - Jhatly of rhe usumpcions utlderlying be lIiews ofhe world tepresented by the realists and refotmers Finally mere are the globalim Theit perspective ls planerary ana theiacuter rnain conrtrn h fM rhc survival uf Earth Agilln they challcnge che mme statemiddotbuled approaches of both realjsts and reformers
Stnuturaluacutet lIiews
Ihe srructuralist appmiexclch rO (he swcly of inrematioOlIl relations differs In imporrant wars tO thoee of me realists and refotmuu tbough ir has some elemeou in comroon with mands ofb04h schools As roany of (he neo-realistsshyemphasite (he power scructure of wudd potities this sectiacuteon willlimir jwgtlf ro (hose writers roncerned wich the impacr 00 me political S)Srem of rhe wodds ccooomic strucrure Unliacuteke che ttalist approach the erooomk srrucruralisrs are OOr jUSt concemed with swtts io wodd polilla and rhelr economic and poIitkal differencC$ but alw with the divisioru within f1tld berween SoOCieties (WiIIeas 1990 263) They are [heretOre romerncd witl the rifi berween riel iexclmd poor within scares and rhar herwtto udl and poor glohally This leads ro an interese lO trulSlUirional reladoru as well as in inrergo~romenmt links Th(f have this in corrunon wim refPrtllist views bm diexclfier foom chem in (he emphast~ placeoacute on rhe structures of world pollics beinc formuared by eltooomic fiexcliexclcmn In rhis selttion attentioo wilt be given te MarxiS[ wtlletS lIud sume Thir1 Wodd view$ - partiuilarly (hose of rhe cependency sdlOOf and rhe developmemalj~[II - who have made a cootribution quite separare from rhat of rhe Muxiacutesr uadidon
Marxill laquoewl
There is no one Marxisr interptetariacuteon of me role of imerniexcliexcltional Olganiza~ cions in world politics Sur Manis[ approschf3 have certain elements in common and form a di~dnctive 5ch001 of rhough[ about lnrernartonal telamiddot tions generaHy and therefore ahotu international ocganizadoos These appmaches are based 00 du writiflgS of Karl Marx (l818~) in coshyoperarioo witb Fuacutewrich Engels (1820-95) with perhaps tbe gtearest later conrribution being maJe by VL Lenin kader of (he 1917 fo1shevik revolushydon in Rurna They are cf importanee pany becau1e ehey ficm tlle 00515 for mmmuniSt [hinking and (hm mey have an anactunenr m rhe Soviet Unian whieh WIlS be suongc1t commnuist stare unrII 1991 and EO rhe Peoples Republic of China COlUT1UnJSl sinee 1949 Apan ftom lbis ManiS( beliefs
had a irmng inpur mm Wescern imdleltrual cruoking and conunue ro iruoan some viewi abom wodd politics in rhe Third Wodd
Neither Marx no Mancisrs took rhe stare ro be (he curtency of iacutenteInashy(iexclonal relations Unlike (he realist viewpoints chey did fiO( coruider interactions blaquoween soveteigu ltates to be ofovettidi importance UnHke tbe funcrionalists aud other modem Westetn views rbar srress non-stare actocs Marxiexclsts in particular emphasized cbus relatlonships born wiexclrhin nates and IiCOOSS Stare boundaries Indeed ie is diffku[r ro talle only of a MaIXIacutest view of inrernatiooal re1atioll5 lec ttltme of iorernarional orgnniza~ UumlOOy as rhis separares ene particular aspecr of human behavinur tor MIlIXIsr rrearment divorcing ir from the undedying relleCS of Marxlc beliefs Man-ism provides a framcwok of undemanding by whkh ir iacutes daimed ~ociery pan lind vresen can be explaioed and che furure development of mankiexclnd determined
According ro Maf1 relariooshipamp between people and the futm~ mar insdmdooallzed rhose relatienshfpamp depended on rhe economic $truCtUR of soday fhe way rhat productlon was organized He traced the history of dvilixed maokind through five hiuorical staBes - AAjade mdenr feudal capttalin and socialin - which have ditTereru dominant methods of produc~ tioll leadiog 10 a complirared arrnngement of $OCiety ioto various ordetS 11 manifuld graduadon of sociru tank (Marx llnd Boge1s 1965 40) amph form of sorlef has coutained rhe conflictual divisiQl$ which help [Q tranuacuteorm the narun of rhat $Ocjeey coRrradicrioru in the mode ofpcoducfIacuteon placed srrain nn rhe existing social nrder sharpeniug rhe divide berween economic founshydatinn of sociery and a mpld aansIacuteonnlltion of in SOpel1Ullcture in legal polidcal and re1igious it1$tirutioos Thus by 11 confronration of da$~ Conrramiddot dkeions one historlraJ form of soc1ery wus transfocmcd into a bigher stage uf social devdopmem the history of aH hitherto existing ~ociexclety is the histoty uf dass struggles (MaDI Illld Bngets 15 39) Marx and Bnsels were parriculady conceroed wich capita1i$t sociery - ac its Oeyday during theiacuter Uves - and its tmnsrormarion iexcluto ampocis1iu sodety Wlthln rrus form of SoOCiety rOete would be no division of laboU4 and no eWses Illld no SUtes no elCpropnation of labours 5urplus vruue I1nd (bus no private property 00 exploira(ion of ene clilllS ny iexcliexcloother with 00 need fue war
For Marx and fingeJs C1ass then and noiexcl fllltions or sutea are rhe bade units in hurO) llIIIl che struggle between clAssts Jnstead oiacute infeutliltl contlict ocrupies rhe centre of acrention (Berki 1971 R1iexcl From me nlneteenth celUUf onwards rhis struggle -n in Marxisr cerros has been primarUy between [his capicalist dass ([he OOurgeoisic) aOO the bbouring dw (me proletariat) AA (he trarurormatlon fmm capltalisr SoOCIety [O ~OCialiexclMl ro comrounism rook p~e (he superstruerutt of bourgtOis SoOCilaquoy - religioo national divisiacuteon boutgmis politicnl insrirudnns rhe SOlte - woold be swept flway and in Engtls pmse rhe gOlcrotnent nf persons is replaced by [he udminlsuacion of things Fetter 19 (47) with me itEte relegated lO the mmeum iexclngemer Wlth lile spinshyning wheel Qnd [he bronze axe (Feuer 1969 433)
154 WrituacutetKiexclI mJenl4tiorJal rngmZtlJilm
Mux saw the European SUtes of his own rime as being rntans by which the ruBng dass (011amp oppress the work~ng clw by using (he agentl of tht 5tare such as the iudidary the poliee the army and rhe church he (xrerual Ilctlvities of the stare wete also determined by its Chtss namre MeanwhiJe rrmllnat]onat Rlations of a more meaningfuL kind WQuld bt creared by trade rhe movement of capital and incteaiitd romac[ and llOIacuteldarity betwten the prolerariat of vanoulS nations riacuteidefd rhe internacional nriexclaniutions of which Marx and Engels hnd dire(t experiena- wtfe the Fi~t Internatiomd and for Engels the Secund lntemarional both of which atttmpted lO orgashynJxe the represemarives of wruking people aiexclros fronden Onc~ agaJn this stteAAe$ the Marxist empbois on transnarional dass relutions rnther than on intentate relarionships
Whibt Soviet writlngs on international organizatinn1 wtte falrly desulshytory in Scalins reigu 0924-53) rhey did lmerIy hernld rbe move towams peaceful co-existerne arul roreshadowffi the lartf rnrhe[ restrktive view of Imch organi2Atinm hy Soviet commentators
In the post-Second Wodd War period and In patticular in the post-Stalin era Soviet liternmre on international organiuttions bl(lSsomed This has reflected Soviet membership oC ma1ly 1osiexcl-1945 organixations the emershygence of a socialist bloc of sta[C$ and tbe incre-ase in the mlmber of Sowcreign s[ates all flUtontilde demaruHng a more sophisricared Soviet view of lnter~llate reLadoru than che survivalism of Stalins period Uuring rhe lare 19805 i( auo ret1ected the new thinking iacutemroduced by Gorbachev
StalintI suIXessor KrU$hchev developed a revised view of internacional relaCtons which gave a positio1l ro the emerging Third Wnrhl (Tbe Third Wotld was then taken to mean rhotle IItates thar had emerged ftom colo~ nialiacutesm In effect rhe terrn later induded tbe stares of Latin America Africa - exclnding the rhen apaftbeid stnre of South Africa - the Middle Rasr Oceaniacutea and South Asia) Peace(ul co-exiuence between oda1ist and (apltaJisr states WM $til comidered nece1sary but this diacuted noc predude the ideologiacutecal stmggle between rhe two campsmiddot iexclndeed lhe Soviet inter~ national lawyer GI Ihnkiacuten wrote pearcfut cocx15tence of sutes represeonng che tWO differeor rodal sysems is a slccific form uf dass struggie beween socialism and calitllllsm (Osakwe 1972 37) The Soviet Union abo deveJoped relatlons wirh rbe newly emerging exshycoloniaJ cOllntdeJ and Soviet writiog had tu take ~ount of this developmem There wru a recognirion of a third group of stattli between rhe capitalist aud the communlsr that of poteorially friendly indtptomiddot deut $tarem io Europe and Asia such as India Egypt Indnnesia and Yugoslavia which would filrm a tone of peace Although the rebtions wiacuteth rhe capitaliacutest sures sriacuteH remaioecl embedded in pelteful coshyexluencc rhere was an emphasis by postmiddotStalinist Soviet writets on the da eJement in lile telatiomhil - that is rhe wntact with progressive elements in Weste1l sodeey smh as che Jabonr mnvement Ncither diexcld peaceful co-exiucuce rule OUt ~upport o[ middotjUSt wars of nationallibcrildon
WIacuteJIacute11gs tm iacutenUrllUtional WjatlJZtiacutelJlff 155
iexclndeed ir was seen lt a strategy fo wodd reloludon Fiacutenally (he rrlashyfIacuteonhips berween the Sovier Union and East Eumpean countries vere deerned ro be based on sociali internationalism posmlating a haemony of natinnal and commllnity interests and mndllding thar jnde~ndeuce and sovereioiexclnty of a soctalist uate means aoove aH indepltndencc from capitalism (Red Star 1 December 18)
Tunkin underljned traditional Soviet thiacutenking rllar the mngtrltllenl imrrllment of an ioretnational urganization (fne example the Chaner oiacute the UN) was all-impottant in derermining tIte enene rrun the otganizauumlon bad an international legal pcntildeonaliry rhar iexcl5 a standing in internacional 1l1w 5imilar tu titar of a sovereigo staxe Examining lhe question of the antonomOllS wiU oiacute international nrganitatioll Tunldn allowed thl1 they need not jmt act as agtnts for member stares
In imernatiunal ptacrke trellties conduded by jntcrl~ational mSaniacutezashytinns take their speciaJ piare as treacies by wbkh internationsl organimtiom aequire righu and take upon themselves cerrain obligiexcllshytioos Intctnat10nal organizatiou are created by Hares hey are broughr iexclnto being by states but the actloacuteos of imcmational organi7ashydoos are nlt)( in any way de facto or de jure ro be tqt1sred lO the actions of scates
(Osakwe J972 23)
Thi did nor mean than M internadonal organiacuteiariexclon was an entity indeshypendem of its memher us[es as any powers (har they hacl were delegated by [he members In Jine wirh che ampwiet doctrine of peareful co-exiacutesteme Tunkin placed Uress pn (he nature and rhe membership of an international organiacuteution dlOSe which drew their membersbip from commlmi1t c1Ipishytalist and TIiexclird World tares could expcct tu be genel1llly mognized as having an incernarional personaliacutery He wrote
TIte namre of tontemporary international prganiurions is lO a very great exttm derefmined by [he existerue of Haces beJonging ro differem wcio-economk systems and the ioevitable muggle between them Thar is why pcaceful crexislence is now the bl-sic condition of rh~ dfVC1iexclpshyment ufgeneral interoational ntganization
(Osltuumlltwlt 1972 289)
Mor07JN Clt1ntrlbuterl sorne extra points Fintildet be iududed JNGOs in his stndy He wrote dlQt lotetnational orgaruulions have as iI rol 8t least three member coumries TheM may be government$ offidJ orgilnlzarions or 0CInshy
guvernmental organizatiow (Morowv 1977 30) In a 11Iter seccion m NGo thcy were ldencifred as che la~ group of inrerrulttonal organiuttiolls wim two aspccn rbar concttntd socuIacuteiacuteIgtt commemarors tbe NGOriexcl auirude towards the preservarion of pealaquo wkh the Wnrld Feieradon ofTrade Unions
6 _ 0
rhe Wodd Fedemion oE Democratk Youth and otber meiexclllbtrs oiacute tbe Sovittshybacked World Peace (ounaacutel gaining special mentioo and the specialiuJ chataCrer of sorne NGOs itl(h as rhe ruerrutriunal Couocil of Scientifu Unions and che Scienrifk OJmmiuee on Antnrctk Research MOrlrLOv memioned how NGOs can belp emblish a social dimate citillg their contti shybution ro (he setdemenr of a number of internacional confHcu swh as dlilr in Vietnam He aOO dealr wirh the role of che NGOs io cbe UN aud che consuJshyrative srarus [hey llave witn lGOs saying du[ smdems of internariooal affitjoiexcl
in [he socjalisr councrics m critieal of many asplaquots of (his system fur the eoruulrarive StatuS amogemenrs stiU fall shon of wha( [he deveJopmenc of modern inretnatlonal relarions in fac[ catls fur (Morozov 1977 43) Tbe specialized namre ufNGOs Wamp1 atttibuted by M((2OV tu
tht increased Jnfiuence of the pubic at large un roreign polky [he grearer iexclmpat of public opininn in imernatiunal reladuns and [he greater importante uf me ideological fiexclUtot 10 $ucb relations Accoum should abo be raen of che proccsses of cconomic developmenr and [he coosequenc~ of [he scienrific and rechnological tevolutioo which has also led ro a greatet number of speoacutealized NGOs
(Morozov 1977 42)
Second Morozov wridog jo d~ late 197amp made moU pos-irive refershyencelgt (O [he role oiacute Trurd Wodd SUtes in imemaciooa otganimrions He noted rbar rbe emetgtoce oiacute ti large oumbe of Oung natiooal stares h8ve kd fO che emetgcnce of intetnarJonal Drganizadons among develcpi08 ecuoshytries (Mororov 1977 29) aod claimed hat partkiparion in (hese organh311oos is part uf he process uf consolidating their sovereigocy and ruuional jndependenu~ aod of wlviog cheir pressing ecoOfJmic anJ orher pmbemsmiddot (Morozov 1177 31)
Finally Momzov developed the puint made by fimkin aOOut he limited llalUre of ioternationaJ organiurjQn$ - ~econd-dllSS ffitrnbers nf the inrershynarloual sysrem as opposed tu rhe firsr-diexcllSS members SQvereJgn stateiexcl by reretcme tO theit dedsioos There bave resulted froro che inrelllctioo of politicuJ euroorces within the organil1ldons and
Thecombined will uf chcse lGOs i5 disuumlnc[ from [he wllls of theuuml indishyvidual members io in eflSenlte and ln in narure The v1ilflous wills in thb case are nor agsregued arirhmetically each one exim indepenshydendy ur oside a homogeneQu~ socio-political gOUP wirbin whose frarnework (hey can be combjlled
(Murozov 1977 34)
AfLer lhe comiog ro powet ofMikhail Gorbachev in the Soviet Union io 19Bgt a Ihaoge rook place jo $oVJIl policies rowards imeroadonal relations irutuding international organi1ations and [his has been reflecred in new
~ M-- bull 6_V_
Soviet writings un [he subJect Gorbachev inttoducetl a owjor review of [he fureign poljcy uf the Soviet Union (har marchcd rhe inremiry of his dmncslic refotmS He encouraged new rhinking- based on a revjeJ vlew of che world siruation Peaceful co-existence wirh iexclhe capiralisr tirares WlCgt no looger seeo a~ being a spetjfic fum of dass srruggle as Tunkin had written bUI 35 being in the commoo intecesu oiacute all countriCl Ir WIi$ predishycued on the neOO fin surviva of (he human nce which in ShakhfUlZOlrQvmiddot$ word$ must ofCOUIse take fim place Lighe 1988 297gt- Thjs ml$or rhar a new COIKeuropt of seGldty had ro he adopreJ hy che Soviers rhar oiacute common security which wa5 based un sume of he ideas of -che Palme Comminion (see he1ow) Greater emphasis wu given ro arms control and dlsarmament agreemenrs wirh the Wesr 11nd to co-opttation in international uffuirs whilst Soviet intervention io che Third Wodd enbed and milirary 5UppOtC 1m [he East European communisr govcfomentS WlS withdrawn
Soviet wdcings on inremurionilJ relations both offidal and academic came to mirror Gorhachevs new rhJnkiog bur eho lilete iexcl$ evety sigo chut rbese id~ were dmwu no only from rhe Wesr but alw Uacutenm Moscow mink-tanks slleh as lMEMO th~ JflSIirure of World Eronomy and Inremlfona Relacions) Liacuteght 1988 29~n Gorbschev aun his forngn minisrer FQllard Shevaronadre gave rhe academiacuten a Breen light for funher diSClViiacuteon ud debare (Shevaronadre 1990 23) As II reampul srudies examlned he role of che Uniacutered Nariacuteons as sn ugem for peoce (Kolyrev 1990 12-19 NesrerenkQ 1990 65 Petoovsky 1990 42--3) and rhe mte of inrernational or811nizadons in environmental mliLffers IiLnd disurmamenc qutsdmuuml Chodsulkwsky 1988j NikitiM 1989 123-32 Roginko 1989 133-43) and internarionallaw was teassesred (Sutier 1989~ 363-75)
Once che Sovier Union collapsed many of me wrifetS losr rhe main point of political reference A nwllber Iefi academc orhets adapted thelt ideas ro WCtem oues and a few remnioed as policy rulviseni ro che new Russian goVefrutJenL However cornmunism as M imellectually dominant organiuog rotce wlch pnliiisJ dour had djsappeared in Russia togerllef with much uf the persptr1ve ir provided - wben seen thmugh me unen distotdng leos uf tbe Sovier lfulon - oiacute inrernatiooaJ relatlons and inremariooal organhattnru
Chinese Marxisr wrirers have iexclargeIy reflected rhe views of the leadershyship in Chinll sioce [he coming ro power of rhe Commun1sr Patty in 1949 Undl (he 1970$ communist China was elduded from almon aH iotttllJishytional of811nizIiLtIOns and ie is flot surpriamping tha whae lirde writing tbete WUtl on the st1bje(r Wal fairly dismiacutesampive usuaUy consisdng uf coudemnaM tinos of (he UN fnf its action tn Korea aud rhe security allianes fot teir hegernonic narure Chjnese Marxisr rhinking hiacuteu divided (he modem wotld jnro three groups ihe Birsr World consisred of rile fWQ imperialist superpowers namely he USA ano the USSR The Second World was made up uf otbet areaa uf advamed industrilllired cnuntries primariacutely EUfape aod Japa which were opea ro donunariou by lite Sllperpowers bu( which could $tan a dialogue wirh rhe Thiacuterd World Theu (here was rhe Third
158 Writings OtJ internationdl organizatioru
Wodcl iexcltreI( coruisting of the Afro-Asiacutean-Lario Americltlu sta tes supported in their muggte aAainSt Picsr World imperialism by Chinls This viexclew of the wmId colouted tyJst Chiacutenese wridngs on iacuteoternatiollill oeganharions Tbe $uperJowers were seen as cynical lTlllnipubtors Qf inrernarionaJ jnsti~ tutions Mao Tre~tuog wOre of US poliey towards such insdfutions Ir mam use or them when it neOOS rhem and kicks them 3way when ir does flot (Society (or Anglo-Chinese Underuanding 1979 42) US-domioated pill-~ such amp$ SEATO and imperialist groupiacutengs like rhe Alliance tor PfOgre~( wttt detided Spedal viuiot was saved roc the Warsaw freaty Orgaoizatiun whieh in one aetide was described as Soviet sodal~ imperialisms mol fur aggression (Ming Sung circd Jn Chen 1979 194) fhe Soviet Union was aceuseQ of trying tu manipulate che Pan and negnshydate wlth Wesrem eouorries rhmugh the Enropean Scltwiry Conferenee tn consolidare irs begemonic status in Basrern Enrope at the same time iexcliexcll dividiog Wes(ern Europe squeezing Out the USA ro as ro muSte way (0(
iu expansion and infilrmrion into Westem Europe (Ming Sung clted in Chen 1979 197)
Chinese writecs Fegatded tbe Ntildegttood Worid espedally Western Europe as being a pen force io telmS of imperialism which Ww tdponeed to the lhird World wich diaJogu as io the Jmueacute Convention berweoen tIacute1e European Commnnitiacutees and AF~ican Carib~an and Paciuacutet srUe5
Furrhermore the defensive $spects of NATO were sttessed and with growing European cohcsion the trend iexclS IJkely to ~ towatds a fuoce in which the American elemenr is seen as 1 temporary neceuity eventual1y to be phased out (Sodety fur Anglo-Chioese Undetstanding 1979 90)
lthe countries of the Third World were setn as coostirotiog rbe mluumln force comb$dng imperiaJi~m colonialism and hegemonJsm reEerring nor only to the vestiges of Wesr Etl-OOptan foloniiexcliexclJism bOl abo to US iexclnpetlshyalism and gwwiog Soviet soci$l~imperiacutea1ism Tbe Third Wodd eQuld hdp tn exclude the gre$t powers ny baoding cogecher io such otganizatinos aiexcl tht DAU aod rhey could work ro correct unequiexcliexcl nade and eeonomk reladons with che sUpetpowers through UN iexcliexclgeucies and eonferences such as UNCTAD and UNaos Abo rtlW material ancl exporting orgllnizations liexclke OPEC rbe Incernadonal Bauxilaquo Association ancl the Onion of Banana Bxporting Counuies were proised a ehanging (he old interntlrional eumomic Ome and banerlog che biggest roarerJal plunderers in rile world rhe United Srates and (he Soviet Uoleo (Ptking Rt1Jiew 26 Septtmbtr 1975 cited in Cheo 1979 309)
111e poverty oiacute ehinne study of intetnatlenal erganhuions no dounr caused by the lack of Chinese membership of such etganizacions unril the 197amp and the turmoit ef the Cultural Revulution eiexcliexclme ro an enel by the 1980s Jnstead oere was a more reaHs( viexclew (lE rbe worlcl iexclf one S~shytimes coucbed In Manlst terms In Chlnese univenittes there was a growtb io detailed studies of iutemationalntgsnizations aod the nuropean Union
WritingI un inlmullPmnl vrgrsrtilpiill1J 159
Tbird Wwld vlewJ
Many Third Wodd Afro-Asian aoo Latin Atrusican) writers 00 jntemsw
tional organizaion have adopte a structtulIist framework and are particufarly nm(etnecl abour how insdtutions can be wcd as tools of exploitadon uf rhe nitd World aud how $ome cau be used lIS agenrs of libenuion They llave nor been induded in the ~ettiexcloo un Marxist viltws (or three feamm nOI al of them are Mandst thIJM who are Manisr place particular stresS on (he posicion oF thE l1lIacuterd World and as ThJrd Worlcl eitizens they have through theit own experience unother pe~cdve rhan [Mt of writers from industri$lized srates
Yash 18ndon (1978 377) has identjfied thNf nuacuterd World penfIXrives en inrernational Olganizatiolls Fim [here is that or the bourgeois Of perry natiunalisrs who are in power in mos[ Third World statcs and who are progressive in [errru of anti-impcrialism but are rraniollary ro the C1tccnr WC they would sooner mau thcir pcaee with imperialism rhan iluwnder power (e the masses and peasancs This group uses ineernational orgllniexclm~ tions ro pur presrure 0lI imperialisc states in order to extntCt concession5 from them and appease tbe masses in their own coontries TIley see che UN as an opportunity to parley witb their entwhiacutele impecild masters t a presumed kvd uf equa1iry (Tandoo 1978 365) Thc scltond pcrspective is rhat ofthe reaIly backward regimes of thl Thitd Wodd such un Taiwiexcliexcln and Jotdan or whnm intemarional orguniacutelattnnS are of margJna1 signifieance [)t they prefet tu dea wirh impcrialism iquestirt(tiy The rhird petSPCCrive idenrified by landOll is that uf rhe masses vi thc TIlird World for wbom toterntlunaJ orgmilAriom are petiphewl fin liS Jong as hey rontinue fO reflect the muing balanlte uf clas$ forces in hvour uf impeuacuteJism (fandon J 978 378) Sioce the ene of he 196amp rorces representing thu third group have bccome lnott prominent in world polido in che form of liberarioo groop1 lttCn as tbe PLO and whilst chese have f)tgten interested in galnin8 telaquolgnJtlon rOt rhemshyselves at the UN and the spedaliled agcodes rhey are not depeuden 00 these or8ani1Jlton~ rndecd Tandoo romioeted (hat fo che revoludonary snnggles in SOUfh~E3SC A~a and AfrJctI iOfernattonal otgilnizalJons are tOO peripheml to be of much $ignilJeaoce (Tandon )9713 377)
Tancloo providcd n inrere~tiog history of the Jevelopment uf the anrishycolonialist forees in che Third Wruld sinee 1945 bur hi~ clivi~iexcl()H iexcloro he three perspenives is roo stark leaving aside rhe leil important backWllro regimes be has basiclllly grO~lped tbe Third World leadershp joto the revoshylutionaries who have Uttle netd (or imernatiooa otgllnizatiooll and those who llave suumlpped into refOrmism and have beco duped iot() bdieving (hat they elln ehaoge chelr c1ependeoce 00 industtia1i1Cd nBfiexclmL~ lhrough intemadonal organiwtions Thjs seems to undelsrare me use or ~mh organishyzations by revolutionllry groups - especiiexcliexcllIy che PLO anel tlle SoUthem African liberadon OtgllOiexcl7arionS - whieb have made substaotial use oiacute [he UN me Arah League ano the OAU tO sustain rhe polirical aspeets of theit effOrt5 1t alS(l uverestimatcs the extent tu whieh the Third World countries
J UU wnlmgl 1111 JTiUrllamm41 ergtIttJ1I0fll
have any iUwinru about imetnariooal Qrganizarioos such a~ UNC1~D
Furchermorc the identificador of 800d revolutionaries and falten refurmislS i~ tuller impliexclstjc~ rhe maIur sponrot of the UNs New Ecooomic Order l wruch Tandon hal roudemned as rhe Old Economic Order with a diffefent rltetoric WIIS the Algetian radinu governmenr of Boumediemu rhe PLO irself ha heen dependem on a numlgttr of bnurgeWs Arab goveromenrs foc financial 00 diploJUlltic suppon and ro Tandoos duumlertion that PQr narlonallibemwn movemenn guided by a proktatlan idoology such liS rhose in Chifliexcl1 lIlud Vietnam iruemarionaJ organlwtlona WtU of no 1J5e can be- added the re5ervarion until chey carne (O power Whiht ir took some twenty years belote communist Qtill1 made use nf suth organiutions the unified communiSl Stale ol Vietnam was quick fO cake up it position in the UN ro ask [Ol aid thtough UN agencies liS well as w become ji membet of he CMEA (Comecon)
Third Wodd commemscOt1l on world politics have emphasized the nature uf rheir atea$ potirical ecoOoacutemtc Ilud culmral relatloosluumlp wilh rhe iHdllsrriexcl~ alixed Nonh TitilO is iOO$t Oflltl rypified aiexcliexcl bciug OHe of ueo-folonialism _ COntrol of che Third Wtltld by lhe Nortb by indirecl means ratlet (han by direa colonial tule and of Kf)IomIacute( dRptwJmry (o dtpmdemjiexcliexcl) lntetnationaiacute rdsdOOi bcrween sures are sublumed ro relations between claue$ world wide Ixtween on rhe one lIand the expluacuteiting impetialist capitetists in rhe northcm iru1usuialized couotries 2100 rhcir middle-ltlass collaboratotS in the 50Uthem SUtes aud on the othet band he exploiced masses rhe proleuriat ol [he $Ourhern contJnems The Lurcr gmupS have been 1I1iide ecooomkaUy dependent on [he furmer so char hey lIre in rhe wuacutetds uf the Bruiliiln T Dos SantOS in a situadon jn which the economy of a cetuin group of counshytrles is condiacutedoned by rhe develOplllent aad expansion of aoother ecouomy lO which thcit own 15 subjecred (Bodenheimer 1971 327)
The uOOerdeveloped tounrries depend uacuten [be developed ror their capital nd ercperdse they find key sectors of ehdr eroooroy conrrolled from OUtsJde rhey act as a SOUfce of raw marerials lIS ji lthetip source of labour arul as a rnarket fur mllnuf8ccurers from Euttipe ]apan and North America As thejr living standards were deterrniud by rhe vicissinWeS of the Northern~ dominated wodd marker the relationship was Otle uf unequa exchange (he [esule of which was a world experiencing woequal developmenr with a developed rieh indwtriaJiud capiralisr Notthern centre and d poor underdeveklpedgt agciculrutitlly backwarn eXFloired periphery in che 50mb The dependem 80mh has been divided berween rhe ptedominanr undemeshyveloped area~ lUld a few Cenfres of deve10prnenr wirh their ttade culrural rraffie and polidcal linL to [he deveJoped North - rhe depeOOem develop~ memo omlinea by EH Cardosa (1974) allodlt~r Bruiliall Mmir Amiu (977) rejC(ted the prosptltt of aH antonomous capitalist development in [he Third Work the oew bourgeaisJe of Lacin Ametica Africa and Asia were in allianec with capitalisrs from rhe Nnnh and rhe mato $OUrce of finance ror lmported equipmem was fmm the expon of raw materials to rhe indu~rial
5 ~ _~ smiddot_middot~~
iexclred smes Amin (1977 1-21) SllW rhe can made ror a New Imernational Ecooomic Order (NIEO) by Third World leaders at rbe UN UNCTAD aod che Vilrlous North-Sourh dialogues as an nrtempt LO iexclnerease the price of chelr ntw mattIial exporrs obraio more lmpotted technol08Y snd chus finance a new srage of develQpmenr He saw this ti placing the Thitd World more in the gttp of the neo-co1onialist sysrem and iostmd recommended 11
more self~rcuumlanr development wlrh murrud assismnce between Third World sures a reducdon in [ade wirh rhe induuialized wotld and Chlll a loos~ ening of dependenre Amin lJke TaOOon had Jittle fairh in presenc imtrnruional organizaciexclon Il tools foc fasbiooing a more independent Tbiacuten Wotd His sU88tl1cion of grearer mUtual ilSlgtistaoce between ThUd WorId uate~ implied somtthing more sophillticated than a numbtr of bilateral arrmgements As rbe present orgauizarions used fu iexclncm~Thjrd World cnshyoperation (che OAU he Atab League ASEAN) are domitllued by jusr dl()llC govetnmenrg chM accept lhe eowse coodemned by Amio _ the NIEO ami greater jmegrndon iexcluro rhe world economic sysrem ~hen Amia solutloil involves like-minded deveJoping counrries or more like1y political changes leading ro such indigenous intemuional orgilniwrions
Other Trufd Wodd wdten have plllCtXl emphasls on grearer use 01 exisring insdtutions lOO can broadJy be deKfibed lIS Wopmenraluli huI Prebisch an Argentinian econOmigf has not only studied the que5iaacuteon uf ecooomic dependency but his ideas llave been used as the baJiexclis for che wotk of cwo miexclljoc iexcliexcluemariOOiexcll1 organizadons rhe UN Enmomic Commission fa utin Ameriea (ECLA) and UNCfAD Iu his smdy of Briliacutesh-Argerl(inian trading relntioflS Prebisch bad idenrified rhe unequRl tecrns ol Hade between he favoured (ndusrrislized s(ate of tbe centre and he les privj~ leged llOIl-indumialiacutewl periphery Prebisch unlike rhe dependencia gtChool of Amiacuten Dos Sancos and Cardosa believed thu this inequaLity could be overcome by political acrinn by trade pre[ereonces fuvouring the pedphery by eoo1ruooiacutery agreemenrs by intelnatiacuteowll aid and by more foreiga imvestment in che ~riphery It was thele remedies thiexcllr Prebiacutesch eneouraged when he WiIS Executive SecrCrary of ECLA from 1955 lO 1963 aOO Secrewy-Genernl ofUNCTAD ftoro 14 ro 196tL In~d rhe amoum of aid the periphery needed in omer to overeome their Unfuvoluable rrnde balance became known io UNCTAD clrcles as [he Prebiexclsch Giexcllp
The distinguished Afiican aC1ldentie Aji Mazn1i has wricren un the plighr Qf (bar conciflfnt aod j~ role in pmem~day interruUIDllfl1 afmits He soughr ro answer rhe quesdon Now rlw Imperial Order is eoming ro an end who is going tO keep rhe peaee in Aampica and tu examine he concept of Pax AfrlclllUl the African s ambidoo ro be his OWh palaman The JXIliacutecillJS and se[f~8overnment ufAfriea depended on the nodan ofan African self which Mauui discusseJ in decaH He considered how this 1ndepen~ denre might be threarened by the politicaI and cultural fragmenMion of the contillenr Ellld eronomieally by deperulence on Europe He quoted Kwame Nkntmah finr President uf Ghaniexcll on rhe Europe-Jn ECOntunir Communiry
162 Wilihgr rm intd1JatirmallJrganizatimu
ihe ireaty of Romemarks the advent of oeoKolonitJism [n Afriacuteen snd bears unqutSrlonably the marks of Freneh neo-colonuumlllism (Murui 1967 93) He moduded from tM that Wlut AfrlOlns tbelaquofore neecletl was II
renerru authotity of cheir owa tI) ((lordilJlte fheir eltonomk and policicat deCena- sgain5t trus rnreat (Mamtiexcl 1961 93)
Given this theme it is not surprising tlwt Mazrui ser srore by rhe OAU bU[ he was realistic in bis judgement
In relatioos betwlaquon African statts lIOflesr step rowards Pu Africana was taken when rhe Organiution oiacute Aftlaquolln Uniey set up in Commissiacuteon ofMediauacuteoo Conci1illtion aud Arhitmion
Anormr OAU Commissioo of relevance fot Fax AftlOlna ls che Defence Cornmission Sor me Defeme Commlnion 1w se Car been among che lean effecdve QfPan-Aiacutericun ins(kndons Afrka mar indeed aspire to be her owu ptlliceman bur she does nO seem ready as yel to par the price iacutem it
(Mauui 19612[3)
Mazrui oudined the varicd backgrounds of [he lemen oiacute newly illdepenshydent Africa and thdr radical and revolmionary ideas and it is pethaps swprising rhat the insrirutions rhey created fur me coutinenf wete so mnservative with [he p05sible exceprion oiacute the OAUs Natiomtl Libetttion Comminee Mazrui no[ed thac Africa srill has the problem of how othet powetS respond tu its behaviour and [har forcigo iotmsilm in AJtica continued Indetd the I990s proved tO be a dC(ade of disusrer for AfrieR The debiacute burden contimlld while Ilome states collapsed lnro civil war ami others took to iutenoendoo in thejr ueighbonrs affairs Outslde interference from borh Enrope and North Amecica euodoned One of rhe fcw brlghr spots was the end of apallhcid in South Africa and the peaceful transitioo ro majoriry mJe lo al thiexcl~ tn quote Juliacuteus Nyerere rhe ampcmer pre~iexcldenl of Tan1ania The OAU exists outr ror tbe prorecdoo of (he Afrinllt Head~ oiacute State (cited io AlilgapPltl 1998 1 ) The relarive optimism of Maztui has giveu way ro Afriam writers examining sorne of me disrnrbing details of inaction by [be OAU and regtonal orgauiacutezatJuns nlCh as ECOWAS beiog used as doaks fu the machinations oE regional hegemou$ suth as Nigcria (Mibe 1m 61-9(1)
Radha Sinha$ problem--ortented undy Food iexcllfId PIWt11y (1976) has an IItgent message Sinha a former consultaot of the FAO prodnced an iofuacuterrned aUllyiexcljiexcl of the world$ food problem stress1Og in paniacutecular the maldistribution of food and other resources Noting he profO$ab of UNCTAD with heit muld-rommodJty approach and buffer nocks provjshySiOfli he commented rhe grearesr weakness oE the UNCTAD scheme js les Hkdy politlca1 unilcceptablliry ro me developed (ountdes parriculady che USA (Sinhil 1916 114) a propheey that has proved to he cortect He identitled a more aggresslve attitnde by Third World sutes e5pedally
WrilirrgJ on i1tternatiflii1l rHgarrtzatitmlt 163shy
after the uH prite cise of 197314 when the developing coonuies tried to maximize their own market powers by formin cartcls such as rhe Intematimlal BaurdtC Association the Intemuional Coundl of Copper Expotcing Countries aud the Intema[ional Tin Agrcrmenr He gave n qualified wekome ro the Lomeacute Convention betwcen the European (omrounities anJ cenain African Padfic and Caribbean Haces Writing in 1976 he commented
The receot cbange in rhe luirudes of tite tiche countries is largely due tu the incIeasing miliuncy of the Third World countries lt is almost ertalll utar the magnitude offuture cnnc~sions in me coune ofGAIT aud UNCTAD IV Ilegotiarioos wiU deperu mainly on (he continued solidariry uf the devdoping counlrtes
(Siha 1976 116)
Sinha was pardy correct as tbe solidatity cf rhe Tbird Workl states cracked se the induurialized wodd withheld funher Con(eampSJoru but ir was able tO do so because market condidons swung against che primaty producen
In his condusion Sinha called ror a IIDre1 shttting of wnrld t($nmes and power if confrontarion was ro he avoidOO He feared that the ffa of roshyoptradon berween [ieh and pool conntries hiid ((lT1e to an end and that batde lines were being drawn Instead he advOOIreltI majnr concessions from the dcher coumries on trnde lInd aid issues and a1so a ma~lt te$ltUcrnring of the incematiotlill organization~ aoo negoacutetiating ffiarhinery in order tu provide a much gtC2ter say fm me poorer countries in internatiooal tJ1lde invesrment and mooetaiexcly armngemenrs (SiMa 1976 132) GAn 1BRD aud IMF have been the presenoe of [he ri h with voting weighted m faacutevour of rhe OECD countries and Sinha re(()ffimended thlll GATr aoo UNCiAD be merged inro an Intemacional irade Organization (ITO) and che creatlon of a Third World permanent secrctariat iexclnvolved in all trade and aia negoriarioru Thoogh less radical than Amin Sinha aIso recomrnrnded gttter coshyoperation berween developing coulltries and an eoo ro their inkrtotity complex with instead a sense of m~ttnal sdiacute-e$teem and trust being devel~ oped (Sinha 1976 ch 10) Litde that h~ happened during the 19905 woo1d have encouraged Sinha The World iratle Organiaadon has emerged as the presenoe of the dlVelupeJ tares and lw brushed aside many of thc mucerns cf UNCTAD Debr ha~ edged on ro dlt wudd iexclagenda but mainly at the beheS[
of a non-governmental organization )ubiacutelec 2000 nd the promi$e~ of the main financill jnsrirutluru lO pursue dcbc-rclicf produred but a thiniexclmfl
In aH Third WQrld commenrarors have provided a vatied and lively approruh fOwards tne problems uf intetniexclational organizarions Their emphasis has niltntaHy beCl Qn tbe use of wurld lmtirutions to change the econornic condidon or the Southern cominents As this enndition is likely to worscn in the near filrtltf further more lJica conrtibutions on the rule oC
-- --- ~- __ _~- __- imernatIacuteonal orgaoilarions in Nonh-Smuh relarJons tOiexclghf be apected from rhe Third Worid A1ternaciveJy wrirers (mm rhat ares rmy jW ltIacuteespUacutet rm imergovemmemal orgaoizarions ar lealaquo Mee rhem $O Hrrle
Cfili~ald~heJ
Critica approadvs lO the nudy uf intetnadonal relations are (hose har rejee( the dominating vleW1iexcli repr=med by tbe realist and reformistS as oudined aboye In paHicular rhey reglUd realists as apologisu for the currem con6gutltion of power 10 (he wiexcldd sytem and considet [har rhe refOnntstS are elrher unable ro undersraoo he fUe llamee )( (hi sysrem oc ille UDwiUing to accepc rilar ir needs more rhan mooest refotlllS TIlOugh they may sympalhi-ze wirh rhe agenda of some Marxists aud Third World wt1cers chey do [lO( llave rhe hisrockal certaimy of the former not rarely do they have the experience and perspective of ehe larter TItey view intenUishy(jnl1ill nrganiutions wirh a jaundiced eye as these are mainly the lll$tmmenfS of rhose who dominare rhe syuem This section COlllaios an wcoum nf three approaches tmt of the critical rheorlsti- of kmintsc wrirshy[1185 ulld pose~mooernismlt
Cri(~1 herJrY The approach of critical theory 10 JnrematlonaJ o(ganizatiooll iSi determtoed by their wider world-view which in itsclf is explaiiexclwd by tbeir llame One of the leading exponents Roben Cox said [har ie is cririca1 in cne Jensc rha h srands apan 100m che prevailiog order of rhe wOlld and asks how tb$t oroer came iexcllPouc Ir does nor r-ake existing irucimtioM lIl1KI JIQwer relaclons rOl granred bu c311s them iacutemo queuion Ir 1S diexclrlaquoced ro rhe social itnd JIQiirshyical complex as a wItole rarhet (hall he stparate pirtt IUthet than subdiide and Imic an examination of a problem it looks al the wger pkturc of whkh rhe problem is jwt oue part and trio rO wJdeThwod the processeS uf change ill which botIt pans ulld whole ure involved laquo(ox 1993 277~S)
Ai a thoory cridQiIacute theory rejeen tbe daims of posicivism of an external Nulity and to be mue-free ror critkal rheorIacutests koowledge ti nor moraUy IleUc1ll1 ic is more che result of the social background of tbose Wt hold ir Given this ctitkal tbeory alJows foc a normarive choice in favoU of a social ancl iexclJlieiexcl(ld order diflerent f(cm rhe prevruHng arder bur it limiu the ruuse 01 chotce ti a1remative orders which are feasibJe mmsformations ofme cxvaing worJd h musr rejEC[ improbable alternadVe8 ju~t as ir rejecrs rhe pcrmanctlly nr lhe exiscing order (Cox 19 90)
Cridcal rheory differs lrom Marxist upproElchcs beCElUS( of iu tejection nf any daim to hold the objenive tru[h and betause or it~ avoidance of (he pmslllt ol il utopia Neverrhe1ess [heir analysis of incernarional relarln1l$ is one tbu hEls u numher of similariuumles wich the Marxisc pcrspecdve It regurds rhl tlistlng suucrures of world polirics as beiug oppressie not
- _ __ _-
lean because of rhe dominance of (he capitalism of che Unired StElte~ For many che USA is seco as a hegemonic power the prevailing urder - in re[ms rbar reReet he wrirings of the Itallan Marxisc writer Amonio Gramscl (1891-1932) Gramsd advanced the nodon of ln hisrori(middot bloc which in itself refilaquors che $Ocial reladons oE ptoducdoo The dominanr dass in a counrty - 01 indeed aoy social grouping - mlinrains cohesion and idenciry withio [he bloc [hrough the ptopagacion of a COIDmOfl culturegt A new bloc can be formelt when a subordinate dau can euablish tU hegeshymony over orher subotdioate gtOllpS (Cox 1993 56--7) The IDove rowuds hegemony comeS with the piexclt$ting fmm che spediacutek inrercsrs ofa gronp Ol
dass tO rhe building uf inrimdons aOO elaoorarion uf ideologies (Cox 1993 57-8) It Loiexcl rhat ptOCe$S thar embeds the incemu of the dominanc dan in an imttmrional form thae [w an appeal widet [ban that dan ine1f It the-refole repreSoems mote tlmn jUSt (he drunJnaoce oE one state ovec anocher bllt implies a cemufi acceptante of the tules arJd institutions purouized by [he hegemonic JIQwer Jo other woros it is all order wbicb most Olher Sta[e-~ (01 at 1enst those within reath of die hegernouy) couId find compatible- wirh their iexclmetem (Cox 1993 6t) h aJso involves noe just inttt-staee rueivirle5 bur rhose oiacute tlvilliOCiety (oon-Stllte socieM instishycudons) ebereby encoumging Hnks between social dus$ts iexcln the connules covered by ebe hegemony
What does Cox llave to uy about ioccmational Otgsniuciexclons 1bey Ilre scen in he oontext ofme wiacuteoo unaemanduuml18 of itnernational reUacuteltions mentloned iexcliexclhove He is direcr 000t mem Ooc mechanisru chrough wruch the universal norms of a wodd hegemony are expttssed js the interoatiooal organisation (Cox 1993 62) Why is chis so Cox U993 62) gives five teIlSons
bull They e-mbody rules cOae help (be- apwlSion of a hegemonic wodd iexclrder These insdwrians reflcct the intererts ()( the dominam social anil economic force- buc a1low a cettain amOunt oC adjusrment ro accommodare other subordinared interests TIms the USA WllS preplltoo ro mm conccssions to
bciI18 in Lhe EU srares and Japan ro rhe Wotld Trade Otganizatimt They a[e prooucrs of that order Though [he insrimrions and rules Ilce
nurITlllUy initiared by the hegemook power ir takes cate ro involve aOO comule a numbe-r of second-ronk stares and gaio theit supporc he Wotld Bank and Inte[nacional Mooetaty Fund were very much pan of [he world order thar emerged afrer [he Second World Wat and which was dominared by rhe Uoiced Stlres
They ltgidmi7e i[s nOlms by providing guidance for SllIteS and by legitshyimiuacuteulS cerraIacuten IlCdviries Ilr me narional leveL he OBCD afie rhe inrerruuiooal financia) irntuumluriom lave spread an acceptante of mllrket coodirions and sHict mOllerary iexclJlides
They co-opr elites from pelipheral counrrie Ihlented sraH commg 110m the Thiacuterd Wocld are expected tO dCCept he scriexclpt wcittttt by the domishynam power Bouuos Bourros-Ghati as Secteury General uf the Unired
166 Jiexclljiexclr1giexcl Qr1 ifJfCflrttuacutemal IWgaizati(ifJJ
Nadons stroyed too amp~r ftOm the gtip of Washinston and his second term was VCtoM by rhe USA His sucecssor Kofi Annan will no doubt undentand what 1$ n-quired of him He brings the mncerns of orhe states ro che UN bUf nor in a way thu threatt1l$ the USA
bull They absorb counter-hegemonic ideas Ideaiexcl $uch as 1iustainable dlYClop_ ment tukl even debr foTgiwness are taken 00 board by the intetnatwnal finarnial institlltion$ blu are trandirmel into pulido rhat swt them
Wh~t is ro be done Cox thinks thar the pfQblem of changiog dw world orUer 1iMuld be shlfred back from intern~tional insritutions tO niexcllriacuteooal $OIacuteishyeties where the sodo-political b~se for a new historie bloc mighr be ereated (Cox 1993 64) FaiJing the creadon of a new historie bloc of the new working cla$s and rural and urb~o marginal groups there might be tnmdorshymadon oC the curtent monopoly-libcral hegemony by adjusting to rhe demanJs oiacute local ello$ for polides 5uch as natlonaHution Cox 199~ 65) He aw advocates te-regulation of erooomies and a re-wmpositjon of civil sodery Internatiotla lnstlcutions induding organiutions can berome eontact puint1i fOr new $OCia[ furtt (Cox 1994 (11)
Critica throrJm $uch as Cox oifee a refreshing exposidon oiacute che posidofl oC imernatiooal ofganizatioos in a wocld where the main revolutionary powe~ have either collapsed (rhe Soviet Union) or se(tled into a cautious ronservatirun (China) Ir provlde~ a sceptical arf realisric world~view without acreptins tbe inevuumlahility ni a illture domlnared by mooopoly eapi~ ujsm sud the Utlired States J-Iowevtr its appllcariexclon to intemationa1 organhatJons 11 StImewha( timited tQ the maln global jnsdm(jons and th financial and economlc orgmiutions Ir has 1m (O say aboue regional nrgashynjudon Uf abour N(JUacutes Furthermore iu alternarive fu(ure testS on ourcoroes thu are far froro certain RevnJutlons in the Thied World are roore likely to be- irupired by nadondi$m oc by IsJaroic fllndamentaHfl OCalaquoely [he solid ooses for new historie blocs
Fwinuumll aNml4cbts
Feminist perspcctives 0f1 inttmatlonal rtlatioos llave in common wirh the erit~ ical rheocillu a rejclaquoion of (he dominance in rhe $Ilbjecr of the rcnHst and rdOrmisrs Although fuminist writen cover a wide 5laquolpe the gencral basis oiacute their aqurnent 1S har in interwnional relatioM ru in most politkal aud tcooomk acdvity women are diexclSJtdvantagt~l Alchoogh they own ahour 1 pet tCfH oC the worlJs lfOpeny and tiexcliexclxe heme 10 peiacute ceoc ofincome they perfurm 60 per eenr of working houn and provide 80 per eent of nfusets (petetsen and Runyan 1993 6) This is a derDOnstrndon of gender inequalitie~ the sodalJy learned behavior and expecratioos thar distioguish berween maKuliniry and femininity (Petetsen and Runpn 1993 5) Feminist aprroaches ofren So bejond the $tati~tks and examine (he mind~se[ of those engaged in the pmctice of intemadonal rdations whiexclch (bey ampee as geodered In other woros che world
Writingc Off inlmhJliofMl vrgntiZdlMm 167
illeen in a mlLlndine way thar kvrntB (he posjtiOll o( mnles in rhe hitgtranhy and devlllues the c041trihution of WQmeO (Sylvestet 1994) War in pattKular is gendered in a way chat keeps wornen and metl from qUtstioniog the essentiat pmpose and he neglltive effects of war militarization ~nd viQleme on their awn and orhers livts (Petetsen and Ruoyan J993 9 t)
What of wminist view$ uf imernationaJ organizationsr Ir IS not possible ro presem a rollf(tive vjew that eneomp3$~e~ rhe works of radicaJ femjnisu and ny iexclihetal teminists (rutead the work of one author Sandra Whitworth (1997) will be used as me pily$ rornt attrntion ro inrernarlonal organizations Aamper inrroductions ro feminilfr theory and internacional frIamiddot tiom and gendet and internacional relatlons Whirworrh examines geodet and imernational organilions She screpts Coxs vjew oiacute inrernational orgashynjzarions [har they retleltr (he dominant powet relations in che intetnational system and rhae internaliomd otgaoiution h che procelt of imcitntionaJshyiling and regulating conOice - eicher rhat which may IIrise among siexclates o( char which has iu (onU io transnationaI society (Cox 1980 375) TIte way duu pcople orgaoire themelve$ wirhin international iostirurjons reflects a variety of power relations ineludi~ of rollJSe gendec relatiull3 (Whitworth 1997 74) lbe triad of jnstirutions ideas and material rQudi~ tioru help ro hxare uSllmptiolls aboue geoocr withiu jntetmltional rewtioos Whitworth uses thesr tn examine lhe uooerstandillg oiacuteScndec io an INGO the Internadonal PlarUled ParenthooJ Federatlou (JPPF) and an intergnvemmental organilJ1rion (albcir one wlrh some oOl1-governmentJ)J represemation) the InrernatlonaL lab01lrOtganiution (no)
Whirworths studies show rhar thr IPPF tended ro accept the deshyemphasizlng oi the gendered oamfr of reproducdoo and (f) ignore rhe imponaoce ofbirth comcol foc womens reproductive freroom Instead in an effort tu popularize birth rontrol srrel~ WWl placoo on paremhooJ rather than iexclust the womans choice However IPPF poUcy beeiexcllme more radirnl in (he 19905- with Hnks beirtg made berween II1M control alld womeos ~)tu~ ality (WbJtworth 1997 ch 4 pmim)
The RO eoucerned itself with WQmen as workern It cnnsidercd that tbey oeeded spec-ial atrention and promoted ptoteCtlvt legiexcl~lacion This reiexcln~ forced me view (har [he male worxer Wall the norm with women workers nor deserving the same rights remunfration lOO mndirions Latterly however the JLO ha~ reflectoo views rhat prodaim wornens elt)ualily in rhe workforce and has sunoo tuacute assess the importanee of policies on womens role in rhe workplace as weU as in sodery more wjdely (Whlrwnrth J997 ch 5 panm) Whitworth comes [O the eondusion rhu iexclln iexcllnaLyiexcli~ of gernler in rbe IPPF and no shows how tbese rdiexcliexcldonsbips llnd definirions ni what it is to be a womltn oc man are structuted relationsrups3nd hlsrQciudly hve been scrurtured tu disadvantage women (ibid 15n
lo eommon with the critkal meorists Whitworth has useQ au examinamiddot doo of two intetnational organixations (O deroonstrate a puinr about imerflational relatiexclon~ indeed sodal rctatrol1s mOte widely The poinr is
I1
I
middot - ~-_ --___ aOOuc powec and iu use not (O balance oue SCdre ligaiOSf anorher but fm une gooup ro domiaare morher Jn chis case it 1$ ma the dominution of one dass me m culcnre over $ofU)(her (though Whirworrh recognizes those reLationshyships ti wcll) but of roen over women The crititUl uudy oiacute (wo jnceraational mganirations dealing with iSSlle5 recoSniud ti beiiexclg oiacute impocshycanee or WOfficn suggesu rha( tltOO simihu research on orher internacional organizadons could proJuce interening aOO uwfuiexcl resulrs
Pllit~ism
Thc posc-moderruacutesr $opprooch lO intetaarional rcllldon is one tlur bas (ome ro che fote Jn che perlod sinee lite end of rhe Cold War Jr is based on $o widcr imellectual viewpoim insrigated by l1rench iorcUtcruals of the 196()s gener~ ation _ Bllrrhes Derrida FouclIul and Lyorard - and whkh suggested rhat the modero era liad becn overome 11 fejeas mera-nattatives gnlud accounv- of hi5tory aoa iacuteNIacuteler subjecu as having no independem rubstance Scientifk btliefs induding [hose oiacute rhe $)(ial scJcllces are rooted in (lllxure polill(os arul mores oJ a wciery and are lherekJre subjective As rhere is 00
oblcctive reality cmpirical daims bave fl() spccial sunding in rhe rralms of koowledge IndeeJ ir i$ power aod knowledge are intimatel) incerwirud Posr-moJernism Hllnds against rhe belief of rbe modero pcfiod which LI seco as beginning wiacuterh rhe enlightenmcm of mid-eightcenth cenrufy Europe and AmeriCll Ir rheldore rejcn~ rhe COMCpr$ oC rationalirl and progrcss aSSuacutedared wi(h [he enlighrenment and [he moocrn age Thc uniry of IOOnkind iexclirW iexcldells such liS rhe untveIsWiI) of human aacuteghrs are rejcuoo lnsceadlocal aetion in smallgroups 15 advuacuteClmd
Post-modetnist ideas have affected tite srOOy of inremruionaJ rdarions as (bey have ocher social scienccs Posr-modern imeraarional relariops theoriscs havc ustd heir view$ 00 objecuumlviry (o exiexcltmine che rrmhs of international relatiom en see how rhe concepts iexclind knowledge-dairm (bar dominare the Jisdpline in faer are highiy conringenr on spccific power relatiom (Smith 1997 181) Post-modemisrs bave lltfa(red me mcta-narratives of the reelshy1m and reformlsu aHke The objectiacutevemiddot aaallses of the realim Ilnd neo-realisu are setn as being deJl(nclent on the subjective standpojnts of cheif mainly Amen(an and Europeau authors Ijcharcl amphiel (1986 258) daimed he works o[ Kenneth Waler men the leading neo-realillt trrat the glven ordcr a rhe natural nrder Jjmirs rarheE (lian 1XpawU political discllUtse negales oc rriviuliliS the signifinnce uf variely urOiS time and plue Whar emerges ii an ideology tllar anridpatcs iegirimires ancl onents a totalitarian projen 01 global ptoponioo~ che rattoualiaciuacuten of global poHcics iexclbe reformius are likcwise tainted Md have Ji mhr$lren belief in pmgress The posc-modernl$rs poinr m rh Helocausr as rhe heighr oiacute mooemism a rombimiddot Halioe of science dnd polidcal otganizillnon Il was SCruTely progreso
Given an antifllthy mwards rhe MlVe[iacute~ign srae borh as a centre of powet ll1ld as a crearioll Jiten imbutol wlth a wncepltliexcl uf progress pest~miexclJdetniexclsls
wHungJ mi Im~iexcliexclrun wgltiIRrzuJlU7iJ 1J7
can lOUcdy be expcctcd to vIacuteew intergovernmencal organiUlrions wirh sympilthy Tbe prefetted iacuteonu of internacional organizations when mentioned are those thiexcltt ltlj~plal differemes snd dlvenity in global pelitlcil duu are reginnaUy based or rhar reflec irKlividual actlOn Tndecd ir SeeIJS
rbat Michel Fomawt was involved with an alliance oiacute twO INGOs (Miquestdecin du Monde and Tertl-s do Hommes) in proresting agaiust internadonal iH~shydon over rhe boat people who flcd Vietnam in tite lare 1970s and ear1y 19S(k He is gU()[ed 11$ sayillg tbar Amnelltl Internnrlonal Teueiexcl dts Hommes Mfiiecin du Monde lHt inirilltives whiacutech have created a nrw righr rile dAht of privare individuss ro iexclntervene in [he otder of polino and internatioont snateg(eiexcl (dred in CampheH 1998 516)
Aootber researcher has exnmined ~he Europcan Communities Ilr che point wben Jr was mnslorming intO me European Unioo and askOO whether ir was a pootmodew ConJigUflHton (Nstrgaard 1994) Hi condusions wcre mar ir was gualiwiveJy a new organizarion oC human calJecrlvJties which mighr U$hec the coming of post-moderniry (Ntgttgnatd 1994 27j) The basis fO[ [bis judgemem was rhat me Ee did nO approximate anl modero form of piexcliexcl1idUll Ofpnizarion it did OOt commatld che means oiacute violence its au[hotity derives noc from die people and ir appeared to be a fCgJoo trying ro pOrecr itiexcliexclelf againsr globaliacutezadun iacuteN0rgaaro 1994 274--5) Ir remllins ro be sren whether [he BU tJf [he twenry-first cenrury wHl fu1fi1 rhtgtse hopes Ot wiU stllrr ro teVen
to a more scate-like being Generall) dIe cririolapproaches ro interruHiorud relarious hiexclJve provided
1lOOIe innovatIacuteve insigllls iexclnro rhe study uf imemarional orgsnizations The crtrical theorists llave becn sh3rpest in rheir unde[$(iexcltnding nf internarional ofgiexclt1lizacious as servsnrs of a dominiexcliexclIf power configuracion thoogh the) lave pemaps Umieed cbelr scope wllen viewing internacional organizadons Feminis[ wJiters ruave given Vltike to whac i5 after aH tbe scmi-sileut majoric) in rhe world and Ilre ouly srarting in qnest10niug the male dOmimiddot nance nuacutet iexclusr of the nmning of IGOs huc aloo of theic agenda Tite post-modemisrs are iMlSr concerned oiacute he (bree 8rOUp5 with inretnationlll organiucioru as such bllr rIacuteleic intellecrual approach is the ffiOSt tadkal aud can lelld tuuml a fnon of nihilism
GltJbaliacutesf lIiu
A gIobalisr perspective does oor viacuteew world poliacutetica as being predomishynandl arout iotergovernmemal relatlnn~ Ili would realisu or illbour inrentare aruI imersocietal rdations as a number uf reformisu llliexclll consider lnsteaacuted it cakes a more holisdc view Problems are (cmfronred ac Ji global level wlurions have tO be sou8ht here as weil This iexcls not ro neglcct (he 10tal Ol rhe ~tlte level ir is more J recognilion of the limiutshydoos of acdviuumles rhere The world-vicw like rhe reformists places empllasu on whal unIacutetes people Ilnd has lirde time for lhe demaoos of power pouumlics aad stare-cemrir orglLuiwrjollS Ir goe~ fllrther by nor
1 V WNimgJ lJ7f tIfernattmiexcliexclJ 11fK4111141tOnJ
liminog in view eirhec ro pans of che world or ro rellltions berweeo particuJar poliric~ lr ioded jlLSr m the economic social and poJitical demaods of mankind Paradoxically ir can be seen as IIn approach rhe very OppoSllC of the fimctionalist wirb whom tbere 5 much io common In nmtrast lO rhe fnnctionaHst (or neo-fllnctiooalisr or intetclependeuce srhuul) and ccrrainly in contrast ro rhe powet politks aOO MaOIacuteIt writers (be whole world approach places emphasis not 00 the discrere r~uiexclreshymems of groups SClteiexcl or individulI1s bm 00 tbe wel1-bciog of the tCOsystem in which rhf5f funnioll cbe planet Eanh The conccen of chis apptoach which is rcflccted il] in ttcumeUr of illternational urganizatiom is for the survival of lhe plunet for its effident funccioning in its widest SeILie aud fot che survival oiacute rhe myriad oiacute speoacutees - ollly one of which is homo sapiens - tbat inhabh me globe
Sinle tbe 196Os a number of wtiters on imernational affairs have expounded 00 tbis view and llave cOl1l~uendy ronsideted the implicadons for intemational organizacions Jobfl Button in bis World Society ronsldeted iflmstatt relations to be onIy a pan of wodd poli[iacutea and wrore
lf we employ rhe term world rociety imiexclreui of internanofla relarions iIacute we apptoo(h OUt study in this global way insread of the more tradi~ lonal nattonal way we will end to have a wider focos ro ask quesrions rhat are moee fundlmenral aOO imponant lO civilization and be ahle ro assess bettet me relevance of om own national bduviour ro be wider worW envifonment
(Button 1972 21)
Rkhacd Stetling posed the problem more spedfically
Nuclear esCllatiofl the popullltion explosion the pollmiofl of tbe envishyronmcnt the communkations rtvolurion rbe world~wide concentNdon of wC1llch and world~wide expansiofl of pltlvcrty are iexcliexcl11 essemially global and not 1laquo al pbellomena They have given rise jn tutn ro eartbshyspamuacutellg and revolutionary demands ror mass education rnass hesltb malts welfure and maltgts participation in che dccisions affecting roans fare
(Srerling 1974 322)
This wodd-view of rhe problems of the s)Jaceamphip EQlth begged fur global oolutlofl$ It suggcsred iexclhu not onIy iJ the system of sovereign stares as yer unable oc unwiHing to COme to grips with the above-menuontd prohlelUS but that a network of llllergoVCtn1lental organiutlom bGsed 00 me rights of statc wVfretgnt will ~lso be hammllng Globtl problems needed global solutlons based on institutinos rhat can (ake a global petsplaquoshytive Thus Sterling considetecl thllt it ~ tlOt unreasooable (O amidpate tme tbe member stares will be moved ro considft equippifllil the Unitw Nttous witb mote crunprebensive powen 1lt global pressUfes build 0974 323)
~h~ laquoo ~gt~ _- -gt bullbull (_bullbullbull __ - bullbull
A more compeluumlng cdH wus lAltiexclued by Barban Ward and Rene Dubas in their book prepared for [he UN Gmference of ehe Humafl EnVJroJlmenl 01lly UIIt EaFlh The c~ altJ Mdilllt1JatfCe (JI d Sflall Pta~t (972) 111ey stremsed the ufliry of tbe Eanh Jnd in eovironment and the )Jroblems in(ed by Jts iohabitants emntially thost oudined by SterJiog The ~uthoflgt poillted OUt rhat rhF envitonmenral qmosrion had by 1972 already had 50me impaltl on guvernments and im(rnarional organl1Jtion but the effior was somewhat ltInJOrdinated and unfocuseL In (hree particular aren - tbe global atmosphere rhe oceaml the worlds weather sysrellU - tbt-y saw [bl jmmediate neOO for (OmInOn poliey und co-ocdinared actiollS where vcerenshysions to national sovercigmy have no relevance ro ptrreived problems Bu rbefe was a need to go furrher and denl wirh other global problems di5Case srarvation iHitmcy unemployrnem ovcfllwding rntetnational poliCJcs wece at the 5tage reachOO wlrhin rhe devdoping s[ate~ of the ninettTtb (entury Elche they wiU move O to a wmmIlJlity bL~ro UiexclXIIl a more systematic sharin8 of weaJtb Ot tbey wiH break down in revoh and anareby (Wacd and Dubos 1972 295- -6) They Looked forward ro a sense of gLobal rommuniry 00seJ on he bope vf Irotecdon (from war aOO disaster) and the hope of enhancemenr (ecologic$1 as well as economid The ptlKtic~ and insrirutlofiS with whkh we are familiar inide our domestk sociecies would become suitably modlfied che basis of planetary oroer (Ward aOO Dubos 1972 297-8) This woold indude non~violent settlement of disputes witb legal arbirration ~nd polioacuteng ptocedures on an international basis jr would mea the Hansfer uf resoucces from rkh ro peor Ilnd inerCllSlaquo co-operaeion in arealt 5uch as health and edUcatIO farming uroon planning aud )JOlJution control As [befe halt been a shift of loyalty rom taroliy to dan from dan to tlation and from nation to fedctation there Wampll
hope clajmoo Wl1fd and Dubo$ for an ultimare lnyalty tuacute OUt single beau~ tifulllud vulnerable Planet Eanh (Ward and Dubas 1972 298)
Whilst the institutiona fmmework and organizational stfllCtuteS remain of necenity -ague in Oltl OM EaFtA iacutet is del( rhat the authors Wfre atming 11( a tlttwork oiacute world-wide fflnctionaUy hased organlzatiofll (both lOOs and JNGOs) char couId take on much of the work )JfCsendy done by governshymems o( rather whkh ougbt [O be dont by governmems UacuteJter writing-s have attempted (O deal wjth thc policy impliration$ of delllJng with )JrobshyJems globdly sroos (986) has poiacutenred en what 1w already been achieved in gtobal problem solving l1nd ha~ soughr ro buHd on rhis His critio have prunted out tha( what has already becn undertiacutelken has bren done more along rradicional Jntergovernmentallines (Donnelly 1990 121-30) Orbe writen have tied rubievemen[ in addressiacuteng [he global agenda more to renewed rutiviry in the UN (Rochester 1990 141-54) or to greater grass~ roots aud INOO acriviSffi Wget 1990 155-~8) Either way globaJj~m offeacuters a distinct W1ly of rackling the worlds ptublem~ It 1$ u ViIOIl thar sttesiexcles uniey and common (am( ntthet than disasreemem and roofrontashytion ir (ould thereIacuteore (oresce disputes being sruved inlernationally vety
much in (he way tbar chey are pre~ndy solvcd within tunny MtiOO iexclrares by more ro arbitratwn and Jaw and by entorcemenf ir neteS$il1) In this rhey have muh in COIDfllOfi wirh tire imerrnuiona lawyers iacuteUld idenlist writer of me eady (wenuacuteeh eemury mentioned at the beginning of tbu chaptet The globalisn are inspirecl jn rheir thinking more by ten Ot lt nudeal holocatlsr and by environmenml breakdown tnan by rhe duumleet elrpeshytieme uf wa dlllf aiacutefected rhe wricings of Woolf ol Ikierly
TIacutete globalisl appro~(h is opert ro the criticism of bcing roo idealistk jn a cynical world and lOO iIDpracrical in in uacutelstitutional sU8scsrioll5 Bur the di$mi$Slil oC rh~ words as globaloney cKleS HOt lid lite wctld oC che probw lems which hey have 50 effectively publiacutedzed They lutve uied to add anorIte dimensioacuten ro whar is possibte by showlng thar ie is nOCeSSiexcllty fOl rhe iexclurviwl of che planee
Tlle radical approach to the smdy oC iOternational orgllnizarions reflocu worIdmiddotvitws that normaUy lO beyond -dmse Jominated by rhe ltctivities of iexcltatcs or of LIte organizltuumlnns chemselves There is a sceprical view of whut is happeoing al soy one uacuteme in imernarional celarions and of he abilicy of mOfe cradicional wcifecs on imernafional cdarions ro explain let aJone llOderstand what is happeoing Ir is the feeling rhar approaches such ll1 (he MaNisr tlwt of rhe ideal theorisrs and some of rhe globuli~rs ur~ coming cber (O uodemaoding humanicys wider dilemmas rhar makes rhero so amactive They ar~ less Iikdy co apply rhemselves to rhe defais rutd wnrk~ ings oiacute p$cdcular imernatinnaJ organizations but neverrheless providt iotriguiog insighrs 00 [his phenomenoo by seeing rhem rhrollgh mol panoprk phHosophical lenses
SUMMARY
The rhree flIajor $chuols dealr wich io chis chaprer - the tcatiacuten the reformisrs iacutei1d che radical$ and rhe variarions (bey contain did not and do tlOf exJn iexcln a hiSforlcaj vacnum lde-as Wele foffilulared wirhio lhe COnten oiacute panicular sodedcs uoo in response ltO pUticular problems rbe communl (adom reYoludon of fhe nineteemb century the Finr World Wlli rhe rise of Nui Germany the spreading of nudeu weapons the deve1opmeof of plthitshy
$econd Workl War Europe fbe pnxeues of decoloniwion and deacuteteme rhe end oiacute the Cold War and rhe advaoce oiacute che inCormatton revolution In sorne CilSC$ the views oiacute rhose wdtings on inttmiddotrnational ocganUatlOHS have liad un efiecr on evenrs rhemelves pirlKulatly 00 rbe actitudes oC govetnrnents mwards tnternatiorW orgdflixauons AIl tXample is the work oC LecnarJ Woolf woose suggesnons Ctmceming a world organizatloo conttibuted lO fhe detailed preparnion oC the Lague oC Nations by me British goveltr mene Likewise Hans Morgeruhau and EK Can provided seimuli fot infiiexclrmoo US and Btirish governmcllul rhinking abom inrerruuional rela~ tiom iexclrom the 194Ck onwards In mher cases rhe general writings cJ persons lgtuch as Marx Leoin Mao Tse-tung and che dependencia school have affecred
rhe poJirk1ll dimare wirhin which govemmcncs conduce rheJe poUcy iucluding thar wwards jnternaclorull otgauj~atjon$
Orber ruCfOf$ aplft froro their historial cuntexc Iuve affencd the views of rhe schunl$ rncntioned They have differint backgtounJs io cheit ideruogy (Wesrero commllniSf Third World radical environmenralisr) and in theit level of $nalysis of inrernarional rebtions (stare Centuacutec inretesr aoo rramna~ dona groups cLitraquo dominanr global) This a(icca the typC oC inrernatiacuteonal organizariacuteon dominam io their studies (IGOs INCo) auJ thcic 8eograph~ kai $rea of interest (the Nonh Adandc Europe ThinJ WodJ Ot global)
TIte range of wcitings about intetnational organizarions has ull dte whole teflecfeJ wiJec llooersundings of imetoational ceJarions and wuumltld polidcs These io rhernselves have fed 00 tbe gtVidc iacutellccUecmal fcnnent and on developrnenrs in world affiuacuters Viewl about iacutellteftlational ocgsnizatJoos wiU continue ro take accOlnt of the ince1leeruaJ debate ill the studjes oiacute polishydes internacional re1atioO$ philosophy ecooomics imematluacutellal uw sociology histoty and geogrilphy They will also reflecto among other ampcton che stntcegk balance in tbe world [he relafIacuteve power of tiJe United Stares aod oroer nares me scate of wotld markers [be pto-ess uf Euwpeiexcliexcln tlllegrashytion che relacive positloo of the developing warIdgt iexclbe levd of cootlicc througbolc the world fhe -ratC of dte environfneot and the ahility oiacute huge StatCS to wiacutethswnd cenrrifttgal force Tbe way tIacuteult imematiornal organiuiexclshydons ret1ect tbese developrnents and tIacuteleir t1Ipability lO deal wich some of them will provide (he tllW fiWifcrial foc funue smdies
l ju WrJll1Jgs en mlWnal101tJf (iexcl(gamufJf)lJJ
nei[her eqna nor unchangiug uuiu would be unreascnwtc Ir woold be far more prncriC1iL ro cmnpromise rhis aim and CSLablish a League of Nations in which Grea( pQVeri woulcl he dirlltdy representelt Secondary Jitates woulcl have group representiexcliexclrioo afld malter ~tatet w()ulcl have panel repmentatioo At the same time sfCortdary bodie$ would be ser up in varJous pam of che world 11$ orgnns (lf regionJI grouptngs of Jitares artd (hese bodies woulJ be connected with and subordInare tO the new CCOtta League organs They wouiJ aleo be iexcliexclbie ro clesl wiacuteth problems mOle teaclily especially as the unanimity of aH srares would not be needed [Ol a senlemem
These suggesdom are noe (he novel aspeltts oE Mitran)$ work They are imponam in changing (he emphasjs away from the tighu of amptate wwards rhe dude oc lit ICllSt (he actlvJries of Hates Still the conccto was wth Ilrrllnging relnrioru netween snm~s In a paper $ubmitrecl ro che 8drish foceign Office in 1941 and in hi~ study A Wking Peaa Symm (966) Mirrnny wncenrrated on how che (unctioru of gOYernment might be cnrried OUt more exptdiriously He rtcognhed chllr withio liberal 1emocrati( stare~ [he Une berween whirh futCtions are Cflrried Out by pubtic and by privare aclioll was shifriog lIod that rhi5 line unde (he prel5ure u( (rt_ih social Ileeds and demands musr be Jeft free co move with rhem A similar demamuiacuteon existed in che terrirorial spbete interlla~ dooally wme (uncdons (eJ railway systems) could best be organized cOlltinenroUy some intercontinentnll) (e8 shippillg) alld some univcnaUy (eg aviation) However there would be no need for rigid patteros exccpe perbaps io tbe exercise of negadve (unctlons -- those related ro securi[y wberc more fotmal sacle lnstltuclOns WQuld be needeJ In (he field o( positive (unctiacuteoru (dw$C tdatecl ro economic eultunl and sodal affairs) he climensions ocgans and powers of any organiorion would be deler~ miacutened by the nature oiacute the funccton and would be fairly flexible Mitrany fmfSaw tbe tStliblisbment o( functional bodies wirh auronomous ta~ks and powers which wonld do thingl joiacutently Tbis wuulcllink aucborlry tu a specific activiacutery (hUi breaking llway foom the tradicional link between authocieyand a ltIacuteeftnire ~erritory Murany 1966 125) 11iacutes move wcmlcl avoicl he sreritity uf many of rhe wartjmt suggesdons fue posr-war (ecltrn~ tions O connitudonal innovariacuteon in rhe United Nacions whlch f~eteoacute 00 he opposidon oiacute sovereign sraee reiiexcltance Mitrnny hoped rhat che number uf internarional agencies (hat had exisred before the Serend Wodd War augmenteltIacute by the A11ied board durJng rhe war lrsdf wuuld u~rve u tbe ba~lS foc (he network oiacute inremarional gOvernrnent He quoud wlrb obviow appruval the wurd$ of an Amerltlln scholar J Payson Wild Jr 00 the varlOUS warrime experiments
The Hues between domesuc anltIacute iexclnrernational actlvlty ate blurred ancl nadonal adminisuatlve agencies of the Powecs concerned Smneshytimes engnge in domestk busint-1s and at orber rimes extend theit
Wrilings Ofl hllenJdUacuteoN1J org411iatiofJJ 137
(unctioru ioro rhe uumluernarionul sphere The resuh is o conglomerashydOn o( intermnional bwrd aocl domestic staf( whose dlties Illrermiacutengle Adminisrrnr1ve offtcers o( narional lmirs deal direcdy wirh rheir opposire numbers in orher S[1l[es WirhOlU benefit o( diplo maric intermediaries and simlllmneously perEorm borh nacional and intemational tasks So fu no attempt has been made en estab1ish iexcliexcl
super~State
(Mitrany 1 6 167)
Mitranyll villion is oE a world in wruch che functiollS of ~etyday $odal 1Jfe - transport healrb care rommunicatioos agticlllture industrial developmenr sciendfic developmenr and so on - are no Jonger assidl1ou$-ly carried en witbin rhe confines oE each sovereign iexcliexcltflte but ate underuJen across fmmiers on a tegionai cominental oc univetsal bflliiiexcliexcl These acrivjw des would be overseen by international Ofganizatioru which wOIJld be more like boards oE managemenr Tbe functional agencies of rhe UN (che no WHOgt FAUacute etc) already underrake urn ro~opetative t$Sks fIli do sorne non-governmental groupings of spedalisrs (League of Red eron Sndedell World Srout Movement etc) However tbe Une berween what has been done imernationaHy aOO dome$tkally bas tuen drnwn very much ro [he beneflc oE che latter and international activitid bave tuen riddted with politicel dispureoJ rnany oE which have liule ro do wlth me good manegemem of the (unction iexclnvolved Mirranys laquoheme would fiexcludually lOwtt rhe liue ro aUow more functioos ta be Citded OUt at rhe level where they wOrk more efficieruly and woukl proide managemenr of tbere funcshytions ra[her [han poHdclI1 interference Not onty would his develQpmeof beuefit (he general social welfure of the world ir would abo hcIl (O salve rile problem o( plaCe and security The LHliputian ties o( internacional fuucrionru co-operarion would piacuteo clown me giam of conflict weakenlog [he urge ro destruction and warfare by rhe promise of consmlctJoo and cashyexistence
The (unctional approach does nor focus solely on iorergovernmenral organizacion buc aUows for a network 01 spedaliuxl agencies roany uf which could be non-governmentaL Ir difftr in emphllSi5 ftoro che mainshystream craditionalis[ wricings and Mitrany~ work praaged a move away from internare relations 10 wotld politics Whilst the functiooaJ alpoolUh does not oReod against lh sentimem 01 nationaJity )t the pride oE sovereignty (Mitrany 1965 139) lhere is no doubl chat ir is meant lO weaken the i~por(Jloce and power of the middle roan berween rile indi vidual and a world communiry che sovereign scnre The feeling o( solidarlty enrounged by functionallinks 1s nor between states but beween people or assoclatioos of individuals Each of us is ill fuer a bundle of funCflonaJ loyalties so dWt tO build a wodd communiey upoo sueh a concepdoo is merely to a(eM artd consolidare ir also betwetn societies and grollps Micrany 15 14n
138 Wriling5 fin illttrnatiQJIa1 (ffanizatio1ts
Such IIn imaginative appruach tu wodd problems aud be mundiUlc hard~ working iexclapolitical role lt implieamp fOr interuational organizadons has its fiexclruIrs To ctiexclddu Mitranys functionalism as being impronica JS IUlfalr hoth because internlltionru functiornd links hllve grown espedaUy since the S~ World Warj and blaquoarue M1tranys approach is a gradual one he did OOE expeCt ir ro be adopted overnighr Even so ir cioes have certllin 11mbiexclshyuow a~pets which shOllld be criticany eDmined
Piexclrsr de5pite rhe refere-nce to possible regional fimnionalunmgement8 Mitranys pJans ron counter ro rhe notion of aU-embraciug regional organi utJoru such as the Europcan Communities now E~n Uninn (Mitrany 1975b 53-78) Whibt these organwdons roay Hnk their iexclamhotity ro a speoacuteftc activky $ueh as the conditloO foc running (he coal iexclaud steel indusshytries nr the agriculture of the EUs member states they sta hold w the rrnditinnal1ink betw~n authodry arul a definirt territory The cooJ and sr~l polkies or tite Common Agticultural Policy uf the BU are nor extended to tbe industries and fumen of other non-member countries who mar wish lO participate in theit ochemes Vet il can be argued toar ir is prccisdy in these iexclirnited geographicill blocs that flIlCtiOruJ arrnnscments are besr executed wirh limitations un mernhetship To wnrk propedy chemes must encompuss denned aras with a good deal jn common - the flexibility of Mitranys proposal wIQutd 500n break dOWIl )l the tnembers WlJuld have $O little in cornmon in fo cxampie the runnill8 of agriculture tbat coshyopetation would be dif(kulr or lloo-proouctiacuteve Furrhermore rhfmiddotse regional atrangemenpiexcl overcorne the problems of dedding the meaning hQundaries and consequtIlCCS of any particular function (Melaren 1985 142)
Second Mitrany did not really envisagc any piexclHejcal control of the futlCtiooal des between COllntdes mus distinguishing him frorn [he more traditionaliacutest approach lO inrernational orgaruwcions lle was hopeM dw the pmblems of roshyurdillltion between ronctionalagencies could be worked out as they lllOOe
To prescribe fOI the suke of [iexcladicional ne3tleSS somtthing more dennite han the guidancc and supervision of eg the Ecooomk Md Social Couooacutel W(lU1J be ro duron he whole conetprion from [he niftJo impollC upon them (funct-lonal bodiesJ a co-otdination authoriry with anyrhing Iike comrolling scuus w(luId be ro move again roWllrd$ that JiacutecumuJarion of power ar the centre
(Mitrany 196~ 143)
Thus [he institmions uf (he Eutopean ClJmmunitic~ - the Counoacutel uf Milli~iacuteers rhe Commission che Courr of Justicc rhe European Padiamenl dre Economic md Social Comlllittce - were al analnema fO Mitmny They werc juu miacuterrnring the poluacuteical COflffOh of lhe nation state ar iexcliexcl pa-n-continenullcvel anU according to Mirrany Continental unious w(luld have a more real chance thau individual suteS to pnletise the aurarky thae makes or division Mitrany 19(Kiacute 2n This may u((end
Witi1lf1 rm imernatilmalllrgaraquoiutifJ11J 139
agains[ lhe funcrJonalisu hope (r iexcliexcl universal apprOlltIacutel tu proble[Jls but (he abhorrence of policial imtitutions is lItrange wIacutelen [he funriona agenoacutees will aftee iln be mllkJng poHtkal decisions -- declsions roncetning lile aurhontative allocafion uf resources No only will iflfetnashytional functiunal transpon organizations established accordlng to Mittany have (O decide that cerEain areas wiH bt weU served by railways and Wds orhers llOt iexcliexclorne ports bujjt up others ieft to tlceay sume airlines expanded whlle rnbers are allowed ro fOllUact blt deeisiow wilI have ta be made on how w diexcl~tribu(e 5carce re~ources betwccn fo example iacutenvemtlent in transpon ur building more hospitals or restfllcturing rhe srecl Jndustty thwughour (he area eovered by [he orgalliurions Thee arc paHdeal declsiQw ln a period of economk growth and plenry [hdr potitshykal niexcliexcltute may be le5S obviou as resources are avaiuble for almost eVery plan advanced by world 01 regional shjpping aviation heaJth or sree1 O1ganizatioos Otherwit there mn$t sllrdy he a system by which scarce mrnurce$ are aUocaced Tbis problem was flJed squardy by Mitr1ny successors iexcln the neofunctionalin school (dealr wIacuteth in the SC(tiOH tbat follows) but ir doell seem ftoro Mirranys writings fhat the world of funcshytioollJi~m is a wodd of IlnUmiacuteted resounes (Melaren 1985 146)_
A third problem in Mimuys approach i~ brought out in a eommtnt by lniacutes Claude The functiacuteonal theory uf imemariruwl nrgaruzarions 1S ultimateJy eoncernen wirh the usue of polJtiacuteeal and military srniexclggJe functionalism tneats (he promotion of we1fue as au illdirecf approach tu rlx prevenrion of warfare (Claude 1968 31--5) Mitran quoted Oaude wirh appmval implyiog rha fulletionalism would ind~ mllk( a positive contribllt1on (albeit inilitecdy) CE (he ptCveurron of war fhis profOiSitiort is open (O $(Ieral criticisms Given the level uf arrnrunems in the worJd and the porential fQf cunflict the contriburron ro pettcc made by funcrioruuacute acrjvities miexclay come too late A youth group exthange betwtn rhe USA and China ma) bode we11 fOf
tbe furure OOt wlll be uf link use if (he respective parrus are beaten ro meir destinarions by intercominental baliiacutestic missiles funhermore the pmmotion of wtlfare may inctease internatioual conflicr by i~asiacuteng expettacions Espedally if social and ecounmic changes are bmugh[ aboue by imernational runctioual 3Jencies developing muntrie poliacuterical I~derships may fJnd ir increasingly cliiHcult to meet lheir poplllatIDn~ demands fot more economic benefJts fur a ampirer distribution uf benefits or in sorne ta$(-S fOf Ol)tool uf the social consequences of laquootlumic Rrowth Imernal sttili aod unrest may chen ~iIJ over into inrernacional eontlicr Finally Miacutetrany daiffi$ that rhe Nncshyrional approach ciocumveuts ideological aOO racial diviID05 as it ltloes territorial frontiacuteers (Mitrany 1975a 226) There ls guod evidellce tiJat the opposite has been happening thae the exlsting runctiuual organimfIacuteom slch $$ tiNEKO WHO and lID hllve been riddkd with ideulogical and racial (or al lea~t Norrh-Somh) diviions wruch h~ve teflected pnlirical argnments outside he olganizarimlS bu have ncvenheless adverscly aHewod their ba~ic work (Ghebali 1986 l tR-lt6 1mber 1989)
iexclIV WHURg) W~ mltTlWilm tIampmJlaiWN
NetrfJl1iKJiOalisls
Tbc move away foom rhe srate-cenrric vjew of JlItert1arlOlal organizarion Started by WOllf and Mirany was ccetiacuteeued io rht immedijlre posr-wur perjod by social stientim applyiacuteog asJltu of functionll1(st ~heory to European nd Atiacuteantlc in~limti()m This utw fUllCtionaliu approach showed paruumlcrnsr interesc in che European Communities (Ee later nuropean Union EU)) whjch arme iu iexclhe wake of che amphuman Plan In Mily 1950 Roben Schuman rhe Frenrh Foreign Minisrer advauroo (he idea cha( West Eucopean srarcs should establish a High Authority wlrh powers ro admillshyimr theit eoai aOO stecl induscrie~ Negorjatioru on rhe detalS of chis plan led t() the signing of che Treaty cf Pariacutes in Apdiacute 1951 by FraIlee Wen Gemuny Iraly rhe Neiexclherlands Bdgium sed Luxembourg (rhe Six) Tbls gave substanre tO (he idea lbat funcrional aiexcltivicy oould be ITlltllfIged across fcomien by IUl organizadon ove and above the govemmenrs of che member sraces a supmnational amhority The idea was wldened ro cover iexclm expanded unge of etooomk activiry when he Silo esrablished rhe Bt1fOpean Ecooomk Communicy (EEC) widl the Treaty of tome in MAtch J957 An Aromic Energy Communiacutety (Euratom) was eHablished sr che sume time However ~he element of upranationiexcliexclliry was dilurelt in the High AllthoritY-s successor (rhe Commission of rhe EEe) having only Iimited deciuacuteOIl-makin8 powers anJ having mosdy the task of proposing acdon ro tbe representarives of he rnember states situumlng in (he Coulliil of Ministe13 Despire his otber Community hutitutions contsined the gerrn of supranadonaHry rhe Courr of Jllstke empJoymg Coromunity nuhe [han nacional laws a Ruropean Padiument wbkh WlS eventually electelt by ditect eleedons amoog a Communiry-wide electorate voting for Cummunity-hased parties aad 1Jueresr groups represendng mrmetSgt consumen traJe unions aruJ blliiness on a Commuiexcliexclity tatber than a nnional basis
Tht$eacute tnmwauumloos in WeBtem Europe uiggeteJ a spate uf 1 iexclretamre primaril) in he lJnireJ Sures whieh examined tbe nurure unrl purpose of the Commuuity iustituions The Jominam staacutend amongst this writing was chat of the neo-(uncrlonalisrs sJCcifically Ern~1t Haas Lean lindbetg and J05eph Nye whose works are of importance io the uudy of internacional organizacions In ronrruc tO Mitrany the OCW fuoctiooalistli tended Br (iexclrOc tuacute iexclimir rbeie study 10 developmems in Wcscetn Europe (HtIaSs ~nJhe Naion Stte (964) bcing a nruiceable exeepdon) especially the OC alshyrhough later cornparimns were tnade wirh rbe growch ofccmmon lIlltirkets iexcln Mica East Eurupe aoo Larin America On che whole the neo-fumtiooaiscs had rerreated foom Mitranys world view
fhe neo-funcrionaljgrs aiso realized rhe dilemma faeed by Mitrliny in eelihng wirh politica dcdsicms ane did nor fllnch in introducin~ a merhod of making necessary chOtees ar he imernarif)llItI leve Indeed rhis wa~ rhe kernel uf rheir ideagt lhlll 1I0l ouly sperifie functionamp would be farried OUt ar rbe subrollrinentill rarher (han (he nacional leve bul thil( lhe decisions wnrernillg (hese functioos would be made at thaf level shy
6- v n_m_ ~olo_~~W_
with imponant cOnsequences for those groups imetesred in the decisiacuteons and iexcliexclIso liffecting orher arcas of poliey Por example supprne the Ecooomk Cual and Steel Community (BeSe) required (har che sreel lodustry be orgaoized as a West Europeao endty insfead of a numher uf narional industries a1l commled by differenl ccgularions aod rbar a suprauariona surhoriry be crcared ro decide on the policy Coc che ranniog of tbe Wcsr EUlopean sfeel induStries lo ronsequeoce those involvea in say rhe French steel industIl would switch tbeir attentioo away from Parili where policy was previowly rnade ro BroS$CIacutei wbcre ECSC poliey is mude Purthermore CommwIlty ntber dUlo nadonl poliey on ueel eould spiU ovet into ereadng a Community po1iey ror cool tnmspOH IUld Othet asrod~ ared acdvities As rhe numbe oC functiacuteooal policies decided at a Commuoity rnthet than a natkmllllevd expanded so the need for political actioo at this higher level would gfOw aod thc political sysrerol of the couutries involved would becomc inexorably iexclmcnwincd lhis was the logk of rhe innovator of he $chumao Plan idea Jean Monnet wM considered rhar rhe establishment of a c001 and srec1 community foUowed by similar organitations dealing wirh otbcr Cuncrional areas - agricultute transpon nade defence - would be lreps on [he way ro building Europe The eOO would be jln economiClllly aod politicaUy integmred Rurope lo Monneriexcl scbeme a federal West Furopeao state The means would be fuoctlonal bu with a political contento
In his study of fbe ECSC Rrnst Haas examiooo this s(rlltegy and a1so dmned polldcai inregradon in its ideal typc u beiug rhe process whereby political iexclcroo in severa distinct nadooal ~tings are petsuacltd to shjft thet lnyaltielJ expecrations liod pOlidcal iexcll(tiacutevides eoWjlrd jl new centre whose insdwtions possess or derrumd jutisdktion over me pit-existiog lIatiof19l $tates (Uaas 1958 16) ihis oew cemre would be che powelshyhouse managing rhe political ptoblems oC fuoctio1llll coopeaacutedon [he Uigh Audwrity of tbe ECSC and be indrurion of me EBe The policical actcniexcl invoJved would be rhose elites leading the poliacutetical groups habirually colCerned wirh public decision-making and wooJd indooe trade uoioacuten offishydaIs busiue5$ ami Hade representatives higher civil servann and activeacute poHttdam As tlltSiacute eliteS rutneU theit aacutetrendon ro rhe ojOW policical centre chey would find tha Community pelky in olle area nm be uwde tea oo1y if che task iuelf iexcls expanded CHus 1961 368) by way of a spillover of actiVity lIltO anocllet policy atea Evenrually Communiy policy~makiog would take uvet from S(ale policy~making jo alI rhe crucial BreaS and the new centre would emerge as being potenrially more powerful dma the member srares governmenu wbich had been drained of lheir mOS( meruoshyingful polidcal ucdvides
1( this stage ir can be quetied whetbet Haas was describing an inremashylional organizadun or il poremia1 federal mlte Io discumng tms quesrjon in his book on Elle EC-S( Haas cooduJed dllU Tbe hruHnct of federal as agaiacutenst middotimergovernmemaf powers lIeeacutems tU point to che coodusioo tbat in
142 WtitingJ on mtertlatilJtJA orgamZ41iom
alJ maneo relating ro the romine regularion of rhe commOTI ~et the High Authority is independent of government (HIlaS 195R 55-gt He al50 voiced rhe opinion rhu Supranadonaliry in snueturnl ferms tberefure means the exisreuce of govemmental a~lthorirjes dlloer tuacute Ihe archetype of fdeNrhm rhan any past inrernati(mal organizar ion buc not yet ideutiacutecal Wlth it Oiaas 1)158 59) However this $upnmttionaity in pNctice has deve10ped into a hybrid in which neither the federal no the intergovernshymentai reooency has deady triumphed a-bas 19511 527) Ir is aloo denr lbat the original Coo1 and Sreel Communicy was mueh mote functional~ Wlcrnl than the lateacutet Economic (ommunicy and untiacutel the mid~19805 the unified aud expanded Communuumly romw to play Jown the elemenU o( supranatlonality iu tavour of 1ts Jiacuteltergovemmenul insutution rhe Conndl u( MiuiMm This aud othet dtVe1opmems led Haas to lcconsidcr his origshyinal view of Community inrtitutioos
In the 1968 pre3ce ro Tuacute Uniting of Ellropt (which was wIacutetten in 1958) Haas alrtady identified factors that had dllngro rhe nattlc of me European Communiries experimem in che previous ten yeacs He observed tlur during this period vario~ spiU-OVet aOO adaptive ptcKeues s(ill had nO( resulted in la pulitically united Encope and in an~werjiexclg the question what went wtlJug he outliued fuur considetdtions Fitst (he new funaiurutlJsu had filiJed w di$tinguisb between background variahle cOlditioos prevamng at rhe time when cbe Comrnnnity WU$ csnbJished and new upiratiuns and expectations that had develnped Jhe esntbliacuteshment thar had ron counrer ro the Community spitit Second the imptet o( niexcltlonaUsm had becn undereshytimawl Third Eactors within me Commuruty had becn nressed ro he dccrimenr of those coming from the outside world PintUacutely me massive transCormation oE Western socie[y raking place indepeudent o( EutoptHl integratiacuteon aIso hacl been underestimaretl (HIlaS 1968 xiv--xv)
Haass definidon of imegralion alsu bccame wmewhar more negative I1lOre stlilte-centric than bis original 195R emlhasis un nationaJ llt(on shifting their loyaJties expecratiacute(ms and poJitical activities toward a new centre By 1970 Haas considered the study ofregionallntlgrurion to be concerned
wich explaining how aud why sUtes eease to be whoUy $overeign how ~md why they volunucily mingle metgt and mix with rhcir neighbours $O as to lose che facruru attributes of sovereignty while acyuiring ncw techniqucs me resolving conilirt between themselvell
(Haa~ 1970 610)
By 1975 Haas eonsidcred regional integmtion theoty oiJsolete in Wesrern Eurupe and obsolescenr - though still urerol _ in tite teSt o( the worId (Haas 1975 l) By 1976 he had arded out n maioI reintetpuEation of uew-fuuctlonaJist lhoory as it applied to rhe Ee The definahle outcome of integtation in Wenem Eutope was secn either in ttaditiorW federaHsc temu - a Wen Enrnpean (ederal state ereated out uf yenrs of fun~-tiexclonal
Writings M ifllernuJlfJmiexcl1 (JFfIiutian 143
rutivity whkh had lcd lO J trnmrer of poliduumlll acnvity away rom (he natlon ~tates tOwarJs a new srrunure - or ltlS the imtitutiooltlUdng uf some intermMiate iexcliexcltage such as rhe present status qno whcreby atlthonty is dimlbnrro unequally between several centres Wilh tire old nation states losing their previous Ituthoriey but with no new JiacutedeOl government in ptO$~ pect Whihr the original aspecrs of the EC - rhe cuuoms union aOO (he Common Agricultura Poliey _ have tllaquoorne entrenched the spillover inm orhe policy area~ had nor occurred by Ihe mid-1970s as che neo-furutiooa1ists liad ptedicred Also common polides liad becn Jevelopetl in differem o(8ashyIliratiuns - che OFCD the summit of indurmiatiooo counrrics the Group of Ten - tarher than within the liC lhe problem according lO Bus W1IS
rurhulerue whereby rhose iuvolved io polirirs haJ found rhemselves in a littting ofgreat social complexiry where rhe nnmber of atrorr is very large and each pursues a variety uf objectives whirh are murually incompatible lmt ucn is also unsure of che ultlde-ofamp between the objectjves He continued Tnis conditiQn imJgtlics the erosion o( such interorganizarional patteacutern~ oC comensus reciacuteprocity and no(mative tegularity as may havr CXlSted eadicrEveryrhiug is up fO( grallS (Hus 1976 179) HilaS sllggested thu iu the EC polioacuteeamp and (he institutioru devised ro lmpleshymeacuteut thero iacuteU~trnre rhe attempc ro deal with lhe turbulence nather tllan achieve regional politkal inteSradon (ibid 180 original emphasis)
A similar hiacuteft lttway fmm the earHer llSp1rauumlons iiexcliexcl ICen in rhe work~ Q( Lindberg aud Nye Lindbeg wlrose book 1he Pattirai DJMmict o EroJMn Ecrmomic IntegTatia (13) had fullowed on dosely from Hws work was hy 1966 showiog tbar moves wwaros inregration wirhin the Be (ooid cause Stress within (he system l1Jtfl inCftllq the barrien to fimher integration (lJnJberg 1966 254) Togcrher with lkheingold in 1970 he desctibcJ an EC wbich had noc deveJopeJ joro a federal structute haJ difereot ltvels of integrariacuteon fut different functions and was sdl susceptible tIJ UJsis lt was ao unprecedemed but curiousy amblguoos plurruistic syttem there seem tO be no satisfrutory modcls or ronceptli in che sociaJ scienee VQ(abulary to adequa[ely define ie (Lindberg and Scheingold 1970 306) In a anide Joseph Nye coruiacutedered thac Jespite rhese and otber revisioos the neo-Euncrional approodl srjlJ embodies 11 nurober of fault tbu re1lcct jrs origins in [he 1950s (Nye 1970 767) He proposed a nUml)(l OC changes scating rhe derendent variable lels ambiguoUlUumly adding more politiul ruwn reformufating rhe Hst oF integration condiuons and pethapli mOSf
significantly drOlping che ideas ufa single path fmm qWlsi~full(tiexclonallasks tuacute politica1 uuion by meamiexcl oF 5piUove( (Nye 1970 767 He conduded rha[ shnn oF dramadc chaugc the prospect9 (or common markets or microregiorud cennomie organiutions leading in rhe shon ron (of dendes) to fedewt1nn oc m1me sOtt oE polidcal union capable of tlU indept1Ldent dcferue and foreign paliey do not seem very high (Nye 1970 1129)
There hiexclas been a long jotJJney trom the functiorudisl-fecleral nope5 of Jean Monoet back jn 1950 but it has seen the evolution of nm only the
144 WitingJ on inlernafuacutemal ttrganizafifmJ
Communiry insrirurions and policies bur aIso neo-functionalist thinking The Iogic of inregrarion gave way ro coping wich rhe crises inseirutions mixing federalisc and intecgovernmental elemenrs were replaced by a Western Europe in which instirucional tidiness is best forgorten (Haas 1976 211) and the federal elemenrs seemed ac mosc dormam The hopes of che 1950s had been replaced by rhe uncerrainties of che 1970s and the early 19805
Wirh rhe launching in 1985 of rhe idea of creating a Single European Markec wuumlhin rhe EC by rhe end of 1992 che signing of rhe Single European Acr in 1986 (which exrended EC comperence aud changed irs inscitucional balance) and che sectlement of a uumber of Common Agriculcural Policy problems in February 1988 che Iogic of inregration seemed ro be revived
Wriring in 1990 Keohane and Hoffmann resrored and refined che neomiddot funcrionalisr norion of spillover advanced by Errut H9al They were sceprical char rhe rheory of spillover could explain the ECs irucirurional developments of che late 1980s buc saw it aCling posicively in orher ways for example rhrough che incenrives ro institutional change given byenlargeshymenc of EC membenhip in rhe early 19805 (Keohane and Hoffmann 1990 289-90) They saw che pcocess cominuing and barring Clrasrrophic excernal fucrors were moderately oprimisric abour rhe Communirys furure prospecrs (Keohane and Hoffmann 1990 296)
This view was raken up by Tranholm-Mikkelsen (991) and Holland (993) borh of whom saw che revival of rhe Communicy agenda in rhe Maasrrichr Trealy - wich irs blueprinr for a move ro economic and monetary union - as being a revival of the neo-functionalism Drher wrirers on European incegration at chis time adapted che basic notions of neoshyfunccionalism bU[ broughr in extra fucrors Majone (1994) agreed char che EU had seen an upgrading of common inreresn but placed an emphasis on public choice policy ro explain particular Ouccomes Marks et aJ (996) saw a much more complex relarionship berween che Communiry and domestic decision-making leve Though rhe srare was srill very important ir no 10nger monopolizes European level policy-making or rhe aggregarion of domesric interescs 0996 346) Insread rhey idenrified rhe growrh of mulrishyleve governance wirhin che EU
Indeed rhese developmenrs in neo-funcrionalisr wrirings on international organizarions poim up sorne of the criticism~ of che schooL Firsr despice rhe besr efforrs of Ibas Schmitter and Nye it remains a rheory overwhelmingly dominaroo by an inreresr in rhe EC and larer rhe European Union In 1964 Haas and Schmirrer rried to extend sorne of che lessons uf econumic union in Westeru Europe ru Larin America Drawing on Haass 1968 preface ro The Uniring of Europe rhey discerned nine variables four relared ro background condirions (similariey in power of memben rares of rransaction pluttllism in member seares complememing elices) rwo referring ro condirions ar rhe time of economic union (similarity of governmenral purpase powers of che ecunumic uniun) and rhree ro process coudi[ions (decision-making sryle
W[J U UWltU 15
rransacrions rate rhe adaptabiliry of governmenrs) (Haas aIld Schmitcer 1964 711-19) They looked ar rhe chances of policicizarion chat is the possibilicy chat lhe acmrs seek m resolve rheir problems so as ro upgrade common inrerests and in rhe process delegare more amhoricy m che centre (Haas aIld Schmitcer 1964 707) Nye in his article Comparing Common Markecs (1970) rried ro modify che Europo-cemric narure of the neo~ funccionalis[ approach and drew on a wide range of cases of economic imegracion Larin America Cenrral America rhe Caribbean Eastern Europe and East Africa as weH as EFTA and che EC He concluded [har
The original neo-funcrionalist model was close m irs ongms in the straregies of European inregrationisrs in che 1950s and thru mighc be seen as a rempting and misleading guide for policy in orher aceas The revised neo-functionalist model is not somethiug ro be imiraced bU is simply a rool fur making comparisons We wanr ro know whac differshyence ir makes if a group of seates form a common market
(Nye 1970 830)
Though by rhe end of che 1980s rhere were few places ro be found outside Europe thac were forming common markets rhe formacion of he Norrh American Free Trade Atea (NAFTA) and rhe renewal of economic cooperarion in Latin America and Sourh-Basc Asia during rhe 1990s provided different models from the more poliricized EU These seemed ro challenge some of the basic assumptions of rhe neo-funcrionalistS aIld perhaps give some weighc ro Nyes scepcicism ciced above
Second i[ is clear chac che neo--funccionalisrs have had trouble wirh che insticudonal formacs They have rerreaced from being functional federalist almose back co Micranys eclecric approach rowards institudons They have also accepced [he durability of rhe nadon state in resisring che logic of inreshygration and have soughr compromise formulas which at leasr continued ro place emphasis on non-srare accivicies even if insticutions above che stare (supranarional) were seen to be susceptible to stare inrerference
A chird Cliricism concerns the gtOH of non-srare acrors favoured by rhe neo-functionalists They have consraudy emphasized [he imporrance of polirical acrivisrs the elites of inrerest groups and rechnocrats This may have parrially blinded chem ro a weakness in rhe ECEU rhar could have affecced neo-functionalisms earUer proguuscicarions from being fulfilled its insticurions cannoc draw on rhe day-ro-day polirical resources available tO the narional policical acrors This has led tO a gap mosr noriceable in che newer members berween perceprions of che EU by the represemarional elice and rhose of rhe ordinary vorer or consumer Whilsc some earlier srudies of opinion in the EC did inelude opinion pons rhese ofren dealt wirh easy questions (showing ones EuropeaIl idenriry) 01 soft options (whether rhere should be say a more acrive EC industrial policy) With the firH expansion of rhe EC in 1973 and rhe first major oil price iucrCdse
146 Writi~5 cm lI1lMfatleuromal orgfll1iutl1ltl
whi(h coinoacutedemally happenoo a yeat liexclater Euttiexclpean voren werc faeed increasingly wirh mu(h harder options inflation versus employment tlnde union righu againsr consumer inrerests The poISibllity was thar bcing a good European might mean aHowiog sorne other COUlltry5 ruuionals to explott ones fish or oH The crearion oiacute a Single Enropean Marker within the Ee by the end of [992 and rhe move rowards a single curteney from 1999 by eleven theo (wdve of rhe HU member litares bmught he activi~ ties of the VOlon do~er lO the wodd of tite coosnmer or worker However chis seem iexclf anything to have iocreased rhe alienariacuteon of voten from rhe institntions aM acrivilies of rhe EU The 2000 election for rne Europeao Parliamenr shnwed the lowest tnroour yer in sllfh direct elections ano Enrobarometer opini()fi poUs have demonstrnred a msative trend in public opinion on che EU rnropaeuintknmmdgl0epoebc-b531p3npdO Ir may be thar a oumbcr uf interest groups llave switched rhrir expecta6ons and poJiexclcical activirics tuwatds the 00 bllt many of the ordinary European V(l(fS seemed ro have failed ro trans[er th~ir lnyalties tu he Union
In surnmaty the neo-functlona1ists mok np Mitranys srudy of rhe a-lashydons betwren group~ and individllals in oHferent sures il5 wellas che sta(cs representativtltl They tried ro gtapple witb the queuit)O (lf political control uf such iostirurionalized funcrional re1ation5hips aod ro undrrstand how ir would affrct rhe oatnre uf tiJe nation state They arremptrd to define the statuS of [hese newfy creatoo insutution5 tnough rhry wete out always fvlped by devdopments in che ECfEU which WWl rhe focus of rheir studies Tbdr works have demun~trared rhat the EU imututioos are by 110 mratlS juse ordinary imerg()vcrnmenral ones lh~y have al) provideo a mirror ()f the hircof) of (Yents in Westetn Europe in pankultH - moviog flom unitios aod poJitkal dynruniqgt through ~rress oy$ and anguish to obsolesceuce tllrbulent fudds and back to mooerace optimism and a new dynamism
TrotJJ(l(iacutecnaUJI
Anorher Americao writer whose work dealt wirh che question oiacute integrntion is KarJ Deursch Alrhough not a neo-fotlcrionalilit his tranmctional appwmh nali dealt with sorne iOmmoo ~hemes He has been umrerned with more rhan imergovermneuul relation~ aod indeed hM str~iexcl reJations berweeo peopIes nitherthan just rhe elites favonred by manyneo-fuflctionalists Deursch concerned himltelF with m( absrnce or presence of significan orga~ oized preplttrations fol war or large-snde iolence between int~rnatiexclona1 policical commuoities It was [he secutity rommullttles lhat had elimirutted war and [he expectation o[ wat whhin rheir ixmndaries whicn Dentamph and his PrincctOll coUeagues exarnined in PeliriuJ Cfml1NJNlily dIId M NarJh lt14Jtlaquo Atia (1957) A SClttlriLy community WWl defined as a gronp of people wnich has become ~inte8rated~ io rhe sense that thete is real iacutelSSnr+ ance that (he members of that rommunity will not fight ellch oeher
Wriil1g1 (raquo1 iacutelMfatlortal tJrgaiadlMm 147
physkally but will se~tle their disputes in liOffie otber way (Deutsch 1957 5)lt loregration does not necessarily mean rhe me~ging oF peoples ot governshymental units intn a ~ogle unie an idea explicir in fooerahsr rhinking Otud implicir in much funrtionalist wtiting Jnstesd two $otS uf integrared secu~ rit communities ar~ hJemified the amalgamarelt where pteviousiy independent unlts have bcen rormaly merged lnro a larger unit wich a iexclommotl guvernment (eg tlle US) ano the pJuralisric where srparate gnvertUlleJlUl Illlioraio their iexclrgaJ indepeodence (eg uacutenada amI rhe US) In stlldying a nllmbcr of cases of anempred or octual intesratioo io tbe Nortn American and WCSt European area Dtunch conduded rhat tIacutelere werc iexclweive conditions essential fnr the rurcts of ao amalgruruued teeutity (Ommuniry and thM rhree wen nec~ry fm it5 plutalisdc COUnrfrpilrt
The1e three conslsted of rhe compaiacuteibiliry oiacute marer valU($ relevant to
politiclll decision-making tbe capacity o( the participariacuteng plt)htinl Imitl or ~mmem~ ro respood tu each othcrS oetdl messages and llaions quickly adeqwuely and without rtsort ro vlolence aad rne mutual predicrability n bchavior (Delltsch 19H 66--7) In Deutschs work emphasis was placed 00 cornmunkauun brlweEn potidca uoIacutets increased trnns1Ctions between them (such fL polirinl exchangcs toUfl(m trade and rratl~pott) brought increases in mutual dciexcl)Cl(enmiddotc fue s cummnnity ro be created (his high level of trnnsactrons must be accomgtauied by mutual responsiveness o that thr demand o( each side 00 he other mn rccdve adequate and sympatheric treatroent llthis wouk not ooiy predude the need [01 aggressive action lO acbi(Ye ends bm would aJso build up 11 feeLing u( UUSt and seturiry in che edationship
Deuucb does not have an obse~uacuteon with imernattomtl orgaoiexclZ8rion~ although his 1957 book iacutes in [he eM collcetned with the ctelltiacuteon of UCCIlshy
tity community in the NATO area rhere ate few tcferences to internatlOnal nrganiuuons Many o( the Cll5C studj( are ser io tbe pcriud before (be postshywar expansioll uf such organlurions and almost all deal ieh bilareral relatIacuteonshj~ O(utschs work has coosequences for the lUudy o( ioternuiona organizatIacuteoos govemmental ano non-goveromCotaj iO[~rnational otiianiza~ tioos can be created as a re~ult uf a plnraliacutes[ic secuciry nmunuoit) lne integracion of whkh may evtotuaUy become iacutennirurjonalized iexclu nuppened reo the ampandinaviiexclm states creand (he Nordic Counci1 There run abo be forrns of instirUti(lnalued communiratlons berween socieries wnich prOldde the transactions and undersrandinli rhat help create ji securi[y community DeUtsch wrote
li the way tu iexclnregrarion domestic or internarionat i$ through rhe achievemem of a srose of community tnut undergirdS insrirurjtms thm ir seems likely [har ao iorreased sense of cotlloounlry would hrlp to snellgtbcn whatever instirutioos - supranatiooal or internacional - are aLreAdy Oltraring
([)euriKh 1957 7--8)
ltgt -_ bullbullbullbull _- _
Demsc-hs work was mken funher in a vnluffie ediretl io 1998 by AdLer and Bllenen (l998) (lLat docs pay sorne attention to ioternariorutl otgilniushydoos Indecd their volume contairu chapters thar rekr ro rhe oseeacute NATO the EU the UN the GnU Cooperarion Cowxil (GCC) aod rhc Assodation uf Soud Eat Asian Niexclttlons (ASEAN) They daim that imetshyruHiomuacute organiexclzauumlons aud iexclnstitutiacutem~ played al lmporum role in elKiltlraging more inteo$ive and extensive ioteracrioos octwttn states rhrough theit uwt-huildiug propenies (Bnrnetr and Adler 1998 418) They lht six corulusions of this snuerneor
bull By moniroting srares agreemenu tntcmatiuacutelwl orpuuacutezatiexcloo~ give them he cooftdente tuacute cooperare io (he ahsencc of trUSt
bull Jnternational O1ganizarions allow Hi1tC$ to discover new areas of muuwl intetellls Tu ponimlar [hey cenoacute ro link panicular areai
bull Inrcmational organizatiom can hdp shape $fllre pracdces by liCtting down nOfOU Ihat define what is acnptablc
bull The iIKTeaiing nwnber of internacionaJ orgamrutions emuuragC$ muldshylatetalim
bull They dIlO eruourage smres lua societies to see rhelll$Clvcs as pan of a resion
bull 1ntildeey can abo shape lhe identiry of rheir memben (Banlett aod Adler 1998 418-20)
The aurhms cWmed char cheir stuJit$ demonmared rhe exrent 10 whkh social cnmmunicadons beomes insrimtioualileJ aOO embedded in lnreroashytional oC8linbatlooslt and in turU how (hese organizatioru express an inreot to dcvelop trUSt end mmwl identificarion (Batnm and AdJer 1998 418) TIe work on sccurity (mmnunidcs is pelhapS at ir strongcu whcn dealing wim the esrablishetl Westcrn democracies rbough llamen and Adlers work shows rhar it may hilve a wider urility
lnlerJciexclnmdcme
Furrhcr emphasi on the growrh JO cnlnsaccions berween l()Cicries can be seen in the worts of Keohane 11l1d Nye who were m che forefront of the iexclnrerocJXndcnce school in rhe lJoited Srnnt fhey puacuteirued our (he conseshyquences of the innease in tldrunarioualucdolU ro che study uf iexclnternncional rdarions Thcit statcing iexclgtoint was sLlnuuarized chus
TraM1latlowJ relations are nolaquo new alrhough che growth of tmnsna~ tklOal orgnnizarion in me twentieth centuty has been specracunr Ye-r our nmremioo iso nor ooly rlur rhe srate-centrk paradigm )$ inade~
quare bur also thar it igt becoming progttSsively more inadequate as changes io inrernational relauumloos take place
(Keohane and Nye 1971 xxv)
The) llsred five omsequemes uf this growth uf inEematiooal inrcracrions ana organizarJ(tIls fur inrerstate politks (1) rhe promntiun of attirude change amongsr driacuterens (2) ao innease io inrernacional pluralism the linkjng of nntiooal Interese groups in tnmsnational strtlCtures usuaHy involving transruttionaI organizations fOI rhe putpoampe of (04)minatioo ltKtohAne and Nyc 1971 xviii) whiacutech has heen lhe basis for much noo~(Jncdontllist wriexcling (3) me cmdon lf dependence and inrerdependcofe IS often associacuteshyarea with intetnilriorutl cranspormrioo and iexclnance Keclune and Nye 1971 xix (4) creating new insrruments fut iexclnfluence for use by sOJne governments over ()(bers (Keuhane aOO Nye 1971 xx) 1100 lt5) dJe emergence cE auronomous acrors wirh priwre ntildelreign policia thar roa) deliberarely oppose Oiacute impinge on Sla(e polides (Krohilne and Nye 1911 xvii)
In a late book (1977) Keohane and Nye dcah with che questioo of imershydependem-e in world poliacutetics io greatet depth Iorecclependencc $lnce tbe Second Wm1d War has- onen cesulted from increasetl ttaosnadonal atciviries and iexcli divided ioto twO sorrs sensltlviry iacutemerdcpeodence (dte muIy effecrs of dULOges jo tranS1lCrJons oc ~()ciacuteetiexcles or govetrunents) md vulnembHhy interdependence where he acrors Hahllhy tc suffet eO$n iacutemposed by extemal evenc~ js (aken inro accoum (Koonane ana Nyc 1977 12-13) In COntrast ro tbe reaisr view of world poHrk Keohane and Nye pm totward che idea type of complcllt imerdependence which chey claimed soroetimes comes dosee ro realiacutety chan does realism (Keohanc attd Nye 1971 23) aod whieh has three nuio characretl$tks it allows fo mulnple rhallne1smiddot- imershyStatC tiansgovernmental and trilnsnationa- conneltring sncieries there i an abserue of hierarchy ilmonS the rnany questions ac inle hetween iexcliexcltates with military securiry no 10nger dominntlng lUly agenda and Millnu-y force 15 not used by governments toward orher governmenu within me laquogion or on [he lssutS where complex intetdcpendence prevaiacutels (Keorutne aoo Nye 1971 25)
These dltee condidons are said by KCQhane aOO Nye to typify fairly weJJ 5Ome LIlAUe$ of global economk md ecological interdependence ami come dose ro chamcrerizing rhe emite relarionship hetWetn sorne cnuntdes (KeolWne and Nye 1911 25) Complex ilterdepcndente glVel rise ro oacuteininctive poliacutetical processes a sute $ goals wiacutell vary by mue arca with mmsgoYernmeotul puumllitics making goab difficut ro define as ttansgovern~ menrnl llClaquo()$ (fof cxample mtfUsrers of agr1cuJmre inte11igente agencies nariona wcather bureaux) pursue their own aims Jhe followiog facwn are reLevant iriexcl eilch issue area
bull iexclhe resourc-es of a Ncue fur thaI particular area are most relevaot radre Ihan the stares overull military ~tre-ngth
bull international nrganizatinm and uansnntional actors wHl be fruloipula[ed as malnr instrumenrs oiacute mue poHcy
bull rhe agenda of issUC$ wi11 be fOrmulated hyebltUlgcs in the power dirmi~ burlon wirhin [he issue alaquollS by rhe pururinn (lf internarional regimes
150 Writings lIlt inttn1atiQrJ41 ergdniutirll1J
by changes jn rhe importance of ttaflstlational acwtS and by linkage froro orher issues
bull linkage between 1sllor$ will be mote difficult for strong naces to undetshyrah ir[orce 1$ downgraded
ft whiJsr linkage by we$k srares rhrough internacional organuumlarions seu agendas helps coalition-wrming and provides arenas for the political acdvity oC weaker states which can use the choice of organizarional forurn [or an issue and rhe mobiliZlition of votes as a politiul resource
(Keohane and Nye 1977 37)
Thm Keuacutehane and Nt gavc inremarjonal organizaciOfls an iroporran[ role in thde compfex interdependence model of world politics a model which whilst not uSlaquo (O explaitt aIl world politics was one which rhey daitned to hllve iacutenfrtasing releYJ1nce in IIlarge and growing area 1ntildeey used an intetnUional organizadon mooel as one of the explanations ror internashytioua regime change that js che lthange in the sets of goveming flrrangernems affening relatioruhips oC interdependence In tMs C$e intershynadonal oJsanisaciolls refeued ro multilevd Iinkage norms and insritutions (Keohane and Nye 1977 54) which once euablished are harJ (O enlAlicate BeCllue o( this rhey may Stand in the way of swes using thdr capabHities In ordec 00 chauge regimes Instead powet outcomCl will be more aJfectcU by votlng power (in the UN General AssemWy for example) ability ro futtl) coalidoos llnd 00 control elite networks (ruch as that founo io clte institushydougt of the European Commnnities) Whilst the complclt illternadorull organizarion mode1 was only Ofle oiacute fOur aJvaucecl by Keohane and Nye ro explain regiffie chAoge tbey Jiu expeomiddott jr to contribute to such chaIlSC in a world where complex interdependence (onditions pertain
1he rontribmions by Keohane and Nye demonstra(e hoth the roncero pf American wtilets iexcln inremationru relariWl in the 1970$ with altemacives to
tite srare-centric model and their wiluumlngness tO draw from more rhan one approach bringiexclng rogether elementogt from che more tradidonal appnJaChes with economic models and non-stare-cenuic dements TIleir Wi)rk does however have certain weaknesle$ Perhaps the mon serious is the use of rhe cerro imerdependence and iexclrs djvisiacuteon iexclnro ~n~itivity and vuinerability imerdependence Anepting rhar inltldeperulence meUlS mutool dependeoce (and [hjs leado to discussiou a~ w how mutual maoy relationihips are) che phrase scnsiuacuteviry imcrdcpendenre scarccly wflrmnu thc use uf the term interdependcnce fhe fault lies wJth che authou loose definiuOfl of depen~ iquestcnce as a oiexcltate (lf being detetmined oc $ignificaruly affected by externa fwces The induskm 0(signi6candy atkcted w~aken5 me urillry uf me cerm so tlme che nOr1on oiacute scusltivity inrtgtrdependence seems ro refer ro any nociceshyaMe cffeltr of ooe srate and society 00 anorher A person may Ix- significandy affectcd by taking drog$ wlthout Ix-ing dependen on chem David Baldwin showcd that mis use of rhe cerro interdependence ran conrrary to the striaer
Writingt ()I inf~_Ji(J1ia ~lfizaJJom 151
lUlderstlllldings (lf the concept fuund in MirhiaveUi Montesquieu and Ronsseall as weU 115 in che works uf twentieth-cemury wrlteI$ such as Norman Angell Francis D(laisi -and Ramsay Muir (ampIdwm 1980 7-9) He snuested the U$C of rhe rerms mutnal influence mutual responsivrness ot mutual scrlitivity insread ofscnsirivity inrerdependeruemiddot (Baldwin 1980 19)
A second cuacutericism uf Keohanc and Nyes books aso concems eheie termishynology In dealing wirh rransnational influentes They [ump tngerheraH types of teiations in whieb non~8overnrnental actOrs participare chus makiflA rhe componenrs of cheir new paradigm shifting aud poorIy defined (Wagoct 1974 440-1) Wagner questioned whetber their work simply demonstrated a shifr in interesr to new areas of intetnational polidts shyespedally elttmomic ones - ana whethcr [he world hM reaUy changed or whether we have iexclUSt overlookcd sorne things a1l along (Wagner 1974 441) The atent of imerdependence wa~ also chaHenged by Waltiquest (1970) anJ Rosecratlce el al (977) in che US and by Lirrle Bnd McKinlay (1978) and Strllivan (978) in rhe Briti~h Uteramre
DespiLe any falling$ Keohlllle and Nye provided insighrs ioto ttamlflashydonal polltics they shifted atrention away fcom p~lrely govcrnmental actOts in inff$rate relarions and they poiutm OUt he impMrance of intetnational organlziexcliexclxions in the intetdepcndence oc at lcast rnurual responsiveness of =
rbe rdormist view of both international celBtiOO1l and iuternational orga- nizar1ons has always provided an rutemative lO the more conservativc cealist approach Ir tended ro be dominated jn the pre-wu petiod by internauacuteonal lawyen and ideaJists but sinee hc Second World War has laoched on to the changell in world poUtics 6tst jn the economic ficld and then in Europe thar have Mn more difficulty to explain in ICliIHst term~ It has sten intcrna~ rionnl organizarions as mlans to manage trends such as iucftI$(d economl( intlrdlpcndcoC( bar hll5 also illtceplcU rhat these organizations mar necorne impoftllm aCtoriexcl (lO che wodd st$ge lhemselves and can cettainiy Iacute)(cnrne involved iexclO changing rhe preferences o( governmeflts
RADICALS
Writers covered in this sccrion iCe rhe intcrnadonal sysrem flOt so much as being domlnlltcd by states bn( more by diUerent divisions 01 its peoplcs Thi$ is noe to Sfly fhat chey ignore surtes They cOflsider them elthet w be ks tmportant chan the iquestjjsions of diUS tit wealth or merely ro refI~ct these othcr factors ot w be roadblo(ks to unky in (he fare Qf mote impomllt chalmiddot renga Power ls seefl as belnamp cxercised by eh( wealthy II1ld privileged and open to cha1Jeuge Change in the system is possibl( but onty through srrll8ge or by an awakenjug pf peoples tQ rhetr real sitllatlon Most iexclnter~ natimal organization~ are thus regarded as (eflccrioos of the currcnt unsruisracwry stare uf aiacuteTairs though $fJme more activist orgauhatioos mar llave potential as vehicles or (hange
This SIoacuteCElOn has betn sub-middotdivided imo rhree gthe fUS( are the econ01nk srructuralists and indude Marxists and Third Wocld wruumlers cririclll of rhe cutrem imernruionallyuem They haacuteve in common a belief mar che polltshyiexclcal srructUres of me world halle leeo wbloned mainiexcly by eltonomic fiiexclctors and rhAr mere has bren an intiacuteJUIllity builr imo the presen sytem lhe recood are the cruumliral app~es who5e radicalilifl1 is mure of the iacutemellec~ cual SOrt They rejeCf - Uf at 19$[ question - Jhatly of rhe usumpcions utlderlying be lIiews ofhe world tepresented by the realists and refotmers Finally mere are the globalim Theit perspective ls planerary ana theiacuter rnain conrtrn h fM rhc survival uf Earth Agilln they challcnge che mme statemiddotbuled approaches of both realjsts and reformers
Stnuturaluacutet lIiews
Ihe srructuralist appmiexclch rO (he swcly of inrematioOlIl relations differs In imporrant wars tO thoee of me realists and refotmuu tbough ir has some elemeou in comroon with mands ofb04h schools As roany of (he neo-realistsshyemphasite (he power scructure of wudd potities this sectiacuteon willlimir jwgtlf ro (hose writers roncerned wich the impacr 00 me political S)Srem of rhe wodds ccooomic strucrure Unliacuteke che ttalist approach the erooomk srrucruralisrs are OOr jUSt concemed with swtts io wodd polilla and rhelr economic and poIitkal differencC$ but alw with the divisioru within f1tld berween SoOCieties (WiIIeas 1990 263) They are [heretOre romerncd witl the rifi berween riel iexclmd poor within scares and rhar herwtto udl and poor glohally This leads ro an interese lO trulSlUirional reladoru as well as in inrergo~romenmt links Th(f have this in corrunon wim refPrtllist views bm diexclfier foom chem in (he emphast~ placeoacute on rhe structures of world pollics beinc formuared by eltooomic fiexcliexclcmn In rhis selttion attentioo wilt be given te MarxiS[ wtlletS lIud sume Thir1 Wodd view$ - partiuilarly (hose of rhe cependency sdlOOf and rhe developmemalj~[II - who have made a cootribution quite separare from rhat of rhe Muxiacutesr uadidon
Marxill laquoewl
There is no one Marxisr interptetariacuteon of me role of imerniexcliexcltional Olganiza~ cions in world politics Sur Manis[ approschf3 have certain elements in common and form a di~dnctive 5ch001 of rhough[ about lnrernartonal telamiddot tions generaHy and therefore ahotu international ocganizadoos These appmaches are based 00 du writiflgS of Karl Marx (l818~) in coshyoperarioo witb Fuacutewrich Engels (1820-95) with perhaps tbe gtearest later conrribution being maJe by VL Lenin kader of (he 1917 fo1shevik revolushydon in Rurna They are cf importanee pany becau1e ehey ficm tlle 00515 for mmmuniSt [hinking and (hm mey have an anactunenr m rhe Soviet Unian whieh WIlS be suongc1t commnuist stare unrII 1991 and EO rhe Peoples Republic of China COlUT1UnJSl sinee 1949 Apan ftom lbis ManiS( beliefs
had a irmng inpur mm Wescern imdleltrual cruoking and conunue ro iruoan some viewi abom wodd politics in rhe Third Wodd
Neither Marx no Mancisrs took rhe stare ro be (he curtency of iacutenteInashy(iexclonal relations Unlike (he realist viewpoints chey did fiO( coruider interactions blaquoween soveteigu ltates to be ofovettidi importance UnHke tbe funcrionalists aud other modem Westetn views rbar srress non-stare actocs Marxiexclsts in particular emphasized cbus relatlonships born wiexclrhin nates and IiCOOSS Stare boundaries Indeed ie is diffku[r ro talle only of a MaIXIacutest view of inrernatiooal re1atioll5 lec ttltme of iorernarional orgnniza~ UumlOOy as rhis separares ene particular aspecr of human behavinur tor MIlIXIsr rrearment divorcing ir from the undedying relleCS of Marxlc beliefs Man-ism provides a framcwok of undemanding by whkh ir iacutes daimed ~ociery pan lind vresen can be explaioed and che furure development of mankiexclnd determined
According ro Maf1 relariooshipamp between people and the futm~ mar insdmdooallzed rhose relatienshfpamp depended on rhe economic $truCtUR of soday fhe way rhat productlon was organized He traced the history of dvilixed maokind through five hiuorical staBes - AAjade mdenr feudal capttalin and socialin - which have ditTereru dominant methods of produc~ tioll leadiog 10 a complirared arrnngement of $OCiety ioto various ordetS 11 manifuld graduadon of sociru tank (Marx llnd Boge1s 1965 40) amph form of sorlef has coutained rhe conflictual divisiQl$ which help [Q tranuacuteorm the narun of rhat $Ocjeey coRrradicrioru in the mode ofpcoducfIacuteon placed srrain nn rhe existing social nrder sharpeniug rhe divide berween economic founshydatinn of sociery and a mpld aansIacuteonnlltion of in SOpel1Ullcture in legal polidcal and re1igious it1$tirutioos Thus by 11 confronration of da$~ Conrramiddot dkeions one historlraJ form of soc1ery wus transfocmcd into a bigher stage uf social devdopmem the history of aH hitherto existing ~ociexclety is the histoty uf dass struggles (MaDI Illld Bngets 15 39) Marx and Bnsels were parriculady conceroed wich capita1i$t sociery - ac its Oeyday during theiacuter Uves - and its tmnsrormarion iexcluto ampocis1iu sodety Wlthln rrus form of SoOCiety rOete would be no division of laboU4 and no eWses Illld no SUtes no elCpropnation of labours 5urplus vruue I1nd (bus no private property 00 exploira(ion of ene clilllS ny iexcliexcloother with 00 need fue war
For Marx and fingeJs C1ass then and noiexcl fllltions or sutea are rhe bade units in hurO) llIIIl che struggle between clAssts Jnstead oiacute infeutliltl contlict ocrupies rhe centre of acrention (Berki 1971 R1iexcl From me nlneteenth celUUf onwards rhis struggle -n in Marxisr cerros has been primarUy between [his capicalist dass ([he OOurgeoisic) aOO the bbouring dw (me proletariat) AA (he trarurormatlon fmm capltalisr SoOCIety [O ~OCialiexclMl ro comrounism rook p~e (he superstruerutt of bourgtOis SoOCilaquoy - religioo national divisiacuteon boutgmis politicnl insrirudnns rhe SOlte - woold be swept flway and in Engtls pmse rhe gOlcrotnent nf persons is replaced by [he udminlsuacion of things Fetter 19 (47) with me itEte relegated lO the mmeum iexclngemer Wlth lile spinshyning wheel Qnd [he bronze axe (Feuer 1969 433)
154 WrituacutetKiexclI mJenl4tiorJal rngmZtlJilm
Mux saw the European SUtes of his own rime as being rntans by which the ruBng dass (011amp oppress the work~ng clw by using (he agentl of tht 5tare such as the iudidary the poliee the army and rhe church he (xrerual Ilctlvities of the stare wete also determined by its Chtss namre MeanwhiJe rrmllnat]onat Rlations of a more meaningfuL kind WQuld bt creared by trade rhe movement of capital and incteaiitd romac[ and llOIacuteldarity betwten the prolerariat of vanoulS nations riacuteidefd rhe internacional nriexclaniutions of which Marx and Engels hnd dire(t experiena- wtfe the Fi~t Internatiomd and for Engels the Secund lntemarional both of which atttmpted lO orgashynJxe the represemarives of wruking people aiexclros fronden Onc~ agaJn this stteAAe$ the Marxist empbois on transnarional dass relutions rnther than on intentate relarionships
Whibt Soviet writlngs on international organizatinn1 wtte falrly desulshytory in Scalins reigu 0924-53) rhey did lmerIy hernld rbe move towams peaceful co-existerne arul roreshadowffi the lartf rnrhe[ restrktive view of Imch organi2Atinm hy Soviet commentators
In the post-Second Wodd War period and In patticular in the post-Stalin era Soviet liternmre on international organiuttions bl(lSsomed This has reflected Soviet membership oC ma1ly 1osiexcl-1945 organixations the emershygence of a socialist bloc of sta[C$ and tbe incre-ase in the mlmber of Sowcreign s[ates all flUtontilde demaruHng a more sophisricared Soviet view of lnter~llate reLadoru than che survivalism of Stalins period Uuring rhe lare 19805 i( auo ret1ected the new thinking iacutemroduced by Gorbachev
StalintI suIXessor KrU$hchev developed a revised view of internacional relaCtons which gave a positio1l ro the emerging Third Wnrhl (Tbe Third Wotld was then taken to mean rhotle IItates thar had emerged ftom colo~ nialiacutesm In effect rhe terrn later induded tbe stares of Latin America Africa - exclnding the rhen apaftbeid stnre of South Africa - the Middle Rasr Oceaniacutea and South Asia) Peace(ul co-exiuence between oda1ist and (apltaJisr states WM $til comidered nece1sary but this diacuted noc predude the ideologiacutecal stmggle between rhe two campsmiddot iexclndeed lhe Soviet inter~ national lawyer GI Ihnkiacuten wrote pearcfut cocx15tence of sutes represeonng che tWO differeor rodal sysems is a slccific form uf dass struggie beween socialism and calitllllsm (Osakwe 1972 37) The Soviet Union abo deveJoped relatlons wirh rbe newly emerging exshycoloniaJ cOllntdeJ and Soviet writiog had tu take ~ount of this developmem There wru a recognirion of a third group of stattli between rhe capitalist aud the communlsr that of poteorially friendly indtptomiddot deut $tarem io Europe and Asia such as India Egypt Indnnesia and Yugoslavia which would filrm a tone of peace Although the rebtions wiacuteth rhe capitaliacutest sures sriacuteH remaioecl embedded in pelteful coshyexluencc rhere was an emphasis by postmiddotStalinist Soviet writets on the da eJement in lile telatiomhil - that is rhe wntact with progressive elements in Weste1l sodeey smh as che Jabonr mnvement Ncither diexcld peaceful co-exiucuce rule OUt ~upport o[ middotjUSt wars of nationallibcrildon
WIacuteJIacute11gs tm iacutenUrllUtional WjatlJZtiacutelJlff 155
iexclndeed ir was seen lt a strategy fo wodd reloludon Fiacutenally (he rrlashyfIacuteonhips berween the Sovier Union and East Eumpean countries vere deerned ro be based on sociali internationalism posmlating a haemony of natinnal and commllnity interests and mndllding thar jnde~ndeuce and sovereioiexclnty of a soctalist uate means aoove aH indepltndencc from capitalism (Red Star 1 December 18)
Tunkin underljned traditional Soviet thiacutenking rllar the mngtrltllenl imrrllment of an ioretnational urganization (fne example the Chaner oiacute the UN) was all-impottant in derermining tIte enene rrun the otganizauumlon bad an international legal pcntildeonaliry rhar iexcl5 a standing in internacional 1l1w 5imilar tu titar of a sovereigo staxe Examining lhe question of the antonomOllS wiU oiacute international nrganitatioll Tunldn allowed thl1 they need not jmt act as agtnts for member stares
In imernatiunal ptacrke trellties conduded by jntcrl~ational mSaniacutezashytinns take their speciaJ piare as treacies by wbkh internationsl organimtiom aequire righu and take upon themselves cerrain obligiexcllshytioos Intctnat10nal organizatiou are created by Hares hey are broughr iexclnto being by states but the actloacuteos of imcmational organi7ashydoos are nlt)( in any way de facto or de jure ro be tqt1sred lO the actions of scates
(Osakwe J972 23)
Thi did nor mean than M internadonal organiacuteiariexclon was an entity indeshypendem of its memher us[es as any powers (har they hacl were delegated by [he members In Jine wirh che ampwiet doctrine of peareful co-exiacutesteme Tunkin placed Uress pn (he nature and rhe membership of an international organiacuteution dlOSe which drew their membersbip from commlmi1t c1Ipishytalist and TIiexclird World tares could expcct tu be genel1llly mognized as having an incernarional personaliacutery He wrote
TIte namre of tontemporary international prganiurions is lO a very great exttm derefmined by [he existerue of Haces beJonging ro differem wcio-economk systems and the ioevitable muggle between them Thar is why pcaceful crexislence is now the bl-sic condition of rh~ dfVC1iexclpshyment ufgeneral interoational ntganization
(Osltuumlltwlt 1972 289)
Mor07JN Clt1ntrlbuterl sorne extra points Fintildet be iududed JNGOs in his stndy He wrote dlQt lotetnational orgaruulions have as iI rol 8t least three member coumries TheM may be government$ offidJ orgilnlzarions or 0CInshy
guvernmental organizatiow (Morowv 1977 30) In a 11Iter seccion m NGo thcy were ldencifred as che la~ group of inrerrulttonal organiuttiolls wim two aspccn rbar concttntd socuIacuteiacuteIgtt commemarors tbe NGOriexcl auirude towards the preservarion of pealaquo wkh the Wnrld Feieradon ofTrade Unions
6 _ 0
rhe Wodd Fedemion oE Democratk Youth and otber meiexclllbtrs oiacute tbe Sovittshybacked World Peace (ounaacutel gaining special mentioo and the specialiuJ chataCrer of sorne NGOs itl(h as rhe ruerrutriunal Couocil of Scientifu Unions and che Scienrifk OJmmiuee on Antnrctk Research MOrlrLOv memioned how NGOs can belp emblish a social dimate citillg their contti shybution ro (he setdemenr of a number of internacional confHcu swh as dlilr in Vietnam He aOO dealr wirh the role of che NGOs io cbe UN aud che consuJshyrative srarus [hey llave witn lGOs saying du[ smdems of internariooal affitjoiexcl
in [he socjalisr councrics m critieal of many asplaquots of (his system fur the eoruulrarive StatuS amogemenrs stiU fall shon of wha( [he deveJopmenc of modern inretnatlonal relarions in fac[ catls fur (Morozov 1977 43) Tbe specialized namre ufNGOs Wamp1 atttibuted by M((2OV tu
tht increased Jnfiuence of the pubic at large un roreign polky [he grearer iexclmpat of public opininn in imernatiunal reladuns and [he greater importante uf me ideological fiexclUtot 10 $ucb relations Accoum should abo be raen of che proccsses of cconomic developmenr and [he coosequenc~ of [he scienrific and rechnological tevolutioo which has also led ro a greatet number of speoacutealized NGOs
(Morozov 1977 42)
Second Morozov wridog jo d~ late 197amp made moU pos-irive refershyencelgt (O [he role oiacute Trurd Wodd SUtes in imemaciooa otganimrions He noted rbar rbe emetgtoce oiacute ti large oumbe of Oung natiooal stares h8ve kd fO che emetgcnce of intetnarJonal Drganizadons among develcpi08 ecuoshytries (Mororov 1977 29) aod claimed hat partkiparion in (hese organh311oos is part uf he process uf consolidating their sovereigocy and ruuional jndependenu~ aod of wlviog cheir pressing ecoOfJmic anJ orher pmbemsmiddot (Morozov 1177 31)
Finally Momzov developed the puint made by fimkin aOOut he limited llalUre of ioternationaJ organiurjQn$ - ~econd-dllSS ffitrnbers nf the inrershynarloual sysrem as opposed tu rhe firsr-diexcllSS members SQvereJgn stateiexcl by reretcme tO theit dedsioos There bave resulted froro che inrelllctioo of politicuJ euroorces within the organil1ldons and
Thecombined will uf chcse lGOs i5 disuumlnc[ from [he wllls of theuuml indishyvidual members io in eflSenlte and ln in narure The v1ilflous wills in thb case are nor agsregued arirhmetically each one exim indepenshydendy ur oside a homogeneQu~ socio-political gOUP wirbin whose frarnework (hey can be combjlled
(Murozov 1977 34)
AfLer lhe comiog ro powet ofMikhail Gorbachev in the Soviet Union io 19Bgt a Ihaoge rook place jo $oVJIl policies rowards imeroadonal relations irutuding international organi1ations and [his has been reflecred in new
~ M-- bull 6_V_
Soviet writings un [he subJect Gorbachev inttoducetl a owjor review of [he fureign poljcy uf the Soviet Union (har marchcd rhe inremiry of his dmncslic refotmS He encouraged new rhinking- based on a revjeJ vlew of che world siruation Peaceful co-existence wirh iexclhe capiralisr tirares WlCgt no looger seeo a~ being a spetjfic fum of dass srruggle as Tunkin had written bUI 35 being in the commoo intecesu oiacute all countriCl Ir WIi$ predishycued on the neOO fin surviva of (he human nce which in ShakhfUlZOlrQvmiddot$ word$ must ofCOUIse take fim place Lighe 1988 297gt- Thjs ml$or rhar a new COIKeuropt of seGldty had ro he adopreJ hy che Soviers rhar oiacute common security which wa5 based un sume of he ideas of -che Palme Comminion (see he1ow) Greater emphasis wu given ro arms control and dlsarmament agreemenrs wirh the Wesr 11nd to co-opttation in international uffuirs whilst Soviet intervention io che Third Wodd enbed and milirary 5UppOtC 1m [he East European communisr govcfomentS WlS withdrawn
Soviet wdcings on inremurionilJ relations both offidal and academic came to mirror Gorhachevs new rhJnkiog bur eho lilete iexcl$ evety sigo chut rbese id~ were dmwu no only from rhe Wesr but alw Uacutenm Moscow mink-tanks slleh as lMEMO th~ JflSIirure of World Eronomy and Inremlfona Relacions) Liacuteght 1988 29~n Gorbschev aun his forngn minisrer FQllard Shevaronadre gave rhe academiacuten a Breen light for funher diSClViiacuteon ud debare (Shevaronadre 1990 23) As II reampul srudies examlned he role of che Uniacutered Nariacuteons as sn ugem for peoce (Kolyrev 1990 12-19 NesrerenkQ 1990 65 Petoovsky 1990 42--3) and rhe mte of inrernational or811nizadons in environmental mliLffers IiLnd disurmamenc qutsdmuuml Chodsulkwsky 1988j NikitiM 1989 123-32 Roginko 1989 133-43) and internarionallaw was teassesred (Sutier 1989~ 363-75)
Once che Sovier Union collapsed many of me wrifetS losr rhe main point of political reference A nwllber Iefi academc orhets adapted thelt ideas ro WCtem oues and a few remnioed as policy rulviseni ro che new Russian goVefrutJenL However cornmunism as M imellectually dominant organiuog rotce wlch pnliiisJ dour had djsappeared in Russia togerllef with much uf the persptr1ve ir provided - wben seen thmugh me unen distotdng leos uf tbe Sovier lfulon - oiacute inrernatiooaJ relatlons and inremariooal organhattnru
Chinese Marxisr wrirers have iexclargeIy reflected rhe views of the leadershyship in Chinll sioce [he coming ro power of rhe Commun1sr Patty in 1949 Undl (he 1970$ communist China was elduded from almon aH iotttllJishytional of811nizIiLtIOns and ie is flot surpriamping tha whae lirde writing tbete WUtl on the st1bje(r Wal fairly dismiacutesampive usuaUy consisdng uf coudemnaM tinos of (he UN fnf its action tn Korea aud rhe security allianes fot teir hegernonic narure Chjnese Marxisr rhinking hiacuteu divided (he modem wotld jnro three groups ihe Birsr World consisred of rile fWQ imperialist superpowers namely he USA ano the USSR The Second World was made up uf otbet areaa uf advamed industrilllired cnuntries primariacutely EUfape aod Japa which were opea ro donunariou by lite Sllperpowers bu( which could $tan a dialogue wirh rhe Thiacuterd World Theu (here was rhe Third
158 Writings OtJ internationdl organizatioru
Wodcl iexcltreI( coruisting of the Afro-Asiacutean-Lario Americltlu sta tes supported in their muggte aAainSt Picsr World imperialism by Chinls This viexclew of the wmId colouted tyJst Chiacutenese wridngs on iacuteoternatiollill oeganharions Tbe $uperJowers were seen as cynical lTlllnipubtors Qf inrernarionaJ jnsti~ tutions Mao Tre~tuog wOre of US poliey towards such insdfutions Ir mam use or them when it neOOS rhem and kicks them 3way when ir does flot (Society (or Anglo-Chinese Underuanding 1979 42) US-domioated pill-~ such amp$ SEATO and imperialist groupiacutengs like rhe Alliance tor PfOgre~( wttt detided Spedal viuiot was saved roc the Warsaw freaty Orgaoizatiun whieh in one aetide was described as Soviet sodal~ imperialisms mol fur aggression (Ming Sung circd Jn Chen 1979 194) fhe Soviet Union was aceuseQ of trying tu manipulate che Pan and negnshydate wlth Wesrem eouorries rhmugh the Enropean Scltwiry Conferenee tn consolidare irs begemonic status in Basrern Enrope at the same time iexcliexcll dividiog Wes(ern Europe squeezing Out the USA ro as ro muSte way (0(
iu expansion and infilrmrion into Westem Europe (Ming Sung clted in Chen 1979 197)
Chinese writecs Fegatded tbe Ntildegttood Worid espedally Western Europe as being a pen force io telmS of imperialism which Ww tdponeed to the lhird World wich diaJogu as io the Jmueacute Convention berweoen tIacute1e European Commnnitiacutees and AF~ican Carib~an and Paciuacutet srUe5
Furrhermore the defensive $spects of NATO were sttessed and with growing European cohcsion the trend iexclS IJkely to ~ towatds a fuoce in which the American elemenr is seen as 1 temporary neceuity eventual1y to be phased out (Sodety fur Anglo-Chioese Undetstanding 1979 90)
lthe countries of the Third World were setn as coostirotiog rbe mluumln force comb$dng imperiaJi~m colonialism and hegemonJsm reEerring nor only to the vestiges of Wesr Etl-OOptan foloniiexcliexclJism bOl abo to US iexclnpetlshyalism and gwwiog Soviet soci$l~imperiacutea1ism Tbe Third Wodd eQuld hdp tn exclude the gre$t powers ny baoding cogecher io such otganizatinos aiexcl tht DAU aod rhey could work ro correct unequiexcliexcl nade and eeonomk reladons with che sUpetpowers through UN iexcliexclgeucies and eonferences such as UNCTAD and UNaos Abo rtlW material ancl exporting orgllnizations liexclke OPEC rbe Incernadonal Bauxilaquo Association ancl the Onion of Banana Bxporting Counuies were proised a ehanging (he old interntlrional eumomic Ome and banerlog che biggest roarerJal plunderers in rile world rhe United Srates and (he Soviet Uoleo (Ptking Rt1Jiew 26 Septtmbtr 1975 cited in Cheo 1979 309)
111e poverty oiacute ehinne study of intetnatlenal erganhuions no dounr caused by the lack of Chinese membership of such etganizacions unril the 197amp and the turmoit ef the Cultural Revulution eiexcliexclme ro an enel by the 1980s Jnstead oere was a more reaHs( viexclew (lE rbe worlcl iexclf one S~shytimes coucbed In Manlst terms In Chlnese univenittes there was a growtb io detailed studies of iutemationalntgsnizations aod the nuropean Union
WritingI un inlmullPmnl vrgrsrtilpiill1J 159
Tbird Wwld vlewJ
Many Third Wodd Afro-Asian aoo Latin Atrusican) writers 00 jntemsw
tional organizaion have adopte a structtulIist framework and are particufarly nm(etnecl abour how insdtutions can be wcd as tools of exploitadon uf rhe nitd World aud how $ome cau be used lIS agenrs of libenuion They llave nor been induded in the ~ettiexcloo un Marxist viltws (or three feamm nOI al of them are Mandst thIJM who are Manisr place particular stresS on (he posicion oF thE l1lIacuterd World and as ThJrd Worlcl eitizens they have through theit own experience unother pe~cdve rhan [Mt of writers from industri$lized srates
Yash 18ndon (1978 377) has identjfied thNf nuacuterd World penfIXrives en inrernational Olganizatiolls Fim [here is that or the bourgeois Of perry natiunalisrs who are in power in mos[ Third World statcs and who are progressive in [errru of anti-impcrialism but are rraniollary ro the C1tccnr WC they would sooner mau thcir pcaee with imperialism rhan iluwnder power (e the masses and peasancs This group uses ineernational orgllniexclm~ tions ro pur presrure 0lI imperialisc states in order to extntCt concession5 from them and appease tbe masses in their own coontries TIley see che UN as an opportunity to parley witb their entwhiacutele impecild masters t a presumed kvd uf equa1iry (Tandoo 1978 365) Thc scltond pcrspective is rhat ofthe reaIly backward regimes of thl Thitd Wodd such un Taiwiexcliexcln and Jotdan or whnm intemarional orguniacutelattnnS are of margJna1 signifieance [)t they prefet tu dea wirh impcrialism iquestirt(tiy The rhird petSPCCrive idenrified by landOll is that uf rhe masses vi thc TIlird World for wbom toterntlunaJ orgmilAriom are petiphewl fin liS Jong as hey rontinue fO reflect the muing balanlte uf clas$ forces in hvour uf impeuacuteJism (fandon J 978 378) Sioce the ene of he 196amp rorces representing thu third group have bccome lnott prominent in world polido in che form of liberarioo groop1 lttCn as tbe PLO and whilst chese have f)tgten interested in galnin8 telaquolgnJtlon rOt rhemshyselves at the UN and the spedaliled agcodes rhey are not depeuden 00 these or8ani1Jlton~ rndecd Tandoo romioeted (hat fo che revoludonary snnggles in SOUfh~E3SC A~a and AfrJctI iOfernattonal otgilnizalJons are tOO peripheml to be of much $ignilJeaoce (Tandon )9713 377)
Tancloo providcd n inrere~tiog history of the Jevelopment uf the anrishycolonialist forees in che Third Wruld sinee 1945 bur hi~ clivi~iexcl()H iexcloro he three perspenives is roo stark leaving aside rhe leil important backWllro regimes be has basiclllly grO~lped tbe Third World leadershp joto the revoshylutionaries who have Uttle netd (or imernatiooa otgllnizatiooll and those who llave suumlpped into refOrmism and have beco duped iot() bdieving (hat they elln ehaoge chelr c1ependeoce 00 industtia1i1Cd nBfiexclmL~ lhrough intemadonal organiwtions Thjs seems to undelsrare me use or ~mh organishyzations by revolutionllry groups - especiiexcliexcllIy che PLO anel tlle SoUthem African liberadon OtgllOiexcl7arionS - whieb have made substaotial use oiacute [he UN me Arah League ano the OAU tO sustain rhe polirical aspeets of theit effOrt5 1t alS(l uverestimatcs the extent tu whieh the Third World countries
J UU wnlmgl 1111 JTiUrllamm41 ergtIttJ1I0fll
have any iUwinru about imetnariooal Qrganizarioos such a~ UNC1~D
Furchermorc the identificador of 800d revolutionaries and falten refurmislS i~ tuller impliexclstjc~ rhe maIur sponrot of the UNs New Ecooomic Order l wruch Tandon hal roudemned as rhe Old Economic Order with a diffefent rltetoric WIIS the Algetian radinu governmenr of Boumediemu rhe PLO irself ha heen dependem on a numlgttr of bnurgeWs Arab goveromenrs foc financial 00 diploJUlltic suppon and ro Tandoos duumlertion that PQr narlonallibemwn movemenn guided by a proktatlan idoology such liS rhose in Chifliexcl1 lIlud Vietnam iruemarionaJ organlwtlona WtU of no 1J5e can be- added the re5ervarion until chey carne (O power Whiht ir took some twenty years belote communist Qtill1 made use nf suth organiutions the unified communiSl Stale ol Vietnam was quick fO cake up it position in the UN ro ask [Ol aid thtough UN agencies liS well as w become ji membet of he CMEA (Comecon)
Third Wodd commemscOt1l on world politics have emphasized the nature uf rheir atea$ potirical ecoOoacutemtc Ilud culmral relatloosluumlp wilh rhe iHdllsrriexcl~ alixed Nonh TitilO is iOO$t Oflltl rypified aiexcliexcl bciug OHe of ueo-folonialism _ COntrol of che Third Wtltld by lhe Nortb by indirecl means ratlet (han by direa colonial tule and of Kf)IomIacute( dRptwJmry (o dtpmdemjiexcliexcl) lntetnationaiacute rdsdOOi bcrween sures are sublumed ro relations between claue$ world wide Ixtween on rhe one lIand the expluacuteiting impetialist capitetists in rhe northcm iru1usuialized couotries 2100 rhcir middle-ltlass collaboratotS in the 50Uthem SUtes aud on the othet band he exploiced masses rhe proleuriat ol [he $Ourhern contJnems The Lurcr gmupS have been 1I1iide ecooomkaUy dependent on [he furmer so char hey lIre in rhe wuacutetds uf the Bruiliiln T Dos SantOS in a situadon jn which the economy of a cetuin group of counshytrles is condiacutedoned by rhe develOplllent aad expansion of aoother ecouomy lO which thcit own 15 subjecred (Bodenheimer 1971 327)
The uOOerdeveloped tounrries depend uacuten [be developed ror their capital nd ercperdse they find key sectors of ehdr eroooroy conrrolled from OUtsJde rhey act as a SOUfce of raw marerials lIS ji lthetip source of labour arul as a rnarket fur mllnuf8ccurers from Euttipe ]apan and North America As thejr living standards were deterrniud by rhe vicissinWeS of the Northern~ dominated wodd marker the relationship was Otle uf unequa exchange (he [esule of which was a world experiencing woequal developmenr with a developed rieh indwtriaJiud capiralisr Notthern centre and d poor underdeveklpedgt agciculrutitlly backwarn eXFloired periphery in che 50mb The dependem 80mh has been divided berween rhe ptedominanr undemeshyveloped area~ lUld a few Cenfres of deve10prnenr wirh their ttade culrural rraffie and polidcal linL to [he deveJoped North - rhe depeOOem develop~ memo omlinea by EH Cardosa (1974) allodlt~r Bruiliall Mmir Amiu (977) rejC(ted the prosptltt of aH antonomous capitalist development in [he Third Work the oew bourgeaisJe of Lacin Ametica Africa and Asia were in allianec with capitalisrs from rhe Nnnh and rhe mato $OUrce of finance ror lmported equipmem was fmm the expon of raw materials to rhe indu~rial
5 ~ _~ smiddot_middot~~
iexclred smes Amin (1977 1-21) SllW rhe can made ror a New Imernational Ecooomic Order (NIEO) by Third World leaders at rbe UN UNCTAD aod che Vilrlous North-Sourh dialogues as an nrtempt LO iexclnerease the price of chelr ntw mattIial exporrs obraio more lmpotted technol08Y snd chus finance a new srage of develQpmenr He saw this ti placing the Thitd World more in the gttp of the neo-co1onialist sysrem and iostmd recommended 11
more self~rcuumlanr development wlrh murrud assismnce between Third World sures a reducdon in [ade wirh rhe induuialized wotld and Chlll a loos~ ening of dependenre Amin lJke TaOOon had Jittle fairh in presenc imtrnruional organizaciexclon Il tools foc fasbiooing a more independent Tbiacuten Wotd His sU88tl1cion of grearer mUtual ilSlgtistaoce between ThUd WorId uate~ implied somtthing more sophillticated than a numbtr of bilateral arrmgements As rbe present orgauizarions used fu iexclncm~Thjrd World cnshyoperation (che OAU he Atab League ASEAN) are domitllued by jusr dl()llC govetnmenrg chM accept lhe eowse coodemned by Amio _ the NIEO ami greater jmegrndon iexcluro rhe world economic sysrem ~hen Amia solutloil involves like-minded deveJoping counrries or more like1y political changes leading ro such indigenous intemuional orgilniwrions
Other Trufd Wodd wdten have plllCtXl emphasls on grearer use 01 exisring insdtutions lOO can broadJy be deKfibed lIS Wopmenraluli huI Prebisch an Argentinian econOmigf has not only studied the que5iaacuteon uf ecooomic dependency but his ideas llave been used as the baJiexclis for che wotk of cwo miexclljoc iexcliexcluemariOOiexcll1 organizadons rhe UN Enmomic Commission fa utin Ameriea (ECLA) and UNCfAD Iu his smdy of Briliacutesh-Argerl(inian trading relntioflS Prebisch bad idenrified rhe unequRl tecrns ol Hade between he favoured (ndusrrislized s(ate of tbe centre and he les privj~ leged llOIl-indumialiacutewl periphery Prebisch unlike rhe dependencia gtChool of Amiacuten Dos Sancos and Cardosa believed thu this inequaLity could be overcome by political acrinn by trade pre[ereonces fuvouring the pedphery by eoo1ruooiacutery agreemenrs by intelnatiacuteowll aid and by more foreiga imvestment in che ~riphery It was thele remedies thiexcllr Prebiacutesch eneouraged when he WiIS Executive SecrCrary of ECLA from 1955 lO 1963 aOO Secrewy-Genernl ofUNCTAD ftoro 14 ro 196tL In~d rhe amoum of aid the periphery needed in omer to overeome their Unfuvoluable rrnde balance became known io UNCTAD clrcles as [he Prebiexclsch Giexcllp
The distinguished Afiican aC1ldentie Aji Mazn1i has wricren un the plighr Qf (bar conciflfnt aod j~ role in pmem~day interruUIDllfl1 afmits He soughr ro answer rhe quesdon Now rlw Imperial Order is eoming ro an end who is going tO keep rhe peaee in Aampica and tu examine he concept of Pax AfrlclllUl the African s ambidoo ro be his OWh palaman The JXIliacutecillJS and se[f~8overnment ufAfriea depended on the nodan ofan African self which Mauui discusseJ in decaH He considered how this 1ndepen~ denre might be threarened by the politicaI and cultural fragmenMion of the contillenr Ellld eronomieally by deperulence on Europe He quoted Kwame Nkntmah finr President uf Ghaniexcll on rhe Europe-Jn ECOntunir Communiry
162 Wilihgr rm intd1JatirmallJrganizatimu
ihe ireaty of Romemarks the advent of oeoKolonitJism [n Afriacuteen snd bears unqutSrlonably the marks of Freneh neo-colonuumlllism (Murui 1967 93) He moduded from tM that Wlut AfrlOlns tbelaquofore neecletl was II
renerru authotity of cheir owa tI) ((lordilJlte fheir eltonomk and policicat deCena- sgain5t trus rnreat (Mamtiexcl 1961 93)
Given this theme it is not surprising tlwt Mazrui ser srore by rhe OAU bU[ he was realistic in bis judgement
In relatioos betwlaquon African statts lIOflesr step rowards Pu Africana was taken when rhe Organiution oiacute Aftlaquolln Uniey set up in Commissiacuteon ofMediauacuteoo Conci1illtion aud Arhitmion
Anormr OAU Commissioo of relevance fot Fax AftlOlna ls che Defence Cornmission Sor me Defeme Commlnion 1w se Car been among che lean effecdve QfPan-Aiacutericun ins(kndons Afrka mar indeed aspire to be her owu ptlliceman bur she does nO seem ready as yel to par the price iacutem it
(Mauui 19612[3)
Mazrui oudined the varicd backgrounds of [he lemen oiacute newly illdepenshydent Africa and thdr radical and revolmionary ideas and it is pethaps swprising rhat the insrirutions rhey created fur me coutinenf wete so mnservative with [he p05sible exceprion oiacute the OAUs Natiomtl Libetttion Comminee Mazrui no[ed thac Africa srill has the problem of how othet powetS respond tu its behaviour and [har forcigo iotmsilm in AJtica continued Indetd the I990s proved tO be a dC(ade of disusrer for AfrieR The debiacute burden contimlld while Ilome states collapsed lnro civil war ami others took to iutenoendoo in thejr ueighbonrs affairs Outslde interference from borh Enrope and North Amecica euodoned One of rhe fcw brlghr spots was the end of apallhcid in South Africa and the peaceful transitioo ro majoriry mJe lo al thiexcl~ tn quote Juliacuteus Nyerere rhe ampcmer pre~iexcldenl of Tan1ania The OAU exists outr ror tbe prorecdoo of (he Afrinllt Head~ oiacute State (cited io AlilgapPltl 1998 1 ) The relarive optimism of Maztui has giveu way ro Afriam writers examining sorne of me disrnrbing details of inaction by [be OAU and regtonal orgauiacutezatJuns nlCh as ECOWAS beiog used as doaks fu the machinations oE regional hegemou$ suth as Nigcria (Mibe 1m 61-9(1)
Radha Sinha$ problem--ortented undy Food iexcllfId PIWt11y (1976) has an IItgent message Sinha a former consultaot of the FAO prodnced an iofuacuterrned aUllyiexcljiexcl of the world$ food problem stress1Og in paniacutecular the maldistribution of food and other resources Noting he profO$ab of UNCTAD with heit muld-rommodJty approach and buffer nocks provjshySiOfli he commented rhe grearesr weakness oE the UNCTAD scheme js les Hkdy politlca1 unilcceptablliry ro me developed (ountdes parriculady che USA (Sinhil 1916 114) a propheey that has proved to he cortect He identitled a more aggresslve attitnde by Third World sutes e5pedally
WrilirrgJ on i1tternatiflii1l rHgarrtzatitmlt 163shy
after the uH prite cise of 197314 when the developing coonuies tried to maximize their own market powers by formin cartcls such as rhe Intematimlal BaurdtC Association the Intemuional Coundl of Copper Expotcing Countries aud the Intema[ional Tin Agrcrmenr He gave n qualified wekome ro the Lomeacute Convention betwcen the European (omrounities anJ cenain African Padfic and Caribbean Haces Writing in 1976 he commented
The receot cbange in rhe luirudes of tite tiche countries is largely due tu the incIeasing miliuncy of the Third World countries lt is almost ertalll utar the magnitude offuture cnnc~sions in me coune ofGAIT aud UNCTAD IV Ilegotiarioos wiU deperu mainly on (he continued solidariry uf the devdoping counlrtes
(Siha 1976 116)
Sinha was pardy correct as tbe solidatity cf rhe Tbird Workl states cracked se the induurialized wodd withheld funher Con(eampSJoru but ir was able tO do so because market condidons swung against che primaty producen
In his condusion Sinha called ror a IIDre1 shttting of wnrld t($nmes and power if confrontarion was ro he avoidOO He feared that the ffa of roshyoptradon berween [ieh and pool conntries hiid ((lT1e to an end and that batde lines were being drawn Instead he advOOIreltI majnr concessions from the dcher coumries on trnde lInd aid issues and a1so a ma~lt te$ltUcrnring of the incematiotlill organization~ aoo negoacutetiating ffiarhinery in order tu provide a much gtC2ter say fm me poorer countries in internatiooal tJ1lde invesrment and mooetaiexcly armngemenrs (SiMa 1976 132) GAn 1BRD aud IMF have been the presenoe of [he ri h with voting weighted m faacutevour of rhe OECD countries and Sinha re(()ffimended thlll GATr aoo UNCiAD be merged inro an Intemacional irade Organization (ITO) and che creatlon of a Third World permanent secrctariat iexclnvolved in all trade and aia negoriarioru Thoogh less radical than Amin Sinha aIso recomrnrnded gttter coshyoperation berween developing coulltries and an eoo ro their inkrtotity complex with instead a sense of m~ttnal sdiacute-e$teem and trust being devel~ oped (Sinha 1976 ch 10) Litde that h~ happened during the 19905 woo1d have encouraged Sinha The World iratle Organiaadon has emerged as the presenoe of the dlVelupeJ tares and lw brushed aside many of thc mucerns cf UNCTAD Debr ha~ edged on ro dlt wudd iexclagenda but mainly at the beheS[
of a non-governmental organization )ubiacutelec 2000 nd the promi$e~ of the main financill jnsrirutluru lO pursue dcbc-rclicf produred but a thiniexclmfl
In aH Third WQrld commenrarors have provided a vatied and lively approruh fOwards tne problems uf intetniexclational organizarions Their emphasis has niltntaHy beCl Qn tbe use of wurld lmtirutions to change the econornic condidon or the Southern cominents As this enndition is likely to worscn in the near filrtltf further more lJica conrtibutions on the rule oC
-- --- ~- __ _~- __- imernatIacuteonal orgaoilarions in Nonh-Smuh relarJons tOiexclghf be apected from rhe Third Worid A1ternaciveJy wrirers (mm rhat ares rmy jW ltIacuteespUacutet rm imergovemmemal orgaoizarions ar lealaquo Mee rhem $O Hrrle
Cfili~ald~heJ
Critica approadvs lO the nudy uf intetnadonal relations are (hose har rejee( the dominating vleW1iexcli repr=med by tbe realist and reformistS as oudined aboye In paHicular rhey reglUd realists as apologisu for the currem con6gutltion of power 10 (he wiexcldd sytem and considet [har rhe refOnntstS are elrher unable ro undersraoo he fUe llamee )( (hi sysrem oc ille UDwiUing to accepc rilar ir needs more rhan mooest refotlllS TIlOugh they may sympalhi-ze wirh rhe agenda of some Marxists aud Third World wt1cers chey do [lO( llave rhe hisrockal certaimy of the former not rarely do they have the experience and perspective of ehe larter TItey view intenUishy(jnl1ill nrganiutions wirh a jaundiced eye as these are mainly the lll$tmmenfS of rhose who dominare rhe syuem This section COlllaios an wcoum nf three approaches tmt of the critical rheorlsti- of kmintsc wrirshy[1185 ulld pose~mooernismlt
Cri(~1 herJrY The approach of critical theory 10 JnrematlonaJ o(ganizatiooll iSi determtoed by their wider world-view which in itsclf is explaiiexclwd by tbeir llame One of the leading exponents Roben Cox said [har ie is cririca1 in cne Jensc rha h srands apan 100m che prevailiog order of rhe wOlld and asks how tb$t oroer came iexcllPouc Ir does nor r-ake existing irucimtioM lIl1KI JIQwer relaclons rOl granred bu c311s them iacutemo queuion Ir 1S diexclrlaquoced ro rhe social itnd JIQiirshyical complex as a wItole rarhet (hall he stparate pirtt IUthet than subdiide and Imic an examination of a problem it looks al the wger pkturc of whkh rhe problem is jwt oue part and trio rO wJdeThwod the processeS uf change ill which botIt pans ulld whole ure involved laquo(ox 1993 277~S)
Ai a thoory cridQiIacute theory rejeen tbe daims of posicivism of an external Nulity and to be mue-free ror critkal rheorIacutests koowledge ti nor moraUy IleUc1ll1 ic is more che result of the social background of tbose Wt hold ir Given this ctitkal tbeory alJows foc a normarive choice in favoU of a social ancl iexclJlieiexcl(ld order diflerent f(cm rhe prevruHng arder bur it limiu the ruuse 01 chotce ti a1remative orders which are feasibJe mmsformations ofme cxvaing worJd h musr rejEC[ improbable alternadVe8 ju~t as ir rejecrs rhe pcrmanctlly nr lhe exiscing order (Cox 19 90)
Cridcal rheory differs lrom Marxist upproElchcs beCElUS( of iu tejection nf any daim to hold the objenive tru[h and betause or it~ avoidance of (he pmslllt ol il utopia Neverrhe1ess [heir analysis of incernarional relarln1l$ is one tbu hEls u numher of similariuumles wich the Marxisc pcrspecdve It regurds rhl tlistlng suucrures of world polirics as beiug oppressie not
- _ __ _-
lean because of rhe dominance of (he capitalism of che Unired StElte~ For many che USA is seco as a hegemonic power the prevailing urder - in re[ms rbar reReet he wrirings of the Itallan Marxisc writer Amonio Gramscl (1891-1932) Gramsd advanced the nodon of ln hisrori(middot bloc which in itself refilaquors che $Ocial reladons oE ptoducdoo The dominanr dass in a counrty - 01 indeed aoy social grouping - mlinrains cohesion and idenciry withio [he bloc [hrough the ptopagacion of a COIDmOfl culturegt A new bloc can be formelt when a subordinate dau can euablish tU hegeshymony over orher subotdioate gtOllpS (Cox 1993 56--7) The IDove rowuds hegemony comeS with the piexclt$ting fmm che spediacutek inrercsrs ofa gronp Ol
dass tO rhe building uf inrimdons aOO elaoorarion uf ideologies (Cox 1993 57-8) It Loiexcl rhat ptOCe$S thar embeds the incemu of the dominanc dan in an imttmrional form thae [w an appeal widet [ban that dan ine1f It the-refole repreSoems mote tlmn jUSt (he drunJnaoce oE one state ovec anocher bllt implies a cemufi acceptante of the tules arJd institutions purouized by [he hegemonic JIQwer Jo other woros it is all order wbicb most Olher Sta[e-~ (01 at 1enst those within reath of die hegernouy) couId find compatible- wirh their iexclmetem (Cox 1993 6t) h aJso involves noe just inttt-staee rueivirle5 bur rhose oiacute tlvilliOCiety (oon-Stllte socieM instishycudons) ebereby encoumging Hnks between social dus$ts iexcln the connules covered by ebe hegemony
What does Cox llave to uy about ioccmational Otgsniuciexclons 1bey Ilre scen in he oontext ofme wiacuteoo unaemanduuml18 of itnernational reUacuteltions mentloned iexcliexclhove He is direcr 000t mem Ooc mechanisru chrough wruch the universal norms of a wodd hegemony are expttssed js the interoatiooal organisation (Cox 1993 62) Why is chis so Cox U993 62) gives five teIlSons
bull They e-mbody rules cOae help (be- apwlSion of a hegemonic wodd iexclrder These insdwrians reflcct the intererts ()( the dominam social anil economic force- buc a1low a cettain amOunt oC adjusrment ro accommodare other subordinared interests TIms the USA WllS preplltoo ro mm conccssions to
bciI18 in Lhe EU srares and Japan ro rhe Wotld Trade Otganizatimt They a[e prooucrs of that order Though [he insrimrions and rules Ilce
nurITlllUy initiared by the hegemook power ir takes cate ro involve aOO comule a numbe-r of second-ronk stares and gaio theit supporc he Wotld Bank and Inte[nacional Mooetaty Fund were very much pan of [he world order thar emerged afrer [he Second World Wat and which was dominared by rhe Uoiced Stlres
They ltgidmi7e i[s nOlms by providing guidance for SllIteS and by legitshyimiuacuteulS cerraIacuten IlCdviries Ilr me narional leveL he OBCD afie rhe inrerruuiooal financia) irntuumluriom lave spread an acceptante of mllrket coodirions and sHict mOllerary iexclJlides
They co-opr elites from pelipheral counrrie Ihlented sraH commg 110m the Thiacuterd Wocld are expected tO dCCept he scriexclpt wcittttt by the domishynam power Bouuos Bourros-Ghati as Secteury General uf the Unired
166 Jiexclljiexclr1giexcl Qr1 ifJfCflrttuacutemal IWgaizati(ifJJ
Nadons stroyed too amp~r ftOm the gtip of Washinston and his second term was VCtoM by rhe USA His sucecssor Kofi Annan will no doubt undentand what 1$ n-quired of him He brings the mncerns of orhe states ro che UN bUf nor in a way thu threatt1l$ the USA
bull They absorb counter-hegemonic ideas Ideaiexcl $uch as 1iustainable dlYClop_ ment tukl even debr foTgiwness are taken 00 board by the intetnatwnal finarnial institlltion$ blu are trandirmel into pulido rhat swt them
Wh~t is ro be done Cox thinks thar the pfQblem of changiog dw world orUer 1iMuld be shlfred back from intern~tional insritutions tO niexcllriacuteooal $OIacuteishyeties where the sodo-political b~se for a new historie bloc mighr be ereated (Cox 1993 64) FaiJing the creadon of a new historie bloc of the new working cla$s and rural and urb~o marginal groups there might be tnmdorshymadon oC the curtent monopoly-libcral hegemony by adjusting to rhe demanJs oiacute local ello$ for polides 5uch as natlonaHution Cox 199~ 65) He aw advocates te-regulation of erooomies and a re-wmpositjon of civil sodery Internatiotla lnstlcutions induding organiutions can berome eontact puint1i fOr new $OCia[ furtt (Cox 1994 (11)
Critica throrJm $uch as Cox oifee a refreshing exposidon oiacute che posidofl oC imernatiooal ofganizatioos in a wocld where the main revolutionary powe~ have either collapsed (rhe Soviet Union) or se(tled into a cautious ronservatirun (China) Ir provlde~ a sceptical arf realisric world~view without acreptins tbe inevuumlahility ni a illture domlnared by mooopoly eapi~ ujsm sud the Utlired States J-Iowevtr its appllcariexclon to intemationa1 organhatJons 11 StImewha( timited tQ the maln global jnsdm(jons and th financial and economlc orgmiutions Ir has 1m (O say aboue regional nrgashynjudon Uf abour N(JUacutes Furthermore iu alternarive fu(ure testS on ourcoroes thu are far froro certain RevnJutlons in the Thied World are roore likely to be- irupired by nadondi$m oc by IsJaroic fllndamentaHfl OCalaquoely [he solid ooses for new historie blocs
Fwinuumll aNml4cbts
Feminist perspcctives 0f1 inttmatlonal rtlatioos llave in common wirh the erit~ ical rheocillu a rejclaquoion of (he dominance in rhe $Ilbjecr of the rcnHst and rdOrmisrs Although fuminist writen cover a wide 5laquolpe the gencral basis oiacute their aqurnent 1S har in interwnional relatioM ru in most politkal aud tcooomk acdvity women are diexclSJtdvantagt~l Alchoogh they own ahour 1 pet tCfH oC the worlJs lfOpeny and tiexcliexclxe heme 10 peiacute ceoc ofincome they perfurm 60 per eenr of working houn and provide 80 per eent of nfusets (petetsen and Runyan 1993 6) This is a derDOnstrndon of gender inequalitie~ the sodalJy learned behavior and expecratioos thar distioguish berween maKuliniry and femininity (Petetsen and Runpn 1993 5) Feminist aprroaches ofren So bejond the $tati~tks and examine (he mind~se[ of those engaged in the pmctice of intemadonal rdations whiexclch (bey ampee as geodered In other woros che world
Writingc Off inlmhJliofMl vrgntiZdlMm 167
illeen in a mlLlndine way thar kvrntB (he posjtiOll o( mnles in rhe hitgtranhy and devlllues the c041trihution of WQmeO (Sylvestet 1994) War in pattKular is gendered in a way chat keeps wornen and metl from qUtstioniog the essentiat pmpose and he neglltive effects of war militarization ~nd viQleme on their awn and orhers livts (Petetsen and Ruoyan J993 9 t)
What of wminist view$ uf imernationaJ organizationsr Ir IS not possible ro presem a rollf(tive vjew that eneomp3$~e~ rhe works of radicaJ femjnisu and ny iexclihetal teminists (rutead the work of one author Sandra Whitworth (1997) will be used as me pily$ rornt attrntion ro inrernarlonal organizations Aamper inrroductions ro feminilfr theory and internacional frIamiddot tiom and gendet and internacional relatlons Whirworrh examines geodet and imernational organilions She screpts Coxs vjew oiacute inrernational orgashynjzarions [har they retleltr (he dominant powet relations in che intetnational system and rhae internaliomd otgaoiution h che procelt of imcitntionaJshyiling and regulating conOice - eicher rhat which may IIrise among siexclates o( char which has iu (onU io transnationaI society (Cox 1980 375) TIte way duu pcople orgaoire themelve$ wirhin international iostirurjons reflects a variety of power relations ineludi~ of rollJSe gendec relatiull3 (Whitworth 1997 74) lbe triad of jnstirutions ideas and material rQudi~ tioru help ro hxare uSllmptiolls aboue geoocr withiu jntetmltional rewtioos Whitworth uses thesr tn examine lhe uooerstandillg oiacuteScndec io an INGO the Internadonal PlarUled ParenthooJ Federatlou (JPPF) and an intergnvemmental organilJ1rion (albcir one wlrh some oOl1-governmentJ)J represemation) the InrernatlonaL lab01lrOtganiution (no)
Whirworths studies show rhar thr IPPF tended ro accept the deshyemphasizlng oi the gendered oamfr of reproducdoo and (f) ignore rhe imponaoce ofbirth comcol foc womens reproductive freroom Instead in an effort tu popularize birth rontrol srrel~ WWl placoo on paremhooJ rather than iexclust the womans choice However IPPF poUcy beeiexcllme more radirnl in (he 19905- with Hnks beirtg made berween II1M control alld womeos ~)tu~ ality (WbJtworth 1997 ch 4 pmim)
The RO eoucerned itself with WQmen as workern It cnnsidercd that tbey oeeded spec-ial atrention and promoted ptoteCtlvt legiexcl~lacion This reiexcln~ forced me view (har [he male worxer Wall the norm with women workers nor deserving the same rights remunfration lOO mndirions Latterly however the JLO ha~ reflectoo views rhat prodaim wornens elt)ualily in rhe workforce and has sunoo tuacute assess the importanee of policies on womens role in rhe workplace as weU as in sodery more wjdely (Whlrwnrth J997 ch 5 panm) Whitworth comes [O the eondusion rhu iexclln iexcllnaLyiexcli~ of gernler in rbe IPPF and no shows how tbese rdiexcliexcldonsbips llnd definirions ni what it is to be a womltn oc man are structuted relationsrups3nd hlsrQciudly hve been scrurtured tu disadvantage women (ibid 15n
lo eommon with the critkal meorists Whitworth has useQ au examinamiddot doo of two intetnational organixations (O deroonstrate a puinr about imerflational relatiexclon~ indeed sodal rctatrol1s mOte widely The poinr is
I1
I
middot - ~-_ --___ aOOuc powec and iu use not (O balance oue SCdre ligaiOSf anorher but fm une gooup ro domiaare morher Jn chis case it 1$ ma the dominution of one dass me m culcnre over $ofU)(her (though Whirworrh recognizes those reLationshyships ti wcll) but of roen over women The crititUl uudy oiacute (wo jnceraational mganirations dealing with iSSlle5 recoSniud ti beiiexclg oiacute impocshycanee or WOfficn suggesu rha( tltOO simihu research on orher internacional organizadons could proJuce interening aOO uwfuiexcl resulrs
Pllit~ism
Thc posc-moderruacutesr $opprooch lO intetaarional rcllldon is one tlur bas (ome ro che fote Jn che perlod sinee lite end of rhe Cold War Jr is based on $o widcr imellectual viewpoim insrigated by l1rench iorcUtcruals of the 196()s gener~ ation _ Bllrrhes Derrida FouclIul and Lyorard - and whkh suggested rhat the modero era liad becn overome 11 fejeas mera-nattatives gnlud accounv- of hi5tory aoa iacuteNIacuteler subjecu as having no independem rubstance Scientifk btliefs induding [hose oiacute rhe $)(ial scJcllces are rooted in (lllxure polill(os arul mores oJ a wciery and are lherekJre subjective As rhere is 00
oblcctive reality cmpirical daims bave fl() spccial sunding in rhe rralms of koowledge IndeeJ ir i$ power aod knowledge are intimatel) incerwirud Posr-moJernism Hllnds against rhe belief of rbe modero pcfiod which LI seco as beginning wiacuterh rhe enlightenmcm of mid-eightcenth cenrufy Europe and AmeriCll Ir rheldore rejcn~ rhe COMCpr$ oC rationalirl and progrcss aSSuacutedared wi(h [he enlighrenment and [he moocrn age Thc uniry of IOOnkind iexclirW iexcldells such liS rhe untveIsWiI) of human aacuteghrs are rejcuoo lnsceadlocal aetion in smallgroups 15 advuacuteClmd
Post-modetnist ideas have affected tite srOOy of inremruionaJ rdarions as (bey have ocher social scienccs Posr-modern imeraarional relariops theoriscs havc ustd heir view$ 00 objecuumlviry (o exiexcltmine che rrmhs of international relatiom en see how rhe concepts iexclind knowledge-dairm (bar dominare the Jisdpline in faer are highiy conringenr on spccific power relatiom (Smith 1997 181) Post-modemisrs bave lltfa(red me mcta-narratives of the reelshy1m and reformlsu aHke The objectiacutevemiddot aaallses of the realim Ilnd neo-realisu are setn as being deJl(nclent on the subjective standpojnts of cheif mainly Amen(an and Europeau authors Ijcharcl amphiel (1986 258) daimed he works o[ Kenneth Waler men the leading neo-realillt trrat the glven ordcr a rhe natural nrder Jjmirs rarheE (lian 1XpawU political discllUtse negales oc rriviuliliS the signifinnce uf variely urOiS time and plue Whar emerges ii an ideology tllar anridpatcs iegirimires ancl onents a totalitarian projen 01 global ptoponioo~ che rattoualiaciuacuten of global poHcics iexclbe reformius are likcwise tainted Md have Ji mhr$lren belief in pmgress The posc-modernl$rs poinr m rh Helocausr as rhe heighr oiacute mooemism a rombimiddot Halioe of science dnd polidcal otganizillnon Il was SCruTely progreso
Given an antifllthy mwards rhe MlVe[iacute~ign srae borh as a centre of powet ll1ld as a crearioll Jiten imbutol wlth a wncepltliexcl uf progress pest~miexclJdetniexclsls
wHungJ mi Im~iexcliexclrun wgltiIRrzuJlU7iJ 1J7
can lOUcdy be expcctcd to vIacuteew intergovernmencal organiUlrions wirh sympilthy Tbe prefetted iacuteonu of internacional organizations when mentioned are those thiexcltt ltlj~plal differemes snd dlvenity in global pelitlcil duu are reginnaUy based or rhar reflec irKlividual actlOn Tndecd ir SeeIJS
rbat Michel Fomawt was involved with an alliance oiacute twO INGOs (Miquestdecin du Monde and Tertl-s do Hommes) in proresting agaiust internadonal iH~shydon over rhe boat people who flcd Vietnam in tite lare 1970s and ear1y 19S(k He is gU()[ed 11$ sayillg tbar Amnelltl Internnrlonal Teueiexcl dts Hommes Mfiiecin du Monde lHt inirilltives whiacutech have created a nrw righr rile dAht of privare individuss ro iexclntervene in [he otder of polino and internatioont snateg(eiexcl (dred in CampheH 1998 516)
Aootber researcher has exnmined ~he Europcan Communities Ilr che point wben Jr was mnslorming intO me European Unioo and askOO whether ir was a pootmodew ConJigUflHton (Nstrgaard 1994) Hi condusions wcre mar ir was gualiwiveJy a new organizarion oC human calJecrlvJties which mighr U$hec the coming of post-moderniry (Ntgttgnatd 1994 27j) The basis fO[ [bis judgemem was rhat me Ee did nO approximate anl modero form of piexcliexcl1idUll Ofpnizarion it did OOt commatld che means oiacute violence its au[hotity derives noc from die people and ir appeared to be a fCgJoo trying ro pOrecr itiexcliexclelf againsr globaliacutezadun iacuteN0rgaaro 1994 274--5) Ir remllins ro be sren whether [he BU tJf [he twenry-first cenrury wHl fu1fi1 rhtgtse hopes Ot wiU stllrr ro teVen
to a more scate-like being Generall) dIe cririolapproaches ro interruHiorud relarious hiexclJve provided
1lOOIe innovatIacuteve insigllls iexclnro rhe study uf imemarional orgsnizations The crtrical theorists llave becn sh3rpest in rheir unde[$(iexcltnding nf internarional ofgiexclt1lizacious as servsnrs of a dominiexcliexclIf power configuracion thoogh the) lave pemaps Umieed cbelr scope wllen viewing internacional organizadons Feminis[ wJiters ruave given Vltike to whac i5 after aH tbe scmi-sileut majoric) in rhe world and Ilre ouly srarting in qnest10niug the male dOmimiddot nance nuacutet iexclusr of the nmning of IGOs huc aloo of theic agenda Tite post-modemisrs are iMlSr concerned oiacute he (bree 8rOUp5 with inretnationlll organiucioru as such bllr rIacuteleic intellecrual approach is the ffiOSt tadkal aud can lelld tuuml a fnon of nihilism
GltJbaliacutesf lIiu
A gIobalisr perspective does oor viacuteew world poliacutetica as being predomishynandl arout iotergovernmemal relatlnn~ Ili would realisu or illbour inrentare aruI imersocietal rdations as a number uf reformisu llliexclll consider lnsteaacuted it cakes a more holisdc view Problems are (cmfronred ac Ji global level wlurions have tO be sou8ht here as weil This iexcls not ro neglcct (he 10tal Ol rhe ~tlte level ir is more J recognilion of the limiutshydoos of acdviuumles rhere The world-vicw like rhe reformists places empllasu on whal unIacutetes people Ilnd has lirde time for lhe demaoos of power pouumlics aad stare-cemrir orglLuiwrjollS Ir goe~ fllrther by nor
1 V WNimgJ lJ7f tIfernattmiexcliexclJ 11fK4111141tOnJ
liminog in view eirhec ro pans of che world or ro rellltions berweeo particuJar poliric~ lr ioded jlLSr m the economic social and poJitical demaods of mankind Paradoxically ir can be seen as IIn approach rhe very OppoSllC of the fimctionalist wirb whom tbere 5 much io common In nmtrast lO rhe fnnctionaHst (or neo-fllnctiooalisr or intetclependeuce srhuul) and ccrrainly in contrast ro rhe powet politks aOO MaOIacuteIt writers (be whole world approach places emphasis not 00 the discrere r~uiexclreshymems of groups SClteiexcl or individulI1s bm 00 tbe wel1-bciog of the tCOsystem in which rhf5f funnioll cbe planet Eanh The conccen of chis apptoach which is rcflccted il] in ttcumeUr of illternational urganizatiom is for the survival of lhe plunet for its effident funccioning in its widest SeILie aud fot che survival oiacute rhe myriad oiacute speoacutees - ollly one of which is homo sapiens - tbat inhabh me globe
Sinle tbe 196Os a number of wtiters on imernational affairs have expounded 00 tbis view and llave cOl1l~uendy ronsideted the implicadons for intemational organizacions Jobfl Button in bis World Society ronsldeted iflmstatt relations to be onIy a pan of wodd poli[iacutea and wrore
lf we employ rhe term world rociety imiexclreui of internanofla relarions iIacute we apptoo(h OUt study in this global way insread of the more tradi~ lonal nattonal way we will end to have a wider focos ro ask quesrions rhat are moee fundlmenral aOO imponant lO civilization and be ahle ro assess bettet me relevance of om own national bduviour ro be wider worW envifonment
(Button 1972 21)
Rkhacd Stetling posed the problem more spedfically
Nuclear esCllatiofl the popullltion explosion the pollmiofl of tbe envishyronmcnt the communkations rtvolurion rbe world~wide concentNdon of wC1llch and world~wide expansiofl of pltlvcrty are iexcliexcl11 essemially global and not 1laquo al pbellomena They have given rise jn tutn ro eartbshyspamuacutellg and revolutionary demands ror mass education rnass hesltb malts welfure and maltgts participation in che dccisions affecting roans fare
(Srerling 1974 322)
This wodd-view of rhe problems of the s)Jaceamphip EQlth begged fur global oolutlofl$ It suggcsred iexclhu not onIy iJ the system of sovereign stares as yer unable oc unwiHing to COme to grips with the above-menuontd prohlelUS but that a network of llllergoVCtn1lental organiutlom bGsed 00 me rights of statc wVfretgnt will ~lso be hammllng Globtl problems needed global solutlons based on institutinos rhat can (ake a global petsplaquoshytive Thus Sterling considetecl thllt it ~ tlOt unreasooable (O amidpate tme tbe member stares will be moved ro considft equippifllil the Unitw Nttous witb mote crunprebensive powen 1lt global pressUfes build 0974 323)
~h~ laquoo ~gt~ _- -gt bullbull (_bullbullbull __ - bullbull
A more compeluumlng cdH wus lAltiexclued by Barban Ward and Rene Dubas in their book prepared for [he UN Gmference of ehe Humafl EnVJroJlmenl 01lly UIIt EaFlh The c~ altJ Mdilllt1JatfCe (JI d Sflall Pta~t (972) 111ey stremsed the ufliry of tbe Eanh Jnd in eovironment and the )Jroblems in(ed by Jts iohabitants emntially thost oudined by SterJiog The ~uthoflgt poillted OUt rhat rhF envitonmenral qmosrion had by 1972 already had 50me impaltl on guvernments and im(rnarional organl1Jtion but the effior was somewhat ltInJOrdinated and unfocuseL In (hree particular aren - tbe global atmosphere rhe oceaml the worlds weather sysrellU - tbt-y saw [bl jmmediate neOO for (OmInOn poliey und co-ocdinared actiollS where vcerenshysions to national sovercigmy have no relevance ro ptrreived problems Bu rbefe was a need to go furrher and denl wirh other global problems di5Case srarvation iHitmcy unemployrnem ovcfllwding rntetnational poliCJcs wece at the 5tage reachOO wlrhin rhe devdoping s[ate~ of the ninettTtb (entury Elche they wiU move O to a wmmIlJlity bL~ro UiexclXIIl a more systematic sharin8 of weaJtb Ot tbey wiH break down in revoh and anareby (Wacd and Dubos 1972 295- -6) They Looked forward ro a sense of gLobal rommuniry 00seJ on he bope vf Irotecdon (from war aOO disaster) and the hope of enhancemenr (ecologic$1 as well as economid The ptlKtic~ and insrirutlofiS with whkh we are familiar inide our domestk sociecies would become suitably modlfied che basis of planetary oroer (Ward aOO Dubos 1972 297-8) This woold indude non~violent settlement of disputes witb legal arbirration ~nd polioacuteng ptocedures on an international basis jr would mea the Hansfer uf resoucces from rkh ro peor Ilnd inerCllSlaquo co-operaeion in arealt 5uch as health and edUcatIO farming uroon planning aud )JOlJution control As [befe halt been a shift of loyalty rom taroliy to dan from dan to tlation and from nation to fedctation there Wampll
hope clajmoo Wl1fd and Dubo$ for an ultimare lnyalty tuacute OUt single beau~ tifulllud vulnerable Planet Eanh (Ward and Dubas 1972 298)
Whilst the institutiona fmmework and organizational stfllCtuteS remain of necenity -ague in Oltl OM EaFtA iacutet is del( rhat the authors Wfre atming 11( a tlttwork oiacute world-wide fflnctionaUy hased organlzatiofll (both lOOs and JNGOs) char couId take on much of the work )JfCsendy done by governshymems o( rather whkh ougbt [O be dont by governmems UacuteJter writing-s have attempted (O deal wjth thc policy impliration$ of delllJng with )JrobshyJems globdly sroos (986) has poiacutenred en what 1w already been achieved in gtobal problem solving l1nd ha~ soughr ro buHd on rhis His critio have prunted out tha( what has already becn undertiacutelken has bren done more along rradicional Jntergovernmentallines (Donnelly 1990 121-30) Orbe writen have tied rubievemen[ in addressiacuteng [he global agenda more to renewed rutiviry in the UN (Rochester 1990 141-54) or to greater grass~ roots aud INOO acriviSffi Wget 1990 155-~8) Either way globaJj~m offeacuters a distinct W1ly of rackling the worlds ptublem~ It 1$ u ViIOIl thar sttesiexcles uniey and common (am( ntthet than disasreemem and roofrontashytion ir (ould thereIacuteore (oresce disputes being sruved inlernationally vety
much in (he way tbar chey are pre~ndy solvcd within tunny MtiOO iexclrares by more ro arbitratwn and Jaw and by entorcemenf ir neteS$il1) In this rhey have muh in COIDfllOfi wirh tire imerrnuiona lawyers iacuteUld idenlist writer of me eady (wenuacuteeh eemury mentioned at the beginning of tbu chaptet The globalisn are inspirecl jn rheir thinking more by ten Ot lt nudeal holocatlsr and by environmenml breakdown tnan by rhe duumleet elrpeshytieme uf wa dlllf aiacutefected rhe wricings of Woolf ol Ikierly
TIacutete globalisl appro~(h is opert ro the criticism of bcing roo idealistk jn a cynical world and lOO iIDpracrical in in uacutelstitutional sU8scsrioll5 Bur the di$mi$Slil oC rh~ words as globaloney cKleS HOt lid lite wctld oC che probw lems which hey have 50 effectively publiacutedzed They lutve uied to add anorIte dimensioacuten ro whar is possibte by showlng thar ie is nOCeSSiexcllty fOl rhe iexclurviwl of che planee
Tlle radical approach to the smdy oC iOternational orgllnizarions reflocu worIdmiddotvitws that normaUy lO beyond -dmse Jominated by rhe ltctivities of iexcltatcs or of LIte organizltuumlnns chemselves There is a sceprical view of whut is happeoing al soy one uacuteme in imernarional celarions and of he abilicy of mOfe cradicional wcifecs on imernafional cdarions ro explain let aJone llOderstand what is happeoing Ir is the feeling rhar approaches such ll1 (he MaNisr tlwt of rhe ideal theorisrs and some of rhe globuli~rs ur~ coming cber (O uodemaoding humanicys wider dilemmas rhar makes rhero so amactive They ar~ less Iikdy co apply rhemselves to rhe defais rutd wnrk~ ings oiacute p$cdcular imernatinnaJ organizations but neverrheless providt iotriguiog insighrs 00 [his phenomenoo by seeing rhem rhrollgh mol panoprk phHosophical lenses
SUMMARY
The rhree flIajor $chuols dealr wich io chis chaprer - the tcatiacuten the reformisrs iacutei1d che radical$ and rhe variarions (bey contain did not and do tlOf exJn iexcln a hiSforlcaj vacnum lde-as Wele foffilulared wirhio lhe COnten oiacute panicular sodedcs uoo in response ltO pUticular problems rbe communl (adom reYoludon of fhe nineteemb century the Finr World Wlli rhe rise of Nui Germany the spreading of nudeu weapons the deve1opmeof of plthitshy
$econd Workl War Europe fbe pnxeues of decoloniwion and deacuteteme rhe end oiacute the Cold War and rhe advaoce oiacute che inCormatton revolution In sorne CilSC$ the views oiacute rhose wdtings on inttmiddotrnational ocganUatlOHS have liad un efiecr on evenrs rhemelves pirlKulatly 00 rbe actitudes oC govetnrnents mwards tnternatiorW orgdflixauons AIl tXample is the work oC LecnarJ Woolf woose suggesnons Ctmceming a world organizatloo conttibuted lO fhe detailed preparnion oC the Lague oC Nations by me British goveltr mene Likewise Hans Morgeruhau and EK Can provided seimuli fot infiiexclrmoo US and Btirish governmcllul rhinking abom inrerruuional rela~ tiom iexclrom the 194Ck onwards In mher cases rhe general writings cJ persons lgtuch as Marx Leoin Mao Tse-tung and che dependencia school have affecred
rhe poJirk1ll dimare wirhin which govemmcncs conduce rheJe poUcy iucluding thar wwards jnternaclorull otgauj~atjon$
Orber ruCfOf$ aplft froro their historial cuntexc Iuve affencd the views of rhe schunl$ rncntioned They have differint backgtounJs io cheit ideruogy (Wesrero commllniSf Third World radical environmenralisr) and in theit level of $nalysis of inrernarional rebtions (stare Centuacutec inretesr aoo rramna~ dona groups cLitraquo dominanr global) This a(icca the typC oC inrernatiacuteonal organizariacuteon dominam io their studies (IGOs INCo) auJ thcic 8eograph~ kai $rea of interest (the Nonh Adandc Europe ThinJ WodJ Ot global)
TIte range of wcitings about intetnational organizarions has ull dte whole teflecfeJ wiJec llooersundings of imetoational ceJarions and wuumltld polidcs These io rhernselves have fed 00 tbe gtVidc iacutellccUecmal fcnnent and on developrnenrs in world affiuacuters Viewl about iacutellteftlational ocgsnizatJoos wiU continue ro take accOlnt of the ince1leeruaJ debate ill the studjes oiacute polishydes internacional re1atioO$ philosophy ecooomics imematluacutellal uw sociology histoty and geogrilphy They will also reflecto among other ampcton che stntcegk balance in tbe world [he relafIacuteve power of tiJe United Stares aod oroer nares me scate of wotld markers [be pto-ess uf Euwpeiexcliexcln tlllegrashytion che relacive positloo of the developing warIdgt iexclbe levd of cootlicc througbolc the world fhe -ratC of dte environfneot and the ahility oiacute huge StatCS to wiacutethswnd cenrrifttgal force Tbe way tIacuteult imematiornal organiuiexclshydons ret1ect tbese developrnents and tIacuteleir t1Ipability lO deal wich some of them will provide (he tllW fiWifcrial foc funue smdies
138 Wriling5 fin illttrnatiQJIa1 (ffanizatio1ts
Such IIn imaginative appruach tu wodd problems aud be mundiUlc hard~ working iexclapolitical role lt implieamp fOr interuational organizadons has its fiexclruIrs To ctiexclddu Mitranys functionalism as being impronica JS IUlfalr hoth because internlltionru functiornd links hllve grown espedaUy since the S~ World Warj and blaquoarue M1tranys approach is a gradual one he did OOE expeCt ir ro be adopted overnighr Even so ir cioes have certllin 11mbiexclshyuow a~pets which shOllld be criticany eDmined
Piexclrsr de5pite rhe refere-nce to possible regional fimnionalunmgement8 Mitranys pJans ron counter ro rhe notion of aU-embraciug regional organi utJoru such as the Europcan Communities now E~n Uninn (Mitrany 1975b 53-78) Whibt these organwdons roay Hnk their iexclamhotity ro a speoacuteftc activky $ueh as the conditloO foc running (he coal iexclaud steel indusshytries nr the agriculture of the EUs member states they sta hold w the rrnditinnal1ink betw~n authodry arul a definirt territory The cooJ and sr~l polkies or tite Common Agticultural Policy uf the BU are nor extended to tbe industries and fumen of other non-member countries who mar wish lO participate in theit ochemes Vet il can be argued toar ir is prccisdy in these iexclirnited geographicill blocs that flIlCtiOruJ arrnnscments are besr executed wirh limitations un mernhetship To wnrk propedy chemes must encompuss denned aras with a good deal jn common - the flexibility of Mitranys proposal wIQutd 500n break dOWIl )l the tnembers WlJuld have $O little in cornmon in fo cxampie the runnill8 of agriculture tbat coshyopetation would be dif(kulr or lloo-proouctiacuteve Furrhermore rhfmiddotse regional atrangemenpiexcl overcorne the problems of dedding the meaning hQundaries and consequtIlCCS of any particular function (Melaren 1985 142)
Second Mitrany did not really envisagc any piexclHejcal control of the futlCtiooal des between COllntdes mus distinguishing him frorn [he more traditionaliacutest approach lO inrernational orgaruwcions lle was hopeM dw the pmblems of roshyurdillltion between ronctionalagencies could be worked out as they lllOOe
To prescribe fOI the suke of [iexcladicional ne3tleSS somtthing more dennite han the guidancc and supervision of eg the Ecooomk Md Social Couooacutel W(lU1J be ro duron he whole conetprion from [he niftJo impollC upon them (funct-lonal bodiesJ a co-otdination authoriry with anyrhing Iike comrolling scuus w(luId be ro move again roWllrd$ that JiacutecumuJarion of power ar the centre
(Mitrany 196~ 143)
Thus [he institmions uf (he Eutopean ClJmmunitic~ - the Counoacutel uf Milli~iacuteers rhe Commission che Courr of Justicc rhe European Padiamenl dre Economic md Social Comlllittce - were al analnema fO Mitmny They werc juu miacuterrnring the poluacuteical COflffOh of lhe nation state ar iexcliexcl pa-n-continenullcvel anU according to Mirrany Continental unious w(luld have a more real chance thau individual suteS to pnletise the aurarky thae makes or division Mitrany 19(Kiacute 2n This may u((end
Witi1lf1 rm imernatilmalllrgaraquoiutifJ11J 139
agains[ lhe funcrJonalisu hope (r iexcliexcl universal apprOlltIacutel tu proble[Jls but (he abhorrence of policial imtitutions is lItrange wIacutelen [he funriona agenoacutees will aftee iln be mllkJng poHtkal decisions -- declsions roncetning lile aurhontative allocafion uf resources No only will iflfetnashytional functiunal transpon organizations established accordlng to Mittany have (O decide that cerEain areas wiH bt weU served by railways and Wds orhers llOt iexcliexclorne ports bujjt up others ieft to tlceay sume airlines expanded whlle rnbers are allowed ro fOllUact blt deeisiow wilI have ta be made on how w diexcl~tribu(e 5carce re~ources betwccn fo example iacutenvemtlent in transpon ur building more hospitals or restfllcturing rhe srecl Jndustty thwughour (he area eovered by [he orgalliurions Thee arc paHdeal declsiQw ln a period of economk growth and plenry [hdr potitshykal niexcliexcltute may be le5S obviou as resources are avaiuble for almost eVery plan advanced by world 01 regional shjpping aviation heaJth or sree1 O1ganizatioos Otherwit there mn$t sllrdy he a system by which scarce mrnurce$ are aUocaced Tbis problem was flJed squardy by Mitr1ny successors iexcln the neofunctionalin school (dealr wIacuteth in the SC(tiOH tbat follows) but ir doell seem ftoro Mirranys writings fhat the world of funcshytioollJi~m is a wodd of IlnUmiacuteted resounes (Melaren 1985 146)_
A third problem in Mimuys approach i~ brought out in a eommtnt by lniacutes Claude The functiacuteonal theory uf imemariruwl nrgaruzarions 1S ultimateJy eoncernen wirh the usue of polJtiacuteeal and military srniexclggJe functionalism tneats (he promotion of we1fue as au illdirecf approach tu rlx prevenrion of warfare (Claude 1968 31--5) Mitran quoted Oaude wirh appmval implyiog rha fulletionalism would ind~ mllk( a positive contribllt1on (albeit inilitecdy) CE (he ptCveurron of war fhis profOiSitiort is open (O $(Ieral criticisms Given the level uf arrnrunems in the worJd and the porential fQf cunflict the contriburron ro pettcc made by funcrioruuacute acrjvities miexclay come too late A youth group exthange betwtn rhe USA and China ma) bode we11 fOf
tbe furure OOt wlll be uf link use if (he respective parrus are beaten ro meir destinarions by intercominental baliiacutestic missiles funhermore the pmmotion of wtlfare may inctease internatioual conflicr by i~asiacuteng expettacions Espedally if social and ecounmic changes are bmugh[ aboue by imernational runctioual 3Jencies developing muntrie poliacuterical I~derships may fJnd ir increasingly cliiHcult to meet lheir poplllatIDn~ demands fot more economic benefJts fur a ampirer distribution uf benefits or in sorne ta$(-S fOf Ol)tool uf the social consequences of laquootlumic Rrowth Imernal sttili aod unrest may chen ~iIJ over into inrernacional eontlicr Finally Miacutetrany daiffi$ that rhe Nncshyrional approach ciocumveuts ideological aOO racial diviID05 as it ltloes territorial frontiacuteers (Mitrany 1975a 226) There ls guod evidellce tiJat the opposite has been happening thae the exlsting runctiuual organimfIacuteom slch $$ tiNEKO WHO and lID hllve been riddkd with ideulogical and racial (or al lea~t Norrh-Somh) diviions wruch h~ve teflected pnlirical argnments outside he olganizarimlS bu have ncvenheless adverscly aHewod their ba~ic work (Ghebali 1986 l tR-lt6 1mber 1989)
iexclIV WHURg) W~ mltTlWilm tIampmJlaiWN
NetrfJl1iKJiOalisls
Tbc move away foom rhe srate-cenrric vjew of JlItert1arlOlal organizarion Started by WOllf and Mirany was ccetiacuteeued io rht immedijlre posr-wur perjod by social stientim applyiacuteog asJltu of functionll1(st ~heory to European nd Atiacuteantlc in~limti()m This utw fUllCtionaliu approach showed paruumlcrnsr interesc in che European Communities (Ee later nuropean Union EU)) whjch arme iu iexclhe wake of che amphuman Plan In Mily 1950 Roben Schuman rhe Frenrh Foreign Minisrer advauroo (he idea cha( West Eucopean srarcs should establish a High Authority wlrh powers ro admillshyimr theit eoai aOO stecl induscrie~ Negorjatioru on rhe detalS of chis plan led t() the signing of che Treaty cf Pariacutes in Apdiacute 1951 by FraIlee Wen Gemuny Iraly rhe Neiexclherlands Bdgium sed Luxembourg (rhe Six) Tbls gave substanre tO (he idea lbat funcrional aiexcltivicy oould be ITlltllfIged across fcomien by IUl organizadon ove and above the govemmenrs of che member sraces a supmnational amhority The idea was wldened ro cover iexclm expanded unge of etooomk activiry when he Silo esrablished rhe Bt1fOpean Ecooomk Communicy (EEC) widl the Treaty of tome in MAtch J957 An Aromic Energy Communiacutety (Euratom) was eHablished sr che sume time However ~he element of upranationiexcliexclliry was dilurelt in the High AllthoritY-s successor (rhe Commission of rhe EEe) having only Iimited deciuacuteOIl-makin8 powers anJ having mosdy the task of proposing acdon ro tbe representarives of he rnember states situumlng in (he Coulliil of Ministe13 Despire his otber Community hutitutions contsined the gerrn of supranadonaHry rhe Courr of Jllstke empJoymg Coromunity nuhe [han nacional laws a Ruropean Padiument wbkh WlS eventually electelt by ditect eleedons amoog a Communiry-wide electorate voting for Cummunity-hased parties aad 1Jueresr groups represendng mrmetSgt consumen traJe unions aruJ blliiness on a Commuiexcliexclity tatber than a nnional basis
Tht$eacute tnmwauumloos in WeBtem Europe uiggeteJ a spate uf 1 iexclretamre primaril) in he lJnireJ Sures whieh examined tbe nurure unrl purpose of the Commuuity iustituions The Jominam staacutend amongst this writing was chat of the neo-(uncrlonalisrs sJCcifically Ern~1t Haas Lean lindbetg and J05eph Nye whose works are of importance io the uudy of internacional organizacions In ronrruc tO Mitrany the OCW fuoctiooalistli tended Br (iexclrOc tuacute iexclimir rbeie study 10 developmems in Wcscetn Europe (HtIaSs ~nJhe Naion Stte (964) bcing a nruiceable exeepdon) especially the OC alshyrhough later cornparimns were tnade wirh rbe growch ofccmmon lIlltirkets iexcln Mica East Eurupe aoo Larin America On che whole the neo-fumtiooaiscs had rerreated foom Mitranys world view
fhe neo-funcrionaljgrs aiso realized rhe dilemma faeed by Mitrliny in eelihng wirh politica dcdsicms ane did nor fllnch in introducin~ a merhod of making necessary chOtees ar he imernarif)llItI leve Indeed rhis wa~ rhe kernel uf rheir ideagt lhlll 1I0l ouly sperifie functionamp would be farried OUt ar rbe subrollrinentill rarher (han (he nacional leve bul thil( lhe decisions wnrernillg (hese functioos would be made at thaf level shy
6- v n_m_ ~olo_~~W_
with imponant cOnsequences for those groups imetesred in the decisiacuteons and iexcliexclIso liffecting orher arcas of poliey Por example supprne the Ecooomk Cual and Steel Community (BeSe) required (har che sreel lodustry be orgaoized as a West Europeao endty insfead of a numher uf narional industries a1l commled by differenl ccgularions aod rbar a suprauariona surhoriry be crcared ro decide on the policy Coc che ranniog of tbe Wcsr EUlopean sfeel induStries lo ronsequeoce those involvea in say rhe French steel industIl would switch tbeir attentioo away from Parili where policy was previowly rnade ro BroS$CIacutei wbcre ECSC poliey is mude Purthermore CommwIlty ntber dUlo nadonl poliey on ueel eould spiU ovet into ereadng a Community po1iey ror cool tnmspOH IUld Othet asrod~ ared acdvities As rhe numbe oC functiacuteooal policies decided at a Commuoity rnthet than a natkmllllevd expanded so the need for political actioo at this higher level would gfOw aod thc political sysrerol of the couutries involved would becomc inexorably iexclmcnwincd lhis was the logk of rhe innovator of he $chumao Plan idea Jean Monnet wM considered rhar rhe establishment of a c001 and srec1 community foUowed by similar organitations dealing wirh otbcr Cuncrional areas - agricultute transpon nade defence - would be lreps on [he way ro building Europe The eOO would be jln economiClllly aod politicaUy integmred Rurope lo Monneriexcl scbeme a federal West Furopeao state The means would be fuoctlonal bu with a political contento
In his study of fbe ECSC Rrnst Haas examiooo this s(rlltegy and a1so dmned polldcai inregradon in its ideal typc u beiug rhe process whereby political iexclcroo in severa distinct nadooal ~tings are petsuacltd to shjft thet lnyaltielJ expecrations liod pOlidcal iexcll(tiacutevides eoWjlrd jl new centre whose insdwtions possess or derrumd jutisdktion over me pit-existiog lIatiof19l $tates (Uaas 1958 16) ihis oew cemre would be che powelshyhouse managing rhe political ptoblems oC fuoctio1llll coopeaacutedon [he Uigh Audwrity of tbe ECSC and be indrurion of me EBe The policical actcniexcl invoJved would be rhose elites leading the poliacutetical groups habirually colCerned wirh public decision-making and wooJd indooe trade uoioacuten offishydaIs busiue5$ ami Hade representatives higher civil servann and activeacute poHttdam As tlltSiacute eliteS rutneU theit aacutetrendon ro rhe ojOW policical centre chey would find tha Community pelky in olle area nm be uwde tea oo1y if che task iuelf iexcls expanded CHus 1961 368) by way of a spillover of actiVity lIltO anocllet policy atea Evenrually Communiy policy~makiog would take uvet from S(ale policy~making jo alI rhe crucial BreaS and the new centre would emerge as being potenrially more powerful dma the member srares governmenu wbich had been drained of lheir mOS( meruoshyingful polidcal ucdvides
1( this stage ir can be quetied whetbet Haas was describing an inremashylional organizadun or il poremia1 federal mlte Io discumng tms quesrjon in his book on Elle EC-S( Haas cooduJed dllU Tbe hruHnct of federal as agaiacutenst middotimergovernmemaf powers lIeeacutems tU point to che coodusioo tbat in
142 WtitingJ on mtertlatilJtJA orgamZ41iom
alJ maneo relating ro the romine regularion of rhe commOTI ~et the High Authority is independent of government (HIlaS 195R 55-gt He al50 voiced rhe opinion rhu Supranadonaliry in snueturnl ferms tberefure means the exisreuce of govemmental a~lthorirjes dlloer tuacute Ihe archetype of fdeNrhm rhan any past inrernati(mal organizar ion buc not yet ideutiacutecal Wlth it Oiaas 1)158 59) However this $upnmttionaity in pNctice has deve10ped into a hybrid in which neither the federal no the intergovernshymentai reooency has deady triumphed a-bas 19511 527) Ir is aloo denr lbat the original Coo1 and Sreel Communicy was mueh mote functional~ Wlcrnl than the lateacutet Economic (ommunicy and untiacutel the mid~19805 the unified aud expanded Communuumly romw to play Jown the elemenU o( supranatlonality iu tavour of 1ts Jiacuteltergovemmenul insutution rhe Conndl u( MiuiMm This aud othet dtVe1opmems led Haas to lcconsidcr his origshyinal view of Community inrtitutioos
In the 1968 pre3ce ro Tuacute Uniting of Ellropt (which was wIacutetten in 1958) Haas alrtady identified factors that had dllngro rhe nattlc of me European Communiries experimem in che previous ten yeacs He observed tlur during this period vario~ spiU-OVet aOO adaptive ptcKeues s(ill had nO( resulted in la pulitically united Encope and in an~werjiexclg the question what went wtlJug he outliued fuur considetdtions Fitst (he new funaiurutlJsu had filiJed w di$tinguisb between background variahle cOlditioos prevamng at rhe time when cbe Comrnnnity WU$ csnbJished and new upiratiuns and expectations that had develnped Jhe esntbliacuteshment thar had ron counrer ro the Community spitit Second the imptet o( niexcltlonaUsm had becn undereshytimawl Third Eactors within me Commuruty had becn nressed ro he dccrimenr of those coming from the outside world PintUacutely me massive transCormation oE Western socie[y raking place indepeudent o( EutoptHl integratiacuteon aIso hacl been underestimaretl (HIlaS 1968 xiv--xv)
Haass definidon of imegralion alsu bccame wmewhar more negative I1lOre stlilte-centric than bis original 195R emlhasis un nationaJ llt(on shifting their loyaJties expecratiacute(ms and poJitical activities toward a new centre By 1970 Haas considered the study ofregionallntlgrurion to be concerned
wich explaining how aud why sUtes eease to be whoUy $overeign how ~md why they volunucily mingle metgt and mix with rhcir neighbours $O as to lose che facruru attributes of sovereignty while acyuiring ncw techniqucs me resolving conilirt between themselvell
(Haa~ 1970 610)
By 1975 Haas eonsidcred regional integmtion theoty oiJsolete in Wesrern Eurupe and obsolescenr - though still urerol _ in tite teSt o( the worId (Haas 1975 l) By 1976 he had arded out n maioI reintetpuEation of uew-fuuctlonaJist lhoory as it applied to rhe Ee The definahle outcome of integtation in Wenem Eutope was secn either in ttaditiorW federaHsc temu - a Wen Enrnpean (ederal state ereated out uf yenrs of fun~-tiexclonal
Writings M ifllernuJlfJmiexcl1 (JFfIiutian 143
rutivity whkh had lcd lO J trnmrer of poliduumlll acnvity away rom (he natlon ~tates tOwarJs a new srrunure - or ltlS the imtitutiooltlUdng uf some intermMiate iexcliexcltage such as rhe present status qno whcreby atlthonty is dimlbnrro unequally between several centres Wilh tire old nation states losing their previous Ituthoriey but with no new JiacutedeOl government in ptO$~ pect Whihr the original aspecrs of the EC - rhe cuuoms union aOO (he Common Agricultura Poliey _ have tllaquoorne entrenched the spillover inm orhe policy area~ had nor occurred by Ihe mid-1970s as che neo-furutiooa1ists liad ptedicred Also common polides liad becn Jevelopetl in differem o(8ashyIliratiuns - che OFCD the summit of indurmiatiooo counrrics the Group of Ten - tarher than within the liC lhe problem according lO Bus W1IS
rurhulerue whereby rhose iuvolved io polirirs haJ found rhemselves in a littting ofgreat social complexiry where rhe nnmber of atrorr is very large and each pursues a variety uf objectives whirh are murually incompatible lmt ucn is also unsure of che ultlde-ofamp between the objectjves He continued Tnis conditiQn imJgtlics the erosion o( such interorganizarional patteacutern~ oC comensus reciacuteprocity and no(mative tegularity as may havr CXlSted eadicrEveryrhiug is up fO( grallS (Hus 1976 179) HilaS sllggested thu iu the EC polioacuteeamp and (he institutioru devised ro lmpleshymeacuteut thero iacuteU~trnre rhe attempc ro deal with lhe turbulence nather tllan achieve regional politkal inteSradon (ibid 180 original emphasis)
A similar hiacuteft lttway fmm the earHer llSp1rauumlons iiexcliexcl ICen in rhe work~ Q( Lindberg aud Nye Lindbeg wlrose book 1he Pattirai DJMmict o EroJMn Ecrmomic IntegTatia (13) had fullowed on dosely from Hws work was hy 1966 showiog tbar moves wwaros inregration wirhin the Be (ooid cause Stress within (he system l1Jtfl inCftllq the barrien to fimher integration (lJnJberg 1966 254) Togcrher with lkheingold in 1970 he desctibcJ an EC wbich had noc deveJopeJ joro a federal structute haJ difereot ltvels of integrariacuteon fut different functions and was sdl susceptible tIJ UJsis lt was ao unprecedemed but curiousy amblguoos plurruistic syttem there seem tO be no satisfrutory modcls or ronceptli in che sociaJ scienee VQ(abulary to adequa[ely define ie (Lindberg and Scheingold 1970 306) In a anide Joseph Nye coruiacutedered thac Jespite rhese and otber revisioos the neo-Euncrional approodl srjlJ embodies 11 nurober of fault tbu re1lcct jrs origins in [he 1950s (Nye 1970 767) He proposed a nUml)(l OC changes scating rhe derendent variable lels ambiguoUlUumly adding more politiul ruwn reformufating rhe Hst oF integration condiuons and pethapli mOSf
significantly drOlping che ideas ufa single path fmm qWlsi~full(tiexclonallasks tuacute politica1 uuion by meamiexcl oF 5piUove( (Nye 1970 767 He conduded rha[ shnn oF dramadc chaugc the prospect9 (or common markets or microregiorud cennomie organiutions leading in rhe shon ron (of dendes) to fedewt1nn oc m1me sOtt oE polidcal union capable of tlU indept1Ldent dcferue and foreign paliey do not seem very high (Nye 1970 1129)
There hiexclas been a long jotJJney trom the functiorudisl-fecleral nope5 of Jean Monoet back jn 1950 but it has seen the evolution of nm only the
144 WitingJ on inlernafuacutemal ttrganizafifmJ
Communiry insrirurions and policies bur aIso neo-functionalist thinking The Iogic of inregrarion gave way ro coping wich rhe crises inseirutions mixing federalisc and intecgovernmental elemenrs were replaced by a Western Europe in which instirucional tidiness is best forgorten (Haas 1976 211) and the federal elemenrs seemed ac mosc dormam The hopes of che 1950s had been replaced by rhe uncerrainties of che 1970s and the early 19805
Wirh rhe launching in 1985 of rhe idea of creating a Single European Markec wuumlhin rhe EC by rhe end of 1992 che signing of rhe Single European Acr in 1986 (which exrended EC comperence aud changed irs inscitucional balance) and che sectlement of a uumber of Common Agriculcural Policy problems in February 1988 che Iogic of inregration seemed ro be revived
Wriring in 1990 Keohane and Hoffmann resrored and refined che neomiddot funcrionalisr norion of spillover advanced by Errut H9al They were sceprical char rhe rheory of spillover could explain the ECs irucirurional developments of che late 1980s buc saw it aCling posicively in orher ways for example rhrough che incenrives ro institutional change given byenlargeshymenc of EC membenhip in rhe early 19805 (Keohane and Hoffmann 1990 289-90) They saw che pcocess cominuing and barring Clrasrrophic excernal fucrors were moderately oprimisric abour rhe Communirys furure prospecrs (Keohane and Hoffmann 1990 296)
This view was raken up by Tranholm-Mikkelsen (991) and Holland (993) borh of whom saw che revival of rhe Communicy agenda in rhe Maasrrichr Trealy - wich irs blueprinr for a move ro economic and monetary union - as being a revival of the neo-functionalism Drher wrirers on European incegration at chis time adapted che basic notions of neoshyfunccionalism bU[ broughr in extra fucrors Majone (1994) agreed char che EU had seen an upgrading of common inreresn but placed an emphasis on public choice policy ro explain particular Ouccomes Marks et aJ (996) saw a much more complex relarionship berween che Communiry and domestic decision-making leve Though rhe srare was srill very important ir no 10nger monopolizes European level policy-making or rhe aggregarion of domesric interescs 0996 346) Insread rhey idenrified rhe growrh of mulrishyleve governance wirhin che EU
Indeed rhese developmenrs in neo-funcrionalisr wrirings on international organizarions poim up sorne of the criticism~ of che schooL Firsr despice rhe besr efforrs of Ibas Schmitter and Nye it remains a rheory overwhelmingly dominaroo by an inreresr in rhe EC and larer rhe European Union In 1964 Haas and Schmirrer rried to extend sorne of che lessons uf econumic union in Westeru Europe ru Larin America Drawing on Haass 1968 preface ro The Uniring of Europe rhey discerned nine variables four relared ro background condirions (similariey in power of memben rares of rransaction pluttllism in member seares complememing elices) rwo referring ro condirions ar rhe time of economic union (similarity of governmenral purpase powers of che ecunumic uniun) and rhree ro process coudi[ions (decision-making sryle
W[J U UWltU 15
rransacrions rate rhe adaptabiliry of governmenrs) (Haas aIld Schmitcer 1964 711-19) They looked ar rhe chances of policicizarion chat is the possibilicy chat lhe acmrs seek m resolve rheir problems so as ro upgrade common inrerests and in rhe process delegare more amhoricy m che centre (Haas aIld Schmitcer 1964 707) Nye in his article Comparing Common Markecs (1970) rried ro modify che Europo-cemric narure of the neo~ funccionalis[ approach and drew on a wide range of cases of economic imegracion Larin America Cenrral America rhe Caribbean Eastern Europe and East Africa as weH as EFTA and che EC He concluded [har
The original neo-funcrionalist model was close m irs ongms in the straregies of European inregrationisrs in che 1950s and thru mighc be seen as a rempting and misleading guide for policy in orher aceas The revised neo-functionalist model is not somethiug ro be imiraced bU is simply a rool fur making comparisons We wanr ro know whac differshyence ir makes if a group of seates form a common market
(Nye 1970 830)
Though by rhe end of che 1980s rhere were few places ro be found outside Europe thac were forming common markets rhe formacion of he Norrh American Free Trade Atea (NAFTA) and rhe renewal of economic cooperarion in Latin America and Sourh-Basc Asia during rhe 1990s provided different models from the more poliricized EU These seemed ro challenge some of the basic assumptions of rhe neo-funcrionalistS aIld perhaps give some weighc ro Nyes scepcicism ciced above
Second i[ is clear chac che neo--funccionalisrs have had trouble wirh che insticudonal formacs They have rerreaced from being functional federalist almose back co Micranys eclecric approach rowards institudons They have also accepced [he durability of rhe nadon state in resisring che logic of inreshygration and have soughr compromise formulas which at leasr continued ro place emphasis on non-srare accivicies even if insticutions above che stare (supranarional) were seen to be susceptible to stare inrerference
A chird Cliricism concerns the gtOH of non-srare acrors favoured by rhe neo-functionalists They have consraudy emphasized [he imporrance of polirical acrivisrs the elites of inrerest groups and rechnocrats This may have parrially blinded chem ro a weakness in rhe ECEU rhar could have affecced neo-functionalisms earUer proguuscicarions from being fulfilled its insticurions cannoc draw on rhe day-ro-day polirical resources available tO the narional policical acrors This has led tO a gap mosr noriceable in che newer members berween perceprions of che EU by the represemarional elice and rhose of rhe ordinary vorer or consumer Whilsc some earlier srudies of opinion in the EC did inelude opinion pons rhese ofren dealt wirh easy questions (showing ones EuropeaIl idenriry) 01 soft options (whether rhere should be say a more acrive EC industrial policy) With the firH expansion of rhe EC in 1973 and rhe first major oil price iucrCdse
146 Writi~5 cm lI1lMfatleuromal orgfll1iutl1ltl
whi(h coinoacutedemally happenoo a yeat liexclater Euttiexclpean voren werc faeed increasingly wirh mu(h harder options inflation versus employment tlnde union righu againsr consumer inrerests The poISibllity was thar bcing a good European might mean aHowiog sorne other COUlltry5 ruuionals to explott ones fish or oH The crearion oiacute a Single Enropean Marker within the Ee by the end of [992 and rhe move rowards a single curteney from 1999 by eleven theo (wdve of rhe HU member litares bmught he activi~ ties of the VOlon do~er lO the wodd of tite coosnmer or worker However chis seem iexclf anything to have iocreased rhe alienariacuteon of voten from rhe institntions aM acrivilies of rhe EU The 2000 election for rne Europeao Parliamenr shnwed the lowest tnroour yer in sllfh direct elections ano Enrobarometer opini()fi poUs have demonstrnred a msative trend in public opinion on che EU rnropaeuintknmmdgl0epoebc-b531p3npdO Ir may be thar a oumbcr uf interest groups llave switched rhrir expecta6ons and poJiexclcical activirics tuwatds the 00 bllt many of the ordinary European V(l(fS seemed ro have failed ro trans[er th~ir lnyalties tu he Union
In surnmaty the neo-functlona1ists mok np Mitranys srudy of rhe a-lashydons betwren group~ and individllals in oHferent sures il5 wellas che sta(cs representativtltl They tried ro gtapple witb the queuit)O (lf political control uf such iostirurionalized funcrional re1ation5hips aod ro undrrstand how ir would affrct rhe oatnre uf tiJe nation state They arremptrd to define the statuS of [hese newfy creatoo insutution5 tnough rhry wete out always fvlped by devdopments in che ECfEU which WWl rhe focus of rheir studies Tbdr works have demun~trared rhat the EU imututioos are by 110 mratlS juse ordinary imerg()vcrnmenral ones lh~y have al) provideo a mirror ()f the hircof) of (Yents in Westetn Europe in pankultH - moviog flom unitios aod poJitkal dynruniqgt through ~rress oy$ and anguish to obsolesceuce tllrbulent fudds and back to mooerace optimism and a new dynamism
TrotJJ(l(iacutecnaUJI
Anorher Americao writer whose work dealt wirh che question oiacute integrntion is KarJ Deursch Alrhough not a neo-fotlcrionalilit his tranmctional appwmh nali dealt with sorne iOmmoo ~hemes He has been umrerned with more rhan imergovermneuul relation~ aod indeed hM str~iexcl reJations berweeo peopIes nitherthan just rhe elites favonred by manyneo-fuflctionalists Deursch concerned himltelF with m( absrnce or presence of significan orga~ oized preplttrations fol war or large-snde iolence between int~rnatiexclona1 policical commuoities It was [he secutity rommullttles lhat had elimirutted war and [he expectation o[ wat whhin rheir ixmndaries whicn Dentamph and his PrincctOll coUeagues exarnined in PeliriuJ Cfml1NJNlily dIId M NarJh lt14Jtlaquo Atia (1957) A SClttlriLy community WWl defined as a gronp of people wnich has become ~inte8rated~ io rhe sense that thete is real iacutelSSnr+ ance that (he members of that rommunity will not fight ellch oeher
Wriil1g1 (raquo1 iacutelMfatlortal tJrgaiadlMm 147
physkally but will se~tle their disputes in liOffie otber way (Deutsch 1957 5)lt loregration does not necessarily mean rhe me~ging oF peoples ot governshymental units intn a ~ogle unie an idea explicir in fooerahsr rhinking Otud implicir in much funrtionalist wtiting Jnstesd two $otS uf integrared secu~ rit communities ar~ hJemified the amalgamarelt where pteviousiy independent unlts have bcen rormaly merged lnro a larger unit wich a iexclommotl guvernment (eg tlle US) ano the pJuralisric where srparate gnvertUlleJlUl Illlioraio their iexclrgaJ indepeodence (eg uacutenada amI rhe US) In stlldying a nllmbcr of cases of anempred or octual intesratioo io tbe Nortn American and WCSt European area Dtunch conduded rhat tIacutelere werc iexclweive conditions essential fnr the rurcts of ao amalgruruued teeutity (Ommuniry and thM rhree wen nec~ry fm it5 plutalisdc COUnrfrpilrt
The1e three conslsted of rhe compaiacuteibiliry oiacute marer valU($ relevant to
politiclll decision-making tbe capacity o( the participariacuteng plt)htinl Imitl or ~mmem~ ro respood tu each othcrS oetdl messages and llaions quickly adeqwuely and without rtsort ro vlolence aad rne mutual predicrability n bchavior (Delltsch 19H 66--7) In Deutschs work emphasis was placed 00 cornmunkauun brlweEn potidca uoIacutets increased trnns1Ctions between them (such fL polirinl exchangcs toUfl(m trade and rratl~pott) brought increases in mutual dciexcl)Cl(enmiddotc fue s cummnnity ro be created (his high level of trnnsactrons must be accomgtauied by mutual responsiveness o that thr demand o( each side 00 he other mn rccdve adequate and sympatheric treatroent llthis wouk not ooiy predude the need [01 aggressive action lO acbi(Ye ends bm would aJso build up 11 feeLing u( UUSt and seturiry in che edationship
Deuucb does not have an obse~uacuteon with imernattomtl orgaoiexclZ8rion~ although his 1957 book iacutes in [he eM collcetned with the ctelltiacuteon of UCCIlshy
tity community in the NATO area rhere ate few tcferences to internatlOnal nrganiuuons Many o( the Cll5C studj( are ser io tbe pcriud before (be postshywar expansioll uf such organlurions and almost all deal ieh bilareral relatIacuteonshj~ O(utschs work has coosequences for the lUudy o( ioternuiona organizatIacuteoos govemmental ano non-goveromCotaj iO[~rnational otiianiza~ tioos can be created as a re~ult uf a plnraliacutes[ic secuciry nmunuoit) lne integracion of whkh may evtotuaUy become iacutennirurjonalized iexclu nuppened reo the ampandinaviiexclm states creand (he Nordic Counci1 There run abo be forrns of instirUti(lnalued communiratlons berween socieries wnich prOldde the transactions and undersrandinli rhat help create ji securi[y community DeUtsch wrote
li the way tu iexclnregrarion domestic or internarionat i$ through rhe achievemem of a srose of community tnut undergirdS insrirurjtms thm ir seems likely [har ao iorreased sense of cotlloounlry would hrlp to snellgtbcn whatever instirutioos - supranatiooal or internacional - are aLreAdy Oltraring
([)euriKh 1957 7--8)
ltgt -_ bullbullbullbull _- _
Demsc-hs work was mken funher in a vnluffie ediretl io 1998 by AdLer and Bllenen (l998) (lLat docs pay sorne attention to ioternariorutl otgilniushydoos Indecd their volume contairu chapters thar rekr ro rhe oseeacute NATO the EU the UN the GnU Cooperarion Cowxil (GCC) aod rhc Assodation uf Soud Eat Asian Niexclttlons (ASEAN) They daim that imetshyruHiomuacute organiexclzauumlons aud iexclnstitutiacutem~ played al lmporum role in elKiltlraging more inteo$ive and extensive ioteracrioos octwttn states rhrough theit uwt-huildiug propenies (Bnrnetr and Adler 1998 418) They lht six corulusions of this snuerneor
bull By moniroting srares agreemenu tntcmatiuacutelwl orpuuacutezatiexcloo~ give them he cooftdente tuacute cooperare io (he ahsencc of trUSt
bull Jnternational O1ganizarions allow Hi1tC$ to discover new areas of muuwl intetellls Tu ponimlar [hey cenoacute ro link panicular areai
bull Inrcmational organizatiom can hdp shape $fllre pracdces by liCtting down nOfOU Ihat define what is acnptablc
bull The iIKTeaiing nwnber of internacionaJ orgamrutions emuuragC$ muldshylatetalim
bull They dIlO eruourage smres lua societies to see rhelll$Clvcs as pan of a resion
bull 1ntildeey can abo shape lhe identiry of rheir memben (Banlett aod Adler 1998 418-20)
The aurhms cWmed char cheir stuJit$ demonmared rhe exrent 10 whkh social cnmmunicadons beomes insrimtioualileJ aOO embedded in lnreroashytional oC8linbatlooslt and in turU how (hese organizatioru express an inreot to dcvelop trUSt end mmwl identificarion (Batnm and AdJer 1998 418) TIe work on sccurity (mmnunidcs is pelhapS at ir strongcu whcn dealing wim the esrablishetl Westcrn democracies rbough llamen and Adlers work shows rhar it may hilve a wider urility
lnlerJciexclnmdcme
Furrhcr emphasi on the growrh JO cnlnsaccions berween l()Cicries can be seen in the worts of Keohane 11l1d Nye who were m che forefront of the iexclnrerocJXndcnce school in rhe lJoited Srnnt fhey puacuteirued our (he conseshyquences of the innease in tldrunarioualucdolU ro che study uf iexclnternncional rdarions Thcit statcing iexclgtoint was sLlnuuarized chus
TraM1latlowJ relations are nolaquo new alrhough che growth of tmnsna~ tklOal orgnnizarion in me twentieth centuty has been specracunr Ye-r our nmremioo iso nor ooly rlur rhe srate-centrk paradigm )$ inade~
quare bur also thar it igt becoming progttSsively more inadequate as changes io inrernational relauumloos take place
(Keohane and Nye 1971 xxv)
The) llsred five omsequemes uf this growth uf inEematiooal inrcracrions ana organizarJ(tIls fur inrerstate politks (1) rhe promntiun of attirude change amongsr driacuterens (2) ao innease io inrernacional pluralism the linkjng of nntiooal Interese groups in tnmsnational strtlCtures usuaHy involving transruttionaI organizations fOI rhe putpoampe of (04)minatioo ltKtohAne and Nyc 1971 xviii) whiacutech has heen lhe basis for much noo~(Jncdontllist wriexcling (3) me cmdon lf dependence and inrerdependcofe IS often associacuteshyarea with intetnilriorutl cranspormrioo and iexclnance Keclune and Nye 1971 xix (4) creating new insrruments fut iexclnfluence for use by sOJne governments over ()(bers (Keuhane aOO Nye 1971 xx) 1100 lt5) dJe emergence cE auronomous acrors wirh priwre ntildelreign policia thar roa) deliberarely oppose Oiacute impinge on Sla(e polides (Krohilne and Nye 1911 xvii)
In a late book (1977) Keohane and Nye dcah with che questioo of imershydependem-e in world poliacutetics io greatet depth Iorecclependencc $lnce tbe Second Wm1d War has- onen cesulted from increasetl ttaosnadonal atciviries and iexcli divided ioto twO sorrs sensltlviry iacutemerdcpeodence (dte muIy effecrs of dULOges jo tranS1lCrJons oc ~()ciacuteetiexcles or govetrunents) md vulnembHhy interdependence where he acrors Hahllhy tc suffet eO$n iacutemposed by extemal evenc~ js (aken inro accoum (Koonane ana Nyc 1977 12-13) In COntrast ro tbe reaisr view of world poHrk Keohane and Nye pm totward che idea type of complcllt imerdependence which chey claimed soroetimes comes dosee ro realiacutety chan does realism (Keohanc attd Nye 1971 23) aod whieh has three nuio characretl$tks it allows fo mulnple rhallne1smiddot- imershyStatC tiansgovernmental and trilnsnationa- conneltring sncieries there i an abserue of hierarchy ilmonS the rnany questions ac inle hetween iexcliexcltates with military securiry no 10nger dominntlng lUly agenda and Millnu-y force 15 not used by governments toward orher governmenu within me laquogion or on [he lssutS where complex intetdcpendence prevaiacutels (Keorutne aoo Nye 1971 25)
These dltee condidons are said by KCQhane aOO Nye to typify fairly weJJ 5Ome LIlAUe$ of global economk md ecological interdependence ami come dose ro chamcrerizing rhe emite relarionship hetWetn sorne cnuntdes (KeolWne and Nye 1911 25) Complex ilterdepcndente glVel rise ro oacuteininctive poliacutetical processes a sute $ goals wiacutell vary by mue arca with mmsgoYernmeotul puumllitics making goab difficut ro define as ttansgovern~ menrnl llClaquo()$ (fof cxample mtfUsrers of agr1cuJmre inte11igente agencies nariona wcather bureaux) pursue their own aims Jhe followiog facwn are reLevant iriexcl eilch issue area
bull iexclhe resourc-es of a Ncue fur thaI particular area are most relevaot radre Ihan the stares overull military ~tre-ngth
bull international nrganizatinm and uansnntional actors wHl be fruloipula[ed as malnr instrumenrs oiacute mue poHcy
bull rhe agenda of issUC$ wi11 be fOrmulated hyebltUlgcs in the power dirmi~ burlon wirhin [he issue alaquollS by rhe pururinn (lf internarional regimes
150 Writings lIlt inttn1atiQrJ41 ergdniutirll1J
by changes jn rhe importance of ttaflstlational acwtS and by linkage froro orher issues
bull linkage between 1sllor$ will be mote difficult for strong naces to undetshyrah ir[orce 1$ downgraded
ft whiJsr linkage by we$k srares rhrough internacional organuumlarions seu agendas helps coalition-wrming and provides arenas for the political acdvity oC weaker states which can use the choice of organizarional forurn [or an issue and rhe mobiliZlition of votes as a politiul resource
(Keohane and Nye 1977 37)
Thm Keuacutehane and Nt gavc inremarjonal organizaciOfls an iroporran[ role in thde compfex interdependence model of world politics a model which whilst not uSlaquo (O explaitt aIl world politics was one which rhey daitned to hllve iacutenfrtasing releYJ1nce in IIlarge and growing area 1ntildeey used an intetnUional organizadon mooel as one of the explanations ror internashytioua regime change that js che lthange in the sets of goveming flrrangernems affening relatioruhips oC interdependence In tMs C$e intershynadonal oJsanisaciolls refeued ro multilevd Iinkage norms and insritutions (Keohane and Nye 1977 54) which once euablished are harJ (O enlAlicate BeCllue o( this rhey may Stand in the way of swes using thdr capabHities In ordec 00 chauge regimes Instead powet outcomCl will be more aJfectcU by votlng power (in the UN General AssemWy for example) ability ro futtl) coalidoos llnd 00 control elite networks (ruch as that founo io clte institushydougt of the European Commnnities) Whilst the complclt illternadorull organizarion mode1 was only Ofle oiacute fOur aJvaucecl by Keohane and Nye ro explain regiffie chAoge tbey Jiu expeomiddott jr to contribute to such chaIlSC in a world where complex interdependence (onditions pertain
1he rontribmions by Keohane and Nye demonstra(e hoth the roncero pf American wtilets iexcln inremationru relariWl in the 1970$ with altemacives to
tite srare-centric model and their wiluumlngness tO draw from more rhan one approach bringiexclng rogether elementogt from che more tradidonal appnJaChes with economic models and non-stare-cenuic dements TIleir Wi)rk does however have certain weaknesle$ Perhaps the mon serious is the use of rhe cerro imerdependence and iexclrs djvisiacuteon iexclnro ~n~itivity and vuinerability imerdependence Anepting rhar inltldeperulence meUlS mutool dependeoce (and [hjs leado to discussiou a~ w how mutual maoy relationihips are) che phrase scnsiuacuteviry imcrdcpendenre scarccly wflrmnu thc use uf the term interdependcnce fhe fault lies wJth che authou loose definiuOfl of depen~ iquestcnce as a oiexcltate (lf being detetmined oc $ignificaruly affected by externa fwces The induskm 0(signi6candy atkcted w~aken5 me urillry uf me cerm so tlme che nOr1on oiacute scusltivity inrtgtrdependence seems ro refer ro any nociceshyaMe cffeltr of ooe srate and society 00 anorher A person may Ix- significandy affectcd by taking drog$ wlthout Ix-ing dependen on chem David Baldwin showcd that mis use of rhe cerro interdependence ran conrrary to the striaer
Writingt ()I inf~_Ji(J1ia ~lfizaJJom 151
lUlderstlllldings (lf the concept fuund in MirhiaveUi Montesquieu and Ronsseall as weU 115 in che works uf twentieth-cemury wrlteI$ such as Norman Angell Francis D(laisi -and Ramsay Muir (ampIdwm 1980 7-9) He snuested the U$C of rhe rerms mutnal influence mutual responsivrness ot mutual scrlitivity insread ofscnsirivity inrerdependeruemiddot (Baldwin 1980 19)
A second cuacutericism uf Keohanc and Nyes books aso concems eheie termishynology In dealing wirh rransnational influentes They [ump tngerheraH types of teiations in whieb non~8overnrnental actOrs participare chus makiflA rhe componenrs of cheir new paradigm shifting aud poorIy defined (Wagoct 1974 440-1) Wagner questioned whetber their work simply demonstrated a shifr in interesr to new areas of intetnational polidts shyespedally elttmomic ones - ana whethcr [he world hM reaUy changed or whether we have iexclUSt overlookcd sorne things a1l along (Wagner 1974 441) The atent of imerdependence wa~ also chaHenged by Waltiquest (1970) anJ Rosecratlce el al (977) in che US and by Lirrle Bnd McKinlay (1978) and Strllivan (978) in rhe Briti~h Uteramre
DespiLe any falling$ Keohlllle and Nye provided insighrs ioto ttamlflashydonal polltics they shifted atrention away fcom p~lrely govcrnmental actOts in inff$rate relarions and they poiutm OUt he impMrance of intetnational organlziexcliexclxions in the intetdepcndence oc at lcast rnurual responsiveness of =
rbe rdormist view of both international celBtiOO1l and iuternational orga- nizar1ons has always provided an rutemative lO the more conservativc cealist approach Ir tended ro be dominated jn the pre-wu petiod by internauacuteonal lawyen and ideaJists but sinee hc Second World War has laoched on to the changell in world poUtics 6tst jn the economic ficld and then in Europe thar have Mn more difficulty to explain in ICliIHst term~ It has sten intcrna~ rionnl organizarions as mlans to manage trends such as iucftI$(d economl( intlrdlpcndcoC( bar hll5 also illtceplcU rhat these organizations mar necorne impoftllm aCtoriexcl (lO che wodd st$ge lhemselves and can cettainiy Iacute)(cnrne involved iexclO changing rhe preferences o( governmeflts
RADICALS
Writers covered in this sccrion iCe rhe intcrnadonal sysrem flOt so much as being domlnlltcd by states bn( more by diUerent divisions 01 its peoplcs Thi$ is noe to Sfly fhat chey ignore surtes They cOflsider them elthet w be ks tmportant chan the iquestjjsions of diUS tit wealth or merely ro refI~ct these othcr factors ot w be roadblo(ks to unky in (he fare Qf mote impomllt chalmiddot renga Power ls seefl as belnamp cxercised by eh( wealthy II1ld privileged and open to cha1Jeuge Change in the system is possibl( but onty through srrll8ge or by an awakenjug pf peoples tQ rhetr real sitllatlon Most iexclnter~ natimal organization~ are thus regarded as (eflccrioos of the currcnt unsruisracwry stare uf aiacuteTairs though $fJme more activist orgauhatioos mar llave potential as vehicles or (hange
This SIoacuteCElOn has betn sub-middotdivided imo rhree gthe fUS( are the econ01nk srructuralists and indude Marxists and Third Wocld wruumlers cririclll of rhe cutrem imernruionallyuem They haacuteve in common a belief mar che polltshyiexclcal srructUres of me world halle leeo wbloned mainiexcly by eltonomic fiiexclctors and rhAr mere has bren an intiacuteJUIllity builr imo the presen sytem lhe recood are the cruumliral app~es who5e radicalilifl1 is mure of the iacutemellec~ cual SOrt They rejeCf - Uf at 19$[ question - Jhatly of rhe usumpcions utlderlying be lIiews ofhe world tepresented by the realists and refotmers Finally mere are the globalim Theit perspective ls planerary ana theiacuter rnain conrtrn h fM rhc survival uf Earth Agilln they challcnge che mme statemiddotbuled approaches of both realjsts and reformers
Stnuturaluacutet lIiews
Ihe srructuralist appmiexclch rO (he swcly of inrematioOlIl relations differs In imporrant wars tO thoee of me realists and refotmuu tbough ir has some elemeou in comroon with mands ofb04h schools As roany of (he neo-realistsshyemphasite (he power scructure of wudd potities this sectiacuteon willlimir jwgtlf ro (hose writers roncerned wich the impacr 00 me political S)Srem of rhe wodds ccooomic strucrure Unliacuteke che ttalist approach the erooomk srrucruralisrs are OOr jUSt concemed with swtts io wodd polilla and rhelr economic and poIitkal differencC$ but alw with the divisioru within f1tld berween SoOCieties (WiIIeas 1990 263) They are [heretOre romerncd witl the rifi berween riel iexclmd poor within scares and rhar herwtto udl and poor glohally This leads ro an interese lO trulSlUirional reladoru as well as in inrergo~romenmt links Th(f have this in corrunon wim refPrtllist views bm diexclfier foom chem in (he emphast~ placeoacute on rhe structures of world pollics beinc formuared by eltooomic fiexcliexclcmn In rhis selttion attentioo wilt be given te MarxiS[ wtlletS lIud sume Thir1 Wodd view$ - partiuilarly (hose of rhe cependency sdlOOf and rhe developmemalj~[II - who have made a cootribution quite separare from rhat of rhe Muxiacutesr uadidon
Marxill laquoewl
There is no one Marxisr interptetariacuteon of me role of imerniexcliexcltional Olganiza~ cions in world politics Sur Manis[ approschf3 have certain elements in common and form a di~dnctive 5ch001 of rhough[ about lnrernartonal telamiddot tions generaHy and therefore ahotu international ocganizadoos These appmaches are based 00 du writiflgS of Karl Marx (l818~) in coshyoperarioo witb Fuacutewrich Engels (1820-95) with perhaps tbe gtearest later conrribution being maJe by VL Lenin kader of (he 1917 fo1shevik revolushydon in Rurna They are cf importanee pany becau1e ehey ficm tlle 00515 for mmmuniSt [hinking and (hm mey have an anactunenr m rhe Soviet Unian whieh WIlS be suongc1t commnuist stare unrII 1991 and EO rhe Peoples Republic of China COlUT1UnJSl sinee 1949 Apan ftom lbis ManiS( beliefs
had a irmng inpur mm Wescern imdleltrual cruoking and conunue ro iruoan some viewi abom wodd politics in rhe Third Wodd
Neither Marx no Mancisrs took rhe stare ro be (he curtency of iacutenteInashy(iexclonal relations Unlike (he realist viewpoints chey did fiO( coruider interactions blaquoween soveteigu ltates to be ofovettidi importance UnHke tbe funcrionalists aud other modem Westetn views rbar srress non-stare actocs Marxiexclsts in particular emphasized cbus relatlonships born wiexclrhin nates and IiCOOSS Stare boundaries Indeed ie is diffku[r ro talle only of a MaIXIacutest view of inrernatiooal re1atioll5 lec ttltme of iorernarional orgnniza~ UumlOOy as rhis separares ene particular aspecr of human behavinur tor MIlIXIsr rrearment divorcing ir from the undedying relleCS of Marxlc beliefs Man-ism provides a framcwok of undemanding by whkh ir iacutes daimed ~ociery pan lind vresen can be explaioed and che furure development of mankiexclnd determined
According ro Maf1 relariooshipamp between people and the futm~ mar insdmdooallzed rhose relatienshfpamp depended on rhe economic $truCtUR of soday fhe way rhat productlon was organized He traced the history of dvilixed maokind through five hiuorical staBes - AAjade mdenr feudal capttalin and socialin - which have ditTereru dominant methods of produc~ tioll leadiog 10 a complirared arrnngement of $OCiety ioto various ordetS 11 manifuld graduadon of sociru tank (Marx llnd Boge1s 1965 40) amph form of sorlef has coutained rhe conflictual divisiQl$ which help [Q tranuacuteorm the narun of rhat $Ocjeey coRrradicrioru in the mode ofpcoducfIacuteon placed srrain nn rhe existing social nrder sharpeniug rhe divide berween economic founshydatinn of sociery and a mpld aansIacuteonnlltion of in SOpel1Ullcture in legal polidcal and re1igious it1$tirutioos Thus by 11 confronration of da$~ Conrramiddot dkeions one historlraJ form of soc1ery wus transfocmcd into a bigher stage uf social devdopmem the history of aH hitherto existing ~ociexclety is the histoty uf dass struggles (MaDI Illld Bngets 15 39) Marx and Bnsels were parriculady conceroed wich capita1i$t sociery - ac its Oeyday during theiacuter Uves - and its tmnsrormarion iexcluto ampocis1iu sodety Wlthln rrus form of SoOCiety rOete would be no division of laboU4 and no eWses Illld no SUtes no elCpropnation of labours 5urplus vruue I1nd (bus no private property 00 exploira(ion of ene clilllS ny iexcliexcloother with 00 need fue war
For Marx and fingeJs C1ass then and noiexcl fllltions or sutea are rhe bade units in hurO) llIIIl che struggle between clAssts Jnstead oiacute infeutliltl contlict ocrupies rhe centre of acrention (Berki 1971 R1iexcl From me nlneteenth celUUf onwards rhis struggle -n in Marxisr cerros has been primarUy between [his capicalist dass ([he OOurgeoisic) aOO the bbouring dw (me proletariat) AA (he trarurormatlon fmm capltalisr SoOCIety [O ~OCialiexclMl ro comrounism rook p~e (he superstruerutt of bourgtOis SoOCilaquoy - religioo national divisiacuteon boutgmis politicnl insrirudnns rhe SOlte - woold be swept flway and in Engtls pmse rhe gOlcrotnent nf persons is replaced by [he udminlsuacion of things Fetter 19 (47) with me itEte relegated lO the mmeum iexclngemer Wlth lile spinshyning wheel Qnd [he bronze axe (Feuer 1969 433)
154 WrituacutetKiexclI mJenl4tiorJal rngmZtlJilm
Mux saw the European SUtes of his own rime as being rntans by which the ruBng dass (011amp oppress the work~ng clw by using (he agentl of tht 5tare such as the iudidary the poliee the army and rhe church he (xrerual Ilctlvities of the stare wete also determined by its Chtss namre MeanwhiJe rrmllnat]onat Rlations of a more meaningfuL kind WQuld bt creared by trade rhe movement of capital and incteaiitd romac[ and llOIacuteldarity betwten the prolerariat of vanoulS nations riacuteidefd rhe internacional nriexclaniutions of which Marx and Engels hnd dire(t experiena- wtfe the Fi~t Internatiomd and for Engels the Secund lntemarional both of which atttmpted lO orgashynJxe the represemarives of wruking people aiexclros fronden Onc~ agaJn this stteAAe$ the Marxist empbois on transnarional dass relutions rnther than on intentate relarionships
Whibt Soviet writlngs on international organizatinn1 wtte falrly desulshytory in Scalins reigu 0924-53) rhey did lmerIy hernld rbe move towams peaceful co-existerne arul roreshadowffi the lartf rnrhe[ restrktive view of Imch organi2Atinm hy Soviet commentators
In the post-Second Wodd War period and In patticular in the post-Stalin era Soviet liternmre on international organiuttions bl(lSsomed This has reflected Soviet membership oC ma1ly 1osiexcl-1945 organixations the emershygence of a socialist bloc of sta[C$ and tbe incre-ase in the mlmber of Sowcreign s[ates all flUtontilde demaruHng a more sophisricared Soviet view of lnter~llate reLadoru than che survivalism of Stalins period Uuring rhe lare 19805 i( auo ret1ected the new thinking iacutemroduced by Gorbachev
StalintI suIXessor KrU$hchev developed a revised view of internacional relaCtons which gave a positio1l ro the emerging Third Wnrhl (Tbe Third Wotld was then taken to mean rhotle IItates thar had emerged ftom colo~ nialiacutesm In effect rhe terrn later induded tbe stares of Latin America Africa - exclnding the rhen apaftbeid stnre of South Africa - the Middle Rasr Oceaniacutea and South Asia) Peace(ul co-exiuence between oda1ist and (apltaJisr states WM $til comidered nece1sary but this diacuted noc predude the ideologiacutecal stmggle between rhe two campsmiddot iexclndeed lhe Soviet inter~ national lawyer GI Ihnkiacuten wrote pearcfut cocx15tence of sutes represeonng che tWO differeor rodal sysems is a slccific form uf dass struggie beween socialism and calitllllsm (Osakwe 1972 37) The Soviet Union abo deveJoped relatlons wirh rbe newly emerging exshycoloniaJ cOllntdeJ and Soviet writiog had tu take ~ount of this developmem There wru a recognirion of a third group of stattli between rhe capitalist aud the communlsr that of poteorially friendly indtptomiddot deut $tarem io Europe and Asia such as India Egypt Indnnesia and Yugoslavia which would filrm a tone of peace Although the rebtions wiacuteth rhe capitaliacutest sures sriacuteH remaioecl embedded in pelteful coshyexluencc rhere was an emphasis by postmiddotStalinist Soviet writets on the da eJement in lile telatiomhil - that is rhe wntact with progressive elements in Weste1l sodeey smh as che Jabonr mnvement Ncither diexcld peaceful co-exiucuce rule OUt ~upport o[ middotjUSt wars of nationallibcrildon
WIacuteJIacute11gs tm iacutenUrllUtional WjatlJZtiacutelJlff 155
iexclndeed ir was seen lt a strategy fo wodd reloludon Fiacutenally (he rrlashyfIacuteonhips berween the Sovier Union and East Eumpean countries vere deerned ro be based on sociali internationalism posmlating a haemony of natinnal and commllnity interests and mndllding thar jnde~ndeuce and sovereioiexclnty of a soctalist uate means aoove aH indepltndencc from capitalism (Red Star 1 December 18)
Tunkin underljned traditional Soviet thiacutenking rllar the mngtrltllenl imrrllment of an ioretnational urganization (fne example the Chaner oiacute the UN) was all-impottant in derermining tIte enene rrun the otganizauumlon bad an international legal pcntildeonaliry rhar iexcl5 a standing in internacional 1l1w 5imilar tu titar of a sovereigo staxe Examining lhe question of the antonomOllS wiU oiacute international nrganitatioll Tunldn allowed thl1 they need not jmt act as agtnts for member stares
In imernatiunal ptacrke trellties conduded by jntcrl~ational mSaniacutezashytinns take their speciaJ piare as treacies by wbkh internationsl organimtiom aequire righu and take upon themselves cerrain obligiexcllshytioos Intctnat10nal organizatiou are created by Hares hey are broughr iexclnto being by states but the actloacuteos of imcmational organi7ashydoos are nlt)( in any way de facto or de jure ro be tqt1sred lO the actions of scates
(Osakwe J972 23)
Thi did nor mean than M internadonal organiacuteiariexclon was an entity indeshypendem of its memher us[es as any powers (har they hacl were delegated by [he members In Jine wirh che ampwiet doctrine of peareful co-exiacutesteme Tunkin placed Uress pn (he nature and rhe membership of an international organiacuteution dlOSe which drew their membersbip from commlmi1t c1Ipishytalist and TIiexclird World tares could expcct tu be genel1llly mognized as having an incernarional personaliacutery He wrote
TIte namre of tontemporary international prganiurions is lO a very great exttm derefmined by [he existerue of Haces beJonging ro differem wcio-economk systems and the ioevitable muggle between them Thar is why pcaceful crexislence is now the bl-sic condition of rh~ dfVC1iexclpshyment ufgeneral interoational ntganization
(Osltuumlltwlt 1972 289)
Mor07JN Clt1ntrlbuterl sorne extra points Fintildet be iududed JNGOs in his stndy He wrote dlQt lotetnational orgaruulions have as iI rol 8t least three member coumries TheM may be government$ offidJ orgilnlzarions or 0CInshy
guvernmental organizatiow (Morowv 1977 30) In a 11Iter seccion m NGo thcy were ldencifred as che la~ group of inrerrulttonal organiuttiolls wim two aspccn rbar concttntd socuIacuteiacuteIgtt commemarors tbe NGOriexcl auirude towards the preservarion of pealaquo wkh the Wnrld Feieradon ofTrade Unions
6 _ 0
rhe Wodd Fedemion oE Democratk Youth and otber meiexclllbtrs oiacute tbe Sovittshybacked World Peace (ounaacutel gaining special mentioo and the specialiuJ chataCrer of sorne NGOs itl(h as rhe ruerrutriunal Couocil of Scientifu Unions and che Scienrifk OJmmiuee on Antnrctk Research MOrlrLOv memioned how NGOs can belp emblish a social dimate citillg their contti shybution ro (he setdemenr of a number of internacional confHcu swh as dlilr in Vietnam He aOO dealr wirh the role of che NGOs io cbe UN aud che consuJshyrative srarus [hey llave witn lGOs saying du[ smdems of internariooal affitjoiexcl
in [he socjalisr councrics m critieal of many asplaquots of (his system fur the eoruulrarive StatuS amogemenrs stiU fall shon of wha( [he deveJopmenc of modern inretnatlonal relarions in fac[ catls fur (Morozov 1977 43) Tbe specialized namre ufNGOs Wamp1 atttibuted by M((2OV tu
tht increased Jnfiuence of the pubic at large un roreign polky [he grearer iexclmpat of public opininn in imernatiunal reladuns and [he greater importante uf me ideological fiexclUtot 10 $ucb relations Accoum should abo be raen of che proccsses of cconomic developmenr and [he coosequenc~ of [he scienrific and rechnological tevolutioo which has also led ro a greatet number of speoacutealized NGOs
(Morozov 1977 42)
Second Morozov wridog jo d~ late 197amp made moU pos-irive refershyencelgt (O [he role oiacute Trurd Wodd SUtes in imemaciooa otganimrions He noted rbar rbe emetgtoce oiacute ti large oumbe of Oung natiooal stares h8ve kd fO che emetgcnce of intetnarJonal Drganizadons among develcpi08 ecuoshytries (Mororov 1977 29) aod claimed hat partkiparion in (hese organh311oos is part uf he process uf consolidating their sovereigocy and ruuional jndependenu~ aod of wlviog cheir pressing ecoOfJmic anJ orher pmbemsmiddot (Morozov 1177 31)
Finally Momzov developed the puint made by fimkin aOOut he limited llalUre of ioternationaJ organiurjQn$ - ~econd-dllSS ffitrnbers nf the inrershynarloual sysrem as opposed tu rhe firsr-diexcllSS members SQvereJgn stateiexcl by reretcme tO theit dedsioos There bave resulted froro che inrelllctioo of politicuJ euroorces within the organil1ldons and
Thecombined will uf chcse lGOs i5 disuumlnc[ from [he wllls of theuuml indishyvidual members io in eflSenlte and ln in narure The v1ilflous wills in thb case are nor agsregued arirhmetically each one exim indepenshydendy ur oside a homogeneQu~ socio-political gOUP wirbin whose frarnework (hey can be combjlled
(Murozov 1977 34)
AfLer lhe comiog ro powet ofMikhail Gorbachev in the Soviet Union io 19Bgt a Ihaoge rook place jo $oVJIl policies rowards imeroadonal relations irutuding international organi1ations and [his has been reflecred in new
~ M-- bull 6_V_
Soviet writings un [he subJect Gorbachev inttoducetl a owjor review of [he fureign poljcy uf the Soviet Union (har marchcd rhe inremiry of his dmncslic refotmS He encouraged new rhinking- based on a revjeJ vlew of che world siruation Peaceful co-existence wirh iexclhe capiralisr tirares WlCgt no looger seeo a~ being a spetjfic fum of dass srruggle as Tunkin had written bUI 35 being in the commoo intecesu oiacute all countriCl Ir WIi$ predishycued on the neOO fin surviva of (he human nce which in ShakhfUlZOlrQvmiddot$ word$ must ofCOUIse take fim place Lighe 1988 297gt- Thjs ml$or rhar a new COIKeuropt of seGldty had ro he adopreJ hy che Soviers rhar oiacute common security which wa5 based un sume of he ideas of -che Palme Comminion (see he1ow) Greater emphasis wu given ro arms control and dlsarmament agreemenrs wirh the Wesr 11nd to co-opttation in international uffuirs whilst Soviet intervention io che Third Wodd enbed and milirary 5UppOtC 1m [he East European communisr govcfomentS WlS withdrawn
Soviet wdcings on inremurionilJ relations both offidal and academic came to mirror Gorhachevs new rhJnkiog bur eho lilete iexcl$ evety sigo chut rbese id~ were dmwu no only from rhe Wesr but alw Uacutenm Moscow mink-tanks slleh as lMEMO th~ JflSIirure of World Eronomy and Inremlfona Relacions) Liacuteght 1988 29~n Gorbschev aun his forngn minisrer FQllard Shevaronadre gave rhe academiacuten a Breen light for funher diSClViiacuteon ud debare (Shevaronadre 1990 23) As II reampul srudies examlned he role of che Uniacutered Nariacuteons as sn ugem for peoce (Kolyrev 1990 12-19 NesrerenkQ 1990 65 Petoovsky 1990 42--3) and rhe mte of inrernational or811nizadons in environmental mliLffers IiLnd disurmamenc qutsdmuuml Chodsulkwsky 1988j NikitiM 1989 123-32 Roginko 1989 133-43) and internarionallaw was teassesred (Sutier 1989~ 363-75)
Once che Sovier Union collapsed many of me wrifetS losr rhe main point of political reference A nwllber Iefi academc orhets adapted thelt ideas ro WCtem oues and a few remnioed as policy rulviseni ro che new Russian goVefrutJenL However cornmunism as M imellectually dominant organiuog rotce wlch pnliiisJ dour had djsappeared in Russia togerllef with much uf the persptr1ve ir provided - wben seen thmugh me unen distotdng leos uf tbe Sovier lfulon - oiacute inrernatiooaJ relatlons and inremariooal organhattnru
Chinese Marxisr wrirers have iexclargeIy reflected rhe views of the leadershyship in Chinll sioce [he coming ro power of rhe Commun1sr Patty in 1949 Undl (he 1970$ communist China was elduded from almon aH iotttllJishytional of811nizIiLtIOns and ie is flot surpriamping tha whae lirde writing tbete WUtl on the st1bje(r Wal fairly dismiacutesampive usuaUy consisdng uf coudemnaM tinos of (he UN fnf its action tn Korea aud rhe security allianes fot teir hegernonic narure Chjnese Marxisr rhinking hiacuteu divided (he modem wotld jnro three groups ihe Birsr World consisred of rile fWQ imperialist superpowers namely he USA ano the USSR The Second World was made up uf otbet areaa uf advamed industrilllired cnuntries primariacutely EUfape aod Japa which were opea ro donunariou by lite Sllperpowers bu( which could $tan a dialogue wirh rhe Thiacuterd World Theu (here was rhe Third
158 Writings OtJ internationdl organizatioru
Wodcl iexcltreI( coruisting of the Afro-Asiacutean-Lario Americltlu sta tes supported in their muggte aAainSt Picsr World imperialism by Chinls This viexclew of the wmId colouted tyJst Chiacutenese wridngs on iacuteoternatiollill oeganharions Tbe $uperJowers were seen as cynical lTlllnipubtors Qf inrernarionaJ jnsti~ tutions Mao Tre~tuog wOre of US poliey towards such insdfutions Ir mam use or them when it neOOS rhem and kicks them 3way when ir does flot (Society (or Anglo-Chinese Underuanding 1979 42) US-domioated pill-~ such amp$ SEATO and imperialist groupiacutengs like rhe Alliance tor PfOgre~( wttt detided Spedal viuiot was saved roc the Warsaw freaty Orgaoizatiun whieh in one aetide was described as Soviet sodal~ imperialisms mol fur aggression (Ming Sung circd Jn Chen 1979 194) fhe Soviet Union was aceuseQ of trying tu manipulate che Pan and negnshydate wlth Wesrem eouorries rhmugh the Enropean Scltwiry Conferenee tn consolidare irs begemonic status in Basrern Enrope at the same time iexcliexcll dividiog Wes(ern Europe squeezing Out the USA ro as ro muSte way (0(
iu expansion and infilrmrion into Westem Europe (Ming Sung clted in Chen 1979 197)
Chinese writecs Fegatded tbe Ntildegttood Worid espedally Western Europe as being a pen force io telmS of imperialism which Ww tdponeed to the lhird World wich diaJogu as io the Jmueacute Convention berweoen tIacute1e European Commnnitiacutees and AF~ican Carib~an and Paciuacutet srUe5
Furrhermore the defensive $spects of NATO were sttessed and with growing European cohcsion the trend iexclS IJkely to ~ towatds a fuoce in which the American elemenr is seen as 1 temporary neceuity eventual1y to be phased out (Sodety fur Anglo-Chioese Undetstanding 1979 90)
lthe countries of the Third World were setn as coostirotiog rbe mluumln force comb$dng imperiaJi~m colonialism and hegemonJsm reEerring nor only to the vestiges of Wesr Etl-OOptan foloniiexcliexclJism bOl abo to US iexclnpetlshyalism and gwwiog Soviet soci$l~imperiacutea1ism Tbe Third Wodd eQuld hdp tn exclude the gre$t powers ny baoding cogecher io such otganizatinos aiexcl tht DAU aod rhey could work ro correct unequiexcliexcl nade and eeonomk reladons with che sUpetpowers through UN iexcliexclgeucies and eonferences such as UNCTAD and UNaos Abo rtlW material ancl exporting orgllnizations liexclke OPEC rbe Incernadonal Bauxilaquo Association ancl the Onion of Banana Bxporting Counuies were proised a ehanging (he old interntlrional eumomic Ome and banerlog che biggest roarerJal plunderers in rile world rhe United Srates and (he Soviet Uoleo (Ptking Rt1Jiew 26 Septtmbtr 1975 cited in Cheo 1979 309)
111e poverty oiacute ehinne study of intetnatlenal erganhuions no dounr caused by the lack of Chinese membership of such etganizacions unril the 197amp and the turmoit ef the Cultural Revulution eiexcliexclme ro an enel by the 1980s Jnstead oere was a more reaHs( viexclew (lE rbe worlcl iexclf one S~shytimes coucbed In Manlst terms In Chlnese univenittes there was a growtb io detailed studies of iutemationalntgsnizations aod the nuropean Union
WritingI un inlmullPmnl vrgrsrtilpiill1J 159
Tbird Wwld vlewJ
Many Third Wodd Afro-Asian aoo Latin Atrusican) writers 00 jntemsw
tional organizaion have adopte a structtulIist framework and are particufarly nm(etnecl abour how insdtutions can be wcd as tools of exploitadon uf rhe nitd World aud how $ome cau be used lIS agenrs of libenuion They llave nor been induded in the ~ettiexcloo un Marxist viltws (or three feamm nOI al of them are Mandst thIJM who are Manisr place particular stresS on (he posicion oF thE l1lIacuterd World and as ThJrd Worlcl eitizens they have through theit own experience unother pe~cdve rhan [Mt of writers from industri$lized srates
Yash 18ndon (1978 377) has identjfied thNf nuacuterd World penfIXrives en inrernational Olganizatiolls Fim [here is that or the bourgeois Of perry natiunalisrs who are in power in mos[ Third World statcs and who are progressive in [errru of anti-impcrialism but are rraniollary ro the C1tccnr WC they would sooner mau thcir pcaee with imperialism rhan iluwnder power (e the masses and peasancs This group uses ineernational orgllniexclm~ tions ro pur presrure 0lI imperialisc states in order to extntCt concession5 from them and appease tbe masses in their own coontries TIley see che UN as an opportunity to parley witb their entwhiacutele impecild masters t a presumed kvd uf equa1iry (Tandoo 1978 365) Thc scltond pcrspective is rhat ofthe reaIly backward regimes of thl Thitd Wodd such un Taiwiexcliexcln and Jotdan or whnm intemarional orguniacutelattnnS are of margJna1 signifieance [)t they prefet tu dea wirh impcrialism iquestirt(tiy The rhird petSPCCrive idenrified by landOll is that uf rhe masses vi thc TIlird World for wbom toterntlunaJ orgmilAriom are petiphewl fin liS Jong as hey rontinue fO reflect the muing balanlte uf clas$ forces in hvour uf impeuacuteJism (fandon J 978 378) Sioce the ene of he 196amp rorces representing thu third group have bccome lnott prominent in world polido in che form of liberarioo groop1 lttCn as tbe PLO and whilst chese have f)tgten interested in galnin8 telaquolgnJtlon rOt rhemshyselves at the UN and the spedaliled agcodes rhey are not depeuden 00 these or8ani1Jlton~ rndecd Tandoo romioeted (hat fo che revoludonary snnggles in SOUfh~E3SC A~a and AfrJctI iOfernattonal otgilnizalJons are tOO peripheml to be of much $ignilJeaoce (Tandon )9713 377)
Tancloo providcd n inrere~tiog history of the Jevelopment uf the anrishycolonialist forees in che Third Wruld sinee 1945 bur hi~ clivi~iexcl()H iexcloro he three perspenives is roo stark leaving aside rhe leil important backWllro regimes be has basiclllly grO~lped tbe Third World leadershp joto the revoshylutionaries who have Uttle netd (or imernatiooa otgllnizatiooll and those who llave suumlpped into refOrmism and have beco duped iot() bdieving (hat they elln ehaoge chelr c1ependeoce 00 industtia1i1Cd nBfiexclmL~ lhrough intemadonal organiwtions Thjs seems to undelsrare me use or ~mh organishyzations by revolutionllry groups - especiiexcliexcllIy che PLO anel tlle SoUthem African liberadon OtgllOiexcl7arionS - whieb have made substaotial use oiacute [he UN me Arah League ano the OAU tO sustain rhe polirical aspeets of theit effOrt5 1t alS(l uverestimatcs the extent tu whieh the Third World countries
J UU wnlmgl 1111 JTiUrllamm41 ergtIttJ1I0fll
have any iUwinru about imetnariooal Qrganizarioos such a~ UNC1~D
Furchermorc the identificador of 800d revolutionaries and falten refurmislS i~ tuller impliexclstjc~ rhe maIur sponrot of the UNs New Ecooomic Order l wruch Tandon hal roudemned as rhe Old Economic Order with a diffefent rltetoric WIIS the Algetian radinu governmenr of Boumediemu rhe PLO irself ha heen dependem on a numlgttr of bnurgeWs Arab goveromenrs foc financial 00 diploJUlltic suppon and ro Tandoos duumlertion that PQr narlonallibemwn movemenn guided by a proktatlan idoology such liS rhose in Chifliexcl1 lIlud Vietnam iruemarionaJ organlwtlona WtU of no 1J5e can be- added the re5ervarion until chey carne (O power Whiht ir took some twenty years belote communist Qtill1 made use nf suth organiutions the unified communiSl Stale ol Vietnam was quick fO cake up it position in the UN ro ask [Ol aid thtough UN agencies liS well as w become ji membet of he CMEA (Comecon)
Third Wodd commemscOt1l on world politics have emphasized the nature uf rheir atea$ potirical ecoOoacutemtc Ilud culmral relatloosluumlp wilh rhe iHdllsrriexcl~ alixed Nonh TitilO is iOO$t Oflltl rypified aiexcliexcl bciug OHe of ueo-folonialism _ COntrol of che Third Wtltld by lhe Nortb by indirecl means ratlet (han by direa colonial tule and of Kf)IomIacute( dRptwJmry (o dtpmdemjiexcliexcl) lntetnationaiacute rdsdOOi bcrween sures are sublumed ro relations between claue$ world wide Ixtween on rhe one lIand the expluacuteiting impetialist capitetists in rhe northcm iru1usuialized couotries 2100 rhcir middle-ltlass collaboratotS in the 50Uthem SUtes aud on the othet band he exploiced masses rhe proleuriat ol [he $Ourhern contJnems The Lurcr gmupS have been 1I1iide ecooomkaUy dependent on [he furmer so char hey lIre in rhe wuacutetds uf the Bruiliiln T Dos SantOS in a situadon jn which the economy of a cetuin group of counshytrles is condiacutedoned by rhe develOplllent aad expansion of aoother ecouomy lO which thcit own 15 subjecred (Bodenheimer 1971 327)
The uOOerdeveloped tounrries depend uacuten [be developed ror their capital nd ercperdse they find key sectors of ehdr eroooroy conrrolled from OUtsJde rhey act as a SOUfce of raw marerials lIS ji lthetip source of labour arul as a rnarket fur mllnuf8ccurers from Euttipe ]apan and North America As thejr living standards were deterrniud by rhe vicissinWeS of the Northern~ dominated wodd marker the relationship was Otle uf unequa exchange (he [esule of which was a world experiencing woequal developmenr with a developed rieh indwtriaJiud capiralisr Notthern centre and d poor underdeveklpedgt agciculrutitlly backwarn eXFloired periphery in che 50mb The dependem 80mh has been divided berween rhe ptedominanr undemeshyveloped area~ lUld a few Cenfres of deve10prnenr wirh their ttade culrural rraffie and polidcal linL to [he deveJoped North - rhe depeOOem develop~ memo omlinea by EH Cardosa (1974) allodlt~r Bruiliall Mmir Amiu (977) rejC(ted the prosptltt of aH antonomous capitalist development in [he Third Work the oew bourgeaisJe of Lacin Ametica Africa and Asia were in allianec with capitalisrs from rhe Nnnh and rhe mato $OUrce of finance ror lmported equipmem was fmm the expon of raw materials to rhe indu~rial
5 ~ _~ smiddot_middot~~
iexclred smes Amin (1977 1-21) SllW rhe can made ror a New Imernational Ecooomic Order (NIEO) by Third World leaders at rbe UN UNCTAD aod che Vilrlous North-Sourh dialogues as an nrtempt LO iexclnerease the price of chelr ntw mattIial exporrs obraio more lmpotted technol08Y snd chus finance a new srage of develQpmenr He saw this ti placing the Thitd World more in the gttp of the neo-co1onialist sysrem and iostmd recommended 11
more self~rcuumlanr development wlrh murrud assismnce between Third World sures a reducdon in [ade wirh rhe induuialized wotld and Chlll a loos~ ening of dependenre Amin lJke TaOOon had Jittle fairh in presenc imtrnruional organizaciexclon Il tools foc fasbiooing a more independent Tbiacuten Wotd His sU88tl1cion of grearer mUtual ilSlgtistaoce between ThUd WorId uate~ implied somtthing more sophillticated than a numbtr of bilateral arrmgements As rbe present orgauizarions used fu iexclncm~Thjrd World cnshyoperation (che OAU he Atab League ASEAN) are domitllued by jusr dl()llC govetnmenrg chM accept lhe eowse coodemned by Amio _ the NIEO ami greater jmegrndon iexcluro rhe world economic sysrem ~hen Amia solutloil involves like-minded deveJoping counrries or more like1y political changes leading ro such indigenous intemuional orgilniwrions
Other Trufd Wodd wdten have plllCtXl emphasls on grearer use 01 exisring insdtutions lOO can broadJy be deKfibed lIS Wopmenraluli huI Prebisch an Argentinian econOmigf has not only studied the que5iaacuteon uf ecooomic dependency but his ideas llave been used as the baJiexclis for che wotk of cwo miexclljoc iexcliexcluemariOOiexcll1 organizadons rhe UN Enmomic Commission fa utin Ameriea (ECLA) and UNCfAD Iu his smdy of Briliacutesh-Argerl(inian trading relntioflS Prebisch bad idenrified rhe unequRl tecrns ol Hade between he favoured (ndusrrislized s(ate of tbe centre and he les privj~ leged llOIl-indumialiacutewl periphery Prebisch unlike rhe dependencia gtChool of Amiacuten Dos Sancos and Cardosa believed thu this inequaLity could be overcome by political acrinn by trade pre[ereonces fuvouring the pedphery by eoo1ruooiacutery agreemenrs by intelnatiacuteowll aid and by more foreiga imvestment in che ~riphery It was thele remedies thiexcllr Prebiacutesch eneouraged when he WiIS Executive SecrCrary of ECLA from 1955 lO 1963 aOO Secrewy-Genernl ofUNCTAD ftoro 14 ro 196tL In~d rhe amoum of aid the periphery needed in omer to overeome their Unfuvoluable rrnde balance became known io UNCTAD clrcles as [he Prebiexclsch Giexcllp
The distinguished Afiican aC1ldentie Aji Mazn1i has wricren un the plighr Qf (bar conciflfnt aod j~ role in pmem~day interruUIDllfl1 afmits He soughr ro answer rhe quesdon Now rlw Imperial Order is eoming ro an end who is going tO keep rhe peaee in Aampica and tu examine he concept of Pax AfrlclllUl the African s ambidoo ro be his OWh palaman The JXIliacutecillJS and se[f~8overnment ufAfriea depended on the nodan ofan African self which Mauui discusseJ in decaH He considered how this 1ndepen~ denre might be threarened by the politicaI and cultural fragmenMion of the contillenr Ellld eronomieally by deperulence on Europe He quoted Kwame Nkntmah finr President uf Ghaniexcll on rhe Europe-Jn ECOntunir Communiry
162 Wilihgr rm intd1JatirmallJrganizatimu
ihe ireaty of Romemarks the advent of oeoKolonitJism [n Afriacuteen snd bears unqutSrlonably the marks of Freneh neo-colonuumlllism (Murui 1967 93) He moduded from tM that Wlut AfrlOlns tbelaquofore neecletl was II
renerru authotity of cheir owa tI) ((lordilJlte fheir eltonomk and policicat deCena- sgain5t trus rnreat (Mamtiexcl 1961 93)
Given this theme it is not surprising tlwt Mazrui ser srore by rhe OAU bU[ he was realistic in bis judgement
In relatioos betwlaquon African statts lIOflesr step rowards Pu Africana was taken when rhe Organiution oiacute Aftlaquolln Uniey set up in Commissiacuteon ofMediauacuteoo Conci1illtion aud Arhitmion
Anormr OAU Commissioo of relevance fot Fax AftlOlna ls che Defence Cornmission Sor me Defeme Commlnion 1w se Car been among che lean effecdve QfPan-Aiacutericun ins(kndons Afrka mar indeed aspire to be her owu ptlliceman bur she does nO seem ready as yel to par the price iacutem it
(Mauui 19612[3)
Mazrui oudined the varicd backgrounds of [he lemen oiacute newly illdepenshydent Africa and thdr radical and revolmionary ideas and it is pethaps swprising rhat the insrirutions rhey created fur me coutinenf wete so mnservative with [he p05sible exceprion oiacute the OAUs Natiomtl Libetttion Comminee Mazrui no[ed thac Africa srill has the problem of how othet powetS respond tu its behaviour and [har forcigo iotmsilm in AJtica continued Indetd the I990s proved tO be a dC(ade of disusrer for AfrieR The debiacute burden contimlld while Ilome states collapsed lnro civil war ami others took to iutenoendoo in thejr ueighbonrs affairs Outslde interference from borh Enrope and North Amecica euodoned One of rhe fcw brlghr spots was the end of apallhcid in South Africa and the peaceful transitioo ro majoriry mJe lo al thiexcl~ tn quote Juliacuteus Nyerere rhe ampcmer pre~iexcldenl of Tan1ania The OAU exists outr ror tbe prorecdoo of (he Afrinllt Head~ oiacute State (cited io AlilgapPltl 1998 1 ) The relarive optimism of Maztui has giveu way ro Afriam writers examining sorne of me disrnrbing details of inaction by [be OAU and regtonal orgauiacutezatJuns nlCh as ECOWAS beiog used as doaks fu the machinations oE regional hegemou$ suth as Nigcria (Mibe 1m 61-9(1)
Radha Sinha$ problem--ortented undy Food iexcllfId PIWt11y (1976) has an IItgent message Sinha a former consultaot of the FAO prodnced an iofuacuterrned aUllyiexcljiexcl of the world$ food problem stress1Og in paniacutecular the maldistribution of food and other resources Noting he profO$ab of UNCTAD with heit muld-rommodJty approach and buffer nocks provjshySiOfli he commented rhe grearesr weakness oE the UNCTAD scheme js les Hkdy politlca1 unilcceptablliry ro me developed (ountdes parriculady che USA (Sinhil 1916 114) a propheey that has proved to he cortect He identitled a more aggresslve attitnde by Third World sutes e5pedally
WrilirrgJ on i1tternatiflii1l rHgarrtzatitmlt 163shy
after the uH prite cise of 197314 when the developing coonuies tried to maximize their own market powers by formin cartcls such as rhe Intematimlal BaurdtC Association the Intemuional Coundl of Copper Expotcing Countries aud the Intema[ional Tin Agrcrmenr He gave n qualified wekome ro the Lomeacute Convention betwcen the European (omrounities anJ cenain African Padfic and Caribbean Haces Writing in 1976 he commented
The receot cbange in rhe luirudes of tite tiche countries is largely due tu the incIeasing miliuncy of the Third World countries lt is almost ertalll utar the magnitude offuture cnnc~sions in me coune ofGAIT aud UNCTAD IV Ilegotiarioos wiU deperu mainly on (he continued solidariry uf the devdoping counlrtes
(Siha 1976 116)
Sinha was pardy correct as tbe solidatity cf rhe Tbird Workl states cracked se the induurialized wodd withheld funher Con(eampSJoru but ir was able tO do so because market condidons swung against che primaty producen
In his condusion Sinha called ror a IIDre1 shttting of wnrld t($nmes and power if confrontarion was ro he avoidOO He feared that the ffa of roshyoptradon berween [ieh and pool conntries hiid ((lT1e to an end and that batde lines were being drawn Instead he advOOIreltI majnr concessions from the dcher coumries on trnde lInd aid issues and a1so a ma~lt te$ltUcrnring of the incematiotlill organization~ aoo negoacutetiating ffiarhinery in order tu provide a much gtC2ter say fm me poorer countries in internatiooal tJ1lde invesrment and mooetaiexcly armngemenrs (SiMa 1976 132) GAn 1BRD aud IMF have been the presenoe of [he ri h with voting weighted m faacutevour of rhe OECD countries and Sinha re(()ffimended thlll GATr aoo UNCiAD be merged inro an Intemacional irade Organization (ITO) and che creatlon of a Third World permanent secrctariat iexclnvolved in all trade and aia negoriarioru Thoogh less radical than Amin Sinha aIso recomrnrnded gttter coshyoperation berween developing coulltries and an eoo ro their inkrtotity complex with instead a sense of m~ttnal sdiacute-e$teem and trust being devel~ oped (Sinha 1976 ch 10) Litde that h~ happened during the 19905 woo1d have encouraged Sinha The World iratle Organiaadon has emerged as the presenoe of the dlVelupeJ tares and lw brushed aside many of thc mucerns cf UNCTAD Debr ha~ edged on ro dlt wudd iexclagenda but mainly at the beheS[
of a non-governmental organization )ubiacutelec 2000 nd the promi$e~ of the main financill jnsrirutluru lO pursue dcbc-rclicf produred but a thiniexclmfl
In aH Third WQrld commenrarors have provided a vatied and lively approruh fOwards tne problems uf intetniexclational organizarions Their emphasis has niltntaHy beCl Qn tbe use of wurld lmtirutions to change the econornic condidon or the Southern cominents As this enndition is likely to worscn in the near filrtltf further more lJica conrtibutions on the rule oC
-- --- ~- __ _~- __- imernatIacuteonal orgaoilarions in Nonh-Smuh relarJons tOiexclghf be apected from rhe Third Worid A1ternaciveJy wrirers (mm rhat ares rmy jW ltIacuteespUacutet rm imergovemmemal orgaoizarions ar lealaquo Mee rhem $O Hrrle
Cfili~ald~heJ
Critica approadvs lO the nudy uf intetnadonal relations are (hose har rejee( the dominating vleW1iexcli repr=med by tbe realist and reformistS as oudined aboye In paHicular rhey reglUd realists as apologisu for the currem con6gutltion of power 10 (he wiexcldd sytem and considet [har rhe refOnntstS are elrher unable ro undersraoo he fUe llamee )( (hi sysrem oc ille UDwiUing to accepc rilar ir needs more rhan mooest refotlllS TIlOugh they may sympalhi-ze wirh rhe agenda of some Marxists aud Third World wt1cers chey do [lO( llave rhe hisrockal certaimy of the former not rarely do they have the experience and perspective of ehe larter TItey view intenUishy(jnl1ill nrganiutions wirh a jaundiced eye as these are mainly the lll$tmmenfS of rhose who dominare rhe syuem This section COlllaios an wcoum nf three approaches tmt of the critical rheorlsti- of kmintsc wrirshy[1185 ulld pose~mooernismlt
Cri(~1 herJrY The approach of critical theory 10 JnrematlonaJ o(ganizatiooll iSi determtoed by their wider world-view which in itsclf is explaiiexclwd by tbeir llame One of the leading exponents Roben Cox said [har ie is cririca1 in cne Jensc rha h srands apan 100m che prevailiog order of rhe wOlld and asks how tb$t oroer came iexcllPouc Ir does nor r-ake existing irucimtioM lIl1KI JIQwer relaclons rOl granred bu c311s them iacutemo queuion Ir 1S diexclrlaquoced ro rhe social itnd JIQiirshyical complex as a wItole rarhet (hall he stparate pirtt IUthet than subdiide and Imic an examination of a problem it looks al the wger pkturc of whkh rhe problem is jwt oue part and trio rO wJdeThwod the processeS uf change ill which botIt pans ulld whole ure involved laquo(ox 1993 277~S)
Ai a thoory cridQiIacute theory rejeen tbe daims of posicivism of an external Nulity and to be mue-free ror critkal rheorIacutests koowledge ti nor moraUy IleUc1ll1 ic is more che result of the social background of tbose Wt hold ir Given this ctitkal tbeory alJows foc a normarive choice in favoU of a social ancl iexclJlieiexcl(ld order diflerent f(cm rhe prevruHng arder bur it limiu the ruuse 01 chotce ti a1remative orders which are feasibJe mmsformations ofme cxvaing worJd h musr rejEC[ improbable alternadVe8 ju~t as ir rejecrs rhe pcrmanctlly nr lhe exiscing order (Cox 19 90)
Cridcal rheory differs lrom Marxist upproElchcs beCElUS( of iu tejection nf any daim to hold the objenive tru[h and betause or it~ avoidance of (he pmslllt ol il utopia Neverrhe1ess [heir analysis of incernarional relarln1l$ is one tbu hEls u numher of similariuumles wich the Marxisc pcrspecdve It regurds rhl tlistlng suucrures of world polirics as beiug oppressie not
- _ __ _-
lean because of rhe dominance of (he capitalism of che Unired StElte~ For many che USA is seco as a hegemonic power the prevailing urder - in re[ms rbar reReet he wrirings of the Itallan Marxisc writer Amonio Gramscl (1891-1932) Gramsd advanced the nodon of ln hisrori(middot bloc which in itself refilaquors che $Ocial reladons oE ptoducdoo The dominanr dass in a counrty - 01 indeed aoy social grouping - mlinrains cohesion and idenciry withio [he bloc [hrough the ptopagacion of a COIDmOfl culturegt A new bloc can be formelt when a subordinate dau can euablish tU hegeshymony over orher subotdioate gtOllpS (Cox 1993 56--7) The IDove rowuds hegemony comeS with the piexclt$ting fmm che spediacutek inrercsrs ofa gronp Ol
dass tO rhe building uf inrimdons aOO elaoorarion uf ideologies (Cox 1993 57-8) It Loiexcl rhat ptOCe$S thar embeds the incemu of the dominanc dan in an imttmrional form thae [w an appeal widet [ban that dan ine1f It the-refole repreSoems mote tlmn jUSt (he drunJnaoce oE one state ovec anocher bllt implies a cemufi acceptante of the tules arJd institutions purouized by [he hegemonic JIQwer Jo other woros it is all order wbicb most Olher Sta[e-~ (01 at 1enst those within reath of die hegernouy) couId find compatible- wirh their iexclmetem (Cox 1993 6t) h aJso involves noe just inttt-staee rueivirle5 bur rhose oiacute tlvilliOCiety (oon-Stllte socieM instishycudons) ebereby encoumging Hnks between social dus$ts iexcln the connules covered by ebe hegemony
What does Cox llave to uy about ioccmational Otgsniuciexclons 1bey Ilre scen in he oontext ofme wiacuteoo unaemanduuml18 of itnernational reUacuteltions mentloned iexcliexclhove He is direcr 000t mem Ooc mechanisru chrough wruch the universal norms of a wodd hegemony are expttssed js the interoatiooal organisation (Cox 1993 62) Why is chis so Cox U993 62) gives five teIlSons
bull They e-mbody rules cOae help (be- apwlSion of a hegemonic wodd iexclrder These insdwrians reflcct the intererts ()( the dominam social anil economic force- buc a1low a cettain amOunt oC adjusrment ro accommodare other subordinared interests TIms the USA WllS preplltoo ro mm conccssions to
bciI18 in Lhe EU srares and Japan ro rhe Wotld Trade Otganizatimt They a[e prooucrs of that order Though [he insrimrions and rules Ilce
nurITlllUy initiared by the hegemook power ir takes cate ro involve aOO comule a numbe-r of second-ronk stares and gaio theit supporc he Wotld Bank and Inte[nacional Mooetaty Fund were very much pan of [he world order thar emerged afrer [he Second World Wat and which was dominared by rhe Uoiced Stlres
They ltgidmi7e i[s nOlms by providing guidance for SllIteS and by legitshyimiuacuteulS cerraIacuten IlCdviries Ilr me narional leveL he OBCD afie rhe inrerruuiooal financia) irntuumluriom lave spread an acceptante of mllrket coodirions and sHict mOllerary iexclJlides
They co-opr elites from pelipheral counrrie Ihlented sraH commg 110m the Thiacuterd Wocld are expected tO dCCept he scriexclpt wcittttt by the domishynam power Bouuos Bourros-Ghati as Secteury General uf the Unired
166 Jiexclljiexclr1giexcl Qr1 ifJfCflrttuacutemal IWgaizati(ifJJ
Nadons stroyed too amp~r ftOm the gtip of Washinston and his second term was VCtoM by rhe USA His sucecssor Kofi Annan will no doubt undentand what 1$ n-quired of him He brings the mncerns of orhe states ro che UN bUf nor in a way thu threatt1l$ the USA
bull They absorb counter-hegemonic ideas Ideaiexcl $uch as 1iustainable dlYClop_ ment tukl even debr foTgiwness are taken 00 board by the intetnatwnal finarnial institlltion$ blu are trandirmel into pulido rhat swt them
Wh~t is ro be done Cox thinks thar the pfQblem of changiog dw world orUer 1iMuld be shlfred back from intern~tional insritutions tO niexcllriacuteooal $OIacuteishyeties where the sodo-political b~se for a new historie bloc mighr be ereated (Cox 1993 64) FaiJing the creadon of a new historie bloc of the new working cla$s and rural and urb~o marginal groups there might be tnmdorshymadon oC the curtent monopoly-libcral hegemony by adjusting to rhe demanJs oiacute local ello$ for polides 5uch as natlonaHution Cox 199~ 65) He aw advocates te-regulation of erooomies and a re-wmpositjon of civil sodery Internatiotla lnstlcutions induding organiutions can berome eontact puint1i fOr new $OCia[ furtt (Cox 1994 (11)
Critica throrJm $uch as Cox oifee a refreshing exposidon oiacute che posidofl oC imernatiooal ofganizatioos in a wocld where the main revolutionary powe~ have either collapsed (rhe Soviet Union) or se(tled into a cautious ronservatirun (China) Ir provlde~ a sceptical arf realisric world~view without acreptins tbe inevuumlahility ni a illture domlnared by mooopoly eapi~ ujsm sud the Utlired States J-Iowevtr its appllcariexclon to intemationa1 organhatJons 11 StImewha( timited tQ the maln global jnsdm(jons and th financial and economlc orgmiutions Ir has 1m (O say aboue regional nrgashynjudon Uf abour N(JUacutes Furthermore iu alternarive fu(ure testS on ourcoroes thu are far froro certain RevnJutlons in the Thied World are roore likely to be- irupired by nadondi$m oc by IsJaroic fllndamentaHfl OCalaquoely [he solid ooses for new historie blocs
Fwinuumll aNml4cbts
Feminist perspcctives 0f1 inttmatlonal rtlatioos llave in common wirh the erit~ ical rheocillu a rejclaquoion of (he dominance in rhe $Ilbjecr of the rcnHst and rdOrmisrs Although fuminist writen cover a wide 5laquolpe the gencral basis oiacute their aqurnent 1S har in interwnional relatioM ru in most politkal aud tcooomk acdvity women are diexclSJtdvantagt~l Alchoogh they own ahour 1 pet tCfH oC the worlJs lfOpeny and tiexcliexclxe heme 10 peiacute ceoc ofincome they perfurm 60 per eenr of working houn and provide 80 per eent of nfusets (petetsen and Runyan 1993 6) This is a derDOnstrndon of gender inequalitie~ the sodalJy learned behavior and expecratioos thar distioguish berween maKuliniry and femininity (Petetsen and Runpn 1993 5) Feminist aprroaches ofren So bejond the $tati~tks and examine (he mind~se[ of those engaged in the pmctice of intemadonal rdations whiexclch (bey ampee as geodered In other woros che world
Writingc Off inlmhJliofMl vrgntiZdlMm 167
illeen in a mlLlndine way thar kvrntB (he posjtiOll o( mnles in rhe hitgtranhy and devlllues the c041trihution of WQmeO (Sylvestet 1994) War in pattKular is gendered in a way chat keeps wornen and metl from qUtstioniog the essentiat pmpose and he neglltive effects of war militarization ~nd viQleme on their awn and orhers livts (Petetsen and Ruoyan J993 9 t)
What of wminist view$ uf imernationaJ organizationsr Ir IS not possible ro presem a rollf(tive vjew that eneomp3$~e~ rhe works of radicaJ femjnisu and ny iexclihetal teminists (rutead the work of one author Sandra Whitworth (1997) will be used as me pily$ rornt attrntion ro inrernarlonal organizations Aamper inrroductions ro feminilfr theory and internacional frIamiddot tiom and gendet and internacional relatlons Whirworrh examines geodet and imernational organilions She screpts Coxs vjew oiacute inrernational orgashynjzarions [har they retleltr (he dominant powet relations in che intetnational system and rhae internaliomd otgaoiution h che procelt of imcitntionaJshyiling and regulating conOice - eicher rhat which may IIrise among siexclates o( char which has iu (onU io transnationaI society (Cox 1980 375) TIte way duu pcople orgaoire themelve$ wirhin international iostirurjons reflects a variety of power relations ineludi~ of rollJSe gendec relatiull3 (Whitworth 1997 74) lbe triad of jnstirutions ideas and material rQudi~ tioru help ro hxare uSllmptiolls aboue geoocr withiu jntetmltional rewtioos Whitworth uses thesr tn examine lhe uooerstandillg oiacuteScndec io an INGO the Internadonal PlarUled ParenthooJ Federatlou (JPPF) and an intergnvemmental organilJ1rion (albcir one wlrh some oOl1-governmentJ)J represemation) the InrernatlonaL lab01lrOtganiution (no)
Whirworths studies show rhar thr IPPF tended ro accept the deshyemphasizlng oi the gendered oamfr of reproducdoo and (f) ignore rhe imponaoce ofbirth comcol foc womens reproductive freroom Instead in an effort tu popularize birth rontrol srrel~ WWl placoo on paremhooJ rather than iexclust the womans choice However IPPF poUcy beeiexcllme more radirnl in (he 19905- with Hnks beirtg made berween II1M control alld womeos ~)tu~ ality (WbJtworth 1997 ch 4 pmim)
The RO eoucerned itself with WQmen as workern It cnnsidercd that tbey oeeded spec-ial atrention and promoted ptoteCtlvt legiexcl~lacion This reiexcln~ forced me view (har [he male worxer Wall the norm with women workers nor deserving the same rights remunfration lOO mndirions Latterly however the JLO ha~ reflectoo views rhat prodaim wornens elt)ualily in rhe workforce and has sunoo tuacute assess the importanee of policies on womens role in rhe workplace as weU as in sodery more wjdely (Whlrwnrth J997 ch 5 panm) Whitworth comes [O the eondusion rhu iexclln iexcllnaLyiexcli~ of gernler in rbe IPPF and no shows how tbese rdiexcliexcldonsbips llnd definirions ni what it is to be a womltn oc man are structuted relationsrups3nd hlsrQciudly hve been scrurtured tu disadvantage women (ibid 15n
lo eommon with the critkal meorists Whitworth has useQ au examinamiddot doo of two intetnational organixations (O deroonstrate a puinr about imerflational relatiexclon~ indeed sodal rctatrol1s mOte widely The poinr is
I1
I
middot - ~-_ --___ aOOuc powec and iu use not (O balance oue SCdre ligaiOSf anorher but fm une gooup ro domiaare morher Jn chis case it 1$ ma the dominution of one dass me m culcnre over $ofU)(her (though Whirworrh recognizes those reLationshyships ti wcll) but of roen over women The crititUl uudy oiacute (wo jnceraational mganirations dealing with iSSlle5 recoSniud ti beiiexclg oiacute impocshycanee or WOfficn suggesu rha( tltOO simihu research on orher internacional organizadons could proJuce interening aOO uwfuiexcl resulrs
Pllit~ism
Thc posc-moderruacutesr $opprooch lO intetaarional rcllldon is one tlur bas (ome ro che fote Jn che perlod sinee lite end of rhe Cold War Jr is based on $o widcr imellectual viewpoim insrigated by l1rench iorcUtcruals of the 196()s gener~ ation _ Bllrrhes Derrida FouclIul and Lyorard - and whkh suggested rhat the modero era liad becn overome 11 fejeas mera-nattatives gnlud accounv- of hi5tory aoa iacuteNIacuteler subjecu as having no independem rubstance Scientifk btliefs induding [hose oiacute rhe $)(ial scJcllces are rooted in (lllxure polill(os arul mores oJ a wciery and are lherekJre subjective As rhere is 00
oblcctive reality cmpirical daims bave fl() spccial sunding in rhe rralms of koowledge IndeeJ ir i$ power aod knowledge are intimatel) incerwirud Posr-moJernism Hllnds against rhe belief of rbe modero pcfiod which LI seco as beginning wiacuterh rhe enlightenmcm of mid-eightcenth cenrufy Europe and AmeriCll Ir rheldore rejcn~ rhe COMCpr$ oC rationalirl and progrcss aSSuacutedared wi(h [he enlighrenment and [he moocrn age Thc uniry of IOOnkind iexclirW iexcldells such liS rhe untveIsWiI) of human aacuteghrs are rejcuoo lnsceadlocal aetion in smallgroups 15 advuacuteClmd
Post-modetnist ideas have affected tite srOOy of inremruionaJ rdarions as (bey have ocher social scienccs Posr-modern imeraarional relariops theoriscs havc ustd heir view$ 00 objecuumlviry (o exiexcltmine che rrmhs of international relatiom en see how rhe concepts iexclind knowledge-dairm (bar dominare the Jisdpline in faer are highiy conringenr on spccific power relatiom (Smith 1997 181) Post-modemisrs bave lltfa(red me mcta-narratives of the reelshy1m and reformlsu aHke The objectiacutevemiddot aaallses of the realim Ilnd neo-realisu are setn as being deJl(nclent on the subjective standpojnts of cheif mainly Amen(an and Europeau authors Ijcharcl amphiel (1986 258) daimed he works o[ Kenneth Waler men the leading neo-realillt trrat the glven ordcr a rhe natural nrder Jjmirs rarheE (lian 1XpawU political discllUtse negales oc rriviuliliS the signifinnce uf variely urOiS time and plue Whar emerges ii an ideology tllar anridpatcs iegirimires ancl onents a totalitarian projen 01 global ptoponioo~ che rattoualiaciuacuten of global poHcics iexclbe reformius are likcwise tainted Md have Ji mhr$lren belief in pmgress The posc-modernl$rs poinr m rh Helocausr as rhe heighr oiacute mooemism a rombimiddot Halioe of science dnd polidcal otganizillnon Il was SCruTely progreso
Given an antifllthy mwards rhe MlVe[iacute~ign srae borh as a centre of powet ll1ld as a crearioll Jiten imbutol wlth a wncepltliexcl uf progress pest~miexclJdetniexclsls
wHungJ mi Im~iexcliexclrun wgltiIRrzuJlU7iJ 1J7
can lOUcdy be expcctcd to vIacuteew intergovernmencal organiUlrions wirh sympilthy Tbe prefetted iacuteonu of internacional organizations when mentioned are those thiexcltt ltlj~plal differemes snd dlvenity in global pelitlcil duu are reginnaUy based or rhar reflec irKlividual actlOn Tndecd ir SeeIJS
rbat Michel Fomawt was involved with an alliance oiacute twO INGOs (Miquestdecin du Monde and Tertl-s do Hommes) in proresting agaiust internadonal iH~shydon over rhe boat people who flcd Vietnam in tite lare 1970s and ear1y 19S(k He is gU()[ed 11$ sayillg tbar Amnelltl Internnrlonal Teueiexcl dts Hommes Mfiiecin du Monde lHt inirilltives whiacutech have created a nrw righr rile dAht of privare individuss ro iexclntervene in [he otder of polino and internatioont snateg(eiexcl (dred in CampheH 1998 516)
Aootber researcher has exnmined ~he Europcan Communities Ilr che point wben Jr was mnslorming intO me European Unioo and askOO whether ir was a pootmodew ConJigUflHton (Nstrgaard 1994) Hi condusions wcre mar ir was gualiwiveJy a new organizarion oC human calJecrlvJties which mighr U$hec the coming of post-moderniry (Ntgttgnatd 1994 27j) The basis fO[ [bis judgemem was rhat me Ee did nO approximate anl modero form of piexcliexcl1idUll Ofpnizarion it did OOt commatld che means oiacute violence its au[hotity derives noc from die people and ir appeared to be a fCgJoo trying ro pOrecr itiexcliexclelf againsr globaliacutezadun iacuteN0rgaaro 1994 274--5) Ir remllins ro be sren whether [he BU tJf [he twenry-first cenrury wHl fu1fi1 rhtgtse hopes Ot wiU stllrr ro teVen
to a more scate-like being Generall) dIe cririolapproaches ro interruHiorud relarious hiexclJve provided
1lOOIe innovatIacuteve insigllls iexclnro rhe study uf imemarional orgsnizations The crtrical theorists llave becn sh3rpest in rheir unde[$(iexcltnding nf internarional ofgiexclt1lizacious as servsnrs of a dominiexcliexclIf power configuracion thoogh the) lave pemaps Umieed cbelr scope wllen viewing internacional organizadons Feminis[ wJiters ruave given Vltike to whac i5 after aH tbe scmi-sileut majoric) in rhe world and Ilre ouly srarting in qnest10niug the male dOmimiddot nance nuacutet iexclusr of the nmning of IGOs huc aloo of theic agenda Tite post-modemisrs are iMlSr concerned oiacute he (bree 8rOUp5 with inretnationlll organiucioru as such bllr rIacuteleic intellecrual approach is the ffiOSt tadkal aud can lelld tuuml a fnon of nihilism
GltJbaliacutesf lIiu
A gIobalisr perspective does oor viacuteew world poliacutetica as being predomishynandl arout iotergovernmemal relatlnn~ Ili would realisu or illbour inrentare aruI imersocietal rdations as a number uf reformisu llliexclll consider lnsteaacuted it cakes a more holisdc view Problems are (cmfronred ac Ji global level wlurions have tO be sou8ht here as weil This iexcls not ro neglcct (he 10tal Ol rhe ~tlte level ir is more J recognilion of the limiutshydoos of acdviuumles rhere The world-vicw like rhe reformists places empllasu on whal unIacutetes people Ilnd has lirde time for lhe demaoos of power pouumlics aad stare-cemrir orglLuiwrjollS Ir goe~ fllrther by nor
1 V WNimgJ lJ7f tIfernattmiexcliexclJ 11fK4111141tOnJ
liminog in view eirhec ro pans of che world or ro rellltions berweeo particuJar poliric~ lr ioded jlLSr m the economic social and poJitical demaods of mankind Paradoxically ir can be seen as IIn approach rhe very OppoSllC of the fimctionalist wirb whom tbere 5 much io common In nmtrast lO rhe fnnctionaHst (or neo-fllnctiooalisr or intetclependeuce srhuul) and ccrrainly in contrast ro rhe powet politks aOO MaOIacuteIt writers (be whole world approach places emphasis not 00 the discrere r~uiexclreshymems of groups SClteiexcl or individulI1s bm 00 tbe wel1-bciog of the tCOsystem in which rhf5f funnioll cbe planet Eanh The conccen of chis apptoach which is rcflccted il] in ttcumeUr of illternational urganizatiom is for the survival of lhe plunet for its effident funccioning in its widest SeILie aud fot che survival oiacute rhe myriad oiacute speoacutees - ollly one of which is homo sapiens - tbat inhabh me globe
Sinle tbe 196Os a number of wtiters on imernational affairs have expounded 00 tbis view and llave cOl1l~uendy ronsideted the implicadons for intemational organizacions Jobfl Button in bis World Society ronsldeted iflmstatt relations to be onIy a pan of wodd poli[iacutea and wrore
lf we employ rhe term world rociety imiexclreui of internanofla relarions iIacute we apptoo(h OUt study in this global way insread of the more tradi~ lonal nattonal way we will end to have a wider focos ro ask quesrions rhat are moee fundlmenral aOO imponant lO civilization and be ahle ro assess bettet me relevance of om own national bduviour ro be wider worW envifonment
(Button 1972 21)
Rkhacd Stetling posed the problem more spedfically
Nuclear esCllatiofl the popullltion explosion the pollmiofl of tbe envishyronmcnt the communkations rtvolurion rbe world~wide concentNdon of wC1llch and world~wide expansiofl of pltlvcrty are iexcliexcl11 essemially global and not 1laquo al pbellomena They have given rise jn tutn ro eartbshyspamuacutellg and revolutionary demands ror mass education rnass hesltb malts welfure and maltgts participation in che dccisions affecting roans fare
(Srerling 1974 322)
This wodd-view of rhe problems of the s)Jaceamphip EQlth begged fur global oolutlofl$ It suggcsred iexclhu not onIy iJ the system of sovereign stares as yer unable oc unwiHing to COme to grips with the above-menuontd prohlelUS but that a network of llllergoVCtn1lental organiutlom bGsed 00 me rights of statc wVfretgnt will ~lso be hammllng Globtl problems needed global solutlons based on institutinos rhat can (ake a global petsplaquoshytive Thus Sterling considetecl thllt it ~ tlOt unreasooable (O amidpate tme tbe member stares will be moved ro considft equippifllil the Unitw Nttous witb mote crunprebensive powen 1lt global pressUfes build 0974 323)
~h~ laquoo ~gt~ _- -gt bullbull (_bullbullbull __ - bullbull
A more compeluumlng cdH wus lAltiexclued by Barban Ward and Rene Dubas in their book prepared for [he UN Gmference of ehe Humafl EnVJroJlmenl 01lly UIIt EaFlh The c~ altJ Mdilllt1JatfCe (JI d Sflall Pta~t (972) 111ey stremsed the ufliry of tbe Eanh Jnd in eovironment and the )Jroblems in(ed by Jts iohabitants emntially thost oudined by SterJiog The ~uthoflgt poillted OUt rhat rhF envitonmenral qmosrion had by 1972 already had 50me impaltl on guvernments and im(rnarional organl1Jtion but the effior was somewhat ltInJOrdinated and unfocuseL In (hree particular aren - tbe global atmosphere rhe oceaml the worlds weather sysrellU - tbt-y saw [bl jmmediate neOO for (OmInOn poliey und co-ocdinared actiollS where vcerenshysions to national sovercigmy have no relevance ro ptrreived problems Bu rbefe was a need to go furrher and denl wirh other global problems di5Case srarvation iHitmcy unemployrnem ovcfllwding rntetnational poliCJcs wece at the 5tage reachOO wlrhin rhe devdoping s[ate~ of the ninettTtb (entury Elche they wiU move O to a wmmIlJlity bL~ro UiexclXIIl a more systematic sharin8 of weaJtb Ot tbey wiH break down in revoh and anareby (Wacd and Dubos 1972 295- -6) They Looked forward ro a sense of gLobal rommuniry 00seJ on he bope vf Irotecdon (from war aOO disaster) and the hope of enhancemenr (ecologic$1 as well as economid The ptlKtic~ and insrirutlofiS with whkh we are familiar inide our domestk sociecies would become suitably modlfied che basis of planetary oroer (Ward aOO Dubos 1972 297-8) This woold indude non~violent settlement of disputes witb legal arbirration ~nd polioacuteng ptocedures on an international basis jr would mea the Hansfer uf resoucces from rkh ro peor Ilnd inerCllSlaquo co-operaeion in arealt 5uch as health and edUcatIO farming uroon planning aud )JOlJution control As [befe halt been a shift of loyalty rom taroliy to dan from dan to tlation and from nation to fedctation there Wampll
hope clajmoo Wl1fd and Dubo$ for an ultimare lnyalty tuacute OUt single beau~ tifulllud vulnerable Planet Eanh (Ward and Dubas 1972 298)
Whilst the institutiona fmmework and organizational stfllCtuteS remain of necenity -ague in Oltl OM EaFtA iacutet is del( rhat the authors Wfre atming 11( a tlttwork oiacute world-wide fflnctionaUy hased organlzatiofll (both lOOs and JNGOs) char couId take on much of the work )JfCsendy done by governshymems o( rather whkh ougbt [O be dont by governmems UacuteJter writing-s have attempted (O deal wjth thc policy impliration$ of delllJng with )JrobshyJems globdly sroos (986) has poiacutenred en what 1w already been achieved in gtobal problem solving l1nd ha~ soughr ro buHd on rhis His critio have prunted out tha( what has already becn undertiacutelken has bren done more along rradicional Jntergovernmentallines (Donnelly 1990 121-30) Orbe writen have tied rubievemen[ in addressiacuteng [he global agenda more to renewed rutiviry in the UN (Rochester 1990 141-54) or to greater grass~ roots aud INOO acriviSffi Wget 1990 155-~8) Either way globaJj~m offeacuters a distinct W1ly of rackling the worlds ptublem~ It 1$ u ViIOIl thar sttesiexcles uniey and common (am( ntthet than disasreemem and roofrontashytion ir (ould thereIacuteore (oresce disputes being sruved inlernationally vety
much in (he way tbar chey are pre~ndy solvcd within tunny MtiOO iexclrares by more ro arbitratwn and Jaw and by entorcemenf ir neteS$il1) In this rhey have muh in COIDfllOfi wirh tire imerrnuiona lawyers iacuteUld idenlist writer of me eady (wenuacuteeh eemury mentioned at the beginning of tbu chaptet The globalisn are inspirecl jn rheir thinking more by ten Ot lt nudeal holocatlsr and by environmenml breakdown tnan by rhe duumleet elrpeshytieme uf wa dlllf aiacutefected rhe wricings of Woolf ol Ikierly
TIacutete globalisl appro~(h is opert ro the criticism of bcing roo idealistk jn a cynical world and lOO iIDpracrical in in uacutelstitutional sU8scsrioll5 Bur the di$mi$Slil oC rh~ words as globaloney cKleS HOt lid lite wctld oC che probw lems which hey have 50 effectively publiacutedzed They lutve uied to add anorIte dimensioacuten ro whar is possibte by showlng thar ie is nOCeSSiexcllty fOl rhe iexclurviwl of che planee
Tlle radical approach to the smdy oC iOternational orgllnizarions reflocu worIdmiddotvitws that normaUy lO beyond -dmse Jominated by rhe ltctivities of iexcltatcs or of LIte organizltuumlnns chemselves There is a sceprical view of whut is happeoing al soy one uacuteme in imernarional celarions and of he abilicy of mOfe cradicional wcifecs on imernafional cdarions ro explain let aJone llOderstand what is happeoing Ir is the feeling rhar approaches such ll1 (he MaNisr tlwt of rhe ideal theorisrs and some of rhe globuli~rs ur~ coming cber (O uodemaoding humanicys wider dilemmas rhar makes rhero so amactive They ar~ less Iikdy co apply rhemselves to rhe defais rutd wnrk~ ings oiacute p$cdcular imernatinnaJ organizations but neverrheless providt iotriguiog insighrs 00 [his phenomenoo by seeing rhem rhrollgh mol panoprk phHosophical lenses
SUMMARY
The rhree flIajor $chuols dealr wich io chis chaprer - the tcatiacuten the reformisrs iacutei1d che radical$ and rhe variarions (bey contain did not and do tlOf exJn iexcln a hiSforlcaj vacnum lde-as Wele foffilulared wirhio lhe COnten oiacute panicular sodedcs uoo in response ltO pUticular problems rbe communl (adom reYoludon of fhe nineteemb century the Finr World Wlli rhe rise of Nui Germany the spreading of nudeu weapons the deve1opmeof of plthitshy
$econd Workl War Europe fbe pnxeues of decoloniwion and deacuteteme rhe end oiacute the Cold War and rhe advaoce oiacute che inCormatton revolution In sorne CilSC$ the views oiacute rhose wdtings on inttmiddotrnational ocganUatlOHS have liad un efiecr on evenrs rhemelves pirlKulatly 00 rbe actitudes oC govetnrnents mwards tnternatiorW orgdflixauons AIl tXample is the work oC LecnarJ Woolf woose suggesnons Ctmceming a world organizatloo conttibuted lO fhe detailed preparnion oC the Lague oC Nations by me British goveltr mene Likewise Hans Morgeruhau and EK Can provided seimuli fot infiiexclrmoo US and Btirish governmcllul rhinking abom inrerruuional rela~ tiom iexclrom the 194Ck onwards In mher cases rhe general writings cJ persons lgtuch as Marx Leoin Mao Tse-tung and che dependencia school have affecred
rhe poJirk1ll dimare wirhin which govemmcncs conduce rheJe poUcy iucluding thar wwards jnternaclorull otgauj~atjon$
Orber ruCfOf$ aplft froro their historial cuntexc Iuve affencd the views of rhe schunl$ rncntioned They have differint backgtounJs io cheit ideruogy (Wesrero commllniSf Third World radical environmenralisr) and in theit level of $nalysis of inrernarional rebtions (stare Centuacutec inretesr aoo rramna~ dona groups cLitraquo dominanr global) This a(icca the typC oC inrernatiacuteonal organizariacuteon dominam io their studies (IGOs INCo) auJ thcic 8eograph~ kai $rea of interest (the Nonh Adandc Europe ThinJ WodJ Ot global)
TIte range of wcitings about intetnational organizarions has ull dte whole teflecfeJ wiJec llooersundings of imetoational ceJarions and wuumltld polidcs These io rhernselves have fed 00 tbe gtVidc iacutellccUecmal fcnnent and on developrnenrs in world affiuacuters Viewl about iacutellteftlational ocgsnizatJoos wiU continue ro take accOlnt of the ince1leeruaJ debate ill the studjes oiacute polishydes internacional re1atioO$ philosophy ecooomics imematluacutellal uw sociology histoty and geogrilphy They will also reflecto among other ampcton che stntcegk balance in tbe world [he relafIacuteve power of tiJe United Stares aod oroer nares me scate of wotld markers [be pto-ess uf Euwpeiexcliexcln tlllegrashytion che relacive positloo of the developing warIdgt iexclbe levd of cootlicc througbolc the world fhe -ratC of dte environfneot and the ahility oiacute huge StatCS to wiacutethswnd cenrrifttgal force Tbe way tIacuteult imematiornal organiuiexclshydons ret1ect tbese developrnents and tIacuteleir t1Ipability lO deal wich some of them will provide (he tllW fiWifcrial foc funue smdies
iexclIV WHURg) W~ mltTlWilm tIampmJlaiWN
NetrfJl1iKJiOalisls
Tbc move away foom rhe srate-cenrric vjew of JlItert1arlOlal organizarion Started by WOllf and Mirany was ccetiacuteeued io rht immedijlre posr-wur perjod by social stientim applyiacuteog asJltu of functionll1(st ~heory to European nd Atiacuteantlc in~limti()m This utw fUllCtionaliu approach showed paruumlcrnsr interesc in che European Communities (Ee later nuropean Union EU)) whjch arme iu iexclhe wake of che amphuman Plan In Mily 1950 Roben Schuman rhe Frenrh Foreign Minisrer advauroo (he idea cha( West Eucopean srarcs should establish a High Authority wlrh powers ro admillshyimr theit eoai aOO stecl induscrie~ Negorjatioru on rhe detalS of chis plan led t() the signing of che Treaty cf Pariacutes in Apdiacute 1951 by FraIlee Wen Gemuny Iraly rhe Neiexclherlands Bdgium sed Luxembourg (rhe Six) Tbls gave substanre tO (he idea lbat funcrional aiexcltivicy oould be ITlltllfIged across fcomien by IUl organizadon ove and above the govemmenrs of che member sraces a supmnational amhority The idea was wldened ro cover iexclm expanded unge of etooomk activiry when he Silo esrablished rhe Bt1fOpean Ecooomk Communicy (EEC) widl the Treaty of tome in MAtch J957 An Aromic Energy Communiacutety (Euratom) was eHablished sr che sume time However ~he element of upranationiexcliexclliry was dilurelt in the High AllthoritY-s successor (rhe Commission of rhe EEe) having only Iimited deciuacuteOIl-makin8 powers anJ having mosdy the task of proposing acdon ro tbe representarives of he rnember states situumlng in (he Coulliil of Ministe13 Despire his otber Community hutitutions contsined the gerrn of supranadonaHry rhe Courr of Jllstke empJoymg Coromunity nuhe [han nacional laws a Ruropean Padiument wbkh WlS eventually electelt by ditect eleedons amoog a Communiry-wide electorate voting for Cummunity-hased parties aad 1Jueresr groups represendng mrmetSgt consumen traJe unions aruJ blliiness on a Commuiexcliexclity tatber than a nnional basis
Tht$eacute tnmwauumloos in WeBtem Europe uiggeteJ a spate uf 1 iexclretamre primaril) in he lJnireJ Sures whieh examined tbe nurure unrl purpose of the Commuuity iustituions The Jominam staacutend amongst this writing was chat of the neo-(uncrlonalisrs sJCcifically Ern~1t Haas Lean lindbetg and J05eph Nye whose works are of importance io the uudy of internacional organizacions In ronrruc tO Mitrany the OCW fuoctiooalistli tended Br (iexclrOc tuacute iexclimir rbeie study 10 developmems in Wcscetn Europe (HtIaSs ~nJhe Naion Stte (964) bcing a nruiceable exeepdon) especially the OC alshyrhough later cornparimns were tnade wirh rbe growch ofccmmon lIlltirkets iexcln Mica East Eurupe aoo Larin America On che whole the neo-fumtiooaiscs had rerreated foom Mitranys world view
fhe neo-funcrionaljgrs aiso realized rhe dilemma faeed by Mitrliny in eelihng wirh politica dcdsicms ane did nor fllnch in introducin~ a merhod of making necessary chOtees ar he imernarif)llItI leve Indeed rhis wa~ rhe kernel uf rheir ideagt lhlll 1I0l ouly sperifie functionamp would be farried OUt ar rbe subrollrinentill rarher (han (he nacional leve bul thil( lhe decisions wnrernillg (hese functioos would be made at thaf level shy
6- v n_m_ ~olo_~~W_
with imponant cOnsequences for those groups imetesred in the decisiacuteons and iexcliexclIso liffecting orher arcas of poliey Por example supprne the Ecooomk Cual and Steel Community (BeSe) required (har che sreel lodustry be orgaoized as a West Europeao endty insfead of a numher uf narional industries a1l commled by differenl ccgularions aod rbar a suprauariona surhoriry be crcared ro decide on the policy Coc che ranniog of tbe Wcsr EUlopean sfeel induStries lo ronsequeoce those involvea in say rhe French steel industIl would switch tbeir attentioo away from Parili where policy was previowly rnade ro BroS$CIacutei wbcre ECSC poliey is mude Purthermore CommwIlty ntber dUlo nadonl poliey on ueel eould spiU ovet into ereadng a Community po1iey ror cool tnmspOH IUld Othet asrod~ ared acdvities As rhe numbe oC functiacuteooal policies decided at a Commuoity rnthet than a natkmllllevd expanded so the need for political actioo at this higher level would gfOw aod thc political sysrerol of the couutries involved would becomc inexorably iexclmcnwincd lhis was the logk of rhe innovator of he $chumao Plan idea Jean Monnet wM considered rhar rhe establishment of a c001 and srec1 community foUowed by similar organitations dealing wirh otbcr Cuncrional areas - agricultute transpon nade defence - would be lreps on [he way ro building Europe The eOO would be jln economiClllly aod politicaUy integmred Rurope lo Monneriexcl scbeme a federal West Furopeao state The means would be fuoctlonal bu with a political contento
In his study of fbe ECSC Rrnst Haas examiooo this s(rlltegy and a1so dmned polldcai inregradon in its ideal typc u beiug rhe process whereby political iexclcroo in severa distinct nadooal ~tings are petsuacltd to shjft thet lnyaltielJ expecrations liod pOlidcal iexcll(tiacutevides eoWjlrd jl new centre whose insdwtions possess or derrumd jutisdktion over me pit-existiog lIatiof19l $tates (Uaas 1958 16) ihis oew cemre would be che powelshyhouse managing rhe political ptoblems oC fuoctio1llll coopeaacutedon [he Uigh Audwrity of tbe ECSC and be indrurion of me EBe The policical actcniexcl invoJved would be rhose elites leading the poliacutetical groups habirually colCerned wirh public decision-making and wooJd indooe trade uoioacuten offishydaIs busiue5$ ami Hade representatives higher civil servann and activeacute poHttdam As tlltSiacute eliteS rutneU theit aacutetrendon ro rhe ojOW policical centre chey would find tha Community pelky in olle area nm be uwde tea oo1y if che task iuelf iexcls expanded CHus 1961 368) by way of a spillover of actiVity lIltO anocllet policy atea Evenrually Communiy policy~makiog would take uvet from S(ale policy~making jo alI rhe crucial BreaS and the new centre would emerge as being potenrially more powerful dma the member srares governmenu wbich had been drained of lheir mOS( meruoshyingful polidcal ucdvides
1( this stage ir can be quetied whetbet Haas was describing an inremashylional organizadun or il poremia1 federal mlte Io discumng tms quesrjon in his book on Elle EC-S( Haas cooduJed dllU Tbe hruHnct of federal as agaiacutenst middotimergovernmemaf powers lIeeacutems tU point to che coodusioo tbat in
142 WtitingJ on mtertlatilJtJA orgamZ41iom
alJ maneo relating ro the romine regularion of rhe commOTI ~et the High Authority is independent of government (HIlaS 195R 55-gt He al50 voiced rhe opinion rhu Supranadonaliry in snueturnl ferms tberefure means the exisreuce of govemmental a~lthorirjes dlloer tuacute Ihe archetype of fdeNrhm rhan any past inrernati(mal organizar ion buc not yet ideutiacutecal Wlth it Oiaas 1)158 59) However this $upnmttionaity in pNctice has deve10ped into a hybrid in which neither the federal no the intergovernshymentai reooency has deady triumphed a-bas 19511 527) Ir is aloo denr lbat the original Coo1 and Sreel Communicy was mueh mote functional~ Wlcrnl than the lateacutet Economic (ommunicy and untiacutel the mid~19805 the unified aud expanded Communuumly romw to play Jown the elemenU o( supranatlonality iu tavour of 1ts Jiacuteltergovemmenul insutution rhe Conndl u( MiuiMm This aud othet dtVe1opmems led Haas to lcconsidcr his origshyinal view of Community inrtitutioos
In the 1968 pre3ce ro Tuacute Uniting of Ellropt (which was wIacutetten in 1958) Haas alrtady identified factors that had dllngro rhe nattlc of me European Communiries experimem in che previous ten yeacs He observed tlur during this period vario~ spiU-OVet aOO adaptive ptcKeues s(ill had nO( resulted in la pulitically united Encope and in an~werjiexclg the question what went wtlJug he outliued fuur considetdtions Fitst (he new funaiurutlJsu had filiJed w di$tinguisb between background variahle cOlditioos prevamng at rhe time when cbe Comrnnnity WU$ csnbJished and new upiratiuns and expectations that had develnped Jhe esntbliacuteshment thar had ron counrer ro the Community spitit Second the imptet o( niexcltlonaUsm had becn undereshytimawl Third Eactors within me Commuruty had becn nressed ro he dccrimenr of those coming from the outside world PintUacutely me massive transCormation oE Western socie[y raking place indepeudent o( EutoptHl integratiacuteon aIso hacl been underestimaretl (HIlaS 1968 xiv--xv)
Haass definidon of imegralion alsu bccame wmewhar more negative I1lOre stlilte-centric than bis original 195R emlhasis un nationaJ llt(on shifting their loyaJties expecratiacute(ms and poJitical activities toward a new centre By 1970 Haas considered the study ofregionallntlgrurion to be concerned
wich explaining how aud why sUtes eease to be whoUy $overeign how ~md why they volunucily mingle metgt and mix with rhcir neighbours $O as to lose che facruru attributes of sovereignty while acyuiring ncw techniqucs me resolving conilirt between themselvell
(Haa~ 1970 610)
By 1975 Haas eonsidcred regional integmtion theoty oiJsolete in Wesrern Eurupe and obsolescenr - though still urerol _ in tite teSt o( the worId (Haas 1975 l) By 1976 he had arded out n maioI reintetpuEation of uew-fuuctlonaJist lhoory as it applied to rhe Ee The definahle outcome of integtation in Wenem Eutope was secn either in ttaditiorW federaHsc temu - a Wen Enrnpean (ederal state ereated out uf yenrs of fun~-tiexclonal
Writings M ifllernuJlfJmiexcl1 (JFfIiutian 143
rutivity whkh had lcd lO J trnmrer of poliduumlll acnvity away rom (he natlon ~tates tOwarJs a new srrunure - or ltlS the imtitutiooltlUdng uf some intermMiate iexcliexcltage such as rhe present status qno whcreby atlthonty is dimlbnrro unequally between several centres Wilh tire old nation states losing their previous Ituthoriey but with no new JiacutedeOl government in ptO$~ pect Whihr the original aspecrs of the EC - rhe cuuoms union aOO (he Common Agricultura Poliey _ have tllaquoorne entrenched the spillover inm orhe policy area~ had nor occurred by Ihe mid-1970s as che neo-furutiooa1ists liad ptedicred Also common polides liad becn Jevelopetl in differem o(8ashyIliratiuns - che OFCD the summit of indurmiatiooo counrrics the Group of Ten - tarher than within the liC lhe problem according lO Bus W1IS
rurhulerue whereby rhose iuvolved io polirirs haJ found rhemselves in a littting ofgreat social complexiry where rhe nnmber of atrorr is very large and each pursues a variety uf objectives whirh are murually incompatible lmt ucn is also unsure of che ultlde-ofamp between the objectjves He continued Tnis conditiQn imJgtlics the erosion o( such interorganizarional patteacutern~ oC comensus reciacuteprocity and no(mative tegularity as may havr CXlSted eadicrEveryrhiug is up fO( grallS (Hus 1976 179) HilaS sllggested thu iu the EC polioacuteeamp and (he institutioru devised ro lmpleshymeacuteut thero iacuteU~trnre rhe attempc ro deal with lhe turbulence nather tllan achieve regional politkal inteSradon (ibid 180 original emphasis)
A similar hiacuteft lttway fmm the earHer llSp1rauumlons iiexcliexcl ICen in rhe work~ Q( Lindberg aud Nye Lindbeg wlrose book 1he Pattirai DJMmict o EroJMn Ecrmomic IntegTatia (13) had fullowed on dosely from Hws work was hy 1966 showiog tbar moves wwaros inregration wirhin the Be (ooid cause Stress within (he system l1Jtfl inCftllq the barrien to fimher integration (lJnJberg 1966 254) Togcrher with lkheingold in 1970 he desctibcJ an EC wbich had noc deveJopeJ joro a federal structute haJ difereot ltvels of integrariacuteon fut different functions and was sdl susceptible tIJ UJsis lt was ao unprecedemed but curiousy amblguoos plurruistic syttem there seem tO be no satisfrutory modcls or ronceptli in che sociaJ scienee VQ(abulary to adequa[ely define ie (Lindberg and Scheingold 1970 306) In a anide Joseph Nye coruiacutedered thac Jespite rhese and otber revisioos the neo-Euncrional approodl srjlJ embodies 11 nurober of fault tbu re1lcct jrs origins in [he 1950s (Nye 1970 767) He proposed a nUml)(l OC changes scating rhe derendent variable lels ambiguoUlUumly adding more politiul ruwn reformufating rhe Hst oF integration condiuons and pethapli mOSf
significantly drOlping che ideas ufa single path fmm qWlsi~full(tiexclonallasks tuacute politica1 uuion by meamiexcl oF 5piUove( (Nye 1970 767 He conduded rha[ shnn oF dramadc chaugc the prospect9 (or common markets or microregiorud cennomie organiutions leading in rhe shon ron (of dendes) to fedewt1nn oc m1me sOtt oE polidcal union capable of tlU indept1Ldent dcferue and foreign paliey do not seem very high (Nye 1970 1129)
There hiexclas been a long jotJJney trom the functiorudisl-fecleral nope5 of Jean Monoet back jn 1950 but it has seen the evolution of nm only the
144 WitingJ on inlernafuacutemal ttrganizafifmJ
Communiry insrirurions and policies bur aIso neo-functionalist thinking The Iogic of inregrarion gave way ro coping wich rhe crises inseirutions mixing federalisc and intecgovernmental elemenrs were replaced by a Western Europe in which instirucional tidiness is best forgorten (Haas 1976 211) and the federal elemenrs seemed ac mosc dormam The hopes of che 1950s had been replaced by rhe uncerrainties of che 1970s and the early 19805
Wirh rhe launching in 1985 of rhe idea of creating a Single European Markec wuumlhin rhe EC by rhe end of 1992 che signing of rhe Single European Acr in 1986 (which exrended EC comperence aud changed irs inscitucional balance) and che sectlement of a uumber of Common Agriculcural Policy problems in February 1988 che Iogic of inregration seemed ro be revived
Wriring in 1990 Keohane and Hoffmann resrored and refined che neomiddot funcrionalisr norion of spillover advanced by Errut H9al They were sceprical char rhe rheory of spillover could explain the ECs irucirurional developments of che late 1980s buc saw it aCling posicively in orher ways for example rhrough che incenrives ro institutional change given byenlargeshymenc of EC membenhip in rhe early 19805 (Keohane and Hoffmann 1990 289-90) They saw che pcocess cominuing and barring Clrasrrophic excernal fucrors were moderately oprimisric abour rhe Communirys furure prospecrs (Keohane and Hoffmann 1990 296)
This view was raken up by Tranholm-Mikkelsen (991) and Holland (993) borh of whom saw che revival of rhe Communicy agenda in rhe Maasrrichr Trealy - wich irs blueprinr for a move ro economic and monetary union - as being a revival of the neo-functionalism Drher wrirers on European incegration at chis time adapted che basic notions of neoshyfunccionalism bU[ broughr in extra fucrors Majone (1994) agreed char che EU had seen an upgrading of common inreresn but placed an emphasis on public choice policy ro explain particular Ouccomes Marks et aJ (996) saw a much more complex relarionship berween che Communiry and domestic decision-making leve Though rhe srare was srill very important ir no 10nger monopolizes European level policy-making or rhe aggregarion of domesric interescs 0996 346) Insread rhey idenrified rhe growrh of mulrishyleve governance wirhin che EU
Indeed rhese developmenrs in neo-funcrionalisr wrirings on international organizarions poim up sorne of the criticism~ of che schooL Firsr despice rhe besr efforrs of Ibas Schmitter and Nye it remains a rheory overwhelmingly dominaroo by an inreresr in rhe EC and larer rhe European Union In 1964 Haas and Schmirrer rried to extend sorne of che lessons uf econumic union in Westeru Europe ru Larin America Drawing on Haass 1968 preface ro The Uniring of Europe rhey discerned nine variables four relared ro background condirions (similariey in power of memben rares of rransaction pluttllism in member seares complememing elices) rwo referring ro condirions ar rhe time of economic union (similarity of governmenral purpase powers of che ecunumic uniun) and rhree ro process coudi[ions (decision-making sryle
W[J U UWltU 15
rransacrions rate rhe adaptabiliry of governmenrs) (Haas aIld Schmitcer 1964 711-19) They looked ar rhe chances of policicizarion chat is the possibilicy chat lhe acmrs seek m resolve rheir problems so as ro upgrade common inrerests and in rhe process delegare more amhoricy m che centre (Haas aIld Schmitcer 1964 707) Nye in his article Comparing Common Markecs (1970) rried ro modify che Europo-cemric narure of the neo~ funccionalis[ approach and drew on a wide range of cases of economic imegracion Larin America Cenrral America rhe Caribbean Eastern Europe and East Africa as weH as EFTA and che EC He concluded [har
The original neo-funcrionalist model was close m irs ongms in the straregies of European inregrationisrs in che 1950s and thru mighc be seen as a rempting and misleading guide for policy in orher aceas The revised neo-functionalist model is not somethiug ro be imiraced bU is simply a rool fur making comparisons We wanr ro know whac differshyence ir makes if a group of seates form a common market
(Nye 1970 830)
Though by rhe end of che 1980s rhere were few places ro be found outside Europe thac were forming common markets rhe formacion of he Norrh American Free Trade Atea (NAFTA) and rhe renewal of economic cooperarion in Latin America and Sourh-Basc Asia during rhe 1990s provided different models from the more poliricized EU These seemed ro challenge some of the basic assumptions of rhe neo-funcrionalistS aIld perhaps give some weighc ro Nyes scepcicism ciced above
Second i[ is clear chac che neo--funccionalisrs have had trouble wirh che insticudonal formacs They have rerreaced from being functional federalist almose back co Micranys eclecric approach rowards institudons They have also accepced [he durability of rhe nadon state in resisring che logic of inreshygration and have soughr compromise formulas which at leasr continued ro place emphasis on non-srare accivicies even if insticutions above che stare (supranarional) were seen to be susceptible to stare inrerference
A chird Cliricism concerns the gtOH of non-srare acrors favoured by rhe neo-functionalists They have consraudy emphasized [he imporrance of polirical acrivisrs the elites of inrerest groups and rechnocrats This may have parrially blinded chem ro a weakness in rhe ECEU rhar could have affecced neo-functionalisms earUer proguuscicarions from being fulfilled its insticurions cannoc draw on rhe day-ro-day polirical resources available tO the narional policical acrors This has led tO a gap mosr noriceable in che newer members berween perceprions of che EU by the represemarional elice and rhose of rhe ordinary vorer or consumer Whilsc some earlier srudies of opinion in the EC did inelude opinion pons rhese ofren dealt wirh easy questions (showing ones EuropeaIl idenriry) 01 soft options (whether rhere should be say a more acrive EC industrial policy) With the firH expansion of rhe EC in 1973 and rhe first major oil price iucrCdse
146 Writi~5 cm lI1lMfatleuromal orgfll1iutl1ltl
whi(h coinoacutedemally happenoo a yeat liexclater Euttiexclpean voren werc faeed increasingly wirh mu(h harder options inflation versus employment tlnde union righu againsr consumer inrerests The poISibllity was thar bcing a good European might mean aHowiog sorne other COUlltry5 ruuionals to explott ones fish or oH The crearion oiacute a Single Enropean Marker within the Ee by the end of [992 and rhe move rowards a single curteney from 1999 by eleven theo (wdve of rhe HU member litares bmught he activi~ ties of the VOlon do~er lO the wodd of tite coosnmer or worker However chis seem iexclf anything to have iocreased rhe alienariacuteon of voten from rhe institntions aM acrivilies of rhe EU The 2000 election for rne Europeao Parliamenr shnwed the lowest tnroour yer in sllfh direct elections ano Enrobarometer opini()fi poUs have demonstrnred a msative trend in public opinion on che EU rnropaeuintknmmdgl0epoebc-b531p3npdO Ir may be thar a oumbcr uf interest groups llave switched rhrir expecta6ons and poJiexclcical activirics tuwatds the 00 bllt many of the ordinary European V(l(fS seemed ro have failed ro trans[er th~ir lnyalties tu he Union
In surnmaty the neo-functlona1ists mok np Mitranys srudy of rhe a-lashydons betwren group~ and individllals in oHferent sures il5 wellas che sta(cs representativtltl They tried ro gtapple witb the queuit)O (lf political control uf such iostirurionalized funcrional re1ation5hips aod ro undrrstand how ir would affrct rhe oatnre uf tiJe nation state They arremptrd to define the statuS of [hese newfy creatoo insutution5 tnough rhry wete out always fvlped by devdopments in che ECfEU which WWl rhe focus of rheir studies Tbdr works have demun~trared rhat the EU imututioos are by 110 mratlS juse ordinary imerg()vcrnmenral ones lh~y have al) provideo a mirror ()f the hircof) of (Yents in Westetn Europe in pankultH - moviog flom unitios aod poJitkal dynruniqgt through ~rress oy$ and anguish to obsolesceuce tllrbulent fudds and back to mooerace optimism and a new dynamism
TrotJJ(l(iacutecnaUJI
Anorher Americao writer whose work dealt wirh che question oiacute integrntion is KarJ Deursch Alrhough not a neo-fotlcrionalilit his tranmctional appwmh nali dealt with sorne iOmmoo ~hemes He has been umrerned with more rhan imergovermneuul relation~ aod indeed hM str~iexcl reJations berweeo peopIes nitherthan just rhe elites favonred by manyneo-fuflctionalists Deursch concerned himltelF with m( absrnce or presence of significan orga~ oized preplttrations fol war or large-snde iolence between int~rnatiexclona1 policical commuoities It was [he secutity rommullttles lhat had elimirutted war and [he expectation o[ wat whhin rheir ixmndaries whicn Dentamph and his PrincctOll coUeagues exarnined in PeliriuJ Cfml1NJNlily dIId M NarJh lt14Jtlaquo Atia (1957) A SClttlriLy community WWl defined as a gronp of people wnich has become ~inte8rated~ io rhe sense that thete is real iacutelSSnr+ ance that (he members of that rommunity will not fight ellch oeher
Wriil1g1 (raquo1 iacutelMfatlortal tJrgaiadlMm 147
physkally but will se~tle their disputes in liOffie otber way (Deutsch 1957 5)lt loregration does not necessarily mean rhe me~ging oF peoples ot governshymental units intn a ~ogle unie an idea explicir in fooerahsr rhinking Otud implicir in much funrtionalist wtiting Jnstesd two $otS uf integrared secu~ rit communities ar~ hJemified the amalgamarelt where pteviousiy independent unlts have bcen rormaly merged lnro a larger unit wich a iexclommotl guvernment (eg tlle US) ano the pJuralisric where srparate gnvertUlleJlUl Illlioraio their iexclrgaJ indepeodence (eg uacutenada amI rhe US) In stlldying a nllmbcr of cases of anempred or octual intesratioo io tbe Nortn American and WCSt European area Dtunch conduded rhat tIacutelere werc iexclweive conditions essential fnr the rurcts of ao amalgruruued teeutity (Ommuniry and thM rhree wen nec~ry fm it5 plutalisdc COUnrfrpilrt
The1e three conslsted of rhe compaiacuteibiliry oiacute marer valU($ relevant to
politiclll decision-making tbe capacity o( the participariacuteng plt)htinl Imitl or ~mmem~ ro respood tu each othcrS oetdl messages and llaions quickly adeqwuely and without rtsort ro vlolence aad rne mutual predicrability n bchavior (Delltsch 19H 66--7) In Deutschs work emphasis was placed 00 cornmunkauun brlweEn potidca uoIacutets increased trnns1Ctions between them (such fL polirinl exchangcs toUfl(m trade and rratl~pott) brought increases in mutual dciexcl)Cl(enmiddotc fue s cummnnity ro be created (his high level of trnnsactrons must be accomgtauied by mutual responsiveness o that thr demand o( each side 00 he other mn rccdve adequate and sympatheric treatroent llthis wouk not ooiy predude the need [01 aggressive action lO acbi(Ye ends bm would aJso build up 11 feeLing u( UUSt and seturiry in che edationship
Deuucb does not have an obse~uacuteon with imernattomtl orgaoiexclZ8rion~ although his 1957 book iacutes in [he eM collcetned with the ctelltiacuteon of UCCIlshy
tity community in the NATO area rhere ate few tcferences to internatlOnal nrganiuuons Many o( the Cll5C studj( are ser io tbe pcriud before (be postshywar expansioll uf such organlurions and almost all deal ieh bilareral relatIacuteonshj~ O(utschs work has coosequences for the lUudy o( ioternuiona organizatIacuteoos govemmental ano non-goveromCotaj iO[~rnational otiianiza~ tioos can be created as a re~ult uf a plnraliacutes[ic secuciry nmunuoit) lne integracion of whkh may evtotuaUy become iacutennirurjonalized iexclu nuppened reo the ampandinaviiexclm states creand (he Nordic Counci1 There run abo be forrns of instirUti(lnalued communiratlons berween socieries wnich prOldde the transactions and undersrandinli rhat help create ji securi[y community DeUtsch wrote
li the way tu iexclnregrarion domestic or internarionat i$ through rhe achievemem of a srose of community tnut undergirdS insrirurjtms thm ir seems likely [har ao iorreased sense of cotlloounlry would hrlp to snellgtbcn whatever instirutioos - supranatiooal or internacional - are aLreAdy Oltraring
([)euriKh 1957 7--8)
ltgt -_ bullbullbullbull _- _
Demsc-hs work was mken funher in a vnluffie ediretl io 1998 by AdLer and Bllenen (l998) (lLat docs pay sorne attention to ioternariorutl otgilniushydoos Indecd their volume contairu chapters thar rekr ro rhe oseeacute NATO the EU the UN the GnU Cooperarion Cowxil (GCC) aod rhc Assodation uf Soud Eat Asian Niexclttlons (ASEAN) They daim that imetshyruHiomuacute organiexclzauumlons aud iexclnstitutiacutem~ played al lmporum role in elKiltlraging more inteo$ive and extensive ioteracrioos octwttn states rhrough theit uwt-huildiug propenies (Bnrnetr and Adler 1998 418) They lht six corulusions of this snuerneor
bull By moniroting srares agreemenu tntcmatiuacutelwl orpuuacutezatiexcloo~ give them he cooftdente tuacute cooperare io (he ahsencc of trUSt
bull Jnternational O1ganizarions allow Hi1tC$ to discover new areas of muuwl intetellls Tu ponimlar [hey cenoacute ro link panicular areai
bull Inrcmational organizatiom can hdp shape $fllre pracdces by liCtting down nOfOU Ihat define what is acnptablc
bull The iIKTeaiing nwnber of internacionaJ orgamrutions emuuragC$ muldshylatetalim
bull They dIlO eruourage smres lua societies to see rhelll$Clvcs as pan of a resion
bull 1ntildeey can abo shape lhe identiry of rheir memben (Banlett aod Adler 1998 418-20)
The aurhms cWmed char cheir stuJit$ demonmared rhe exrent 10 whkh social cnmmunicadons beomes insrimtioualileJ aOO embedded in lnreroashytional oC8linbatlooslt and in turU how (hese organizatioru express an inreot to dcvelop trUSt end mmwl identificarion (Batnm and AdJer 1998 418) TIe work on sccurity (mmnunidcs is pelhapS at ir strongcu whcn dealing wim the esrablishetl Westcrn democracies rbough llamen and Adlers work shows rhar it may hilve a wider urility
lnlerJciexclnmdcme
Furrhcr emphasi on the growrh JO cnlnsaccions berween l()Cicries can be seen in the worts of Keohane 11l1d Nye who were m che forefront of the iexclnrerocJXndcnce school in rhe lJoited Srnnt fhey puacuteirued our (he conseshyquences of the innease in tldrunarioualucdolU ro che study uf iexclnternncional rdarions Thcit statcing iexclgtoint was sLlnuuarized chus
TraM1latlowJ relations are nolaquo new alrhough che growth of tmnsna~ tklOal orgnnizarion in me twentieth centuty has been specracunr Ye-r our nmremioo iso nor ooly rlur rhe srate-centrk paradigm )$ inade~
quare bur also thar it igt becoming progttSsively more inadequate as changes io inrernational relauumloos take place
(Keohane and Nye 1971 xxv)
The) llsred five omsequemes uf this growth uf inEematiooal inrcracrions ana organizarJ(tIls fur inrerstate politks (1) rhe promntiun of attirude change amongsr driacuterens (2) ao innease io inrernacional pluralism the linkjng of nntiooal Interese groups in tnmsnational strtlCtures usuaHy involving transruttionaI organizations fOI rhe putpoampe of (04)minatioo ltKtohAne and Nyc 1971 xviii) whiacutech has heen lhe basis for much noo~(Jncdontllist wriexcling (3) me cmdon lf dependence and inrerdependcofe IS often associacuteshyarea with intetnilriorutl cranspormrioo and iexclnance Keclune and Nye 1971 xix (4) creating new insrruments fut iexclnfluence for use by sOJne governments over ()(bers (Keuhane aOO Nye 1971 xx) 1100 lt5) dJe emergence cE auronomous acrors wirh priwre ntildelreign policia thar roa) deliberarely oppose Oiacute impinge on Sla(e polides (Krohilne and Nye 1911 xvii)
In a late book (1977) Keohane and Nye dcah with che questioo of imershydependem-e in world poliacutetics io greatet depth Iorecclependencc $lnce tbe Second Wm1d War has- onen cesulted from increasetl ttaosnadonal atciviries and iexcli divided ioto twO sorrs sensltlviry iacutemerdcpeodence (dte muIy effecrs of dULOges jo tranS1lCrJons oc ~()ciacuteetiexcles or govetrunents) md vulnembHhy interdependence where he acrors Hahllhy tc suffet eO$n iacutemposed by extemal evenc~ js (aken inro accoum (Koonane ana Nyc 1977 12-13) In COntrast ro tbe reaisr view of world poHrk Keohane and Nye pm totward che idea type of complcllt imerdependence which chey claimed soroetimes comes dosee ro realiacutety chan does realism (Keohanc attd Nye 1971 23) aod whieh has three nuio characretl$tks it allows fo mulnple rhallne1smiddot- imershyStatC tiansgovernmental and trilnsnationa- conneltring sncieries there i an abserue of hierarchy ilmonS the rnany questions ac inle hetween iexcliexcltates with military securiry no 10nger dominntlng lUly agenda and Millnu-y force 15 not used by governments toward orher governmenu within me laquogion or on [he lssutS where complex intetdcpendence prevaiacutels (Keorutne aoo Nye 1971 25)
These dltee condidons are said by KCQhane aOO Nye to typify fairly weJJ 5Ome LIlAUe$ of global economk md ecological interdependence ami come dose ro chamcrerizing rhe emite relarionship hetWetn sorne cnuntdes (KeolWne and Nye 1911 25) Complex ilterdepcndente glVel rise ro oacuteininctive poliacutetical processes a sute $ goals wiacutell vary by mue arca with mmsgoYernmeotul puumllitics making goab difficut ro define as ttansgovern~ menrnl llClaquo()$ (fof cxample mtfUsrers of agr1cuJmre inte11igente agencies nariona wcather bureaux) pursue their own aims Jhe followiog facwn are reLevant iriexcl eilch issue area
bull iexclhe resourc-es of a Ncue fur thaI particular area are most relevaot radre Ihan the stares overull military ~tre-ngth
bull international nrganizatinm and uansnntional actors wHl be fruloipula[ed as malnr instrumenrs oiacute mue poHcy
bull rhe agenda of issUC$ wi11 be fOrmulated hyebltUlgcs in the power dirmi~ burlon wirhin [he issue alaquollS by rhe pururinn (lf internarional regimes
150 Writings lIlt inttn1atiQrJ41 ergdniutirll1J
by changes jn rhe importance of ttaflstlational acwtS and by linkage froro orher issues
bull linkage between 1sllor$ will be mote difficult for strong naces to undetshyrah ir[orce 1$ downgraded
ft whiJsr linkage by we$k srares rhrough internacional organuumlarions seu agendas helps coalition-wrming and provides arenas for the political acdvity oC weaker states which can use the choice of organizarional forurn [or an issue and rhe mobiliZlition of votes as a politiul resource
(Keohane and Nye 1977 37)
Thm Keuacutehane and Nt gavc inremarjonal organizaciOfls an iroporran[ role in thde compfex interdependence model of world politics a model which whilst not uSlaquo (O explaitt aIl world politics was one which rhey daitned to hllve iacutenfrtasing releYJ1nce in IIlarge and growing area 1ntildeey used an intetnUional organizadon mooel as one of the explanations ror internashytioua regime change that js che lthange in the sets of goveming flrrangernems affening relatioruhips oC interdependence In tMs C$e intershynadonal oJsanisaciolls refeued ro multilevd Iinkage norms and insritutions (Keohane and Nye 1977 54) which once euablished are harJ (O enlAlicate BeCllue o( this rhey may Stand in the way of swes using thdr capabHities In ordec 00 chauge regimes Instead powet outcomCl will be more aJfectcU by votlng power (in the UN General AssemWy for example) ability ro futtl) coalidoos llnd 00 control elite networks (ruch as that founo io clte institushydougt of the European Commnnities) Whilst the complclt illternadorull organizarion mode1 was only Ofle oiacute fOur aJvaucecl by Keohane and Nye ro explain regiffie chAoge tbey Jiu expeomiddott jr to contribute to such chaIlSC in a world where complex interdependence (onditions pertain
1he rontribmions by Keohane and Nye demonstra(e hoth the roncero pf American wtilets iexcln inremationru relariWl in the 1970$ with altemacives to
tite srare-centric model and their wiluumlngness tO draw from more rhan one approach bringiexclng rogether elementogt from che more tradidonal appnJaChes with economic models and non-stare-cenuic dements TIleir Wi)rk does however have certain weaknesle$ Perhaps the mon serious is the use of rhe cerro imerdependence and iexclrs djvisiacuteon iexclnro ~n~itivity and vuinerability imerdependence Anepting rhar inltldeperulence meUlS mutool dependeoce (and [hjs leado to discussiou a~ w how mutual maoy relationihips are) che phrase scnsiuacuteviry imcrdcpendenre scarccly wflrmnu thc use uf the term interdependcnce fhe fault lies wJth che authou loose definiuOfl of depen~ iquestcnce as a oiexcltate (lf being detetmined oc $ignificaruly affected by externa fwces The induskm 0(signi6candy atkcted w~aken5 me urillry uf me cerm so tlme che nOr1on oiacute scusltivity inrtgtrdependence seems ro refer ro any nociceshyaMe cffeltr of ooe srate and society 00 anorher A person may Ix- significandy affectcd by taking drog$ wlthout Ix-ing dependen on chem David Baldwin showcd that mis use of rhe cerro interdependence ran conrrary to the striaer
Writingt ()I inf~_Ji(J1ia ~lfizaJJom 151
lUlderstlllldings (lf the concept fuund in MirhiaveUi Montesquieu and Ronsseall as weU 115 in che works uf twentieth-cemury wrlteI$ such as Norman Angell Francis D(laisi -and Ramsay Muir (ampIdwm 1980 7-9) He snuested the U$C of rhe rerms mutnal influence mutual responsivrness ot mutual scrlitivity insread ofscnsirivity inrerdependeruemiddot (Baldwin 1980 19)
A second cuacutericism uf Keohanc and Nyes books aso concems eheie termishynology In dealing wirh rransnational influentes They [ump tngerheraH types of teiations in whieb non~8overnrnental actOrs participare chus makiflA rhe componenrs of cheir new paradigm shifting aud poorIy defined (Wagoct 1974 440-1) Wagner questioned whetber their work simply demonstrated a shifr in interesr to new areas of intetnational polidts shyespedally elttmomic ones - ana whethcr [he world hM reaUy changed or whether we have iexclUSt overlookcd sorne things a1l along (Wagner 1974 441) The atent of imerdependence wa~ also chaHenged by Waltiquest (1970) anJ Rosecratlce el al (977) in che US and by Lirrle Bnd McKinlay (1978) and Strllivan (978) in rhe Briti~h Uteramre
DespiLe any falling$ Keohlllle and Nye provided insighrs ioto ttamlflashydonal polltics they shifted atrention away fcom p~lrely govcrnmental actOts in inff$rate relarions and they poiutm OUt he impMrance of intetnational organlziexcliexclxions in the intetdepcndence oc at lcast rnurual responsiveness of =
rbe rdormist view of both international celBtiOO1l and iuternational orga- nizar1ons has always provided an rutemative lO the more conservativc cealist approach Ir tended ro be dominated jn the pre-wu petiod by internauacuteonal lawyen and ideaJists but sinee hc Second World War has laoched on to the changell in world poUtics 6tst jn the economic ficld and then in Europe thar have Mn more difficulty to explain in ICliIHst term~ It has sten intcrna~ rionnl organizarions as mlans to manage trends such as iucftI$(d economl( intlrdlpcndcoC( bar hll5 also illtceplcU rhat these organizations mar necorne impoftllm aCtoriexcl (lO che wodd st$ge lhemselves and can cettainiy Iacute)(cnrne involved iexclO changing rhe preferences o( governmeflts
RADICALS
Writers covered in this sccrion iCe rhe intcrnadonal sysrem flOt so much as being domlnlltcd by states bn( more by diUerent divisions 01 its peoplcs Thi$ is noe to Sfly fhat chey ignore surtes They cOflsider them elthet w be ks tmportant chan the iquestjjsions of diUS tit wealth or merely ro refI~ct these othcr factors ot w be roadblo(ks to unky in (he fare Qf mote impomllt chalmiddot renga Power ls seefl as belnamp cxercised by eh( wealthy II1ld privileged and open to cha1Jeuge Change in the system is possibl( but onty through srrll8ge or by an awakenjug pf peoples tQ rhetr real sitllatlon Most iexclnter~ natimal organization~ are thus regarded as (eflccrioos of the currcnt unsruisracwry stare uf aiacuteTairs though $fJme more activist orgauhatioos mar llave potential as vehicles or (hange
This SIoacuteCElOn has betn sub-middotdivided imo rhree gthe fUS( are the econ01nk srructuralists and indude Marxists and Third Wocld wruumlers cririclll of rhe cutrem imernruionallyuem They haacuteve in common a belief mar che polltshyiexclcal srructUres of me world halle leeo wbloned mainiexcly by eltonomic fiiexclctors and rhAr mere has bren an intiacuteJUIllity builr imo the presen sytem lhe recood are the cruumliral app~es who5e radicalilifl1 is mure of the iacutemellec~ cual SOrt They rejeCf - Uf at 19$[ question - Jhatly of rhe usumpcions utlderlying be lIiews ofhe world tepresented by the realists and refotmers Finally mere are the globalim Theit perspective ls planerary ana theiacuter rnain conrtrn h fM rhc survival uf Earth Agilln they challcnge che mme statemiddotbuled approaches of both realjsts and reformers
Stnuturaluacutet lIiews
Ihe srructuralist appmiexclch rO (he swcly of inrematioOlIl relations differs In imporrant wars tO thoee of me realists and refotmuu tbough ir has some elemeou in comroon with mands ofb04h schools As roany of (he neo-realistsshyemphasite (he power scructure of wudd potities this sectiacuteon willlimir jwgtlf ro (hose writers roncerned wich the impacr 00 me political S)Srem of rhe wodds ccooomic strucrure Unliacuteke che ttalist approach the erooomk srrucruralisrs are OOr jUSt concemed with swtts io wodd polilla and rhelr economic and poIitkal differencC$ but alw with the divisioru within f1tld berween SoOCieties (WiIIeas 1990 263) They are [heretOre romerncd witl the rifi berween riel iexclmd poor within scares and rhar herwtto udl and poor glohally This leads ro an interese lO trulSlUirional reladoru as well as in inrergo~romenmt links Th(f have this in corrunon wim refPrtllist views bm diexclfier foom chem in (he emphast~ placeoacute on rhe structures of world pollics beinc formuared by eltooomic fiexcliexclcmn In rhis selttion attentioo wilt be given te MarxiS[ wtlletS lIud sume Thir1 Wodd view$ - partiuilarly (hose of rhe cependency sdlOOf and rhe developmemalj~[II - who have made a cootribution quite separare from rhat of rhe Muxiacutesr uadidon
Marxill laquoewl
There is no one Marxisr interptetariacuteon of me role of imerniexcliexcltional Olganiza~ cions in world politics Sur Manis[ approschf3 have certain elements in common and form a di~dnctive 5ch001 of rhough[ about lnrernartonal telamiddot tions generaHy and therefore ahotu international ocganizadoos These appmaches are based 00 du writiflgS of Karl Marx (l818~) in coshyoperarioo witb Fuacutewrich Engels (1820-95) with perhaps tbe gtearest later conrribution being maJe by VL Lenin kader of (he 1917 fo1shevik revolushydon in Rurna They are cf importanee pany becau1e ehey ficm tlle 00515 for mmmuniSt [hinking and (hm mey have an anactunenr m rhe Soviet Unian whieh WIlS be suongc1t commnuist stare unrII 1991 and EO rhe Peoples Republic of China COlUT1UnJSl sinee 1949 Apan ftom lbis ManiS( beliefs
had a irmng inpur mm Wescern imdleltrual cruoking and conunue ro iruoan some viewi abom wodd politics in rhe Third Wodd
Neither Marx no Mancisrs took rhe stare ro be (he curtency of iacutenteInashy(iexclonal relations Unlike (he realist viewpoints chey did fiO( coruider interactions blaquoween soveteigu ltates to be ofovettidi importance UnHke tbe funcrionalists aud other modem Westetn views rbar srress non-stare actocs Marxiexclsts in particular emphasized cbus relatlonships born wiexclrhin nates and IiCOOSS Stare boundaries Indeed ie is diffku[r ro talle only of a MaIXIacutest view of inrernatiooal re1atioll5 lec ttltme of iorernarional orgnniza~ UumlOOy as rhis separares ene particular aspecr of human behavinur tor MIlIXIsr rrearment divorcing ir from the undedying relleCS of Marxlc beliefs Man-ism provides a framcwok of undemanding by whkh ir iacutes daimed ~ociery pan lind vresen can be explaioed and che furure development of mankiexclnd determined
According ro Maf1 relariooshipamp between people and the futm~ mar insdmdooallzed rhose relatienshfpamp depended on rhe economic $truCtUR of soday fhe way rhat productlon was organized He traced the history of dvilixed maokind through five hiuorical staBes - AAjade mdenr feudal capttalin and socialin - which have ditTereru dominant methods of produc~ tioll leadiog 10 a complirared arrnngement of $OCiety ioto various ordetS 11 manifuld graduadon of sociru tank (Marx llnd Boge1s 1965 40) amph form of sorlef has coutained rhe conflictual divisiQl$ which help [Q tranuacuteorm the narun of rhat $Ocjeey coRrradicrioru in the mode ofpcoducfIacuteon placed srrain nn rhe existing social nrder sharpeniug rhe divide berween economic founshydatinn of sociery and a mpld aansIacuteonnlltion of in SOpel1Ullcture in legal polidcal and re1igious it1$tirutioos Thus by 11 confronration of da$~ Conrramiddot dkeions one historlraJ form of soc1ery wus transfocmcd into a bigher stage uf social devdopmem the history of aH hitherto existing ~ociexclety is the histoty uf dass struggles (MaDI Illld Bngets 15 39) Marx and Bnsels were parriculady conceroed wich capita1i$t sociery - ac its Oeyday during theiacuter Uves - and its tmnsrormarion iexcluto ampocis1iu sodety Wlthln rrus form of SoOCiety rOete would be no division of laboU4 and no eWses Illld no SUtes no elCpropnation of labours 5urplus vruue I1nd (bus no private property 00 exploira(ion of ene clilllS ny iexcliexcloother with 00 need fue war
For Marx and fingeJs C1ass then and noiexcl fllltions or sutea are rhe bade units in hurO) llIIIl che struggle between clAssts Jnstead oiacute infeutliltl contlict ocrupies rhe centre of acrention (Berki 1971 R1iexcl From me nlneteenth celUUf onwards rhis struggle -n in Marxisr cerros has been primarUy between [his capicalist dass ([he OOurgeoisic) aOO the bbouring dw (me proletariat) AA (he trarurormatlon fmm capltalisr SoOCIety [O ~OCialiexclMl ro comrounism rook p~e (he superstruerutt of bourgtOis SoOCilaquoy - religioo national divisiacuteon boutgmis politicnl insrirudnns rhe SOlte - woold be swept flway and in Engtls pmse rhe gOlcrotnent nf persons is replaced by [he udminlsuacion of things Fetter 19 (47) with me itEte relegated lO the mmeum iexclngemer Wlth lile spinshyning wheel Qnd [he bronze axe (Feuer 1969 433)
154 WrituacutetKiexclI mJenl4tiorJal rngmZtlJilm
Mux saw the European SUtes of his own rime as being rntans by which the ruBng dass (011amp oppress the work~ng clw by using (he agentl of tht 5tare such as the iudidary the poliee the army and rhe church he (xrerual Ilctlvities of the stare wete also determined by its Chtss namre MeanwhiJe rrmllnat]onat Rlations of a more meaningfuL kind WQuld bt creared by trade rhe movement of capital and incteaiitd romac[ and llOIacuteldarity betwten the prolerariat of vanoulS nations riacuteidefd rhe internacional nriexclaniutions of which Marx and Engels hnd dire(t experiena- wtfe the Fi~t Internatiomd and for Engels the Secund lntemarional both of which atttmpted lO orgashynJxe the represemarives of wruking people aiexclros fronden Onc~ agaJn this stteAAe$ the Marxist empbois on transnarional dass relutions rnther than on intentate relarionships
Whibt Soviet writlngs on international organizatinn1 wtte falrly desulshytory in Scalins reigu 0924-53) rhey did lmerIy hernld rbe move towams peaceful co-existerne arul roreshadowffi the lartf rnrhe[ restrktive view of Imch organi2Atinm hy Soviet commentators
In the post-Second Wodd War period and In patticular in the post-Stalin era Soviet liternmre on international organiuttions bl(lSsomed This has reflected Soviet membership oC ma1ly 1osiexcl-1945 organixations the emershygence of a socialist bloc of sta[C$ and tbe incre-ase in the mlmber of Sowcreign s[ates all flUtontilde demaruHng a more sophisricared Soviet view of lnter~llate reLadoru than che survivalism of Stalins period Uuring rhe lare 19805 i( auo ret1ected the new thinking iacutemroduced by Gorbachev
StalintI suIXessor KrU$hchev developed a revised view of internacional relaCtons which gave a positio1l ro the emerging Third Wnrhl (Tbe Third Wotld was then taken to mean rhotle IItates thar had emerged ftom colo~ nialiacutesm In effect rhe terrn later induded tbe stares of Latin America Africa - exclnding the rhen apaftbeid stnre of South Africa - the Middle Rasr Oceaniacutea and South Asia) Peace(ul co-exiuence between oda1ist and (apltaJisr states WM $til comidered nece1sary but this diacuted noc predude the ideologiacutecal stmggle between rhe two campsmiddot iexclndeed lhe Soviet inter~ national lawyer GI Ihnkiacuten wrote pearcfut cocx15tence of sutes represeonng che tWO differeor rodal sysems is a slccific form uf dass struggie beween socialism and calitllllsm (Osakwe 1972 37) The Soviet Union abo deveJoped relatlons wirh rbe newly emerging exshycoloniaJ cOllntdeJ and Soviet writiog had tu take ~ount of this developmem There wru a recognirion of a third group of stattli between rhe capitalist aud the communlsr that of poteorially friendly indtptomiddot deut $tarem io Europe and Asia such as India Egypt Indnnesia and Yugoslavia which would filrm a tone of peace Although the rebtions wiacuteth rhe capitaliacutest sures sriacuteH remaioecl embedded in pelteful coshyexluencc rhere was an emphasis by postmiddotStalinist Soviet writets on the da eJement in lile telatiomhil - that is rhe wntact with progressive elements in Weste1l sodeey smh as che Jabonr mnvement Ncither diexcld peaceful co-exiucuce rule OUt ~upport o[ middotjUSt wars of nationallibcrildon
WIacuteJIacute11gs tm iacutenUrllUtional WjatlJZtiacutelJlff 155
iexclndeed ir was seen lt a strategy fo wodd reloludon Fiacutenally (he rrlashyfIacuteonhips berween the Sovier Union and East Eumpean countries vere deerned ro be based on sociali internationalism posmlating a haemony of natinnal and commllnity interests and mndllding thar jnde~ndeuce and sovereioiexclnty of a soctalist uate means aoove aH indepltndencc from capitalism (Red Star 1 December 18)
Tunkin underljned traditional Soviet thiacutenking rllar the mngtrltllenl imrrllment of an ioretnational urganization (fne example the Chaner oiacute the UN) was all-impottant in derermining tIte enene rrun the otganizauumlon bad an international legal pcntildeonaliry rhar iexcl5 a standing in internacional 1l1w 5imilar tu titar of a sovereigo staxe Examining lhe question of the antonomOllS wiU oiacute international nrganitatioll Tunldn allowed thl1 they need not jmt act as agtnts for member stares
In imernatiunal ptacrke trellties conduded by jntcrl~ational mSaniacutezashytinns take their speciaJ piare as treacies by wbkh internationsl organimtiom aequire righu and take upon themselves cerrain obligiexcllshytioos Intctnat10nal organizatiou are created by Hares hey are broughr iexclnto being by states but the actloacuteos of imcmational organi7ashydoos are nlt)( in any way de facto or de jure ro be tqt1sred lO the actions of scates
(Osakwe J972 23)
Thi did nor mean than M internadonal organiacuteiariexclon was an entity indeshypendem of its memher us[es as any powers (har they hacl were delegated by [he members In Jine wirh che ampwiet doctrine of peareful co-exiacutesteme Tunkin placed Uress pn (he nature and rhe membership of an international organiacuteution dlOSe which drew their membersbip from commlmi1t c1Ipishytalist and TIiexclird World tares could expcct tu be genel1llly mognized as having an incernarional personaliacutery He wrote
TIte namre of tontemporary international prganiurions is lO a very great exttm derefmined by [he existerue of Haces beJonging ro differem wcio-economk systems and the ioevitable muggle between them Thar is why pcaceful crexislence is now the bl-sic condition of rh~ dfVC1iexclpshyment ufgeneral interoational ntganization
(Osltuumlltwlt 1972 289)
Mor07JN Clt1ntrlbuterl sorne extra points Fintildet be iududed JNGOs in his stndy He wrote dlQt lotetnational orgaruulions have as iI rol 8t least three member coumries TheM may be government$ offidJ orgilnlzarions or 0CInshy
guvernmental organizatiow (Morowv 1977 30) In a 11Iter seccion m NGo thcy were ldencifred as che la~ group of inrerrulttonal organiuttiolls wim two aspccn rbar concttntd socuIacuteiacuteIgtt commemarors tbe NGOriexcl auirude towards the preservarion of pealaquo wkh the Wnrld Feieradon ofTrade Unions
6 _ 0
rhe Wodd Fedemion oE Democratk Youth and otber meiexclllbtrs oiacute tbe Sovittshybacked World Peace (ounaacutel gaining special mentioo and the specialiuJ chataCrer of sorne NGOs itl(h as rhe ruerrutriunal Couocil of Scientifu Unions and che Scienrifk OJmmiuee on Antnrctk Research MOrlrLOv memioned how NGOs can belp emblish a social dimate citillg their contti shybution ro (he setdemenr of a number of internacional confHcu swh as dlilr in Vietnam He aOO dealr wirh the role of che NGOs io cbe UN aud che consuJshyrative srarus [hey llave witn lGOs saying du[ smdems of internariooal affitjoiexcl
in [he socjalisr councrics m critieal of many asplaquots of (his system fur the eoruulrarive StatuS amogemenrs stiU fall shon of wha( [he deveJopmenc of modern inretnatlonal relarions in fac[ catls fur (Morozov 1977 43) Tbe specialized namre ufNGOs Wamp1 atttibuted by M((2OV tu
tht increased Jnfiuence of the pubic at large un roreign polky [he grearer iexclmpat of public opininn in imernatiunal reladuns and [he greater importante uf me ideological fiexclUtot 10 $ucb relations Accoum should abo be raen of che proccsses of cconomic developmenr and [he coosequenc~ of [he scienrific and rechnological tevolutioo which has also led ro a greatet number of speoacutealized NGOs
(Morozov 1977 42)
Second Morozov wridog jo d~ late 197amp made moU pos-irive refershyencelgt (O [he role oiacute Trurd Wodd SUtes in imemaciooa otganimrions He noted rbar rbe emetgtoce oiacute ti large oumbe of Oung natiooal stares h8ve kd fO che emetgcnce of intetnarJonal Drganizadons among develcpi08 ecuoshytries (Mororov 1977 29) aod claimed hat partkiparion in (hese organh311oos is part uf he process uf consolidating their sovereigocy and ruuional jndependenu~ aod of wlviog cheir pressing ecoOfJmic anJ orher pmbemsmiddot (Morozov 1177 31)
Finally Momzov developed the puint made by fimkin aOOut he limited llalUre of ioternationaJ organiurjQn$ - ~econd-dllSS ffitrnbers nf the inrershynarloual sysrem as opposed tu rhe firsr-diexcllSS members SQvereJgn stateiexcl by reretcme tO theit dedsioos There bave resulted froro che inrelllctioo of politicuJ euroorces within the organil1ldons and
Thecombined will uf chcse lGOs i5 disuumlnc[ from [he wllls of theuuml indishyvidual members io in eflSenlte and ln in narure The v1ilflous wills in thb case are nor agsregued arirhmetically each one exim indepenshydendy ur oside a homogeneQu~ socio-political gOUP wirbin whose frarnework (hey can be combjlled
(Murozov 1977 34)
AfLer lhe comiog ro powet ofMikhail Gorbachev in the Soviet Union io 19Bgt a Ihaoge rook place jo $oVJIl policies rowards imeroadonal relations irutuding international organi1ations and [his has been reflecred in new
~ M-- bull 6_V_
Soviet writings un [he subJect Gorbachev inttoducetl a owjor review of [he fureign poljcy uf the Soviet Union (har marchcd rhe inremiry of his dmncslic refotmS He encouraged new rhinking- based on a revjeJ vlew of che world siruation Peaceful co-existence wirh iexclhe capiralisr tirares WlCgt no looger seeo a~ being a spetjfic fum of dass srruggle as Tunkin had written bUI 35 being in the commoo intecesu oiacute all countriCl Ir WIi$ predishycued on the neOO fin surviva of (he human nce which in ShakhfUlZOlrQvmiddot$ word$ must ofCOUIse take fim place Lighe 1988 297gt- Thjs ml$or rhar a new COIKeuropt of seGldty had ro he adopreJ hy che Soviers rhar oiacute common security which wa5 based un sume of he ideas of -che Palme Comminion (see he1ow) Greater emphasis wu given ro arms control and dlsarmament agreemenrs wirh the Wesr 11nd to co-opttation in international uffuirs whilst Soviet intervention io che Third Wodd enbed and milirary 5UppOtC 1m [he East European communisr govcfomentS WlS withdrawn
Soviet wdcings on inremurionilJ relations both offidal and academic came to mirror Gorhachevs new rhJnkiog bur eho lilete iexcl$ evety sigo chut rbese id~ were dmwu no only from rhe Wesr but alw Uacutenm Moscow mink-tanks slleh as lMEMO th~ JflSIirure of World Eronomy and Inremlfona Relacions) Liacuteght 1988 29~n Gorbschev aun his forngn minisrer FQllard Shevaronadre gave rhe academiacuten a Breen light for funher diSClViiacuteon ud debare (Shevaronadre 1990 23) As II reampul srudies examlned he role of che Uniacutered Nariacuteons as sn ugem for peoce (Kolyrev 1990 12-19 NesrerenkQ 1990 65 Petoovsky 1990 42--3) and rhe mte of inrernational or811nizadons in environmental mliLffers IiLnd disurmamenc qutsdmuuml Chodsulkwsky 1988j NikitiM 1989 123-32 Roginko 1989 133-43) and internarionallaw was teassesred (Sutier 1989~ 363-75)
Once che Sovier Union collapsed many of me wrifetS losr rhe main point of political reference A nwllber Iefi academc orhets adapted thelt ideas ro WCtem oues and a few remnioed as policy rulviseni ro che new Russian goVefrutJenL However cornmunism as M imellectually dominant organiuog rotce wlch pnliiisJ dour had djsappeared in Russia togerllef with much uf the persptr1ve ir provided - wben seen thmugh me unen distotdng leos uf tbe Sovier lfulon - oiacute inrernatiooaJ relatlons and inremariooal organhattnru
Chinese Marxisr wrirers have iexclargeIy reflected rhe views of the leadershyship in Chinll sioce [he coming ro power of rhe Commun1sr Patty in 1949 Undl (he 1970$ communist China was elduded from almon aH iotttllJishytional of811nizIiLtIOns and ie is flot surpriamping tha whae lirde writing tbete WUtl on the st1bje(r Wal fairly dismiacutesampive usuaUy consisdng uf coudemnaM tinos of (he UN fnf its action tn Korea aud rhe security allianes fot teir hegernonic narure Chjnese Marxisr rhinking hiacuteu divided (he modem wotld jnro three groups ihe Birsr World consisred of rile fWQ imperialist superpowers namely he USA ano the USSR The Second World was made up uf otbet areaa uf advamed industrilllired cnuntries primariacutely EUfape aod Japa which were opea ro donunariou by lite Sllperpowers bu( which could $tan a dialogue wirh rhe Thiacuterd World Theu (here was rhe Third
158 Writings OtJ internationdl organizatioru
Wodcl iexcltreI( coruisting of the Afro-Asiacutean-Lario Americltlu sta tes supported in their muggte aAainSt Picsr World imperialism by Chinls This viexclew of the wmId colouted tyJst Chiacutenese wridngs on iacuteoternatiollill oeganharions Tbe $uperJowers were seen as cynical lTlllnipubtors Qf inrernarionaJ jnsti~ tutions Mao Tre~tuog wOre of US poliey towards such insdfutions Ir mam use or them when it neOOS rhem and kicks them 3way when ir does flot (Society (or Anglo-Chinese Underuanding 1979 42) US-domioated pill-~ such amp$ SEATO and imperialist groupiacutengs like rhe Alliance tor PfOgre~( wttt detided Spedal viuiot was saved roc the Warsaw freaty Orgaoizatiun whieh in one aetide was described as Soviet sodal~ imperialisms mol fur aggression (Ming Sung circd Jn Chen 1979 194) fhe Soviet Union was aceuseQ of trying tu manipulate che Pan and negnshydate wlth Wesrem eouorries rhmugh the Enropean Scltwiry Conferenee tn consolidare irs begemonic status in Basrern Enrope at the same time iexcliexcll dividiog Wes(ern Europe squeezing Out the USA ro as ro muSte way (0(
iu expansion and infilrmrion into Westem Europe (Ming Sung clted in Chen 1979 197)
Chinese writecs Fegatded tbe Ntildegttood Worid espedally Western Europe as being a pen force io telmS of imperialism which Ww tdponeed to the lhird World wich diaJogu as io the Jmueacute Convention berweoen tIacute1e European Commnnitiacutees and AF~ican Carib~an and Paciuacutet srUe5
Furrhermore the defensive $spects of NATO were sttessed and with growing European cohcsion the trend iexclS IJkely to ~ towatds a fuoce in which the American elemenr is seen as 1 temporary neceuity eventual1y to be phased out (Sodety fur Anglo-Chioese Undetstanding 1979 90)
lthe countries of the Third World were setn as coostirotiog rbe mluumln force comb$dng imperiaJi~m colonialism and hegemonJsm reEerring nor only to the vestiges of Wesr Etl-OOptan foloniiexcliexclJism bOl abo to US iexclnpetlshyalism and gwwiog Soviet soci$l~imperiacutea1ism Tbe Third Wodd eQuld hdp tn exclude the gre$t powers ny baoding cogecher io such otganizatinos aiexcl tht DAU aod rhey could work ro correct unequiexcliexcl nade and eeonomk reladons with che sUpetpowers through UN iexcliexclgeucies and eonferences such as UNCTAD and UNaos Abo rtlW material ancl exporting orgllnizations liexclke OPEC rbe Incernadonal Bauxilaquo Association ancl the Onion of Banana Bxporting Counuies were proised a ehanging (he old interntlrional eumomic Ome and banerlog che biggest roarerJal plunderers in rile world rhe United Srates and (he Soviet Uoleo (Ptking Rt1Jiew 26 Septtmbtr 1975 cited in Cheo 1979 309)
111e poverty oiacute ehinne study of intetnatlenal erganhuions no dounr caused by the lack of Chinese membership of such etganizacions unril the 197amp and the turmoit ef the Cultural Revulution eiexcliexclme ro an enel by the 1980s Jnstead oere was a more reaHs( viexclew (lE rbe worlcl iexclf one S~shytimes coucbed In Manlst terms In Chlnese univenittes there was a growtb io detailed studies of iutemationalntgsnizations aod the nuropean Union
WritingI un inlmullPmnl vrgrsrtilpiill1J 159
Tbird Wwld vlewJ
Many Third Wodd Afro-Asian aoo Latin Atrusican) writers 00 jntemsw
tional organizaion have adopte a structtulIist framework and are particufarly nm(etnecl abour how insdtutions can be wcd as tools of exploitadon uf rhe nitd World aud how $ome cau be used lIS agenrs of libenuion They llave nor been induded in the ~ettiexcloo un Marxist viltws (or three feamm nOI al of them are Mandst thIJM who are Manisr place particular stresS on (he posicion oF thE l1lIacuterd World and as ThJrd Worlcl eitizens they have through theit own experience unother pe~cdve rhan [Mt of writers from industri$lized srates
Yash 18ndon (1978 377) has identjfied thNf nuacuterd World penfIXrives en inrernational Olganizatiolls Fim [here is that or the bourgeois Of perry natiunalisrs who are in power in mos[ Third World statcs and who are progressive in [errru of anti-impcrialism but are rraniollary ro the C1tccnr WC they would sooner mau thcir pcaee with imperialism rhan iluwnder power (e the masses and peasancs This group uses ineernational orgllniexclm~ tions ro pur presrure 0lI imperialisc states in order to extntCt concession5 from them and appease tbe masses in their own coontries TIley see che UN as an opportunity to parley witb their entwhiacutele impecild masters t a presumed kvd uf equa1iry (Tandoo 1978 365) Thc scltond pcrspective is rhat ofthe reaIly backward regimes of thl Thitd Wodd such un Taiwiexcliexcln and Jotdan or whnm intemarional orguniacutelattnnS are of margJna1 signifieance [)t they prefet tu dea wirh impcrialism iquestirt(tiy The rhird petSPCCrive idenrified by landOll is that uf rhe masses vi thc TIlird World for wbom toterntlunaJ orgmilAriom are petiphewl fin liS Jong as hey rontinue fO reflect the muing balanlte uf clas$ forces in hvour uf impeuacuteJism (fandon J 978 378) Sioce the ene of he 196amp rorces representing thu third group have bccome lnott prominent in world polido in che form of liberarioo groop1 lttCn as tbe PLO and whilst chese have f)tgten interested in galnin8 telaquolgnJtlon rOt rhemshyselves at the UN and the spedaliled agcodes rhey are not depeuden 00 these or8ani1Jlton~ rndecd Tandoo romioeted (hat fo che revoludonary snnggles in SOUfh~E3SC A~a and AfrJctI iOfernattonal otgilnizalJons are tOO peripheml to be of much $ignilJeaoce (Tandon )9713 377)
Tancloo providcd n inrere~tiog history of the Jevelopment uf the anrishycolonialist forees in che Third Wruld sinee 1945 bur hi~ clivi~iexcl()H iexcloro he three perspenives is roo stark leaving aside rhe leil important backWllro regimes be has basiclllly grO~lped tbe Third World leadershp joto the revoshylutionaries who have Uttle netd (or imernatiooa otgllnizatiooll and those who llave suumlpped into refOrmism and have beco duped iot() bdieving (hat they elln ehaoge chelr c1ependeoce 00 industtia1i1Cd nBfiexclmL~ lhrough intemadonal organiwtions Thjs seems to undelsrare me use or ~mh organishyzations by revolutionllry groups - especiiexcliexcllIy che PLO anel tlle SoUthem African liberadon OtgllOiexcl7arionS - whieb have made substaotial use oiacute [he UN me Arah League ano the OAU tO sustain rhe polirical aspeets of theit effOrt5 1t alS(l uverestimatcs the extent tu whieh the Third World countries
J UU wnlmgl 1111 JTiUrllamm41 ergtIttJ1I0fll
have any iUwinru about imetnariooal Qrganizarioos such a~ UNC1~D
Furchermorc the identificador of 800d revolutionaries and falten refurmislS i~ tuller impliexclstjc~ rhe maIur sponrot of the UNs New Ecooomic Order l wruch Tandon hal roudemned as rhe Old Economic Order with a diffefent rltetoric WIIS the Algetian radinu governmenr of Boumediemu rhe PLO irself ha heen dependem on a numlgttr of bnurgeWs Arab goveromenrs foc financial 00 diploJUlltic suppon and ro Tandoos duumlertion that PQr narlonallibemwn movemenn guided by a proktatlan idoology such liS rhose in Chifliexcl1 lIlud Vietnam iruemarionaJ organlwtlona WtU of no 1J5e can be- added the re5ervarion until chey carne (O power Whiht ir took some twenty years belote communist Qtill1 made use nf suth organiutions the unified communiSl Stale ol Vietnam was quick fO cake up it position in the UN ro ask [Ol aid thtough UN agencies liS well as w become ji membet of he CMEA (Comecon)
Third Wodd commemscOt1l on world politics have emphasized the nature uf rheir atea$ potirical ecoOoacutemtc Ilud culmral relatloosluumlp wilh rhe iHdllsrriexcl~ alixed Nonh TitilO is iOO$t Oflltl rypified aiexcliexcl bciug OHe of ueo-folonialism _ COntrol of che Third Wtltld by lhe Nortb by indirecl means ratlet (han by direa colonial tule and of Kf)IomIacute( dRptwJmry (o dtpmdemjiexcliexcl) lntetnationaiacute rdsdOOi bcrween sures are sublumed ro relations between claue$ world wide Ixtween on rhe one lIand the expluacuteiting impetialist capitetists in rhe northcm iru1usuialized couotries 2100 rhcir middle-ltlass collaboratotS in the 50Uthem SUtes aud on the othet band he exploiced masses rhe proleuriat ol [he $Ourhern contJnems The Lurcr gmupS have been 1I1iide ecooomkaUy dependent on [he furmer so char hey lIre in rhe wuacutetds uf the Bruiliiln T Dos SantOS in a situadon jn which the economy of a cetuin group of counshytrles is condiacutedoned by rhe develOplllent aad expansion of aoother ecouomy lO which thcit own 15 subjecred (Bodenheimer 1971 327)
The uOOerdeveloped tounrries depend uacuten [be developed ror their capital nd ercperdse they find key sectors of ehdr eroooroy conrrolled from OUtsJde rhey act as a SOUfce of raw marerials lIS ji lthetip source of labour arul as a rnarket fur mllnuf8ccurers from Euttipe ]apan and North America As thejr living standards were deterrniud by rhe vicissinWeS of the Northern~ dominated wodd marker the relationship was Otle uf unequa exchange (he [esule of which was a world experiencing woequal developmenr with a developed rieh indwtriaJiud capiralisr Notthern centre and d poor underdeveklpedgt agciculrutitlly backwarn eXFloired periphery in che 50mb The dependem 80mh has been divided berween rhe ptedominanr undemeshyveloped area~ lUld a few Cenfres of deve10prnenr wirh their ttade culrural rraffie and polidcal linL to [he deveJoped North - rhe depeOOem develop~ memo omlinea by EH Cardosa (1974) allodlt~r Bruiliall Mmir Amiu (977) rejC(ted the prosptltt of aH antonomous capitalist development in [he Third Work the oew bourgeaisJe of Lacin Ametica Africa and Asia were in allianec with capitalisrs from rhe Nnnh and rhe mato $OUrce of finance ror lmported equipmem was fmm the expon of raw materials to rhe indu~rial
5 ~ _~ smiddot_middot~~
iexclred smes Amin (1977 1-21) SllW rhe can made ror a New Imernational Ecooomic Order (NIEO) by Third World leaders at rbe UN UNCTAD aod che Vilrlous North-Sourh dialogues as an nrtempt LO iexclnerease the price of chelr ntw mattIial exporrs obraio more lmpotted technol08Y snd chus finance a new srage of develQpmenr He saw this ti placing the Thitd World more in the gttp of the neo-co1onialist sysrem and iostmd recommended 11
more self~rcuumlanr development wlrh murrud assismnce between Third World sures a reducdon in [ade wirh rhe induuialized wotld and Chlll a loos~ ening of dependenre Amin lJke TaOOon had Jittle fairh in presenc imtrnruional organizaciexclon Il tools foc fasbiooing a more independent Tbiacuten Wotd His sU88tl1cion of grearer mUtual ilSlgtistaoce between ThUd WorId uate~ implied somtthing more sophillticated than a numbtr of bilateral arrmgements As rbe present orgauizarions used fu iexclncm~Thjrd World cnshyoperation (che OAU he Atab League ASEAN) are domitllued by jusr dl()llC govetnmenrg chM accept lhe eowse coodemned by Amio _ the NIEO ami greater jmegrndon iexcluro rhe world economic sysrem ~hen Amia solutloil involves like-minded deveJoping counrries or more like1y political changes leading ro such indigenous intemuional orgilniwrions
Other Trufd Wodd wdten have plllCtXl emphasls on grearer use 01 exisring insdtutions lOO can broadJy be deKfibed lIS Wopmenraluli huI Prebisch an Argentinian econOmigf has not only studied the que5iaacuteon uf ecooomic dependency but his ideas llave been used as the baJiexclis for che wotk of cwo miexclljoc iexcliexcluemariOOiexcll1 organizadons rhe UN Enmomic Commission fa utin Ameriea (ECLA) and UNCfAD Iu his smdy of Briliacutesh-Argerl(inian trading relntioflS Prebisch bad idenrified rhe unequRl tecrns ol Hade between he favoured (ndusrrislized s(ate of tbe centre and he les privj~ leged llOIl-indumialiacutewl periphery Prebisch unlike rhe dependencia gtChool of Amiacuten Dos Sancos and Cardosa believed thu this inequaLity could be overcome by political acrinn by trade pre[ereonces fuvouring the pedphery by eoo1ruooiacutery agreemenrs by intelnatiacuteowll aid and by more foreiga imvestment in che ~riphery It was thele remedies thiexcllr Prebiacutesch eneouraged when he WiIS Executive SecrCrary of ECLA from 1955 lO 1963 aOO Secrewy-Genernl ofUNCTAD ftoro 14 ro 196tL In~d rhe amoum of aid the periphery needed in omer to overeome their Unfuvoluable rrnde balance became known io UNCTAD clrcles as [he Prebiexclsch Giexcllp
The distinguished Afiican aC1ldentie Aji Mazn1i has wricren un the plighr Qf (bar conciflfnt aod j~ role in pmem~day interruUIDllfl1 afmits He soughr ro answer rhe quesdon Now rlw Imperial Order is eoming ro an end who is going tO keep rhe peaee in Aampica and tu examine he concept of Pax AfrlclllUl the African s ambidoo ro be his OWh palaman The JXIliacutecillJS and se[f~8overnment ufAfriea depended on the nodan ofan African self which Mauui discusseJ in decaH He considered how this 1ndepen~ denre might be threarened by the politicaI and cultural fragmenMion of the contillenr Ellld eronomieally by deperulence on Europe He quoted Kwame Nkntmah finr President uf Ghaniexcll on rhe Europe-Jn ECOntunir Communiry
162 Wilihgr rm intd1JatirmallJrganizatimu
ihe ireaty of Romemarks the advent of oeoKolonitJism [n Afriacuteen snd bears unqutSrlonably the marks of Freneh neo-colonuumlllism (Murui 1967 93) He moduded from tM that Wlut AfrlOlns tbelaquofore neecletl was II
renerru authotity of cheir owa tI) ((lordilJlte fheir eltonomk and policicat deCena- sgain5t trus rnreat (Mamtiexcl 1961 93)
Given this theme it is not surprising tlwt Mazrui ser srore by rhe OAU bU[ he was realistic in bis judgement
In relatioos betwlaquon African statts lIOflesr step rowards Pu Africana was taken when rhe Organiution oiacute Aftlaquolln Uniey set up in Commissiacuteon ofMediauacuteoo Conci1illtion aud Arhitmion
Anormr OAU Commissioo of relevance fot Fax AftlOlna ls che Defence Cornmission Sor me Defeme Commlnion 1w se Car been among che lean effecdve QfPan-Aiacutericun ins(kndons Afrka mar indeed aspire to be her owu ptlliceman bur she does nO seem ready as yel to par the price iacutem it
(Mauui 19612[3)
Mazrui oudined the varicd backgrounds of [he lemen oiacute newly illdepenshydent Africa and thdr radical and revolmionary ideas and it is pethaps swprising rhat the insrirutions rhey created fur me coutinenf wete so mnservative with [he p05sible exceprion oiacute the OAUs Natiomtl Libetttion Comminee Mazrui no[ed thac Africa srill has the problem of how othet powetS respond tu its behaviour and [har forcigo iotmsilm in AJtica continued Indetd the I990s proved tO be a dC(ade of disusrer for AfrieR The debiacute burden contimlld while Ilome states collapsed lnro civil war ami others took to iutenoendoo in thejr ueighbonrs affairs Outslde interference from borh Enrope and North Amecica euodoned One of rhe fcw brlghr spots was the end of apallhcid in South Africa and the peaceful transitioo ro majoriry mJe lo al thiexcl~ tn quote Juliacuteus Nyerere rhe ampcmer pre~iexcldenl of Tan1ania The OAU exists outr ror tbe prorecdoo of (he Afrinllt Head~ oiacute State (cited io AlilgapPltl 1998 1 ) The relarive optimism of Maztui has giveu way ro Afriam writers examining sorne of me disrnrbing details of inaction by [be OAU and regtonal orgauiacutezatJuns nlCh as ECOWAS beiog used as doaks fu the machinations oE regional hegemou$ suth as Nigcria (Mibe 1m 61-9(1)
Radha Sinha$ problem--ortented undy Food iexcllfId PIWt11y (1976) has an IItgent message Sinha a former consultaot of the FAO prodnced an iofuacuterrned aUllyiexcljiexcl of the world$ food problem stress1Og in paniacutecular the maldistribution of food and other resources Noting he profO$ab of UNCTAD with heit muld-rommodJty approach and buffer nocks provjshySiOfli he commented rhe grearesr weakness oE the UNCTAD scheme js les Hkdy politlca1 unilcceptablliry ro me developed (ountdes parriculady che USA (Sinhil 1916 114) a propheey that has proved to he cortect He identitled a more aggresslve attitnde by Third World sutes e5pedally
WrilirrgJ on i1tternatiflii1l rHgarrtzatitmlt 163shy
after the uH prite cise of 197314 when the developing coonuies tried to maximize their own market powers by formin cartcls such as rhe Intematimlal BaurdtC Association the Intemuional Coundl of Copper Expotcing Countries aud the Intema[ional Tin Agrcrmenr He gave n qualified wekome ro the Lomeacute Convention betwcen the European (omrounities anJ cenain African Padfic and Caribbean Haces Writing in 1976 he commented
The receot cbange in rhe luirudes of tite tiche countries is largely due tu the incIeasing miliuncy of the Third World countries lt is almost ertalll utar the magnitude offuture cnnc~sions in me coune ofGAIT aud UNCTAD IV Ilegotiarioos wiU deperu mainly on (he continued solidariry uf the devdoping counlrtes
(Siha 1976 116)
Sinha was pardy correct as tbe solidatity cf rhe Tbird Workl states cracked se the induurialized wodd withheld funher Con(eampSJoru but ir was able tO do so because market condidons swung against che primaty producen
In his condusion Sinha called ror a IIDre1 shttting of wnrld t($nmes and power if confrontarion was ro he avoidOO He feared that the ffa of roshyoptradon berween [ieh and pool conntries hiid ((lT1e to an end and that batde lines were being drawn Instead he advOOIreltI majnr concessions from the dcher coumries on trnde lInd aid issues and a1so a ma~lt te$ltUcrnring of the incematiotlill organization~ aoo negoacutetiating ffiarhinery in order tu provide a much gtC2ter say fm me poorer countries in internatiooal tJ1lde invesrment and mooetaiexcly armngemenrs (SiMa 1976 132) GAn 1BRD aud IMF have been the presenoe of [he ri h with voting weighted m faacutevour of rhe OECD countries and Sinha re(()ffimended thlll GATr aoo UNCiAD be merged inro an Intemacional irade Organization (ITO) and che creatlon of a Third World permanent secrctariat iexclnvolved in all trade and aia negoriarioru Thoogh less radical than Amin Sinha aIso recomrnrnded gttter coshyoperation berween developing coulltries and an eoo ro their inkrtotity complex with instead a sense of m~ttnal sdiacute-e$teem and trust being devel~ oped (Sinha 1976 ch 10) Litde that h~ happened during the 19905 woo1d have encouraged Sinha The World iratle Organiaadon has emerged as the presenoe of the dlVelupeJ tares and lw brushed aside many of thc mucerns cf UNCTAD Debr ha~ edged on ro dlt wudd iexclagenda but mainly at the beheS[
of a non-governmental organization )ubiacutelec 2000 nd the promi$e~ of the main financill jnsrirutluru lO pursue dcbc-rclicf produred but a thiniexclmfl
In aH Third WQrld commenrarors have provided a vatied and lively approruh fOwards tne problems uf intetniexclational organizarions Their emphasis has niltntaHy beCl Qn tbe use of wurld lmtirutions to change the econornic condidon or the Southern cominents As this enndition is likely to worscn in the near filrtltf further more lJica conrtibutions on the rule oC
-- --- ~- __ _~- __- imernatIacuteonal orgaoilarions in Nonh-Smuh relarJons tOiexclghf be apected from rhe Third Worid A1ternaciveJy wrirers (mm rhat ares rmy jW ltIacuteespUacutet rm imergovemmemal orgaoizarions ar lealaquo Mee rhem $O Hrrle
Cfili~ald~heJ
Critica approadvs lO the nudy uf intetnadonal relations are (hose har rejee( the dominating vleW1iexcli repr=med by tbe realist and reformistS as oudined aboye In paHicular rhey reglUd realists as apologisu for the currem con6gutltion of power 10 (he wiexcldd sytem and considet [har rhe refOnntstS are elrher unable ro undersraoo he fUe llamee )( (hi sysrem oc ille UDwiUing to accepc rilar ir needs more rhan mooest refotlllS TIlOugh they may sympalhi-ze wirh rhe agenda of some Marxists aud Third World wt1cers chey do [lO( llave rhe hisrockal certaimy of the former not rarely do they have the experience and perspective of ehe larter TItey view intenUishy(jnl1ill nrganiutions wirh a jaundiced eye as these are mainly the lll$tmmenfS of rhose who dominare rhe syuem This section COlllaios an wcoum nf three approaches tmt of the critical rheorlsti- of kmintsc wrirshy[1185 ulld pose~mooernismlt
Cri(~1 herJrY The approach of critical theory 10 JnrematlonaJ o(ganizatiooll iSi determtoed by their wider world-view which in itsclf is explaiiexclwd by tbeir llame One of the leading exponents Roben Cox said [har ie is cririca1 in cne Jensc rha h srands apan 100m che prevailiog order of rhe wOlld and asks how tb$t oroer came iexcllPouc Ir does nor r-ake existing irucimtioM lIl1KI JIQwer relaclons rOl granred bu c311s them iacutemo queuion Ir 1S diexclrlaquoced ro rhe social itnd JIQiirshyical complex as a wItole rarhet (hall he stparate pirtt IUthet than subdiide and Imic an examination of a problem it looks al the wger pkturc of whkh rhe problem is jwt oue part and trio rO wJdeThwod the processeS uf change ill which botIt pans ulld whole ure involved laquo(ox 1993 277~S)
Ai a thoory cridQiIacute theory rejeen tbe daims of posicivism of an external Nulity and to be mue-free ror critkal rheorIacutests koowledge ti nor moraUy IleUc1ll1 ic is more che result of the social background of tbose Wt hold ir Given this ctitkal tbeory alJows foc a normarive choice in favoU of a social ancl iexclJlieiexcl(ld order diflerent f(cm rhe prevruHng arder bur it limiu the ruuse 01 chotce ti a1remative orders which are feasibJe mmsformations ofme cxvaing worJd h musr rejEC[ improbable alternadVe8 ju~t as ir rejecrs rhe pcrmanctlly nr lhe exiscing order (Cox 19 90)
Cridcal rheory differs lrom Marxist upproElchcs beCElUS( of iu tejection nf any daim to hold the objenive tru[h and betause or it~ avoidance of (he pmslllt ol il utopia Neverrhe1ess [heir analysis of incernarional relarln1l$ is one tbu hEls u numher of similariuumles wich the Marxisc pcrspecdve It regurds rhl tlistlng suucrures of world polirics as beiug oppressie not
- _ __ _-
lean because of rhe dominance of (he capitalism of che Unired StElte~ For many che USA is seco as a hegemonic power the prevailing urder - in re[ms rbar reReet he wrirings of the Itallan Marxisc writer Amonio Gramscl (1891-1932) Gramsd advanced the nodon of ln hisrori(middot bloc which in itself refilaquors che $Ocial reladons oE ptoducdoo The dominanr dass in a counrty - 01 indeed aoy social grouping - mlinrains cohesion and idenciry withio [he bloc [hrough the ptopagacion of a COIDmOfl culturegt A new bloc can be formelt when a subordinate dau can euablish tU hegeshymony over orher subotdioate gtOllpS (Cox 1993 56--7) The IDove rowuds hegemony comeS with the piexclt$ting fmm che spediacutek inrercsrs ofa gronp Ol
dass tO rhe building uf inrimdons aOO elaoorarion uf ideologies (Cox 1993 57-8) It Loiexcl rhat ptOCe$S thar embeds the incemu of the dominanc dan in an imttmrional form thae [w an appeal widet [ban that dan ine1f It the-refole repreSoems mote tlmn jUSt (he drunJnaoce oE one state ovec anocher bllt implies a cemufi acceptante of the tules arJd institutions purouized by [he hegemonic JIQwer Jo other woros it is all order wbicb most Olher Sta[e-~ (01 at 1enst those within reath of die hegernouy) couId find compatible- wirh their iexclmetem (Cox 1993 6t) h aJso involves noe just inttt-staee rueivirle5 bur rhose oiacute tlvilliOCiety (oon-Stllte socieM instishycudons) ebereby encoumging Hnks between social dus$ts iexcln the connules covered by ebe hegemony
What does Cox llave to uy about ioccmational Otgsniuciexclons 1bey Ilre scen in he oontext ofme wiacuteoo unaemanduuml18 of itnernational reUacuteltions mentloned iexcliexclhove He is direcr 000t mem Ooc mechanisru chrough wruch the universal norms of a wodd hegemony are expttssed js the interoatiooal organisation (Cox 1993 62) Why is chis so Cox U993 62) gives five teIlSons
bull They e-mbody rules cOae help (be- apwlSion of a hegemonic wodd iexclrder These insdwrians reflcct the intererts ()( the dominam social anil economic force- buc a1low a cettain amOunt oC adjusrment ro accommodare other subordinared interests TIms the USA WllS preplltoo ro mm conccssions to
bciI18 in Lhe EU srares and Japan ro rhe Wotld Trade Otganizatimt They a[e prooucrs of that order Though [he insrimrions and rules Ilce
nurITlllUy initiared by the hegemook power ir takes cate ro involve aOO comule a numbe-r of second-ronk stares and gaio theit supporc he Wotld Bank and Inte[nacional Mooetaty Fund were very much pan of [he world order thar emerged afrer [he Second World Wat and which was dominared by rhe Uoiced Stlres
They ltgidmi7e i[s nOlms by providing guidance for SllIteS and by legitshyimiuacuteulS cerraIacuten IlCdviries Ilr me narional leveL he OBCD afie rhe inrerruuiooal financia) irntuumluriom lave spread an acceptante of mllrket coodirions and sHict mOllerary iexclJlides
They co-opr elites from pelipheral counrrie Ihlented sraH commg 110m the Thiacuterd Wocld are expected tO dCCept he scriexclpt wcittttt by the domishynam power Bouuos Bourros-Ghati as Secteury General uf the Unired
166 Jiexclljiexclr1giexcl Qr1 ifJfCflrttuacutemal IWgaizati(ifJJ
Nadons stroyed too amp~r ftOm the gtip of Washinston and his second term was VCtoM by rhe USA His sucecssor Kofi Annan will no doubt undentand what 1$ n-quired of him He brings the mncerns of orhe states ro che UN bUf nor in a way thu threatt1l$ the USA
bull They absorb counter-hegemonic ideas Ideaiexcl $uch as 1iustainable dlYClop_ ment tukl even debr foTgiwness are taken 00 board by the intetnatwnal finarnial institlltion$ blu are trandirmel into pulido rhat swt them
Wh~t is ro be done Cox thinks thar the pfQblem of changiog dw world orUer 1iMuld be shlfred back from intern~tional insritutions tO niexcllriacuteooal $OIacuteishyeties where the sodo-political b~se for a new historie bloc mighr be ereated (Cox 1993 64) FaiJing the creadon of a new historie bloc of the new working cla$s and rural and urb~o marginal groups there might be tnmdorshymadon oC the curtent monopoly-libcral hegemony by adjusting to rhe demanJs oiacute local ello$ for polides 5uch as natlonaHution Cox 199~ 65) He aw advocates te-regulation of erooomies and a re-wmpositjon of civil sodery Internatiotla lnstlcutions induding organiutions can berome eontact puint1i fOr new $OCia[ furtt (Cox 1994 (11)
Critica throrJm $uch as Cox oifee a refreshing exposidon oiacute che posidofl oC imernatiooal ofganizatioos in a wocld where the main revolutionary powe~ have either collapsed (rhe Soviet Union) or se(tled into a cautious ronservatirun (China) Ir provlde~ a sceptical arf realisric world~view without acreptins tbe inevuumlahility ni a illture domlnared by mooopoly eapi~ ujsm sud the Utlired States J-Iowevtr its appllcariexclon to intemationa1 organhatJons 11 StImewha( timited tQ the maln global jnsdm(jons and th financial and economlc orgmiutions Ir has 1m (O say aboue regional nrgashynjudon Uf abour N(JUacutes Furthermore iu alternarive fu(ure testS on ourcoroes thu are far froro certain RevnJutlons in the Thied World are roore likely to be- irupired by nadondi$m oc by IsJaroic fllndamentaHfl OCalaquoely [he solid ooses for new historie blocs
Fwinuumll aNml4cbts
Feminist perspcctives 0f1 inttmatlonal rtlatioos llave in common wirh the erit~ ical rheocillu a rejclaquoion of (he dominance in rhe $Ilbjecr of the rcnHst and rdOrmisrs Although fuminist writen cover a wide 5laquolpe the gencral basis oiacute their aqurnent 1S har in interwnional relatioM ru in most politkal aud tcooomk acdvity women are diexclSJtdvantagt~l Alchoogh they own ahour 1 pet tCfH oC the worlJs lfOpeny and tiexcliexclxe heme 10 peiacute ceoc ofincome they perfurm 60 per eenr of working houn and provide 80 per eent of nfusets (petetsen and Runyan 1993 6) This is a derDOnstrndon of gender inequalitie~ the sodalJy learned behavior and expecratioos thar distioguish berween maKuliniry and femininity (Petetsen and Runpn 1993 5) Feminist aprroaches ofren So bejond the $tati~tks and examine (he mind~se[ of those engaged in the pmctice of intemadonal rdations whiexclch (bey ampee as geodered In other woros che world
Writingc Off inlmhJliofMl vrgntiZdlMm 167
illeen in a mlLlndine way thar kvrntB (he posjtiOll o( mnles in rhe hitgtranhy and devlllues the c041trihution of WQmeO (Sylvestet 1994) War in pattKular is gendered in a way chat keeps wornen and metl from qUtstioniog the essentiat pmpose and he neglltive effects of war militarization ~nd viQleme on their awn and orhers livts (Petetsen and Ruoyan J993 9 t)
What of wminist view$ uf imernationaJ organizationsr Ir IS not possible ro presem a rollf(tive vjew that eneomp3$~e~ rhe works of radicaJ femjnisu and ny iexclihetal teminists (rutead the work of one author Sandra Whitworth (1997) will be used as me pily$ rornt attrntion ro inrernarlonal organizations Aamper inrroductions ro feminilfr theory and internacional frIamiddot tiom and gendet and internacional relatlons Whirworrh examines geodet and imernational organilions She screpts Coxs vjew oiacute inrernational orgashynjzarions [har they retleltr (he dominant powet relations in che intetnational system and rhae internaliomd otgaoiution h che procelt of imcitntionaJshyiling and regulating conOice - eicher rhat which may IIrise among siexclates o( char which has iu (onU io transnationaI society (Cox 1980 375) TIte way duu pcople orgaoire themelve$ wirhin international iostirurjons reflects a variety of power relations ineludi~ of rollJSe gendec relatiull3 (Whitworth 1997 74) lbe triad of jnstirutions ideas and material rQudi~ tioru help ro hxare uSllmptiolls aboue geoocr withiu jntetmltional rewtioos Whitworth uses thesr tn examine lhe uooerstandillg oiacuteScndec io an INGO the Internadonal PlarUled ParenthooJ Federatlou (JPPF) and an intergnvemmental organilJ1rion (albcir one wlrh some oOl1-governmentJ)J represemation) the InrernatlonaL lab01lrOtganiution (no)
Whirworths studies show rhar thr IPPF tended ro accept the deshyemphasizlng oi the gendered oamfr of reproducdoo and (f) ignore rhe imponaoce ofbirth comcol foc womens reproductive freroom Instead in an effort tu popularize birth rontrol srrel~ WWl placoo on paremhooJ rather than iexclust the womans choice However IPPF poUcy beeiexcllme more radirnl in (he 19905- with Hnks beirtg made berween II1M control alld womeos ~)tu~ ality (WbJtworth 1997 ch 4 pmim)
The RO eoucerned itself with WQmen as workern It cnnsidercd that tbey oeeded spec-ial atrention and promoted ptoteCtlvt legiexcl~lacion This reiexcln~ forced me view (har [he male worxer Wall the norm with women workers nor deserving the same rights remunfration lOO mndirions Latterly however the JLO ha~ reflectoo views rhat prodaim wornens elt)ualily in rhe workforce and has sunoo tuacute assess the importanee of policies on womens role in rhe workplace as weU as in sodery more wjdely (Whlrwnrth J997 ch 5 panm) Whitworth comes [O the eondusion rhu iexclln iexcllnaLyiexcli~ of gernler in rbe IPPF and no shows how tbese rdiexcliexcldonsbips llnd definirions ni what it is to be a womltn oc man are structuted relationsrups3nd hlsrQciudly hve been scrurtured tu disadvantage women (ibid 15n
lo eommon with the critkal meorists Whitworth has useQ au examinamiddot doo of two intetnational organixations (O deroonstrate a puinr about imerflational relatiexclon~ indeed sodal rctatrol1s mOte widely The poinr is
I1
I
middot - ~-_ --___ aOOuc powec and iu use not (O balance oue SCdre ligaiOSf anorher but fm une gooup ro domiaare morher Jn chis case it 1$ ma the dominution of one dass me m culcnre over $ofU)(her (though Whirworrh recognizes those reLationshyships ti wcll) but of roen over women The crititUl uudy oiacute (wo jnceraational mganirations dealing with iSSlle5 recoSniud ti beiiexclg oiacute impocshycanee or WOfficn suggesu rha( tltOO simihu research on orher internacional organizadons could proJuce interening aOO uwfuiexcl resulrs
Pllit~ism
Thc posc-moderruacutesr $opprooch lO intetaarional rcllldon is one tlur bas (ome ro che fote Jn che perlod sinee lite end of rhe Cold War Jr is based on $o widcr imellectual viewpoim insrigated by l1rench iorcUtcruals of the 196()s gener~ ation _ Bllrrhes Derrida FouclIul and Lyorard - and whkh suggested rhat the modero era liad becn overome 11 fejeas mera-nattatives gnlud accounv- of hi5tory aoa iacuteNIacuteler subjecu as having no independem rubstance Scientifk btliefs induding [hose oiacute rhe $)(ial scJcllces are rooted in (lllxure polill(os arul mores oJ a wciery and are lherekJre subjective As rhere is 00
oblcctive reality cmpirical daims bave fl() spccial sunding in rhe rralms of koowledge IndeeJ ir i$ power aod knowledge are intimatel) incerwirud Posr-moJernism Hllnds against rhe belief of rbe modero pcfiod which LI seco as beginning wiacuterh rhe enlightenmcm of mid-eightcenth cenrufy Europe and AmeriCll Ir rheldore rejcn~ rhe COMCpr$ oC rationalirl and progrcss aSSuacutedared wi(h [he enlighrenment and [he moocrn age Thc uniry of IOOnkind iexclirW iexcldells such liS rhe untveIsWiI) of human aacuteghrs are rejcuoo lnsceadlocal aetion in smallgroups 15 advuacuteClmd
Post-modetnist ideas have affected tite srOOy of inremruionaJ rdarions as (bey have ocher social scienccs Posr-modern imeraarional relariops theoriscs havc ustd heir view$ 00 objecuumlviry (o exiexcltmine che rrmhs of international relatiom en see how rhe concepts iexclind knowledge-dairm (bar dominare the Jisdpline in faer are highiy conringenr on spccific power relatiom (Smith 1997 181) Post-modemisrs bave lltfa(red me mcta-narratives of the reelshy1m and reformlsu aHke The objectiacutevemiddot aaallses of the realim Ilnd neo-realisu are setn as being deJl(nclent on the subjective standpojnts of cheif mainly Amen(an and Europeau authors Ijcharcl amphiel (1986 258) daimed he works o[ Kenneth Waler men the leading neo-realillt trrat the glven ordcr a rhe natural nrder Jjmirs rarheE (lian 1XpawU political discllUtse negales oc rriviuliliS the signifinnce uf variely urOiS time and plue Whar emerges ii an ideology tllar anridpatcs iegirimires ancl onents a totalitarian projen 01 global ptoponioo~ che rattoualiaciuacuten of global poHcics iexclbe reformius are likcwise tainted Md have Ji mhr$lren belief in pmgress The posc-modernl$rs poinr m rh Helocausr as rhe heighr oiacute mooemism a rombimiddot Halioe of science dnd polidcal otganizillnon Il was SCruTely progreso
Given an antifllthy mwards rhe MlVe[iacute~ign srae borh as a centre of powet ll1ld as a crearioll Jiten imbutol wlth a wncepltliexcl uf progress pest~miexclJdetniexclsls
wHungJ mi Im~iexcliexclrun wgltiIRrzuJlU7iJ 1J7
can lOUcdy be expcctcd to vIacuteew intergovernmencal organiUlrions wirh sympilthy Tbe prefetted iacuteonu of internacional organizations when mentioned are those thiexcltt ltlj~plal differemes snd dlvenity in global pelitlcil duu are reginnaUy based or rhar reflec irKlividual actlOn Tndecd ir SeeIJS
rbat Michel Fomawt was involved with an alliance oiacute twO INGOs (Miquestdecin du Monde and Tertl-s do Hommes) in proresting agaiust internadonal iH~shydon over rhe boat people who flcd Vietnam in tite lare 1970s and ear1y 19S(k He is gU()[ed 11$ sayillg tbar Amnelltl Internnrlonal Teueiexcl dts Hommes Mfiiecin du Monde lHt inirilltives whiacutech have created a nrw righr rile dAht of privare individuss ro iexclntervene in [he otder of polino and internatioont snateg(eiexcl (dred in CampheH 1998 516)
Aootber researcher has exnmined ~he Europcan Communities Ilr che point wben Jr was mnslorming intO me European Unioo and askOO whether ir was a pootmodew ConJigUflHton (Nstrgaard 1994) Hi condusions wcre mar ir was gualiwiveJy a new organizarion oC human calJecrlvJties which mighr U$hec the coming of post-moderniry (Ntgttgnatd 1994 27j) The basis fO[ [bis judgemem was rhat me Ee did nO approximate anl modero form of piexcliexcl1idUll Ofpnizarion it did OOt commatld che means oiacute violence its au[hotity derives noc from die people and ir appeared to be a fCgJoo trying ro pOrecr itiexcliexclelf againsr globaliacutezadun iacuteN0rgaaro 1994 274--5) Ir remllins ro be sren whether [he BU tJf [he twenry-first cenrury wHl fu1fi1 rhtgtse hopes Ot wiU stllrr ro teVen
to a more scate-like being Generall) dIe cririolapproaches ro interruHiorud relarious hiexclJve provided
1lOOIe innovatIacuteve insigllls iexclnro rhe study uf imemarional orgsnizations The crtrical theorists llave becn sh3rpest in rheir unde[$(iexcltnding nf internarional ofgiexclt1lizacious as servsnrs of a dominiexcliexclIf power configuracion thoogh the) lave pemaps Umieed cbelr scope wllen viewing internacional organizadons Feminis[ wJiters ruave given Vltike to whac i5 after aH tbe scmi-sileut majoric) in rhe world and Ilre ouly srarting in qnest10niug the male dOmimiddot nance nuacutet iexclusr of the nmning of IGOs huc aloo of theic agenda Tite post-modemisrs are iMlSr concerned oiacute he (bree 8rOUp5 with inretnationlll organiucioru as such bllr rIacuteleic intellecrual approach is the ffiOSt tadkal aud can lelld tuuml a fnon of nihilism
GltJbaliacutesf lIiu
A gIobalisr perspective does oor viacuteew world poliacutetica as being predomishynandl arout iotergovernmemal relatlnn~ Ili would realisu or illbour inrentare aruI imersocietal rdations as a number uf reformisu llliexclll consider lnsteaacuted it cakes a more holisdc view Problems are (cmfronred ac Ji global level wlurions have tO be sou8ht here as weil This iexcls not ro neglcct (he 10tal Ol rhe ~tlte level ir is more J recognilion of the limiutshydoos of acdviuumles rhere The world-vicw like rhe reformists places empllasu on whal unIacutetes people Ilnd has lirde time for lhe demaoos of power pouumlics aad stare-cemrir orglLuiwrjollS Ir goe~ fllrther by nor
1 V WNimgJ lJ7f tIfernattmiexcliexclJ 11fK4111141tOnJ
liminog in view eirhec ro pans of che world or ro rellltions berweeo particuJar poliric~ lr ioded jlLSr m the economic social and poJitical demaods of mankind Paradoxically ir can be seen as IIn approach rhe very OppoSllC of the fimctionalist wirb whom tbere 5 much io common In nmtrast lO rhe fnnctionaHst (or neo-fllnctiooalisr or intetclependeuce srhuul) and ccrrainly in contrast ro rhe powet politks aOO MaOIacuteIt writers (be whole world approach places emphasis not 00 the discrere r~uiexclreshymems of groups SClteiexcl or individulI1s bm 00 tbe wel1-bciog of the tCOsystem in which rhf5f funnioll cbe planet Eanh The conccen of chis apptoach which is rcflccted il] in ttcumeUr of illternational urganizatiom is for the survival of lhe plunet for its effident funccioning in its widest SeILie aud fot che survival oiacute rhe myriad oiacute speoacutees - ollly one of which is homo sapiens - tbat inhabh me globe
Sinle tbe 196Os a number of wtiters on imernational affairs have expounded 00 tbis view and llave cOl1l~uendy ronsideted the implicadons for intemational organizacions Jobfl Button in bis World Society ronsldeted iflmstatt relations to be onIy a pan of wodd poli[iacutea and wrore
lf we employ rhe term world rociety imiexclreui of internanofla relarions iIacute we apptoo(h OUt study in this global way insread of the more tradi~ lonal nattonal way we will end to have a wider focos ro ask quesrions rhat are moee fundlmenral aOO imponant lO civilization and be ahle ro assess bettet me relevance of om own national bduviour ro be wider worW envifonment
(Button 1972 21)
Rkhacd Stetling posed the problem more spedfically
Nuclear esCllatiofl the popullltion explosion the pollmiofl of tbe envishyronmcnt the communkations rtvolurion rbe world~wide concentNdon of wC1llch and world~wide expansiofl of pltlvcrty are iexcliexcl11 essemially global and not 1laquo al pbellomena They have given rise jn tutn ro eartbshyspamuacutellg and revolutionary demands ror mass education rnass hesltb malts welfure and maltgts participation in che dccisions affecting roans fare
(Srerling 1974 322)
This wodd-view of rhe problems of the s)Jaceamphip EQlth begged fur global oolutlofl$ It suggcsred iexclhu not onIy iJ the system of sovereign stares as yer unable oc unwiHing to COme to grips with the above-menuontd prohlelUS but that a network of llllergoVCtn1lental organiutlom bGsed 00 me rights of statc wVfretgnt will ~lso be hammllng Globtl problems needed global solutlons based on institutinos rhat can (ake a global petsplaquoshytive Thus Sterling considetecl thllt it ~ tlOt unreasooable (O amidpate tme tbe member stares will be moved ro considft equippifllil the Unitw Nttous witb mote crunprebensive powen 1lt global pressUfes build 0974 323)
~h~ laquoo ~gt~ _- -gt bullbull (_bullbullbull __ - bullbull
A more compeluumlng cdH wus lAltiexclued by Barban Ward and Rene Dubas in their book prepared for [he UN Gmference of ehe Humafl EnVJroJlmenl 01lly UIIt EaFlh The c~ altJ Mdilllt1JatfCe (JI d Sflall Pta~t (972) 111ey stremsed the ufliry of tbe Eanh Jnd in eovironment and the )Jroblems in(ed by Jts iohabitants emntially thost oudined by SterJiog The ~uthoflgt poillted OUt rhat rhF envitonmenral qmosrion had by 1972 already had 50me impaltl on guvernments and im(rnarional organl1Jtion but the effior was somewhat ltInJOrdinated and unfocuseL In (hree particular aren - tbe global atmosphere rhe oceaml the worlds weather sysrellU - tbt-y saw [bl jmmediate neOO for (OmInOn poliey und co-ocdinared actiollS where vcerenshysions to national sovercigmy have no relevance ro ptrreived problems Bu rbefe was a need to go furrher and denl wirh other global problems di5Case srarvation iHitmcy unemployrnem ovcfllwding rntetnational poliCJcs wece at the 5tage reachOO wlrhin rhe devdoping s[ate~ of the ninettTtb (entury Elche they wiU move O to a wmmIlJlity bL~ro UiexclXIIl a more systematic sharin8 of weaJtb Ot tbey wiH break down in revoh and anareby (Wacd and Dubos 1972 295- -6) They Looked forward ro a sense of gLobal rommuniry 00seJ on he bope vf Irotecdon (from war aOO disaster) and the hope of enhancemenr (ecologic$1 as well as economid The ptlKtic~ and insrirutlofiS with whkh we are familiar inide our domestk sociecies would become suitably modlfied che basis of planetary oroer (Ward aOO Dubos 1972 297-8) This woold indude non~violent settlement of disputes witb legal arbirration ~nd polioacuteng ptocedures on an international basis jr would mea the Hansfer uf resoucces from rkh ro peor Ilnd inerCllSlaquo co-operaeion in arealt 5uch as health and edUcatIO farming uroon planning aud )JOlJution control As [befe halt been a shift of loyalty rom taroliy to dan from dan to tlation and from nation to fedctation there Wampll
hope clajmoo Wl1fd and Dubo$ for an ultimare lnyalty tuacute OUt single beau~ tifulllud vulnerable Planet Eanh (Ward and Dubas 1972 298)
Whilst the institutiona fmmework and organizational stfllCtuteS remain of necenity -ague in Oltl OM EaFtA iacutet is del( rhat the authors Wfre atming 11( a tlttwork oiacute world-wide fflnctionaUy hased organlzatiofll (both lOOs and JNGOs) char couId take on much of the work )JfCsendy done by governshymems o( rather whkh ougbt [O be dont by governmems UacuteJter writing-s have attempted (O deal wjth thc policy impliration$ of delllJng with )JrobshyJems globdly sroos (986) has poiacutenred en what 1w already been achieved in gtobal problem solving l1nd ha~ soughr ro buHd on rhis His critio have prunted out tha( what has already becn undertiacutelken has bren done more along rradicional Jntergovernmentallines (Donnelly 1990 121-30) Orbe writen have tied rubievemen[ in addressiacuteng [he global agenda more to renewed rutiviry in the UN (Rochester 1990 141-54) or to greater grass~ roots aud INOO acriviSffi Wget 1990 155-~8) Either way globaJj~m offeacuters a distinct W1ly of rackling the worlds ptublem~ It 1$ u ViIOIl thar sttesiexcles uniey and common (am( ntthet than disasreemem and roofrontashytion ir (ould thereIacuteore (oresce disputes being sruved inlernationally vety
much in (he way tbar chey are pre~ndy solvcd within tunny MtiOO iexclrares by more ro arbitratwn and Jaw and by entorcemenf ir neteS$il1) In this rhey have muh in COIDfllOfi wirh tire imerrnuiona lawyers iacuteUld idenlist writer of me eady (wenuacuteeh eemury mentioned at the beginning of tbu chaptet The globalisn are inspirecl jn rheir thinking more by ten Ot lt nudeal holocatlsr and by environmenml breakdown tnan by rhe duumleet elrpeshytieme uf wa dlllf aiacutefected rhe wricings of Woolf ol Ikierly
TIacutete globalisl appro~(h is opert ro the criticism of bcing roo idealistk jn a cynical world and lOO iIDpracrical in in uacutelstitutional sU8scsrioll5 Bur the di$mi$Slil oC rh~ words as globaloney cKleS HOt lid lite wctld oC che probw lems which hey have 50 effectively publiacutedzed They lutve uied to add anorIte dimensioacuten ro whar is possibte by showlng thar ie is nOCeSSiexcllty fOl rhe iexclurviwl of che planee
Tlle radical approach to the smdy oC iOternational orgllnizarions reflocu worIdmiddotvitws that normaUy lO beyond -dmse Jominated by rhe ltctivities of iexcltatcs or of LIte organizltuumlnns chemselves There is a sceprical view of whut is happeoing al soy one uacuteme in imernarional celarions and of he abilicy of mOfe cradicional wcifecs on imernafional cdarions ro explain let aJone llOderstand what is happeoing Ir is the feeling rhar approaches such ll1 (he MaNisr tlwt of rhe ideal theorisrs and some of rhe globuli~rs ur~ coming cber (O uodemaoding humanicys wider dilemmas rhar makes rhero so amactive They ar~ less Iikdy co apply rhemselves to rhe defais rutd wnrk~ ings oiacute p$cdcular imernatinnaJ organizations but neverrheless providt iotriguiog insighrs 00 [his phenomenoo by seeing rhem rhrollgh mol panoprk phHosophical lenses
SUMMARY
The rhree flIajor $chuols dealr wich io chis chaprer - the tcatiacuten the reformisrs iacutei1d che radical$ and rhe variarions (bey contain did not and do tlOf exJn iexcln a hiSforlcaj vacnum lde-as Wele foffilulared wirhio lhe COnten oiacute panicular sodedcs uoo in response ltO pUticular problems rbe communl (adom reYoludon of fhe nineteemb century the Finr World Wlli rhe rise of Nui Germany the spreading of nudeu weapons the deve1opmeof of plthitshy
$econd Workl War Europe fbe pnxeues of decoloniwion and deacuteteme rhe end oiacute the Cold War and rhe advaoce oiacute che inCormatton revolution In sorne CilSC$ the views oiacute rhose wdtings on inttmiddotrnational ocganUatlOHS have liad un efiecr on evenrs rhemelves pirlKulatly 00 rbe actitudes oC govetnrnents mwards tnternatiorW orgdflixauons AIl tXample is the work oC LecnarJ Woolf woose suggesnons Ctmceming a world organizatloo conttibuted lO fhe detailed preparnion oC the Lague oC Nations by me British goveltr mene Likewise Hans Morgeruhau and EK Can provided seimuli fot infiiexclrmoo US and Btirish governmcllul rhinking abom inrerruuional rela~ tiom iexclrom the 194Ck onwards In mher cases rhe general writings cJ persons lgtuch as Marx Leoin Mao Tse-tung and che dependencia school have affecred
rhe poJirk1ll dimare wirhin which govemmcncs conduce rheJe poUcy iucluding thar wwards jnternaclorull otgauj~atjon$
Orber ruCfOf$ aplft froro their historial cuntexc Iuve affencd the views of rhe schunl$ rncntioned They have differint backgtounJs io cheit ideruogy (Wesrero commllniSf Third World radical environmenralisr) and in theit level of $nalysis of inrernarional rebtions (stare Centuacutec inretesr aoo rramna~ dona groups cLitraquo dominanr global) This a(icca the typC oC inrernatiacuteonal organizariacuteon dominam io their studies (IGOs INCo) auJ thcic 8eograph~ kai $rea of interest (the Nonh Adandc Europe ThinJ WodJ Ot global)
TIte range of wcitings about intetnational organizarions has ull dte whole teflecfeJ wiJec llooersundings of imetoational ceJarions and wuumltld polidcs These io rhernselves have fed 00 tbe gtVidc iacutellccUecmal fcnnent and on developrnenrs in world affiuacuters Viewl about iacutellteftlational ocgsnizatJoos wiU continue ro take accOlnt of the ince1leeruaJ debate ill the studjes oiacute polishydes internacional re1atioO$ philosophy ecooomics imematluacutellal uw sociology histoty and geogrilphy They will also reflecto among other ampcton che stntcegk balance in tbe world [he relafIacuteve power of tiJe United Stares aod oroer nares me scate of wotld markers [be pto-ess uf Euwpeiexcliexcln tlllegrashytion che relacive positloo of the developing warIdgt iexclbe levd of cootlicc througbolc the world fhe -ratC of dte environfneot and the ahility oiacute huge StatCS to wiacutethswnd cenrrifttgal force Tbe way tIacuteult imematiornal organiuiexclshydons ret1ect tbese developrnents and tIacuteleir t1Ipability lO deal wich some of them will provide (he tllW fiWifcrial foc funue smdies
142 WtitingJ on mtertlatilJtJA orgamZ41iom
alJ maneo relating ro the romine regularion of rhe commOTI ~et the High Authority is independent of government (HIlaS 195R 55-gt He al50 voiced rhe opinion rhu Supranadonaliry in snueturnl ferms tberefure means the exisreuce of govemmental a~lthorirjes dlloer tuacute Ihe archetype of fdeNrhm rhan any past inrernati(mal organizar ion buc not yet ideutiacutecal Wlth it Oiaas 1)158 59) However this $upnmttionaity in pNctice has deve10ped into a hybrid in which neither the federal no the intergovernshymentai reooency has deady triumphed a-bas 19511 527) Ir is aloo denr lbat the original Coo1 and Sreel Communicy was mueh mote functional~ Wlcrnl than the lateacutet Economic (ommunicy and untiacutel the mid~19805 the unified aud expanded Communuumly romw to play Jown the elemenU o( supranatlonality iu tavour of 1ts Jiacuteltergovemmenul insutution rhe Conndl u( MiuiMm This aud othet dtVe1opmems led Haas to lcconsidcr his origshyinal view of Community inrtitutioos
In the 1968 pre3ce ro Tuacute Uniting of Ellropt (which was wIacutetten in 1958) Haas alrtady identified factors that had dllngro rhe nattlc of me European Communiries experimem in che previous ten yeacs He observed tlur during this period vario~ spiU-OVet aOO adaptive ptcKeues s(ill had nO( resulted in la pulitically united Encope and in an~werjiexclg the question what went wtlJug he outliued fuur considetdtions Fitst (he new funaiurutlJsu had filiJed w di$tinguisb between background variahle cOlditioos prevamng at rhe time when cbe Comrnnnity WU$ csnbJished and new upiratiuns and expectations that had develnped Jhe esntbliacuteshment thar had ron counrer ro the Community spitit Second the imptet o( niexcltlonaUsm had becn undereshytimawl Third Eactors within me Commuruty had becn nressed ro he dccrimenr of those coming from the outside world PintUacutely me massive transCormation oE Western socie[y raking place indepeudent o( EutoptHl integratiacuteon aIso hacl been underestimaretl (HIlaS 1968 xiv--xv)
Haass definidon of imegralion alsu bccame wmewhar more negative I1lOre stlilte-centric than bis original 195R emlhasis un nationaJ llt(on shifting their loyaJties expecratiacute(ms and poJitical activities toward a new centre By 1970 Haas considered the study ofregionallntlgrurion to be concerned
wich explaining how aud why sUtes eease to be whoUy $overeign how ~md why they volunucily mingle metgt and mix with rhcir neighbours $O as to lose che facruru attributes of sovereignty while acyuiring ncw techniqucs me resolving conilirt between themselvell
(Haa~ 1970 610)
By 1975 Haas eonsidcred regional integmtion theoty oiJsolete in Wesrern Eurupe and obsolescenr - though still urerol _ in tite teSt o( the worId (Haas 1975 l) By 1976 he had arded out n maioI reintetpuEation of uew-fuuctlonaJist lhoory as it applied to rhe Ee The definahle outcome of integtation in Wenem Eutope was secn either in ttaditiorW federaHsc temu - a Wen Enrnpean (ederal state ereated out uf yenrs of fun~-tiexclonal
Writings M ifllernuJlfJmiexcl1 (JFfIiutian 143
rutivity whkh had lcd lO J trnmrer of poliduumlll acnvity away rom (he natlon ~tates tOwarJs a new srrunure - or ltlS the imtitutiooltlUdng uf some intermMiate iexcliexcltage such as rhe present status qno whcreby atlthonty is dimlbnrro unequally between several centres Wilh tire old nation states losing their previous Ituthoriey but with no new JiacutedeOl government in ptO$~ pect Whihr the original aspecrs of the EC - rhe cuuoms union aOO (he Common Agricultura Poliey _ have tllaquoorne entrenched the spillover inm orhe policy area~ had nor occurred by Ihe mid-1970s as che neo-furutiooa1ists liad ptedicred Also common polides liad becn Jevelopetl in differem o(8ashyIliratiuns - che OFCD the summit of indurmiatiooo counrrics the Group of Ten - tarher than within the liC lhe problem according lO Bus W1IS
rurhulerue whereby rhose iuvolved io polirirs haJ found rhemselves in a littting ofgreat social complexiry where rhe nnmber of atrorr is very large and each pursues a variety uf objectives whirh are murually incompatible lmt ucn is also unsure of che ultlde-ofamp between the objectjves He continued Tnis conditiQn imJgtlics the erosion o( such interorganizarional patteacutern~ oC comensus reciacuteprocity and no(mative tegularity as may havr CXlSted eadicrEveryrhiug is up fO( grallS (Hus 1976 179) HilaS sllggested thu iu the EC polioacuteeamp and (he institutioru devised ro lmpleshymeacuteut thero iacuteU~trnre rhe attempc ro deal with lhe turbulence nather tllan achieve regional politkal inteSradon (ibid 180 original emphasis)
A similar hiacuteft lttway fmm the earHer llSp1rauumlons iiexcliexcl ICen in rhe work~ Q( Lindberg aud Nye Lindbeg wlrose book 1he Pattirai DJMmict o EroJMn Ecrmomic IntegTatia (13) had fullowed on dosely from Hws work was hy 1966 showiog tbar moves wwaros inregration wirhin the Be (ooid cause Stress within (he system l1Jtfl inCftllq the barrien to fimher integration (lJnJberg 1966 254) Togcrher with lkheingold in 1970 he desctibcJ an EC wbich had noc deveJopeJ joro a federal structute haJ difereot ltvels of integrariacuteon fut different functions and was sdl susceptible tIJ UJsis lt was ao unprecedemed but curiousy amblguoos plurruistic syttem there seem tO be no satisfrutory modcls or ronceptli in che sociaJ scienee VQ(abulary to adequa[ely define ie (Lindberg and Scheingold 1970 306) In a anide Joseph Nye coruiacutedered thac Jespite rhese and otber revisioos the neo-Euncrional approodl srjlJ embodies 11 nurober of fault tbu re1lcct jrs origins in [he 1950s (Nye 1970 767) He proposed a nUml)(l OC changes scating rhe derendent variable lels ambiguoUlUumly adding more politiul ruwn reformufating rhe Hst oF integration condiuons and pethapli mOSf
significantly drOlping che ideas ufa single path fmm qWlsi~full(tiexclonallasks tuacute politica1 uuion by meamiexcl oF 5piUove( (Nye 1970 767 He conduded rha[ shnn oF dramadc chaugc the prospect9 (or common markets or microregiorud cennomie organiutions leading in rhe shon ron (of dendes) to fedewt1nn oc m1me sOtt oE polidcal union capable of tlU indept1Ldent dcferue and foreign paliey do not seem very high (Nye 1970 1129)
There hiexclas been a long jotJJney trom the functiorudisl-fecleral nope5 of Jean Monoet back jn 1950 but it has seen the evolution of nm only the
144 WitingJ on inlernafuacutemal ttrganizafifmJ
Communiry insrirurions and policies bur aIso neo-functionalist thinking The Iogic of inregrarion gave way ro coping wich rhe crises inseirutions mixing federalisc and intecgovernmental elemenrs were replaced by a Western Europe in which instirucional tidiness is best forgorten (Haas 1976 211) and the federal elemenrs seemed ac mosc dormam The hopes of che 1950s had been replaced by rhe uncerrainties of che 1970s and the early 19805
Wirh rhe launching in 1985 of rhe idea of creating a Single European Markec wuumlhin rhe EC by rhe end of 1992 che signing of rhe Single European Acr in 1986 (which exrended EC comperence aud changed irs inscitucional balance) and che sectlement of a uumber of Common Agriculcural Policy problems in February 1988 che Iogic of inregration seemed ro be revived
Wriring in 1990 Keohane and Hoffmann resrored and refined che neomiddot funcrionalisr norion of spillover advanced by Errut H9al They were sceprical char rhe rheory of spillover could explain the ECs irucirurional developments of che late 1980s buc saw it aCling posicively in orher ways for example rhrough che incenrives ro institutional change given byenlargeshymenc of EC membenhip in rhe early 19805 (Keohane and Hoffmann 1990 289-90) They saw che pcocess cominuing and barring Clrasrrophic excernal fucrors were moderately oprimisric abour rhe Communirys furure prospecrs (Keohane and Hoffmann 1990 296)
This view was raken up by Tranholm-Mikkelsen (991) and Holland (993) borh of whom saw che revival of rhe Communicy agenda in rhe Maasrrichr Trealy - wich irs blueprinr for a move ro economic and monetary union - as being a revival of the neo-functionalism Drher wrirers on European incegration at chis time adapted che basic notions of neoshyfunccionalism bU[ broughr in extra fucrors Majone (1994) agreed char che EU had seen an upgrading of common inreresn but placed an emphasis on public choice policy ro explain particular Ouccomes Marks et aJ (996) saw a much more complex relarionship berween che Communiry and domestic decision-making leve Though rhe srare was srill very important ir no 10nger monopolizes European level policy-making or rhe aggregarion of domesric interescs 0996 346) Insread rhey idenrified rhe growrh of mulrishyleve governance wirhin che EU
Indeed rhese developmenrs in neo-funcrionalisr wrirings on international organizarions poim up sorne of the criticism~ of che schooL Firsr despice rhe besr efforrs of Ibas Schmitter and Nye it remains a rheory overwhelmingly dominaroo by an inreresr in rhe EC and larer rhe European Union In 1964 Haas and Schmirrer rried to extend sorne of che lessons uf econumic union in Westeru Europe ru Larin America Drawing on Haass 1968 preface ro The Uniring of Europe rhey discerned nine variables four relared ro background condirions (similariey in power of memben rares of rransaction pluttllism in member seares complememing elices) rwo referring ro condirions ar rhe time of economic union (similarity of governmenral purpase powers of che ecunumic uniun) and rhree ro process coudi[ions (decision-making sryle
W[J U UWltU 15
rransacrions rate rhe adaptabiliry of governmenrs) (Haas aIld Schmitcer 1964 711-19) They looked ar rhe chances of policicizarion chat is the possibilicy chat lhe acmrs seek m resolve rheir problems so as ro upgrade common inrerests and in rhe process delegare more amhoricy m che centre (Haas aIld Schmitcer 1964 707) Nye in his article Comparing Common Markecs (1970) rried ro modify che Europo-cemric narure of the neo~ funccionalis[ approach and drew on a wide range of cases of economic imegracion Larin America Cenrral America rhe Caribbean Eastern Europe and East Africa as weH as EFTA and che EC He concluded [har
The original neo-funcrionalist model was close m irs ongms in the straregies of European inregrationisrs in che 1950s and thru mighc be seen as a rempting and misleading guide for policy in orher aceas The revised neo-functionalist model is not somethiug ro be imiraced bU is simply a rool fur making comparisons We wanr ro know whac differshyence ir makes if a group of seates form a common market
(Nye 1970 830)
Though by rhe end of che 1980s rhere were few places ro be found outside Europe thac were forming common markets rhe formacion of he Norrh American Free Trade Atea (NAFTA) and rhe renewal of economic cooperarion in Latin America and Sourh-Basc Asia during rhe 1990s provided different models from the more poliricized EU These seemed ro challenge some of the basic assumptions of rhe neo-funcrionalistS aIld perhaps give some weighc ro Nyes scepcicism ciced above
Second i[ is clear chac che neo--funccionalisrs have had trouble wirh che insticudonal formacs They have rerreaced from being functional federalist almose back co Micranys eclecric approach rowards institudons They have also accepced [he durability of rhe nadon state in resisring che logic of inreshygration and have soughr compromise formulas which at leasr continued ro place emphasis on non-srare accivicies even if insticutions above che stare (supranarional) were seen to be susceptible to stare inrerference
A chird Cliricism concerns the gtOH of non-srare acrors favoured by rhe neo-functionalists They have consraudy emphasized [he imporrance of polirical acrivisrs the elites of inrerest groups and rechnocrats This may have parrially blinded chem ro a weakness in rhe ECEU rhar could have affecced neo-functionalisms earUer proguuscicarions from being fulfilled its insticurions cannoc draw on rhe day-ro-day polirical resources available tO the narional policical acrors This has led tO a gap mosr noriceable in che newer members berween perceprions of che EU by the represemarional elice and rhose of rhe ordinary vorer or consumer Whilsc some earlier srudies of opinion in the EC did inelude opinion pons rhese ofren dealt wirh easy questions (showing ones EuropeaIl idenriry) 01 soft options (whether rhere should be say a more acrive EC industrial policy) With the firH expansion of rhe EC in 1973 and rhe first major oil price iucrCdse
146 Writi~5 cm lI1lMfatleuromal orgfll1iutl1ltl
whi(h coinoacutedemally happenoo a yeat liexclater Euttiexclpean voren werc faeed increasingly wirh mu(h harder options inflation versus employment tlnde union righu againsr consumer inrerests The poISibllity was thar bcing a good European might mean aHowiog sorne other COUlltry5 ruuionals to explott ones fish or oH The crearion oiacute a Single Enropean Marker within the Ee by the end of [992 and rhe move rowards a single curteney from 1999 by eleven theo (wdve of rhe HU member litares bmught he activi~ ties of the VOlon do~er lO the wodd of tite coosnmer or worker However chis seem iexclf anything to have iocreased rhe alienariacuteon of voten from rhe institntions aM acrivilies of rhe EU The 2000 election for rne Europeao Parliamenr shnwed the lowest tnroour yer in sllfh direct elections ano Enrobarometer opini()fi poUs have demonstrnred a msative trend in public opinion on che EU rnropaeuintknmmdgl0epoebc-b531p3npdO Ir may be thar a oumbcr uf interest groups llave switched rhrir expecta6ons and poJiexclcical activirics tuwatds the 00 bllt many of the ordinary European V(l(fS seemed ro have failed ro trans[er th~ir lnyalties tu he Union
In surnmaty the neo-functlona1ists mok np Mitranys srudy of rhe a-lashydons betwren group~ and individllals in oHferent sures il5 wellas che sta(cs representativtltl They tried ro gtapple witb the queuit)O (lf political control uf such iostirurionalized funcrional re1ation5hips aod ro undrrstand how ir would affrct rhe oatnre uf tiJe nation state They arremptrd to define the statuS of [hese newfy creatoo insutution5 tnough rhry wete out always fvlped by devdopments in che ECfEU which WWl rhe focus of rheir studies Tbdr works have demun~trared rhat the EU imututioos are by 110 mratlS juse ordinary imerg()vcrnmenral ones lh~y have al) provideo a mirror ()f the hircof) of (Yents in Westetn Europe in pankultH - moviog flom unitios aod poJitkal dynruniqgt through ~rress oy$ and anguish to obsolesceuce tllrbulent fudds and back to mooerace optimism and a new dynamism
TrotJJ(l(iacutecnaUJI
Anorher Americao writer whose work dealt wirh che question oiacute integrntion is KarJ Deursch Alrhough not a neo-fotlcrionalilit his tranmctional appwmh nali dealt with sorne iOmmoo ~hemes He has been umrerned with more rhan imergovermneuul relation~ aod indeed hM str~iexcl reJations berweeo peopIes nitherthan just rhe elites favonred by manyneo-fuflctionalists Deursch concerned himltelF with m( absrnce or presence of significan orga~ oized preplttrations fol war or large-snde iolence between int~rnatiexclona1 policical commuoities It was [he secutity rommullttles lhat had elimirutted war and [he expectation o[ wat whhin rheir ixmndaries whicn Dentamph and his PrincctOll coUeagues exarnined in PeliriuJ Cfml1NJNlily dIId M NarJh lt14Jtlaquo Atia (1957) A SClttlriLy community WWl defined as a gronp of people wnich has become ~inte8rated~ io rhe sense that thete is real iacutelSSnr+ ance that (he members of that rommunity will not fight ellch oeher
Wriil1g1 (raquo1 iacutelMfatlortal tJrgaiadlMm 147
physkally but will se~tle their disputes in liOffie otber way (Deutsch 1957 5)lt loregration does not necessarily mean rhe me~ging oF peoples ot governshymental units intn a ~ogle unie an idea explicir in fooerahsr rhinking Otud implicir in much funrtionalist wtiting Jnstesd two $otS uf integrared secu~ rit communities ar~ hJemified the amalgamarelt where pteviousiy independent unlts have bcen rormaly merged lnro a larger unit wich a iexclommotl guvernment (eg tlle US) ano the pJuralisric where srparate gnvertUlleJlUl Illlioraio their iexclrgaJ indepeodence (eg uacutenada amI rhe US) In stlldying a nllmbcr of cases of anempred or octual intesratioo io tbe Nortn American and WCSt European area Dtunch conduded rhat tIacutelere werc iexclweive conditions essential fnr the rurcts of ao amalgruruued teeutity (Ommuniry and thM rhree wen nec~ry fm it5 plutalisdc COUnrfrpilrt
The1e three conslsted of rhe compaiacuteibiliry oiacute marer valU($ relevant to
politiclll decision-making tbe capacity o( the participariacuteng plt)htinl Imitl or ~mmem~ ro respood tu each othcrS oetdl messages and llaions quickly adeqwuely and without rtsort ro vlolence aad rne mutual predicrability n bchavior (Delltsch 19H 66--7) In Deutschs work emphasis was placed 00 cornmunkauun brlweEn potidca uoIacutets increased trnns1Ctions between them (such fL polirinl exchangcs toUfl(m trade and rratl~pott) brought increases in mutual dciexcl)Cl(enmiddotc fue s cummnnity ro be created (his high level of trnnsactrons must be accomgtauied by mutual responsiveness o that thr demand o( each side 00 he other mn rccdve adequate and sympatheric treatroent llthis wouk not ooiy predude the need [01 aggressive action lO acbi(Ye ends bm would aJso build up 11 feeLing u( UUSt and seturiry in che edationship
Deuucb does not have an obse~uacuteon with imernattomtl orgaoiexclZ8rion~ although his 1957 book iacutes in [he eM collcetned with the ctelltiacuteon of UCCIlshy
tity community in the NATO area rhere ate few tcferences to internatlOnal nrganiuuons Many o( the Cll5C studj( are ser io tbe pcriud before (be postshywar expansioll uf such organlurions and almost all deal ieh bilareral relatIacuteonshj~ O(utschs work has coosequences for the lUudy o( ioternuiona organizatIacuteoos govemmental ano non-goveromCotaj iO[~rnational otiianiza~ tioos can be created as a re~ult uf a plnraliacutes[ic secuciry nmunuoit) lne integracion of whkh may evtotuaUy become iacutennirurjonalized iexclu nuppened reo the ampandinaviiexclm states creand (he Nordic Counci1 There run abo be forrns of instirUti(lnalued communiratlons berween socieries wnich prOldde the transactions and undersrandinli rhat help create ji securi[y community DeUtsch wrote
li the way tu iexclnregrarion domestic or internarionat i$ through rhe achievemem of a srose of community tnut undergirdS insrirurjtms thm ir seems likely [har ao iorreased sense of cotlloounlry would hrlp to snellgtbcn whatever instirutioos - supranatiooal or internacional - are aLreAdy Oltraring
([)euriKh 1957 7--8)
ltgt -_ bullbullbullbull _- _
Demsc-hs work was mken funher in a vnluffie ediretl io 1998 by AdLer and Bllenen (l998) (lLat docs pay sorne attention to ioternariorutl otgilniushydoos Indecd their volume contairu chapters thar rekr ro rhe oseeacute NATO the EU the UN the GnU Cooperarion Cowxil (GCC) aod rhc Assodation uf Soud Eat Asian Niexclttlons (ASEAN) They daim that imetshyruHiomuacute organiexclzauumlons aud iexclnstitutiacutem~ played al lmporum role in elKiltlraging more inteo$ive and extensive ioteracrioos octwttn states rhrough theit uwt-huildiug propenies (Bnrnetr and Adler 1998 418) They lht six corulusions of this snuerneor
bull By moniroting srares agreemenu tntcmatiuacutelwl orpuuacutezatiexcloo~ give them he cooftdente tuacute cooperare io (he ahsencc of trUSt
bull Jnternational O1ganizarions allow Hi1tC$ to discover new areas of muuwl intetellls Tu ponimlar [hey cenoacute ro link panicular areai
bull Inrcmational organizatiom can hdp shape $fllre pracdces by liCtting down nOfOU Ihat define what is acnptablc
bull The iIKTeaiing nwnber of internacionaJ orgamrutions emuuragC$ muldshylatetalim
bull They dIlO eruourage smres lua societies to see rhelll$Clvcs as pan of a resion
bull 1ntildeey can abo shape lhe identiry of rheir memben (Banlett aod Adler 1998 418-20)
The aurhms cWmed char cheir stuJit$ demonmared rhe exrent 10 whkh social cnmmunicadons beomes insrimtioualileJ aOO embedded in lnreroashytional oC8linbatlooslt and in turU how (hese organizatioru express an inreot to dcvelop trUSt end mmwl identificarion (Batnm and AdJer 1998 418) TIe work on sccurity (mmnunidcs is pelhapS at ir strongcu whcn dealing wim the esrablishetl Westcrn democracies rbough llamen and Adlers work shows rhar it may hilve a wider urility
lnlerJciexclnmdcme
Furrhcr emphasi on the growrh JO cnlnsaccions berween l()Cicries can be seen in the worts of Keohane 11l1d Nye who were m che forefront of the iexclnrerocJXndcnce school in rhe lJoited Srnnt fhey puacuteirued our (he conseshyquences of the innease in tldrunarioualucdolU ro che study uf iexclnternncional rdarions Thcit statcing iexclgtoint was sLlnuuarized chus
TraM1latlowJ relations are nolaquo new alrhough che growth of tmnsna~ tklOal orgnnizarion in me twentieth centuty has been specracunr Ye-r our nmremioo iso nor ooly rlur rhe srate-centrk paradigm )$ inade~
quare bur also thar it igt becoming progttSsively more inadequate as changes io inrernational relauumloos take place
(Keohane and Nye 1971 xxv)
The) llsred five omsequemes uf this growth uf inEematiooal inrcracrions ana organizarJ(tIls fur inrerstate politks (1) rhe promntiun of attirude change amongsr driacuterens (2) ao innease io inrernacional pluralism the linkjng of nntiooal Interese groups in tnmsnational strtlCtures usuaHy involving transruttionaI organizations fOI rhe putpoampe of (04)minatioo ltKtohAne and Nyc 1971 xviii) whiacutech has heen lhe basis for much noo~(Jncdontllist wriexcling (3) me cmdon lf dependence and inrerdependcofe IS often associacuteshyarea with intetnilriorutl cranspormrioo and iexclnance Keclune and Nye 1971 xix (4) creating new insrruments fut iexclnfluence for use by sOJne governments over ()(bers (Keuhane aOO Nye 1971 xx) 1100 lt5) dJe emergence cE auronomous acrors wirh priwre ntildelreign policia thar roa) deliberarely oppose Oiacute impinge on Sla(e polides (Krohilne and Nye 1911 xvii)
In a late book (1977) Keohane and Nye dcah with che questioo of imershydependem-e in world poliacutetics io greatet depth Iorecclependencc $lnce tbe Second Wm1d War has- onen cesulted from increasetl ttaosnadonal atciviries and iexcli divided ioto twO sorrs sensltlviry iacutemerdcpeodence (dte muIy effecrs of dULOges jo tranS1lCrJons oc ~()ciacuteetiexcles or govetrunents) md vulnembHhy interdependence where he acrors Hahllhy tc suffet eO$n iacutemposed by extemal evenc~ js (aken inro accoum (Koonane ana Nyc 1977 12-13) In COntrast ro tbe reaisr view of world poHrk Keohane and Nye pm totward che idea type of complcllt imerdependence which chey claimed soroetimes comes dosee ro realiacutety chan does realism (Keohanc attd Nye 1971 23) aod whieh has three nuio characretl$tks it allows fo mulnple rhallne1smiddot- imershyStatC tiansgovernmental and trilnsnationa- conneltring sncieries there i an abserue of hierarchy ilmonS the rnany questions ac inle hetween iexcliexcltates with military securiry no 10nger dominntlng lUly agenda and Millnu-y force 15 not used by governments toward orher governmenu within me laquogion or on [he lssutS where complex intetdcpendence prevaiacutels (Keorutne aoo Nye 1971 25)
These dltee condidons are said by KCQhane aOO Nye to typify fairly weJJ 5Ome LIlAUe$ of global economk md ecological interdependence ami come dose ro chamcrerizing rhe emite relarionship hetWetn sorne cnuntdes (KeolWne and Nye 1911 25) Complex ilterdepcndente glVel rise ro oacuteininctive poliacutetical processes a sute $ goals wiacutell vary by mue arca with mmsgoYernmeotul puumllitics making goab difficut ro define as ttansgovern~ menrnl llClaquo()$ (fof cxample mtfUsrers of agr1cuJmre inte11igente agencies nariona wcather bureaux) pursue their own aims Jhe followiog facwn are reLevant iriexcl eilch issue area
bull iexclhe resourc-es of a Ncue fur thaI particular area are most relevaot radre Ihan the stares overull military ~tre-ngth
bull international nrganizatinm and uansnntional actors wHl be fruloipula[ed as malnr instrumenrs oiacute mue poHcy
bull rhe agenda of issUC$ wi11 be fOrmulated hyebltUlgcs in the power dirmi~ burlon wirhin [he issue alaquollS by rhe pururinn (lf internarional regimes
150 Writings lIlt inttn1atiQrJ41 ergdniutirll1J
by changes jn rhe importance of ttaflstlational acwtS and by linkage froro orher issues
bull linkage between 1sllor$ will be mote difficult for strong naces to undetshyrah ir[orce 1$ downgraded
ft whiJsr linkage by we$k srares rhrough internacional organuumlarions seu agendas helps coalition-wrming and provides arenas for the political acdvity oC weaker states which can use the choice of organizarional forurn [or an issue and rhe mobiliZlition of votes as a politiul resource
(Keohane and Nye 1977 37)
Thm Keuacutehane and Nt gavc inremarjonal organizaciOfls an iroporran[ role in thde compfex interdependence model of world politics a model which whilst not uSlaquo (O explaitt aIl world politics was one which rhey daitned to hllve iacutenfrtasing releYJ1nce in IIlarge and growing area 1ntildeey used an intetnUional organizadon mooel as one of the explanations ror internashytioua regime change that js che lthange in the sets of goveming flrrangernems affening relatioruhips oC interdependence In tMs C$e intershynadonal oJsanisaciolls refeued ro multilevd Iinkage norms and insritutions (Keohane and Nye 1977 54) which once euablished are harJ (O enlAlicate BeCllue o( this rhey may Stand in the way of swes using thdr capabHities In ordec 00 chauge regimes Instead powet outcomCl will be more aJfectcU by votlng power (in the UN General AssemWy for example) ability ro futtl) coalidoos llnd 00 control elite networks (ruch as that founo io clte institushydougt of the European Commnnities) Whilst the complclt illternadorull organizarion mode1 was only Ofle oiacute fOur aJvaucecl by Keohane and Nye ro explain regiffie chAoge tbey Jiu expeomiddott jr to contribute to such chaIlSC in a world where complex interdependence (onditions pertain
1he rontribmions by Keohane and Nye demonstra(e hoth the roncero pf American wtilets iexcln inremationru relariWl in the 1970$ with altemacives to
tite srare-centric model and their wiluumlngness tO draw from more rhan one approach bringiexclng rogether elementogt from che more tradidonal appnJaChes with economic models and non-stare-cenuic dements TIleir Wi)rk does however have certain weaknesle$ Perhaps the mon serious is the use of rhe cerro imerdependence and iexclrs djvisiacuteon iexclnro ~n~itivity and vuinerability imerdependence Anepting rhar inltldeperulence meUlS mutool dependeoce (and [hjs leado to discussiou a~ w how mutual maoy relationihips are) che phrase scnsiuacuteviry imcrdcpendenre scarccly wflrmnu thc use uf the term interdependcnce fhe fault lies wJth che authou loose definiuOfl of depen~ iquestcnce as a oiexcltate (lf being detetmined oc $ignificaruly affected by externa fwces The induskm 0(signi6candy atkcted w~aken5 me urillry uf me cerm so tlme che nOr1on oiacute scusltivity inrtgtrdependence seems ro refer ro any nociceshyaMe cffeltr of ooe srate and society 00 anorher A person may Ix- significandy affectcd by taking drog$ wlthout Ix-ing dependen on chem David Baldwin showcd that mis use of rhe cerro interdependence ran conrrary to the striaer
Writingt ()I inf~_Ji(J1ia ~lfizaJJom 151
lUlderstlllldings (lf the concept fuund in MirhiaveUi Montesquieu and Ronsseall as weU 115 in che works uf twentieth-cemury wrlteI$ such as Norman Angell Francis D(laisi -and Ramsay Muir (ampIdwm 1980 7-9) He snuested the U$C of rhe rerms mutnal influence mutual responsivrness ot mutual scrlitivity insread ofscnsirivity inrerdependeruemiddot (Baldwin 1980 19)
A second cuacutericism uf Keohanc and Nyes books aso concems eheie termishynology In dealing wirh rransnational influentes They [ump tngerheraH types of teiations in whieb non~8overnrnental actOrs participare chus makiflA rhe componenrs of cheir new paradigm shifting aud poorIy defined (Wagoct 1974 440-1) Wagner questioned whetber their work simply demonstrated a shifr in interesr to new areas of intetnational polidts shyespedally elttmomic ones - ana whethcr [he world hM reaUy changed or whether we have iexclUSt overlookcd sorne things a1l along (Wagner 1974 441) The atent of imerdependence wa~ also chaHenged by Waltiquest (1970) anJ Rosecratlce el al (977) in che US and by Lirrle Bnd McKinlay (1978) and Strllivan (978) in rhe Briti~h Uteramre
DespiLe any falling$ Keohlllle and Nye provided insighrs ioto ttamlflashydonal polltics they shifted atrention away fcom p~lrely govcrnmental actOts in inff$rate relarions and they poiutm OUt he impMrance of intetnational organlziexcliexclxions in the intetdepcndence oc at lcast rnurual responsiveness of =
rbe rdormist view of both international celBtiOO1l and iuternational orga- nizar1ons has always provided an rutemative lO the more conservativc cealist approach Ir tended ro be dominated jn the pre-wu petiod by internauacuteonal lawyen and ideaJists but sinee hc Second World War has laoched on to the changell in world poUtics 6tst jn the economic ficld and then in Europe thar have Mn more difficulty to explain in ICliIHst term~ It has sten intcrna~ rionnl organizarions as mlans to manage trends such as iucftI$(d economl( intlrdlpcndcoC( bar hll5 also illtceplcU rhat these organizations mar necorne impoftllm aCtoriexcl (lO che wodd st$ge lhemselves and can cettainiy Iacute)(cnrne involved iexclO changing rhe preferences o( governmeflts
RADICALS
Writers covered in this sccrion iCe rhe intcrnadonal sysrem flOt so much as being domlnlltcd by states bn( more by diUerent divisions 01 its peoplcs Thi$ is noe to Sfly fhat chey ignore surtes They cOflsider them elthet w be ks tmportant chan the iquestjjsions of diUS tit wealth or merely ro refI~ct these othcr factors ot w be roadblo(ks to unky in (he fare Qf mote impomllt chalmiddot renga Power ls seefl as belnamp cxercised by eh( wealthy II1ld privileged and open to cha1Jeuge Change in the system is possibl( but onty through srrll8ge or by an awakenjug pf peoples tQ rhetr real sitllatlon Most iexclnter~ natimal organization~ are thus regarded as (eflccrioos of the currcnt unsruisracwry stare uf aiacuteTairs though $fJme more activist orgauhatioos mar llave potential as vehicles or (hange
This SIoacuteCElOn has betn sub-middotdivided imo rhree gthe fUS( are the econ01nk srructuralists and indude Marxists and Third Wocld wruumlers cririclll of rhe cutrem imernruionallyuem They haacuteve in common a belief mar che polltshyiexclcal srructUres of me world halle leeo wbloned mainiexcly by eltonomic fiiexclctors and rhAr mere has bren an intiacuteJUIllity builr imo the presen sytem lhe recood are the cruumliral app~es who5e radicalilifl1 is mure of the iacutemellec~ cual SOrt They rejeCf - Uf at 19$[ question - Jhatly of rhe usumpcions utlderlying be lIiews ofhe world tepresented by the realists and refotmers Finally mere are the globalim Theit perspective ls planerary ana theiacuter rnain conrtrn h fM rhc survival uf Earth Agilln they challcnge che mme statemiddotbuled approaches of both realjsts and reformers
Stnuturaluacutet lIiews
Ihe srructuralist appmiexclch rO (he swcly of inrematioOlIl relations differs In imporrant wars tO thoee of me realists and refotmuu tbough ir has some elemeou in comroon with mands ofb04h schools As roany of (he neo-realistsshyemphasite (he power scructure of wudd potities this sectiacuteon willlimir jwgtlf ro (hose writers roncerned wich the impacr 00 me political S)Srem of rhe wodds ccooomic strucrure Unliacuteke che ttalist approach the erooomk srrucruralisrs are OOr jUSt concemed with swtts io wodd polilla and rhelr economic and poIitkal differencC$ but alw with the divisioru within f1tld berween SoOCieties (WiIIeas 1990 263) They are [heretOre romerncd witl the rifi berween riel iexclmd poor within scares and rhar herwtto udl and poor glohally This leads ro an interese lO trulSlUirional reladoru as well as in inrergo~romenmt links Th(f have this in corrunon wim refPrtllist views bm diexclfier foom chem in (he emphast~ placeoacute on rhe structures of world pollics beinc formuared by eltooomic fiexcliexclcmn In rhis selttion attentioo wilt be given te MarxiS[ wtlletS lIud sume Thir1 Wodd view$ - partiuilarly (hose of rhe cependency sdlOOf and rhe developmemalj~[II - who have made a cootribution quite separare from rhat of rhe Muxiacutesr uadidon
Marxill laquoewl
There is no one Marxisr interptetariacuteon of me role of imerniexcliexcltional Olganiza~ cions in world politics Sur Manis[ approschf3 have certain elements in common and form a di~dnctive 5ch001 of rhough[ about lnrernartonal telamiddot tions generaHy and therefore ahotu international ocganizadoos These appmaches are based 00 du writiflgS of Karl Marx (l818~) in coshyoperarioo witb Fuacutewrich Engels (1820-95) with perhaps tbe gtearest later conrribution being maJe by VL Lenin kader of (he 1917 fo1shevik revolushydon in Rurna They are cf importanee pany becau1e ehey ficm tlle 00515 for mmmuniSt [hinking and (hm mey have an anactunenr m rhe Soviet Unian whieh WIlS be suongc1t commnuist stare unrII 1991 and EO rhe Peoples Republic of China COlUT1UnJSl sinee 1949 Apan ftom lbis ManiS( beliefs
had a irmng inpur mm Wescern imdleltrual cruoking and conunue ro iruoan some viewi abom wodd politics in rhe Third Wodd
Neither Marx no Mancisrs took rhe stare ro be (he curtency of iacutenteInashy(iexclonal relations Unlike (he realist viewpoints chey did fiO( coruider interactions blaquoween soveteigu ltates to be ofovettidi importance UnHke tbe funcrionalists aud other modem Westetn views rbar srress non-stare actocs Marxiexclsts in particular emphasized cbus relatlonships born wiexclrhin nates and IiCOOSS Stare boundaries Indeed ie is diffku[r ro talle only of a MaIXIacutest view of inrernatiooal re1atioll5 lec ttltme of iorernarional orgnniza~ UumlOOy as rhis separares ene particular aspecr of human behavinur tor MIlIXIsr rrearment divorcing ir from the undedying relleCS of Marxlc beliefs Man-ism provides a framcwok of undemanding by whkh ir iacutes daimed ~ociery pan lind vresen can be explaioed and che furure development of mankiexclnd determined
According ro Maf1 relariooshipamp between people and the futm~ mar insdmdooallzed rhose relatienshfpamp depended on rhe economic $truCtUR of soday fhe way rhat productlon was organized He traced the history of dvilixed maokind through five hiuorical staBes - AAjade mdenr feudal capttalin and socialin - which have ditTereru dominant methods of produc~ tioll leadiog 10 a complirared arrnngement of $OCiety ioto various ordetS 11 manifuld graduadon of sociru tank (Marx llnd Boge1s 1965 40) amph form of sorlef has coutained rhe conflictual divisiQl$ which help [Q tranuacuteorm the narun of rhat $Ocjeey coRrradicrioru in the mode ofpcoducfIacuteon placed srrain nn rhe existing social nrder sharpeniug rhe divide berween economic founshydatinn of sociery and a mpld aansIacuteonnlltion of in SOpel1Ullcture in legal polidcal and re1igious it1$tirutioos Thus by 11 confronration of da$~ Conrramiddot dkeions one historlraJ form of soc1ery wus transfocmcd into a bigher stage uf social devdopmem the history of aH hitherto existing ~ociexclety is the histoty uf dass struggles (MaDI Illld Bngets 15 39) Marx and Bnsels were parriculady conceroed wich capita1i$t sociery - ac its Oeyday during theiacuter Uves - and its tmnsrormarion iexcluto ampocis1iu sodety Wlthln rrus form of SoOCiety rOete would be no division of laboU4 and no eWses Illld no SUtes no elCpropnation of labours 5urplus vruue I1nd (bus no private property 00 exploira(ion of ene clilllS ny iexcliexcloother with 00 need fue war
For Marx and fingeJs C1ass then and noiexcl fllltions or sutea are rhe bade units in hurO) llIIIl che struggle between clAssts Jnstead oiacute infeutliltl contlict ocrupies rhe centre of acrention (Berki 1971 R1iexcl From me nlneteenth celUUf onwards rhis struggle -n in Marxisr cerros has been primarUy between [his capicalist dass ([he OOurgeoisic) aOO the bbouring dw (me proletariat) AA (he trarurormatlon fmm capltalisr SoOCIety [O ~OCialiexclMl ro comrounism rook p~e (he superstruerutt of bourgtOis SoOCilaquoy - religioo national divisiacuteon boutgmis politicnl insrirudnns rhe SOlte - woold be swept flway and in Engtls pmse rhe gOlcrotnent nf persons is replaced by [he udminlsuacion of things Fetter 19 (47) with me itEte relegated lO the mmeum iexclngemer Wlth lile spinshyning wheel Qnd [he bronze axe (Feuer 1969 433)
154 WrituacutetKiexclI mJenl4tiorJal rngmZtlJilm
Mux saw the European SUtes of his own rime as being rntans by which the ruBng dass (011amp oppress the work~ng clw by using (he agentl of tht 5tare such as the iudidary the poliee the army and rhe church he (xrerual Ilctlvities of the stare wete also determined by its Chtss namre MeanwhiJe rrmllnat]onat Rlations of a more meaningfuL kind WQuld bt creared by trade rhe movement of capital and incteaiitd romac[ and llOIacuteldarity betwten the prolerariat of vanoulS nations riacuteidefd rhe internacional nriexclaniutions of which Marx and Engels hnd dire(t experiena- wtfe the Fi~t Internatiomd and for Engels the Secund lntemarional both of which atttmpted lO orgashynJxe the represemarives of wruking people aiexclros fronden Onc~ agaJn this stteAAe$ the Marxist empbois on transnarional dass relutions rnther than on intentate relarionships
Whibt Soviet writlngs on international organizatinn1 wtte falrly desulshytory in Scalins reigu 0924-53) rhey did lmerIy hernld rbe move towams peaceful co-existerne arul roreshadowffi the lartf rnrhe[ restrktive view of Imch organi2Atinm hy Soviet commentators
In the post-Second Wodd War period and In patticular in the post-Stalin era Soviet liternmre on international organiuttions bl(lSsomed This has reflected Soviet membership oC ma1ly 1osiexcl-1945 organixations the emershygence of a socialist bloc of sta[C$ and tbe incre-ase in the mlmber of Sowcreign s[ates all flUtontilde demaruHng a more sophisricared Soviet view of lnter~llate reLadoru than che survivalism of Stalins period Uuring rhe lare 19805 i( auo ret1ected the new thinking iacutemroduced by Gorbachev
StalintI suIXessor KrU$hchev developed a revised view of internacional relaCtons which gave a positio1l ro the emerging Third Wnrhl (Tbe Third Wotld was then taken to mean rhotle IItates thar had emerged ftom colo~ nialiacutesm In effect rhe terrn later induded tbe stares of Latin America Africa - exclnding the rhen apaftbeid stnre of South Africa - the Middle Rasr Oceaniacutea and South Asia) Peace(ul co-exiuence between oda1ist and (apltaJisr states WM $til comidered nece1sary but this diacuted noc predude the ideologiacutecal stmggle between rhe two campsmiddot iexclndeed lhe Soviet inter~ national lawyer GI Ihnkiacuten wrote pearcfut cocx15tence of sutes represeonng che tWO differeor rodal sysems is a slccific form uf dass struggie beween socialism and calitllllsm (Osakwe 1972 37) The Soviet Union abo deveJoped relatlons wirh rbe newly emerging exshycoloniaJ cOllntdeJ and Soviet writiog had tu take ~ount of this developmem There wru a recognirion of a third group of stattli between rhe capitalist aud the communlsr that of poteorially friendly indtptomiddot deut $tarem io Europe and Asia such as India Egypt Indnnesia and Yugoslavia which would filrm a tone of peace Although the rebtions wiacuteth rhe capitaliacutest sures sriacuteH remaioecl embedded in pelteful coshyexluencc rhere was an emphasis by postmiddotStalinist Soviet writets on the da eJement in lile telatiomhil - that is rhe wntact with progressive elements in Weste1l sodeey smh as che Jabonr mnvement Ncither diexcld peaceful co-exiucuce rule OUt ~upport o[ middotjUSt wars of nationallibcrildon
WIacuteJIacute11gs tm iacutenUrllUtional WjatlJZtiacutelJlff 155
iexclndeed ir was seen lt a strategy fo wodd reloludon Fiacutenally (he rrlashyfIacuteonhips berween the Sovier Union and East Eumpean countries vere deerned ro be based on sociali internationalism posmlating a haemony of natinnal and commllnity interests and mndllding thar jnde~ndeuce and sovereioiexclnty of a soctalist uate means aoove aH indepltndencc from capitalism (Red Star 1 December 18)
Tunkin underljned traditional Soviet thiacutenking rllar the mngtrltllenl imrrllment of an ioretnational urganization (fne example the Chaner oiacute the UN) was all-impottant in derermining tIte enene rrun the otganizauumlon bad an international legal pcntildeonaliry rhar iexcl5 a standing in internacional 1l1w 5imilar tu titar of a sovereigo staxe Examining lhe question of the antonomOllS wiU oiacute international nrganitatioll Tunldn allowed thl1 they need not jmt act as agtnts for member stares
In imernatiunal ptacrke trellties conduded by jntcrl~ational mSaniacutezashytinns take their speciaJ piare as treacies by wbkh internationsl organimtiom aequire righu and take upon themselves cerrain obligiexcllshytioos Intctnat10nal organizatiou are created by Hares hey are broughr iexclnto being by states but the actloacuteos of imcmational organi7ashydoos are nlt)( in any way de facto or de jure ro be tqt1sred lO the actions of scates
(Osakwe J972 23)
Thi did nor mean than M internadonal organiacuteiariexclon was an entity indeshypendem of its memher us[es as any powers (har they hacl were delegated by [he members In Jine wirh che ampwiet doctrine of peareful co-exiacutesteme Tunkin placed Uress pn (he nature and rhe membership of an international organiacuteution dlOSe which drew their membersbip from commlmi1t c1Ipishytalist and TIiexclird World tares could expcct tu be genel1llly mognized as having an incernarional personaliacutery He wrote
TIte namre of tontemporary international prganiurions is lO a very great exttm derefmined by [he existerue of Haces beJonging ro differem wcio-economk systems and the ioevitable muggle between them Thar is why pcaceful crexislence is now the bl-sic condition of rh~ dfVC1iexclpshyment ufgeneral interoational ntganization
(Osltuumlltwlt 1972 289)
Mor07JN Clt1ntrlbuterl sorne extra points Fintildet be iududed JNGOs in his stndy He wrote dlQt lotetnational orgaruulions have as iI rol 8t least three member coumries TheM may be government$ offidJ orgilnlzarions or 0CInshy
guvernmental organizatiow (Morowv 1977 30) In a 11Iter seccion m NGo thcy were ldencifred as che la~ group of inrerrulttonal organiuttiolls wim two aspccn rbar concttntd socuIacuteiacuteIgtt commemarors tbe NGOriexcl auirude towards the preservarion of pealaquo wkh the Wnrld Feieradon ofTrade Unions
6 _ 0
rhe Wodd Fedemion oE Democratk Youth and otber meiexclllbtrs oiacute tbe Sovittshybacked World Peace (ounaacutel gaining special mentioo and the specialiuJ chataCrer of sorne NGOs itl(h as rhe ruerrutriunal Couocil of Scientifu Unions and che Scienrifk OJmmiuee on Antnrctk Research MOrlrLOv memioned how NGOs can belp emblish a social dimate citillg their contti shybution ro (he setdemenr of a number of internacional confHcu swh as dlilr in Vietnam He aOO dealr wirh the role of che NGOs io cbe UN aud che consuJshyrative srarus [hey llave witn lGOs saying du[ smdems of internariooal affitjoiexcl
in [he socjalisr councrics m critieal of many asplaquots of (his system fur the eoruulrarive StatuS amogemenrs stiU fall shon of wha( [he deveJopmenc of modern inretnatlonal relarions in fac[ catls fur (Morozov 1977 43) Tbe specialized namre ufNGOs Wamp1 atttibuted by M((2OV tu
tht increased Jnfiuence of the pubic at large un roreign polky [he grearer iexclmpat of public opininn in imernatiunal reladuns and [he greater importante uf me ideological fiexclUtot 10 $ucb relations Accoum should abo be raen of che proccsses of cconomic developmenr and [he coosequenc~ of [he scienrific and rechnological tevolutioo which has also led ro a greatet number of speoacutealized NGOs
(Morozov 1977 42)
Second Morozov wridog jo d~ late 197amp made moU pos-irive refershyencelgt (O [he role oiacute Trurd Wodd SUtes in imemaciooa otganimrions He noted rbar rbe emetgtoce oiacute ti large oumbe of Oung natiooal stares h8ve kd fO che emetgcnce of intetnarJonal Drganizadons among develcpi08 ecuoshytries (Mororov 1977 29) aod claimed hat partkiparion in (hese organh311oos is part uf he process uf consolidating their sovereigocy and ruuional jndependenu~ aod of wlviog cheir pressing ecoOfJmic anJ orher pmbemsmiddot (Morozov 1177 31)
Finally Momzov developed the puint made by fimkin aOOut he limited llalUre of ioternationaJ organiurjQn$ - ~econd-dllSS ffitrnbers nf the inrershynarloual sysrem as opposed tu rhe firsr-diexcllSS members SQvereJgn stateiexcl by reretcme tO theit dedsioos There bave resulted froro che inrelllctioo of politicuJ euroorces within the organil1ldons and
Thecombined will uf chcse lGOs i5 disuumlnc[ from [he wllls of theuuml indishyvidual members io in eflSenlte and ln in narure The v1ilflous wills in thb case are nor agsregued arirhmetically each one exim indepenshydendy ur oside a homogeneQu~ socio-political gOUP wirbin whose frarnework (hey can be combjlled
(Murozov 1977 34)
AfLer lhe comiog ro powet ofMikhail Gorbachev in the Soviet Union io 19Bgt a Ihaoge rook place jo $oVJIl policies rowards imeroadonal relations irutuding international organi1ations and [his has been reflecred in new
~ M-- bull 6_V_
Soviet writings un [he subJect Gorbachev inttoducetl a owjor review of [he fureign poljcy uf the Soviet Union (har marchcd rhe inremiry of his dmncslic refotmS He encouraged new rhinking- based on a revjeJ vlew of che world siruation Peaceful co-existence wirh iexclhe capiralisr tirares WlCgt no looger seeo a~ being a spetjfic fum of dass srruggle as Tunkin had written bUI 35 being in the commoo intecesu oiacute all countriCl Ir WIi$ predishycued on the neOO fin surviva of (he human nce which in ShakhfUlZOlrQvmiddot$ word$ must ofCOUIse take fim place Lighe 1988 297gt- Thjs ml$or rhar a new COIKeuropt of seGldty had ro he adopreJ hy che Soviers rhar oiacute common security which wa5 based un sume of he ideas of -che Palme Comminion (see he1ow) Greater emphasis wu given ro arms control and dlsarmament agreemenrs wirh the Wesr 11nd to co-opttation in international uffuirs whilst Soviet intervention io che Third Wodd enbed and milirary 5UppOtC 1m [he East European communisr govcfomentS WlS withdrawn
Soviet wdcings on inremurionilJ relations both offidal and academic came to mirror Gorhachevs new rhJnkiog bur eho lilete iexcl$ evety sigo chut rbese id~ were dmwu no only from rhe Wesr but alw Uacutenm Moscow mink-tanks slleh as lMEMO th~ JflSIirure of World Eronomy and Inremlfona Relacions) Liacuteght 1988 29~n Gorbschev aun his forngn minisrer FQllard Shevaronadre gave rhe academiacuten a Breen light for funher diSClViiacuteon ud debare (Shevaronadre 1990 23) As II reampul srudies examlned he role of che Uniacutered Nariacuteons as sn ugem for peoce (Kolyrev 1990 12-19 NesrerenkQ 1990 65 Petoovsky 1990 42--3) and rhe mte of inrernational or811nizadons in environmental mliLffers IiLnd disurmamenc qutsdmuuml Chodsulkwsky 1988j NikitiM 1989 123-32 Roginko 1989 133-43) and internarionallaw was teassesred (Sutier 1989~ 363-75)
Once che Sovier Union collapsed many of me wrifetS losr rhe main point of political reference A nwllber Iefi academc orhets adapted thelt ideas ro WCtem oues and a few remnioed as policy rulviseni ro che new Russian goVefrutJenL However cornmunism as M imellectually dominant organiuog rotce wlch pnliiisJ dour had djsappeared in Russia togerllef with much uf the persptr1ve ir provided - wben seen thmugh me unen distotdng leos uf tbe Sovier lfulon - oiacute inrernatiooaJ relatlons and inremariooal organhattnru
Chinese Marxisr wrirers have iexclargeIy reflected rhe views of the leadershyship in Chinll sioce [he coming ro power of rhe Commun1sr Patty in 1949 Undl (he 1970$ communist China was elduded from almon aH iotttllJishytional of811nizIiLtIOns and ie is flot surpriamping tha whae lirde writing tbete WUtl on the st1bje(r Wal fairly dismiacutesampive usuaUy consisdng uf coudemnaM tinos of (he UN fnf its action tn Korea aud rhe security allianes fot teir hegernonic narure Chjnese Marxisr rhinking hiacuteu divided (he modem wotld jnro three groups ihe Birsr World consisred of rile fWQ imperialist superpowers namely he USA ano the USSR The Second World was made up uf otbet areaa uf advamed industrilllired cnuntries primariacutely EUfape aod Japa which were opea ro donunariou by lite Sllperpowers bu( which could $tan a dialogue wirh rhe Thiacuterd World Theu (here was rhe Third
158 Writings OtJ internationdl organizatioru
Wodcl iexcltreI( coruisting of the Afro-Asiacutean-Lario Americltlu sta tes supported in their muggte aAainSt Picsr World imperialism by Chinls This viexclew of the wmId colouted tyJst Chiacutenese wridngs on iacuteoternatiollill oeganharions Tbe $uperJowers were seen as cynical lTlllnipubtors Qf inrernarionaJ jnsti~ tutions Mao Tre~tuog wOre of US poliey towards such insdfutions Ir mam use or them when it neOOS rhem and kicks them 3way when ir does flot (Society (or Anglo-Chinese Underuanding 1979 42) US-domioated pill-~ such amp$ SEATO and imperialist groupiacutengs like rhe Alliance tor PfOgre~( wttt detided Spedal viuiot was saved roc the Warsaw freaty Orgaoizatiun whieh in one aetide was described as Soviet sodal~ imperialisms mol fur aggression (Ming Sung circd Jn Chen 1979 194) fhe Soviet Union was aceuseQ of trying tu manipulate che Pan and negnshydate wlth Wesrem eouorries rhmugh the Enropean Scltwiry Conferenee tn consolidare irs begemonic status in Basrern Enrope at the same time iexcliexcll dividiog Wes(ern Europe squeezing Out the USA ro as ro muSte way (0(
iu expansion and infilrmrion into Westem Europe (Ming Sung clted in Chen 1979 197)
Chinese writecs Fegatded tbe Ntildegttood Worid espedally Western Europe as being a pen force io telmS of imperialism which Ww tdponeed to the lhird World wich diaJogu as io the Jmueacute Convention berweoen tIacute1e European Commnnitiacutees and AF~ican Carib~an and Paciuacutet srUe5
Furrhermore the defensive $spects of NATO were sttessed and with growing European cohcsion the trend iexclS IJkely to ~ towatds a fuoce in which the American elemenr is seen as 1 temporary neceuity eventual1y to be phased out (Sodety fur Anglo-Chioese Undetstanding 1979 90)
lthe countries of the Third World were setn as coostirotiog rbe mluumln force comb$dng imperiaJi~m colonialism and hegemonJsm reEerring nor only to the vestiges of Wesr Etl-OOptan foloniiexcliexclJism bOl abo to US iexclnpetlshyalism and gwwiog Soviet soci$l~imperiacutea1ism Tbe Third Wodd eQuld hdp tn exclude the gre$t powers ny baoding cogecher io such otganizatinos aiexcl tht DAU aod rhey could work ro correct unequiexcliexcl nade and eeonomk reladons with che sUpetpowers through UN iexcliexclgeucies and eonferences such as UNCTAD and UNaos Abo rtlW material ancl exporting orgllnizations liexclke OPEC rbe Incernadonal Bauxilaquo Association ancl the Onion of Banana Bxporting Counuies were proised a ehanging (he old interntlrional eumomic Ome and banerlog che biggest roarerJal plunderers in rile world rhe United Srates and (he Soviet Uoleo (Ptking Rt1Jiew 26 Septtmbtr 1975 cited in Cheo 1979 309)
111e poverty oiacute ehinne study of intetnatlenal erganhuions no dounr caused by the lack of Chinese membership of such etganizacions unril the 197amp and the turmoit ef the Cultural Revulution eiexcliexclme ro an enel by the 1980s Jnstead oere was a more reaHs( viexclew (lE rbe worlcl iexclf one S~shytimes coucbed In Manlst terms In Chlnese univenittes there was a growtb io detailed studies of iutemationalntgsnizations aod the nuropean Union
WritingI un inlmullPmnl vrgrsrtilpiill1J 159
Tbird Wwld vlewJ
Many Third Wodd Afro-Asian aoo Latin Atrusican) writers 00 jntemsw
tional organizaion have adopte a structtulIist framework and are particufarly nm(etnecl abour how insdtutions can be wcd as tools of exploitadon uf rhe nitd World aud how $ome cau be used lIS agenrs of libenuion They llave nor been induded in the ~ettiexcloo un Marxist viltws (or three feamm nOI al of them are Mandst thIJM who are Manisr place particular stresS on (he posicion oF thE l1lIacuterd World and as ThJrd Worlcl eitizens they have through theit own experience unother pe~cdve rhan [Mt of writers from industri$lized srates
Yash 18ndon (1978 377) has identjfied thNf nuacuterd World penfIXrives en inrernational Olganizatiolls Fim [here is that or the bourgeois Of perry natiunalisrs who are in power in mos[ Third World statcs and who are progressive in [errru of anti-impcrialism but are rraniollary ro the C1tccnr WC they would sooner mau thcir pcaee with imperialism rhan iluwnder power (e the masses and peasancs This group uses ineernational orgllniexclm~ tions ro pur presrure 0lI imperialisc states in order to extntCt concession5 from them and appease tbe masses in their own coontries TIley see che UN as an opportunity to parley witb their entwhiacutele impecild masters t a presumed kvd uf equa1iry (Tandoo 1978 365) Thc scltond pcrspective is rhat ofthe reaIly backward regimes of thl Thitd Wodd such un Taiwiexcliexcln and Jotdan or whnm intemarional orguniacutelattnnS are of margJna1 signifieance [)t they prefet tu dea wirh impcrialism iquestirt(tiy The rhird petSPCCrive idenrified by landOll is that uf rhe masses vi thc TIlird World for wbom toterntlunaJ orgmilAriom are petiphewl fin liS Jong as hey rontinue fO reflect the muing balanlte uf clas$ forces in hvour uf impeuacuteJism (fandon J 978 378) Sioce the ene of he 196amp rorces representing thu third group have bccome lnott prominent in world polido in che form of liberarioo groop1 lttCn as tbe PLO and whilst chese have f)tgten interested in galnin8 telaquolgnJtlon rOt rhemshyselves at the UN and the spedaliled agcodes rhey are not depeuden 00 these or8ani1Jlton~ rndecd Tandoo romioeted (hat fo che revoludonary snnggles in SOUfh~E3SC A~a and AfrJctI iOfernattonal otgilnizalJons are tOO peripheml to be of much $ignilJeaoce (Tandon )9713 377)
Tancloo providcd n inrere~tiog history of the Jevelopment uf the anrishycolonialist forees in che Third Wruld sinee 1945 bur hi~ clivi~iexcl()H iexcloro he three perspenives is roo stark leaving aside rhe leil important backWllro regimes be has basiclllly grO~lped tbe Third World leadershp joto the revoshylutionaries who have Uttle netd (or imernatiooa otgllnizatiooll and those who llave suumlpped into refOrmism and have beco duped iot() bdieving (hat they elln ehaoge chelr c1ependeoce 00 industtia1i1Cd nBfiexclmL~ lhrough intemadonal organiwtions Thjs seems to undelsrare me use or ~mh organishyzations by revolutionllry groups - especiiexcliexcllIy che PLO anel tlle SoUthem African liberadon OtgllOiexcl7arionS - whieb have made substaotial use oiacute [he UN me Arah League ano the OAU tO sustain rhe polirical aspeets of theit effOrt5 1t alS(l uverestimatcs the extent tu whieh the Third World countries
J UU wnlmgl 1111 JTiUrllamm41 ergtIttJ1I0fll
have any iUwinru about imetnariooal Qrganizarioos such a~ UNC1~D
Furchermorc the identificador of 800d revolutionaries and falten refurmislS i~ tuller impliexclstjc~ rhe maIur sponrot of the UNs New Ecooomic Order l wruch Tandon hal roudemned as rhe Old Economic Order with a diffefent rltetoric WIIS the Algetian radinu governmenr of Boumediemu rhe PLO irself ha heen dependem on a numlgttr of bnurgeWs Arab goveromenrs foc financial 00 diploJUlltic suppon and ro Tandoos duumlertion that PQr narlonallibemwn movemenn guided by a proktatlan idoology such liS rhose in Chifliexcl1 lIlud Vietnam iruemarionaJ organlwtlona WtU of no 1J5e can be- added the re5ervarion until chey carne (O power Whiht ir took some twenty years belote communist Qtill1 made use nf suth organiutions the unified communiSl Stale ol Vietnam was quick fO cake up it position in the UN ro ask [Ol aid thtough UN agencies liS well as w become ji membet of he CMEA (Comecon)
Third Wodd commemscOt1l on world politics have emphasized the nature uf rheir atea$ potirical ecoOoacutemtc Ilud culmral relatloosluumlp wilh rhe iHdllsrriexcl~ alixed Nonh TitilO is iOO$t Oflltl rypified aiexcliexcl bciug OHe of ueo-folonialism _ COntrol of che Third Wtltld by lhe Nortb by indirecl means ratlet (han by direa colonial tule and of Kf)IomIacute( dRptwJmry (o dtpmdemjiexcliexcl) lntetnationaiacute rdsdOOi bcrween sures are sublumed ro relations between claue$ world wide Ixtween on rhe one lIand the expluacuteiting impetialist capitetists in rhe northcm iru1usuialized couotries 2100 rhcir middle-ltlass collaboratotS in the 50Uthem SUtes aud on the othet band he exploiced masses rhe proleuriat ol [he $Ourhern contJnems The Lurcr gmupS have been 1I1iide ecooomkaUy dependent on [he furmer so char hey lIre in rhe wuacutetds uf the Bruiliiln T Dos SantOS in a situadon jn which the economy of a cetuin group of counshytrles is condiacutedoned by rhe develOplllent aad expansion of aoother ecouomy lO which thcit own 15 subjecred (Bodenheimer 1971 327)
The uOOerdeveloped tounrries depend uacuten [be developed ror their capital nd ercperdse they find key sectors of ehdr eroooroy conrrolled from OUtsJde rhey act as a SOUfce of raw marerials lIS ji lthetip source of labour arul as a rnarket fur mllnuf8ccurers from Euttipe ]apan and North America As thejr living standards were deterrniud by rhe vicissinWeS of the Northern~ dominated wodd marker the relationship was Otle uf unequa exchange (he [esule of which was a world experiencing woequal developmenr with a developed rieh indwtriaJiud capiralisr Notthern centre and d poor underdeveklpedgt agciculrutitlly backwarn eXFloired periphery in che 50mb The dependem 80mh has been divided berween rhe ptedominanr undemeshyveloped area~ lUld a few Cenfres of deve10prnenr wirh their ttade culrural rraffie and polidcal linL to [he deveJoped North - rhe depeOOem develop~ memo omlinea by EH Cardosa (1974) allodlt~r Bruiliall Mmir Amiu (977) rejC(ted the prosptltt of aH antonomous capitalist development in [he Third Work the oew bourgeaisJe of Lacin Ametica Africa and Asia were in allianec with capitalisrs from rhe Nnnh and rhe mato $OUrce of finance ror lmported equipmem was fmm the expon of raw materials to rhe indu~rial
5 ~ _~ smiddot_middot~~
iexclred smes Amin (1977 1-21) SllW rhe can made ror a New Imernational Ecooomic Order (NIEO) by Third World leaders at rbe UN UNCTAD aod che Vilrlous North-Sourh dialogues as an nrtempt LO iexclnerease the price of chelr ntw mattIial exporrs obraio more lmpotted technol08Y snd chus finance a new srage of develQpmenr He saw this ti placing the Thitd World more in the gttp of the neo-co1onialist sysrem and iostmd recommended 11
more self~rcuumlanr development wlrh murrud assismnce between Third World sures a reducdon in [ade wirh rhe induuialized wotld and Chlll a loos~ ening of dependenre Amin lJke TaOOon had Jittle fairh in presenc imtrnruional organizaciexclon Il tools foc fasbiooing a more independent Tbiacuten Wotd His sU88tl1cion of grearer mUtual ilSlgtistaoce between ThUd WorId uate~ implied somtthing more sophillticated than a numbtr of bilateral arrmgements As rbe present orgauizarions used fu iexclncm~Thjrd World cnshyoperation (che OAU he Atab League ASEAN) are domitllued by jusr dl()llC govetnmenrg chM accept lhe eowse coodemned by Amio _ the NIEO ami greater jmegrndon iexcluro rhe world economic sysrem ~hen Amia solutloil involves like-minded deveJoping counrries or more like1y political changes leading ro such indigenous intemuional orgilniwrions
Other Trufd Wodd wdten have plllCtXl emphasls on grearer use 01 exisring insdtutions lOO can broadJy be deKfibed lIS Wopmenraluli huI Prebisch an Argentinian econOmigf has not only studied the que5iaacuteon uf ecooomic dependency but his ideas llave been used as the baJiexclis for che wotk of cwo miexclljoc iexcliexcluemariOOiexcll1 organizadons rhe UN Enmomic Commission fa utin Ameriea (ECLA) and UNCfAD Iu his smdy of Briliacutesh-Argerl(inian trading relntioflS Prebisch bad idenrified rhe unequRl tecrns ol Hade between he favoured (ndusrrislized s(ate of tbe centre and he les privj~ leged llOIl-indumialiacutewl periphery Prebisch unlike rhe dependencia gtChool of Amiacuten Dos Sancos and Cardosa believed thu this inequaLity could be overcome by political acrinn by trade pre[ereonces fuvouring the pedphery by eoo1ruooiacutery agreemenrs by intelnatiacuteowll aid and by more foreiga imvestment in che ~riphery It was thele remedies thiexcllr Prebiacutesch eneouraged when he WiIS Executive SecrCrary of ECLA from 1955 lO 1963 aOO Secrewy-Genernl ofUNCTAD ftoro 14 ro 196tL In~d rhe amoum of aid the periphery needed in omer to overeome their Unfuvoluable rrnde balance became known io UNCTAD clrcles as [he Prebiexclsch Giexcllp
The distinguished Afiican aC1ldentie Aji Mazn1i has wricren un the plighr Qf (bar conciflfnt aod j~ role in pmem~day interruUIDllfl1 afmits He soughr ro answer rhe quesdon Now rlw Imperial Order is eoming ro an end who is going tO keep rhe peaee in Aampica and tu examine he concept of Pax AfrlclllUl the African s ambidoo ro be his OWh palaman The JXIliacutecillJS and se[f~8overnment ufAfriea depended on the nodan ofan African self which Mauui discusseJ in decaH He considered how this 1ndepen~ denre might be threarened by the politicaI and cultural fragmenMion of the contillenr Ellld eronomieally by deperulence on Europe He quoted Kwame Nkntmah finr President uf Ghaniexcll on rhe Europe-Jn ECOntunir Communiry
162 Wilihgr rm intd1JatirmallJrganizatimu
ihe ireaty of Romemarks the advent of oeoKolonitJism [n Afriacuteen snd bears unqutSrlonably the marks of Freneh neo-colonuumlllism (Murui 1967 93) He moduded from tM that Wlut AfrlOlns tbelaquofore neecletl was II
renerru authotity of cheir owa tI) ((lordilJlte fheir eltonomk and policicat deCena- sgain5t trus rnreat (Mamtiexcl 1961 93)
Given this theme it is not surprising tlwt Mazrui ser srore by rhe OAU bU[ he was realistic in bis judgement
In relatioos betwlaquon African statts lIOflesr step rowards Pu Africana was taken when rhe Organiution oiacute Aftlaquolln Uniey set up in Commissiacuteon ofMediauacuteoo Conci1illtion aud Arhitmion
Anormr OAU Commissioo of relevance fot Fax AftlOlna ls che Defence Cornmission Sor me Defeme Commlnion 1w se Car been among che lean effecdve QfPan-Aiacutericun ins(kndons Afrka mar indeed aspire to be her owu ptlliceman bur she does nO seem ready as yel to par the price iacutem it
(Mauui 19612[3)
Mazrui oudined the varicd backgrounds of [he lemen oiacute newly illdepenshydent Africa and thdr radical and revolmionary ideas and it is pethaps swprising rhat the insrirutions rhey created fur me coutinenf wete so mnservative with [he p05sible exceprion oiacute the OAUs Natiomtl Libetttion Comminee Mazrui no[ed thac Africa srill has the problem of how othet powetS respond tu its behaviour and [har forcigo iotmsilm in AJtica continued Indetd the I990s proved tO be a dC(ade of disusrer for AfrieR The debiacute burden contimlld while Ilome states collapsed lnro civil war ami others took to iutenoendoo in thejr ueighbonrs affairs Outslde interference from borh Enrope and North Amecica euodoned One of rhe fcw brlghr spots was the end of apallhcid in South Africa and the peaceful transitioo ro majoriry mJe lo al thiexcl~ tn quote Juliacuteus Nyerere rhe ampcmer pre~iexcldenl of Tan1ania The OAU exists outr ror tbe prorecdoo of (he Afrinllt Head~ oiacute State (cited io AlilgapPltl 1998 1 ) The relarive optimism of Maztui has giveu way ro Afriam writers examining sorne of me disrnrbing details of inaction by [be OAU and regtonal orgauiacutezatJuns nlCh as ECOWAS beiog used as doaks fu the machinations oE regional hegemou$ suth as Nigcria (Mibe 1m 61-9(1)
Radha Sinha$ problem--ortented undy Food iexcllfId PIWt11y (1976) has an IItgent message Sinha a former consultaot of the FAO prodnced an iofuacuterrned aUllyiexcljiexcl of the world$ food problem stress1Og in paniacutecular the maldistribution of food and other resources Noting he profO$ab of UNCTAD with heit muld-rommodJty approach and buffer nocks provjshySiOfli he commented rhe grearesr weakness oE the UNCTAD scheme js les Hkdy politlca1 unilcceptablliry ro me developed (ountdes parriculady che USA (Sinhil 1916 114) a propheey that has proved to he cortect He identitled a more aggresslve attitnde by Third World sutes e5pedally
WrilirrgJ on i1tternatiflii1l rHgarrtzatitmlt 163shy
after the uH prite cise of 197314 when the developing coonuies tried to maximize their own market powers by formin cartcls such as rhe Intematimlal BaurdtC Association the Intemuional Coundl of Copper Expotcing Countries aud the Intema[ional Tin Agrcrmenr He gave n qualified wekome ro the Lomeacute Convention betwcen the European (omrounities anJ cenain African Padfic and Caribbean Haces Writing in 1976 he commented
The receot cbange in rhe luirudes of tite tiche countries is largely due tu the incIeasing miliuncy of the Third World countries lt is almost ertalll utar the magnitude offuture cnnc~sions in me coune ofGAIT aud UNCTAD IV Ilegotiarioos wiU deperu mainly on (he continued solidariry uf the devdoping counlrtes
(Siha 1976 116)
Sinha was pardy correct as tbe solidatity cf rhe Tbird Workl states cracked se the induurialized wodd withheld funher Con(eampSJoru but ir was able tO do so because market condidons swung against che primaty producen
In his condusion Sinha called ror a IIDre1 shttting of wnrld t($nmes and power if confrontarion was ro he avoidOO He feared that the ffa of roshyoptradon berween [ieh and pool conntries hiid ((lT1e to an end and that batde lines were being drawn Instead he advOOIreltI majnr concessions from the dcher coumries on trnde lInd aid issues and a1so a ma~lt te$ltUcrnring of the incematiotlill organization~ aoo negoacutetiating ffiarhinery in order tu provide a much gtC2ter say fm me poorer countries in internatiooal tJ1lde invesrment and mooetaiexcly armngemenrs (SiMa 1976 132) GAn 1BRD aud IMF have been the presenoe of [he ri h with voting weighted m faacutevour of rhe OECD countries and Sinha re(()ffimended thlll GATr aoo UNCiAD be merged inro an Intemacional irade Organization (ITO) and che creatlon of a Third World permanent secrctariat iexclnvolved in all trade and aia negoriarioru Thoogh less radical than Amin Sinha aIso recomrnrnded gttter coshyoperation berween developing coulltries and an eoo ro their inkrtotity complex with instead a sense of m~ttnal sdiacute-e$teem and trust being devel~ oped (Sinha 1976 ch 10) Litde that h~ happened during the 19905 woo1d have encouraged Sinha The World iratle Organiaadon has emerged as the presenoe of the dlVelupeJ tares and lw brushed aside many of thc mucerns cf UNCTAD Debr ha~ edged on ro dlt wudd iexclagenda but mainly at the beheS[
of a non-governmental organization )ubiacutelec 2000 nd the promi$e~ of the main financill jnsrirutluru lO pursue dcbc-rclicf produred but a thiniexclmfl
In aH Third WQrld commenrarors have provided a vatied and lively approruh fOwards tne problems uf intetniexclational organizarions Their emphasis has niltntaHy beCl Qn tbe use of wurld lmtirutions to change the econornic condidon or the Southern cominents As this enndition is likely to worscn in the near filrtltf further more lJica conrtibutions on the rule oC
-- --- ~- __ _~- __- imernatIacuteonal orgaoilarions in Nonh-Smuh relarJons tOiexclghf be apected from rhe Third Worid A1ternaciveJy wrirers (mm rhat ares rmy jW ltIacuteespUacutet rm imergovemmemal orgaoizarions ar lealaquo Mee rhem $O Hrrle
Cfili~ald~heJ
Critica approadvs lO the nudy uf intetnadonal relations are (hose har rejee( the dominating vleW1iexcli repr=med by tbe realist and reformistS as oudined aboye In paHicular rhey reglUd realists as apologisu for the currem con6gutltion of power 10 (he wiexcldd sytem and considet [har rhe refOnntstS are elrher unable ro undersraoo he fUe llamee )( (hi sysrem oc ille UDwiUing to accepc rilar ir needs more rhan mooest refotlllS TIlOugh they may sympalhi-ze wirh rhe agenda of some Marxists aud Third World wt1cers chey do [lO( llave rhe hisrockal certaimy of the former not rarely do they have the experience and perspective of ehe larter TItey view intenUishy(jnl1ill nrganiutions wirh a jaundiced eye as these are mainly the lll$tmmenfS of rhose who dominare rhe syuem This section COlllaios an wcoum nf three approaches tmt of the critical rheorlsti- of kmintsc wrirshy[1185 ulld pose~mooernismlt
Cri(~1 herJrY The approach of critical theory 10 JnrematlonaJ o(ganizatiooll iSi determtoed by their wider world-view which in itsclf is explaiiexclwd by tbeir llame One of the leading exponents Roben Cox said [har ie is cririca1 in cne Jensc rha h srands apan 100m che prevailiog order of rhe wOlld and asks how tb$t oroer came iexcllPouc Ir does nor r-ake existing irucimtioM lIl1KI JIQwer relaclons rOl granred bu c311s them iacutemo queuion Ir 1S diexclrlaquoced ro rhe social itnd JIQiirshyical complex as a wItole rarhet (hall he stparate pirtt IUthet than subdiide and Imic an examination of a problem it looks al the wger pkturc of whkh rhe problem is jwt oue part and trio rO wJdeThwod the processeS uf change ill which botIt pans ulld whole ure involved laquo(ox 1993 277~S)
Ai a thoory cridQiIacute theory rejeen tbe daims of posicivism of an external Nulity and to be mue-free ror critkal rheorIacutests koowledge ti nor moraUy IleUc1ll1 ic is more che result of the social background of tbose Wt hold ir Given this ctitkal tbeory alJows foc a normarive choice in favoU of a social ancl iexclJlieiexcl(ld order diflerent f(cm rhe prevruHng arder bur it limiu the ruuse 01 chotce ti a1remative orders which are feasibJe mmsformations ofme cxvaing worJd h musr rejEC[ improbable alternadVe8 ju~t as ir rejecrs rhe pcrmanctlly nr lhe exiscing order (Cox 19 90)
Cridcal rheory differs lrom Marxist upproElchcs beCElUS( of iu tejection nf any daim to hold the objenive tru[h and betause or it~ avoidance of (he pmslllt ol il utopia Neverrhe1ess [heir analysis of incernarional relarln1l$ is one tbu hEls u numher of similariuumles wich the Marxisc pcrspecdve It regurds rhl tlistlng suucrures of world polirics as beiug oppressie not
- _ __ _-
lean because of rhe dominance of (he capitalism of che Unired StElte~ For many che USA is seco as a hegemonic power the prevailing urder - in re[ms rbar reReet he wrirings of the Itallan Marxisc writer Amonio Gramscl (1891-1932) Gramsd advanced the nodon of ln hisrori(middot bloc which in itself refilaquors che $Ocial reladons oE ptoducdoo The dominanr dass in a counrty - 01 indeed aoy social grouping - mlinrains cohesion and idenciry withio [he bloc [hrough the ptopagacion of a COIDmOfl culturegt A new bloc can be formelt when a subordinate dau can euablish tU hegeshymony over orher subotdioate gtOllpS (Cox 1993 56--7) The IDove rowuds hegemony comeS with the piexclt$ting fmm che spediacutek inrercsrs ofa gronp Ol
dass tO rhe building uf inrimdons aOO elaoorarion uf ideologies (Cox 1993 57-8) It Loiexcl rhat ptOCe$S thar embeds the incemu of the dominanc dan in an imttmrional form thae [w an appeal widet [ban that dan ine1f It the-refole repreSoems mote tlmn jUSt (he drunJnaoce oE one state ovec anocher bllt implies a cemufi acceptante of the tules arJd institutions purouized by [he hegemonic JIQwer Jo other woros it is all order wbicb most Olher Sta[e-~ (01 at 1enst those within reath of die hegernouy) couId find compatible- wirh their iexclmetem (Cox 1993 6t) h aJso involves noe just inttt-staee rueivirle5 bur rhose oiacute tlvilliOCiety (oon-Stllte socieM instishycudons) ebereby encoumging Hnks between social dus$ts iexcln the connules covered by ebe hegemony
What does Cox llave to uy about ioccmational Otgsniuciexclons 1bey Ilre scen in he oontext ofme wiacuteoo unaemanduuml18 of itnernational reUacuteltions mentloned iexcliexclhove He is direcr 000t mem Ooc mechanisru chrough wruch the universal norms of a wodd hegemony are expttssed js the interoatiooal organisation (Cox 1993 62) Why is chis so Cox U993 62) gives five teIlSons
bull They e-mbody rules cOae help (be- apwlSion of a hegemonic wodd iexclrder These insdwrians reflcct the intererts ()( the dominam social anil economic force- buc a1low a cettain amOunt oC adjusrment ro accommodare other subordinared interests TIms the USA WllS preplltoo ro mm conccssions to
bciI18 in Lhe EU srares and Japan ro rhe Wotld Trade Otganizatimt They a[e prooucrs of that order Though [he insrimrions and rules Ilce
nurITlllUy initiared by the hegemook power ir takes cate ro involve aOO comule a numbe-r of second-ronk stares and gaio theit supporc he Wotld Bank and Inte[nacional Mooetaty Fund were very much pan of [he world order thar emerged afrer [he Second World Wat and which was dominared by rhe Uoiced Stlres
They ltgidmi7e i[s nOlms by providing guidance for SllIteS and by legitshyimiuacuteulS cerraIacuten IlCdviries Ilr me narional leveL he OBCD afie rhe inrerruuiooal financia) irntuumluriom lave spread an acceptante of mllrket coodirions and sHict mOllerary iexclJlides
They co-opr elites from pelipheral counrrie Ihlented sraH commg 110m the Thiacuterd Wocld are expected tO dCCept he scriexclpt wcittttt by the domishynam power Bouuos Bourros-Ghati as Secteury General uf the Unired
166 Jiexclljiexclr1giexcl Qr1 ifJfCflrttuacutemal IWgaizati(ifJJ
Nadons stroyed too amp~r ftOm the gtip of Washinston and his second term was VCtoM by rhe USA His sucecssor Kofi Annan will no doubt undentand what 1$ n-quired of him He brings the mncerns of orhe states ro che UN bUf nor in a way thu threatt1l$ the USA
bull They absorb counter-hegemonic ideas Ideaiexcl $uch as 1iustainable dlYClop_ ment tukl even debr foTgiwness are taken 00 board by the intetnatwnal finarnial institlltion$ blu are trandirmel into pulido rhat swt them
Wh~t is ro be done Cox thinks thar the pfQblem of changiog dw world orUer 1iMuld be shlfred back from intern~tional insritutions tO niexcllriacuteooal $OIacuteishyeties where the sodo-political b~se for a new historie bloc mighr be ereated (Cox 1993 64) FaiJing the creadon of a new historie bloc of the new working cla$s and rural and urb~o marginal groups there might be tnmdorshymadon oC the curtent monopoly-libcral hegemony by adjusting to rhe demanJs oiacute local ello$ for polides 5uch as natlonaHution Cox 199~ 65) He aw advocates te-regulation of erooomies and a re-wmpositjon of civil sodery Internatiotla lnstlcutions induding organiutions can berome eontact puint1i fOr new $OCia[ furtt (Cox 1994 (11)
Critica throrJm $uch as Cox oifee a refreshing exposidon oiacute che posidofl oC imernatiooal ofganizatioos in a wocld where the main revolutionary powe~ have either collapsed (rhe Soviet Union) or se(tled into a cautious ronservatirun (China) Ir provlde~ a sceptical arf realisric world~view without acreptins tbe inevuumlahility ni a illture domlnared by mooopoly eapi~ ujsm sud the Utlired States J-Iowevtr its appllcariexclon to intemationa1 organhatJons 11 StImewha( timited tQ the maln global jnsdm(jons and th financial and economlc orgmiutions Ir has 1m (O say aboue regional nrgashynjudon Uf abour N(JUacutes Furthermore iu alternarive fu(ure testS on ourcoroes thu are far froro certain RevnJutlons in the Thied World are roore likely to be- irupired by nadondi$m oc by IsJaroic fllndamentaHfl OCalaquoely [he solid ooses for new historie blocs
Fwinuumll aNml4cbts
Feminist perspcctives 0f1 inttmatlonal rtlatioos llave in common wirh the erit~ ical rheocillu a rejclaquoion of (he dominance in rhe $Ilbjecr of the rcnHst and rdOrmisrs Although fuminist writen cover a wide 5laquolpe the gencral basis oiacute their aqurnent 1S har in interwnional relatioM ru in most politkal aud tcooomk acdvity women are diexclSJtdvantagt~l Alchoogh they own ahour 1 pet tCfH oC the worlJs lfOpeny and tiexcliexclxe heme 10 peiacute ceoc ofincome they perfurm 60 per eenr of working houn and provide 80 per eent of nfusets (petetsen and Runyan 1993 6) This is a derDOnstrndon of gender inequalitie~ the sodalJy learned behavior and expecratioos thar distioguish berween maKuliniry and femininity (Petetsen and Runpn 1993 5) Feminist aprroaches ofren So bejond the $tati~tks and examine (he mind~se[ of those engaged in the pmctice of intemadonal rdations whiexclch (bey ampee as geodered In other woros che world
Writingc Off inlmhJliofMl vrgntiZdlMm 167
illeen in a mlLlndine way thar kvrntB (he posjtiOll o( mnles in rhe hitgtranhy and devlllues the c041trihution of WQmeO (Sylvestet 1994) War in pattKular is gendered in a way chat keeps wornen and metl from qUtstioniog the essentiat pmpose and he neglltive effects of war militarization ~nd viQleme on their awn and orhers livts (Petetsen and Ruoyan J993 9 t)
What of wminist view$ uf imernationaJ organizationsr Ir IS not possible ro presem a rollf(tive vjew that eneomp3$~e~ rhe works of radicaJ femjnisu and ny iexclihetal teminists (rutead the work of one author Sandra Whitworth (1997) will be used as me pily$ rornt attrntion ro inrernarlonal organizations Aamper inrroductions ro feminilfr theory and internacional frIamiddot tiom and gendet and internacional relatlons Whirworrh examines geodet and imernational organilions She screpts Coxs vjew oiacute inrernational orgashynjzarions [har they retleltr (he dominant powet relations in che intetnational system and rhae internaliomd otgaoiution h che procelt of imcitntionaJshyiling and regulating conOice - eicher rhat which may IIrise among siexclates o( char which has iu (onU io transnationaI society (Cox 1980 375) TIte way duu pcople orgaoire themelve$ wirhin international iostirurjons reflects a variety of power relations ineludi~ of rollJSe gendec relatiull3 (Whitworth 1997 74) lbe triad of jnstirutions ideas and material rQudi~ tioru help ro hxare uSllmptiolls aboue geoocr withiu jntetmltional rewtioos Whitworth uses thesr tn examine lhe uooerstandillg oiacuteScndec io an INGO the Internadonal PlarUled ParenthooJ Federatlou (JPPF) and an intergnvemmental organilJ1rion (albcir one wlrh some oOl1-governmentJ)J represemation) the InrernatlonaL lab01lrOtganiution (no)
Whirworths studies show rhar thr IPPF tended ro accept the deshyemphasizlng oi the gendered oamfr of reproducdoo and (f) ignore rhe imponaoce ofbirth comcol foc womens reproductive freroom Instead in an effort tu popularize birth rontrol srrel~ WWl placoo on paremhooJ rather than iexclust the womans choice However IPPF poUcy beeiexcllme more radirnl in (he 19905- with Hnks beirtg made berween II1M control alld womeos ~)tu~ ality (WbJtworth 1997 ch 4 pmim)
The RO eoucerned itself with WQmen as workern It cnnsidercd that tbey oeeded spec-ial atrention and promoted ptoteCtlvt legiexcl~lacion This reiexcln~ forced me view (har [he male worxer Wall the norm with women workers nor deserving the same rights remunfration lOO mndirions Latterly however the JLO ha~ reflectoo views rhat prodaim wornens elt)ualily in rhe workforce and has sunoo tuacute assess the importanee of policies on womens role in rhe workplace as weU as in sodery more wjdely (Whlrwnrth J997 ch 5 panm) Whitworth comes [O the eondusion rhu iexclln iexcllnaLyiexcli~ of gernler in rbe IPPF and no shows how tbese rdiexcliexcldonsbips llnd definirions ni what it is to be a womltn oc man are structuted relationsrups3nd hlsrQciudly hve been scrurtured tu disadvantage women (ibid 15n
lo eommon with the critkal meorists Whitworth has useQ au examinamiddot doo of two intetnational organixations (O deroonstrate a puinr about imerflational relatiexclon~ indeed sodal rctatrol1s mOte widely The poinr is
I1
I
middot - ~-_ --___ aOOuc powec and iu use not (O balance oue SCdre ligaiOSf anorher but fm une gooup ro domiaare morher Jn chis case it 1$ ma the dominution of one dass me m culcnre over $ofU)(her (though Whirworrh recognizes those reLationshyships ti wcll) but of roen over women The crititUl uudy oiacute (wo jnceraational mganirations dealing with iSSlle5 recoSniud ti beiiexclg oiacute impocshycanee or WOfficn suggesu rha( tltOO simihu research on orher internacional organizadons could proJuce interening aOO uwfuiexcl resulrs
Pllit~ism
Thc posc-moderruacutesr $opprooch lO intetaarional rcllldon is one tlur bas (ome ro che fote Jn che perlod sinee lite end of rhe Cold War Jr is based on $o widcr imellectual viewpoim insrigated by l1rench iorcUtcruals of the 196()s gener~ ation _ Bllrrhes Derrida FouclIul and Lyorard - and whkh suggested rhat the modero era liad becn overome 11 fejeas mera-nattatives gnlud accounv- of hi5tory aoa iacuteNIacuteler subjecu as having no independem rubstance Scientifk btliefs induding [hose oiacute rhe $)(ial scJcllces are rooted in (lllxure polill(os arul mores oJ a wciery and are lherekJre subjective As rhere is 00
oblcctive reality cmpirical daims bave fl() spccial sunding in rhe rralms of koowledge IndeeJ ir i$ power aod knowledge are intimatel) incerwirud Posr-moJernism Hllnds against rhe belief of rbe modero pcfiod which LI seco as beginning wiacuterh rhe enlightenmcm of mid-eightcenth cenrufy Europe and AmeriCll Ir rheldore rejcn~ rhe COMCpr$ oC rationalirl and progrcss aSSuacutedared wi(h [he enlighrenment and [he moocrn age Thc uniry of IOOnkind iexclirW iexcldells such liS rhe untveIsWiI) of human aacuteghrs are rejcuoo lnsceadlocal aetion in smallgroups 15 advuacuteClmd
Post-modetnist ideas have affected tite srOOy of inremruionaJ rdarions as (bey have ocher social scienccs Posr-modern imeraarional relariops theoriscs havc ustd heir view$ 00 objecuumlviry (o exiexcltmine che rrmhs of international relatiom en see how rhe concepts iexclind knowledge-dairm (bar dominare the Jisdpline in faer are highiy conringenr on spccific power relatiom (Smith 1997 181) Post-modemisrs bave lltfa(red me mcta-narratives of the reelshy1m and reformlsu aHke The objectiacutevemiddot aaallses of the realim Ilnd neo-realisu are setn as being deJl(nclent on the subjective standpojnts of cheif mainly Amen(an and Europeau authors Ijcharcl amphiel (1986 258) daimed he works o[ Kenneth Waler men the leading neo-realillt trrat the glven ordcr a rhe natural nrder Jjmirs rarheE (lian 1XpawU political discllUtse negales oc rriviuliliS the signifinnce uf variely urOiS time and plue Whar emerges ii an ideology tllar anridpatcs iegirimires ancl onents a totalitarian projen 01 global ptoponioo~ che rattoualiaciuacuten of global poHcics iexclbe reformius are likcwise tainted Md have Ji mhr$lren belief in pmgress The posc-modernl$rs poinr m rh Helocausr as rhe heighr oiacute mooemism a rombimiddot Halioe of science dnd polidcal otganizillnon Il was SCruTely progreso
Given an antifllthy mwards rhe MlVe[iacute~ign srae borh as a centre of powet ll1ld as a crearioll Jiten imbutol wlth a wncepltliexcl uf progress pest~miexclJdetniexclsls
wHungJ mi Im~iexcliexclrun wgltiIRrzuJlU7iJ 1J7
can lOUcdy be expcctcd to vIacuteew intergovernmencal organiUlrions wirh sympilthy Tbe prefetted iacuteonu of internacional organizations when mentioned are those thiexcltt ltlj~plal differemes snd dlvenity in global pelitlcil duu are reginnaUy based or rhar reflec irKlividual actlOn Tndecd ir SeeIJS
rbat Michel Fomawt was involved with an alliance oiacute twO INGOs (Miquestdecin du Monde and Tertl-s do Hommes) in proresting agaiust internadonal iH~shydon over rhe boat people who flcd Vietnam in tite lare 1970s and ear1y 19S(k He is gU()[ed 11$ sayillg tbar Amnelltl Internnrlonal Teueiexcl dts Hommes Mfiiecin du Monde lHt inirilltives whiacutech have created a nrw righr rile dAht of privare individuss ro iexclntervene in [he otder of polino and internatioont snateg(eiexcl (dred in CampheH 1998 516)
Aootber researcher has exnmined ~he Europcan Communities Ilr che point wben Jr was mnslorming intO me European Unioo and askOO whether ir was a pootmodew ConJigUflHton (Nstrgaard 1994) Hi condusions wcre mar ir was gualiwiveJy a new organizarion oC human calJecrlvJties which mighr U$hec the coming of post-moderniry (Ntgttgnatd 1994 27j) The basis fO[ [bis judgemem was rhat me Ee did nO approximate anl modero form of piexcliexcl1idUll Ofpnizarion it did OOt commatld che means oiacute violence its au[hotity derives noc from die people and ir appeared to be a fCgJoo trying ro pOrecr itiexcliexclelf againsr globaliacutezadun iacuteN0rgaaro 1994 274--5) Ir remllins ro be sren whether [he BU tJf [he twenry-first cenrury wHl fu1fi1 rhtgtse hopes Ot wiU stllrr ro teVen
to a more scate-like being Generall) dIe cririolapproaches ro interruHiorud relarious hiexclJve provided
1lOOIe innovatIacuteve insigllls iexclnro rhe study uf imemarional orgsnizations The crtrical theorists llave becn sh3rpest in rheir unde[$(iexcltnding nf internarional ofgiexclt1lizacious as servsnrs of a dominiexcliexclIf power configuracion thoogh the) lave pemaps Umieed cbelr scope wllen viewing internacional organizadons Feminis[ wJiters ruave given Vltike to whac i5 after aH tbe scmi-sileut majoric) in rhe world and Ilre ouly srarting in qnest10niug the male dOmimiddot nance nuacutet iexclusr of the nmning of IGOs huc aloo of theic agenda Tite post-modemisrs are iMlSr concerned oiacute he (bree 8rOUp5 with inretnationlll organiucioru as such bllr rIacuteleic intellecrual approach is the ffiOSt tadkal aud can lelld tuuml a fnon of nihilism
GltJbaliacutesf lIiu
A gIobalisr perspective does oor viacuteew world poliacutetica as being predomishynandl arout iotergovernmemal relatlnn~ Ili would realisu or illbour inrentare aruI imersocietal rdations as a number uf reformisu llliexclll consider lnsteaacuted it cakes a more holisdc view Problems are (cmfronred ac Ji global level wlurions have tO be sou8ht here as weil This iexcls not ro neglcct (he 10tal Ol rhe ~tlte level ir is more J recognilion of the limiutshydoos of acdviuumles rhere The world-vicw like rhe reformists places empllasu on whal unIacutetes people Ilnd has lirde time for lhe demaoos of power pouumlics aad stare-cemrir orglLuiwrjollS Ir goe~ fllrther by nor
1 V WNimgJ lJ7f tIfernattmiexcliexclJ 11fK4111141tOnJ
liminog in view eirhec ro pans of che world or ro rellltions berweeo particuJar poliric~ lr ioded jlLSr m the economic social and poJitical demaods of mankind Paradoxically ir can be seen as IIn approach rhe very OppoSllC of the fimctionalist wirb whom tbere 5 much io common In nmtrast lO rhe fnnctionaHst (or neo-fllnctiooalisr or intetclependeuce srhuul) and ccrrainly in contrast ro rhe powet politks aOO MaOIacuteIt writers (be whole world approach places emphasis not 00 the discrere r~uiexclreshymems of groups SClteiexcl or individulI1s bm 00 tbe wel1-bciog of the tCOsystem in which rhf5f funnioll cbe planet Eanh The conccen of chis apptoach which is rcflccted il] in ttcumeUr of illternational urganizatiom is for the survival of lhe plunet for its effident funccioning in its widest SeILie aud fot che survival oiacute rhe myriad oiacute speoacutees - ollly one of which is homo sapiens - tbat inhabh me globe
Sinle tbe 196Os a number of wtiters on imernational affairs have expounded 00 tbis view and llave cOl1l~uendy ronsideted the implicadons for intemational organizacions Jobfl Button in bis World Society ronsldeted iflmstatt relations to be onIy a pan of wodd poli[iacutea and wrore
lf we employ rhe term world rociety imiexclreui of internanofla relarions iIacute we apptoo(h OUt study in this global way insread of the more tradi~ lonal nattonal way we will end to have a wider focos ro ask quesrions rhat are moee fundlmenral aOO imponant lO civilization and be ahle ro assess bettet me relevance of om own national bduviour ro be wider worW envifonment
(Button 1972 21)
Rkhacd Stetling posed the problem more spedfically
Nuclear esCllatiofl the popullltion explosion the pollmiofl of tbe envishyronmcnt the communkations rtvolurion rbe world~wide concentNdon of wC1llch and world~wide expansiofl of pltlvcrty are iexcliexcl11 essemially global and not 1laquo al pbellomena They have given rise jn tutn ro eartbshyspamuacutellg and revolutionary demands ror mass education rnass hesltb malts welfure and maltgts participation in che dccisions affecting roans fare
(Srerling 1974 322)
This wodd-view of rhe problems of the s)Jaceamphip EQlth begged fur global oolutlofl$ It suggcsred iexclhu not onIy iJ the system of sovereign stares as yer unable oc unwiHing to COme to grips with the above-menuontd prohlelUS but that a network of llllergoVCtn1lental organiutlom bGsed 00 me rights of statc wVfretgnt will ~lso be hammllng Globtl problems needed global solutlons based on institutinos rhat can (ake a global petsplaquoshytive Thus Sterling considetecl thllt it ~ tlOt unreasooable (O amidpate tme tbe member stares will be moved ro considft equippifllil the Unitw Nttous witb mote crunprebensive powen 1lt global pressUfes build 0974 323)
~h~ laquoo ~gt~ _- -gt bullbull (_bullbullbull __ - bullbull
A more compeluumlng cdH wus lAltiexclued by Barban Ward and Rene Dubas in their book prepared for [he UN Gmference of ehe Humafl EnVJroJlmenl 01lly UIIt EaFlh The c~ altJ Mdilllt1JatfCe (JI d Sflall Pta~t (972) 111ey stremsed the ufliry of tbe Eanh Jnd in eovironment and the )Jroblems in(ed by Jts iohabitants emntially thost oudined by SterJiog The ~uthoflgt poillted OUt rhat rhF envitonmenral qmosrion had by 1972 already had 50me impaltl on guvernments and im(rnarional organl1Jtion but the effior was somewhat ltInJOrdinated and unfocuseL In (hree particular aren - tbe global atmosphere rhe oceaml the worlds weather sysrellU - tbt-y saw [bl jmmediate neOO for (OmInOn poliey und co-ocdinared actiollS where vcerenshysions to national sovercigmy have no relevance ro ptrreived problems Bu rbefe was a need to go furrher and denl wirh other global problems di5Case srarvation iHitmcy unemployrnem ovcfllwding rntetnational poliCJcs wece at the 5tage reachOO wlrhin rhe devdoping s[ate~ of the ninettTtb (entury Elche they wiU move O to a wmmIlJlity bL~ro UiexclXIIl a more systematic sharin8 of weaJtb Ot tbey wiH break down in revoh and anareby (Wacd and Dubos 1972 295- -6) They Looked forward ro a sense of gLobal rommuniry 00seJ on he bope vf Irotecdon (from war aOO disaster) and the hope of enhancemenr (ecologic$1 as well as economid The ptlKtic~ and insrirutlofiS with whkh we are familiar inide our domestk sociecies would become suitably modlfied che basis of planetary oroer (Ward aOO Dubos 1972 297-8) This woold indude non~violent settlement of disputes witb legal arbirration ~nd polioacuteng ptocedures on an international basis jr would mea the Hansfer uf resoucces from rkh ro peor Ilnd inerCllSlaquo co-operaeion in arealt 5uch as health and edUcatIO farming uroon planning aud )JOlJution control As [befe halt been a shift of loyalty rom taroliy to dan from dan to tlation and from nation to fedctation there Wampll
hope clajmoo Wl1fd and Dubo$ for an ultimare lnyalty tuacute OUt single beau~ tifulllud vulnerable Planet Eanh (Ward and Dubas 1972 298)
Whilst the institutiona fmmework and organizational stfllCtuteS remain of necenity -ague in Oltl OM EaFtA iacutet is del( rhat the authors Wfre atming 11( a tlttwork oiacute world-wide fflnctionaUy hased organlzatiofll (both lOOs and JNGOs) char couId take on much of the work )JfCsendy done by governshymems o( rather whkh ougbt [O be dont by governmems UacuteJter writing-s have attempted (O deal wjth thc policy impliration$ of delllJng with )JrobshyJems globdly sroos (986) has poiacutenred en what 1w already been achieved in gtobal problem solving l1nd ha~ soughr ro buHd on rhis His critio have prunted out tha( what has already becn undertiacutelken has bren done more along rradicional Jntergovernmentallines (Donnelly 1990 121-30) Orbe writen have tied rubievemen[ in addressiacuteng [he global agenda more to renewed rutiviry in the UN (Rochester 1990 141-54) or to greater grass~ roots aud INOO acriviSffi Wget 1990 155-~8) Either way globaJj~m offeacuters a distinct W1ly of rackling the worlds ptublem~ It 1$ u ViIOIl thar sttesiexcles uniey and common (am( ntthet than disasreemem and roofrontashytion ir (ould thereIacuteore (oresce disputes being sruved inlernationally vety
much in (he way tbar chey are pre~ndy solvcd within tunny MtiOO iexclrares by more ro arbitratwn and Jaw and by entorcemenf ir neteS$il1) In this rhey have muh in COIDfllOfi wirh tire imerrnuiona lawyers iacuteUld idenlist writer of me eady (wenuacuteeh eemury mentioned at the beginning of tbu chaptet The globalisn are inspirecl jn rheir thinking more by ten Ot lt nudeal holocatlsr and by environmenml breakdown tnan by rhe duumleet elrpeshytieme uf wa dlllf aiacutefected rhe wricings of Woolf ol Ikierly
TIacutete globalisl appro~(h is opert ro the criticism of bcing roo idealistk jn a cynical world and lOO iIDpracrical in in uacutelstitutional sU8scsrioll5 Bur the di$mi$Slil oC rh~ words as globaloney cKleS HOt lid lite wctld oC che probw lems which hey have 50 effectively publiacutedzed They lutve uied to add anorIte dimensioacuten ro whar is possibte by showlng thar ie is nOCeSSiexcllty fOl rhe iexclurviwl of che planee
Tlle radical approach to the smdy oC iOternational orgllnizarions reflocu worIdmiddotvitws that normaUy lO beyond -dmse Jominated by rhe ltctivities of iexcltatcs or of LIte organizltuumlnns chemselves There is a sceprical view of whut is happeoing al soy one uacuteme in imernarional celarions and of he abilicy of mOfe cradicional wcifecs on imernafional cdarions ro explain let aJone llOderstand what is happeoing Ir is the feeling rhar approaches such ll1 (he MaNisr tlwt of rhe ideal theorisrs and some of rhe globuli~rs ur~ coming cber (O uodemaoding humanicys wider dilemmas rhar makes rhero so amactive They ar~ less Iikdy co apply rhemselves to rhe defais rutd wnrk~ ings oiacute p$cdcular imernatinnaJ organizations but neverrheless providt iotriguiog insighrs 00 [his phenomenoo by seeing rhem rhrollgh mol panoprk phHosophical lenses
SUMMARY
The rhree flIajor $chuols dealr wich io chis chaprer - the tcatiacuten the reformisrs iacutei1d che radical$ and rhe variarions (bey contain did not and do tlOf exJn iexcln a hiSforlcaj vacnum lde-as Wele foffilulared wirhio lhe COnten oiacute panicular sodedcs uoo in response ltO pUticular problems rbe communl (adom reYoludon of fhe nineteemb century the Finr World Wlli rhe rise of Nui Germany the spreading of nudeu weapons the deve1opmeof of plthitshy
$econd Workl War Europe fbe pnxeues of decoloniwion and deacuteteme rhe end oiacute the Cold War and rhe advaoce oiacute che inCormatton revolution In sorne CilSC$ the views oiacute rhose wdtings on inttmiddotrnational ocganUatlOHS have liad un efiecr on evenrs rhemelves pirlKulatly 00 rbe actitudes oC govetnrnents mwards tnternatiorW orgdflixauons AIl tXample is the work oC LecnarJ Woolf woose suggesnons Ctmceming a world organizatloo conttibuted lO fhe detailed preparnion oC the Lague oC Nations by me British goveltr mene Likewise Hans Morgeruhau and EK Can provided seimuli fot infiiexclrmoo US and Btirish governmcllul rhinking abom inrerruuional rela~ tiom iexclrom the 194Ck onwards In mher cases rhe general writings cJ persons lgtuch as Marx Leoin Mao Tse-tung and che dependencia school have affecred
rhe poJirk1ll dimare wirhin which govemmcncs conduce rheJe poUcy iucluding thar wwards jnternaclorull otgauj~atjon$
Orber ruCfOf$ aplft froro their historial cuntexc Iuve affencd the views of rhe schunl$ rncntioned They have differint backgtounJs io cheit ideruogy (Wesrero commllniSf Third World radical environmenralisr) and in theit level of $nalysis of inrernarional rebtions (stare Centuacutec inretesr aoo rramna~ dona groups cLitraquo dominanr global) This a(icca the typC oC inrernatiacuteonal organizariacuteon dominam io their studies (IGOs INCo) auJ thcic 8eograph~ kai $rea of interest (the Nonh Adandc Europe ThinJ WodJ Ot global)
TIte range of wcitings about intetnational organizarions has ull dte whole teflecfeJ wiJec llooersundings of imetoational ceJarions and wuumltld polidcs These io rhernselves have fed 00 tbe gtVidc iacutellccUecmal fcnnent and on developrnenrs in world affiuacuters Viewl about iacutellteftlational ocgsnizatJoos wiU continue ro take accOlnt of the ince1leeruaJ debate ill the studjes oiacute polishydes internacional re1atioO$ philosophy ecooomics imematluacutellal uw sociology histoty and geogrilphy They will also reflecto among other ampcton che stntcegk balance in tbe world [he relafIacuteve power of tiJe United Stares aod oroer nares me scate of wotld markers [be pto-ess uf Euwpeiexcliexcln tlllegrashytion che relacive positloo of the developing warIdgt iexclbe levd of cootlicc througbolc the world fhe -ratC of dte environfneot and the ahility oiacute huge StatCS to wiacutethswnd cenrrifttgal force Tbe way tIacuteult imematiornal organiuiexclshydons ret1ect tbese developrnents and tIacuteleir t1Ipability lO deal wich some of them will provide (he tllW fiWifcrial foc funue smdies
144 WitingJ on inlernafuacutemal ttrganizafifmJ
Communiry insrirurions and policies bur aIso neo-functionalist thinking The Iogic of inregrarion gave way ro coping wich rhe crises inseirutions mixing federalisc and intecgovernmental elemenrs were replaced by a Western Europe in which instirucional tidiness is best forgorten (Haas 1976 211) and the federal elemenrs seemed ac mosc dormam The hopes of che 1950s had been replaced by rhe uncerrainties of che 1970s and the early 19805
Wirh rhe launching in 1985 of rhe idea of creating a Single European Markec wuumlhin rhe EC by rhe end of 1992 che signing of rhe Single European Acr in 1986 (which exrended EC comperence aud changed irs inscitucional balance) and che sectlement of a uumber of Common Agriculcural Policy problems in February 1988 che Iogic of inregration seemed ro be revived
Wriring in 1990 Keohane and Hoffmann resrored and refined che neomiddot funcrionalisr norion of spillover advanced by Errut H9al They were sceprical char rhe rheory of spillover could explain the ECs irucirurional developments of che late 1980s buc saw it aCling posicively in orher ways for example rhrough che incenrives ro institutional change given byenlargeshymenc of EC membenhip in rhe early 19805 (Keohane and Hoffmann 1990 289-90) They saw che pcocess cominuing and barring Clrasrrophic excernal fucrors were moderately oprimisric abour rhe Communirys furure prospecrs (Keohane and Hoffmann 1990 296)
This view was raken up by Tranholm-Mikkelsen (991) and Holland (993) borh of whom saw che revival of rhe Communicy agenda in rhe Maasrrichr Trealy - wich irs blueprinr for a move ro economic and monetary union - as being a revival of the neo-functionalism Drher wrirers on European incegration at chis time adapted che basic notions of neoshyfunccionalism bU[ broughr in extra fucrors Majone (1994) agreed char che EU had seen an upgrading of common inreresn but placed an emphasis on public choice policy ro explain particular Ouccomes Marks et aJ (996) saw a much more complex relarionship berween che Communiry and domestic decision-making leve Though rhe srare was srill very important ir no 10nger monopolizes European level policy-making or rhe aggregarion of domesric interescs 0996 346) Insread rhey idenrified rhe growrh of mulrishyleve governance wirhin che EU
Indeed rhese developmenrs in neo-funcrionalisr wrirings on international organizarions poim up sorne of the criticism~ of che schooL Firsr despice rhe besr efforrs of Ibas Schmitter and Nye it remains a rheory overwhelmingly dominaroo by an inreresr in rhe EC and larer rhe European Union In 1964 Haas and Schmirrer rried to extend sorne of che lessons uf econumic union in Westeru Europe ru Larin America Drawing on Haass 1968 preface ro The Uniring of Europe rhey discerned nine variables four relared ro background condirions (similariey in power of memben rares of rransaction pluttllism in member seares complememing elices) rwo referring ro condirions ar rhe time of economic union (similarity of governmenral purpase powers of che ecunumic uniun) and rhree ro process coudi[ions (decision-making sryle
W[J U UWltU 15
rransacrions rate rhe adaptabiliry of governmenrs) (Haas aIld Schmitcer 1964 711-19) They looked ar rhe chances of policicizarion chat is the possibilicy chat lhe acmrs seek m resolve rheir problems so as ro upgrade common inrerests and in rhe process delegare more amhoricy m che centre (Haas aIld Schmitcer 1964 707) Nye in his article Comparing Common Markecs (1970) rried ro modify che Europo-cemric narure of the neo~ funccionalis[ approach and drew on a wide range of cases of economic imegracion Larin America Cenrral America rhe Caribbean Eastern Europe and East Africa as weH as EFTA and che EC He concluded [har
The original neo-funcrionalist model was close m irs ongms in the straregies of European inregrationisrs in che 1950s and thru mighc be seen as a rempting and misleading guide for policy in orher aceas The revised neo-functionalist model is not somethiug ro be imiraced bU is simply a rool fur making comparisons We wanr ro know whac differshyence ir makes if a group of seates form a common market
(Nye 1970 830)
Though by rhe end of che 1980s rhere were few places ro be found outside Europe thac were forming common markets rhe formacion of he Norrh American Free Trade Atea (NAFTA) and rhe renewal of economic cooperarion in Latin America and Sourh-Basc Asia during rhe 1990s provided different models from the more poliricized EU These seemed ro challenge some of the basic assumptions of rhe neo-funcrionalistS aIld perhaps give some weighc ro Nyes scepcicism ciced above
Second i[ is clear chac che neo--funccionalisrs have had trouble wirh che insticudonal formacs They have rerreaced from being functional federalist almose back co Micranys eclecric approach rowards institudons They have also accepced [he durability of rhe nadon state in resisring che logic of inreshygration and have soughr compromise formulas which at leasr continued ro place emphasis on non-srare accivicies even if insticutions above che stare (supranarional) were seen to be susceptible to stare inrerference
A chird Cliricism concerns the gtOH of non-srare acrors favoured by rhe neo-functionalists They have consraudy emphasized [he imporrance of polirical acrivisrs the elites of inrerest groups and rechnocrats This may have parrially blinded chem ro a weakness in rhe ECEU rhar could have affecced neo-functionalisms earUer proguuscicarions from being fulfilled its insticurions cannoc draw on rhe day-ro-day polirical resources available tO the narional policical acrors This has led tO a gap mosr noriceable in che newer members berween perceprions of che EU by the represemarional elice and rhose of rhe ordinary vorer or consumer Whilsc some earlier srudies of opinion in the EC did inelude opinion pons rhese ofren dealt wirh easy questions (showing ones EuropeaIl idenriry) 01 soft options (whether rhere should be say a more acrive EC industrial policy) With the firH expansion of rhe EC in 1973 and rhe first major oil price iucrCdse
146 Writi~5 cm lI1lMfatleuromal orgfll1iutl1ltl
whi(h coinoacutedemally happenoo a yeat liexclater Euttiexclpean voren werc faeed increasingly wirh mu(h harder options inflation versus employment tlnde union righu againsr consumer inrerests The poISibllity was thar bcing a good European might mean aHowiog sorne other COUlltry5 ruuionals to explott ones fish or oH The crearion oiacute a Single Enropean Marker within the Ee by the end of [992 and rhe move rowards a single curteney from 1999 by eleven theo (wdve of rhe HU member litares bmught he activi~ ties of the VOlon do~er lO the wodd of tite coosnmer or worker However chis seem iexclf anything to have iocreased rhe alienariacuteon of voten from rhe institntions aM acrivilies of rhe EU The 2000 election for rne Europeao Parliamenr shnwed the lowest tnroour yer in sllfh direct elections ano Enrobarometer opini()fi poUs have demonstrnred a msative trend in public opinion on che EU rnropaeuintknmmdgl0epoebc-b531p3npdO Ir may be thar a oumbcr uf interest groups llave switched rhrir expecta6ons and poJiexclcical activirics tuwatds the 00 bllt many of the ordinary European V(l(fS seemed ro have failed ro trans[er th~ir lnyalties tu he Union
In surnmaty the neo-functlona1ists mok np Mitranys srudy of rhe a-lashydons betwren group~ and individllals in oHferent sures il5 wellas che sta(cs representativtltl They tried ro gtapple witb the queuit)O (lf political control uf such iostirurionalized funcrional re1ation5hips aod ro undrrstand how ir would affrct rhe oatnre uf tiJe nation state They arremptrd to define the statuS of [hese newfy creatoo insutution5 tnough rhry wete out always fvlped by devdopments in che ECfEU which WWl rhe focus of rheir studies Tbdr works have demun~trared rhat the EU imututioos are by 110 mratlS juse ordinary imerg()vcrnmenral ones lh~y have al) provideo a mirror ()f the hircof) of (Yents in Westetn Europe in pankultH - moviog flom unitios aod poJitkal dynruniqgt through ~rress oy$ and anguish to obsolesceuce tllrbulent fudds and back to mooerace optimism and a new dynamism
TrotJJ(l(iacutecnaUJI
Anorher Americao writer whose work dealt wirh che question oiacute integrntion is KarJ Deursch Alrhough not a neo-fotlcrionalilit his tranmctional appwmh nali dealt with sorne iOmmoo ~hemes He has been umrerned with more rhan imergovermneuul relation~ aod indeed hM str~iexcl reJations berweeo peopIes nitherthan just rhe elites favonred by manyneo-fuflctionalists Deursch concerned himltelF with m( absrnce or presence of significan orga~ oized preplttrations fol war or large-snde iolence between int~rnatiexclona1 policical commuoities It was [he secutity rommullttles lhat had elimirutted war and [he expectation o[ wat whhin rheir ixmndaries whicn Dentamph and his PrincctOll coUeagues exarnined in PeliriuJ Cfml1NJNlily dIId M NarJh lt14Jtlaquo Atia (1957) A SClttlriLy community WWl defined as a gronp of people wnich has become ~inte8rated~ io rhe sense that thete is real iacutelSSnr+ ance that (he members of that rommunity will not fight ellch oeher
Wriil1g1 (raquo1 iacutelMfatlortal tJrgaiadlMm 147
physkally but will se~tle their disputes in liOffie otber way (Deutsch 1957 5)lt loregration does not necessarily mean rhe me~ging oF peoples ot governshymental units intn a ~ogle unie an idea explicir in fooerahsr rhinking Otud implicir in much funrtionalist wtiting Jnstesd two $otS uf integrared secu~ rit communities ar~ hJemified the amalgamarelt where pteviousiy independent unlts have bcen rormaly merged lnro a larger unit wich a iexclommotl guvernment (eg tlle US) ano the pJuralisric where srparate gnvertUlleJlUl Illlioraio their iexclrgaJ indepeodence (eg uacutenada amI rhe US) In stlldying a nllmbcr of cases of anempred or octual intesratioo io tbe Nortn American and WCSt European area Dtunch conduded rhat tIacutelere werc iexclweive conditions essential fnr the rurcts of ao amalgruruued teeutity (Ommuniry and thM rhree wen nec~ry fm it5 plutalisdc COUnrfrpilrt
The1e three conslsted of rhe compaiacuteibiliry oiacute marer valU($ relevant to
politiclll decision-making tbe capacity o( the participariacuteng plt)htinl Imitl or ~mmem~ ro respood tu each othcrS oetdl messages and llaions quickly adeqwuely and without rtsort ro vlolence aad rne mutual predicrability n bchavior (Delltsch 19H 66--7) In Deutschs work emphasis was placed 00 cornmunkauun brlweEn potidca uoIacutets increased trnns1Ctions between them (such fL polirinl exchangcs toUfl(m trade and rratl~pott) brought increases in mutual dciexcl)Cl(enmiddotc fue s cummnnity ro be created (his high level of trnnsactrons must be accomgtauied by mutual responsiveness o that thr demand o( each side 00 he other mn rccdve adequate and sympatheric treatroent llthis wouk not ooiy predude the need [01 aggressive action lO acbi(Ye ends bm would aJso build up 11 feeLing u( UUSt and seturiry in che edationship
Deuucb does not have an obse~uacuteon with imernattomtl orgaoiexclZ8rion~ although his 1957 book iacutes in [he eM collcetned with the ctelltiacuteon of UCCIlshy
tity community in the NATO area rhere ate few tcferences to internatlOnal nrganiuuons Many o( the Cll5C studj( are ser io tbe pcriud before (be postshywar expansioll uf such organlurions and almost all deal ieh bilareral relatIacuteonshj~ O(utschs work has coosequences for the lUudy o( ioternuiona organizatIacuteoos govemmental ano non-goveromCotaj iO[~rnational otiianiza~ tioos can be created as a re~ult uf a plnraliacutes[ic secuciry nmunuoit) lne integracion of whkh may evtotuaUy become iacutennirurjonalized iexclu nuppened reo the ampandinaviiexclm states creand (he Nordic Counci1 There run abo be forrns of instirUti(lnalued communiratlons berween socieries wnich prOldde the transactions and undersrandinli rhat help create ji securi[y community DeUtsch wrote
li the way tu iexclnregrarion domestic or internarionat i$ through rhe achievemem of a srose of community tnut undergirdS insrirurjtms thm ir seems likely [har ao iorreased sense of cotlloounlry would hrlp to snellgtbcn whatever instirutioos - supranatiooal or internacional - are aLreAdy Oltraring
([)euriKh 1957 7--8)
ltgt -_ bullbullbullbull _- _
Demsc-hs work was mken funher in a vnluffie ediretl io 1998 by AdLer and Bllenen (l998) (lLat docs pay sorne attention to ioternariorutl otgilniushydoos Indecd their volume contairu chapters thar rekr ro rhe oseeacute NATO the EU the UN the GnU Cooperarion Cowxil (GCC) aod rhc Assodation uf Soud Eat Asian Niexclttlons (ASEAN) They daim that imetshyruHiomuacute organiexclzauumlons aud iexclnstitutiacutem~ played al lmporum role in elKiltlraging more inteo$ive and extensive ioteracrioos octwttn states rhrough theit uwt-huildiug propenies (Bnrnetr and Adler 1998 418) They lht six corulusions of this snuerneor
bull By moniroting srares agreemenu tntcmatiuacutelwl orpuuacutezatiexcloo~ give them he cooftdente tuacute cooperare io (he ahsencc of trUSt
bull Jnternational O1ganizarions allow Hi1tC$ to discover new areas of muuwl intetellls Tu ponimlar [hey cenoacute ro link panicular areai
bull Inrcmational organizatiom can hdp shape $fllre pracdces by liCtting down nOfOU Ihat define what is acnptablc
bull The iIKTeaiing nwnber of internacionaJ orgamrutions emuuragC$ muldshylatetalim
bull They dIlO eruourage smres lua societies to see rhelll$Clvcs as pan of a resion
bull 1ntildeey can abo shape lhe identiry of rheir memben (Banlett aod Adler 1998 418-20)
The aurhms cWmed char cheir stuJit$ demonmared rhe exrent 10 whkh social cnmmunicadons beomes insrimtioualileJ aOO embedded in lnreroashytional oC8linbatlooslt and in turU how (hese organizatioru express an inreot to dcvelop trUSt end mmwl identificarion (Batnm and AdJer 1998 418) TIe work on sccurity (mmnunidcs is pelhapS at ir strongcu whcn dealing wim the esrablishetl Westcrn democracies rbough llamen and Adlers work shows rhar it may hilve a wider urility
lnlerJciexclnmdcme
Furrhcr emphasi on the growrh JO cnlnsaccions berween l()Cicries can be seen in the worts of Keohane 11l1d Nye who were m che forefront of the iexclnrerocJXndcnce school in rhe lJoited Srnnt fhey puacuteirued our (he conseshyquences of the innease in tldrunarioualucdolU ro che study uf iexclnternncional rdarions Thcit statcing iexclgtoint was sLlnuuarized chus
TraM1latlowJ relations are nolaquo new alrhough che growth of tmnsna~ tklOal orgnnizarion in me twentieth centuty has been specracunr Ye-r our nmremioo iso nor ooly rlur rhe srate-centrk paradigm )$ inade~
quare bur also thar it igt becoming progttSsively more inadequate as changes io inrernational relauumloos take place
(Keohane and Nye 1971 xxv)
The) llsred five omsequemes uf this growth uf inEematiooal inrcracrions ana organizarJ(tIls fur inrerstate politks (1) rhe promntiun of attirude change amongsr driacuterens (2) ao innease io inrernacional pluralism the linkjng of nntiooal Interese groups in tnmsnational strtlCtures usuaHy involving transruttionaI organizations fOI rhe putpoampe of (04)minatioo ltKtohAne and Nyc 1971 xviii) whiacutech has heen lhe basis for much noo~(Jncdontllist wriexcling (3) me cmdon lf dependence and inrerdependcofe IS often associacuteshyarea with intetnilriorutl cranspormrioo and iexclnance Keclune and Nye 1971 xix (4) creating new insrruments fut iexclnfluence for use by sOJne governments over ()(bers (Keuhane aOO Nye 1971 xx) 1100 lt5) dJe emergence cE auronomous acrors wirh priwre ntildelreign policia thar roa) deliberarely oppose Oiacute impinge on Sla(e polides (Krohilne and Nye 1911 xvii)
In a late book (1977) Keohane and Nye dcah with che questioo of imershydependem-e in world poliacutetics io greatet depth Iorecclependencc $lnce tbe Second Wm1d War has- onen cesulted from increasetl ttaosnadonal atciviries and iexcli divided ioto twO sorrs sensltlviry iacutemerdcpeodence (dte muIy effecrs of dULOges jo tranS1lCrJons oc ~()ciacuteetiexcles or govetrunents) md vulnembHhy interdependence where he acrors Hahllhy tc suffet eO$n iacutemposed by extemal evenc~ js (aken inro accoum (Koonane ana Nyc 1977 12-13) In COntrast ro tbe reaisr view of world poHrk Keohane and Nye pm totward che idea type of complcllt imerdependence which chey claimed soroetimes comes dosee ro realiacutety chan does realism (Keohanc attd Nye 1971 23) aod whieh has three nuio characretl$tks it allows fo mulnple rhallne1smiddot- imershyStatC tiansgovernmental and trilnsnationa- conneltring sncieries there i an abserue of hierarchy ilmonS the rnany questions ac inle hetween iexcliexcltates with military securiry no 10nger dominntlng lUly agenda and Millnu-y force 15 not used by governments toward orher governmenu within me laquogion or on [he lssutS where complex intetdcpendence prevaiacutels (Keorutne aoo Nye 1971 25)
These dltee condidons are said by KCQhane aOO Nye to typify fairly weJJ 5Ome LIlAUe$ of global economk md ecological interdependence ami come dose ro chamcrerizing rhe emite relarionship hetWetn sorne cnuntdes (KeolWne and Nye 1911 25) Complex ilterdepcndente glVel rise ro oacuteininctive poliacutetical processes a sute $ goals wiacutell vary by mue arca with mmsgoYernmeotul puumllitics making goab difficut ro define as ttansgovern~ menrnl llClaquo()$ (fof cxample mtfUsrers of agr1cuJmre inte11igente agencies nariona wcather bureaux) pursue their own aims Jhe followiog facwn are reLevant iriexcl eilch issue area
bull iexclhe resourc-es of a Ncue fur thaI particular area are most relevaot radre Ihan the stares overull military ~tre-ngth
bull international nrganizatinm and uansnntional actors wHl be fruloipula[ed as malnr instrumenrs oiacute mue poHcy
bull rhe agenda of issUC$ wi11 be fOrmulated hyebltUlgcs in the power dirmi~ burlon wirhin [he issue alaquollS by rhe pururinn (lf internarional regimes
150 Writings lIlt inttn1atiQrJ41 ergdniutirll1J
by changes jn rhe importance of ttaflstlational acwtS and by linkage froro orher issues
bull linkage between 1sllor$ will be mote difficult for strong naces to undetshyrah ir[orce 1$ downgraded
ft whiJsr linkage by we$k srares rhrough internacional organuumlarions seu agendas helps coalition-wrming and provides arenas for the political acdvity oC weaker states which can use the choice of organizarional forurn [or an issue and rhe mobiliZlition of votes as a politiul resource
(Keohane and Nye 1977 37)
Thm Keuacutehane and Nt gavc inremarjonal organizaciOfls an iroporran[ role in thde compfex interdependence model of world politics a model which whilst not uSlaquo (O explaitt aIl world politics was one which rhey daitned to hllve iacutenfrtasing releYJ1nce in IIlarge and growing area 1ntildeey used an intetnUional organizadon mooel as one of the explanations ror internashytioua regime change that js che lthange in the sets of goveming flrrangernems affening relatioruhips oC interdependence In tMs C$e intershynadonal oJsanisaciolls refeued ro multilevd Iinkage norms and insritutions (Keohane and Nye 1977 54) which once euablished are harJ (O enlAlicate BeCllue o( this rhey may Stand in the way of swes using thdr capabHities In ordec 00 chauge regimes Instead powet outcomCl will be more aJfectcU by votlng power (in the UN General AssemWy for example) ability ro futtl) coalidoos llnd 00 control elite networks (ruch as that founo io clte institushydougt of the European Commnnities) Whilst the complclt illternadorull organizarion mode1 was only Ofle oiacute fOur aJvaucecl by Keohane and Nye ro explain regiffie chAoge tbey Jiu expeomiddott jr to contribute to such chaIlSC in a world where complex interdependence (onditions pertain
1he rontribmions by Keohane and Nye demonstra(e hoth the roncero pf American wtilets iexcln inremationru relariWl in the 1970$ with altemacives to
tite srare-centric model and their wiluumlngness tO draw from more rhan one approach bringiexclng rogether elementogt from che more tradidonal appnJaChes with economic models and non-stare-cenuic dements TIleir Wi)rk does however have certain weaknesle$ Perhaps the mon serious is the use of rhe cerro imerdependence and iexclrs djvisiacuteon iexclnro ~n~itivity and vuinerability imerdependence Anepting rhar inltldeperulence meUlS mutool dependeoce (and [hjs leado to discussiou a~ w how mutual maoy relationihips are) che phrase scnsiuacuteviry imcrdcpendenre scarccly wflrmnu thc use uf the term interdependcnce fhe fault lies wJth che authou loose definiuOfl of depen~ iquestcnce as a oiexcltate (lf being detetmined oc $ignificaruly affected by externa fwces The induskm 0(signi6candy atkcted w~aken5 me urillry uf me cerm so tlme che nOr1on oiacute scusltivity inrtgtrdependence seems ro refer ro any nociceshyaMe cffeltr of ooe srate and society 00 anorher A person may Ix- significandy affectcd by taking drog$ wlthout Ix-ing dependen on chem David Baldwin showcd that mis use of rhe cerro interdependence ran conrrary to the striaer
Writingt ()I inf~_Ji(J1ia ~lfizaJJom 151
lUlderstlllldings (lf the concept fuund in MirhiaveUi Montesquieu and Ronsseall as weU 115 in che works uf twentieth-cemury wrlteI$ such as Norman Angell Francis D(laisi -and Ramsay Muir (ampIdwm 1980 7-9) He snuested the U$C of rhe rerms mutnal influence mutual responsivrness ot mutual scrlitivity insread ofscnsirivity inrerdependeruemiddot (Baldwin 1980 19)
A second cuacutericism uf Keohanc and Nyes books aso concems eheie termishynology In dealing wirh rransnational influentes They [ump tngerheraH types of teiations in whieb non~8overnrnental actOrs participare chus makiflA rhe componenrs of cheir new paradigm shifting aud poorIy defined (Wagoct 1974 440-1) Wagner questioned whetber their work simply demonstrated a shifr in interesr to new areas of intetnational polidts shyespedally elttmomic ones - ana whethcr [he world hM reaUy changed or whether we have iexclUSt overlookcd sorne things a1l along (Wagner 1974 441) The atent of imerdependence wa~ also chaHenged by Waltiquest (1970) anJ Rosecratlce el al (977) in che US and by Lirrle Bnd McKinlay (1978) and Strllivan (978) in rhe Briti~h Uteramre
DespiLe any falling$ Keohlllle and Nye provided insighrs ioto ttamlflashydonal polltics they shifted atrention away fcom p~lrely govcrnmental actOts in inff$rate relarions and they poiutm OUt he impMrance of intetnational organlziexcliexclxions in the intetdepcndence oc at lcast rnurual responsiveness of =
rbe rdormist view of both international celBtiOO1l and iuternational orga- nizar1ons has always provided an rutemative lO the more conservativc cealist approach Ir tended ro be dominated jn the pre-wu petiod by internauacuteonal lawyen and ideaJists but sinee hc Second World War has laoched on to the changell in world poUtics 6tst jn the economic ficld and then in Europe thar have Mn more difficulty to explain in ICliIHst term~ It has sten intcrna~ rionnl organizarions as mlans to manage trends such as iucftI$(d economl( intlrdlpcndcoC( bar hll5 also illtceplcU rhat these organizations mar necorne impoftllm aCtoriexcl (lO che wodd st$ge lhemselves and can cettainiy Iacute)(cnrne involved iexclO changing rhe preferences o( governmeflts
RADICALS
Writers covered in this sccrion iCe rhe intcrnadonal sysrem flOt so much as being domlnlltcd by states bn( more by diUerent divisions 01 its peoplcs Thi$ is noe to Sfly fhat chey ignore surtes They cOflsider them elthet w be ks tmportant chan the iquestjjsions of diUS tit wealth or merely ro refI~ct these othcr factors ot w be roadblo(ks to unky in (he fare Qf mote impomllt chalmiddot renga Power ls seefl as belnamp cxercised by eh( wealthy II1ld privileged and open to cha1Jeuge Change in the system is possibl( but onty through srrll8ge or by an awakenjug pf peoples tQ rhetr real sitllatlon Most iexclnter~ natimal organization~ are thus regarded as (eflccrioos of the currcnt unsruisracwry stare uf aiacuteTairs though $fJme more activist orgauhatioos mar llave potential as vehicles or (hange
This SIoacuteCElOn has betn sub-middotdivided imo rhree gthe fUS( are the econ01nk srructuralists and indude Marxists and Third Wocld wruumlers cririclll of rhe cutrem imernruionallyuem They haacuteve in common a belief mar che polltshyiexclcal srructUres of me world halle leeo wbloned mainiexcly by eltonomic fiiexclctors and rhAr mere has bren an intiacuteJUIllity builr imo the presen sytem lhe recood are the cruumliral app~es who5e radicalilifl1 is mure of the iacutemellec~ cual SOrt They rejeCf - Uf at 19$[ question - Jhatly of rhe usumpcions utlderlying be lIiews ofhe world tepresented by the realists and refotmers Finally mere are the globalim Theit perspective ls planerary ana theiacuter rnain conrtrn h fM rhc survival uf Earth Agilln they challcnge che mme statemiddotbuled approaches of both realjsts and reformers
Stnuturaluacutet lIiews
Ihe srructuralist appmiexclch rO (he swcly of inrematioOlIl relations differs In imporrant wars tO thoee of me realists and refotmuu tbough ir has some elemeou in comroon with mands ofb04h schools As roany of (he neo-realistsshyemphasite (he power scructure of wudd potities this sectiacuteon willlimir jwgtlf ro (hose writers roncerned wich the impacr 00 me political S)Srem of rhe wodds ccooomic strucrure Unliacuteke che ttalist approach the erooomk srrucruralisrs are OOr jUSt concemed with swtts io wodd polilla and rhelr economic and poIitkal differencC$ but alw with the divisioru within f1tld berween SoOCieties (WiIIeas 1990 263) They are [heretOre romerncd witl the rifi berween riel iexclmd poor within scares and rhar herwtto udl and poor glohally This leads ro an interese lO trulSlUirional reladoru as well as in inrergo~romenmt links Th(f have this in corrunon wim refPrtllist views bm diexclfier foom chem in (he emphast~ placeoacute on rhe structures of world pollics beinc formuared by eltooomic fiexcliexclcmn In rhis selttion attentioo wilt be given te MarxiS[ wtlletS lIud sume Thir1 Wodd view$ - partiuilarly (hose of rhe cependency sdlOOf and rhe developmemalj~[II - who have made a cootribution quite separare from rhat of rhe Muxiacutesr uadidon
Marxill laquoewl
There is no one Marxisr interptetariacuteon of me role of imerniexcliexcltional Olganiza~ cions in world politics Sur Manis[ approschf3 have certain elements in common and form a di~dnctive 5ch001 of rhough[ about lnrernartonal telamiddot tions generaHy and therefore ahotu international ocganizadoos These appmaches are based 00 du writiflgS of Karl Marx (l818~) in coshyoperarioo witb Fuacutewrich Engels (1820-95) with perhaps tbe gtearest later conrribution being maJe by VL Lenin kader of (he 1917 fo1shevik revolushydon in Rurna They are cf importanee pany becau1e ehey ficm tlle 00515 for mmmuniSt [hinking and (hm mey have an anactunenr m rhe Soviet Unian whieh WIlS be suongc1t commnuist stare unrII 1991 and EO rhe Peoples Republic of China COlUT1UnJSl sinee 1949 Apan ftom lbis ManiS( beliefs
had a irmng inpur mm Wescern imdleltrual cruoking and conunue ro iruoan some viewi abom wodd politics in rhe Third Wodd
Neither Marx no Mancisrs took rhe stare ro be (he curtency of iacutenteInashy(iexclonal relations Unlike (he realist viewpoints chey did fiO( coruider interactions blaquoween soveteigu ltates to be ofovettidi importance UnHke tbe funcrionalists aud other modem Westetn views rbar srress non-stare actocs Marxiexclsts in particular emphasized cbus relatlonships born wiexclrhin nates and IiCOOSS Stare boundaries Indeed ie is diffku[r ro talle only of a MaIXIacutest view of inrernatiooal re1atioll5 lec ttltme of iorernarional orgnniza~ UumlOOy as rhis separares ene particular aspecr of human behavinur tor MIlIXIsr rrearment divorcing ir from the undedying relleCS of Marxlc beliefs Man-ism provides a framcwok of undemanding by whkh ir iacutes daimed ~ociery pan lind vresen can be explaioed and che furure development of mankiexclnd determined
According ro Maf1 relariooshipamp between people and the futm~ mar insdmdooallzed rhose relatienshfpamp depended on rhe economic $truCtUR of soday fhe way rhat productlon was organized He traced the history of dvilixed maokind through five hiuorical staBes - AAjade mdenr feudal capttalin and socialin - which have ditTereru dominant methods of produc~ tioll leadiog 10 a complirared arrnngement of $OCiety ioto various ordetS 11 manifuld graduadon of sociru tank (Marx llnd Boge1s 1965 40) amph form of sorlef has coutained rhe conflictual divisiQl$ which help [Q tranuacuteorm the narun of rhat $Ocjeey coRrradicrioru in the mode ofpcoducfIacuteon placed srrain nn rhe existing social nrder sharpeniug rhe divide berween economic founshydatinn of sociery and a mpld aansIacuteonnlltion of in SOpel1Ullcture in legal polidcal and re1igious it1$tirutioos Thus by 11 confronration of da$~ Conrramiddot dkeions one historlraJ form of soc1ery wus transfocmcd into a bigher stage uf social devdopmem the history of aH hitherto existing ~ociexclety is the histoty uf dass struggles (MaDI Illld Bngets 15 39) Marx and Bnsels were parriculady conceroed wich capita1i$t sociery - ac its Oeyday during theiacuter Uves - and its tmnsrormarion iexcluto ampocis1iu sodety Wlthln rrus form of SoOCiety rOete would be no division of laboU4 and no eWses Illld no SUtes no elCpropnation of labours 5urplus vruue I1nd (bus no private property 00 exploira(ion of ene clilllS ny iexcliexcloother with 00 need fue war
For Marx and fingeJs C1ass then and noiexcl fllltions or sutea are rhe bade units in hurO) llIIIl che struggle between clAssts Jnstead oiacute infeutliltl contlict ocrupies rhe centre of acrention (Berki 1971 R1iexcl From me nlneteenth celUUf onwards rhis struggle -n in Marxisr cerros has been primarUy between [his capicalist dass ([he OOurgeoisic) aOO the bbouring dw (me proletariat) AA (he trarurormatlon fmm capltalisr SoOCIety [O ~OCialiexclMl ro comrounism rook p~e (he superstruerutt of bourgtOis SoOCilaquoy - religioo national divisiacuteon boutgmis politicnl insrirudnns rhe SOlte - woold be swept flway and in Engtls pmse rhe gOlcrotnent nf persons is replaced by [he udminlsuacion of things Fetter 19 (47) with me itEte relegated lO the mmeum iexclngemer Wlth lile spinshyning wheel Qnd [he bronze axe (Feuer 1969 433)
154 WrituacutetKiexclI mJenl4tiorJal rngmZtlJilm
Mux saw the European SUtes of his own rime as being rntans by which the ruBng dass (011amp oppress the work~ng clw by using (he agentl of tht 5tare such as the iudidary the poliee the army and rhe church he (xrerual Ilctlvities of the stare wete also determined by its Chtss namre MeanwhiJe rrmllnat]onat Rlations of a more meaningfuL kind WQuld bt creared by trade rhe movement of capital and incteaiitd romac[ and llOIacuteldarity betwten the prolerariat of vanoulS nations riacuteidefd rhe internacional nriexclaniutions of which Marx and Engels hnd dire(t experiena- wtfe the Fi~t Internatiomd and for Engels the Secund lntemarional both of which atttmpted lO orgashynJxe the represemarives of wruking people aiexclros fronden Onc~ agaJn this stteAAe$ the Marxist empbois on transnarional dass relutions rnther than on intentate relarionships
Whibt Soviet writlngs on international organizatinn1 wtte falrly desulshytory in Scalins reigu 0924-53) rhey did lmerIy hernld rbe move towams peaceful co-existerne arul roreshadowffi the lartf rnrhe[ restrktive view of Imch organi2Atinm hy Soviet commentators
In the post-Second Wodd War period and In patticular in the post-Stalin era Soviet liternmre on international organiuttions bl(lSsomed This has reflected Soviet membership oC ma1ly 1osiexcl-1945 organixations the emershygence of a socialist bloc of sta[C$ and tbe incre-ase in the mlmber of Sowcreign s[ates all flUtontilde demaruHng a more sophisricared Soviet view of lnter~llate reLadoru than che survivalism of Stalins period Uuring rhe lare 19805 i( auo ret1ected the new thinking iacutemroduced by Gorbachev
StalintI suIXessor KrU$hchev developed a revised view of internacional relaCtons which gave a positio1l ro the emerging Third Wnrhl (Tbe Third Wotld was then taken to mean rhotle IItates thar had emerged ftom colo~ nialiacutesm In effect rhe terrn later induded tbe stares of Latin America Africa - exclnding the rhen apaftbeid stnre of South Africa - the Middle Rasr Oceaniacutea and South Asia) Peace(ul co-exiuence between oda1ist and (apltaJisr states WM $til comidered nece1sary but this diacuted noc predude the ideologiacutecal stmggle between rhe two campsmiddot iexclndeed lhe Soviet inter~ national lawyer GI Ihnkiacuten wrote pearcfut cocx15tence of sutes represeonng che tWO differeor rodal sysems is a slccific form uf dass struggie beween socialism and calitllllsm (Osakwe 1972 37) The Soviet Union abo deveJoped relatlons wirh rbe newly emerging exshycoloniaJ cOllntdeJ and Soviet writiog had tu take ~ount of this developmem There wru a recognirion of a third group of stattli between rhe capitalist aud the communlsr that of poteorially friendly indtptomiddot deut $tarem io Europe and Asia such as India Egypt Indnnesia and Yugoslavia which would filrm a tone of peace Although the rebtions wiacuteth rhe capitaliacutest sures sriacuteH remaioecl embedded in pelteful coshyexluencc rhere was an emphasis by postmiddotStalinist Soviet writets on the da eJement in lile telatiomhil - that is rhe wntact with progressive elements in Weste1l sodeey smh as che Jabonr mnvement Ncither diexcld peaceful co-exiucuce rule OUt ~upport o[ middotjUSt wars of nationallibcrildon
WIacuteJIacute11gs tm iacutenUrllUtional WjatlJZtiacutelJlff 155
iexclndeed ir was seen lt a strategy fo wodd reloludon Fiacutenally (he rrlashyfIacuteonhips berween the Sovier Union and East Eumpean countries vere deerned ro be based on sociali internationalism posmlating a haemony of natinnal and commllnity interests and mndllding thar jnde~ndeuce and sovereioiexclnty of a soctalist uate means aoove aH indepltndencc from capitalism (Red Star 1 December 18)
Tunkin underljned traditional Soviet thiacutenking rllar the mngtrltllenl imrrllment of an ioretnational urganization (fne example the Chaner oiacute the UN) was all-impottant in derermining tIte enene rrun the otganizauumlon bad an international legal pcntildeonaliry rhar iexcl5 a standing in internacional 1l1w 5imilar tu titar of a sovereigo staxe Examining lhe question of the antonomOllS wiU oiacute international nrganitatioll Tunldn allowed thl1 they need not jmt act as agtnts for member stares
In imernatiunal ptacrke trellties conduded by jntcrl~ational mSaniacutezashytinns take their speciaJ piare as treacies by wbkh internationsl organimtiom aequire righu and take upon themselves cerrain obligiexcllshytioos Intctnat10nal organizatiou are created by Hares hey are broughr iexclnto being by states but the actloacuteos of imcmational organi7ashydoos are nlt)( in any way de facto or de jure ro be tqt1sred lO the actions of scates
(Osakwe J972 23)
Thi did nor mean than M internadonal organiacuteiariexclon was an entity indeshypendem of its memher us[es as any powers (har they hacl were delegated by [he members In Jine wirh che ampwiet doctrine of peareful co-exiacutesteme Tunkin placed Uress pn (he nature and rhe membership of an international organiacuteution dlOSe which drew their membersbip from commlmi1t c1Ipishytalist and TIiexclird World tares could expcct tu be genel1llly mognized as having an incernarional personaliacutery He wrote
TIte namre of tontemporary international prganiurions is lO a very great exttm derefmined by [he existerue of Haces beJonging ro differem wcio-economk systems and the ioevitable muggle between them Thar is why pcaceful crexislence is now the bl-sic condition of rh~ dfVC1iexclpshyment ufgeneral interoational ntganization
(Osltuumlltwlt 1972 289)
Mor07JN Clt1ntrlbuterl sorne extra points Fintildet be iududed JNGOs in his stndy He wrote dlQt lotetnational orgaruulions have as iI rol 8t least three member coumries TheM may be government$ offidJ orgilnlzarions or 0CInshy
guvernmental organizatiow (Morowv 1977 30) In a 11Iter seccion m NGo thcy were ldencifred as che la~ group of inrerrulttonal organiuttiolls wim two aspccn rbar concttntd socuIacuteiacuteIgtt commemarors tbe NGOriexcl auirude towards the preservarion of pealaquo wkh the Wnrld Feieradon ofTrade Unions
6 _ 0
rhe Wodd Fedemion oE Democratk Youth and otber meiexclllbtrs oiacute tbe Sovittshybacked World Peace (ounaacutel gaining special mentioo and the specialiuJ chataCrer of sorne NGOs itl(h as rhe ruerrutriunal Couocil of Scientifu Unions and che Scienrifk OJmmiuee on Antnrctk Research MOrlrLOv memioned how NGOs can belp emblish a social dimate citillg their contti shybution ro (he setdemenr of a number of internacional confHcu swh as dlilr in Vietnam He aOO dealr wirh the role of che NGOs io cbe UN aud che consuJshyrative srarus [hey llave witn lGOs saying du[ smdems of internariooal affitjoiexcl
in [he socjalisr councrics m critieal of many asplaquots of (his system fur the eoruulrarive StatuS amogemenrs stiU fall shon of wha( [he deveJopmenc of modern inretnatlonal relarions in fac[ catls fur (Morozov 1977 43) Tbe specialized namre ufNGOs Wamp1 atttibuted by M((2OV tu
tht increased Jnfiuence of the pubic at large un roreign polky [he grearer iexclmpat of public opininn in imernatiunal reladuns and [he greater importante uf me ideological fiexclUtot 10 $ucb relations Accoum should abo be raen of che proccsses of cconomic developmenr and [he coosequenc~ of [he scienrific and rechnological tevolutioo which has also led ro a greatet number of speoacutealized NGOs
(Morozov 1977 42)
Second Morozov wridog jo d~ late 197amp made moU pos-irive refershyencelgt (O [he role oiacute Trurd Wodd SUtes in imemaciooa otganimrions He noted rbar rbe emetgtoce oiacute ti large oumbe of Oung natiooal stares h8ve kd fO che emetgcnce of intetnarJonal Drganizadons among develcpi08 ecuoshytries (Mororov 1977 29) aod claimed hat partkiparion in (hese organh311oos is part uf he process uf consolidating their sovereigocy and ruuional jndependenu~ aod of wlviog cheir pressing ecoOfJmic anJ orher pmbemsmiddot (Morozov 1177 31)
Finally Momzov developed the puint made by fimkin aOOut he limited llalUre of ioternationaJ organiurjQn$ - ~econd-dllSS ffitrnbers nf the inrershynarloual sysrem as opposed tu rhe firsr-diexcllSS members SQvereJgn stateiexcl by reretcme tO theit dedsioos There bave resulted froro che inrelllctioo of politicuJ euroorces within the organil1ldons and
Thecombined will uf chcse lGOs i5 disuumlnc[ from [he wllls of theuuml indishyvidual members io in eflSenlte and ln in narure The v1ilflous wills in thb case are nor agsregued arirhmetically each one exim indepenshydendy ur oside a homogeneQu~ socio-political gOUP wirbin whose frarnework (hey can be combjlled
(Murozov 1977 34)
AfLer lhe comiog ro powet ofMikhail Gorbachev in the Soviet Union io 19Bgt a Ihaoge rook place jo $oVJIl policies rowards imeroadonal relations irutuding international organi1ations and [his has been reflecred in new
~ M-- bull 6_V_
Soviet writings un [he subJect Gorbachev inttoducetl a owjor review of [he fureign poljcy uf the Soviet Union (har marchcd rhe inremiry of his dmncslic refotmS He encouraged new rhinking- based on a revjeJ vlew of che world siruation Peaceful co-existence wirh iexclhe capiralisr tirares WlCgt no looger seeo a~ being a spetjfic fum of dass srruggle as Tunkin had written bUI 35 being in the commoo intecesu oiacute all countriCl Ir WIi$ predishycued on the neOO fin surviva of (he human nce which in ShakhfUlZOlrQvmiddot$ word$ must ofCOUIse take fim place Lighe 1988 297gt- Thjs ml$or rhar a new COIKeuropt of seGldty had ro he adopreJ hy che Soviers rhar oiacute common security which wa5 based un sume of he ideas of -che Palme Comminion (see he1ow) Greater emphasis wu given ro arms control and dlsarmament agreemenrs wirh the Wesr 11nd to co-opttation in international uffuirs whilst Soviet intervention io che Third Wodd enbed and milirary 5UppOtC 1m [he East European communisr govcfomentS WlS withdrawn
Soviet wdcings on inremurionilJ relations both offidal and academic came to mirror Gorhachevs new rhJnkiog bur eho lilete iexcl$ evety sigo chut rbese id~ were dmwu no only from rhe Wesr but alw Uacutenm Moscow mink-tanks slleh as lMEMO th~ JflSIirure of World Eronomy and Inremlfona Relacions) Liacuteght 1988 29~n Gorbschev aun his forngn minisrer FQllard Shevaronadre gave rhe academiacuten a Breen light for funher diSClViiacuteon ud debare (Shevaronadre 1990 23) As II reampul srudies examlned he role of che Uniacutered Nariacuteons as sn ugem for peoce (Kolyrev 1990 12-19 NesrerenkQ 1990 65 Petoovsky 1990 42--3) and rhe mte of inrernational or811nizadons in environmental mliLffers IiLnd disurmamenc qutsdmuuml Chodsulkwsky 1988j NikitiM 1989 123-32 Roginko 1989 133-43) and internarionallaw was teassesred (Sutier 1989~ 363-75)
Once che Sovier Union collapsed many of me wrifetS losr rhe main point of political reference A nwllber Iefi academc orhets adapted thelt ideas ro WCtem oues and a few remnioed as policy rulviseni ro che new Russian goVefrutJenL However cornmunism as M imellectually dominant organiuog rotce wlch pnliiisJ dour had djsappeared in Russia togerllef with much uf the persptr1ve ir provided - wben seen thmugh me unen distotdng leos uf tbe Sovier lfulon - oiacute inrernatiooaJ relatlons and inremariooal organhattnru
Chinese Marxisr wrirers have iexclargeIy reflected rhe views of the leadershyship in Chinll sioce [he coming ro power of rhe Commun1sr Patty in 1949 Undl (he 1970$ communist China was elduded from almon aH iotttllJishytional of811nizIiLtIOns and ie is flot surpriamping tha whae lirde writing tbete WUtl on the st1bje(r Wal fairly dismiacutesampive usuaUy consisdng uf coudemnaM tinos of (he UN fnf its action tn Korea aud rhe security allianes fot teir hegernonic narure Chjnese Marxisr rhinking hiacuteu divided (he modem wotld jnro three groups ihe Birsr World consisred of rile fWQ imperialist superpowers namely he USA ano the USSR The Second World was made up uf otbet areaa uf advamed industrilllired cnuntries primariacutely EUfape aod Japa which were opea ro donunariou by lite Sllperpowers bu( which could $tan a dialogue wirh rhe Thiacuterd World Theu (here was rhe Third
158 Writings OtJ internationdl organizatioru
Wodcl iexcltreI( coruisting of the Afro-Asiacutean-Lario Americltlu sta tes supported in their muggte aAainSt Picsr World imperialism by Chinls This viexclew of the wmId colouted tyJst Chiacutenese wridngs on iacuteoternatiollill oeganharions Tbe $uperJowers were seen as cynical lTlllnipubtors Qf inrernarionaJ jnsti~ tutions Mao Tre~tuog wOre of US poliey towards such insdfutions Ir mam use or them when it neOOS rhem and kicks them 3way when ir does flot (Society (or Anglo-Chinese Underuanding 1979 42) US-domioated pill-~ such amp$ SEATO and imperialist groupiacutengs like rhe Alliance tor PfOgre~( wttt detided Spedal viuiot was saved roc the Warsaw freaty Orgaoizatiun whieh in one aetide was described as Soviet sodal~ imperialisms mol fur aggression (Ming Sung circd Jn Chen 1979 194) fhe Soviet Union was aceuseQ of trying tu manipulate che Pan and negnshydate wlth Wesrem eouorries rhmugh the Enropean Scltwiry Conferenee tn consolidare irs begemonic status in Basrern Enrope at the same time iexcliexcll dividiog Wes(ern Europe squeezing Out the USA ro as ro muSte way (0(
iu expansion and infilrmrion into Westem Europe (Ming Sung clted in Chen 1979 197)
Chinese writecs Fegatded tbe Ntildegttood Worid espedally Western Europe as being a pen force io telmS of imperialism which Ww tdponeed to the lhird World wich diaJogu as io the Jmueacute Convention berweoen tIacute1e European Commnnitiacutees and AF~ican Carib~an and Paciuacutet srUe5
Furrhermore the defensive $spects of NATO were sttessed and with growing European cohcsion the trend iexclS IJkely to ~ towatds a fuoce in which the American elemenr is seen as 1 temporary neceuity eventual1y to be phased out (Sodety fur Anglo-Chioese Undetstanding 1979 90)
lthe countries of the Third World were setn as coostirotiog rbe mluumln force comb$dng imperiaJi~m colonialism and hegemonJsm reEerring nor only to the vestiges of Wesr Etl-OOptan foloniiexcliexclJism bOl abo to US iexclnpetlshyalism and gwwiog Soviet soci$l~imperiacutea1ism Tbe Third Wodd eQuld hdp tn exclude the gre$t powers ny baoding cogecher io such otganizatinos aiexcl tht DAU aod rhey could work ro correct unequiexcliexcl nade and eeonomk reladons with che sUpetpowers through UN iexcliexclgeucies and eonferences such as UNCTAD and UNaos Abo rtlW material ancl exporting orgllnizations liexclke OPEC rbe Incernadonal Bauxilaquo Association ancl the Onion of Banana Bxporting Counuies were proised a ehanging (he old interntlrional eumomic Ome and banerlog che biggest roarerJal plunderers in rile world rhe United Srates and (he Soviet Uoleo (Ptking Rt1Jiew 26 Septtmbtr 1975 cited in Cheo 1979 309)
111e poverty oiacute ehinne study of intetnatlenal erganhuions no dounr caused by the lack of Chinese membership of such etganizacions unril the 197amp and the turmoit ef the Cultural Revulution eiexcliexclme ro an enel by the 1980s Jnstead oere was a more reaHs( viexclew (lE rbe worlcl iexclf one S~shytimes coucbed In Manlst terms In Chlnese univenittes there was a growtb io detailed studies of iutemationalntgsnizations aod the nuropean Union
WritingI un inlmullPmnl vrgrsrtilpiill1J 159
Tbird Wwld vlewJ
Many Third Wodd Afro-Asian aoo Latin Atrusican) writers 00 jntemsw
tional organizaion have adopte a structtulIist framework and are particufarly nm(etnecl abour how insdtutions can be wcd as tools of exploitadon uf rhe nitd World aud how $ome cau be used lIS agenrs of libenuion They llave nor been induded in the ~ettiexcloo un Marxist viltws (or three feamm nOI al of them are Mandst thIJM who are Manisr place particular stresS on (he posicion oF thE l1lIacuterd World and as ThJrd Worlcl eitizens they have through theit own experience unother pe~cdve rhan [Mt of writers from industri$lized srates
Yash 18ndon (1978 377) has identjfied thNf nuacuterd World penfIXrives en inrernational Olganizatiolls Fim [here is that or the bourgeois Of perry natiunalisrs who are in power in mos[ Third World statcs and who are progressive in [errru of anti-impcrialism but are rraniollary ro the C1tccnr WC they would sooner mau thcir pcaee with imperialism rhan iluwnder power (e the masses and peasancs This group uses ineernational orgllniexclm~ tions ro pur presrure 0lI imperialisc states in order to extntCt concession5 from them and appease tbe masses in their own coontries TIley see che UN as an opportunity to parley witb their entwhiacutele impecild masters t a presumed kvd uf equa1iry (Tandoo 1978 365) Thc scltond pcrspective is rhat ofthe reaIly backward regimes of thl Thitd Wodd such un Taiwiexcliexcln and Jotdan or whnm intemarional orguniacutelattnnS are of margJna1 signifieance [)t they prefet tu dea wirh impcrialism iquestirt(tiy The rhird petSPCCrive idenrified by landOll is that uf rhe masses vi thc TIlird World for wbom toterntlunaJ orgmilAriom are petiphewl fin liS Jong as hey rontinue fO reflect the muing balanlte uf clas$ forces in hvour uf impeuacuteJism (fandon J 978 378) Sioce the ene of he 196amp rorces representing thu third group have bccome lnott prominent in world polido in che form of liberarioo groop1 lttCn as tbe PLO and whilst chese have f)tgten interested in galnin8 telaquolgnJtlon rOt rhemshyselves at the UN and the spedaliled agcodes rhey are not depeuden 00 these or8ani1Jlton~ rndecd Tandoo romioeted (hat fo che revoludonary snnggles in SOUfh~E3SC A~a and AfrJctI iOfernattonal otgilnizalJons are tOO peripheml to be of much $ignilJeaoce (Tandon )9713 377)
Tancloo providcd n inrere~tiog history of the Jevelopment uf the anrishycolonialist forees in che Third Wruld sinee 1945 bur hi~ clivi~iexcl()H iexcloro he three perspenives is roo stark leaving aside rhe leil important backWllro regimes be has basiclllly grO~lped tbe Third World leadershp joto the revoshylutionaries who have Uttle netd (or imernatiooa otgllnizatiooll and those who llave suumlpped into refOrmism and have beco duped iot() bdieving (hat they elln ehaoge chelr c1ependeoce 00 industtia1i1Cd nBfiexclmL~ lhrough intemadonal organiwtions Thjs seems to undelsrare me use or ~mh organishyzations by revolutionllry groups - especiiexcliexcllIy che PLO anel tlle SoUthem African liberadon OtgllOiexcl7arionS - whieb have made substaotial use oiacute [he UN me Arah League ano the OAU tO sustain rhe polirical aspeets of theit effOrt5 1t alS(l uverestimatcs the extent tu whieh the Third World countries
J UU wnlmgl 1111 JTiUrllamm41 ergtIttJ1I0fll
have any iUwinru about imetnariooal Qrganizarioos such a~ UNC1~D
Furchermorc the identificador of 800d revolutionaries and falten refurmislS i~ tuller impliexclstjc~ rhe maIur sponrot of the UNs New Ecooomic Order l wruch Tandon hal roudemned as rhe Old Economic Order with a diffefent rltetoric WIIS the Algetian radinu governmenr of Boumediemu rhe PLO irself ha heen dependem on a numlgttr of bnurgeWs Arab goveromenrs foc financial 00 diploJUlltic suppon and ro Tandoos duumlertion that PQr narlonallibemwn movemenn guided by a proktatlan idoology such liS rhose in Chifliexcl1 lIlud Vietnam iruemarionaJ organlwtlona WtU of no 1J5e can be- added the re5ervarion until chey carne (O power Whiht ir took some twenty years belote communist Qtill1 made use nf suth organiutions the unified communiSl Stale ol Vietnam was quick fO cake up it position in the UN ro ask [Ol aid thtough UN agencies liS well as w become ji membet of he CMEA (Comecon)
Third Wodd commemscOt1l on world politics have emphasized the nature uf rheir atea$ potirical ecoOoacutemtc Ilud culmral relatloosluumlp wilh rhe iHdllsrriexcl~ alixed Nonh TitilO is iOO$t Oflltl rypified aiexcliexcl bciug OHe of ueo-folonialism _ COntrol of che Third Wtltld by lhe Nortb by indirecl means ratlet (han by direa colonial tule and of Kf)IomIacute( dRptwJmry (o dtpmdemjiexcliexcl) lntetnationaiacute rdsdOOi bcrween sures are sublumed ro relations between claue$ world wide Ixtween on rhe one lIand the expluacuteiting impetialist capitetists in rhe northcm iru1usuialized couotries 2100 rhcir middle-ltlass collaboratotS in the 50Uthem SUtes aud on the othet band he exploiced masses rhe proleuriat ol [he $Ourhern contJnems The Lurcr gmupS have been 1I1iide ecooomkaUy dependent on [he furmer so char hey lIre in rhe wuacutetds uf the Bruiliiln T Dos SantOS in a situadon jn which the economy of a cetuin group of counshytrles is condiacutedoned by rhe develOplllent aad expansion of aoother ecouomy lO which thcit own 15 subjecred (Bodenheimer 1971 327)
The uOOerdeveloped tounrries depend uacuten [be developed ror their capital nd ercperdse they find key sectors of ehdr eroooroy conrrolled from OUtsJde rhey act as a SOUfce of raw marerials lIS ji lthetip source of labour arul as a rnarket fur mllnuf8ccurers from Euttipe ]apan and North America As thejr living standards were deterrniud by rhe vicissinWeS of the Northern~ dominated wodd marker the relationship was Otle uf unequa exchange (he [esule of which was a world experiencing woequal developmenr with a developed rieh indwtriaJiud capiralisr Notthern centre and d poor underdeveklpedgt agciculrutitlly backwarn eXFloired periphery in che 50mb The dependem 80mh has been divided berween rhe ptedominanr undemeshyveloped area~ lUld a few Cenfres of deve10prnenr wirh their ttade culrural rraffie and polidcal linL to [he deveJoped North - rhe depeOOem develop~ memo omlinea by EH Cardosa (1974) allodlt~r Bruiliall Mmir Amiu (977) rejC(ted the prosptltt of aH antonomous capitalist development in [he Third Work the oew bourgeaisJe of Lacin Ametica Africa and Asia were in allianec with capitalisrs from rhe Nnnh and rhe mato $OUrce of finance ror lmported equipmem was fmm the expon of raw materials to rhe indu~rial
5 ~ _~ smiddot_middot~~
iexclred smes Amin (1977 1-21) SllW rhe can made ror a New Imernational Ecooomic Order (NIEO) by Third World leaders at rbe UN UNCTAD aod che Vilrlous North-Sourh dialogues as an nrtempt LO iexclnerease the price of chelr ntw mattIial exporrs obraio more lmpotted technol08Y snd chus finance a new srage of develQpmenr He saw this ti placing the Thitd World more in the gttp of the neo-co1onialist sysrem and iostmd recommended 11
more self~rcuumlanr development wlrh murrud assismnce between Third World sures a reducdon in [ade wirh rhe induuialized wotld and Chlll a loos~ ening of dependenre Amin lJke TaOOon had Jittle fairh in presenc imtrnruional organizaciexclon Il tools foc fasbiooing a more independent Tbiacuten Wotd His sU88tl1cion of grearer mUtual ilSlgtistaoce between ThUd WorId uate~ implied somtthing more sophillticated than a numbtr of bilateral arrmgements As rbe present orgauizarions used fu iexclncm~Thjrd World cnshyoperation (che OAU he Atab League ASEAN) are domitllued by jusr dl()llC govetnmenrg chM accept lhe eowse coodemned by Amio _ the NIEO ami greater jmegrndon iexcluro rhe world economic sysrem ~hen Amia solutloil involves like-minded deveJoping counrries or more like1y political changes leading ro such indigenous intemuional orgilniwrions
Other Trufd Wodd wdten have plllCtXl emphasls on grearer use 01 exisring insdtutions lOO can broadJy be deKfibed lIS Wopmenraluli huI Prebisch an Argentinian econOmigf has not only studied the que5iaacuteon uf ecooomic dependency but his ideas llave been used as the baJiexclis for che wotk of cwo miexclljoc iexcliexcluemariOOiexcll1 organizadons rhe UN Enmomic Commission fa utin Ameriea (ECLA) and UNCfAD Iu his smdy of Briliacutesh-Argerl(inian trading relntioflS Prebisch bad idenrified rhe unequRl tecrns ol Hade between he favoured (ndusrrislized s(ate of tbe centre and he les privj~ leged llOIl-indumialiacutewl periphery Prebisch unlike rhe dependencia gtChool of Amiacuten Dos Sancos and Cardosa believed thu this inequaLity could be overcome by political acrinn by trade pre[ereonces fuvouring the pedphery by eoo1ruooiacutery agreemenrs by intelnatiacuteowll aid and by more foreiga imvestment in che ~riphery It was thele remedies thiexcllr Prebiacutesch eneouraged when he WiIS Executive SecrCrary of ECLA from 1955 lO 1963 aOO Secrewy-Genernl ofUNCTAD ftoro 14 ro 196tL In~d rhe amoum of aid the periphery needed in omer to overeome their Unfuvoluable rrnde balance became known io UNCTAD clrcles as [he Prebiexclsch Giexcllp
The distinguished Afiican aC1ldentie Aji Mazn1i has wricren un the plighr Qf (bar conciflfnt aod j~ role in pmem~day interruUIDllfl1 afmits He soughr ro answer rhe quesdon Now rlw Imperial Order is eoming ro an end who is going tO keep rhe peaee in Aampica and tu examine he concept of Pax AfrlclllUl the African s ambidoo ro be his OWh palaman The JXIliacutecillJS and se[f~8overnment ufAfriea depended on the nodan ofan African self which Mauui discusseJ in decaH He considered how this 1ndepen~ denre might be threarened by the politicaI and cultural fragmenMion of the contillenr Ellld eronomieally by deperulence on Europe He quoted Kwame Nkntmah finr President uf Ghaniexcll on rhe Europe-Jn ECOntunir Communiry
162 Wilihgr rm intd1JatirmallJrganizatimu
ihe ireaty of Romemarks the advent of oeoKolonitJism [n Afriacuteen snd bears unqutSrlonably the marks of Freneh neo-colonuumlllism (Murui 1967 93) He moduded from tM that Wlut AfrlOlns tbelaquofore neecletl was II
renerru authotity of cheir owa tI) ((lordilJlte fheir eltonomk and policicat deCena- sgain5t trus rnreat (Mamtiexcl 1961 93)
Given this theme it is not surprising tlwt Mazrui ser srore by rhe OAU bU[ he was realistic in bis judgement
In relatioos betwlaquon African statts lIOflesr step rowards Pu Africana was taken when rhe Organiution oiacute Aftlaquolln Uniey set up in Commissiacuteon ofMediauacuteoo Conci1illtion aud Arhitmion
Anormr OAU Commissioo of relevance fot Fax AftlOlna ls che Defence Cornmission Sor me Defeme Commlnion 1w se Car been among che lean effecdve QfPan-Aiacutericun ins(kndons Afrka mar indeed aspire to be her owu ptlliceman bur she does nO seem ready as yel to par the price iacutem it
(Mauui 19612[3)
Mazrui oudined the varicd backgrounds of [he lemen oiacute newly illdepenshydent Africa and thdr radical and revolmionary ideas and it is pethaps swprising rhat the insrirutions rhey created fur me coutinenf wete so mnservative with [he p05sible exceprion oiacute the OAUs Natiomtl Libetttion Comminee Mazrui no[ed thac Africa srill has the problem of how othet powetS respond tu its behaviour and [har forcigo iotmsilm in AJtica continued Indetd the I990s proved tO be a dC(ade of disusrer for AfrieR The debiacute burden contimlld while Ilome states collapsed lnro civil war ami others took to iutenoendoo in thejr ueighbonrs affairs Outslde interference from borh Enrope and North Amecica euodoned One of rhe fcw brlghr spots was the end of apallhcid in South Africa and the peaceful transitioo ro majoriry mJe lo al thiexcl~ tn quote Juliacuteus Nyerere rhe ampcmer pre~iexcldenl of Tan1ania The OAU exists outr ror tbe prorecdoo of (he Afrinllt Head~ oiacute State (cited io AlilgapPltl 1998 1 ) The relarive optimism of Maztui has giveu way ro Afriam writers examining sorne of me disrnrbing details of inaction by [be OAU and regtonal orgauiacutezatJuns nlCh as ECOWAS beiog used as doaks fu the machinations oE regional hegemou$ suth as Nigcria (Mibe 1m 61-9(1)
Radha Sinha$ problem--ortented undy Food iexcllfId PIWt11y (1976) has an IItgent message Sinha a former consultaot of the FAO prodnced an iofuacuterrned aUllyiexcljiexcl of the world$ food problem stress1Og in paniacutecular the maldistribution of food and other resources Noting he profO$ab of UNCTAD with heit muld-rommodJty approach and buffer nocks provjshySiOfli he commented rhe grearesr weakness oE the UNCTAD scheme js les Hkdy politlca1 unilcceptablliry ro me developed (ountdes parriculady che USA (Sinhil 1916 114) a propheey that has proved to he cortect He identitled a more aggresslve attitnde by Third World sutes e5pedally
WrilirrgJ on i1tternatiflii1l rHgarrtzatitmlt 163shy
after the uH prite cise of 197314 when the developing coonuies tried to maximize their own market powers by formin cartcls such as rhe Intematimlal BaurdtC Association the Intemuional Coundl of Copper Expotcing Countries aud the Intema[ional Tin Agrcrmenr He gave n qualified wekome ro the Lomeacute Convention betwcen the European (omrounities anJ cenain African Padfic and Caribbean Haces Writing in 1976 he commented
The receot cbange in rhe luirudes of tite tiche countries is largely due tu the incIeasing miliuncy of the Third World countries lt is almost ertalll utar the magnitude offuture cnnc~sions in me coune ofGAIT aud UNCTAD IV Ilegotiarioos wiU deperu mainly on (he continued solidariry uf the devdoping counlrtes
(Siha 1976 116)
Sinha was pardy correct as tbe solidatity cf rhe Tbird Workl states cracked se the induurialized wodd withheld funher Con(eampSJoru but ir was able tO do so because market condidons swung against che primaty producen
In his condusion Sinha called ror a IIDre1 shttting of wnrld t($nmes and power if confrontarion was ro he avoidOO He feared that the ffa of roshyoptradon berween [ieh and pool conntries hiid ((lT1e to an end and that batde lines were being drawn Instead he advOOIreltI majnr concessions from the dcher coumries on trnde lInd aid issues and a1so a ma~lt te$ltUcrnring of the incematiotlill organization~ aoo negoacutetiating ffiarhinery in order tu provide a much gtC2ter say fm me poorer countries in internatiooal tJ1lde invesrment and mooetaiexcly armngemenrs (SiMa 1976 132) GAn 1BRD aud IMF have been the presenoe of [he ri h with voting weighted m faacutevour of rhe OECD countries and Sinha re(()ffimended thlll GATr aoo UNCiAD be merged inro an Intemacional irade Organization (ITO) and che creatlon of a Third World permanent secrctariat iexclnvolved in all trade and aia negoriarioru Thoogh less radical than Amin Sinha aIso recomrnrnded gttter coshyoperation berween developing coulltries and an eoo ro their inkrtotity complex with instead a sense of m~ttnal sdiacute-e$teem and trust being devel~ oped (Sinha 1976 ch 10) Litde that h~ happened during the 19905 woo1d have encouraged Sinha The World iratle Organiaadon has emerged as the presenoe of the dlVelupeJ tares and lw brushed aside many of thc mucerns cf UNCTAD Debr ha~ edged on ro dlt wudd iexclagenda but mainly at the beheS[
of a non-governmental organization )ubiacutelec 2000 nd the promi$e~ of the main financill jnsrirutluru lO pursue dcbc-rclicf produred but a thiniexclmfl
In aH Third WQrld commenrarors have provided a vatied and lively approruh fOwards tne problems uf intetniexclational organizarions Their emphasis has niltntaHy beCl Qn tbe use of wurld lmtirutions to change the econornic condidon or the Southern cominents As this enndition is likely to worscn in the near filrtltf further more lJica conrtibutions on the rule oC
-- --- ~- __ _~- __- imernatIacuteonal orgaoilarions in Nonh-Smuh relarJons tOiexclghf be apected from rhe Third Worid A1ternaciveJy wrirers (mm rhat ares rmy jW ltIacuteespUacutet rm imergovemmemal orgaoizarions ar lealaquo Mee rhem $O Hrrle
Cfili~ald~heJ
Critica approadvs lO the nudy uf intetnadonal relations are (hose har rejee( the dominating vleW1iexcli repr=med by tbe realist and reformistS as oudined aboye In paHicular rhey reglUd realists as apologisu for the currem con6gutltion of power 10 (he wiexcldd sytem and considet [har rhe refOnntstS are elrher unable ro undersraoo he fUe llamee )( (hi sysrem oc ille UDwiUing to accepc rilar ir needs more rhan mooest refotlllS TIlOugh they may sympalhi-ze wirh rhe agenda of some Marxists aud Third World wt1cers chey do [lO( llave rhe hisrockal certaimy of the former not rarely do they have the experience and perspective of ehe larter TItey view intenUishy(jnl1ill nrganiutions wirh a jaundiced eye as these are mainly the lll$tmmenfS of rhose who dominare rhe syuem This section COlllaios an wcoum nf three approaches tmt of the critical rheorlsti- of kmintsc wrirshy[1185 ulld pose~mooernismlt
Cri(~1 herJrY The approach of critical theory 10 JnrematlonaJ o(ganizatiooll iSi determtoed by their wider world-view which in itsclf is explaiiexclwd by tbeir llame One of the leading exponents Roben Cox said [har ie is cririca1 in cne Jensc rha h srands apan 100m che prevailiog order of rhe wOlld and asks how tb$t oroer came iexcllPouc Ir does nor r-ake existing irucimtioM lIl1KI JIQwer relaclons rOl granred bu c311s them iacutemo queuion Ir 1S diexclrlaquoced ro rhe social itnd JIQiirshyical complex as a wItole rarhet (hall he stparate pirtt IUthet than subdiide and Imic an examination of a problem it looks al the wger pkturc of whkh rhe problem is jwt oue part and trio rO wJdeThwod the processeS uf change ill which botIt pans ulld whole ure involved laquo(ox 1993 277~S)
Ai a thoory cridQiIacute theory rejeen tbe daims of posicivism of an external Nulity and to be mue-free ror critkal rheorIacutests koowledge ti nor moraUy IleUc1ll1 ic is more che result of the social background of tbose Wt hold ir Given this ctitkal tbeory alJows foc a normarive choice in favoU of a social ancl iexclJlieiexcl(ld order diflerent f(cm rhe prevruHng arder bur it limiu the ruuse 01 chotce ti a1remative orders which are feasibJe mmsformations ofme cxvaing worJd h musr rejEC[ improbable alternadVe8 ju~t as ir rejecrs rhe pcrmanctlly nr lhe exiscing order (Cox 19 90)
Cridcal rheory differs lrom Marxist upproElchcs beCElUS( of iu tejection nf any daim to hold the objenive tru[h and betause or it~ avoidance of (he pmslllt ol il utopia Neverrhe1ess [heir analysis of incernarional relarln1l$ is one tbu hEls u numher of similariuumles wich the Marxisc pcrspecdve It regurds rhl tlistlng suucrures of world polirics as beiug oppressie not
- _ __ _-
lean because of rhe dominance of (he capitalism of che Unired StElte~ For many che USA is seco as a hegemonic power the prevailing urder - in re[ms rbar reReet he wrirings of the Itallan Marxisc writer Amonio Gramscl (1891-1932) Gramsd advanced the nodon of ln hisrori(middot bloc which in itself refilaquors che $Ocial reladons oE ptoducdoo The dominanr dass in a counrty - 01 indeed aoy social grouping - mlinrains cohesion and idenciry withio [he bloc [hrough the ptopagacion of a COIDmOfl culturegt A new bloc can be formelt when a subordinate dau can euablish tU hegeshymony over orher subotdioate gtOllpS (Cox 1993 56--7) The IDove rowuds hegemony comeS with the piexclt$ting fmm che spediacutek inrercsrs ofa gronp Ol
dass tO rhe building uf inrimdons aOO elaoorarion uf ideologies (Cox 1993 57-8) It Loiexcl rhat ptOCe$S thar embeds the incemu of the dominanc dan in an imttmrional form thae [w an appeal widet [ban that dan ine1f It the-refole repreSoems mote tlmn jUSt (he drunJnaoce oE one state ovec anocher bllt implies a cemufi acceptante of the tules arJd institutions purouized by [he hegemonic JIQwer Jo other woros it is all order wbicb most Olher Sta[e-~ (01 at 1enst those within reath of die hegernouy) couId find compatible- wirh their iexclmetem (Cox 1993 6t) h aJso involves noe just inttt-staee rueivirle5 bur rhose oiacute tlvilliOCiety (oon-Stllte socieM instishycudons) ebereby encoumging Hnks between social dus$ts iexcln the connules covered by ebe hegemony
What does Cox llave to uy about ioccmational Otgsniuciexclons 1bey Ilre scen in he oontext ofme wiacuteoo unaemanduuml18 of itnernational reUacuteltions mentloned iexcliexclhove He is direcr 000t mem Ooc mechanisru chrough wruch the universal norms of a wodd hegemony are expttssed js the interoatiooal organisation (Cox 1993 62) Why is chis so Cox U993 62) gives five teIlSons
bull They e-mbody rules cOae help (be- apwlSion of a hegemonic wodd iexclrder These insdwrians reflcct the intererts ()( the dominam social anil economic force- buc a1low a cettain amOunt oC adjusrment ro accommodare other subordinared interests TIms the USA WllS preplltoo ro mm conccssions to
bciI18 in Lhe EU srares and Japan ro rhe Wotld Trade Otganizatimt They a[e prooucrs of that order Though [he insrimrions and rules Ilce
nurITlllUy initiared by the hegemook power ir takes cate ro involve aOO comule a numbe-r of second-ronk stares and gaio theit supporc he Wotld Bank and Inte[nacional Mooetaty Fund were very much pan of [he world order thar emerged afrer [he Second World Wat and which was dominared by rhe Uoiced Stlres
They ltgidmi7e i[s nOlms by providing guidance for SllIteS and by legitshyimiuacuteulS cerraIacuten IlCdviries Ilr me narional leveL he OBCD afie rhe inrerruuiooal financia) irntuumluriom lave spread an acceptante of mllrket coodirions and sHict mOllerary iexclJlides
They co-opr elites from pelipheral counrrie Ihlented sraH commg 110m the Thiacuterd Wocld are expected tO dCCept he scriexclpt wcittttt by the domishynam power Bouuos Bourros-Ghati as Secteury General uf the Unired
166 Jiexclljiexclr1giexcl Qr1 ifJfCflrttuacutemal IWgaizati(ifJJ
Nadons stroyed too amp~r ftOm the gtip of Washinston and his second term was VCtoM by rhe USA His sucecssor Kofi Annan will no doubt undentand what 1$ n-quired of him He brings the mncerns of orhe states ro che UN bUf nor in a way thu threatt1l$ the USA
bull They absorb counter-hegemonic ideas Ideaiexcl $uch as 1iustainable dlYClop_ ment tukl even debr foTgiwness are taken 00 board by the intetnatwnal finarnial institlltion$ blu are trandirmel into pulido rhat swt them
Wh~t is ro be done Cox thinks thar the pfQblem of changiog dw world orUer 1iMuld be shlfred back from intern~tional insritutions tO niexcllriacuteooal $OIacuteishyeties where the sodo-political b~se for a new historie bloc mighr be ereated (Cox 1993 64) FaiJing the creadon of a new historie bloc of the new working cla$s and rural and urb~o marginal groups there might be tnmdorshymadon oC the curtent monopoly-libcral hegemony by adjusting to rhe demanJs oiacute local ello$ for polides 5uch as natlonaHution Cox 199~ 65) He aw advocates te-regulation of erooomies and a re-wmpositjon of civil sodery Internatiotla lnstlcutions induding organiutions can berome eontact puint1i fOr new $OCia[ furtt (Cox 1994 (11)
Critica throrJm $uch as Cox oifee a refreshing exposidon oiacute che posidofl oC imernatiooal ofganizatioos in a wocld where the main revolutionary powe~ have either collapsed (rhe Soviet Union) or se(tled into a cautious ronservatirun (China) Ir provlde~ a sceptical arf realisric world~view without acreptins tbe inevuumlahility ni a illture domlnared by mooopoly eapi~ ujsm sud the Utlired States J-Iowevtr its appllcariexclon to intemationa1 organhatJons 11 StImewha( timited tQ the maln global jnsdm(jons and th financial and economlc orgmiutions Ir has 1m (O say aboue regional nrgashynjudon Uf abour N(JUacutes Furthermore iu alternarive fu(ure testS on ourcoroes thu are far froro certain RevnJutlons in the Thied World are roore likely to be- irupired by nadondi$m oc by IsJaroic fllndamentaHfl OCalaquoely [he solid ooses for new historie blocs
Fwinuumll aNml4cbts
Feminist perspcctives 0f1 inttmatlonal rtlatioos llave in common wirh the erit~ ical rheocillu a rejclaquoion of (he dominance in rhe $Ilbjecr of the rcnHst and rdOrmisrs Although fuminist writen cover a wide 5laquolpe the gencral basis oiacute their aqurnent 1S har in interwnional relatioM ru in most politkal aud tcooomk acdvity women are diexclSJtdvantagt~l Alchoogh they own ahour 1 pet tCfH oC the worlJs lfOpeny and tiexcliexclxe heme 10 peiacute ceoc ofincome they perfurm 60 per eenr of working houn and provide 80 per eent of nfusets (petetsen and Runyan 1993 6) This is a derDOnstrndon of gender inequalitie~ the sodalJy learned behavior and expecratioos thar distioguish berween maKuliniry and femininity (Petetsen and Runpn 1993 5) Feminist aprroaches ofren So bejond the $tati~tks and examine (he mind~se[ of those engaged in the pmctice of intemadonal rdations whiexclch (bey ampee as geodered In other woros che world
Writingc Off inlmhJliofMl vrgntiZdlMm 167
illeen in a mlLlndine way thar kvrntB (he posjtiOll o( mnles in rhe hitgtranhy and devlllues the c041trihution of WQmeO (Sylvestet 1994) War in pattKular is gendered in a way chat keeps wornen and metl from qUtstioniog the essentiat pmpose and he neglltive effects of war militarization ~nd viQleme on their awn and orhers livts (Petetsen and Ruoyan J993 9 t)
What of wminist view$ uf imernationaJ organizationsr Ir IS not possible ro presem a rollf(tive vjew that eneomp3$~e~ rhe works of radicaJ femjnisu and ny iexclihetal teminists (rutead the work of one author Sandra Whitworth (1997) will be used as me pily$ rornt attrntion ro inrernarlonal organizations Aamper inrroductions ro feminilfr theory and internacional frIamiddot tiom and gendet and internacional relatlons Whirworrh examines geodet and imernational organilions She screpts Coxs vjew oiacute inrernational orgashynjzarions [har they retleltr (he dominant powet relations in che intetnational system and rhae internaliomd otgaoiution h che procelt of imcitntionaJshyiling and regulating conOice - eicher rhat which may IIrise among siexclates o( char which has iu (onU io transnationaI society (Cox 1980 375) TIte way duu pcople orgaoire themelve$ wirhin international iostirurjons reflects a variety of power relations ineludi~ of rollJSe gendec relatiull3 (Whitworth 1997 74) lbe triad of jnstirutions ideas and material rQudi~ tioru help ro hxare uSllmptiolls aboue geoocr withiu jntetmltional rewtioos Whitworth uses thesr tn examine lhe uooerstandillg oiacuteScndec io an INGO the Internadonal PlarUled ParenthooJ Federatlou (JPPF) and an intergnvemmental organilJ1rion (albcir one wlrh some oOl1-governmentJ)J represemation) the InrernatlonaL lab01lrOtganiution (no)
Whirworths studies show rhar thr IPPF tended ro accept the deshyemphasizlng oi the gendered oamfr of reproducdoo and (f) ignore rhe imponaoce ofbirth comcol foc womens reproductive freroom Instead in an effort tu popularize birth rontrol srrel~ WWl placoo on paremhooJ rather than iexclust the womans choice However IPPF poUcy beeiexcllme more radirnl in (he 19905- with Hnks beirtg made berween II1M control alld womeos ~)tu~ ality (WbJtworth 1997 ch 4 pmim)
The RO eoucerned itself with WQmen as workern It cnnsidercd that tbey oeeded spec-ial atrention and promoted ptoteCtlvt legiexcl~lacion This reiexcln~ forced me view (har [he male worxer Wall the norm with women workers nor deserving the same rights remunfration lOO mndirions Latterly however the JLO ha~ reflectoo views rhat prodaim wornens elt)ualily in rhe workforce and has sunoo tuacute assess the importanee of policies on womens role in rhe workplace as weU as in sodery more wjdely (Whlrwnrth J997 ch 5 panm) Whitworth comes [O the eondusion rhu iexclln iexcllnaLyiexcli~ of gernler in rbe IPPF and no shows how tbese rdiexcliexcldonsbips llnd definirions ni what it is to be a womltn oc man are structuted relationsrups3nd hlsrQciudly hve been scrurtured tu disadvantage women (ibid 15n
lo eommon with the critkal meorists Whitworth has useQ au examinamiddot doo of two intetnational organixations (O deroonstrate a puinr about imerflational relatiexclon~ indeed sodal rctatrol1s mOte widely The poinr is
I1
I
middot - ~-_ --___ aOOuc powec and iu use not (O balance oue SCdre ligaiOSf anorher but fm une gooup ro domiaare morher Jn chis case it 1$ ma the dominution of one dass me m culcnre over $ofU)(her (though Whirworrh recognizes those reLationshyships ti wcll) but of roen over women The crititUl uudy oiacute (wo jnceraational mganirations dealing with iSSlle5 recoSniud ti beiiexclg oiacute impocshycanee or WOfficn suggesu rha( tltOO simihu research on orher internacional organizadons could proJuce interening aOO uwfuiexcl resulrs
Pllit~ism
Thc posc-moderruacutesr $opprooch lO intetaarional rcllldon is one tlur bas (ome ro che fote Jn che perlod sinee lite end of rhe Cold War Jr is based on $o widcr imellectual viewpoim insrigated by l1rench iorcUtcruals of the 196()s gener~ ation _ Bllrrhes Derrida FouclIul and Lyorard - and whkh suggested rhat the modero era liad becn overome 11 fejeas mera-nattatives gnlud accounv- of hi5tory aoa iacuteNIacuteler subjecu as having no independem rubstance Scientifk btliefs induding [hose oiacute rhe $)(ial scJcllces are rooted in (lllxure polill(os arul mores oJ a wciery and are lherekJre subjective As rhere is 00
oblcctive reality cmpirical daims bave fl() spccial sunding in rhe rralms of koowledge IndeeJ ir i$ power aod knowledge are intimatel) incerwirud Posr-moJernism Hllnds against rhe belief of rbe modero pcfiod which LI seco as beginning wiacuterh rhe enlightenmcm of mid-eightcenth cenrufy Europe and AmeriCll Ir rheldore rejcn~ rhe COMCpr$ oC rationalirl and progrcss aSSuacutedared wi(h [he enlighrenment and [he moocrn age Thc uniry of IOOnkind iexclirW iexcldells such liS rhe untveIsWiI) of human aacuteghrs are rejcuoo lnsceadlocal aetion in smallgroups 15 advuacuteClmd
Post-modetnist ideas have affected tite srOOy of inremruionaJ rdarions as (bey have ocher social scienccs Posr-modern imeraarional relariops theoriscs havc ustd heir view$ 00 objecuumlviry (o exiexcltmine che rrmhs of international relatiom en see how rhe concepts iexclind knowledge-dairm (bar dominare the Jisdpline in faer are highiy conringenr on spccific power relatiom (Smith 1997 181) Post-modemisrs bave lltfa(red me mcta-narratives of the reelshy1m and reformlsu aHke The objectiacutevemiddot aaallses of the realim Ilnd neo-realisu are setn as being deJl(nclent on the subjective standpojnts of cheif mainly Amen(an and Europeau authors Ijcharcl amphiel (1986 258) daimed he works o[ Kenneth Waler men the leading neo-realillt trrat the glven ordcr a rhe natural nrder Jjmirs rarheE (lian 1XpawU political discllUtse negales oc rriviuliliS the signifinnce uf variely urOiS time and plue Whar emerges ii an ideology tllar anridpatcs iegirimires ancl onents a totalitarian projen 01 global ptoponioo~ che rattoualiaciuacuten of global poHcics iexclbe reformius are likcwise tainted Md have Ji mhr$lren belief in pmgress The posc-modernl$rs poinr m rh Helocausr as rhe heighr oiacute mooemism a rombimiddot Halioe of science dnd polidcal otganizillnon Il was SCruTely progreso
Given an antifllthy mwards rhe MlVe[iacute~ign srae borh as a centre of powet ll1ld as a crearioll Jiten imbutol wlth a wncepltliexcl uf progress pest~miexclJdetniexclsls
wHungJ mi Im~iexcliexclrun wgltiIRrzuJlU7iJ 1J7
can lOUcdy be expcctcd to vIacuteew intergovernmencal organiUlrions wirh sympilthy Tbe prefetted iacuteonu of internacional organizations when mentioned are those thiexcltt ltlj~plal differemes snd dlvenity in global pelitlcil duu are reginnaUy based or rhar reflec irKlividual actlOn Tndecd ir SeeIJS
rbat Michel Fomawt was involved with an alliance oiacute twO INGOs (Miquestdecin du Monde and Tertl-s do Hommes) in proresting agaiust internadonal iH~shydon over rhe boat people who flcd Vietnam in tite lare 1970s and ear1y 19S(k He is gU()[ed 11$ sayillg tbar Amnelltl Internnrlonal Teueiexcl dts Hommes Mfiiecin du Monde lHt inirilltives whiacutech have created a nrw righr rile dAht of privare individuss ro iexclntervene in [he otder of polino and internatioont snateg(eiexcl (dred in CampheH 1998 516)
Aootber researcher has exnmined ~he Europcan Communities Ilr che point wben Jr was mnslorming intO me European Unioo and askOO whether ir was a pootmodew ConJigUflHton (Nstrgaard 1994) Hi condusions wcre mar ir was gualiwiveJy a new organizarion oC human calJecrlvJties which mighr U$hec the coming of post-moderniry (Ntgttgnatd 1994 27j) The basis fO[ [bis judgemem was rhat me Ee did nO approximate anl modero form of piexcliexcl1idUll Ofpnizarion it did OOt commatld che means oiacute violence its au[hotity derives noc from die people and ir appeared to be a fCgJoo trying ro pOrecr itiexcliexclelf againsr globaliacutezadun iacuteN0rgaaro 1994 274--5) Ir remllins ro be sren whether [he BU tJf [he twenry-first cenrury wHl fu1fi1 rhtgtse hopes Ot wiU stllrr ro teVen
to a more scate-like being Generall) dIe cririolapproaches ro interruHiorud relarious hiexclJve provided
1lOOIe innovatIacuteve insigllls iexclnro rhe study uf imemarional orgsnizations The crtrical theorists llave becn sh3rpest in rheir unde[$(iexcltnding nf internarional ofgiexclt1lizacious as servsnrs of a dominiexcliexclIf power configuracion thoogh the) lave pemaps Umieed cbelr scope wllen viewing internacional organizadons Feminis[ wJiters ruave given Vltike to whac i5 after aH tbe scmi-sileut majoric) in rhe world and Ilre ouly srarting in qnest10niug the male dOmimiddot nance nuacutet iexclusr of the nmning of IGOs huc aloo of theic agenda Tite post-modemisrs are iMlSr concerned oiacute he (bree 8rOUp5 with inretnationlll organiucioru as such bllr rIacuteleic intellecrual approach is the ffiOSt tadkal aud can lelld tuuml a fnon of nihilism
GltJbaliacutesf lIiu
A gIobalisr perspective does oor viacuteew world poliacutetica as being predomishynandl arout iotergovernmemal relatlnn~ Ili would realisu or illbour inrentare aruI imersocietal rdations as a number uf reformisu llliexclll consider lnsteaacuted it cakes a more holisdc view Problems are (cmfronred ac Ji global level wlurions have tO be sou8ht here as weil This iexcls not ro neglcct (he 10tal Ol rhe ~tlte level ir is more J recognilion of the limiutshydoos of acdviuumles rhere The world-vicw like rhe reformists places empllasu on whal unIacutetes people Ilnd has lirde time for lhe demaoos of power pouumlics aad stare-cemrir orglLuiwrjollS Ir goe~ fllrther by nor
1 V WNimgJ lJ7f tIfernattmiexcliexclJ 11fK4111141tOnJ
liminog in view eirhec ro pans of che world or ro rellltions berweeo particuJar poliric~ lr ioded jlLSr m the economic social and poJitical demaods of mankind Paradoxically ir can be seen as IIn approach rhe very OppoSllC of the fimctionalist wirb whom tbere 5 much io common In nmtrast lO rhe fnnctionaHst (or neo-fllnctiooalisr or intetclependeuce srhuul) and ccrrainly in contrast ro rhe powet politks aOO MaOIacuteIt writers (be whole world approach places emphasis not 00 the discrere r~uiexclreshymems of groups SClteiexcl or individulI1s bm 00 tbe wel1-bciog of the tCOsystem in which rhf5f funnioll cbe planet Eanh The conccen of chis apptoach which is rcflccted il] in ttcumeUr of illternational urganizatiom is for the survival of lhe plunet for its effident funccioning in its widest SeILie aud fot che survival oiacute rhe myriad oiacute speoacutees - ollly one of which is homo sapiens - tbat inhabh me globe
Sinle tbe 196Os a number of wtiters on imernational affairs have expounded 00 tbis view and llave cOl1l~uendy ronsideted the implicadons for intemational organizacions Jobfl Button in bis World Society ronsldeted iflmstatt relations to be onIy a pan of wodd poli[iacutea and wrore
lf we employ rhe term world rociety imiexclreui of internanofla relarions iIacute we apptoo(h OUt study in this global way insread of the more tradi~ lonal nattonal way we will end to have a wider focos ro ask quesrions rhat are moee fundlmenral aOO imponant lO civilization and be ahle ro assess bettet me relevance of om own national bduviour ro be wider worW envifonment
(Button 1972 21)
Rkhacd Stetling posed the problem more spedfically
Nuclear esCllatiofl the popullltion explosion the pollmiofl of tbe envishyronmcnt the communkations rtvolurion rbe world~wide concentNdon of wC1llch and world~wide expansiofl of pltlvcrty are iexcliexcl11 essemially global and not 1laquo al pbellomena They have given rise jn tutn ro eartbshyspamuacutellg and revolutionary demands ror mass education rnass hesltb malts welfure and maltgts participation in che dccisions affecting roans fare
(Srerling 1974 322)
This wodd-view of rhe problems of the s)Jaceamphip EQlth begged fur global oolutlofl$ It suggcsred iexclhu not onIy iJ the system of sovereign stares as yer unable oc unwiHing to COme to grips with the above-menuontd prohlelUS but that a network of llllergoVCtn1lental organiutlom bGsed 00 me rights of statc wVfretgnt will ~lso be hammllng Globtl problems needed global solutlons based on institutinos rhat can (ake a global petsplaquoshytive Thus Sterling considetecl thllt it ~ tlOt unreasooable (O amidpate tme tbe member stares will be moved ro considft equippifllil the Unitw Nttous witb mote crunprebensive powen 1lt global pressUfes build 0974 323)
~h~ laquoo ~gt~ _- -gt bullbull (_bullbullbull __ - bullbull
A more compeluumlng cdH wus lAltiexclued by Barban Ward and Rene Dubas in their book prepared for [he UN Gmference of ehe Humafl EnVJroJlmenl 01lly UIIt EaFlh The c~ altJ Mdilllt1JatfCe (JI d Sflall Pta~t (972) 111ey stremsed the ufliry of tbe Eanh Jnd in eovironment and the )Jroblems in(ed by Jts iohabitants emntially thost oudined by SterJiog The ~uthoflgt poillted OUt rhat rhF envitonmenral qmosrion had by 1972 already had 50me impaltl on guvernments and im(rnarional organl1Jtion but the effior was somewhat ltInJOrdinated and unfocuseL In (hree particular aren - tbe global atmosphere rhe oceaml the worlds weather sysrellU - tbt-y saw [bl jmmediate neOO for (OmInOn poliey und co-ocdinared actiollS where vcerenshysions to national sovercigmy have no relevance ro ptrreived problems Bu rbefe was a need to go furrher and denl wirh other global problems di5Case srarvation iHitmcy unemployrnem ovcfllwding rntetnational poliCJcs wece at the 5tage reachOO wlrhin rhe devdoping s[ate~ of the ninettTtb (entury Elche they wiU move O to a wmmIlJlity bL~ro UiexclXIIl a more systematic sharin8 of weaJtb Ot tbey wiH break down in revoh and anareby (Wacd and Dubos 1972 295- -6) They Looked forward ro a sense of gLobal rommuniry 00seJ on he bope vf Irotecdon (from war aOO disaster) and the hope of enhancemenr (ecologic$1 as well as economid The ptlKtic~ and insrirutlofiS with whkh we are familiar inide our domestk sociecies would become suitably modlfied che basis of planetary oroer (Ward aOO Dubos 1972 297-8) This woold indude non~violent settlement of disputes witb legal arbirration ~nd polioacuteng ptocedures on an international basis jr would mea the Hansfer uf resoucces from rkh ro peor Ilnd inerCllSlaquo co-operaeion in arealt 5uch as health and edUcatIO farming uroon planning aud )JOlJution control As [befe halt been a shift of loyalty rom taroliy to dan from dan to tlation and from nation to fedctation there Wampll
hope clajmoo Wl1fd and Dubo$ for an ultimare lnyalty tuacute OUt single beau~ tifulllud vulnerable Planet Eanh (Ward and Dubas 1972 298)
Whilst the institutiona fmmework and organizational stfllCtuteS remain of necenity -ague in Oltl OM EaFtA iacutet is del( rhat the authors Wfre atming 11( a tlttwork oiacute world-wide fflnctionaUy hased organlzatiofll (both lOOs and JNGOs) char couId take on much of the work )JfCsendy done by governshymems o( rather whkh ougbt [O be dont by governmems UacuteJter writing-s have attempted (O deal wjth thc policy impliration$ of delllJng with )JrobshyJems globdly sroos (986) has poiacutenred en what 1w already been achieved in gtobal problem solving l1nd ha~ soughr ro buHd on rhis His critio have prunted out tha( what has already becn undertiacutelken has bren done more along rradicional Jntergovernmentallines (Donnelly 1990 121-30) Orbe writen have tied rubievemen[ in addressiacuteng [he global agenda more to renewed rutiviry in the UN (Rochester 1990 141-54) or to greater grass~ roots aud INOO acriviSffi Wget 1990 155-~8) Either way globaJj~m offeacuters a distinct W1ly of rackling the worlds ptublem~ It 1$ u ViIOIl thar sttesiexcles uniey and common (am( ntthet than disasreemem and roofrontashytion ir (ould thereIacuteore (oresce disputes being sruved inlernationally vety
much in (he way tbar chey are pre~ndy solvcd within tunny MtiOO iexclrares by more ro arbitratwn and Jaw and by entorcemenf ir neteS$il1) In this rhey have muh in COIDfllOfi wirh tire imerrnuiona lawyers iacuteUld idenlist writer of me eady (wenuacuteeh eemury mentioned at the beginning of tbu chaptet The globalisn are inspirecl jn rheir thinking more by ten Ot lt nudeal holocatlsr and by environmenml breakdown tnan by rhe duumleet elrpeshytieme uf wa dlllf aiacutefected rhe wricings of Woolf ol Ikierly
TIacutete globalisl appro~(h is opert ro the criticism of bcing roo idealistk jn a cynical world and lOO iIDpracrical in in uacutelstitutional sU8scsrioll5 Bur the di$mi$Slil oC rh~ words as globaloney cKleS HOt lid lite wctld oC che probw lems which hey have 50 effectively publiacutedzed They lutve uied to add anorIte dimensioacuten ro whar is possibte by showlng thar ie is nOCeSSiexcllty fOl rhe iexclurviwl of che planee
Tlle radical approach to the smdy oC iOternational orgllnizarions reflocu worIdmiddotvitws that normaUy lO beyond -dmse Jominated by rhe ltctivities of iexcltatcs or of LIte organizltuumlnns chemselves There is a sceprical view of whut is happeoing al soy one uacuteme in imernarional celarions and of he abilicy of mOfe cradicional wcifecs on imernafional cdarions ro explain let aJone llOderstand what is happeoing Ir is the feeling rhar approaches such ll1 (he MaNisr tlwt of rhe ideal theorisrs and some of rhe globuli~rs ur~ coming cber (O uodemaoding humanicys wider dilemmas rhar makes rhero so amactive They ar~ less Iikdy co apply rhemselves to rhe defais rutd wnrk~ ings oiacute p$cdcular imernatinnaJ organizations but neverrheless providt iotriguiog insighrs 00 [his phenomenoo by seeing rhem rhrollgh mol panoprk phHosophical lenses
SUMMARY
The rhree flIajor $chuols dealr wich io chis chaprer - the tcatiacuten the reformisrs iacutei1d che radical$ and rhe variarions (bey contain did not and do tlOf exJn iexcln a hiSforlcaj vacnum lde-as Wele foffilulared wirhio lhe COnten oiacute panicular sodedcs uoo in response ltO pUticular problems rbe communl (adom reYoludon of fhe nineteemb century the Finr World Wlli rhe rise of Nui Germany the spreading of nudeu weapons the deve1opmeof of plthitshy
$econd Workl War Europe fbe pnxeues of decoloniwion and deacuteteme rhe end oiacute the Cold War and rhe advaoce oiacute che inCormatton revolution In sorne CilSC$ the views oiacute rhose wdtings on inttmiddotrnational ocganUatlOHS have liad un efiecr on evenrs rhemelves pirlKulatly 00 rbe actitudes oC govetnrnents mwards tnternatiorW orgdflixauons AIl tXample is the work oC LecnarJ Woolf woose suggesnons Ctmceming a world organizatloo conttibuted lO fhe detailed preparnion oC the Lague oC Nations by me British goveltr mene Likewise Hans Morgeruhau and EK Can provided seimuli fot infiiexclrmoo US and Btirish governmcllul rhinking abom inrerruuional rela~ tiom iexclrom the 194Ck onwards In mher cases rhe general writings cJ persons lgtuch as Marx Leoin Mao Tse-tung and che dependencia school have affecred
rhe poJirk1ll dimare wirhin which govemmcncs conduce rheJe poUcy iucluding thar wwards jnternaclorull otgauj~atjon$
Orber ruCfOf$ aplft froro their historial cuntexc Iuve affencd the views of rhe schunl$ rncntioned They have differint backgtounJs io cheit ideruogy (Wesrero commllniSf Third World radical environmenralisr) and in theit level of $nalysis of inrernarional rebtions (stare Centuacutec inretesr aoo rramna~ dona groups cLitraquo dominanr global) This a(icca the typC oC inrernatiacuteonal organizariacuteon dominam io their studies (IGOs INCo) auJ thcic 8eograph~ kai $rea of interest (the Nonh Adandc Europe ThinJ WodJ Ot global)
TIte range of wcitings about intetnational organizarions has ull dte whole teflecfeJ wiJec llooersundings of imetoational ceJarions and wuumltld polidcs These io rhernselves have fed 00 tbe gtVidc iacutellccUecmal fcnnent and on developrnenrs in world affiuacuters Viewl about iacutellteftlational ocgsnizatJoos wiU continue ro take accOlnt of the ince1leeruaJ debate ill the studjes oiacute polishydes internacional re1atioO$ philosophy ecooomics imematluacutellal uw sociology histoty and geogrilphy They will also reflecto among other ampcton che stntcegk balance in tbe world [he relafIacuteve power of tiJe United Stares aod oroer nares me scate of wotld markers [be pto-ess uf Euwpeiexcliexcln tlllegrashytion che relacive positloo of the developing warIdgt iexclbe levd of cootlicc througbolc the world fhe -ratC of dte environfneot and the ahility oiacute huge StatCS to wiacutethswnd cenrrifttgal force Tbe way tIacuteult imematiornal organiuiexclshydons ret1ect tbese developrnents and tIacuteleir t1Ipability lO deal wich some of them will provide (he tllW fiWifcrial foc funue smdies
146 Writi~5 cm lI1lMfatleuromal orgfll1iutl1ltl
whi(h coinoacutedemally happenoo a yeat liexclater Euttiexclpean voren werc faeed increasingly wirh mu(h harder options inflation versus employment tlnde union righu againsr consumer inrerests The poISibllity was thar bcing a good European might mean aHowiog sorne other COUlltry5 ruuionals to explott ones fish or oH The crearion oiacute a Single Enropean Marker within the Ee by the end of [992 and rhe move rowards a single curteney from 1999 by eleven theo (wdve of rhe HU member litares bmught he activi~ ties of the VOlon do~er lO the wodd of tite coosnmer or worker However chis seem iexclf anything to have iocreased rhe alienariacuteon of voten from rhe institntions aM acrivilies of rhe EU The 2000 election for rne Europeao Parliamenr shnwed the lowest tnroour yer in sllfh direct elections ano Enrobarometer opini()fi poUs have demonstrnred a msative trend in public opinion on che EU rnropaeuintknmmdgl0epoebc-b531p3npdO Ir may be thar a oumbcr uf interest groups llave switched rhrir expecta6ons and poJiexclcical activirics tuwatds the 00 bllt many of the ordinary European V(l(fS seemed ro have failed ro trans[er th~ir lnyalties tu he Union
In surnmaty the neo-functlona1ists mok np Mitranys srudy of rhe a-lashydons betwren group~ and individllals in oHferent sures il5 wellas che sta(cs representativtltl They tried ro gtapple witb the queuit)O (lf political control uf such iostirurionalized funcrional re1ation5hips aod ro undrrstand how ir would affrct rhe oatnre uf tiJe nation state They arremptrd to define the statuS of [hese newfy creatoo insutution5 tnough rhry wete out always fvlped by devdopments in che ECfEU which WWl rhe focus of rheir studies Tbdr works have demun~trared rhat the EU imututioos are by 110 mratlS juse ordinary imerg()vcrnmenral ones lh~y have al) provideo a mirror ()f the hircof) of (Yents in Westetn Europe in pankultH - moviog flom unitios aod poJitkal dynruniqgt through ~rress oy$ and anguish to obsolesceuce tllrbulent fudds and back to mooerace optimism and a new dynamism
TrotJJ(l(iacutecnaUJI
Anorher Americao writer whose work dealt wirh che question oiacute integrntion is KarJ Deursch Alrhough not a neo-fotlcrionalilit his tranmctional appwmh nali dealt with sorne iOmmoo ~hemes He has been umrerned with more rhan imergovermneuul relation~ aod indeed hM str~iexcl reJations berweeo peopIes nitherthan just rhe elites favonred by manyneo-fuflctionalists Deursch concerned himltelF with m( absrnce or presence of significan orga~ oized preplttrations fol war or large-snde iolence between int~rnatiexclona1 policical commuoities It was [he secutity rommullttles lhat had elimirutted war and [he expectation o[ wat whhin rheir ixmndaries whicn Dentamph and his PrincctOll coUeagues exarnined in PeliriuJ Cfml1NJNlily dIId M NarJh lt14Jtlaquo Atia (1957) A SClttlriLy community WWl defined as a gronp of people wnich has become ~inte8rated~ io rhe sense that thete is real iacutelSSnr+ ance that (he members of that rommunity will not fight ellch oeher
Wriil1g1 (raquo1 iacutelMfatlortal tJrgaiadlMm 147
physkally but will se~tle their disputes in liOffie otber way (Deutsch 1957 5)lt loregration does not necessarily mean rhe me~ging oF peoples ot governshymental units intn a ~ogle unie an idea explicir in fooerahsr rhinking Otud implicir in much funrtionalist wtiting Jnstesd two $otS uf integrared secu~ rit communities ar~ hJemified the amalgamarelt where pteviousiy independent unlts have bcen rormaly merged lnro a larger unit wich a iexclommotl guvernment (eg tlle US) ano the pJuralisric where srparate gnvertUlleJlUl Illlioraio their iexclrgaJ indepeodence (eg uacutenada amI rhe US) In stlldying a nllmbcr of cases of anempred or octual intesratioo io tbe Nortn American and WCSt European area Dtunch conduded rhat tIacutelere werc iexclweive conditions essential fnr the rurcts of ao amalgruruued teeutity (Ommuniry and thM rhree wen nec~ry fm it5 plutalisdc COUnrfrpilrt
The1e three conslsted of rhe compaiacuteibiliry oiacute marer valU($ relevant to
politiclll decision-making tbe capacity o( the participariacuteng plt)htinl Imitl or ~mmem~ ro respood tu each othcrS oetdl messages and llaions quickly adeqwuely and without rtsort ro vlolence aad rne mutual predicrability n bchavior (Delltsch 19H 66--7) In Deutschs work emphasis was placed 00 cornmunkauun brlweEn potidca uoIacutets increased trnns1Ctions between them (such fL polirinl exchangcs toUfl(m trade and rratl~pott) brought increases in mutual dciexcl)Cl(enmiddotc fue s cummnnity ro be created (his high level of trnnsactrons must be accomgtauied by mutual responsiveness o that thr demand o( each side 00 he other mn rccdve adequate and sympatheric treatroent llthis wouk not ooiy predude the need [01 aggressive action lO acbi(Ye ends bm would aJso build up 11 feeLing u( UUSt and seturiry in che edationship
Deuucb does not have an obse~uacuteon with imernattomtl orgaoiexclZ8rion~ although his 1957 book iacutes in [he eM collcetned with the ctelltiacuteon of UCCIlshy
tity community in the NATO area rhere ate few tcferences to internatlOnal nrganiuuons Many o( the Cll5C studj( are ser io tbe pcriud before (be postshywar expansioll uf such organlurions and almost all deal ieh bilareral relatIacuteonshj~ O(utschs work has coosequences for the lUudy o( ioternuiona organizatIacuteoos govemmental ano non-goveromCotaj iO[~rnational otiianiza~ tioos can be created as a re~ult uf a plnraliacutes[ic secuciry nmunuoit) lne integracion of whkh may evtotuaUy become iacutennirurjonalized iexclu nuppened reo the ampandinaviiexclm states creand (he Nordic Counci1 There run abo be forrns of instirUti(lnalued communiratlons berween socieries wnich prOldde the transactions and undersrandinli rhat help create ji securi[y community DeUtsch wrote
li the way tu iexclnregrarion domestic or internarionat i$ through rhe achievemem of a srose of community tnut undergirdS insrirurjtms thm ir seems likely [har ao iorreased sense of cotlloounlry would hrlp to snellgtbcn whatever instirutioos - supranatiooal or internacional - are aLreAdy Oltraring
([)euriKh 1957 7--8)
ltgt -_ bullbullbullbull _- _
Demsc-hs work was mken funher in a vnluffie ediretl io 1998 by AdLer and Bllenen (l998) (lLat docs pay sorne attention to ioternariorutl otgilniushydoos Indecd their volume contairu chapters thar rekr ro rhe oseeacute NATO the EU the UN the GnU Cooperarion Cowxil (GCC) aod rhc Assodation uf Soud Eat Asian Niexclttlons (ASEAN) They daim that imetshyruHiomuacute organiexclzauumlons aud iexclnstitutiacutem~ played al lmporum role in elKiltlraging more inteo$ive and extensive ioteracrioos octwttn states rhrough theit uwt-huildiug propenies (Bnrnetr and Adler 1998 418) They lht six corulusions of this snuerneor
bull By moniroting srares agreemenu tntcmatiuacutelwl orpuuacutezatiexcloo~ give them he cooftdente tuacute cooperare io (he ahsencc of trUSt
bull Jnternational O1ganizarions allow Hi1tC$ to discover new areas of muuwl intetellls Tu ponimlar [hey cenoacute ro link panicular areai
bull Inrcmational organizatiom can hdp shape $fllre pracdces by liCtting down nOfOU Ihat define what is acnptablc
bull The iIKTeaiing nwnber of internacionaJ orgamrutions emuuragC$ muldshylatetalim
bull They dIlO eruourage smres lua societies to see rhelll$Clvcs as pan of a resion
bull 1ntildeey can abo shape lhe identiry of rheir memben (Banlett aod Adler 1998 418-20)
The aurhms cWmed char cheir stuJit$ demonmared rhe exrent 10 whkh social cnmmunicadons beomes insrimtioualileJ aOO embedded in lnreroashytional oC8linbatlooslt and in turU how (hese organizatioru express an inreot to dcvelop trUSt end mmwl identificarion (Batnm and AdJer 1998 418) TIe work on sccurity (mmnunidcs is pelhapS at ir strongcu whcn dealing wim the esrablishetl Westcrn democracies rbough llamen and Adlers work shows rhar it may hilve a wider urility
lnlerJciexclnmdcme
Furrhcr emphasi on the growrh JO cnlnsaccions berween l()Cicries can be seen in the worts of Keohane 11l1d Nye who were m che forefront of the iexclnrerocJXndcnce school in rhe lJoited Srnnt fhey puacuteirued our (he conseshyquences of the innease in tldrunarioualucdolU ro che study uf iexclnternncional rdarions Thcit statcing iexclgtoint was sLlnuuarized chus
TraM1latlowJ relations are nolaquo new alrhough che growth of tmnsna~ tklOal orgnnizarion in me twentieth centuty has been specracunr Ye-r our nmremioo iso nor ooly rlur rhe srate-centrk paradigm )$ inade~
quare bur also thar it igt becoming progttSsively more inadequate as changes io inrernational relauumloos take place
(Keohane and Nye 1971 xxv)
The) llsred five omsequemes uf this growth uf inEematiooal inrcracrions ana organizarJ(tIls fur inrerstate politks (1) rhe promntiun of attirude change amongsr driacuterens (2) ao innease io inrernacional pluralism the linkjng of nntiooal Interese groups in tnmsnational strtlCtures usuaHy involving transruttionaI organizations fOI rhe putpoampe of (04)minatioo ltKtohAne and Nyc 1971 xviii) whiacutech has heen lhe basis for much noo~(Jncdontllist wriexcling (3) me cmdon lf dependence and inrerdependcofe IS often associacuteshyarea with intetnilriorutl cranspormrioo and iexclnance Keclune and Nye 1971 xix (4) creating new insrruments fut iexclnfluence for use by sOJne governments over ()(bers (Keuhane aOO Nye 1971 xx) 1100 lt5) dJe emergence cE auronomous acrors wirh priwre ntildelreign policia thar roa) deliberarely oppose Oiacute impinge on Sla(e polides (Krohilne and Nye 1911 xvii)
In a late book (1977) Keohane and Nye dcah with che questioo of imershydependem-e in world poliacutetics io greatet depth Iorecclependencc $lnce tbe Second Wm1d War has- onen cesulted from increasetl ttaosnadonal atciviries and iexcli divided ioto twO sorrs sensltlviry iacutemerdcpeodence (dte muIy effecrs of dULOges jo tranS1lCrJons oc ~()ciacuteetiexcles or govetrunents) md vulnembHhy interdependence where he acrors Hahllhy tc suffet eO$n iacutemposed by extemal evenc~ js (aken inro accoum (Koonane ana Nyc 1977 12-13) In COntrast ro tbe reaisr view of world poHrk Keohane and Nye pm totward che idea type of complcllt imerdependence which chey claimed soroetimes comes dosee ro realiacutety chan does realism (Keohanc attd Nye 1971 23) aod whieh has three nuio characretl$tks it allows fo mulnple rhallne1smiddot- imershyStatC tiansgovernmental and trilnsnationa- conneltring sncieries there i an abserue of hierarchy ilmonS the rnany questions ac inle hetween iexcliexcltates with military securiry no 10nger dominntlng lUly agenda and Millnu-y force 15 not used by governments toward orher governmenu within me laquogion or on [he lssutS where complex intetdcpendence prevaiacutels (Keorutne aoo Nye 1971 25)
These dltee condidons are said by KCQhane aOO Nye to typify fairly weJJ 5Ome LIlAUe$ of global economk md ecological interdependence ami come dose ro chamcrerizing rhe emite relarionship hetWetn sorne cnuntdes (KeolWne and Nye 1911 25) Complex ilterdepcndente glVel rise ro oacuteininctive poliacutetical processes a sute $ goals wiacutell vary by mue arca with mmsgoYernmeotul puumllitics making goab difficut ro define as ttansgovern~ menrnl llClaquo()$ (fof cxample mtfUsrers of agr1cuJmre inte11igente agencies nariona wcather bureaux) pursue their own aims Jhe followiog facwn are reLevant iriexcl eilch issue area
bull iexclhe resourc-es of a Ncue fur thaI particular area are most relevaot radre Ihan the stares overull military ~tre-ngth
bull international nrganizatinm and uansnntional actors wHl be fruloipula[ed as malnr instrumenrs oiacute mue poHcy
bull rhe agenda of issUC$ wi11 be fOrmulated hyebltUlgcs in the power dirmi~ burlon wirhin [he issue alaquollS by rhe pururinn (lf internarional regimes
150 Writings lIlt inttn1atiQrJ41 ergdniutirll1J
by changes jn rhe importance of ttaflstlational acwtS and by linkage froro orher issues
bull linkage between 1sllor$ will be mote difficult for strong naces to undetshyrah ir[orce 1$ downgraded
ft whiJsr linkage by we$k srares rhrough internacional organuumlarions seu agendas helps coalition-wrming and provides arenas for the political acdvity oC weaker states which can use the choice of organizarional forurn [or an issue and rhe mobiliZlition of votes as a politiul resource
(Keohane and Nye 1977 37)
Thm Keuacutehane and Nt gavc inremarjonal organizaciOfls an iroporran[ role in thde compfex interdependence model of world politics a model which whilst not uSlaquo (O explaitt aIl world politics was one which rhey daitned to hllve iacutenfrtasing releYJ1nce in IIlarge and growing area 1ntildeey used an intetnUional organizadon mooel as one of the explanations ror internashytioua regime change that js che lthange in the sets of goveming flrrangernems affening relatioruhips oC interdependence In tMs C$e intershynadonal oJsanisaciolls refeued ro multilevd Iinkage norms and insritutions (Keohane and Nye 1977 54) which once euablished are harJ (O enlAlicate BeCllue o( this rhey may Stand in the way of swes using thdr capabHities In ordec 00 chauge regimes Instead powet outcomCl will be more aJfectcU by votlng power (in the UN General AssemWy for example) ability ro futtl) coalidoos llnd 00 control elite networks (ruch as that founo io clte institushydougt of the European Commnnities) Whilst the complclt illternadorull organizarion mode1 was only Ofle oiacute fOur aJvaucecl by Keohane and Nye ro explain regiffie chAoge tbey Jiu expeomiddott jr to contribute to such chaIlSC in a world where complex interdependence (onditions pertain
1he rontribmions by Keohane and Nye demonstra(e hoth the roncero pf American wtilets iexcln inremationru relariWl in the 1970$ with altemacives to
tite srare-centric model and their wiluumlngness tO draw from more rhan one approach bringiexclng rogether elementogt from che more tradidonal appnJaChes with economic models and non-stare-cenuic dements TIleir Wi)rk does however have certain weaknesle$ Perhaps the mon serious is the use of rhe cerro imerdependence and iexclrs djvisiacuteon iexclnro ~n~itivity and vuinerability imerdependence Anepting rhar inltldeperulence meUlS mutool dependeoce (and [hjs leado to discussiou a~ w how mutual maoy relationihips are) che phrase scnsiuacuteviry imcrdcpendenre scarccly wflrmnu thc use uf the term interdependcnce fhe fault lies wJth che authou loose definiuOfl of depen~ iquestcnce as a oiexcltate (lf being detetmined oc $ignificaruly affected by externa fwces The induskm 0(signi6candy atkcted w~aken5 me urillry uf me cerm so tlme che nOr1on oiacute scusltivity inrtgtrdependence seems ro refer ro any nociceshyaMe cffeltr of ooe srate and society 00 anorher A person may Ix- significandy affectcd by taking drog$ wlthout Ix-ing dependen on chem David Baldwin showcd that mis use of rhe cerro interdependence ran conrrary to the striaer
Writingt ()I inf~_Ji(J1ia ~lfizaJJom 151
lUlderstlllldings (lf the concept fuund in MirhiaveUi Montesquieu and Ronsseall as weU 115 in che works uf twentieth-cemury wrlteI$ such as Norman Angell Francis D(laisi -and Ramsay Muir (ampIdwm 1980 7-9) He snuested the U$C of rhe rerms mutnal influence mutual responsivrness ot mutual scrlitivity insread ofscnsirivity inrerdependeruemiddot (Baldwin 1980 19)
A second cuacutericism uf Keohanc and Nyes books aso concems eheie termishynology In dealing wirh rransnational influentes They [ump tngerheraH types of teiations in whieb non~8overnrnental actOrs participare chus makiflA rhe componenrs of cheir new paradigm shifting aud poorIy defined (Wagoct 1974 440-1) Wagner questioned whetber their work simply demonstrated a shifr in interesr to new areas of intetnational polidts shyespedally elttmomic ones - ana whethcr [he world hM reaUy changed or whether we have iexclUSt overlookcd sorne things a1l along (Wagner 1974 441) The atent of imerdependence wa~ also chaHenged by Waltiquest (1970) anJ Rosecratlce el al (977) in che US and by Lirrle Bnd McKinlay (1978) and Strllivan (978) in rhe Briti~h Uteramre
DespiLe any falling$ Keohlllle and Nye provided insighrs ioto ttamlflashydonal polltics they shifted atrention away fcom p~lrely govcrnmental actOts in inff$rate relarions and they poiutm OUt he impMrance of intetnational organlziexcliexclxions in the intetdepcndence oc at lcast rnurual responsiveness of =
rbe rdormist view of both international celBtiOO1l and iuternational orga- nizar1ons has always provided an rutemative lO the more conservativc cealist approach Ir tended ro be dominated jn the pre-wu petiod by internauacuteonal lawyen and ideaJists but sinee hc Second World War has laoched on to the changell in world poUtics 6tst jn the economic ficld and then in Europe thar have Mn more difficulty to explain in ICliIHst term~ It has sten intcrna~ rionnl organizarions as mlans to manage trends such as iucftI$(d economl( intlrdlpcndcoC( bar hll5 also illtceplcU rhat these organizations mar necorne impoftllm aCtoriexcl (lO che wodd st$ge lhemselves and can cettainiy Iacute)(cnrne involved iexclO changing rhe preferences o( governmeflts
RADICALS
Writers covered in this sccrion iCe rhe intcrnadonal sysrem flOt so much as being domlnlltcd by states bn( more by diUerent divisions 01 its peoplcs Thi$ is noe to Sfly fhat chey ignore surtes They cOflsider them elthet w be ks tmportant chan the iquestjjsions of diUS tit wealth or merely ro refI~ct these othcr factors ot w be roadblo(ks to unky in (he fare Qf mote impomllt chalmiddot renga Power ls seefl as belnamp cxercised by eh( wealthy II1ld privileged and open to cha1Jeuge Change in the system is possibl( but onty through srrll8ge or by an awakenjug pf peoples tQ rhetr real sitllatlon Most iexclnter~ natimal organization~ are thus regarded as (eflccrioos of the currcnt unsruisracwry stare uf aiacuteTairs though $fJme more activist orgauhatioos mar llave potential as vehicles or (hange
This SIoacuteCElOn has betn sub-middotdivided imo rhree gthe fUS( are the econ01nk srructuralists and indude Marxists and Third Wocld wruumlers cririclll of rhe cutrem imernruionallyuem They haacuteve in common a belief mar che polltshyiexclcal srructUres of me world halle leeo wbloned mainiexcly by eltonomic fiiexclctors and rhAr mere has bren an intiacuteJUIllity builr imo the presen sytem lhe recood are the cruumliral app~es who5e radicalilifl1 is mure of the iacutemellec~ cual SOrt They rejeCf - Uf at 19$[ question - Jhatly of rhe usumpcions utlderlying be lIiews ofhe world tepresented by the realists and refotmers Finally mere are the globalim Theit perspective ls planerary ana theiacuter rnain conrtrn h fM rhc survival uf Earth Agilln they challcnge che mme statemiddotbuled approaches of both realjsts and reformers
Stnuturaluacutet lIiews
Ihe srructuralist appmiexclch rO (he swcly of inrematioOlIl relations differs In imporrant wars tO thoee of me realists and refotmuu tbough ir has some elemeou in comroon with mands ofb04h schools As roany of (he neo-realistsshyemphasite (he power scructure of wudd potities this sectiacuteon willlimir jwgtlf ro (hose writers roncerned wich the impacr 00 me political S)Srem of rhe wodds ccooomic strucrure Unliacuteke che ttalist approach the erooomk srrucruralisrs are OOr jUSt concemed with swtts io wodd polilla and rhelr economic and poIitkal differencC$ but alw with the divisioru within f1tld berween SoOCieties (WiIIeas 1990 263) They are [heretOre romerncd witl the rifi berween riel iexclmd poor within scares and rhar herwtto udl and poor glohally This leads ro an interese lO trulSlUirional reladoru as well as in inrergo~romenmt links Th(f have this in corrunon wim refPrtllist views bm diexclfier foom chem in (he emphast~ placeoacute on rhe structures of world pollics beinc formuared by eltooomic fiexcliexclcmn In rhis selttion attentioo wilt be given te MarxiS[ wtlletS lIud sume Thir1 Wodd view$ - partiuilarly (hose of rhe cependency sdlOOf and rhe developmemalj~[II - who have made a cootribution quite separare from rhat of rhe Muxiacutesr uadidon
Marxill laquoewl
There is no one Marxisr interptetariacuteon of me role of imerniexcliexcltional Olganiza~ cions in world politics Sur Manis[ approschf3 have certain elements in common and form a di~dnctive 5ch001 of rhough[ about lnrernartonal telamiddot tions generaHy and therefore ahotu international ocganizadoos These appmaches are based 00 du writiflgS of Karl Marx (l818~) in coshyoperarioo witb Fuacutewrich Engels (1820-95) with perhaps tbe gtearest later conrribution being maJe by VL Lenin kader of (he 1917 fo1shevik revolushydon in Rurna They are cf importanee pany becau1e ehey ficm tlle 00515 for mmmuniSt [hinking and (hm mey have an anactunenr m rhe Soviet Unian whieh WIlS be suongc1t commnuist stare unrII 1991 and EO rhe Peoples Republic of China COlUT1UnJSl sinee 1949 Apan ftom lbis ManiS( beliefs
had a irmng inpur mm Wescern imdleltrual cruoking and conunue ro iruoan some viewi abom wodd politics in rhe Third Wodd
Neither Marx no Mancisrs took rhe stare ro be (he curtency of iacutenteInashy(iexclonal relations Unlike (he realist viewpoints chey did fiO( coruider interactions blaquoween soveteigu ltates to be ofovettidi importance UnHke tbe funcrionalists aud other modem Westetn views rbar srress non-stare actocs Marxiexclsts in particular emphasized cbus relatlonships born wiexclrhin nates and IiCOOSS Stare boundaries Indeed ie is diffku[r ro talle only of a MaIXIacutest view of inrernatiooal re1atioll5 lec ttltme of iorernarional orgnniza~ UumlOOy as rhis separares ene particular aspecr of human behavinur tor MIlIXIsr rrearment divorcing ir from the undedying relleCS of Marxlc beliefs Man-ism provides a framcwok of undemanding by whkh ir iacutes daimed ~ociery pan lind vresen can be explaioed and che furure development of mankiexclnd determined
According ro Maf1 relariooshipamp between people and the futm~ mar insdmdooallzed rhose relatienshfpamp depended on rhe economic $truCtUR of soday fhe way rhat productlon was organized He traced the history of dvilixed maokind through five hiuorical staBes - AAjade mdenr feudal capttalin and socialin - which have ditTereru dominant methods of produc~ tioll leadiog 10 a complirared arrnngement of $OCiety ioto various ordetS 11 manifuld graduadon of sociru tank (Marx llnd Boge1s 1965 40) amph form of sorlef has coutained rhe conflictual divisiQl$ which help [Q tranuacuteorm the narun of rhat $Ocjeey coRrradicrioru in the mode ofpcoducfIacuteon placed srrain nn rhe existing social nrder sharpeniug rhe divide berween economic founshydatinn of sociery and a mpld aansIacuteonnlltion of in SOpel1Ullcture in legal polidcal and re1igious it1$tirutioos Thus by 11 confronration of da$~ Conrramiddot dkeions one historlraJ form of soc1ery wus transfocmcd into a bigher stage uf social devdopmem the history of aH hitherto existing ~ociexclety is the histoty uf dass struggles (MaDI Illld Bngets 15 39) Marx and Bnsels were parriculady conceroed wich capita1i$t sociery - ac its Oeyday during theiacuter Uves - and its tmnsrormarion iexcluto ampocis1iu sodety Wlthln rrus form of SoOCiety rOete would be no division of laboU4 and no eWses Illld no SUtes no elCpropnation of labours 5urplus vruue I1nd (bus no private property 00 exploira(ion of ene clilllS ny iexcliexcloother with 00 need fue war
For Marx and fingeJs C1ass then and noiexcl fllltions or sutea are rhe bade units in hurO) llIIIl che struggle between clAssts Jnstead oiacute infeutliltl contlict ocrupies rhe centre of acrention (Berki 1971 R1iexcl From me nlneteenth celUUf onwards rhis struggle -n in Marxisr cerros has been primarUy between [his capicalist dass ([he OOurgeoisic) aOO the bbouring dw (me proletariat) AA (he trarurormatlon fmm capltalisr SoOCIety [O ~OCialiexclMl ro comrounism rook p~e (he superstruerutt of bourgtOis SoOCilaquoy - religioo national divisiacuteon boutgmis politicnl insrirudnns rhe SOlte - woold be swept flway and in Engtls pmse rhe gOlcrotnent nf persons is replaced by [he udminlsuacion of things Fetter 19 (47) with me itEte relegated lO the mmeum iexclngemer Wlth lile spinshyning wheel Qnd [he bronze axe (Feuer 1969 433)
154 WrituacutetKiexclI mJenl4tiorJal rngmZtlJilm
Mux saw the European SUtes of his own rime as being rntans by which the ruBng dass (011amp oppress the work~ng clw by using (he agentl of tht 5tare such as the iudidary the poliee the army and rhe church he (xrerual Ilctlvities of the stare wete also determined by its Chtss namre MeanwhiJe rrmllnat]onat Rlations of a more meaningfuL kind WQuld bt creared by trade rhe movement of capital and incteaiitd romac[ and llOIacuteldarity betwten the prolerariat of vanoulS nations riacuteidefd rhe internacional nriexclaniutions of which Marx and Engels hnd dire(t experiena- wtfe the Fi~t Internatiomd and for Engels the Secund lntemarional both of which atttmpted lO orgashynJxe the represemarives of wruking people aiexclros fronden Onc~ agaJn this stteAAe$ the Marxist empbois on transnarional dass relutions rnther than on intentate relarionships
Whibt Soviet writlngs on international organizatinn1 wtte falrly desulshytory in Scalins reigu 0924-53) rhey did lmerIy hernld rbe move towams peaceful co-existerne arul roreshadowffi the lartf rnrhe[ restrktive view of Imch organi2Atinm hy Soviet commentators
In the post-Second Wodd War period and In patticular in the post-Stalin era Soviet liternmre on international organiuttions bl(lSsomed This has reflected Soviet membership oC ma1ly 1osiexcl-1945 organixations the emershygence of a socialist bloc of sta[C$ and tbe incre-ase in the mlmber of Sowcreign s[ates all flUtontilde demaruHng a more sophisricared Soviet view of lnter~llate reLadoru than che survivalism of Stalins period Uuring rhe lare 19805 i( auo ret1ected the new thinking iacutemroduced by Gorbachev
StalintI suIXessor KrU$hchev developed a revised view of internacional relaCtons which gave a positio1l ro the emerging Third Wnrhl (Tbe Third Wotld was then taken to mean rhotle IItates thar had emerged ftom colo~ nialiacutesm In effect rhe terrn later induded tbe stares of Latin America Africa - exclnding the rhen apaftbeid stnre of South Africa - the Middle Rasr Oceaniacutea and South Asia) Peace(ul co-exiuence between oda1ist and (apltaJisr states WM $til comidered nece1sary but this diacuted noc predude the ideologiacutecal stmggle between rhe two campsmiddot iexclndeed lhe Soviet inter~ national lawyer GI Ihnkiacuten wrote pearcfut cocx15tence of sutes represeonng che tWO differeor rodal sysems is a slccific form uf dass struggie beween socialism and calitllllsm (Osakwe 1972 37) The Soviet Union abo deveJoped relatlons wirh rbe newly emerging exshycoloniaJ cOllntdeJ and Soviet writiog had tu take ~ount of this developmem There wru a recognirion of a third group of stattli between rhe capitalist aud the communlsr that of poteorially friendly indtptomiddot deut $tarem io Europe and Asia such as India Egypt Indnnesia and Yugoslavia which would filrm a tone of peace Although the rebtions wiacuteth rhe capitaliacutest sures sriacuteH remaioecl embedded in pelteful coshyexluencc rhere was an emphasis by postmiddotStalinist Soviet writets on the da eJement in lile telatiomhil - that is rhe wntact with progressive elements in Weste1l sodeey smh as che Jabonr mnvement Ncither diexcld peaceful co-exiucuce rule OUt ~upport o[ middotjUSt wars of nationallibcrildon
WIacuteJIacute11gs tm iacutenUrllUtional WjatlJZtiacutelJlff 155
iexclndeed ir was seen lt a strategy fo wodd reloludon Fiacutenally (he rrlashyfIacuteonhips berween the Sovier Union and East Eumpean countries vere deerned ro be based on sociali internationalism posmlating a haemony of natinnal and commllnity interests and mndllding thar jnde~ndeuce and sovereioiexclnty of a soctalist uate means aoove aH indepltndencc from capitalism (Red Star 1 December 18)
Tunkin underljned traditional Soviet thiacutenking rllar the mngtrltllenl imrrllment of an ioretnational urganization (fne example the Chaner oiacute the UN) was all-impottant in derermining tIte enene rrun the otganizauumlon bad an international legal pcntildeonaliry rhar iexcl5 a standing in internacional 1l1w 5imilar tu titar of a sovereigo staxe Examining lhe question of the antonomOllS wiU oiacute international nrganitatioll Tunldn allowed thl1 they need not jmt act as agtnts for member stares
In imernatiunal ptacrke trellties conduded by jntcrl~ational mSaniacutezashytinns take their speciaJ piare as treacies by wbkh internationsl organimtiom aequire righu and take upon themselves cerrain obligiexcllshytioos Intctnat10nal organizatiou are created by Hares hey are broughr iexclnto being by states but the actloacuteos of imcmational organi7ashydoos are nlt)( in any way de facto or de jure ro be tqt1sred lO the actions of scates
(Osakwe J972 23)
Thi did nor mean than M internadonal organiacuteiariexclon was an entity indeshypendem of its memher us[es as any powers (har they hacl were delegated by [he members In Jine wirh che ampwiet doctrine of peareful co-exiacutesteme Tunkin placed Uress pn (he nature and rhe membership of an international organiacuteution dlOSe which drew their membersbip from commlmi1t c1Ipishytalist and TIiexclird World tares could expcct tu be genel1llly mognized as having an incernarional personaliacutery He wrote
TIte namre of tontemporary international prganiurions is lO a very great exttm derefmined by [he existerue of Haces beJonging ro differem wcio-economk systems and the ioevitable muggle between them Thar is why pcaceful crexislence is now the bl-sic condition of rh~ dfVC1iexclpshyment ufgeneral interoational ntganization
(Osltuumlltwlt 1972 289)
Mor07JN Clt1ntrlbuterl sorne extra points Fintildet be iududed JNGOs in his stndy He wrote dlQt lotetnational orgaruulions have as iI rol 8t least three member coumries TheM may be government$ offidJ orgilnlzarions or 0CInshy
guvernmental organizatiow (Morowv 1977 30) In a 11Iter seccion m NGo thcy were ldencifred as che la~ group of inrerrulttonal organiuttiolls wim two aspccn rbar concttntd socuIacuteiacuteIgtt commemarors tbe NGOriexcl auirude towards the preservarion of pealaquo wkh the Wnrld Feieradon ofTrade Unions
6 _ 0
rhe Wodd Fedemion oE Democratk Youth and otber meiexclllbtrs oiacute tbe Sovittshybacked World Peace (ounaacutel gaining special mentioo and the specialiuJ chataCrer of sorne NGOs itl(h as rhe ruerrutriunal Couocil of Scientifu Unions and che Scienrifk OJmmiuee on Antnrctk Research MOrlrLOv memioned how NGOs can belp emblish a social dimate citillg their contti shybution ro (he setdemenr of a number of internacional confHcu swh as dlilr in Vietnam He aOO dealr wirh the role of che NGOs io cbe UN aud che consuJshyrative srarus [hey llave witn lGOs saying du[ smdems of internariooal affitjoiexcl
in [he socjalisr councrics m critieal of many asplaquots of (his system fur the eoruulrarive StatuS amogemenrs stiU fall shon of wha( [he deveJopmenc of modern inretnatlonal relarions in fac[ catls fur (Morozov 1977 43) Tbe specialized namre ufNGOs Wamp1 atttibuted by M((2OV tu
tht increased Jnfiuence of the pubic at large un roreign polky [he grearer iexclmpat of public opininn in imernatiunal reladuns and [he greater importante uf me ideological fiexclUtot 10 $ucb relations Accoum should abo be raen of che proccsses of cconomic developmenr and [he coosequenc~ of [he scienrific and rechnological tevolutioo which has also led ro a greatet number of speoacutealized NGOs
(Morozov 1977 42)
Second Morozov wridog jo d~ late 197amp made moU pos-irive refershyencelgt (O [he role oiacute Trurd Wodd SUtes in imemaciooa otganimrions He noted rbar rbe emetgtoce oiacute ti large oumbe of Oung natiooal stares h8ve kd fO che emetgcnce of intetnarJonal Drganizadons among develcpi08 ecuoshytries (Mororov 1977 29) aod claimed hat partkiparion in (hese organh311oos is part uf he process uf consolidating their sovereigocy and ruuional jndependenu~ aod of wlviog cheir pressing ecoOfJmic anJ orher pmbemsmiddot (Morozov 1177 31)
Finally Momzov developed the puint made by fimkin aOOut he limited llalUre of ioternationaJ organiurjQn$ - ~econd-dllSS ffitrnbers nf the inrershynarloual sysrem as opposed tu rhe firsr-diexcllSS members SQvereJgn stateiexcl by reretcme tO theit dedsioos There bave resulted froro che inrelllctioo of politicuJ euroorces within the organil1ldons and
Thecombined will uf chcse lGOs i5 disuumlnc[ from [he wllls of theuuml indishyvidual members io in eflSenlte and ln in narure The v1ilflous wills in thb case are nor agsregued arirhmetically each one exim indepenshydendy ur oside a homogeneQu~ socio-political gOUP wirbin whose frarnework (hey can be combjlled
(Murozov 1977 34)
AfLer lhe comiog ro powet ofMikhail Gorbachev in the Soviet Union io 19Bgt a Ihaoge rook place jo $oVJIl policies rowards imeroadonal relations irutuding international organi1ations and [his has been reflecred in new
~ M-- bull 6_V_
Soviet writings un [he subJect Gorbachev inttoducetl a owjor review of [he fureign poljcy uf the Soviet Union (har marchcd rhe inremiry of his dmncslic refotmS He encouraged new rhinking- based on a revjeJ vlew of che world siruation Peaceful co-existence wirh iexclhe capiralisr tirares WlCgt no looger seeo a~ being a spetjfic fum of dass srruggle as Tunkin had written bUI 35 being in the commoo intecesu oiacute all countriCl Ir WIi$ predishycued on the neOO fin surviva of (he human nce which in ShakhfUlZOlrQvmiddot$ word$ must ofCOUIse take fim place Lighe 1988 297gt- Thjs ml$or rhar a new COIKeuropt of seGldty had ro he adopreJ hy che Soviers rhar oiacute common security which wa5 based un sume of he ideas of -che Palme Comminion (see he1ow) Greater emphasis wu given ro arms control and dlsarmament agreemenrs wirh the Wesr 11nd to co-opttation in international uffuirs whilst Soviet intervention io che Third Wodd enbed and milirary 5UppOtC 1m [he East European communisr govcfomentS WlS withdrawn
Soviet wdcings on inremurionilJ relations both offidal and academic came to mirror Gorhachevs new rhJnkiog bur eho lilete iexcl$ evety sigo chut rbese id~ were dmwu no only from rhe Wesr but alw Uacutenm Moscow mink-tanks slleh as lMEMO th~ JflSIirure of World Eronomy and Inremlfona Relacions) Liacuteght 1988 29~n Gorbschev aun his forngn minisrer FQllard Shevaronadre gave rhe academiacuten a Breen light for funher diSClViiacuteon ud debare (Shevaronadre 1990 23) As II reampul srudies examlned he role of che Uniacutered Nariacuteons as sn ugem for peoce (Kolyrev 1990 12-19 NesrerenkQ 1990 65 Petoovsky 1990 42--3) and rhe mte of inrernational or811nizadons in environmental mliLffers IiLnd disurmamenc qutsdmuuml Chodsulkwsky 1988j NikitiM 1989 123-32 Roginko 1989 133-43) and internarionallaw was teassesred (Sutier 1989~ 363-75)
Once che Sovier Union collapsed many of me wrifetS losr rhe main point of political reference A nwllber Iefi academc orhets adapted thelt ideas ro WCtem oues and a few remnioed as policy rulviseni ro che new Russian goVefrutJenL However cornmunism as M imellectually dominant organiuog rotce wlch pnliiisJ dour had djsappeared in Russia togerllef with much uf the persptr1ve ir provided - wben seen thmugh me unen distotdng leos uf tbe Sovier lfulon - oiacute inrernatiooaJ relatlons and inremariooal organhattnru
Chinese Marxisr wrirers have iexclargeIy reflected rhe views of the leadershyship in Chinll sioce [he coming ro power of rhe Commun1sr Patty in 1949 Undl (he 1970$ communist China was elduded from almon aH iotttllJishytional of811nizIiLtIOns and ie is flot surpriamping tha whae lirde writing tbete WUtl on the st1bje(r Wal fairly dismiacutesampive usuaUy consisdng uf coudemnaM tinos of (he UN fnf its action tn Korea aud rhe security allianes fot teir hegernonic narure Chjnese Marxisr rhinking hiacuteu divided (he modem wotld jnro three groups ihe Birsr World consisred of rile fWQ imperialist superpowers namely he USA ano the USSR The Second World was made up uf otbet areaa uf advamed industrilllired cnuntries primariacutely EUfape aod Japa which were opea ro donunariou by lite Sllperpowers bu( which could $tan a dialogue wirh rhe Thiacuterd World Theu (here was rhe Third
158 Writings OtJ internationdl organizatioru
Wodcl iexcltreI( coruisting of the Afro-Asiacutean-Lario Americltlu sta tes supported in their muggte aAainSt Picsr World imperialism by Chinls This viexclew of the wmId colouted tyJst Chiacutenese wridngs on iacuteoternatiollill oeganharions Tbe $uperJowers were seen as cynical lTlllnipubtors Qf inrernarionaJ jnsti~ tutions Mao Tre~tuog wOre of US poliey towards such insdfutions Ir mam use or them when it neOOS rhem and kicks them 3way when ir does flot (Society (or Anglo-Chinese Underuanding 1979 42) US-domioated pill-~ such amp$ SEATO and imperialist groupiacutengs like rhe Alliance tor PfOgre~( wttt detided Spedal viuiot was saved roc the Warsaw freaty Orgaoizatiun whieh in one aetide was described as Soviet sodal~ imperialisms mol fur aggression (Ming Sung circd Jn Chen 1979 194) fhe Soviet Union was aceuseQ of trying tu manipulate che Pan and negnshydate wlth Wesrem eouorries rhmugh the Enropean Scltwiry Conferenee tn consolidare irs begemonic status in Basrern Enrope at the same time iexcliexcll dividiog Wes(ern Europe squeezing Out the USA ro as ro muSte way (0(
iu expansion and infilrmrion into Westem Europe (Ming Sung clted in Chen 1979 197)
Chinese writecs Fegatded tbe Ntildegttood Worid espedally Western Europe as being a pen force io telmS of imperialism which Ww tdponeed to the lhird World wich diaJogu as io the Jmueacute Convention berweoen tIacute1e European Commnnitiacutees and AF~ican Carib~an and Paciuacutet srUe5
Furrhermore the defensive $spects of NATO were sttessed and with growing European cohcsion the trend iexclS IJkely to ~ towatds a fuoce in which the American elemenr is seen as 1 temporary neceuity eventual1y to be phased out (Sodety fur Anglo-Chioese Undetstanding 1979 90)
lthe countries of the Third World were setn as coostirotiog rbe mluumln force comb$dng imperiaJi~m colonialism and hegemonJsm reEerring nor only to the vestiges of Wesr Etl-OOptan foloniiexcliexclJism bOl abo to US iexclnpetlshyalism and gwwiog Soviet soci$l~imperiacutea1ism Tbe Third Wodd eQuld hdp tn exclude the gre$t powers ny baoding cogecher io such otganizatinos aiexcl tht DAU aod rhey could work ro correct unequiexcliexcl nade and eeonomk reladons with che sUpetpowers through UN iexcliexclgeucies and eonferences such as UNCTAD and UNaos Abo rtlW material ancl exporting orgllnizations liexclke OPEC rbe Incernadonal Bauxilaquo Association ancl the Onion of Banana Bxporting Counuies were proised a ehanging (he old interntlrional eumomic Ome and banerlog che biggest roarerJal plunderers in rile world rhe United Srates and (he Soviet Uoleo (Ptking Rt1Jiew 26 Septtmbtr 1975 cited in Cheo 1979 309)
111e poverty oiacute ehinne study of intetnatlenal erganhuions no dounr caused by the lack of Chinese membership of such etganizacions unril the 197amp and the turmoit ef the Cultural Revulution eiexcliexclme ro an enel by the 1980s Jnstead oere was a more reaHs( viexclew (lE rbe worlcl iexclf one S~shytimes coucbed In Manlst terms In Chlnese univenittes there was a growtb io detailed studies of iutemationalntgsnizations aod the nuropean Union
WritingI un inlmullPmnl vrgrsrtilpiill1J 159
Tbird Wwld vlewJ
Many Third Wodd Afro-Asian aoo Latin Atrusican) writers 00 jntemsw
tional organizaion have adopte a structtulIist framework and are particufarly nm(etnecl abour how insdtutions can be wcd as tools of exploitadon uf rhe nitd World aud how $ome cau be used lIS agenrs of libenuion They llave nor been induded in the ~ettiexcloo un Marxist viltws (or three feamm nOI al of them are Mandst thIJM who are Manisr place particular stresS on (he posicion oF thE l1lIacuterd World and as ThJrd Worlcl eitizens they have through theit own experience unother pe~cdve rhan [Mt of writers from industri$lized srates
Yash 18ndon (1978 377) has identjfied thNf nuacuterd World penfIXrives en inrernational Olganizatiolls Fim [here is that or the bourgeois Of perry natiunalisrs who are in power in mos[ Third World statcs and who are progressive in [errru of anti-impcrialism but are rraniollary ro the C1tccnr WC they would sooner mau thcir pcaee with imperialism rhan iluwnder power (e the masses and peasancs This group uses ineernational orgllniexclm~ tions ro pur presrure 0lI imperialisc states in order to extntCt concession5 from them and appease tbe masses in their own coontries TIley see che UN as an opportunity to parley witb their entwhiacutele impecild masters t a presumed kvd uf equa1iry (Tandoo 1978 365) Thc scltond pcrspective is rhat ofthe reaIly backward regimes of thl Thitd Wodd such un Taiwiexcliexcln and Jotdan or whnm intemarional orguniacutelattnnS are of margJna1 signifieance [)t they prefet tu dea wirh impcrialism iquestirt(tiy The rhird petSPCCrive idenrified by landOll is that uf rhe masses vi thc TIlird World for wbom toterntlunaJ orgmilAriom are petiphewl fin liS Jong as hey rontinue fO reflect the muing balanlte uf clas$ forces in hvour uf impeuacuteJism (fandon J 978 378) Sioce the ene of he 196amp rorces representing thu third group have bccome lnott prominent in world polido in che form of liberarioo groop1 lttCn as tbe PLO and whilst chese have f)tgten interested in galnin8 telaquolgnJtlon rOt rhemshyselves at the UN and the spedaliled agcodes rhey are not depeuden 00 these or8ani1Jlton~ rndecd Tandoo romioeted (hat fo che revoludonary snnggles in SOUfh~E3SC A~a and AfrJctI iOfernattonal otgilnizalJons are tOO peripheml to be of much $ignilJeaoce (Tandon )9713 377)
Tancloo providcd n inrere~tiog history of the Jevelopment uf the anrishycolonialist forees in che Third Wruld sinee 1945 bur hi~ clivi~iexcl()H iexcloro he three perspenives is roo stark leaving aside rhe leil important backWllro regimes be has basiclllly grO~lped tbe Third World leadershp joto the revoshylutionaries who have Uttle netd (or imernatiooa otgllnizatiooll and those who llave suumlpped into refOrmism and have beco duped iot() bdieving (hat they elln ehaoge chelr c1ependeoce 00 industtia1i1Cd nBfiexclmL~ lhrough intemadonal organiwtions Thjs seems to undelsrare me use or ~mh organishyzations by revolutionllry groups - especiiexcliexcllIy che PLO anel tlle SoUthem African liberadon OtgllOiexcl7arionS - whieb have made substaotial use oiacute [he UN me Arah League ano the OAU tO sustain rhe polirical aspeets of theit effOrt5 1t alS(l uverestimatcs the extent tu whieh the Third World countries
J UU wnlmgl 1111 JTiUrllamm41 ergtIttJ1I0fll
have any iUwinru about imetnariooal Qrganizarioos such a~ UNC1~D
Furchermorc the identificador of 800d revolutionaries and falten refurmislS i~ tuller impliexclstjc~ rhe maIur sponrot of the UNs New Ecooomic Order l wruch Tandon hal roudemned as rhe Old Economic Order with a diffefent rltetoric WIIS the Algetian radinu governmenr of Boumediemu rhe PLO irself ha heen dependem on a numlgttr of bnurgeWs Arab goveromenrs foc financial 00 diploJUlltic suppon and ro Tandoos duumlertion that PQr narlonallibemwn movemenn guided by a proktatlan idoology such liS rhose in Chifliexcl1 lIlud Vietnam iruemarionaJ organlwtlona WtU of no 1J5e can be- added the re5ervarion until chey carne (O power Whiht ir took some twenty years belote communist Qtill1 made use nf suth organiutions the unified communiSl Stale ol Vietnam was quick fO cake up it position in the UN ro ask [Ol aid thtough UN agencies liS well as w become ji membet of he CMEA (Comecon)
Third Wodd commemscOt1l on world politics have emphasized the nature uf rheir atea$ potirical ecoOoacutemtc Ilud culmral relatloosluumlp wilh rhe iHdllsrriexcl~ alixed Nonh TitilO is iOO$t Oflltl rypified aiexcliexcl bciug OHe of ueo-folonialism _ COntrol of che Third Wtltld by lhe Nortb by indirecl means ratlet (han by direa colonial tule and of Kf)IomIacute( dRptwJmry (o dtpmdemjiexcliexcl) lntetnationaiacute rdsdOOi bcrween sures are sublumed ro relations between claue$ world wide Ixtween on rhe one lIand the expluacuteiting impetialist capitetists in rhe northcm iru1usuialized couotries 2100 rhcir middle-ltlass collaboratotS in the 50Uthem SUtes aud on the othet band he exploiced masses rhe proleuriat ol [he $Ourhern contJnems The Lurcr gmupS have been 1I1iide ecooomkaUy dependent on [he furmer so char hey lIre in rhe wuacutetds uf the Bruiliiln T Dos SantOS in a situadon jn which the economy of a cetuin group of counshytrles is condiacutedoned by rhe develOplllent aad expansion of aoother ecouomy lO which thcit own 15 subjecred (Bodenheimer 1971 327)
The uOOerdeveloped tounrries depend uacuten [be developed ror their capital nd ercperdse they find key sectors of ehdr eroooroy conrrolled from OUtsJde rhey act as a SOUfce of raw marerials lIS ji lthetip source of labour arul as a rnarket fur mllnuf8ccurers from Euttipe ]apan and North America As thejr living standards were deterrniud by rhe vicissinWeS of the Northern~ dominated wodd marker the relationship was Otle uf unequa exchange (he [esule of which was a world experiencing woequal developmenr with a developed rieh indwtriaJiud capiralisr Notthern centre and d poor underdeveklpedgt agciculrutitlly backwarn eXFloired periphery in che 50mb The dependem 80mh has been divided berween rhe ptedominanr undemeshyveloped area~ lUld a few Cenfres of deve10prnenr wirh their ttade culrural rraffie and polidcal linL to [he deveJoped North - rhe depeOOem develop~ memo omlinea by EH Cardosa (1974) allodlt~r Bruiliall Mmir Amiu (977) rejC(ted the prosptltt of aH antonomous capitalist development in [he Third Work the oew bourgeaisJe of Lacin Ametica Africa and Asia were in allianec with capitalisrs from rhe Nnnh and rhe mato $OUrce of finance ror lmported equipmem was fmm the expon of raw materials to rhe indu~rial
5 ~ _~ smiddot_middot~~
iexclred smes Amin (1977 1-21) SllW rhe can made ror a New Imernational Ecooomic Order (NIEO) by Third World leaders at rbe UN UNCTAD aod che Vilrlous North-Sourh dialogues as an nrtempt LO iexclnerease the price of chelr ntw mattIial exporrs obraio more lmpotted technol08Y snd chus finance a new srage of develQpmenr He saw this ti placing the Thitd World more in the gttp of the neo-co1onialist sysrem and iostmd recommended 11
more self~rcuumlanr development wlrh murrud assismnce between Third World sures a reducdon in [ade wirh rhe induuialized wotld and Chlll a loos~ ening of dependenre Amin lJke TaOOon had Jittle fairh in presenc imtrnruional organizaciexclon Il tools foc fasbiooing a more independent Tbiacuten Wotd His sU88tl1cion of grearer mUtual ilSlgtistaoce between ThUd WorId uate~ implied somtthing more sophillticated than a numbtr of bilateral arrmgements As rbe present orgauizarions used fu iexclncm~Thjrd World cnshyoperation (che OAU he Atab League ASEAN) are domitllued by jusr dl()llC govetnmenrg chM accept lhe eowse coodemned by Amio _ the NIEO ami greater jmegrndon iexcluro rhe world economic sysrem ~hen Amia solutloil involves like-minded deveJoping counrries or more like1y political changes leading ro such indigenous intemuional orgilniwrions
Other Trufd Wodd wdten have plllCtXl emphasls on grearer use 01 exisring insdtutions lOO can broadJy be deKfibed lIS Wopmenraluli huI Prebisch an Argentinian econOmigf has not only studied the que5iaacuteon uf ecooomic dependency but his ideas llave been used as the baJiexclis for che wotk of cwo miexclljoc iexcliexcluemariOOiexcll1 organizadons rhe UN Enmomic Commission fa utin Ameriea (ECLA) and UNCfAD Iu his smdy of Briliacutesh-Argerl(inian trading relntioflS Prebisch bad idenrified rhe unequRl tecrns ol Hade between he favoured (ndusrrislized s(ate of tbe centre and he les privj~ leged llOIl-indumialiacutewl periphery Prebisch unlike rhe dependencia gtChool of Amiacuten Dos Sancos and Cardosa believed thu this inequaLity could be overcome by political acrinn by trade pre[ereonces fuvouring the pedphery by eoo1ruooiacutery agreemenrs by intelnatiacuteowll aid and by more foreiga imvestment in che ~riphery It was thele remedies thiexcllr Prebiacutesch eneouraged when he WiIS Executive SecrCrary of ECLA from 1955 lO 1963 aOO Secrewy-Genernl ofUNCTAD ftoro 14 ro 196tL In~d rhe amoum of aid the periphery needed in omer to overeome their Unfuvoluable rrnde balance became known io UNCTAD clrcles as [he Prebiexclsch Giexcllp
The distinguished Afiican aC1ldentie Aji Mazn1i has wricren un the plighr Qf (bar conciflfnt aod j~ role in pmem~day interruUIDllfl1 afmits He soughr ro answer rhe quesdon Now rlw Imperial Order is eoming ro an end who is going tO keep rhe peaee in Aampica and tu examine he concept of Pax AfrlclllUl the African s ambidoo ro be his OWh palaman The JXIliacutecillJS and se[f~8overnment ufAfriea depended on the nodan ofan African self which Mauui discusseJ in decaH He considered how this 1ndepen~ denre might be threarened by the politicaI and cultural fragmenMion of the contillenr Ellld eronomieally by deperulence on Europe He quoted Kwame Nkntmah finr President uf Ghaniexcll on rhe Europe-Jn ECOntunir Communiry
162 Wilihgr rm intd1JatirmallJrganizatimu
ihe ireaty of Romemarks the advent of oeoKolonitJism [n Afriacuteen snd bears unqutSrlonably the marks of Freneh neo-colonuumlllism (Murui 1967 93) He moduded from tM that Wlut AfrlOlns tbelaquofore neecletl was II
renerru authotity of cheir owa tI) ((lordilJlte fheir eltonomk and policicat deCena- sgain5t trus rnreat (Mamtiexcl 1961 93)
Given this theme it is not surprising tlwt Mazrui ser srore by rhe OAU bU[ he was realistic in bis judgement
In relatioos betwlaquon African statts lIOflesr step rowards Pu Africana was taken when rhe Organiution oiacute Aftlaquolln Uniey set up in Commissiacuteon ofMediauacuteoo Conci1illtion aud Arhitmion
Anormr OAU Commissioo of relevance fot Fax AftlOlna ls che Defence Cornmission Sor me Defeme Commlnion 1w se Car been among che lean effecdve QfPan-Aiacutericun ins(kndons Afrka mar indeed aspire to be her owu ptlliceman bur she does nO seem ready as yel to par the price iacutem it
(Mauui 19612[3)
Mazrui oudined the varicd backgrounds of [he lemen oiacute newly illdepenshydent Africa and thdr radical and revolmionary ideas and it is pethaps swprising rhat the insrirutions rhey created fur me coutinenf wete so mnservative with [he p05sible exceprion oiacute the OAUs Natiomtl Libetttion Comminee Mazrui no[ed thac Africa srill has the problem of how othet powetS respond tu its behaviour and [har forcigo iotmsilm in AJtica continued Indetd the I990s proved tO be a dC(ade of disusrer for AfrieR The debiacute burden contimlld while Ilome states collapsed lnro civil war ami others took to iutenoendoo in thejr ueighbonrs affairs Outslde interference from borh Enrope and North Amecica euodoned One of rhe fcw brlghr spots was the end of apallhcid in South Africa and the peaceful transitioo ro majoriry mJe lo al thiexcl~ tn quote Juliacuteus Nyerere rhe ampcmer pre~iexcldenl of Tan1ania The OAU exists outr ror tbe prorecdoo of (he Afrinllt Head~ oiacute State (cited io AlilgapPltl 1998 1 ) The relarive optimism of Maztui has giveu way ro Afriam writers examining sorne of me disrnrbing details of inaction by [be OAU and regtonal orgauiacutezatJuns nlCh as ECOWAS beiog used as doaks fu the machinations oE regional hegemou$ suth as Nigcria (Mibe 1m 61-9(1)
Radha Sinha$ problem--ortented undy Food iexcllfId PIWt11y (1976) has an IItgent message Sinha a former consultaot of the FAO prodnced an iofuacuterrned aUllyiexcljiexcl of the world$ food problem stress1Og in paniacutecular the maldistribution of food and other resources Noting he profO$ab of UNCTAD with heit muld-rommodJty approach and buffer nocks provjshySiOfli he commented rhe grearesr weakness oE the UNCTAD scheme js les Hkdy politlca1 unilcceptablliry ro me developed (ountdes parriculady che USA (Sinhil 1916 114) a propheey that has proved to he cortect He identitled a more aggresslve attitnde by Third World sutes e5pedally
WrilirrgJ on i1tternatiflii1l rHgarrtzatitmlt 163shy
after the uH prite cise of 197314 when the developing coonuies tried to maximize their own market powers by formin cartcls such as rhe Intematimlal BaurdtC Association the Intemuional Coundl of Copper Expotcing Countries aud the Intema[ional Tin Agrcrmenr He gave n qualified wekome ro the Lomeacute Convention betwcen the European (omrounities anJ cenain African Padfic and Caribbean Haces Writing in 1976 he commented
The receot cbange in rhe luirudes of tite tiche countries is largely due tu the incIeasing miliuncy of the Third World countries lt is almost ertalll utar the magnitude offuture cnnc~sions in me coune ofGAIT aud UNCTAD IV Ilegotiarioos wiU deperu mainly on (he continued solidariry uf the devdoping counlrtes
(Siha 1976 116)
Sinha was pardy correct as tbe solidatity cf rhe Tbird Workl states cracked se the induurialized wodd withheld funher Con(eampSJoru but ir was able tO do so because market condidons swung against che primaty producen
In his condusion Sinha called ror a IIDre1 shttting of wnrld t($nmes and power if confrontarion was ro he avoidOO He feared that the ffa of roshyoptradon berween [ieh and pool conntries hiid ((lT1e to an end and that batde lines were being drawn Instead he advOOIreltI majnr concessions from the dcher coumries on trnde lInd aid issues and a1so a ma~lt te$ltUcrnring of the incematiotlill organization~ aoo negoacutetiating ffiarhinery in order tu provide a much gtC2ter say fm me poorer countries in internatiooal tJ1lde invesrment and mooetaiexcly armngemenrs (SiMa 1976 132) GAn 1BRD aud IMF have been the presenoe of [he ri h with voting weighted m faacutevour of rhe OECD countries and Sinha re(()ffimended thlll GATr aoo UNCiAD be merged inro an Intemacional irade Organization (ITO) and che creatlon of a Third World permanent secrctariat iexclnvolved in all trade and aia negoriarioru Thoogh less radical than Amin Sinha aIso recomrnrnded gttter coshyoperation berween developing coulltries and an eoo ro their inkrtotity complex with instead a sense of m~ttnal sdiacute-e$teem and trust being devel~ oped (Sinha 1976 ch 10) Litde that h~ happened during the 19905 woo1d have encouraged Sinha The World iratle Organiaadon has emerged as the presenoe of the dlVelupeJ tares and lw brushed aside many of thc mucerns cf UNCTAD Debr ha~ edged on ro dlt wudd iexclagenda but mainly at the beheS[
of a non-governmental organization )ubiacutelec 2000 nd the promi$e~ of the main financill jnsrirutluru lO pursue dcbc-rclicf produred but a thiniexclmfl
In aH Third WQrld commenrarors have provided a vatied and lively approruh fOwards tne problems uf intetniexclational organizarions Their emphasis has niltntaHy beCl Qn tbe use of wurld lmtirutions to change the econornic condidon or the Southern cominents As this enndition is likely to worscn in the near filrtltf further more lJica conrtibutions on the rule oC
-- --- ~- __ _~- __- imernatIacuteonal orgaoilarions in Nonh-Smuh relarJons tOiexclghf be apected from rhe Third Worid A1ternaciveJy wrirers (mm rhat ares rmy jW ltIacuteespUacutet rm imergovemmemal orgaoizarions ar lealaquo Mee rhem $O Hrrle
Cfili~ald~heJ
Critica approadvs lO the nudy uf intetnadonal relations are (hose har rejee( the dominating vleW1iexcli repr=med by tbe realist and reformistS as oudined aboye In paHicular rhey reglUd realists as apologisu for the currem con6gutltion of power 10 (he wiexcldd sytem and considet [har rhe refOnntstS are elrher unable ro undersraoo he fUe llamee )( (hi sysrem oc ille UDwiUing to accepc rilar ir needs more rhan mooest refotlllS TIlOugh they may sympalhi-ze wirh rhe agenda of some Marxists aud Third World wt1cers chey do [lO( llave rhe hisrockal certaimy of the former not rarely do they have the experience and perspective of ehe larter TItey view intenUishy(jnl1ill nrganiutions wirh a jaundiced eye as these are mainly the lll$tmmenfS of rhose who dominare rhe syuem This section COlllaios an wcoum nf three approaches tmt of the critical rheorlsti- of kmintsc wrirshy[1185 ulld pose~mooernismlt
Cri(~1 herJrY The approach of critical theory 10 JnrematlonaJ o(ganizatiooll iSi determtoed by their wider world-view which in itsclf is explaiiexclwd by tbeir llame One of the leading exponents Roben Cox said [har ie is cririca1 in cne Jensc rha h srands apan 100m che prevailiog order of rhe wOlld and asks how tb$t oroer came iexcllPouc Ir does nor r-ake existing irucimtioM lIl1KI JIQwer relaclons rOl granred bu c311s them iacutemo queuion Ir 1S diexclrlaquoced ro rhe social itnd JIQiirshyical complex as a wItole rarhet (hall he stparate pirtt IUthet than subdiide and Imic an examination of a problem it looks al the wger pkturc of whkh rhe problem is jwt oue part and trio rO wJdeThwod the processeS uf change ill which botIt pans ulld whole ure involved laquo(ox 1993 277~S)
Ai a thoory cridQiIacute theory rejeen tbe daims of posicivism of an external Nulity and to be mue-free ror critkal rheorIacutests koowledge ti nor moraUy IleUc1ll1 ic is more che result of the social background of tbose Wt hold ir Given this ctitkal tbeory alJows foc a normarive choice in favoU of a social ancl iexclJlieiexcl(ld order diflerent f(cm rhe prevruHng arder bur it limiu the ruuse 01 chotce ti a1remative orders which are feasibJe mmsformations ofme cxvaing worJd h musr rejEC[ improbable alternadVe8 ju~t as ir rejecrs rhe pcrmanctlly nr lhe exiscing order (Cox 19 90)
Cridcal rheory differs lrom Marxist upproElchcs beCElUS( of iu tejection nf any daim to hold the objenive tru[h and betause or it~ avoidance of (he pmslllt ol il utopia Neverrhe1ess [heir analysis of incernarional relarln1l$ is one tbu hEls u numher of similariuumles wich the Marxisc pcrspecdve It regurds rhl tlistlng suucrures of world polirics as beiug oppressie not
- _ __ _-
lean because of rhe dominance of (he capitalism of che Unired StElte~ For many che USA is seco as a hegemonic power the prevailing urder - in re[ms rbar reReet he wrirings of the Itallan Marxisc writer Amonio Gramscl (1891-1932) Gramsd advanced the nodon of ln hisrori(middot bloc which in itself refilaquors che $Ocial reladons oE ptoducdoo The dominanr dass in a counrty - 01 indeed aoy social grouping - mlinrains cohesion and idenciry withio [he bloc [hrough the ptopagacion of a COIDmOfl culturegt A new bloc can be formelt when a subordinate dau can euablish tU hegeshymony over orher subotdioate gtOllpS (Cox 1993 56--7) The IDove rowuds hegemony comeS with the piexclt$ting fmm che spediacutek inrercsrs ofa gronp Ol
dass tO rhe building uf inrimdons aOO elaoorarion uf ideologies (Cox 1993 57-8) It Loiexcl rhat ptOCe$S thar embeds the incemu of the dominanc dan in an imttmrional form thae [w an appeal widet [ban that dan ine1f It the-refole repreSoems mote tlmn jUSt (he drunJnaoce oE one state ovec anocher bllt implies a cemufi acceptante of the tules arJd institutions purouized by [he hegemonic JIQwer Jo other woros it is all order wbicb most Olher Sta[e-~ (01 at 1enst those within reath of die hegernouy) couId find compatible- wirh their iexclmetem (Cox 1993 6t) h aJso involves noe just inttt-staee rueivirle5 bur rhose oiacute tlvilliOCiety (oon-Stllte socieM instishycudons) ebereby encoumging Hnks between social dus$ts iexcln the connules covered by ebe hegemony
What does Cox llave to uy about ioccmational Otgsniuciexclons 1bey Ilre scen in he oontext ofme wiacuteoo unaemanduuml18 of itnernational reUacuteltions mentloned iexcliexclhove He is direcr 000t mem Ooc mechanisru chrough wruch the universal norms of a wodd hegemony are expttssed js the interoatiooal organisation (Cox 1993 62) Why is chis so Cox U993 62) gives five teIlSons
bull They e-mbody rules cOae help (be- apwlSion of a hegemonic wodd iexclrder These insdwrians reflcct the intererts ()( the dominam social anil economic force- buc a1low a cettain amOunt oC adjusrment ro accommodare other subordinared interests TIms the USA WllS preplltoo ro mm conccssions to
bciI18 in Lhe EU srares and Japan ro rhe Wotld Trade Otganizatimt They a[e prooucrs of that order Though [he insrimrions and rules Ilce
nurITlllUy initiared by the hegemook power ir takes cate ro involve aOO comule a numbe-r of second-ronk stares and gaio theit supporc he Wotld Bank and Inte[nacional Mooetaty Fund were very much pan of [he world order thar emerged afrer [he Second World Wat and which was dominared by rhe Uoiced Stlres
They ltgidmi7e i[s nOlms by providing guidance for SllIteS and by legitshyimiuacuteulS cerraIacuten IlCdviries Ilr me narional leveL he OBCD afie rhe inrerruuiooal financia) irntuumluriom lave spread an acceptante of mllrket coodirions and sHict mOllerary iexclJlides
They co-opr elites from pelipheral counrrie Ihlented sraH commg 110m the Thiacuterd Wocld are expected tO dCCept he scriexclpt wcittttt by the domishynam power Bouuos Bourros-Ghati as Secteury General uf the Unired
166 Jiexclljiexclr1giexcl Qr1 ifJfCflrttuacutemal IWgaizati(ifJJ
Nadons stroyed too amp~r ftOm the gtip of Washinston and his second term was VCtoM by rhe USA His sucecssor Kofi Annan will no doubt undentand what 1$ n-quired of him He brings the mncerns of orhe states ro che UN bUf nor in a way thu threatt1l$ the USA
bull They absorb counter-hegemonic ideas Ideaiexcl $uch as 1iustainable dlYClop_ ment tukl even debr foTgiwness are taken 00 board by the intetnatwnal finarnial institlltion$ blu are trandirmel into pulido rhat swt them
Wh~t is ro be done Cox thinks thar the pfQblem of changiog dw world orUer 1iMuld be shlfred back from intern~tional insritutions tO niexcllriacuteooal $OIacuteishyeties where the sodo-political b~se for a new historie bloc mighr be ereated (Cox 1993 64) FaiJing the creadon of a new historie bloc of the new working cla$s and rural and urb~o marginal groups there might be tnmdorshymadon oC the curtent monopoly-libcral hegemony by adjusting to rhe demanJs oiacute local ello$ for polides 5uch as natlonaHution Cox 199~ 65) He aw advocates te-regulation of erooomies and a re-wmpositjon of civil sodery Internatiotla lnstlcutions induding organiutions can berome eontact puint1i fOr new $OCia[ furtt (Cox 1994 (11)
Critica throrJm $uch as Cox oifee a refreshing exposidon oiacute che posidofl oC imernatiooal ofganizatioos in a wocld where the main revolutionary powe~ have either collapsed (rhe Soviet Union) or se(tled into a cautious ronservatirun (China) Ir provlde~ a sceptical arf realisric world~view without acreptins tbe inevuumlahility ni a illture domlnared by mooopoly eapi~ ujsm sud the Utlired States J-Iowevtr its appllcariexclon to intemationa1 organhatJons 11 StImewha( timited tQ the maln global jnsdm(jons and th financial and economlc orgmiutions Ir has 1m (O say aboue regional nrgashynjudon Uf abour N(JUacutes Furthermore iu alternarive fu(ure testS on ourcoroes thu are far froro certain RevnJutlons in the Thied World are roore likely to be- irupired by nadondi$m oc by IsJaroic fllndamentaHfl OCalaquoely [he solid ooses for new historie blocs
Fwinuumll aNml4cbts
Feminist perspcctives 0f1 inttmatlonal rtlatioos llave in common wirh the erit~ ical rheocillu a rejclaquoion of (he dominance in rhe $Ilbjecr of the rcnHst and rdOrmisrs Although fuminist writen cover a wide 5laquolpe the gencral basis oiacute their aqurnent 1S har in interwnional relatioM ru in most politkal aud tcooomk acdvity women are diexclSJtdvantagt~l Alchoogh they own ahour 1 pet tCfH oC the worlJs lfOpeny and tiexcliexclxe heme 10 peiacute ceoc ofincome they perfurm 60 per eenr of working houn and provide 80 per eent of nfusets (petetsen and Runyan 1993 6) This is a derDOnstrndon of gender inequalitie~ the sodalJy learned behavior and expecratioos thar distioguish berween maKuliniry and femininity (Petetsen and Runpn 1993 5) Feminist aprroaches ofren So bejond the $tati~tks and examine (he mind~se[ of those engaged in the pmctice of intemadonal rdations whiexclch (bey ampee as geodered In other woros che world
Writingc Off inlmhJliofMl vrgntiZdlMm 167
illeen in a mlLlndine way thar kvrntB (he posjtiOll o( mnles in rhe hitgtranhy and devlllues the c041trihution of WQmeO (Sylvestet 1994) War in pattKular is gendered in a way chat keeps wornen and metl from qUtstioniog the essentiat pmpose and he neglltive effects of war militarization ~nd viQleme on their awn and orhers livts (Petetsen and Ruoyan J993 9 t)
What of wminist view$ uf imernationaJ organizationsr Ir IS not possible ro presem a rollf(tive vjew that eneomp3$~e~ rhe works of radicaJ femjnisu and ny iexclihetal teminists (rutead the work of one author Sandra Whitworth (1997) will be used as me pily$ rornt attrntion ro inrernarlonal organizations Aamper inrroductions ro feminilfr theory and internacional frIamiddot tiom and gendet and internacional relatlons Whirworrh examines geodet and imernational organilions She screpts Coxs vjew oiacute inrernational orgashynjzarions [har they retleltr (he dominant powet relations in che intetnational system and rhae internaliomd otgaoiution h che procelt of imcitntionaJshyiling and regulating conOice - eicher rhat which may IIrise among siexclates o( char which has iu (onU io transnationaI society (Cox 1980 375) TIte way duu pcople orgaoire themelve$ wirhin international iostirurjons reflects a variety of power relations ineludi~ of rollJSe gendec relatiull3 (Whitworth 1997 74) lbe triad of jnstirutions ideas and material rQudi~ tioru help ro hxare uSllmptiolls aboue geoocr withiu jntetmltional rewtioos Whitworth uses thesr tn examine lhe uooerstandillg oiacuteScndec io an INGO the Internadonal PlarUled ParenthooJ Federatlou (JPPF) and an intergnvemmental organilJ1rion (albcir one wlrh some oOl1-governmentJ)J represemation) the InrernatlonaL lab01lrOtganiution (no)
Whirworths studies show rhar thr IPPF tended ro accept the deshyemphasizlng oi the gendered oamfr of reproducdoo and (f) ignore rhe imponaoce ofbirth comcol foc womens reproductive freroom Instead in an effort tu popularize birth rontrol srrel~ WWl placoo on paremhooJ rather than iexclust the womans choice However IPPF poUcy beeiexcllme more radirnl in (he 19905- with Hnks beirtg made berween II1M control alld womeos ~)tu~ ality (WbJtworth 1997 ch 4 pmim)
The RO eoucerned itself with WQmen as workern It cnnsidercd that tbey oeeded spec-ial atrention and promoted ptoteCtlvt legiexcl~lacion This reiexcln~ forced me view (har [he male worxer Wall the norm with women workers nor deserving the same rights remunfration lOO mndirions Latterly however the JLO ha~ reflectoo views rhat prodaim wornens elt)ualily in rhe workforce and has sunoo tuacute assess the importanee of policies on womens role in rhe workplace as weU as in sodery more wjdely (Whlrwnrth J997 ch 5 panm) Whitworth comes [O the eondusion rhu iexclln iexcllnaLyiexcli~ of gernler in rbe IPPF and no shows how tbese rdiexcliexcldonsbips llnd definirions ni what it is to be a womltn oc man are structuted relationsrups3nd hlsrQciudly hve been scrurtured tu disadvantage women (ibid 15n
lo eommon with the critkal meorists Whitworth has useQ au examinamiddot doo of two intetnational organixations (O deroonstrate a puinr about imerflational relatiexclon~ indeed sodal rctatrol1s mOte widely The poinr is
I1
I
middot - ~-_ --___ aOOuc powec and iu use not (O balance oue SCdre ligaiOSf anorher but fm une gooup ro domiaare morher Jn chis case it 1$ ma the dominution of one dass me m culcnre over $ofU)(her (though Whirworrh recognizes those reLationshyships ti wcll) but of roen over women The crititUl uudy oiacute (wo jnceraational mganirations dealing with iSSlle5 recoSniud ti beiiexclg oiacute impocshycanee or WOfficn suggesu rha( tltOO simihu research on orher internacional organizadons could proJuce interening aOO uwfuiexcl resulrs
Pllit~ism
Thc posc-moderruacutesr $opprooch lO intetaarional rcllldon is one tlur bas (ome ro che fote Jn che perlod sinee lite end of rhe Cold War Jr is based on $o widcr imellectual viewpoim insrigated by l1rench iorcUtcruals of the 196()s gener~ ation _ Bllrrhes Derrida FouclIul and Lyorard - and whkh suggested rhat the modero era liad becn overome 11 fejeas mera-nattatives gnlud accounv- of hi5tory aoa iacuteNIacuteler subjecu as having no independem rubstance Scientifk btliefs induding [hose oiacute rhe $)(ial scJcllces are rooted in (lllxure polill(os arul mores oJ a wciery and are lherekJre subjective As rhere is 00
oblcctive reality cmpirical daims bave fl() spccial sunding in rhe rralms of koowledge IndeeJ ir i$ power aod knowledge are intimatel) incerwirud Posr-moJernism Hllnds against rhe belief of rbe modero pcfiod which LI seco as beginning wiacuterh rhe enlightenmcm of mid-eightcenth cenrufy Europe and AmeriCll Ir rheldore rejcn~ rhe COMCpr$ oC rationalirl and progrcss aSSuacutedared wi(h [he enlighrenment and [he moocrn age Thc uniry of IOOnkind iexclirW iexcldells such liS rhe untveIsWiI) of human aacuteghrs are rejcuoo lnsceadlocal aetion in smallgroups 15 advuacuteClmd
Post-modetnist ideas have affected tite srOOy of inremruionaJ rdarions as (bey have ocher social scienccs Posr-modern imeraarional relariops theoriscs havc ustd heir view$ 00 objecuumlviry (o exiexcltmine che rrmhs of international relatiom en see how rhe concepts iexclind knowledge-dairm (bar dominare the Jisdpline in faer are highiy conringenr on spccific power relatiom (Smith 1997 181) Post-modemisrs bave lltfa(red me mcta-narratives of the reelshy1m and reformlsu aHke The objectiacutevemiddot aaallses of the realim Ilnd neo-realisu are setn as being deJl(nclent on the subjective standpojnts of cheif mainly Amen(an and Europeau authors Ijcharcl amphiel (1986 258) daimed he works o[ Kenneth Waler men the leading neo-realillt trrat the glven ordcr a rhe natural nrder Jjmirs rarheE (lian 1XpawU political discllUtse negales oc rriviuliliS the signifinnce uf variely urOiS time and plue Whar emerges ii an ideology tllar anridpatcs iegirimires ancl onents a totalitarian projen 01 global ptoponioo~ che rattoualiaciuacuten of global poHcics iexclbe reformius are likcwise tainted Md have Ji mhr$lren belief in pmgress The posc-modernl$rs poinr m rh Helocausr as rhe heighr oiacute mooemism a rombimiddot Halioe of science dnd polidcal otganizillnon Il was SCruTely progreso
Given an antifllthy mwards rhe MlVe[iacute~ign srae borh as a centre of powet ll1ld as a crearioll Jiten imbutol wlth a wncepltliexcl uf progress pest~miexclJdetniexclsls
wHungJ mi Im~iexcliexclrun wgltiIRrzuJlU7iJ 1J7
can lOUcdy be expcctcd to vIacuteew intergovernmencal organiUlrions wirh sympilthy Tbe prefetted iacuteonu of internacional organizations when mentioned are those thiexcltt ltlj~plal differemes snd dlvenity in global pelitlcil duu are reginnaUy based or rhar reflec irKlividual actlOn Tndecd ir SeeIJS
rbat Michel Fomawt was involved with an alliance oiacute twO INGOs (Miquestdecin du Monde and Tertl-s do Hommes) in proresting agaiust internadonal iH~shydon over rhe boat people who flcd Vietnam in tite lare 1970s and ear1y 19S(k He is gU()[ed 11$ sayillg tbar Amnelltl Internnrlonal Teueiexcl dts Hommes Mfiiecin du Monde lHt inirilltives whiacutech have created a nrw righr rile dAht of privare individuss ro iexclntervene in [he otder of polino and internatioont snateg(eiexcl (dred in CampheH 1998 516)
Aootber researcher has exnmined ~he Europcan Communities Ilr che point wben Jr was mnslorming intO me European Unioo and askOO whether ir was a pootmodew ConJigUflHton (Nstrgaard 1994) Hi condusions wcre mar ir was gualiwiveJy a new organizarion oC human calJecrlvJties which mighr U$hec the coming of post-moderniry (Ntgttgnatd 1994 27j) The basis fO[ [bis judgemem was rhat me Ee did nO approximate anl modero form of piexcliexcl1idUll Ofpnizarion it did OOt commatld che means oiacute violence its au[hotity derives noc from die people and ir appeared to be a fCgJoo trying ro pOrecr itiexcliexclelf againsr globaliacutezadun iacuteN0rgaaro 1994 274--5) Ir remllins ro be sren whether [he BU tJf [he twenry-first cenrury wHl fu1fi1 rhtgtse hopes Ot wiU stllrr ro teVen
to a more scate-like being Generall) dIe cririolapproaches ro interruHiorud relarious hiexclJve provided
1lOOIe innovatIacuteve insigllls iexclnro rhe study uf imemarional orgsnizations The crtrical theorists llave becn sh3rpest in rheir unde[$(iexcltnding nf internarional ofgiexclt1lizacious as servsnrs of a dominiexcliexclIf power configuracion thoogh the) lave pemaps Umieed cbelr scope wllen viewing internacional organizadons Feminis[ wJiters ruave given Vltike to whac i5 after aH tbe scmi-sileut majoric) in rhe world and Ilre ouly srarting in qnest10niug the male dOmimiddot nance nuacutet iexclusr of the nmning of IGOs huc aloo of theic agenda Tite post-modemisrs are iMlSr concerned oiacute he (bree 8rOUp5 with inretnationlll organiucioru as such bllr rIacuteleic intellecrual approach is the ffiOSt tadkal aud can lelld tuuml a fnon of nihilism
GltJbaliacutesf lIiu
A gIobalisr perspective does oor viacuteew world poliacutetica as being predomishynandl arout iotergovernmemal relatlnn~ Ili would realisu or illbour inrentare aruI imersocietal rdations as a number uf reformisu llliexclll consider lnsteaacuted it cakes a more holisdc view Problems are (cmfronred ac Ji global level wlurions have tO be sou8ht here as weil This iexcls not ro neglcct (he 10tal Ol rhe ~tlte level ir is more J recognilion of the limiutshydoos of acdviuumles rhere The world-vicw like rhe reformists places empllasu on whal unIacutetes people Ilnd has lirde time for lhe demaoos of power pouumlics aad stare-cemrir orglLuiwrjollS Ir goe~ fllrther by nor
1 V WNimgJ lJ7f tIfernattmiexcliexclJ 11fK4111141tOnJ
liminog in view eirhec ro pans of che world or ro rellltions berweeo particuJar poliric~ lr ioded jlLSr m the economic social and poJitical demaods of mankind Paradoxically ir can be seen as IIn approach rhe very OppoSllC of the fimctionalist wirb whom tbere 5 much io common In nmtrast lO rhe fnnctionaHst (or neo-fllnctiooalisr or intetclependeuce srhuul) and ccrrainly in contrast ro rhe powet politks aOO MaOIacuteIt writers (be whole world approach places emphasis not 00 the discrere r~uiexclreshymems of groups SClteiexcl or individulI1s bm 00 tbe wel1-bciog of the tCOsystem in which rhf5f funnioll cbe planet Eanh The conccen of chis apptoach which is rcflccted il] in ttcumeUr of illternational urganizatiom is for the survival of lhe plunet for its effident funccioning in its widest SeILie aud fot che survival oiacute rhe myriad oiacute speoacutees - ollly one of which is homo sapiens - tbat inhabh me globe
Sinle tbe 196Os a number of wtiters on imernational affairs have expounded 00 tbis view and llave cOl1l~uendy ronsideted the implicadons for intemational organizacions Jobfl Button in bis World Society ronsldeted iflmstatt relations to be onIy a pan of wodd poli[iacutea and wrore
lf we employ rhe term world rociety imiexclreui of internanofla relarions iIacute we apptoo(h OUt study in this global way insread of the more tradi~ lonal nattonal way we will end to have a wider focos ro ask quesrions rhat are moee fundlmenral aOO imponant lO civilization and be ahle ro assess bettet me relevance of om own national bduviour ro be wider worW envifonment
(Button 1972 21)
Rkhacd Stetling posed the problem more spedfically
Nuclear esCllatiofl the popullltion explosion the pollmiofl of tbe envishyronmcnt the communkations rtvolurion rbe world~wide concentNdon of wC1llch and world~wide expansiofl of pltlvcrty are iexcliexcl11 essemially global and not 1laquo al pbellomena They have given rise jn tutn ro eartbshyspamuacutellg and revolutionary demands ror mass education rnass hesltb malts welfure and maltgts participation in che dccisions affecting roans fare
(Srerling 1974 322)
This wodd-view of rhe problems of the s)Jaceamphip EQlth begged fur global oolutlofl$ It suggcsred iexclhu not onIy iJ the system of sovereign stares as yer unable oc unwiHing to COme to grips with the above-menuontd prohlelUS but that a network of llllergoVCtn1lental organiutlom bGsed 00 me rights of statc wVfretgnt will ~lso be hammllng Globtl problems needed global solutlons based on institutinos rhat can (ake a global petsplaquoshytive Thus Sterling considetecl thllt it ~ tlOt unreasooable (O amidpate tme tbe member stares will be moved ro considft equippifllil the Unitw Nttous witb mote crunprebensive powen 1lt global pressUfes build 0974 323)
~h~ laquoo ~gt~ _- -gt bullbull (_bullbullbull __ - bullbull
A more compeluumlng cdH wus lAltiexclued by Barban Ward and Rene Dubas in their book prepared for [he UN Gmference of ehe Humafl EnVJroJlmenl 01lly UIIt EaFlh The c~ altJ Mdilllt1JatfCe (JI d Sflall Pta~t (972) 111ey stremsed the ufliry of tbe Eanh Jnd in eovironment and the )Jroblems in(ed by Jts iohabitants emntially thost oudined by SterJiog The ~uthoflgt poillted OUt rhat rhF envitonmenral qmosrion had by 1972 already had 50me impaltl on guvernments and im(rnarional organl1Jtion but the effior was somewhat ltInJOrdinated and unfocuseL In (hree particular aren - tbe global atmosphere rhe oceaml the worlds weather sysrellU - tbt-y saw [bl jmmediate neOO for (OmInOn poliey und co-ocdinared actiollS where vcerenshysions to national sovercigmy have no relevance ro ptrreived problems Bu rbefe was a need to go furrher and denl wirh other global problems di5Case srarvation iHitmcy unemployrnem ovcfllwding rntetnational poliCJcs wece at the 5tage reachOO wlrhin rhe devdoping s[ate~ of the ninettTtb (entury Elche they wiU move O to a wmmIlJlity bL~ro UiexclXIIl a more systematic sharin8 of weaJtb Ot tbey wiH break down in revoh and anareby (Wacd and Dubos 1972 295- -6) They Looked forward ro a sense of gLobal rommuniry 00seJ on he bope vf Irotecdon (from war aOO disaster) and the hope of enhancemenr (ecologic$1 as well as economid The ptlKtic~ and insrirutlofiS with whkh we are familiar inide our domestk sociecies would become suitably modlfied che basis of planetary oroer (Ward aOO Dubos 1972 297-8) This woold indude non~violent settlement of disputes witb legal arbirration ~nd polioacuteng ptocedures on an international basis jr would mea the Hansfer uf resoucces from rkh ro peor Ilnd inerCllSlaquo co-operaeion in arealt 5uch as health and edUcatIO farming uroon planning aud )JOlJution control As [befe halt been a shift of loyalty rom taroliy to dan from dan to tlation and from nation to fedctation there Wampll
hope clajmoo Wl1fd and Dubo$ for an ultimare lnyalty tuacute OUt single beau~ tifulllud vulnerable Planet Eanh (Ward and Dubas 1972 298)
Whilst the institutiona fmmework and organizational stfllCtuteS remain of necenity -ague in Oltl OM EaFtA iacutet is del( rhat the authors Wfre atming 11( a tlttwork oiacute world-wide fflnctionaUy hased organlzatiofll (both lOOs and JNGOs) char couId take on much of the work )JfCsendy done by governshymems o( rather whkh ougbt [O be dont by governmems UacuteJter writing-s have attempted (O deal wjth thc policy impliration$ of delllJng with )JrobshyJems globdly sroos (986) has poiacutenred en what 1w already been achieved in gtobal problem solving l1nd ha~ soughr ro buHd on rhis His critio have prunted out tha( what has already becn undertiacutelken has bren done more along rradicional Jntergovernmentallines (Donnelly 1990 121-30) Orbe writen have tied rubievemen[ in addressiacuteng [he global agenda more to renewed rutiviry in the UN (Rochester 1990 141-54) or to greater grass~ roots aud INOO acriviSffi Wget 1990 155-~8) Either way globaJj~m offeacuters a distinct W1ly of rackling the worlds ptublem~ It 1$ u ViIOIl thar sttesiexcles uniey and common (am( ntthet than disasreemem and roofrontashytion ir (ould thereIacuteore (oresce disputes being sruved inlernationally vety
much in (he way tbar chey are pre~ndy solvcd within tunny MtiOO iexclrares by more ro arbitratwn and Jaw and by entorcemenf ir neteS$il1) In this rhey have muh in COIDfllOfi wirh tire imerrnuiona lawyers iacuteUld idenlist writer of me eady (wenuacuteeh eemury mentioned at the beginning of tbu chaptet The globalisn are inspirecl jn rheir thinking more by ten Ot lt nudeal holocatlsr and by environmenml breakdown tnan by rhe duumleet elrpeshytieme uf wa dlllf aiacutefected rhe wricings of Woolf ol Ikierly
TIacutete globalisl appro~(h is opert ro the criticism of bcing roo idealistk jn a cynical world and lOO iIDpracrical in in uacutelstitutional sU8scsrioll5 Bur the di$mi$Slil oC rh~ words as globaloney cKleS HOt lid lite wctld oC che probw lems which hey have 50 effectively publiacutedzed They lutve uied to add anorIte dimensioacuten ro whar is possibte by showlng thar ie is nOCeSSiexcllty fOl rhe iexclurviwl of che planee
Tlle radical approach to the smdy oC iOternational orgllnizarions reflocu worIdmiddotvitws that normaUy lO beyond -dmse Jominated by rhe ltctivities of iexcltatcs or of LIte organizltuumlnns chemselves There is a sceprical view of whut is happeoing al soy one uacuteme in imernarional celarions and of he abilicy of mOfe cradicional wcifecs on imernafional cdarions ro explain let aJone llOderstand what is happeoing Ir is the feeling rhar approaches such ll1 (he MaNisr tlwt of rhe ideal theorisrs and some of rhe globuli~rs ur~ coming cber (O uodemaoding humanicys wider dilemmas rhar makes rhero so amactive They ar~ less Iikdy co apply rhemselves to rhe defais rutd wnrk~ ings oiacute p$cdcular imernatinnaJ organizations but neverrheless providt iotriguiog insighrs 00 [his phenomenoo by seeing rhem rhrollgh mol panoprk phHosophical lenses
SUMMARY
The rhree flIajor $chuols dealr wich io chis chaprer - the tcatiacuten the reformisrs iacutei1d che radical$ and rhe variarions (bey contain did not and do tlOf exJn iexcln a hiSforlcaj vacnum lde-as Wele foffilulared wirhio lhe COnten oiacute panicular sodedcs uoo in response ltO pUticular problems rbe communl (adom reYoludon of fhe nineteemb century the Finr World Wlli rhe rise of Nui Germany the spreading of nudeu weapons the deve1opmeof of plthitshy
$econd Workl War Europe fbe pnxeues of decoloniwion and deacuteteme rhe end oiacute the Cold War and rhe advaoce oiacute che inCormatton revolution In sorne CilSC$ the views oiacute rhose wdtings on inttmiddotrnational ocganUatlOHS have liad un efiecr on evenrs rhemelves pirlKulatly 00 rbe actitudes oC govetnrnents mwards tnternatiorW orgdflixauons AIl tXample is the work oC LecnarJ Woolf woose suggesnons Ctmceming a world organizatloo conttibuted lO fhe detailed preparnion oC the Lague oC Nations by me British goveltr mene Likewise Hans Morgeruhau and EK Can provided seimuli fot infiiexclrmoo US and Btirish governmcllul rhinking abom inrerruuional rela~ tiom iexclrom the 194Ck onwards In mher cases rhe general writings cJ persons lgtuch as Marx Leoin Mao Tse-tung and che dependencia school have affecred
rhe poJirk1ll dimare wirhin which govemmcncs conduce rheJe poUcy iucluding thar wwards jnternaclorull otgauj~atjon$
Orber ruCfOf$ aplft froro their historial cuntexc Iuve affencd the views of rhe schunl$ rncntioned They have differint backgtounJs io cheit ideruogy (Wesrero commllniSf Third World radical environmenralisr) and in theit level of $nalysis of inrernarional rebtions (stare Centuacutec inretesr aoo rramna~ dona groups cLitraquo dominanr global) This a(icca the typC oC inrernatiacuteonal organizariacuteon dominam io their studies (IGOs INCo) auJ thcic 8eograph~ kai $rea of interest (the Nonh Adandc Europe ThinJ WodJ Ot global)
TIte range of wcitings about intetnational organizarions has ull dte whole teflecfeJ wiJec llooersundings of imetoational ceJarions and wuumltld polidcs These io rhernselves have fed 00 tbe gtVidc iacutellccUecmal fcnnent and on developrnenrs in world affiuacuters Viewl about iacutellteftlational ocgsnizatJoos wiU continue ro take accOlnt of the ince1leeruaJ debate ill the studjes oiacute polishydes internacional re1atioO$ philosophy ecooomics imematluacutellal uw sociology histoty and geogrilphy They will also reflecto among other ampcton che stntcegk balance in tbe world [he relafIacuteve power of tiJe United Stares aod oroer nares me scate of wotld markers [be pto-ess uf Euwpeiexcliexcln tlllegrashytion che relacive positloo of the developing warIdgt iexclbe levd of cootlicc througbolc the world fhe -ratC of dte environfneot and the ahility oiacute huge StatCS to wiacutethswnd cenrrifttgal force Tbe way tIacuteult imematiornal organiuiexclshydons ret1ect tbese developrnents and tIacuteleir t1Ipability lO deal wich some of them will provide (he tllW fiWifcrial foc funue smdies
ltgt -_ bullbullbullbull _- _
Demsc-hs work was mken funher in a vnluffie ediretl io 1998 by AdLer and Bllenen (l998) (lLat docs pay sorne attention to ioternariorutl otgilniushydoos Indecd their volume contairu chapters thar rekr ro rhe oseeacute NATO the EU the UN the GnU Cooperarion Cowxil (GCC) aod rhc Assodation uf Soud Eat Asian Niexclttlons (ASEAN) They daim that imetshyruHiomuacute organiexclzauumlons aud iexclnstitutiacutem~ played al lmporum role in elKiltlraging more inteo$ive and extensive ioteracrioos octwttn states rhrough theit uwt-huildiug propenies (Bnrnetr and Adler 1998 418) They lht six corulusions of this snuerneor
bull By moniroting srares agreemenu tntcmatiuacutelwl orpuuacutezatiexcloo~ give them he cooftdente tuacute cooperare io (he ahsencc of trUSt
bull Jnternational O1ganizarions allow Hi1tC$ to discover new areas of muuwl intetellls Tu ponimlar [hey cenoacute ro link panicular areai
bull Inrcmational organizatiom can hdp shape $fllre pracdces by liCtting down nOfOU Ihat define what is acnptablc
bull The iIKTeaiing nwnber of internacionaJ orgamrutions emuuragC$ muldshylatetalim
bull They dIlO eruourage smres lua societies to see rhelll$Clvcs as pan of a resion
bull 1ntildeey can abo shape lhe identiry of rheir memben (Banlett aod Adler 1998 418-20)
The aurhms cWmed char cheir stuJit$ demonmared rhe exrent 10 whkh social cnmmunicadons beomes insrimtioualileJ aOO embedded in lnreroashytional oC8linbatlooslt and in turU how (hese organizatioru express an inreot to dcvelop trUSt end mmwl identificarion (Batnm and AdJer 1998 418) TIe work on sccurity (mmnunidcs is pelhapS at ir strongcu whcn dealing wim the esrablishetl Westcrn democracies rbough llamen and Adlers work shows rhar it may hilve a wider urility
lnlerJciexclnmdcme
Furrhcr emphasi on the growrh JO cnlnsaccions berween l()Cicries can be seen in the worts of Keohane 11l1d Nye who were m che forefront of the iexclnrerocJXndcnce school in rhe lJoited Srnnt fhey puacuteirued our (he conseshyquences of the innease in tldrunarioualucdolU ro che study uf iexclnternncional rdarions Thcit statcing iexclgtoint was sLlnuuarized chus
TraM1latlowJ relations are nolaquo new alrhough che growth of tmnsna~ tklOal orgnnizarion in me twentieth centuty has been specracunr Ye-r our nmremioo iso nor ooly rlur rhe srate-centrk paradigm )$ inade~
quare bur also thar it igt becoming progttSsively more inadequate as changes io inrernational relauumloos take place
(Keohane and Nye 1971 xxv)
The) llsred five omsequemes uf this growth uf inEematiooal inrcracrions ana organizarJ(tIls fur inrerstate politks (1) rhe promntiun of attirude change amongsr driacuterens (2) ao innease io inrernacional pluralism the linkjng of nntiooal Interese groups in tnmsnational strtlCtures usuaHy involving transruttionaI organizations fOI rhe putpoampe of (04)minatioo ltKtohAne and Nyc 1971 xviii) whiacutech has heen lhe basis for much noo~(Jncdontllist wriexcling (3) me cmdon lf dependence and inrerdependcofe IS often associacuteshyarea with intetnilriorutl cranspormrioo and iexclnance Keclune and Nye 1971 xix (4) creating new insrruments fut iexclnfluence for use by sOJne governments over ()(bers (Keuhane aOO Nye 1971 xx) 1100 lt5) dJe emergence cE auronomous acrors wirh priwre ntildelreign policia thar roa) deliberarely oppose Oiacute impinge on Sla(e polides (Krohilne and Nye 1911 xvii)
In a late book (1977) Keohane and Nye dcah with che questioo of imershydependem-e in world poliacutetics io greatet depth Iorecclependencc $lnce tbe Second Wm1d War has- onen cesulted from increasetl ttaosnadonal atciviries and iexcli divided ioto twO sorrs sensltlviry iacutemerdcpeodence (dte muIy effecrs of dULOges jo tranS1lCrJons oc ~()ciacuteetiexcles or govetrunents) md vulnembHhy interdependence where he acrors Hahllhy tc suffet eO$n iacutemposed by extemal evenc~ js (aken inro accoum (Koonane ana Nyc 1977 12-13) In COntrast ro tbe reaisr view of world poHrk Keohane and Nye pm totward che idea type of complcllt imerdependence which chey claimed soroetimes comes dosee ro realiacutety chan does realism (Keohanc attd Nye 1971 23) aod whieh has three nuio characretl$tks it allows fo mulnple rhallne1smiddot- imershyStatC tiansgovernmental and trilnsnationa- conneltring sncieries there i an abserue of hierarchy ilmonS the rnany questions ac inle hetween iexcliexcltates with military securiry no 10nger dominntlng lUly agenda and Millnu-y force 15 not used by governments toward orher governmenu within me laquogion or on [he lssutS where complex intetdcpendence prevaiacutels (Keorutne aoo Nye 1971 25)
These dltee condidons are said by KCQhane aOO Nye to typify fairly weJJ 5Ome LIlAUe$ of global economk md ecological interdependence ami come dose ro chamcrerizing rhe emite relarionship hetWetn sorne cnuntdes (KeolWne and Nye 1911 25) Complex ilterdepcndente glVel rise ro oacuteininctive poliacutetical processes a sute $ goals wiacutell vary by mue arca with mmsgoYernmeotul puumllitics making goab difficut ro define as ttansgovern~ menrnl llClaquo()$ (fof cxample mtfUsrers of agr1cuJmre inte11igente agencies nariona wcather bureaux) pursue their own aims Jhe followiog facwn are reLevant iriexcl eilch issue area
bull iexclhe resourc-es of a Ncue fur thaI particular area are most relevaot radre Ihan the stares overull military ~tre-ngth
bull international nrganizatinm and uansnntional actors wHl be fruloipula[ed as malnr instrumenrs oiacute mue poHcy
bull rhe agenda of issUC$ wi11 be fOrmulated hyebltUlgcs in the power dirmi~ burlon wirhin [he issue alaquollS by rhe pururinn (lf internarional regimes
150 Writings lIlt inttn1atiQrJ41 ergdniutirll1J
by changes jn rhe importance of ttaflstlational acwtS and by linkage froro orher issues
bull linkage between 1sllor$ will be mote difficult for strong naces to undetshyrah ir[orce 1$ downgraded
ft whiJsr linkage by we$k srares rhrough internacional organuumlarions seu agendas helps coalition-wrming and provides arenas for the political acdvity oC weaker states which can use the choice of organizarional forurn [or an issue and rhe mobiliZlition of votes as a politiul resource
(Keohane and Nye 1977 37)
Thm Keuacutehane and Nt gavc inremarjonal organizaciOfls an iroporran[ role in thde compfex interdependence model of world politics a model which whilst not uSlaquo (O explaitt aIl world politics was one which rhey daitned to hllve iacutenfrtasing releYJ1nce in IIlarge and growing area 1ntildeey used an intetnUional organizadon mooel as one of the explanations ror internashytioua regime change that js che lthange in the sets of goveming flrrangernems affening relatioruhips oC interdependence In tMs C$e intershynadonal oJsanisaciolls refeued ro multilevd Iinkage norms and insritutions (Keohane and Nye 1977 54) which once euablished are harJ (O enlAlicate BeCllue o( this rhey may Stand in the way of swes using thdr capabHities In ordec 00 chauge regimes Instead powet outcomCl will be more aJfectcU by votlng power (in the UN General AssemWy for example) ability ro futtl) coalidoos llnd 00 control elite networks (ruch as that founo io clte institushydougt of the European Commnnities) Whilst the complclt illternadorull organizarion mode1 was only Ofle oiacute fOur aJvaucecl by Keohane and Nye ro explain regiffie chAoge tbey Jiu expeomiddott jr to contribute to such chaIlSC in a world where complex interdependence (onditions pertain
1he rontribmions by Keohane and Nye demonstra(e hoth the roncero pf American wtilets iexcln inremationru relariWl in the 1970$ with altemacives to
tite srare-centric model and their wiluumlngness tO draw from more rhan one approach bringiexclng rogether elementogt from che more tradidonal appnJaChes with economic models and non-stare-cenuic dements TIleir Wi)rk does however have certain weaknesle$ Perhaps the mon serious is the use of rhe cerro imerdependence and iexclrs djvisiacuteon iexclnro ~n~itivity and vuinerability imerdependence Anepting rhar inltldeperulence meUlS mutool dependeoce (and [hjs leado to discussiou a~ w how mutual maoy relationihips are) che phrase scnsiuacuteviry imcrdcpendenre scarccly wflrmnu thc use uf the term interdependcnce fhe fault lies wJth che authou loose definiuOfl of depen~ iquestcnce as a oiexcltate (lf being detetmined oc $ignificaruly affected by externa fwces The induskm 0(signi6candy atkcted w~aken5 me urillry uf me cerm so tlme che nOr1on oiacute scusltivity inrtgtrdependence seems ro refer ro any nociceshyaMe cffeltr of ooe srate and society 00 anorher A person may Ix- significandy affectcd by taking drog$ wlthout Ix-ing dependen on chem David Baldwin showcd that mis use of rhe cerro interdependence ran conrrary to the striaer
Writingt ()I inf~_Ji(J1ia ~lfizaJJom 151
lUlderstlllldings (lf the concept fuund in MirhiaveUi Montesquieu and Ronsseall as weU 115 in che works uf twentieth-cemury wrlteI$ such as Norman Angell Francis D(laisi -and Ramsay Muir (ampIdwm 1980 7-9) He snuested the U$C of rhe rerms mutnal influence mutual responsivrness ot mutual scrlitivity insread ofscnsirivity inrerdependeruemiddot (Baldwin 1980 19)
A second cuacutericism uf Keohanc and Nyes books aso concems eheie termishynology In dealing wirh rransnational influentes They [ump tngerheraH types of teiations in whieb non~8overnrnental actOrs participare chus makiflA rhe componenrs of cheir new paradigm shifting aud poorIy defined (Wagoct 1974 440-1) Wagner questioned whetber their work simply demonstrated a shifr in interesr to new areas of intetnational polidts shyespedally elttmomic ones - ana whethcr [he world hM reaUy changed or whether we have iexclUSt overlookcd sorne things a1l along (Wagner 1974 441) The atent of imerdependence wa~ also chaHenged by Waltiquest (1970) anJ Rosecratlce el al (977) in che US and by Lirrle Bnd McKinlay (1978) and Strllivan (978) in rhe Briti~h Uteramre
DespiLe any falling$ Keohlllle and Nye provided insighrs ioto ttamlflashydonal polltics they shifted atrention away fcom p~lrely govcrnmental actOts in inff$rate relarions and they poiutm OUt he impMrance of intetnational organlziexcliexclxions in the intetdepcndence oc at lcast rnurual responsiveness of =
rbe rdormist view of both international celBtiOO1l and iuternational orga- nizar1ons has always provided an rutemative lO the more conservativc cealist approach Ir tended ro be dominated jn the pre-wu petiod by internauacuteonal lawyen and ideaJists but sinee hc Second World War has laoched on to the changell in world poUtics 6tst jn the economic ficld and then in Europe thar have Mn more difficulty to explain in ICliIHst term~ It has sten intcrna~ rionnl organizarions as mlans to manage trends such as iucftI$(d economl( intlrdlpcndcoC( bar hll5 also illtceplcU rhat these organizations mar necorne impoftllm aCtoriexcl (lO che wodd st$ge lhemselves and can cettainiy Iacute)(cnrne involved iexclO changing rhe preferences o( governmeflts
RADICALS
Writers covered in this sccrion iCe rhe intcrnadonal sysrem flOt so much as being domlnlltcd by states bn( more by diUerent divisions 01 its peoplcs Thi$ is noe to Sfly fhat chey ignore surtes They cOflsider them elthet w be ks tmportant chan the iquestjjsions of diUS tit wealth or merely ro refI~ct these othcr factors ot w be roadblo(ks to unky in (he fare Qf mote impomllt chalmiddot renga Power ls seefl as belnamp cxercised by eh( wealthy II1ld privileged and open to cha1Jeuge Change in the system is possibl( but onty through srrll8ge or by an awakenjug pf peoples tQ rhetr real sitllatlon Most iexclnter~ natimal organization~ are thus regarded as (eflccrioos of the currcnt unsruisracwry stare uf aiacuteTairs though $fJme more activist orgauhatioos mar llave potential as vehicles or (hange
This SIoacuteCElOn has betn sub-middotdivided imo rhree gthe fUS( are the econ01nk srructuralists and indude Marxists and Third Wocld wruumlers cririclll of rhe cutrem imernruionallyuem They haacuteve in common a belief mar che polltshyiexclcal srructUres of me world halle leeo wbloned mainiexcly by eltonomic fiiexclctors and rhAr mere has bren an intiacuteJUIllity builr imo the presen sytem lhe recood are the cruumliral app~es who5e radicalilifl1 is mure of the iacutemellec~ cual SOrt They rejeCf - Uf at 19$[ question - Jhatly of rhe usumpcions utlderlying be lIiews ofhe world tepresented by the realists and refotmers Finally mere are the globalim Theit perspective ls planerary ana theiacuter rnain conrtrn h fM rhc survival uf Earth Agilln they challcnge che mme statemiddotbuled approaches of both realjsts and reformers
Stnuturaluacutet lIiews
Ihe srructuralist appmiexclch rO (he swcly of inrematioOlIl relations differs In imporrant wars tO thoee of me realists and refotmuu tbough ir has some elemeou in comroon with mands ofb04h schools As roany of (he neo-realistsshyemphasite (he power scructure of wudd potities this sectiacuteon willlimir jwgtlf ro (hose writers roncerned wich the impacr 00 me political S)Srem of rhe wodds ccooomic strucrure Unliacuteke che ttalist approach the erooomk srrucruralisrs are OOr jUSt concemed with swtts io wodd polilla and rhelr economic and poIitkal differencC$ but alw with the divisioru within f1tld berween SoOCieties (WiIIeas 1990 263) They are [heretOre romerncd witl the rifi berween riel iexclmd poor within scares and rhar herwtto udl and poor glohally This leads ro an interese lO trulSlUirional reladoru as well as in inrergo~romenmt links Th(f have this in corrunon wim refPrtllist views bm diexclfier foom chem in (he emphast~ placeoacute on rhe structures of world pollics beinc formuared by eltooomic fiexcliexclcmn In rhis selttion attentioo wilt be given te MarxiS[ wtlletS lIud sume Thir1 Wodd view$ - partiuilarly (hose of rhe cependency sdlOOf and rhe developmemalj~[II - who have made a cootribution quite separare from rhat of rhe Muxiacutesr uadidon
Marxill laquoewl
There is no one Marxisr interptetariacuteon of me role of imerniexcliexcltional Olganiza~ cions in world politics Sur Manis[ approschf3 have certain elements in common and form a di~dnctive 5ch001 of rhough[ about lnrernartonal telamiddot tions generaHy and therefore ahotu international ocganizadoos These appmaches are based 00 du writiflgS of Karl Marx (l818~) in coshyoperarioo witb Fuacutewrich Engels (1820-95) with perhaps tbe gtearest later conrribution being maJe by VL Lenin kader of (he 1917 fo1shevik revolushydon in Rurna They are cf importanee pany becau1e ehey ficm tlle 00515 for mmmuniSt [hinking and (hm mey have an anactunenr m rhe Soviet Unian whieh WIlS be suongc1t commnuist stare unrII 1991 and EO rhe Peoples Republic of China COlUT1UnJSl sinee 1949 Apan ftom lbis ManiS( beliefs
had a irmng inpur mm Wescern imdleltrual cruoking and conunue ro iruoan some viewi abom wodd politics in rhe Third Wodd
Neither Marx no Mancisrs took rhe stare ro be (he curtency of iacutenteInashy(iexclonal relations Unlike (he realist viewpoints chey did fiO( coruider interactions blaquoween soveteigu ltates to be ofovettidi importance UnHke tbe funcrionalists aud other modem Westetn views rbar srress non-stare actocs Marxiexclsts in particular emphasized cbus relatlonships born wiexclrhin nates and IiCOOSS Stare boundaries Indeed ie is diffku[r ro talle only of a MaIXIacutest view of inrernatiooal re1atioll5 lec ttltme of iorernarional orgnniza~ UumlOOy as rhis separares ene particular aspecr of human behavinur tor MIlIXIsr rrearment divorcing ir from the undedying relleCS of Marxlc beliefs Man-ism provides a framcwok of undemanding by whkh ir iacutes daimed ~ociery pan lind vresen can be explaioed and che furure development of mankiexclnd determined
According ro Maf1 relariooshipamp between people and the futm~ mar insdmdooallzed rhose relatienshfpamp depended on rhe economic $truCtUR of soday fhe way rhat productlon was organized He traced the history of dvilixed maokind through five hiuorical staBes - AAjade mdenr feudal capttalin and socialin - which have ditTereru dominant methods of produc~ tioll leadiog 10 a complirared arrnngement of $OCiety ioto various ordetS 11 manifuld graduadon of sociru tank (Marx llnd Boge1s 1965 40) amph form of sorlef has coutained rhe conflictual divisiQl$ which help [Q tranuacuteorm the narun of rhat $Ocjeey coRrradicrioru in the mode ofpcoducfIacuteon placed srrain nn rhe existing social nrder sharpeniug rhe divide berween economic founshydatinn of sociery and a mpld aansIacuteonnlltion of in SOpel1Ullcture in legal polidcal and re1igious it1$tirutioos Thus by 11 confronration of da$~ Conrramiddot dkeions one historlraJ form of soc1ery wus transfocmcd into a bigher stage uf social devdopmem the history of aH hitherto existing ~ociexclety is the histoty uf dass struggles (MaDI Illld Bngets 15 39) Marx and Bnsels were parriculady conceroed wich capita1i$t sociery - ac its Oeyday during theiacuter Uves - and its tmnsrormarion iexcluto ampocis1iu sodety Wlthln rrus form of SoOCiety rOete would be no division of laboU4 and no eWses Illld no SUtes no elCpropnation of labours 5urplus vruue I1nd (bus no private property 00 exploira(ion of ene clilllS ny iexcliexcloother with 00 need fue war
For Marx and fingeJs C1ass then and noiexcl fllltions or sutea are rhe bade units in hurO) llIIIl che struggle between clAssts Jnstead oiacute infeutliltl contlict ocrupies rhe centre of acrention (Berki 1971 R1iexcl From me nlneteenth celUUf onwards rhis struggle -n in Marxisr cerros has been primarUy between [his capicalist dass ([he OOurgeoisic) aOO the bbouring dw (me proletariat) AA (he trarurormatlon fmm capltalisr SoOCIety [O ~OCialiexclMl ro comrounism rook p~e (he superstruerutt of bourgtOis SoOCilaquoy - religioo national divisiacuteon boutgmis politicnl insrirudnns rhe SOlte - woold be swept flway and in Engtls pmse rhe gOlcrotnent nf persons is replaced by [he udminlsuacion of things Fetter 19 (47) with me itEte relegated lO the mmeum iexclngemer Wlth lile spinshyning wheel Qnd [he bronze axe (Feuer 1969 433)
154 WrituacutetKiexclI mJenl4tiorJal rngmZtlJilm
Mux saw the European SUtes of his own rime as being rntans by which the ruBng dass (011amp oppress the work~ng clw by using (he agentl of tht 5tare such as the iudidary the poliee the army and rhe church he (xrerual Ilctlvities of the stare wete also determined by its Chtss namre MeanwhiJe rrmllnat]onat Rlations of a more meaningfuL kind WQuld bt creared by trade rhe movement of capital and incteaiitd romac[ and llOIacuteldarity betwten the prolerariat of vanoulS nations riacuteidefd rhe internacional nriexclaniutions of which Marx and Engels hnd dire(t experiena- wtfe the Fi~t Internatiomd and for Engels the Secund lntemarional both of which atttmpted lO orgashynJxe the represemarives of wruking people aiexclros fronden Onc~ agaJn this stteAAe$ the Marxist empbois on transnarional dass relutions rnther than on intentate relarionships
Whibt Soviet writlngs on international organizatinn1 wtte falrly desulshytory in Scalins reigu 0924-53) rhey did lmerIy hernld rbe move towams peaceful co-existerne arul roreshadowffi the lartf rnrhe[ restrktive view of Imch organi2Atinm hy Soviet commentators
In the post-Second Wodd War period and In patticular in the post-Stalin era Soviet liternmre on international organiuttions bl(lSsomed This has reflected Soviet membership oC ma1ly 1osiexcl-1945 organixations the emershygence of a socialist bloc of sta[C$ and tbe incre-ase in the mlmber of Sowcreign s[ates all flUtontilde demaruHng a more sophisricared Soviet view of lnter~llate reLadoru than che survivalism of Stalins period Uuring rhe lare 19805 i( auo ret1ected the new thinking iacutemroduced by Gorbachev
StalintI suIXessor KrU$hchev developed a revised view of internacional relaCtons which gave a positio1l ro the emerging Third Wnrhl (Tbe Third Wotld was then taken to mean rhotle IItates thar had emerged ftom colo~ nialiacutesm In effect rhe terrn later induded tbe stares of Latin America Africa - exclnding the rhen apaftbeid stnre of South Africa - the Middle Rasr Oceaniacutea and South Asia) Peace(ul co-exiuence between oda1ist and (apltaJisr states WM $til comidered nece1sary but this diacuted noc predude the ideologiacutecal stmggle between rhe two campsmiddot iexclndeed lhe Soviet inter~ national lawyer GI Ihnkiacuten wrote pearcfut cocx15tence of sutes represeonng che tWO differeor rodal sysems is a slccific form uf dass struggie beween socialism and calitllllsm (Osakwe 1972 37) The Soviet Union abo deveJoped relatlons wirh rbe newly emerging exshycoloniaJ cOllntdeJ and Soviet writiog had tu take ~ount of this developmem There wru a recognirion of a third group of stattli between rhe capitalist aud the communlsr that of poteorially friendly indtptomiddot deut $tarem io Europe and Asia such as India Egypt Indnnesia and Yugoslavia which would filrm a tone of peace Although the rebtions wiacuteth rhe capitaliacutest sures sriacuteH remaioecl embedded in pelteful coshyexluencc rhere was an emphasis by postmiddotStalinist Soviet writets on the da eJement in lile telatiomhil - that is rhe wntact with progressive elements in Weste1l sodeey smh as che Jabonr mnvement Ncither diexcld peaceful co-exiucuce rule OUt ~upport o[ middotjUSt wars of nationallibcrildon
WIacuteJIacute11gs tm iacutenUrllUtional WjatlJZtiacutelJlff 155
iexclndeed ir was seen lt a strategy fo wodd reloludon Fiacutenally (he rrlashyfIacuteonhips berween the Sovier Union and East Eumpean countries vere deerned ro be based on sociali internationalism posmlating a haemony of natinnal and commllnity interests and mndllding thar jnde~ndeuce and sovereioiexclnty of a soctalist uate means aoove aH indepltndencc from capitalism (Red Star 1 December 18)
Tunkin underljned traditional Soviet thiacutenking rllar the mngtrltllenl imrrllment of an ioretnational urganization (fne example the Chaner oiacute the UN) was all-impottant in derermining tIte enene rrun the otganizauumlon bad an international legal pcntildeonaliry rhar iexcl5 a standing in internacional 1l1w 5imilar tu titar of a sovereigo staxe Examining lhe question of the antonomOllS wiU oiacute international nrganitatioll Tunldn allowed thl1 they need not jmt act as agtnts for member stares
In imernatiunal ptacrke trellties conduded by jntcrl~ational mSaniacutezashytinns take their speciaJ piare as treacies by wbkh internationsl organimtiom aequire righu and take upon themselves cerrain obligiexcllshytioos Intctnat10nal organizatiou are created by Hares hey are broughr iexclnto being by states but the actloacuteos of imcmational organi7ashydoos are nlt)( in any way de facto or de jure ro be tqt1sred lO the actions of scates
(Osakwe J972 23)
Thi did nor mean than M internadonal organiacuteiariexclon was an entity indeshypendem of its memher us[es as any powers (har they hacl were delegated by [he members In Jine wirh che ampwiet doctrine of peareful co-exiacutesteme Tunkin placed Uress pn (he nature and rhe membership of an international organiacuteution dlOSe which drew their membersbip from commlmi1t c1Ipishytalist and TIiexclird World tares could expcct tu be genel1llly mognized as having an incernarional personaliacutery He wrote
TIte namre of tontemporary international prganiurions is lO a very great exttm derefmined by [he existerue of Haces beJonging ro differem wcio-economk systems and the ioevitable muggle between them Thar is why pcaceful crexislence is now the bl-sic condition of rh~ dfVC1iexclpshyment ufgeneral interoational ntganization
(Osltuumlltwlt 1972 289)
Mor07JN Clt1ntrlbuterl sorne extra points Fintildet be iududed JNGOs in his stndy He wrote dlQt lotetnational orgaruulions have as iI rol 8t least three member coumries TheM may be government$ offidJ orgilnlzarions or 0CInshy
guvernmental organizatiow (Morowv 1977 30) In a 11Iter seccion m NGo thcy were ldencifred as che la~ group of inrerrulttonal organiuttiolls wim two aspccn rbar concttntd socuIacuteiacuteIgtt commemarors tbe NGOriexcl auirude towards the preservarion of pealaquo wkh the Wnrld Feieradon ofTrade Unions
6 _ 0
rhe Wodd Fedemion oE Democratk Youth and otber meiexclllbtrs oiacute tbe Sovittshybacked World Peace (ounaacutel gaining special mentioo and the specialiuJ chataCrer of sorne NGOs itl(h as rhe ruerrutriunal Couocil of Scientifu Unions and che Scienrifk OJmmiuee on Antnrctk Research MOrlrLOv memioned how NGOs can belp emblish a social dimate citillg their contti shybution ro (he setdemenr of a number of internacional confHcu swh as dlilr in Vietnam He aOO dealr wirh the role of che NGOs io cbe UN aud che consuJshyrative srarus [hey llave witn lGOs saying du[ smdems of internariooal affitjoiexcl
in [he socjalisr councrics m critieal of many asplaquots of (his system fur the eoruulrarive StatuS amogemenrs stiU fall shon of wha( [he deveJopmenc of modern inretnatlonal relarions in fac[ catls fur (Morozov 1977 43) Tbe specialized namre ufNGOs Wamp1 atttibuted by M((2OV tu
tht increased Jnfiuence of the pubic at large un roreign polky [he grearer iexclmpat of public opininn in imernatiunal reladuns and [he greater importante uf me ideological fiexclUtot 10 $ucb relations Accoum should abo be raen of che proccsses of cconomic developmenr and [he coosequenc~ of [he scienrific and rechnological tevolutioo which has also led ro a greatet number of speoacutealized NGOs
(Morozov 1977 42)
Second Morozov wridog jo d~ late 197amp made moU pos-irive refershyencelgt (O [he role oiacute Trurd Wodd SUtes in imemaciooa otganimrions He noted rbar rbe emetgtoce oiacute ti large oumbe of Oung natiooal stares h8ve kd fO che emetgcnce of intetnarJonal Drganizadons among develcpi08 ecuoshytries (Mororov 1977 29) aod claimed hat partkiparion in (hese organh311oos is part uf he process uf consolidating their sovereigocy and ruuional jndependenu~ aod of wlviog cheir pressing ecoOfJmic anJ orher pmbemsmiddot (Morozov 1177 31)
Finally Momzov developed the puint made by fimkin aOOut he limited llalUre of ioternationaJ organiurjQn$ - ~econd-dllSS ffitrnbers nf the inrershynarloual sysrem as opposed tu rhe firsr-diexcllSS members SQvereJgn stateiexcl by reretcme tO theit dedsioos There bave resulted froro che inrelllctioo of politicuJ euroorces within the organil1ldons and
Thecombined will uf chcse lGOs i5 disuumlnc[ from [he wllls of theuuml indishyvidual members io in eflSenlte and ln in narure The v1ilflous wills in thb case are nor agsregued arirhmetically each one exim indepenshydendy ur oside a homogeneQu~ socio-political gOUP wirbin whose frarnework (hey can be combjlled
(Murozov 1977 34)
AfLer lhe comiog ro powet ofMikhail Gorbachev in the Soviet Union io 19Bgt a Ihaoge rook place jo $oVJIl policies rowards imeroadonal relations irutuding international organi1ations and [his has been reflecred in new
~ M-- bull 6_V_
Soviet writings un [he subJect Gorbachev inttoducetl a owjor review of [he fureign poljcy uf the Soviet Union (har marchcd rhe inremiry of his dmncslic refotmS He encouraged new rhinking- based on a revjeJ vlew of che world siruation Peaceful co-existence wirh iexclhe capiralisr tirares WlCgt no looger seeo a~ being a spetjfic fum of dass srruggle as Tunkin had written bUI 35 being in the commoo intecesu oiacute all countriCl Ir WIi$ predishycued on the neOO fin surviva of (he human nce which in ShakhfUlZOlrQvmiddot$ word$ must ofCOUIse take fim place Lighe 1988 297gt- Thjs ml$or rhar a new COIKeuropt of seGldty had ro he adopreJ hy che Soviers rhar oiacute common security which wa5 based un sume of he ideas of -che Palme Comminion (see he1ow) Greater emphasis wu given ro arms control and dlsarmament agreemenrs wirh the Wesr 11nd to co-opttation in international uffuirs whilst Soviet intervention io che Third Wodd enbed and milirary 5UppOtC 1m [he East European communisr govcfomentS WlS withdrawn
Soviet wdcings on inremurionilJ relations both offidal and academic came to mirror Gorhachevs new rhJnkiog bur eho lilete iexcl$ evety sigo chut rbese id~ were dmwu no only from rhe Wesr but alw Uacutenm Moscow mink-tanks slleh as lMEMO th~ JflSIirure of World Eronomy and Inremlfona Relacions) Liacuteght 1988 29~n Gorbschev aun his forngn minisrer FQllard Shevaronadre gave rhe academiacuten a Breen light for funher diSClViiacuteon ud debare (Shevaronadre 1990 23) As II reampul srudies examlned he role of che Uniacutered Nariacuteons as sn ugem for peoce (Kolyrev 1990 12-19 NesrerenkQ 1990 65 Petoovsky 1990 42--3) and rhe mte of inrernational or811nizadons in environmental mliLffers IiLnd disurmamenc qutsdmuuml Chodsulkwsky 1988j NikitiM 1989 123-32 Roginko 1989 133-43) and internarionallaw was teassesred (Sutier 1989~ 363-75)
Once che Sovier Union collapsed many of me wrifetS losr rhe main point of political reference A nwllber Iefi academc orhets adapted thelt ideas ro WCtem oues and a few remnioed as policy rulviseni ro che new Russian goVefrutJenL However cornmunism as M imellectually dominant organiuog rotce wlch pnliiisJ dour had djsappeared in Russia togerllef with much uf the persptr1ve ir provided - wben seen thmugh me unen distotdng leos uf tbe Sovier lfulon - oiacute inrernatiooaJ relatlons and inremariooal organhattnru
Chinese Marxisr wrirers have iexclargeIy reflected rhe views of the leadershyship in Chinll sioce [he coming ro power of rhe Commun1sr Patty in 1949 Undl (he 1970$ communist China was elduded from almon aH iotttllJishytional of811nizIiLtIOns and ie is flot surpriamping tha whae lirde writing tbete WUtl on the st1bje(r Wal fairly dismiacutesampive usuaUy consisdng uf coudemnaM tinos of (he UN fnf its action tn Korea aud rhe security allianes fot teir hegernonic narure Chjnese Marxisr rhinking hiacuteu divided (he modem wotld jnro three groups ihe Birsr World consisred of rile fWQ imperialist superpowers namely he USA ano the USSR The Second World was made up uf otbet areaa uf advamed industrilllired cnuntries primariacutely EUfape aod Japa which were opea ro donunariou by lite Sllperpowers bu( which could $tan a dialogue wirh rhe Thiacuterd World Theu (here was rhe Third
158 Writings OtJ internationdl organizatioru
Wodcl iexcltreI( coruisting of the Afro-Asiacutean-Lario Americltlu sta tes supported in their muggte aAainSt Picsr World imperialism by Chinls This viexclew of the wmId colouted tyJst Chiacutenese wridngs on iacuteoternatiollill oeganharions Tbe $uperJowers were seen as cynical lTlllnipubtors Qf inrernarionaJ jnsti~ tutions Mao Tre~tuog wOre of US poliey towards such insdfutions Ir mam use or them when it neOOS rhem and kicks them 3way when ir does flot (Society (or Anglo-Chinese Underuanding 1979 42) US-domioated pill-~ such amp$ SEATO and imperialist groupiacutengs like rhe Alliance tor PfOgre~( wttt detided Spedal viuiot was saved roc the Warsaw freaty Orgaoizatiun whieh in one aetide was described as Soviet sodal~ imperialisms mol fur aggression (Ming Sung circd Jn Chen 1979 194) fhe Soviet Union was aceuseQ of trying tu manipulate che Pan and negnshydate wlth Wesrem eouorries rhmugh the Enropean Scltwiry Conferenee tn consolidare irs begemonic status in Basrern Enrope at the same time iexcliexcll dividiog Wes(ern Europe squeezing Out the USA ro as ro muSte way (0(
iu expansion and infilrmrion into Westem Europe (Ming Sung clted in Chen 1979 197)
Chinese writecs Fegatded tbe Ntildegttood Worid espedally Western Europe as being a pen force io telmS of imperialism which Ww tdponeed to the lhird World wich diaJogu as io the Jmueacute Convention berweoen tIacute1e European Commnnitiacutees and AF~ican Carib~an and Paciuacutet srUe5
Furrhermore the defensive $spects of NATO were sttessed and with growing European cohcsion the trend iexclS IJkely to ~ towatds a fuoce in which the American elemenr is seen as 1 temporary neceuity eventual1y to be phased out (Sodety fur Anglo-Chioese Undetstanding 1979 90)
lthe countries of the Third World were setn as coostirotiog rbe mluumln force comb$dng imperiaJi~m colonialism and hegemonJsm reEerring nor only to the vestiges of Wesr Etl-OOptan foloniiexcliexclJism bOl abo to US iexclnpetlshyalism and gwwiog Soviet soci$l~imperiacutea1ism Tbe Third Wodd eQuld hdp tn exclude the gre$t powers ny baoding cogecher io such otganizatinos aiexcl tht DAU aod rhey could work ro correct unequiexcliexcl nade and eeonomk reladons with che sUpetpowers through UN iexcliexclgeucies and eonferences such as UNCTAD and UNaos Abo rtlW material ancl exporting orgllnizations liexclke OPEC rbe Incernadonal Bauxilaquo Association ancl the Onion of Banana Bxporting Counuies were proised a ehanging (he old interntlrional eumomic Ome and banerlog che biggest roarerJal plunderers in rile world rhe United Srates and (he Soviet Uoleo (Ptking Rt1Jiew 26 Septtmbtr 1975 cited in Cheo 1979 309)
111e poverty oiacute ehinne study of intetnatlenal erganhuions no dounr caused by the lack of Chinese membership of such etganizacions unril the 197amp and the turmoit ef the Cultural Revulution eiexcliexclme ro an enel by the 1980s Jnstead oere was a more reaHs( viexclew (lE rbe worlcl iexclf one S~shytimes coucbed In Manlst terms In Chlnese univenittes there was a growtb io detailed studies of iutemationalntgsnizations aod the nuropean Union
WritingI un inlmullPmnl vrgrsrtilpiill1J 159
Tbird Wwld vlewJ
Many Third Wodd Afro-Asian aoo Latin Atrusican) writers 00 jntemsw
tional organizaion have adopte a structtulIist framework and are particufarly nm(etnecl abour how insdtutions can be wcd as tools of exploitadon uf rhe nitd World aud how $ome cau be used lIS agenrs of libenuion They llave nor been induded in the ~ettiexcloo un Marxist viltws (or three feamm nOI al of them are Mandst thIJM who are Manisr place particular stresS on (he posicion oF thE l1lIacuterd World and as ThJrd Worlcl eitizens they have through theit own experience unother pe~cdve rhan [Mt of writers from industri$lized srates
Yash 18ndon (1978 377) has identjfied thNf nuacuterd World penfIXrives en inrernational Olganizatiolls Fim [here is that or the bourgeois Of perry natiunalisrs who are in power in mos[ Third World statcs and who are progressive in [errru of anti-impcrialism but are rraniollary ro the C1tccnr WC they would sooner mau thcir pcaee with imperialism rhan iluwnder power (e the masses and peasancs This group uses ineernational orgllniexclm~ tions ro pur presrure 0lI imperialisc states in order to extntCt concession5 from them and appease tbe masses in their own coontries TIley see che UN as an opportunity to parley witb their entwhiacutele impecild masters t a presumed kvd uf equa1iry (Tandoo 1978 365) Thc scltond pcrspective is rhat ofthe reaIly backward regimes of thl Thitd Wodd such un Taiwiexcliexcln and Jotdan or whnm intemarional orguniacutelattnnS are of margJna1 signifieance [)t they prefet tu dea wirh impcrialism iquestirt(tiy The rhird petSPCCrive idenrified by landOll is that uf rhe masses vi thc TIlird World for wbom toterntlunaJ orgmilAriom are petiphewl fin liS Jong as hey rontinue fO reflect the muing balanlte uf clas$ forces in hvour uf impeuacuteJism (fandon J 978 378) Sioce the ene of he 196amp rorces representing thu third group have bccome lnott prominent in world polido in che form of liberarioo groop1 lttCn as tbe PLO and whilst chese have f)tgten interested in galnin8 telaquolgnJtlon rOt rhemshyselves at the UN and the spedaliled agcodes rhey are not depeuden 00 these or8ani1Jlton~ rndecd Tandoo romioeted (hat fo che revoludonary snnggles in SOUfh~E3SC A~a and AfrJctI iOfernattonal otgilnizalJons are tOO peripheml to be of much $ignilJeaoce (Tandon )9713 377)
Tancloo providcd n inrere~tiog history of the Jevelopment uf the anrishycolonialist forees in che Third Wruld sinee 1945 bur hi~ clivi~iexcl()H iexcloro he three perspenives is roo stark leaving aside rhe leil important backWllro regimes be has basiclllly grO~lped tbe Third World leadershp joto the revoshylutionaries who have Uttle netd (or imernatiooa otgllnizatiooll and those who llave suumlpped into refOrmism and have beco duped iot() bdieving (hat they elln ehaoge chelr c1ependeoce 00 industtia1i1Cd nBfiexclmL~ lhrough intemadonal organiwtions Thjs seems to undelsrare me use or ~mh organishyzations by revolutionllry groups - especiiexcliexcllIy che PLO anel tlle SoUthem African liberadon OtgllOiexcl7arionS - whieb have made substaotial use oiacute [he UN me Arah League ano the OAU tO sustain rhe polirical aspeets of theit effOrt5 1t alS(l uverestimatcs the extent tu whieh the Third World countries
J UU wnlmgl 1111 JTiUrllamm41 ergtIttJ1I0fll
have any iUwinru about imetnariooal Qrganizarioos such a~ UNC1~D
Furchermorc the identificador of 800d revolutionaries and falten refurmislS i~ tuller impliexclstjc~ rhe maIur sponrot of the UNs New Ecooomic Order l wruch Tandon hal roudemned as rhe Old Economic Order with a diffefent rltetoric WIIS the Algetian radinu governmenr of Boumediemu rhe PLO irself ha heen dependem on a numlgttr of bnurgeWs Arab goveromenrs foc financial 00 diploJUlltic suppon and ro Tandoos duumlertion that PQr narlonallibemwn movemenn guided by a proktatlan idoology such liS rhose in Chifliexcl1 lIlud Vietnam iruemarionaJ organlwtlona WtU of no 1J5e can be- added the re5ervarion until chey carne (O power Whiht ir took some twenty years belote communist Qtill1 made use nf suth organiutions the unified communiSl Stale ol Vietnam was quick fO cake up it position in the UN ro ask [Ol aid thtough UN agencies liS well as w become ji membet of he CMEA (Comecon)
Third Wodd commemscOt1l on world politics have emphasized the nature uf rheir atea$ potirical ecoOoacutemtc Ilud culmral relatloosluumlp wilh rhe iHdllsrriexcl~ alixed Nonh TitilO is iOO$t Oflltl rypified aiexcliexcl bciug OHe of ueo-folonialism _ COntrol of che Third Wtltld by lhe Nortb by indirecl means ratlet (han by direa colonial tule and of Kf)IomIacute( dRptwJmry (o dtpmdemjiexcliexcl) lntetnationaiacute rdsdOOi bcrween sures are sublumed ro relations between claue$ world wide Ixtween on rhe one lIand the expluacuteiting impetialist capitetists in rhe northcm iru1usuialized couotries 2100 rhcir middle-ltlass collaboratotS in the 50Uthem SUtes aud on the othet band he exploiced masses rhe proleuriat ol [he $Ourhern contJnems The Lurcr gmupS have been 1I1iide ecooomkaUy dependent on [he furmer so char hey lIre in rhe wuacutetds uf the Bruiliiln T Dos SantOS in a situadon jn which the economy of a cetuin group of counshytrles is condiacutedoned by rhe develOplllent aad expansion of aoother ecouomy lO which thcit own 15 subjecred (Bodenheimer 1971 327)
The uOOerdeveloped tounrries depend uacuten [be developed ror their capital nd ercperdse they find key sectors of ehdr eroooroy conrrolled from OUtsJde rhey act as a SOUfce of raw marerials lIS ji lthetip source of labour arul as a rnarket fur mllnuf8ccurers from Euttipe ]apan and North America As thejr living standards were deterrniud by rhe vicissinWeS of the Northern~ dominated wodd marker the relationship was Otle uf unequa exchange (he [esule of which was a world experiencing woequal developmenr with a developed rieh indwtriaJiud capiralisr Notthern centre and d poor underdeveklpedgt agciculrutitlly backwarn eXFloired periphery in che 50mb The dependem 80mh has been divided berween rhe ptedominanr undemeshyveloped area~ lUld a few Cenfres of deve10prnenr wirh their ttade culrural rraffie and polidcal linL to [he deveJoped North - rhe depeOOem develop~ memo omlinea by EH Cardosa (1974) allodlt~r Bruiliall Mmir Amiu (977) rejC(ted the prosptltt of aH antonomous capitalist development in [he Third Work the oew bourgeaisJe of Lacin Ametica Africa and Asia were in allianec with capitalisrs from rhe Nnnh and rhe mato $OUrce of finance ror lmported equipmem was fmm the expon of raw materials to rhe indu~rial
5 ~ _~ smiddot_middot~~
iexclred smes Amin (1977 1-21) SllW rhe can made ror a New Imernational Ecooomic Order (NIEO) by Third World leaders at rbe UN UNCTAD aod che Vilrlous North-Sourh dialogues as an nrtempt LO iexclnerease the price of chelr ntw mattIial exporrs obraio more lmpotted technol08Y snd chus finance a new srage of develQpmenr He saw this ti placing the Thitd World more in the gttp of the neo-co1onialist sysrem and iostmd recommended 11
more self~rcuumlanr development wlrh murrud assismnce between Third World sures a reducdon in [ade wirh rhe induuialized wotld and Chlll a loos~ ening of dependenre Amin lJke TaOOon had Jittle fairh in presenc imtrnruional organizaciexclon Il tools foc fasbiooing a more independent Tbiacuten Wotd His sU88tl1cion of grearer mUtual ilSlgtistaoce between ThUd WorId uate~ implied somtthing more sophillticated than a numbtr of bilateral arrmgements As rbe present orgauizarions used fu iexclncm~Thjrd World cnshyoperation (che OAU he Atab League ASEAN) are domitllued by jusr dl()llC govetnmenrg chM accept lhe eowse coodemned by Amio _ the NIEO ami greater jmegrndon iexcluro rhe world economic sysrem ~hen Amia solutloil involves like-minded deveJoping counrries or more like1y political changes leading ro such indigenous intemuional orgilniwrions
Other Trufd Wodd wdten have plllCtXl emphasls on grearer use 01 exisring insdtutions lOO can broadJy be deKfibed lIS Wopmenraluli huI Prebisch an Argentinian econOmigf has not only studied the que5iaacuteon uf ecooomic dependency but his ideas llave been used as the baJiexclis for che wotk of cwo miexclljoc iexcliexcluemariOOiexcll1 organizadons rhe UN Enmomic Commission fa utin Ameriea (ECLA) and UNCfAD Iu his smdy of Briliacutesh-Argerl(inian trading relntioflS Prebisch bad idenrified rhe unequRl tecrns ol Hade between he favoured (ndusrrislized s(ate of tbe centre and he les privj~ leged llOIl-indumialiacutewl periphery Prebisch unlike rhe dependencia gtChool of Amiacuten Dos Sancos and Cardosa believed thu this inequaLity could be overcome by political acrinn by trade pre[ereonces fuvouring the pedphery by eoo1ruooiacutery agreemenrs by intelnatiacuteowll aid and by more foreiga imvestment in che ~riphery It was thele remedies thiexcllr Prebiacutesch eneouraged when he WiIS Executive SecrCrary of ECLA from 1955 lO 1963 aOO Secrewy-Genernl ofUNCTAD ftoro 14 ro 196tL In~d rhe amoum of aid the periphery needed in omer to overeome their Unfuvoluable rrnde balance became known io UNCTAD clrcles as [he Prebiexclsch Giexcllp
The distinguished Afiican aC1ldentie Aji Mazn1i has wricren un the plighr Qf (bar conciflfnt aod j~ role in pmem~day interruUIDllfl1 afmits He soughr ro answer rhe quesdon Now rlw Imperial Order is eoming ro an end who is going tO keep rhe peaee in Aampica and tu examine he concept of Pax AfrlclllUl the African s ambidoo ro be his OWh palaman The JXIliacutecillJS and se[f~8overnment ufAfriea depended on the nodan ofan African self which Mauui discusseJ in decaH He considered how this 1ndepen~ denre might be threarened by the politicaI and cultural fragmenMion of the contillenr Ellld eronomieally by deperulence on Europe He quoted Kwame Nkntmah finr President uf Ghaniexcll on rhe Europe-Jn ECOntunir Communiry
162 Wilihgr rm intd1JatirmallJrganizatimu
ihe ireaty of Romemarks the advent of oeoKolonitJism [n Afriacuteen snd bears unqutSrlonably the marks of Freneh neo-colonuumlllism (Murui 1967 93) He moduded from tM that Wlut AfrlOlns tbelaquofore neecletl was II
renerru authotity of cheir owa tI) ((lordilJlte fheir eltonomk and policicat deCena- sgain5t trus rnreat (Mamtiexcl 1961 93)
Given this theme it is not surprising tlwt Mazrui ser srore by rhe OAU bU[ he was realistic in bis judgement
In relatioos betwlaquon African statts lIOflesr step rowards Pu Africana was taken when rhe Organiution oiacute Aftlaquolln Uniey set up in Commissiacuteon ofMediauacuteoo Conci1illtion aud Arhitmion
Anormr OAU Commissioo of relevance fot Fax AftlOlna ls che Defence Cornmission Sor me Defeme Commlnion 1w se Car been among che lean effecdve QfPan-Aiacutericun ins(kndons Afrka mar indeed aspire to be her owu ptlliceman bur she does nO seem ready as yel to par the price iacutem it
(Mauui 19612[3)
Mazrui oudined the varicd backgrounds of [he lemen oiacute newly illdepenshydent Africa and thdr radical and revolmionary ideas and it is pethaps swprising rhat the insrirutions rhey created fur me coutinenf wete so mnservative with [he p05sible exceprion oiacute the OAUs Natiomtl Libetttion Comminee Mazrui no[ed thac Africa srill has the problem of how othet powetS respond tu its behaviour and [har forcigo iotmsilm in AJtica continued Indetd the I990s proved tO be a dC(ade of disusrer for AfrieR The debiacute burden contimlld while Ilome states collapsed lnro civil war ami others took to iutenoendoo in thejr ueighbonrs affairs Outslde interference from borh Enrope and North Amecica euodoned One of rhe fcw brlghr spots was the end of apallhcid in South Africa and the peaceful transitioo ro majoriry mJe lo al thiexcl~ tn quote Juliacuteus Nyerere rhe ampcmer pre~iexcldenl of Tan1ania The OAU exists outr ror tbe prorecdoo of (he Afrinllt Head~ oiacute State (cited io AlilgapPltl 1998 1 ) The relarive optimism of Maztui has giveu way ro Afriam writers examining sorne of me disrnrbing details of inaction by [be OAU and regtonal orgauiacutezatJuns nlCh as ECOWAS beiog used as doaks fu the machinations oE regional hegemou$ suth as Nigcria (Mibe 1m 61-9(1)
Radha Sinha$ problem--ortented undy Food iexcllfId PIWt11y (1976) has an IItgent message Sinha a former consultaot of the FAO prodnced an iofuacuterrned aUllyiexcljiexcl of the world$ food problem stress1Og in paniacutecular the maldistribution of food and other resources Noting he profO$ab of UNCTAD with heit muld-rommodJty approach and buffer nocks provjshySiOfli he commented rhe grearesr weakness oE the UNCTAD scheme js les Hkdy politlca1 unilcceptablliry ro me developed (ountdes parriculady che USA (Sinhil 1916 114) a propheey that has proved to he cortect He identitled a more aggresslve attitnde by Third World sutes e5pedally
WrilirrgJ on i1tternatiflii1l rHgarrtzatitmlt 163shy
after the uH prite cise of 197314 when the developing coonuies tried to maximize their own market powers by formin cartcls such as rhe Intematimlal BaurdtC Association the Intemuional Coundl of Copper Expotcing Countries aud the Intema[ional Tin Agrcrmenr He gave n qualified wekome ro the Lomeacute Convention betwcen the European (omrounities anJ cenain African Padfic and Caribbean Haces Writing in 1976 he commented
The receot cbange in rhe luirudes of tite tiche countries is largely due tu the incIeasing miliuncy of the Third World countries lt is almost ertalll utar the magnitude offuture cnnc~sions in me coune ofGAIT aud UNCTAD IV Ilegotiarioos wiU deperu mainly on (he continued solidariry uf the devdoping counlrtes
(Siha 1976 116)
Sinha was pardy correct as tbe solidatity cf rhe Tbird Workl states cracked se the induurialized wodd withheld funher Con(eampSJoru but ir was able tO do so because market condidons swung against che primaty producen
In his condusion Sinha called ror a IIDre1 shttting of wnrld t($nmes and power if confrontarion was ro he avoidOO He feared that the ffa of roshyoptradon berween [ieh and pool conntries hiid ((lT1e to an end and that batde lines were being drawn Instead he advOOIreltI majnr concessions from the dcher coumries on trnde lInd aid issues and a1so a ma~lt te$ltUcrnring of the incematiotlill organization~ aoo negoacutetiating ffiarhinery in order tu provide a much gtC2ter say fm me poorer countries in internatiooal tJ1lde invesrment and mooetaiexcly armngemenrs (SiMa 1976 132) GAn 1BRD aud IMF have been the presenoe of [he ri h with voting weighted m faacutevour of rhe OECD countries and Sinha re(()ffimended thlll GATr aoo UNCiAD be merged inro an Intemacional irade Organization (ITO) and che creatlon of a Third World permanent secrctariat iexclnvolved in all trade and aia negoriarioru Thoogh less radical than Amin Sinha aIso recomrnrnded gttter coshyoperation berween developing coulltries and an eoo ro their inkrtotity complex with instead a sense of m~ttnal sdiacute-e$teem and trust being devel~ oped (Sinha 1976 ch 10) Litde that h~ happened during the 19905 woo1d have encouraged Sinha The World iratle Organiaadon has emerged as the presenoe of the dlVelupeJ tares and lw brushed aside many of thc mucerns cf UNCTAD Debr ha~ edged on ro dlt wudd iexclagenda but mainly at the beheS[
of a non-governmental organization )ubiacutelec 2000 nd the promi$e~ of the main financill jnsrirutluru lO pursue dcbc-rclicf produred but a thiniexclmfl
In aH Third WQrld commenrarors have provided a vatied and lively approruh fOwards tne problems uf intetniexclational organizarions Their emphasis has niltntaHy beCl Qn tbe use of wurld lmtirutions to change the econornic condidon or the Southern cominents As this enndition is likely to worscn in the near filrtltf further more lJica conrtibutions on the rule oC
-- --- ~- __ _~- __- imernatIacuteonal orgaoilarions in Nonh-Smuh relarJons tOiexclghf be apected from rhe Third Worid A1ternaciveJy wrirers (mm rhat ares rmy jW ltIacuteespUacutet rm imergovemmemal orgaoizarions ar lealaquo Mee rhem $O Hrrle
Cfili~ald~heJ
Critica approadvs lO the nudy uf intetnadonal relations are (hose har rejee( the dominating vleW1iexcli repr=med by tbe realist and reformistS as oudined aboye In paHicular rhey reglUd realists as apologisu for the currem con6gutltion of power 10 (he wiexcldd sytem and considet [har rhe refOnntstS are elrher unable ro undersraoo he fUe llamee )( (hi sysrem oc ille UDwiUing to accepc rilar ir needs more rhan mooest refotlllS TIlOugh they may sympalhi-ze wirh rhe agenda of some Marxists aud Third World wt1cers chey do [lO( llave rhe hisrockal certaimy of the former not rarely do they have the experience and perspective of ehe larter TItey view intenUishy(jnl1ill nrganiutions wirh a jaundiced eye as these are mainly the lll$tmmenfS of rhose who dominare rhe syuem This section COlllaios an wcoum nf three approaches tmt of the critical rheorlsti- of kmintsc wrirshy[1185 ulld pose~mooernismlt
Cri(~1 herJrY The approach of critical theory 10 JnrematlonaJ o(ganizatiooll iSi determtoed by their wider world-view which in itsclf is explaiiexclwd by tbeir llame One of the leading exponents Roben Cox said [har ie is cririca1 in cne Jensc rha h srands apan 100m che prevailiog order of rhe wOlld and asks how tb$t oroer came iexcllPouc Ir does nor r-ake existing irucimtioM lIl1KI JIQwer relaclons rOl granred bu c311s them iacutemo queuion Ir 1S diexclrlaquoced ro rhe social itnd JIQiirshyical complex as a wItole rarhet (hall he stparate pirtt IUthet than subdiide and Imic an examination of a problem it looks al the wger pkturc of whkh rhe problem is jwt oue part and trio rO wJdeThwod the processeS uf change ill which botIt pans ulld whole ure involved laquo(ox 1993 277~S)
Ai a thoory cridQiIacute theory rejeen tbe daims of posicivism of an external Nulity and to be mue-free ror critkal rheorIacutests koowledge ti nor moraUy IleUc1ll1 ic is more che result of the social background of tbose Wt hold ir Given this ctitkal tbeory alJows foc a normarive choice in favoU of a social ancl iexclJlieiexcl(ld order diflerent f(cm rhe prevruHng arder bur it limiu the ruuse 01 chotce ti a1remative orders which are feasibJe mmsformations ofme cxvaing worJd h musr rejEC[ improbable alternadVe8 ju~t as ir rejecrs rhe pcrmanctlly nr lhe exiscing order (Cox 19 90)
Cridcal rheory differs lrom Marxist upproElchcs beCElUS( of iu tejection nf any daim to hold the objenive tru[h and betause or it~ avoidance of (he pmslllt ol il utopia Neverrhe1ess [heir analysis of incernarional relarln1l$ is one tbu hEls u numher of similariuumles wich the Marxisc pcrspecdve It regurds rhl tlistlng suucrures of world polirics as beiug oppressie not
- _ __ _-
lean because of rhe dominance of (he capitalism of che Unired StElte~ For many che USA is seco as a hegemonic power the prevailing urder - in re[ms rbar reReet he wrirings of the Itallan Marxisc writer Amonio Gramscl (1891-1932) Gramsd advanced the nodon of ln hisrori(middot bloc which in itself refilaquors che $Ocial reladons oE ptoducdoo The dominanr dass in a counrty - 01 indeed aoy social grouping - mlinrains cohesion and idenciry withio [he bloc [hrough the ptopagacion of a COIDmOfl culturegt A new bloc can be formelt when a subordinate dau can euablish tU hegeshymony over orher subotdioate gtOllpS (Cox 1993 56--7) The IDove rowuds hegemony comeS with the piexclt$ting fmm che spediacutek inrercsrs ofa gronp Ol
dass tO rhe building uf inrimdons aOO elaoorarion uf ideologies (Cox 1993 57-8) It Loiexcl rhat ptOCe$S thar embeds the incemu of the dominanc dan in an imttmrional form thae [w an appeal widet [ban that dan ine1f It the-refole repreSoems mote tlmn jUSt (he drunJnaoce oE one state ovec anocher bllt implies a cemufi acceptante of the tules arJd institutions purouized by [he hegemonic JIQwer Jo other woros it is all order wbicb most Olher Sta[e-~ (01 at 1enst those within reath of die hegernouy) couId find compatible- wirh their iexclmetem (Cox 1993 6t) h aJso involves noe just inttt-staee rueivirle5 bur rhose oiacute tlvilliOCiety (oon-Stllte socieM instishycudons) ebereby encoumging Hnks between social dus$ts iexcln the connules covered by ebe hegemony
What does Cox llave to uy about ioccmational Otgsniuciexclons 1bey Ilre scen in he oontext ofme wiacuteoo unaemanduuml18 of itnernational reUacuteltions mentloned iexcliexclhove He is direcr 000t mem Ooc mechanisru chrough wruch the universal norms of a wodd hegemony are expttssed js the interoatiooal organisation (Cox 1993 62) Why is chis so Cox U993 62) gives five teIlSons
bull They e-mbody rules cOae help (be- apwlSion of a hegemonic wodd iexclrder These insdwrians reflcct the intererts ()( the dominam social anil economic force- buc a1low a cettain amOunt oC adjusrment ro accommodare other subordinared interests TIms the USA WllS preplltoo ro mm conccssions to
bciI18 in Lhe EU srares and Japan ro rhe Wotld Trade Otganizatimt They a[e prooucrs of that order Though [he insrimrions and rules Ilce
nurITlllUy initiared by the hegemook power ir takes cate ro involve aOO comule a numbe-r of second-ronk stares and gaio theit supporc he Wotld Bank and Inte[nacional Mooetaty Fund were very much pan of [he world order thar emerged afrer [he Second World Wat and which was dominared by rhe Uoiced Stlres
They ltgidmi7e i[s nOlms by providing guidance for SllIteS and by legitshyimiuacuteulS cerraIacuten IlCdviries Ilr me narional leveL he OBCD afie rhe inrerruuiooal financia) irntuumluriom lave spread an acceptante of mllrket coodirions and sHict mOllerary iexclJlides
They co-opr elites from pelipheral counrrie Ihlented sraH commg 110m the Thiacuterd Wocld are expected tO dCCept he scriexclpt wcittttt by the domishynam power Bouuos Bourros-Ghati as Secteury General uf the Unired
166 Jiexclljiexclr1giexcl Qr1 ifJfCflrttuacutemal IWgaizati(ifJJ
Nadons stroyed too amp~r ftOm the gtip of Washinston and his second term was VCtoM by rhe USA His sucecssor Kofi Annan will no doubt undentand what 1$ n-quired of him He brings the mncerns of orhe states ro che UN bUf nor in a way thu threatt1l$ the USA
bull They absorb counter-hegemonic ideas Ideaiexcl $uch as 1iustainable dlYClop_ ment tukl even debr foTgiwness are taken 00 board by the intetnatwnal finarnial institlltion$ blu are trandirmel into pulido rhat swt them
Wh~t is ro be done Cox thinks thar the pfQblem of changiog dw world orUer 1iMuld be shlfred back from intern~tional insritutions tO niexcllriacuteooal $OIacuteishyeties where the sodo-political b~se for a new historie bloc mighr be ereated (Cox 1993 64) FaiJing the creadon of a new historie bloc of the new working cla$s and rural and urb~o marginal groups there might be tnmdorshymadon oC the curtent monopoly-libcral hegemony by adjusting to rhe demanJs oiacute local ello$ for polides 5uch as natlonaHution Cox 199~ 65) He aw advocates te-regulation of erooomies and a re-wmpositjon of civil sodery Internatiotla lnstlcutions induding organiutions can berome eontact puint1i fOr new $OCia[ furtt (Cox 1994 (11)
Critica throrJm $uch as Cox oifee a refreshing exposidon oiacute che posidofl oC imernatiooal ofganizatioos in a wocld where the main revolutionary powe~ have either collapsed (rhe Soviet Union) or se(tled into a cautious ronservatirun (China) Ir provlde~ a sceptical arf realisric world~view without acreptins tbe inevuumlahility ni a illture domlnared by mooopoly eapi~ ujsm sud the Utlired States J-Iowevtr its appllcariexclon to intemationa1 organhatJons 11 StImewha( timited tQ the maln global jnsdm(jons and th financial and economlc orgmiutions Ir has 1m (O say aboue regional nrgashynjudon Uf abour N(JUacutes Furthermore iu alternarive fu(ure testS on ourcoroes thu are far froro certain RevnJutlons in the Thied World are roore likely to be- irupired by nadondi$m oc by IsJaroic fllndamentaHfl OCalaquoely [he solid ooses for new historie blocs
Fwinuumll aNml4cbts
Feminist perspcctives 0f1 inttmatlonal rtlatioos llave in common wirh the erit~ ical rheocillu a rejclaquoion of (he dominance in rhe $Ilbjecr of the rcnHst and rdOrmisrs Although fuminist writen cover a wide 5laquolpe the gencral basis oiacute their aqurnent 1S har in interwnional relatioM ru in most politkal aud tcooomk acdvity women are diexclSJtdvantagt~l Alchoogh they own ahour 1 pet tCfH oC the worlJs lfOpeny and tiexcliexclxe heme 10 peiacute ceoc ofincome they perfurm 60 per eenr of working houn and provide 80 per eent of nfusets (petetsen and Runyan 1993 6) This is a derDOnstrndon of gender inequalitie~ the sodalJy learned behavior and expecratioos thar distioguish berween maKuliniry and femininity (Petetsen and Runpn 1993 5) Feminist aprroaches ofren So bejond the $tati~tks and examine (he mind~se[ of those engaged in the pmctice of intemadonal rdations whiexclch (bey ampee as geodered In other woros che world
Writingc Off inlmhJliofMl vrgntiZdlMm 167
illeen in a mlLlndine way thar kvrntB (he posjtiOll o( mnles in rhe hitgtranhy and devlllues the c041trihution of WQmeO (Sylvestet 1994) War in pattKular is gendered in a way chat keeps wornen and metl from qUtstioniog the essentiat pmpose and he neglltive effects of war militarization ~nd viQleme on their awn and orhers livts (Petetsen and Ruoyan J993 9 t)
What of wminist view$ uf imernationaJ organizationsr Ir IS not possible ro presem a rollf(tive vjew that eneomp3$~e~ rhe works of radicaJ femjnisu and ny iexclihetal teminists (rutead the work of one author Sandra Whitworth (1997) will be used as me pily$ rornt attrntion ro inrernarlonal organizations Aamper inrroductions ro feminilfr theory and internacional frIamiddot tiom and gendet and internacional relatlons Whirworrh examines geodet and imernational organilions She screpts Coxs vjew oiacute inrernational orgashynjzarions [har they retleltr (he dominant powet relations in che intetnational system and rhae internaliomd otgaoiution h che procelt of imcitntionaJshyiling and regulating conOice - eicher rhat which may IIrise among siexclates o( char which has iu (onU io transnationaI society (Cox 1980 375) TIte way duu pcople orgaoire themelve$ wirhin international iostirurjons reflects a variety of power relations ineludi~ of rollJSe gendec relatiull3 (Whitworth 1997 74) lbe triad of jnstirutions ideas and material rQudi~ tioru help ro hxare uSllmptiolls aboue geoocr withiu jntetmltional rewtioos Whitworth uses thesr tn examine lhe uooerstandillg oiacuteScndec io an INGO the Internadonal PlarUled ParenthooJ Federatlou (JPPF) and an intergnvemmental organilJ1rion (albcir one wlrh some oOl1-governmentJ)J represemation) the InrernatlonaL lab01lrOtganiution (no)
Whirworths studies show rhar thr IPPF tended ro accept the deshyemphasizlng oi the gendered oamfr of reproducdoo and (f) ignore rhe imponaoce ofbirth comcol foc womens reproductive freroom Instead in an effort tu popularize birth rontrol srrel~ WWl placoo on paremhooJ rather than iexclust the womans choice However IPPF poUcy beeiexcllme more radirnl in (he 19905- with Hnks beirtg made berween II1M control alld womeos ~)tu~ ality (WbJtworth 1997 ch 4 pmim)
The RO eoucerned itself with WQmen as workern It cnnsidercd that tbey oeeded spec-ial atrention and promoted ptoteCtlvt legiexcl~lacion This reiexcln~ forced me view (har [he male worxer Wall the norm with women workers nor deserving the same rights remunfration lOO mndirions Latterly however the JLO ha~ reflectoo views rhat prodaim wornens elt)ualily in rhe workforce and has sunoo tuacute assess the importanee of policies on womens role in rhe workplace as weU as in sodery more wjdely (Whlrwnrth J997 ch 5 panm) Whitworth comes [O the eondusion rhu iexclln iexcllnaLyiexcli~ of gernler in rbe IPPF and no shows how tbese rdiexcliexcldonsbips llnd definirions ni what it is to be a womltn oc man are structuted relationsrups3nd hlsrQciudly hve been scrurtured tu disadvantage women (ibid 15n
lo eommon with the critkal meorists Whitworth has useQ au examinamiddot doo of two intetnational organixations (O deroonstrate a puinr about imerflational relatiexclon~ indeed sodal rctatrol1s mOte widely The poinr is
I1
I
middot - ~-_ --___ aOOuc powec and iu use not (O balance oue SCdre ligaiOSf anorher but fm une gooup ro domiaare morher Jn chis case it 1$ ma the dominution of one dass me m culcnre over $ofU)(her (though Whirworrh recognizes those reLationshyships ti wcll) but of roen over women The crititUl uudy oiacute (wo jnceraational mganirations dealing with iSSlle5 recoSniud ti beiiexclg oiacute impocshycanee or WOfficn suggesu rha( tltOO simihu research on orher internacional organizadons could proJuce interening aOO uwfuiexcl resulrs
Pllit~ism
Thc posc-moderruacutesr $opprooch lO intetaarional rcllldon is one tlur bas (ome ro che fote Jn che perlod sinee lite end of rhe Cold War Jr is based on $o widcr imellectual viewpoim insrigated by l1rench iorcUtcruals of the 196()s gener~ ation _ Bllrrhes Derrida FouclIul and Lyorard - and whkh suggested rhat the modero era liad becn overome 11 fejeas mera-nattatives gnlud accounv- of hi5tory aoa iacuteNIacuteler subjecu as having no independem rubstance Scientifk btliefs induding [hose oiacute rhe $)(ial scJcllces are rooted in (lllxure polill(os arul mores oJ a wciery and are lherekJre subjective As rhere is 00
oblcctive reality cmpirical daims bave fl() spccial sunding in rhe rralms of koowledge IndeeJ ir i$ power aod knowledge are intimatel) incerwirud Posr-moJernism Hllnds against rhe belief of rbe modero pcfiod which LI seco as beginning wiacuterh rhe enlightenmcm of mid-eightcenth cenrufy Europe and AmeriCll Ir rheldore rejcn~ rhe COMCpr$ oC rationalirl and progrcss aSSuacutedared wi(h [he enlighrenment and [he moocrn age Thc uniry of IOOnkind iexclirW iexcldells such liS rhe untveIsWiI) of human aacuteghrs are rejcuoo lnsceadlocal aetion in smallgroups 15 advuacuteClmd
Post-modetnist ideas have affected tite srOOy of inremruionaJ rdarions as (bey have ocher social scienccs Posr-modern imeraarional relariops theoriscs havc ustd heir view$ 00 objecuumlviry (o exiexcltmine che rrmhs of international relatiom en see how rhe concepts iexclind knowledge-dairm (bar dominare the Jisdpline in faer are highiy conringenr on spccific power relatiom (Smith 1997 181) Post-modemisrs bave lltfa(red me mcta-narratives of the reelshy1m and reformlsu aHke The objectiacutevemiddot aaallses of the realim Ilnd neo-realisu are setn as being deJl(nclent on the subjective standpojnts of cheif mainly Amen(an and Europeau authors Ijcharcl amphiel (1986 258) daimed he works o[ Kenneth Waler men the leading neo-realillt trrat the glven ordcr a rhe natural nrder Jjmirs rarheE (lian 1XpawU political discllUtse negales oc rriviuliliS the signifinnce uf variely urOiS time and plue Whar emerges ii an ideology tllar anridpatcs iegirimires ancl onents a totalitarian projen 01 global ptoponioo~ che rattoualiaciuacuten of global poHcics iexclbe reformius are likcwise tainted Md have Ji mhr$lren belief in pmgress The posc-modernl$rs poinr m rh Helocausr as rhe heighr oiacute mooemism a rombimiddot Halioe of science dnd polidcal otganizillnon Il was SCruTely progreso
Given an antifllthy mwards rhe MlVe[iacute~ign srae borh as a centre of powet ll1ld as a crearioll Jiten imbutol wlth a wncepltliexcl uf progress pest~miexclJdetniexclsls
wHungJ mi Im~iexcliexclrun wgltiIRrzuJlU7iJ 1J7
can lOUcdy be expcctcd to vIacuteew intergovernmencal organiUlrions wirh sympilthy Tbe prefetted iacuteonu of internacional organizations when mentioned are those thiexcltt ltlj~plal differemes snd dlvenity in global pelitlcil duu are reginnaUy based or rhar reflec irKlividual actlOn Tndecd ir SeeIJS
rbat Michel Fomawt was involved with an alliance oiacute twO INGOs (Miquestdecin du Monde and Tertl-s do Hommes) in proresting agaiust internadonal iH~shydon over rhe boat people who flcd Vietnam in tite lare 1970s and ear1y 19S(k He is gU()[ed 11$ sayillg tbar Amnelltl Internnrlonal Teueiexcl dts Hommes Mfiiecin du Monde lHt inirilltives whiacutech have created a nrw righr rile dAht of privare individuss ro iexclntervene in [he otder of polino and internatioont snateg(eiexcl (dred in CampheH 1998 516)
Aootber researcher has exnmined ~he Europcan Communities Ilr che point wben Jr was mnslorming intO me European Unioo and askOO whether ir was a pootmodew ConJigUflHton (Nstrgaard 1994) Hi condusions wcre mar ir was gualiwiveJy a new organizarion oC human calJecrlvJties which mighr U$hec the coming of post-moderniry (Ntgttgnatd 1994 27j) The basis fO[ [bis judgemem was rhat me Ee did nO approximate anl modero form of piexcliexcl1idUll Ofpnizarion it did OOt commatld che means oiacute violence its au[hotity derives noc from die people and ir appeared to be a fCgJoo trying ro pOrecr itiexcliexclelf againsr globaliacutezadun iacuteN0rgaaro 1994 274--5) Ir remllins ro be sren whether [he BU tJf [he twenry-first cenrury wHl fu1fi1 rhtgtse hopes Ot wiU stllrr ro teVen
to a more scate-like being Generall) dIe cririolapproaches ro interruHiorud relarious hiexclJve provided
1lOOIe innovatIacuteve insigllls iexclnro rhe study uf imemarional orgsnizations The crtrical theorists llave becn sh3rpest in rheir unde[$(iexcltnding nf internarional ofgiexclt1lizacious as servsnrs of a dominiexcliexclIf power configuracion thoogh the) lave pemaps Umieed cbelr scope wllen viewing internacional organizadons Feminis[ wJiters ruave given Vltike to whac i5 after aH tbe scmi-sileut majoric) in rhe world and Ilre ouly srarting in qnest10niug the male dOmimiddot nance nuacutet iexclusr of the nmning of IGOs huc aloo of theic agenda Tite post-modemisrs are iMlSr concerned oiacute he (bree 8rOUp5 with inretnationlll organiucioru as such bllr rIacuteleic intellecrual approach is the ffiOSt tadkal aud can lelld tuuml a fnon of nihilism
GltJbaliacutesf lIiu
A gIobalisr perspective does oor viacuteew world poliacutetica as being predomishynandl arout iotergovernmemal relatlnn~ Ili would realisu or illbour inrentare aruI imersocietal rdations as a number uf reformisu llliexclll consider lnsteaacuted it cakes a more holisdc view Problems are (cmfronred ac Ji global level wlurions have tO be sou8ht here as weil This iexcls not ro neglcct (he 10tal Ol rhe ~tlte level ir is more J recognilion of the limiutshydoos of acdviuumles rhere The world-vicw like rhe reformists places empllasu on whal unIacutetes people Ilnd has lirde time for lhe demaoos of power pouumlics aad stare-cemrir orglLuiwrjollS Ir goe~ fllrther by nor
1 V WNimgJ lJ7f tIfernattmiexcliexclJ 11fK4111141tOnJ
liminog in view eirhec ro pans of che world or ro rellltions berweeo particuJar poliric~ lr ioded jlLSr m the economic social and poJitical demaods of mankind Paradoxically ir can be seen as IIn approach rhe very OppoSllC of the fimctionalist wirb whom tbere 5 much io common In nmtrast lO rhe fnnctionaHst (or neo-fllnctiooalisr or intetclependeuce srhuul) and ccrrainly in contrast ro rhe powet politks aOO MaOIacuteIt writers (be whole world approach places emphasis not 00 the discrere r~uiexclreshymems of groups SClteiexcl or individulI1s bm 00 tbe wel1-bciog of the tCOsystem in which rhf5f funnioll cbe planet Eanh The conccen of chis apptoach which is rcflccted il] in ttcumeUr of illternational urganizatiom is for the survival of lhe plunet for its effident funccioning in its widest SeILie aud fot che survival oiacute rhe myriad oiacute speoacutees - ollly one of which is homo sapiens - tbat inhabh me globe
Sinle tbe 196Os a number of wtiters on imernational affairs have expounded 00 tbis view and llave cOl1l~uendy ronsideted the implicadons for intemational organizacions Jobfl Button in bis World Society ronsldeted iflmstatt relations to be onIy a pan of wodd poli[iacutea and wrore
lf we employ rhe term world rociety imiexclreui of internanofla relarions iIacute we apptoo(h OUt study in this global way insread of the more tradi~ lonal nattonal way we will end to have a wider focos ro ask quesrions rhat are moee fundlmenral aOO imponant lO civilization and be ahle ro assess bettet me relevance of om own national bduviour ro be wider worW envifonment
(Button 1972 21)
Rkhacd Stetling posed the problem more spedfically
Nuclear esCllatiofl the popullltion explosion the pollmiofl of tbe envishyronmcnt the communkations rtvolurion rbe world~wide concentNdon of wC1llch and world~wide expansiofl of pltlvcrty are iexcliexcl11 essemially global and not 1laquo al pbellomena They have given rise jn tutn ro eartbshyspamuacutellg and revolutionary demands ror mass education rnass hesltb malts welfure and maltgts participation in che dccisions affecting roans fare
(Srerling 1974 322)
This wodd-view of rhe problems of the s)Jaceamphip EQlth begged fur global oolutlofl$ It suggcsred iexclhu not onIy iJ the system of sovereign stares as yer unable oc unwiHing to COme to grips with the above-menuontd prohlelUS but that a network of llllergoVCtn1lental organiutlom bGsed 00 me rights of statc wVfretgnt will ~lso be hammllng Globtl problems needed global solutlons based on institutinos rhat can (ake a global petsplaquoshytive Thus Sterling considetecl thllt it ~ tlOt unreasooable (O amidpate tme tbe member stares will be moved ro considft equippifllil the Unitw Nttous witb mote crunprebensive powen 1lt global pressUfes build 0974 323)
~h~ laquoo ~gt~ _- -gt bullbull (_bullbullbull __ - bullbull
A more compeluumlng cdH wus lAltiexclued by Barban Ward and Rene Dubas in their book prepared for [he UN Gmference of ehe Humafl EnVJroJlmenl 01lly UIIt EaFlh The c~ altJ Mdilllt1JatfCe (JI d Sflall Pta~t (972) 111ey stremsed the ufliry of tbe Eanh Jnd in eovironment and the )Jroblems in(ed by Jts iohabitants emntially thost oudined by SterJiog The ~uthoflgt poillted OUt rhat rhF envitonmenral qmosrion had by 1972 already had 50me impaltl on guvernments and im(rnarional organl1Jtion but the effior was somewhat ltInJOrdinated and unfocuseL In (hree particular aren - tbe global atmosphere rhe oceaml the worlds weather sysrellU - tbt-y saw [bl jmmediate neOO for (OmInOn poliey und co-ocdinared actiollS where vcerenshysions to national sovercigmy have no relevance ro ptrreived problems Bu rbefe was a need to go furrher and denl wirh other global problems di5Case srarvation iHitmcy unemployrnem ovcfllwding rntetnational poliCJcs wece at the 5tage reachOO wlrhin rhe devdoping s[ate~ of the ninettTtb (entury Elche they wiU move O to a wmmIlJlity bL~ro UiexclXIIl a more systematic sharin8 of weaJtb Ot tbey wiH break down in revoh and anareby (Wacd and Dubos 1972 295- -6) They Looked forward ro a sense of gLobal rommuniry 00seJ on he bope vf Irotecdon (from war aOO disaster) and the hope of enhancemenr (ecologic$1 as well as economid The ptlKtic~ and insrirutlofiS with whkh we are familiar inide our domestk sociecies would become suitably modlfied che basis of planetary oroer (Ward aOO Dubos 1972 297-8) This woold indude non~violent settlement of disputes witb legal arbirration ~nd polioacuteng ptocedures on an international basis jr would mea the Hansfer uf resoucces from rkh ro peor Ilnd inerCllSlaquo co-operaeion in arealt 5uch as health and edUcatIO farming uroon planning aud )JOlJution control As [befe halt been a shift of loyalty rom taroliy to dan from dan to tlation and from nation to fedctation there Wampll
hope clajmoo Wl1fd and Dubo$ for an ultimare lnyalty tuacute OUt single beau~ tifulllud vulnerable Planet Eanh (Ward and Dubas 1972 298)
Whilst the institutiona fmmework and organizational stfllCtuteS remain of necenity -ague in Oltl OM EaFtA iacutet is del( rhat the authors Wfre atming 11( a tlttwork oiacute world-wide fflnctionaUy hased organlzatiofll (both lOOs and JNGOs) char couId take on much of the work )JfCsendy done by governshymems o( rather whkh ougbt [O be dont by governmems UacuteJter writing-s have attempted (O deal wjth thc policy impliration$ of delllJng with )JrobshyJems globdly sroos (986) has poiacutenred en what 1w already been achieved in gtobal problem solving l1nd ha~ soughr ro buHd on rhis His critio have prunted out tha( what has already becn undertiacutelken has bren done more along rradicional Jntergovernmentallines (Donnelly 1990 121-30) Orbe writen have tied rubievemen[ in addressiacuteng [he global agenda more to renewed rutiviry in the UN (Rochester 1990 141-54) or to greater grass~ roots aud INOO acriviSffi Wget 1990 155-~8) Either way globaJj~m offeacuters a distinct W1ly of rackling the worlds ptublem~ It 1$ u ViIOIl thar sttesiexcles uniey and common (am( ntthet than disasreemem and roofrontashytion ir (ould thereIacuteore (oresce disputes being sruved inlernationally vety
much in (he way tbar chey are pre~ndy solvcd within tunny MtiOO iexclrares by more ro arbitratwn and Jaw and by entorcemenf ir neteS$il1) In this rhey have muh in COIDfllOfi wirh tire imerrnuiona lawyers iacuteUld idenlist writer of me eady (wenuacuteeh eemury mentioned at the beginning of tbu chaptet The globalisn are inspirecl jn rheir thinking more by ten Ot lt nudeal holocatlsr and by environmenml breakdown tnan by rhe duumleet elrpeshytieme uf wa dlllf aiacutefected rhe wricings of Woolf ol Ikierly
TIacutete globalisl appro~(h is opert ro the criticism of bcing roo idealistk jn a cynical world and lOO iIDpracrical in in uacutelstitutional sU8scsrioll5 Bur the di$mi$Slil oC rh~ words as globaloney cKleS HOt lid lite wctld oC che probw lems which hey have 50 effectively publiacutedzed They lutve uied to add anorIte dimensioacuten ro whar is possibte by showlng thar ie is nOCeSSiexcllty fOl rhe iexclurviwl of che planee
Tlle radical approach to the smdy oC iOternational orgllnizarions reflocu worIdmiddotvitws that normaUy lO beyond -dmse Jominated by rhe ltctivities of iexcltatcs or of LIte organizltuumlnns chemselves There is a sceprical view of whut is happeoing al soy one uacuteme in imernarional celarions and of he abilicy of mOfe cradicional wcifecs on imernafional cdarions ro explain let aJone llOderstand what is happeoing Ir is the feeling rhar approaches such ll1 (he MaNisr tlwt of rhe ideal theorisrs and some of rhe globuli~rs ur~ coming cber (O uodemaoding humanicys wider dilemmas rhar makes rhero so amactive They ar~ less Iikdy co apply rhemselves to rhe defais rutd wnrk~ ings oiacute p$cdcular imernatinnaJ organizations but neverrheless providt iotriguiog insighrs 00 [his phenomenoo by seeing rhem rhrollgh mol panoprk phHosophical lenses
SUMMARY
The rhree flIajor $chuols dealr wich io chis chaprer - the tcatiacuten the reformisrs iacutei1d che radical$ and rhe variarions (bey contain did not and do tlOf exJn iexcln a hiSforlcaj vacnum lde-as Wele foffilulared wirhio lhe COnten oiacute panicular sodedcs uoo in response ltO pUticular problems rbe communl (adom reYoludon of fhe nineteemb century the Finr World Wlli rhe rise of Nui Germany the spreading of nudeu weapons the deve1opmeof of plthitshy
$econd Workl War Europe fbe pnxeues of decoloniwion and deacuteteme rhe end oiacute the Cold War and rhe advaoce oiacute che inCormatton revolution In sorne CilSC$ the views oiacute rhose wdtings on inttmiddotrnational ocganUatlOHS have liad un efiecr on evenrs rhemelves pirlKulatly 00 rbe actitudes oC govetnrnents mwards tnternatiorW orgdflixauons AIl tXample is the work oC LecnarJ Woolf woose suggesnons Ctmceming a world organizatloo conttibuted lO fhe detailed preparnion oC the Lague oC Nations by me British goveltr mene Likewise Hans Morgeruhau and EK Can provided seimuli fot infiiexclrmoo US and Btirish governmcllul rhinking abom inrerruuional rela~ tiom iexclrom the 194Ck onwards In mher cases rhe general writings cJ persons lgtuch as Marx Leoin Mao Tse-tung and che dependencia school have affecred
rhe poJirk1ll dimare wirhin which govemmcncs conduce rheJe poUcy iucluding thar wwards jnternaclorull otgauj~atjon$
Orber ruCfOf$ aplft froro their historial cuntexc Iuve affencd the views of rhe schunl$ rncntioned They have differint backgtounJs io cheit ideruogy (Wesrero commllniSf Third World radical environmenralisr) and in theit level of $nalysis of inrernarional rebtions (stare Centuacutec inretesr aoo rramna~ dona groups cLitraquo dominanr global) This a(icca the typC oC inrernatiacuteonal organizariacuteon dominam io their studies (IGOs INCo) auJ thcic 8eograph~ kai $rea of interest (the Nonh Adandc Europe ThinJ WodJ Ot global)
TIte range of wcitings about intetnational organizarions has ull dte whole teflecfeJ wiJec llooersundings of imetoational ceJarions and wuumltld polidcs These io rhernselves have fed 00 tbe gtVidc iacutellccUecmal fcnnent and on developrnenrs in world affiuacuters Viewl about iacutellteftlational ocgsnizatJoos wiU continue ro take accOlnt of the ince1leeruaJ debate ill the studjes oiacute polishydes internacional re1atioO$ philosophy ecooomics imematluacutellal uw sociology histoty and geogrilphy They will also reflecto among other ampcton che stntcegk balance in tbe world [he relafIacuteve power of tiJe United Stares aod oroer nares me scate of wotld markers [be pto-ess uf Euwpeiexcliexcln tlllegrashytion che relacive positloo of the developing warIdgt iexclbe levd of cootlicc througbolc the world fhe -ratC of dte environfneot and the ahility oiacute huge StatCS to wiacutethswnd cenrrifttgal force Tbe way tIacuteult imematiornal organiuiexclshydons ret1ect tbese developrnents and tIacuteleir t1Ipability lO deal wich some of them will provide (he tllW fiWifcrial foc funue smdies
150 Writings lIlt inttn1atiQrJ41 ergdniutirll1J
by changes jn rhe importance of ttaflstlational acwtS and by linkage froro orher issues
bull linkage between 1sllor$ will be mote difficult for strong naces to undetshyrah ir[orce 1$ downgraded
ft whiJsr linkage by we$k srares rhrough internacional organuumlarions seu agendas helps coalition-wrming and provides arenas for the political acdvity oC weaker states which can use the choice of organizarional forurn [or an issue and rhe mobiliZlition of votes as a politiul resource
(Keohane and Nye 1977 37)
Thm Keuacutehane and Nt gavc inremarjonal organizaciOfls an iroporran[ role in thde compfex interdependence model of world politics a model which whilst not uSlaquo (O explaitt aIl world politics was one which rhey daitned to hllve iacutenfrtasing releYJ1nce in IIlarge and growing area 1ntildeey used an intetnUional organizadon mooel as one of the explanations ror internashytioua regime change that js che lthange in the sets of goveming flrrangernems affening relatioruhips oC interdependence In tMs C$e intershynadonal oJsanisaciolls refeued ro multilevd Iinkage norms and insritutions (Keohane and Nye 1977 54) which once euablished are harJ (O enlAlicate BeCllue o( this rhey may Stand in the way of swes using thdr capabHities In ordec 00 chauge regimes Instead powet outcomCl will be more aJfectcU by votlng power (in the UN General AssemWy for example) ability ro futtl) coalidoos llnd 00 control elite networks (ruch as that founo io clte institushydougt of the European Commnnities) Whilst the complclt illternadorull organizarion mode1 was only Ofle oiacute fOur aJvaucecl by Keohane and Nye ro explain regiffie chAoge tbey Jiu expeomiddott jr to contribute to such chaIlSC in a world where complex interdependence (onditions pertain
1he rontribmions by Keohane and Nye demonstra(e hoth the roncero pf American wtilets iexcln inremationru relariWl in the 1970$ with altemacives to
tite srare-centric model and their wiluumlngness tO draw from more rhan one approach bringiexclng rogether elementogt from che more tradidonal appnJaChes with economic models and non-stare-cenuic dements TIleir Wi)rk does however have certain weaknesle$ Perhaps the mon serious is the use of rhe cerro imerdependence and iexclrs djvisiacuteon iexclnro ~n~itivity and vuinerability imerdependence Anepting rhar inltldeperulence meUlS mutool dependeoce (and [hjs leado to discussiou a~ w how mutual maoy relationihips are) che phrase scnsiuacuteviry imcrdcpendenre scarccly wflrmnu thc use uf the term interdependcnce fhe fault lies wJth che authou loose definiuOfl of depen~ iquestcnce as a oiexcltate (lf being detetmined oc $ignificaruly affected by externa fwces The induskm 0(signi6candy atkcted w~aken5 me urillry uf me cerm so tlme che nOr1on oiacute scusltivity inrtgtrdependence seems ro refer ro any nociceshyaMe cffeltr of ooe srate and society 00 anorher A person may Ix- significandy affectcd by taking drog$ wlthout Ix-ing dependen on chem David Baldwin showcd that mis use of rhe cerro interdependence ran conrrary to the striaer
Writingt ()I inf~_Ji(J1ia ~lfizaJJom 151
lUlderstlllldings (lf the concept fuund in MirhiaveUi Montesquieu and Ronsseall as weU 115 in che works uf twentieth-cemury wrlteI$ such as Norman Angell Francis D(laisi -and Ramsay Muir (ampIdwm 1980 7-9) He snuested the U$C of rhe rerms mutnal influence mutual responsivrness ot mutual scrlitivity insread ofscnsirivity inrerdependeruemiddot (Baldwin 1980 19)
A second cuacutericism uf Keohanc and Nyes books aso concems eheie termishynology In dealing wirh rransnational influentes They [ump tngerheraH types of teiations in whieb non~8overnrnental actOrs participare chus makiflA rhe componenrs of cheir new paradigm shifting aud poorIy defined (Wagoct 1974 440-1) Wagner questioned whetber their work simply demonstrated a shifr in interesr to new areas of intetnational polidts shyespedally elttmomic ones - ana whethcr [he world hM reaUy changed or whether we have iexclUSt overlookcd sorne things a1l along (Wagner 1974 441) The atent of imerdependence wa~ also chaHenged by Waltiquest (1970) anJ Rosecratlce el al (977) in che US and by Lirrle Bnd McKinlay (1978) and Strllivan (978) in rhe Briti~h Uteramre
DespiLe any falling$ Keohlllle and Nye provided insighrs ioto ttamlflashydonal polltics they shifted atrention away fcom p~lrely govcrnmental actOts in inff$rate relarions and they poiutm OUt he impMrance of intetnational organlziexcliexclxions in the intetdepcndence oc at lcast rnurual responsiveness of =
rbe rdormist view of both international celBtiOO1l and iuternational orga- nizar1ons has always provided an rutemative lO the more conservativc cealist approach Ir tended ro be dominated jn the pre-wu petiod by internauacuteonal lawyen and ideaJists but sinee hc Second World War has laoched on to the changell in world poUtics 6tst jn the economic ficld and then in Europe thar have Mn more difficulty to explain in ICliIHst term~ It has sten intcrna~ rionnl organizarions as mlans to manage trends such as iucftI$(d economl( intlrdlpcndcoC( bar hll5 also illtceplcU rhat these organizations mar necorne impoftllm aCtoriexcl (lO che wodd st$ge lhemselves and can cettainiy Iacute)(cnrne involved iexclO changing rhe preferences o( governmeflts
RADICALS
Writers covered in this sccrion iCe rhe intcrnadonal sysrem flOt so much as being domlnlltcd by states bn( more by diUerent divisions 01 its peoplcs Thi$ is noe to Sfly fhat chey ignore surtes They cOflsider them elthet w be ks tmportant chan the iquestjjsions of diUS tit wealth or merely ro refI~ct these othcr factors ot w be roadblo(ks to unky in (he fare Qf mote impomllt chalmiddot renga Power ls seefl as belnamp cxercised by eh( wealthy II1ld privileged and open to cha1Jeuge Change in the system is possibl( but onty through srrll8ge or by an awakenjug pf peoples tQ rhetr real sitllatlon Most iexclnter~ natimal organization~ are thus regarded as (eflccrioos of the currcnt unsruisracwry stare uf aiacuteTairs though $fJme more activist orgauhatioos mar llave potential as vehicles or (hange
This SIoacuteCElOn has betn sub-middotdivided imo rhree gthe fUS( are the econ01nk srructuralists and indude Marxists and Third Wocld wruumlers cririclll of rhe cutrem imernruionallyuem They haacuteve in common a belief mar che polltshyiexclcal srructUres of me world halle leeo wbloned mainiexcly by eltonomic fiiexclctors and rhAr mere has bren an intiacuteJUIllity builr imo the presen sytem lhe recood are the cruumliral app~es who5e radicalilifl1 is mure of the iacutemellec~ cual SOrt They rejeCf - Uf at 19$[ question - Jhatly of rhe usumpcions utlderlying be lIiews ofhe world tepresented by the realists and refotmers Finally mere are the globalim Theit perspective ls planerary ana theiacuter rnain conrtrn h fM rhc survival uf Earth Agilln they challcnge che mme statemiddotbuled approaches of both realjsts and reformers
Stnuturaluacutet lIiews
Ihe srructuralist appmiexclch rO (he swcly of inrematioOlIl relations differs In imporrant wars tO thoee of me realists and refotmuu tbough ir has some elemeou in comroon with mands ofb04h schools As roany of (he neo-realistsshyemphasite (he power scructure of wudd potities this sectiacuteon willlimir jwgtlf ro (hose writers roncerned wich the impacr 00 me political S)Srem of rhe wodds ccooomic strucrure Unliacuteke che ttalist approach the erooomk srrucruralisrs are OOr jUSt concemed with swtts io wodd polilla and rhelr economic and poIitkal differencC$ but alw with the divisioru within f1tld berween SoOCieties (WiIIeas 1990 263) They are [heretOre romerncd witl the rifi berween riel iexclmd poor within scares and rhar herwtto udl and poor glohally This leads ro an interese lO trulSlUirional reladoru as well as in inrergo~romenmt links Th(f have this in corrunon wim refPrtllist views bm diexclfier foom chem in (he emphast~ placeoacute on rhe structures of world pollics beinc formuared by eltooomic fiexcliexclcmn In rhis selttion attentioo wilt be given te MarxiS[ wtlletS lIud sume Thir1 Wodd view$ - partiuilarly (hose of rhe cependency sdlOOf and rhe developmemalj~[II - who have made a cootribution quite separare from rhat of rhe Muxiacutesr uadidon
Marxill laquoewl
There is no one Marxisr interptetariacuteon of me role of imerniexcliexcltional Olganiza~ cions in world politics Sur Manis[ approschf3 have certain elements in common and form a di~dnctive 5ch001 of rhough[ about lnrernartonal telamiddot tions generaHy and therefore ahotu international ocganizadoos These appmaches are based 00 du writiflgS of Karl Marx (l818~) in coshyoperarioo witb Fuacutewrich Engels (1820-95) with perhaps tbe gtearest later conrribution being maJe by VL Lenin kader of (he 1917 fo1shevik revolushydon in Rurna They are cf importanee pany becau1e ehey ficm tlle 00515 for mmmuniSt [hinking and (hm mey have an anactunenr m rhe Soviet Unian whieh WIlS be suongc1t commnuist stare unrII 1991 and EO rhe Peoples Republic of China COlUT1UnJSl sinee 1949 Apan ftom lbis ManiS( beliefs
had a irmng inpur mm Wescern imdleltrual cruoking and conunue ro iruoan some viewi abom wodd politics in rhe Third Wodd
Neither Marx no Mancisrs took rhe stare ro be (he curtency of iacutenteInashy(iexclonal relations Unlike (he realist viewpoints chey did fiO( coruider interactions blaquoween soveteigu ltates to be ofovettidi importance UnHke tbe funcrionalists aud other modem Westetn views rbar srress non-stare actocs Marxiexclsts in particular emphasized cbus relatlonships born wiexclrhin nates and IiCOOSS Stare boundaries Indeed ie is diffku[r ro talle only of a MaIXIacutest view of inrernatiooal re1atioll5 lec ttltme of iorernarional orgnniza~ UumlOOy as rhis separares ene particular aspecr of human behavinur tor MIlIXIsr rrearment divorcing ir from the undedying relleCS of Marxlc beliefs Man-ism provides a framcwok of undemanding by whkh ir iacutes daimed ~ociery pan lind vresen can be explaioed and che furure development of mankiexclnd determined
According ro Maf1 relariooshipamp between people and the futm~ mar insdmdooallzed rhose relatienshfpamp depended on rhe economic $truCtUR of soday fhe way rhat productlon was organized He traced the history of dvilixed maokind through five hiuorical staBes - AAjade mdenr feudal capttalin and socialin - which have ditTereru dominant methods of produc~ tioll leadiog 10 a complirared arrnngement of $OCiety ioto various ordetS 11 manifuld graduadon of sociru tank (Marx llnd Boge1s 1965 40) amph form of sorlef has coutained rhe conflictual divisiQl$ which help [Q tranuacuteorm the narun of rhat $Ocjeey coRrradicrioru in the mode ofpcoducfIacuteon placed srrain nn rhe existing social nrder sharpeniug rhe divide berween economic founshydatinn of sociery and a mpld aansIacuteonnlltion of in SOpel1Ullcture in legal polidcal and re1igious it1$tirutioos Thus by 11 confronration of da$~ Conrramiddot dkeions one historlraJ form of soc1ery wus transfocmcd into a bigher stage uf social devdopmem the history of aH hitherto existing ~ociexclety is the histoty uf dass struggles (MaDI Illld Bngets 15 39) Marx and Bnsels were parriculady conceroed wich capita1i$t sociery - ac its Oeyday during theiacuter Uves - and its tmnsrormarion iexcluto ampocis1iu sodety Wlthln rrus form of SoOCiety rOete would be no division of laboU4 and no eWses Illld no SUtes no elCpropnation of labours 5urplus vruue I1nd (bus no private property 00 exploira(ion of ene clilllS ny iexcliexcloother with 00 need fue war
For Marx and fingeJs C1ass then and noiexcl fllltions or sutea are rhe bade units in hurO) llIIIl che struggle between clAssts Jnstead oiacute infeutliltl contlict ocrupies rhe centre of acrention (Berki 1971 R1iexcl From me nlneteenth celUUf onwards rhis struggle -n in Marxisr cerros has been primarUy between [his capicalist dass ([he OOurgeoisic) aOO the bbouring dw (me proletariat) AA (he trarurormatlon fmm capltalisr SoOCIety [O ~OCialiexclMl ro comrounism rook p~e (he superstruerutt of bourgtOis SoOCilaquoy - religioo national divisiacuteon boutgmis politicnl insrirudnns rhe SOlte - woold be swept flway and in Engtls pmse rhe gOlcrotnent nf persons is replaced by [he udminlsuacion of things Fetter 19 (47) with me itEte relegated lO the mmeum iexclngemer Wlth lile spinshyning wheel Qnd [he bronze axe (Feuer 1969 433)
154 WrituacutetKiexclI mJenl4tiorJal rngmZtlJilm
Mux saw the European SUtes of his own rime as being rntans by which the ruBng dass (011amp oppress the work~ng clw by using (he agentl of tht 5tare such as the iudidary the poliee the army and rhe church he (xrerual Ilctlvities of the stare wete also determined by its Chtss namre MeanwhiJe rrmllnat]onat Rlations of a more meaningfuL kind WQuld bt creared by trade rhe movement of capital and incteaiitd romac[ and llOIacuteldarity betwten the prolerariat of vanoulS nations riacuteidefd rhe internacional nriexclaniutions of which Marx and Engels hnd dire(t experiena- wtfe the Fi~t Internatiomd and for Engels the Secund lntemarional both of which atttmpted lO orgashynJxe the represemarives of wruking people aiexclros fronden Onc~ agaJn this stteAAe$ the Marxist empbois on transnarional dass relutions rnther than on intentate relarionships
Whibt Soviet writlngs on international organizatinn1 wtte falrly desulshytory in Scalins reigu 0924-53) rhey did lmerIy hernld rbe move towams peaceful co-existerne arul roreshadowffi the lartf rnrhe[ restrktive view of Imch organi2Atinm hy Soviet commentators
In the post-Second Wodd War period and In patticular in the post-Stalin era Soviet liternmre on international organiuttions bl(lSsomed This has reflected Soviet membership oC ma1ly 1osiexcl-1945 organixations the emershygence of a socialist bloc of sta[C$ and tbe incre-ase in the mlmber of Sowcreign s[ates all flUtontilde demaruHng a more sophisricared Soviet view of lnter~llate reLadoru than che survivalism of Stalins period Uuring rhe lare 19805 i( auo ret1ected the new thinking iacutemroduced by Gorbachev
StalintI suIXessor KrU$hchev developed a revised view of internacional relaCtons which gave a positio1l ro the emerging Third Wnrhl (Tbe Third Wotld was then taken to mean rhotle IItates thar had emerged ftom colo~ nialiacutesm In effect rhe terrn later induded tbe stares of Latin America Africa - exclnding the rhen apaftbeid stnre of South Africa - the Middle Rasr Oceaniacutea and South Asia) Peace(ul co-exiuence between oda1ist and (apltaJisr states WM $til comidered nece1sary but this diacuted noc predude the ideologiacutecal stmggle between rhe two campsmiddot iexclndeed lhe Soviet inter~ national lawyer GI Ihnkiacuten wrote pearcfut cocx15tence of sutes represeonng che tWO differeor rodal sysems is a slccific form uf dass struggie beween socialism and calitllllsm (Osakwe 1972 37) The Soviet Union abo deveJoped relatlons wirh rbe newly emerging exshycoloniaJ cOllntdeJ and Soviet writiog had tu take ~ount of this developmem There wru a recognirion of a third group of stattli between rhe capitalist aud the communlsr that of poteorially friendly indtptomiddot deut $tarem io Europe and Asia such as India Egypt Indnnesia and Yugoslavia which would filrm a tone of peace Although the rebtions wiacuteth rhe capitaliacutest sures sriacuteH remaioecl embedded in pelteful coshyexluencc rhere was an emphasis by postmiddotStalinist Soviet writets on the da eJement in lile telatiomhil - that is rhe wntact with progressive elements in Weste1l sodeey smh as che Jabonr mnvement Ncither diexcld peaceful co-exiucuce rule OUt ~upport o[ middotjUSt wars of nationallibcrildon
WIacuteJIacute11gs tm iacutenUrllUtional WjatlJZtiacutelJlff 155
iexclndeed ir was seen lt a strategy fo wodd reloludon Fiacutenally (he rrlashyfIacuteonhips berween the Sovier Union and East Eumpean countries vere deerned ro be based on sociali internationalism posmlating a haemony of natinnal and commllnity interests and mndllding thar jnde~ndeuce and sovereioiexclnty of a soctalist uate means aoove aH indepltndencc from capitalism (Red Star 1 December 18)
Tunkin underljned traditional Soviet thiacutenking rllar the mngtrltllenl imrrllment of an ioretnational urganization (fne example the Chaner oiacute the UN) was all-impottant in derermining tIte enene rrun the otganizauumlon bad an international legal pcntildeonaliry rhar iexcl5 a standing in internacional 1l1w 5imilar tu titar of a sovereigo staxe Examining lhe question of the antonomOllS wiU oiacute international nrganitatioll Tunldn allowed thl1 they need not jmt act as agtnts for member stares
In imernatiunal ptacrke trellties conduded by jntcrl~ational mSaniacutezashytinns take their speciaJ piare as treacies by wbkh internationsl organimtiom aequire righu and take upon themselves cerrain obligiexcllshytioos Intctnat10nal organizatiou are created by Hares hey are broughr iexclnto being by states but the actloacuteos of imcmational organi7ashydoos are nlt)( in any way de facto or de jure ro be tqt1sred lO the actions of scates
(Osakwe J972 23)
Thi did nor mean than M internadonal organiacuteiariexclon was an entity indeshypendem of its memher us[es as any powers (har they hacl were delegated by [he members In Jine wirh che ampwiet doctrine of peareful co-exiacutesteme Tunkin placed Uress pn (he nature and rhe membership of an international organiacuteution dlOSe which drew their membersbip from commlmi1t c1Ipishytalist and TIiexclird World tares could expcct tu be genel1llly mognized as having an incernarional personaliacutery He wrote
TIte namre of tontemporary international prganiurions is lO a very great exttm derefmined by [he existerue of Haces beJonging ro differem wcio-economk systems and the ioevitable muggle between them Thar is why pcaceful crexislence is now the bl-sic condition of rh~ dfVC1iexclpshyment ufgeneral interoational ntganization
(Osltuumlltwlt 1972 289)
Mor07JN Clt1ntrlbuterl sorne extra points Fintildet be iududed JNGOs in his stndy He wrote dlQt lotetnational orgaruulions have as iI rol 8t least three member coumries TheM may be government$ offidJ orgilnlzarions or 0CInshy
guvernmental organizatiow (Morowv 1977 30) In a 11Iter seccion m NGo thcy were ldencifred as che la~ group of inrerrulttonal organiuttiolls wim two aspccn rbar concttntd socuIacuteiacuteIgtt commemarors tbe NGOriexcl auirude towards the preservarion of pealaquo wkh the Wnrld Feieradon ofTrade Unions
6 _ 0
rhe Wodd Fedemion oE Democratk Youth and otber meiexclllbtrs oiacute tbe Sovittshybacked World Peace (ounaacutel gaining special mentioo and the specialiuJ chataCrer of sorne NGOs itl(h as rhe ruerrutriunal Couocil of Scientifu Unions and che Scienrifk OJmmiuee on Antnrctk Research MOrlrLOv memioned how NGOs can belp emblish a social dimate citillg their contti shybution ro (he setdemenr of a number of internacional confHcu swh as dlilr in Vietnam He aOO dealr wirh the role of che NGOs io cbe UN aud che consuJshyrative srarus [hey llave witn lGOs saying du[ smdems of internariooal affitjoiexcl
in [he socjalisr councrics m critieal of many asplaquots of (his system fur the eoruulrarive StatuS amogemenrs stiU fall shon of wha( [he deveJopmenc of modern inretnatlonal relarions in fac[ catls fur (Morozov 1977 43) Tbe specialized namre ufNGOs Wamp1 atttibuted by M((2OV tu
tht increased Jnfiuence of the pubic at large un roreign polky [he grearer iexclmpat of public opininn in imernatiunal reladuns and [he greater importante uf me ideological fiexclUtot 10 $ucb relations Accoum should abo be raen of che proccsses of cconomic developmenr and [he coosequenc~ of [he scienrific and rechnological tevolutioo which has also led ro a greatet number of speoacutealized NGOs
(Morozov 1977 42)
Second Morozov wridog jo d~ late 197amp made moU pos-irive refershyencelgt (O [he role oiacute Trurd Wodd SUtes in imemaciooa otganimrions He noted rbar rbe emetgtoce oiacute ti large oumbe of Oung natiooal stares h8ve kd fO che emetgcnce of intetnarJonal Drganizadons among develcpi08 ecuoshytries (Mororov 1977 29) aod claimed hat partkiparion in (hese organh311oos is part uf he process uf consolidating their sovereigocy and ruuional jndependenu~ aod of wlviog cheir pressing ecoOfJmic anJ orher pmbemsmiddot (Morozov 1177 31)
Finally Momzov developed the puint made by fimkin aOOut he limited llalUre of ioternationaJ organiurjQn$ - ~econd-dllSS ffitrnbers nf the inrershynarloual sysrem as opposed tu rhe firsr-diexcllSS members SQvereJgn stateiexcl by reretcme tO theit dedsioos There bave resulted froro che inrelllctioo of politicuJ euroorces within the organil1ldons and
Thecombined will uf chcse lGOs i5 disuumlnc[ from [he wllls of theuuml indishyvidual members io in eflSenlte and ln in narure The v1ilflous wills in thb case are nor agsregued arirhmetically each one exim indepenshydendy ur oside a homogeneQu~ socio-political gOUP wirbin whose frarnework (hey can be combjlled
(Murozov 1977 34)
AfLer lhe comiog ro powet ofMikhail Gorbachev in the Soviet Union io 19Bgt a Ihaoge rook place jo $oVJIl policies rowards imeroadonal relations irutuding international organi1ations and [his has been reflecred in new
~ M-- bull 6_V_
Soviet writings un [he subJect Gorbachev inttoducetl a owjor review of [he fureign poljcy uf the Soviet Union (har marchcd rhe inremiry of his dmncslic refotmS He encouraged new rhinking- based on a revjeJ vlew of che world siruation Peaceful co-existence wirh iexclhe capiralisr tirares WlCgt no looger seeo a~ being a spetjfic fum of dass srruggle as Tunkin had written bUI 35 being in the commoo intecesu oiacute all countriCl Ir WIi$ predishycued on the neOO fin surviva of (he human nce which in ShakhfUlZOlrQvmiddot$ word$ must ofCOUIse take fim place Lighe 1988 297gt- Thjs ml$or rhar a new COIKeuropt of seGldty had ro he adopreJ hy che Soviers rhar oiacute common security which wa5 based un sume of he ideas of -che Palme Comminion (see he1ow) Greater emphasis wu given ro arms control and dlsarmament agreemenrs wirh the Wesr 11nd to co-opttation in international uffuirs whilst Soviet intervention io che Third Wodd enbed and milirary 5UppOtC 1m [he East European communisr govcfomentS WlS withdrawn
Soviet wdcings on inremurionilJ relations both offidal and academic came to mirror Gorhachevs new rhJnkiog bur eho lilete iexcl$ evety sigo chut rbese id~ were dmwu no only from rhe Wesr but alw Uacutenm Moscow mink-tanks slleh as lMEMO th~ JflSIirure of World Eronomy and Inremlfona Relacions) Liacuteght 1988 29~n Gorbschev aun his forngn minisrer FQllard Shevaronadre gave rhe academiacuten a Breen light for funher diSClViiacuteon ud debare (Shevaronadre 1990 23) As II reampul srudies examlned he role of che Uniacutered Nariacuteons as sn ugem for peoce (Kolyrev 1990 12-19 NesrerenkQ 1990 65 Petoovsky 1990 42--3) and rhe mte of inrernational or811nizadons in environmental mliLffers IiLnd disurmamenc qutsdmuuml Chodsulkwsky 1988j NikitiM 1989 123-32 Roginko 1989 133-43) and internarionallaw was teassesred (Sutier 1989~ 363-75)
Once che Sovier Union collapsed many of me wrifetS losr rhe main point of political reference A nwllber Iefi academc orhets adapted thelt ideas ro WCtem oues and a few remnioed as policy rulviseni ro che new Russian goVefrutJenL However cornmunism as M imellectually dominant organiuog rotce wlch pnliiisJ dour had djsappeared in Russia togerllef with much uf the persptr1ve ir provided - wben seen thmugh me unen distotdng leos uf tbe Sovier lfulon - oiacute inrernatiooaJ relatlons and inremariooal organhattnru
Chinese Marxisr wrirers have iexclargeIy reflected rhe views of the leadershyship in Chinll sioce [he coming ro power of rhe Commun1sr Patty in 1949 Undl (he 1970$ communist China was elduded from almon aH iotttllJishytional of811nizIiLtIOns and ie is flot surpriamping tha whae lirde writing tbete WUtl on the st1bje(r Wal fairly dismiacutesampive usuaUy consisdng uf coudemnaM tinos of (he UN fnf its action tn Korea aud rhe security allianes fot teir hegernonic narure Chjnese Marxisr rhinking hiacuteu divided (he modem wotld jnro three groups ihe Birsr World consisred of rile fWQ imperialist superpowers namely he USA ano the USSR The Second World was made up uf otbet areaa uf advamed industrilllired cnuntries primariacutely EUfape aod Japa which were opea ro donunariou by lite Sllperpowers bu( which could $tan a dialogue wirh rhe Thiacuterd World Theu (here was rhe Third
158 Writings OtJ internationdl organizatioru
Wodcl iexcltreI( coruisting of the Afro-Asiacutean-Lario Americltlu sta tes supported in their muggte aAainSt Picsr World imperialism by Chinls This viexclew of the wmId colouted tyJst Chiacutenese wridngs on iacuteoternatiollill oeganharions Tbe $uperJowers were seen as cynical lTlllnipubtors Qf inrernarionaJ jnsti~ tutions Mao Tre~tuog wOre of US poliey towards such insdfutions Ir mam use or them when it neOOS rhem and kicks them 3way when ir does flot (Society (or Anglo-Chinese Underuanding 1979 42) US-domioated pill-~ such amp$ SEATO and imperialist groupiacutengs like rhe Alliance tor PfOgre~( wttt detided Spedal viuiot was saved roc the Warsaw freaty Orgaoizatiun whieh in one aetide was described as Soviet sodal~ imperialisms mol fur aggression (Ming Sung circd Jn Chen 1979 194) fhe Soviet Union was aceuseQ of trying tu manipulate che Pan and negnshydate wlth Wesrem eouorries rhmugh the Enropean Scltwiry Conferenee tn consolidare irs begemonic status in Basrern Enrope at the same time iexcliexcll dividiog Wes(ern Europe squeezing Out the USA ro as ro muSte way (0(
iu expansion and infilrmrion into Westem Europe (Ming Sung clted in Chen 1979 197)
Chinese writecs Fegatded tbe Ntildegttood Worid espedally Western Europe as being a pen force io telmS of imperialism which Ww tdponeed to the lhird World wich diaJogu as io the Jmueacute Convention berweoen tIacute1e European Commnnitiacutees and AF~ican Carib~an and Paciuacutet srUe5
Furrhermore the defensive $spects of NATO were sttessed and with growing European cohcsion the trend iexclS IJkely to ~ towatds a fuoce in which the American elemenr is seen as 1 temporary neceuity eventual1y to be phased out (Sodety fur Anglo-Chioese Undetstanding 1979 90)
lthe countries of the Third World were setn as coostirotiog rbe mluumln force comb$dng imperiaJi~m colonialism and hegemonJsm reEerring nor only to the vestiges of Wesr Etl-OOptan foloniiexcliexclJism bOl abo to US iexclnpetlshyalism and gwwiog Soviet soci$l~imperiacutea1ism Tbe Third Wodd eQuld hdp tn exclude the gre$t powers ny baoding cogecher io such otganizatinos aiexcl tht DAU aod rhey could work ro correct unequiexcliexcl nade and eeonomk reladons with che sUpetpowers through UN iexcliexclgeucies and eonferences such as UNCTAD and UNaos Abo rtlW material ancl exporting orgllnizations liexclke OPEC rbe Incernadonal Bauxilaquo Association ancl the Onion of Banana Bxporting Counuies were proised a ehanging (he old interntlrional eumomic Ome and banerlog che biggest roarerJal plunderers in rile world rhe United Srates and (he Soviet Uoleo (Ptking Rt1Jiew 26 Septtmbtr 1975 cited in Cheo 1979 309)
111e poverty oiacute ehinne study of intetnatlenal erganhuions no dounr caused by the lack of Chinese membership of such etganizacions unril the 197amp and the turmoit ef the Cultural Revulution eiexcliexclme ro an enel by the 1980s Jnstead oere was a more reaHs( viexclew (lE rbe worlcl iexclf one S~shytimes coucbed In Manlst terms In Chlnese univenittes there was a growtb io detailed studies of iutemationalntgsnizations aod the nuropean Union
WritingI un inlmullPmnl vrgrsrtilpiill1J 159
Tbird Wwld vlewJ
Many Third Wodd Afro-Asian aoo Latin Atrusican) writers 00 jntemsw
tional organizaion have adopte a structtulIist framework and are particufarly nm(etnecl abour how insdtutions can be wcd as tools of exploitadon uf rhe nitd World aud how $ome cau be used lIS agenrs of libenuion They llave nor been induded in the ~ettiexcloo un Marxist viltws (or three feamm nOI al of them are Mandst thIJM who are Manisr place particular stresS on (he posicion oF thE l1lIacuterd World and as ThJrd Worlcl eitizens they have through theit own experience unother pe~cdve rhan [Mt of writers from industri$lized srates
Yash 18ndon (1978 377) has identjfied thNf nuacuterd World penfIXrives en inrernational Olganizatiolls Fim [here is that or the bourgeois Of perry natiunalisrs who are in power in mos[ Third World statcs and who are progressive in [errru of anti-impcrialism but are rraniollary ro the C1tccnr WC they would sooner mau thcir pcaee with imperialism rhan iluwnder power (e the masses and peasancs This group uses ineernational orgllniexclm~ tions ro pur presrure 0lI imperialisc states in order to extntCt concession5 from them and appease tbe masses in their own coontries TIley see che UN as an opportunity to parley witb their entwhiacutele impecild masters t a presumed kvd uf equa1iry (Tandoo 1978 365) Thc scltond pcrspective is rhat ofthe reaIly backward regimes of thl Thitd Wodd such un Taiwiexcliexcln and Jotdan or whnm intemarional orguniacutelattnnS are of margJna1 signifieance [)t they prefet tu dea wirh impcrialism iquestirt(tiy The rhird petSPCCrive idenrified by landOll is that uf rhe masses vi thc TIlird World for wbom toterntlunaJ orgmilAriom are petiphewl fin liS Jong as hey rontinue fO reflect the muing balanlte uf clas$ forces in hvour uf impeuacuteJism (fandon J 978 378) Sioce the ene of he 196amp rorces representing thu third group have bccome lnott prominent in world polido in che form of liberarioo groop1 lttCn as tbe PLO and whilst chese have f)tgten interested in galnin8 telaquolgnJtlon rOt rhemshyselves at the UN and the spedaliled agcodes rhey are not depeuden 00 these or8ani1Jlton~ rndecd Tandoo romioeted (hat fo che revoludonary snnggles in SOUfh~E3SC A~a and AfrJctI iOfernattonal otgilnizalJons are tOO peripheml to be of much $ignilJeaoce (Tandon )9713 377)
Tancloo providcd n inrere~tiog history of the Jevelopment uf the anrishycolonialist forees in che Third Wruld sinee 1945 bur hi~ clivi~iexcl()H iexcloro he three perspenives is roo stark leaving aside rhe leil important backWllro regimes be has basiclllly grO~lped tbe Third World leadershp joto the revoshylutionaries who have Uttle netd (or imernatiooa otgllnizatiooll and those who llave suumlpped into refOrmism and have beco duped iot() bdieving (hat they elln ehaoge chelr c1ependeoce 00 industtia1i1Cd nBfiexclmL~ lhrough intemadonal organiwtions Thjs seems to undelsrare me use or ~mh organishyzations by revolutionllry groups - especiiexcliexcllIy che PLO anel tlle SoUthem African liberadon OtgllOiexcl7arionS - whieb have made substaotial use oiacute [he UN me Arah League ano the OAU tO sustain rhe polirical aspeets of theit effOrt5 1t alS(l uverestimatcs the extent tu whieh the Third World countries
J UU wnlmgl 1111 JTiUrllamm41 ergtIttJ1I0fll
have any iUwinru about imetnariooal Qrganizarioos such a~ UNC1~D
Furchermorc the identificador of 800d revolutionaries and falten refurmislS i~ tuller impliexclstjc~ rhe maIur sponrot of the UNs New Ecooomic Order l wruch Tandon hal roudemned as rhe Old Economic Order with a diffefent rltetoric WIIS the Algetian radinu governmenr of Boumediemu rhe PLO irself ha heen dependem on a numlgttr of bnurgeWs Arab goveromenrs foc financial 00 diploJUlltic suppon and ro Tandoos duumlertion that PQr narlonallibemwn movemenn guided by a proktatlan idoology such liS rhose in Chifliexcl1 lIlud Vietnam iruemarionaJ organlwtlona WtU of no 1J5e can be- added the re5ervarion until chey carne (O power Whiht ir took some twenty years belote communist Qtill1 made use nf suth organiutions the unified communiSl Stale ol Vietnam was quick fO cake up it position in the UN ro ask [Ol aid thtough UN agencies liS well as w become ji membet of he CMEA (Comecon)
Third Wodd commemscOt1l on world politics have emphasized the nature uf rheir atea$ potirical ecoOoacutemtc Ilud culmral relatloosluumlp wilh rhe iHdllsrriexcl~ alixed Nonh TitilO is iOO$t Oflltl rypified aiexcliexcl bciug OHe of ueo-folonialism _ COntrol of che Third Wtltld by lhe Nortb by indirecl means ratlet (han by direa colonial tule and of Kf)IomIacute( dRptwJmry (o dtpmdemjiexcliexcl) lntetnationaiacute rdsdOOi bcrween sures are sublumed ro relations between claue$ world wide Ixtween on rhe one lIand the expluacuteiting impetialist capitetists in rhe northcm iru1usuialized couotries 2100 rhcir middle-ltlass collaboratotS in the 50Uthem SUtes aud on the othet band he exploiced masses rhe proleuriat ol [he $Ourhern contJnems The Lurcr gmupS have been 1I1iide ecooomkaUy dependent on [he furmer so char hey lIre in rhe wuacutetds uf the Bruiliiln T Dos SantOS in a situadon jn which the economy of a cetuin group of counshytrles is condiacutedoned by rhe develOplllent aad expansion of aoother ecouomy lO which thcit own 15 subjecred (Bodenheimer 1971 327)
The uOOerdeveloped tounrries depend uacuten [be developed ror their capital nd ercperdse they find key sectors of ehdr eroooroy conrrolled from OUtsJde rhey act as a SOUfce of raw marerials lIS ji lthetip source of labour arul as a rnarket fur mllnuf8ccurers from Euttipe ]apan and North America As thejr living standards were deterrniud by rhe vicissinWeS of the Northern~ dominated wodd marker the relationship was Otle uf unequa exchange (he [esule of which was a world experiencing woequal developmenr with a developed rieh indwtriaJiud capiralisr Notthern centre and d poor underdeveklpedgt agciculrutitlly backwarn eXFloired periphery in che 50mb The dependem 80mh has been divided berween rhe ptedominanr undemeshyveloped area~ lUld a few Cenfres of deve10prnenr wirh their ttade culrural rraffie and polidcal linL to [he deveJoped North - rhe depeOOem develop~ memo omlinea by EH Cardosa (1974) allodlt~r Bruiliall Mmir Amiu (977) rejC(ted the prosptltt of aH antonomous capitalist development in [he Third Work the oew bourgeaisJe of Lacin Ametica Africa and Asia were in allianec with capitalisrs from rhe Nnnh and rhe mato $OUrce of finance ror lmported equipmem was fmm the expon of raw materials to rhe indu~rial
5 ~ _~ smiddot_middot~~
iexclred smes Amin (1977 1-21) SllW rhe can made ror a New Imernational Ecooomic Order (NIEO) by Third World leaders at rbe UN UNCTAD aod che Vilrlous North-Sourh dialogues as an nrtempt LO iexclnerease the price of chelr ntw mattIial exporrs obraio more lmpotted technol08Y snd chus finance a new srage of develQpmenr He saw this ti placing the Thitd World more in the gttp of the neo-co1onialist sysrem and iostmd recommended 11
more self~rcuumlanr development wlrh murrud assismnce between Third World sures a reducdon in [ade wirh rhe induuialized wotld and Chlll a loos~ ening of dependenre Amin lJke TaOOon had Jittle fairh in presenc imtrnruional organizaciexclon Il tools foc fasbiooing a more independent Tbiacuten Wotd His sU88tl1cion of grearer mUtual ilSlgtistaoce between ThUd WorId uate~ implied somtthing more sophillticated than a numbtr of bilateral arrmgements As rbe present orgauizarions used fu iexclncm~Thjrd World cnshyoperation (che OAU he Atab League ASEAN) are domitllued by jusr dl()llC govetnmenrg chM accept lhe eowse coodemned by Amio _ the NIEO ami greater jmegrndon iexcluro rhe world economic sysrem ~hen Amia solutloil involves like-minded deveJoping counrries or more like1y political changes leading ro such indigenous intemuional orgilniwrions
Other Trufd Wodd wdten have plllCtXl emphasls on grearer use 01 exisring insdtutions lOO can broadJy be deKfibed lIS Wopmenraluli huI Prebisch an Argentinian econOmigf has not only studied the que5iaacuteon uf ecooomic dependency but his ideas llave been used as the baJiexclis for che wotk of cwo miexclljoc iexcliexcluemariOOiexcll1 organizadons rhe UN Enmomic Commission fa utin Ameriea (ECLA) and UNCfAD Iu his smdy of Briliacutesh-Argerl(inian trading relntioflS Prebisch bad idenrified rhe unequRl tecrns ol Hade between he favoured (ndusrrislized s(ate of tbe centre and he les privj~ leged llOIl-indumialiacutewl periphery Prebisch unlike rhe dependencia gtChool of Amiacuten Dos Sancos and Cardosa believed thu this inequaLity could be overcome by political acrinn by trade pre[ereonces fuvouring the pedphery by eoo1ruooiacutery agreemenrs by intelnatiacuteowll aid and by more foreiga imvestment in che ~riphery It was thele remedies thiexcllr Prebiacutesch eneouraged when he WiIS Executive SecrCrary of ECLA from 1955 lO 1963 aOO Secrewy-Genernl ofUNCTAD ftoro 14 ro 196tL In~d rhe amoum of aid the periphery needed in omer to overeome their Unfuvoluable rrnde balance became known io UNCTAD clrcles as [he Prebiexclsch Giexcllp
The distinguished Afiican aC1ldentie Aji Mazn1i has wricren un the plighr Qf (bar conciflfnt aod j~ role in pmem~day interruUIDllfl1 afmits He soughr ro answer rhe quesdon Now rlw Imperial Order is eoming ro an end who is going tO keep rhe peaee in Aampica and tu examine he concept of Pax AfrlclllUl the African s ambidoo ro be his OWh palaman The JXIliacutecillJS and se[f~8overnment ufAfriea depended on the nodan ofan African self which Mauui discusseJ in decaH He considered how this 1ndepen~ denre might be threarened by the politicaI and cultural fragmenMion of the contillenr Ellld eronomieally by deperulence on Europe He quoted Kwame Nkntmah finr President uf Ghaniexcll on rhe Europe-Jn ECOntunir Communiry
162 Wilihgr rm intd1JatirmallJrganizatimu
ihe ireaty of Romemarks the advent of oeoKolonitJism [n Afriacuteen snd bears unqutSrlonably the marks of Freneh neo-colonuumlllism (Murui 1967 93) He moduded from tM that Wlut AfrlOlns tbelaquofore neecletl was II
renerru authotity of cheir owa tI) ((lordilJlte fheir eltonomk and policicat deCena- sgain5t trus rnreat (Mamtiexcl 1961 93)
Given this theme it is not surprising tlwt Mazrui ser srore by rhe OAU bU[ he was realistic in bis judgement
In relatioos betwlaquon African statts lIOflesr step rowards Pu Africana was taken when rhe Organiution oiacute Aftlaquolln Uniey set up in Commissiacuteon ofMediauacuteoo Conci1illtion aud Arhitmion
Anormr OAU Commissioo of relevance fot Fax AftlOlna ls che Defence Cornmission Sor me Defeme Commlnion 1w se Car been among che lean effecdve QfPan-Aiacutericun ins(kndons Afrka mar indeed aspire to be her owu ptlliceman bur she does nO seem ready as yel to par the price iacutem it
(Mauui 19612[3)
Mazrui oudined the varicd backgrounds of [he lemen oiacute newly illdepenshydent Africa and thdr radical and revolmionary ideas and it is pethaps swprising rhat the insrirutions rhey created fur me coutinenf wete so mnservative with [he p05sible exceprion oiacute the OAUs Natiomtl Libetttion Comminee Mazrui no[ed thac Africa srill has the problem of how othet powetS respond tu its behaviour and [har forcigo iotmsilm in AJtica continued Indetd the I990s proved tO be a dC(ade of disusrer for AfrieR The debiacute burden contimlld while Ilome states collapsed lnro civil war ami others took to iutenoendoo in thejr ueighbonrs affairs Outslde interference from borh Enrope and North Amecica euodoned One of rhe fcw brlghr spots was the end of apallhcid in South Africa and the peaceful transitioo ro majoriry mJe lo al thiexcl~ tn quote Juliacuteus Nyerere rhe ampcmer pre~iexcldenl of Tan1ania The OAU exists outr ror tbe prorecdoo of (he Afrinllt Head~ oiacute State (cited io AlilgapPltl 1998 1 ) The relarive optimism of Maztui has giveu way ro Afriam writers examining sorne of me disrnrbing details of inaction by [be OAU and regtonal orgauiacutezatJuns nlCh as ECOWAS beiog used as doaks fu the machinations oE regional hegemou$ suth as Nigcria (Mibe 1m 61-9(1)
Radha Sinha$ problem--ortented undy Food iexcllfId PIWt11y (1976) has an IItgent message Sinha a former consultaot of the FAO prodnced an iofuacuterrned aUllyiexcljiexcl of the world$ food problem stress1Og in paniacutecular the maldistribution of food and other resources Noting he profO$ab of UNCTAD with heit muld-rommodJty approach and buffer nocks provjshySiOfli he commented rhe grearesr weakness oE the UNCTAD scheme js les Hkdy politlca1 unilcceptablliry ro me developed (ountdes parriculady che USA (Sinhil 1916 114) a propheey that has proved to he cortect He identitled a more aggresslve attitnde by Third World sutes e5pedally
WrilirrgJ on i1tternatiflii1l rHgarrtzatitmlt 163shy
after the uH prite cise of 197314 when the developing coonuies tried to maximize their own market powers by formin cartcls such as rhe Intematimlal BaurdtC Association the Intemuional Coundl of Copper Expotcing Countries aud the Intema[ional Tin Agrcrmenr He gave n qualified wekome ro the Lomeacute Convention betwcen the European (omrounities anJ cenain African Padfic and Caribbean Haces Writing in 1976 he commented
The receot cbange in rhe luirudes of tite tiche countries is largely due tu the incIeasing miliuncy of the Third World countries lt is almost ertalll utar the magnitude offuture cnnc~sions in me coune ofGAIT aud UNCTAD IV Ilegotiarioos wiU deperu mainly on (he continued solidariry uf the devdoping counlrtes
(Siha 1976 116)
Sinha was pardy correct as tbe solidatity cf rhe Tbird Workl states cracked se the induurialized wodd withheld funher Con(eampSJoru but ir was able tO do so because market condidons swung against che primaty producen
In his condusion Sinha called ror a IIDre1 shttting of wnrld t($nmes and power if confrontarion was ro he avoidOO He feared that the ffa of roshyoptradon berween [ieh and pool conntries hiid ((lT1e to an end and that batde lines were being drawn Instead he advOOIreltI majnr concessions from the dcher coumries on trnde lInd aid issues and a1so a ma~lt te$ltUcrnring of the incematiotlill organization~ aoo negoacutetiating ffiarhinery in order tu provide a much gtC2ter say fm me poorer countries in internatiooal tJ1lde invesrment and mooetaiexcly armngemenrs (SiMa 1976 132) GAn 1BRD aud IMF have been the presenoe of [he ri h with voting weighted m faacutevour of rhe OECD countries and Sinha re(()ffimended thlll GATr aoo UNCiAD be merged inro an Intemacional irade Organization (ITO) and che creatlon of a Third World permanent secrctariat iexclnvolved in all trade and aia negoriarioru Thoogh less radical than Amin Sinha aIso recomrnrnded gttter coshyoperation berween developing coulltries and an eoo ro their inkrtotity complex with instead a sense of m~ttnal sdiacute-e$teem and trust being devel~ oped (Sinha 1976 ch 10) Litde that h~ happened during the 19905 woo1d have encouraged Sinha The World iratle Organiaadon has emerged as the presenoe of the dlVelupeJ tares and lw brushed aside many of thc mucerns cf UNCTAD Debr ha~ edged on ro dlt wudd iexclagenda but mainly at the beheS[
of a non-governmental organization )ubiacutelec 2000 nd the promi$e~ of the main financill jnsrirutluru lO pursue dcbc-rclicf produred but a thiniexclmfl
In aH Third WQrld commenrarors have provided a vatied and lively approruh fOwards tne problems uf intetniexclational organizarions Their emphasis has niltntaHy beCl Qn tbe use of wurld lmtirutions to change the econornic condidon or the Southern cominents As this enndition is likely to worscn in the near filrtltf further more lJica conrtibutions on the rule oC
-- --- ~- __ _~- __- imernatIacuteonal orgaoilarions in Nonh-Smuh relarJons tOiexclghf be apected from rhe Third Worid A1ternaciveJy wrirers (mm rhat ares rmy jW ltIacuteespUacutet rm imergovemmemal orgaoizarions ar lealaquo Mee rhem $O Hrrle
Cfili~ald~heJ
Critica approadvs lO the nudy uf intetnadonal relations are (hose har rejee( the dominating vleW1iexcli repr=med by tbe realist and reformistS as oudined aboye In paHicular rhey reglUd realists as apologisu for the currem con6gutltion of power 10 (he wiexcldd sytem and considet [har rhe refOnntstS are elrher unable ro undersraoo he fUe llamee )( (hi sysrem oc ille UDwiUing to accepc rilar ir needs more rhan mooest refotlllS TIlOugh they may sympalhi-ze wirh rhe agenda of some Marxists aud Third World wt1cers chey do [lO( llave rhe hisrockal certaimy of the former not rarely do they have the experience and perspective of ehe larter TItey view intenUishy(jnl1ill nrganiutions wirh a jaundiced eye as these are mainly the lll$tmmenfS of rhose who dominare rhe syuem This section COlllaios an wcoum nf three approaches tmt of the critical rheorlsti- of kmintsc wrirshy[1185 ulld pose~mooernismlt
Cri(~1 herJrY The approach of critical theory 10 JnrematlonaJ o(ganizatiooll iSi determtoed by their wider world-view which in itsclf is explaiiexclwd by tbeir llame One of the leading exponents Roben Cox said [har ie is cririca1 in cne Jensc rha h srands apan 100m che prevailiog order of rhe wOlld and asks how tb$t oroer came iexcllPouc Ir does nor r-ake existing irucimtioM lIl1KI JIQwer relaclons rOl granred bu c311s them iacutemo queuion Ir 1S diexclrlaquoced ro rhe social itnd JIQiirshyical complex as a wItole rarhet (hall he stparate pirtt IUthet than subdiide and Imic an examination of a problem it looks al the wger pkturc of whkh rhe problem is jwt oue part and trio rO wJdeThwod the processeS uf change ill which botIt pans ulld whole ure involved laquo(ox 1993 277~S)
Ai a thoory cridQiIacute theory rejeen tbe daims of posicivism of an external Nulity and to be mue-free ror critkal rheorIacutests koowledge ti nor moraUy IleUc1ll1 ic is more che result of the social background of tbose Wt hold ir Given this ctitkal tbeory alJows foc a normarive choice in favoU of a social ancl iexclJlieiexcl(ld order diflerent f(cm rhe prevruHng arder bur it limiu the ruuse 01 chotce ti a1remative orders which are feasibJe mmsformations ofme cxvaing worJd h musr rejEC[ improbable alternadVe8 ju~t as ir rejecrs rhe pcrmanctlly nr lhe exiscing order (Cox 19 90)
Cridcal rheory differs lrom Marxist upproElchcs beCElUS( of iu tejection nf any daim to hold the objenive tru[h and betause or it~ avoidance of (he pmslllt ol il utopia Neverrhe1ess [heir analysis of incernarional relarln1l$ is one tbu hEls u numher of similariuumles wich the Marxisc pcrspecdve It regurds rhl tlistlng suucrures of world polirics as beiug oppressie not
- _ __ _-
lean because of rhe dominance of (he capitalism of che Unired StElte~ For many che USA is seco as a hegemonic power the prevailing urder - in re[ms rbar reReet he wrirings of the Itallan Marxisc writer Amonio Gramscl (1891-1932) Gramsd advanced the nodon of ln hisrori(middot bloc which in itself refilaquors che $Ocial reladons oE ptoducdoo The dominanr dass in a counrty - 01 indeed aoy social grouping - mlinrains cohesion and idenciry withio [he bloc [hrough the ptopagacion of a COIDmOfl culturegt A new bloc can be formelt when a subordinate dau can euablish tU hegeshymony over orher subotdioate gtOllpS (Cox 1993 56--7) The IDove rowuds hegemony comeS with the piexclt$ting fmm che spediacutek inrercsrs ofa gronp Ol
dass tO rhe building uf inrimdons aOO elaoorarion uf ideologies (Cox 1993 57-8) It Loiexcl rhat ptOCe$S thar embeds the incemu of the dominanc dan in an imttmrional form thae [w an appeal widet [ban that dan ine1f It the-refole repreSoems mote tlmn jUSt (he drunJnaoce oE one state ovec anocher bllt implies a cemufi acceptante of the tules arJd institutions purouized by [he hegemonic JIQwer Jo other woros it is all order wbicb most Olher Sta[e-~ (01 at 1enst those within reath of die hegernouy) couId find compatible- wirh their iexclmetem (Cox 1993 6t) h aJso involves noe just inttt-staee rueivirle5 bur rhose oiacute tlvilliOCiety (oon-Stllte socieM instishycudons) ebereby encoumging Hnks between social dus$ts iexcln the connules covered by ebe hegemony
What does Cox llave to uy about ioccmational Otgsniuciexclons 1bey Ilre scen in he oontext ofme wiacuteoo unaemanduuml18 of itnernational reUacuteltions mentloned iexcliexclhove He is direcr 000t mem Ooc mechanisru chrough wruch the universal norms of a wodd hegemony are expttssed js the interoatiooal organisation (Cox 1993 62) Why is chis so Cox U993 62) gives five teIlSons
bull They e-mbody rules cOae help (be- apwlSion of a hegemonic wodd iexclrder These insdwrians reflcct the intererts ()( the dominam social anil economic force- buc a1low a cettain amOunt oC adjusrment ro accommodare other subordinared interests TIms the USA WllS preplltoo ro mm conccssions to
bciI18 in Lhe EU srares and Japan ro rhe Wotld Trade Otganizatimt They a[e prooucrs of that order Though [he insrimrions and rules Ilce
nurITlllUy initiared by the hegemook power ir takes cate ro involve aOO comule a numbe-r of second-ronk stares and gaio theit supporc he Wotld Bank and Inte[nacional Mooetaty Fund were very much pan of [he world order thar emerged afrer [he Second World Wat and which was dominared by rhe Uoiced Stlres
They ltgidmi7e i[s nOlms by providing guidance for SllIteS and by legitshyimiuacuteulS cerraIacuten IlCdviries Ilr me narional leveL he OBCD afie rhe inrerruuiooal financia) irntuumluriom lave spread an acceptante of mllrket coodirions and sHict mOllerary iexclJlides
They co-opr elites from pelipheral counrrie Ihlented sraH commg 110m the Thiacuterd Wocld are expected tO dCCept he scriexclpt wcittttt by the domishynam power Bouuos Bourros-Ghati as Secteury General uf the Unired
166 Jiexclljiexclr1giexcl Qr1 ifJfCflrttuacutemal IWgaizati(ifJJ
Nadons stroyed too amp~r ftOm the gtip of Washinston and his second term was VCtoM by rhe USA His sucecssor Kofi Annan will no doubt undentand what 1$ n-quired of him He brings the mncerns of orhe states ro che UN bUf nor in a way thu threatt1l$ the USA
bull They absorb counter-hegemonic ideas Ideaiexcl $uch as 1iustainable dlYClop_ ment tukl even debr foTgiwness are taken 00 board by the intetnatwnal finarnial institlltion$ blu are trandirmel into pulido rhat swt them
Wh~t is ro be done Cox thinks thar the pfQblem of changiog dw world orUer 1iMuld be shlfred back from intern~tional insritutions tO niexcllriacuteooal $OIacuteishyeties where the sodo-political b~se for a new historie bloc mighr be ereated (Cox 1993 64) FaiJing the creadon of a new historie bloc of the new working cla$s and rural and urb~o marginal groups there might be tnmdorshymadon oC the curtent monopoly-libcral hegemony by adjusting to rhe demanJs oiacute local ello$ for polides 5uch as natlonaHution Cox 199~ 65) He aw advocates te-regulation of erooomies and a re-wmpositjon of civil sodery Internatiotla lnstlcutions induding organiutions can berome eontact puint1i fOr new $OCia[ furtt (Cox 1994 (11)
Critica throrJm $uch as Cox oifee a refreshing exposidon oiacute che posidofl oC imernatiooal ofganizatioos in a wocld where the main revolutionary powe~ have either collapsed (rhe Soviet Union) or se(tled into a cautious ronservatirun (China) Ir provlde~ a sceptical arf realisric world~view without acreptins tbe inevuumlahility ni a illture domlnared by mooopoly eapi~ ujsm sud the Utlired States J-Iowevtr its appllcariexclon to intemationa1 organhatJons 11 StImewha( timited tQ the maln global jnsdm(jons and th financial and economlc orgmiutions Ir has 1m (O say aboue regional nrgashynjudon Uf abour N(JUacutes Furthermore iu alternarive fu(ure testS on ourcoroes thu are far froro certain RevnJutlons in the Thied World are roore likely to be- irupired by nadondi$m oc by IsJaroic fllndamentaHfl OCalaquoely [he solid ooses for new historie blocs
Fwinuumll aNml4cbts
Feminist perspcctives 0f1 inttmatlonal rtlatioos llave in common wirh the erit~ ical rheocillu a rejclaquoion of (he dominance in rhe $Ilbjecr of the rcnHst and rdOrmisrs Although fuminist writen cover a wide 5laquolpe the gencral basis oiacute their aqurnent 1S har in interwnional relatioM ru in most politkal aud tcooomk acdvity women are diexclSJtdvantagt~l Alchoogh they own ahour 1 pet tCfH oC the worlJs lfOpeny and tiexcliexclxe heme 10 peiacute ceoc ofincome they perfurm 60 per eenr of working houn and provide 80 per eent of nfusets (petetsen and Runyan 1993 6) This is a derDOnstrndon of gender inequalitie~ the sodalJy learned behavior and expecratioos thar distioguish berween maKuliniry and femininity (Petetsen and Runpn 1993 5) Feminist aprroaches ofren So bejond the $tati~tks and examine (he mind~se[ of those engaged in the pmctice of intemadonal rdations whiexclch (bey ampee as geodered In other woros che world
Writingc Off inlmhJliofMl vrgntiZdlMm 167
illeen in a mlLlndine way thar kvrntB (he posjtiOll o( mnles in rhe hitgtranhy and devlllues the c041trihution of WQmeO (Sylvestet 1994) War in pattKular is gendered in a way chat keeps wornen and metl from qUtstioniog the essentiat pmpose and he neglltive effects of war militarization ~nd viQleme on their awn and orhers livts (Petetsen and Ruoyan J993 9 t)
What of wminist view$ uf imernationaJ organizationsr Ir IS not possible ro presem a rollf(tive vjew that eneomp3$~e~ rhe works of radicaJ femjnisu and ny iexclihetal teminists (rutead the work of one author Sandra Whitworth (1997) will be used as me pily$ rornt attrntion ro inrernarlonal organizations Aamper inrroductions ro feminilfr theory and internacional frIamiddot tiom and gendet and internacional relatlons Whirworrh examines geodet and imernational organilions She screpts Coxs vjew oiacute inrernational orgashynjzarions [har they retleltr (he dominant powet relations in che intetnational system and rhae internaliomd otgaoiution h che procelt of imcitntionaJshyiling and regulating conOice - eicher rhat which may IIrise among siexclates o( char which has iu (onU io transnationaI society (Cox 1980 375) TIte way duu pcople orgaoire themelve$ wirhin international iostirurjons reflects a variety of power relations ineludi~ of rollJSe gendec relatiull3 (Whitworth 1997 74) lbe triad of jnstirutions ideas and material rQudi~ tioru help ro hxare uSllmptiolls aboue geoocr withiu jntetmltional rewtioos Whitworth uses thesr tn examine lhe uooerstandillg oiacuteScndec io an INGO the Internadonal PlarUled ParenthooJ Federatlou (JPPF) and an intergnvemmental organilJ1rion (albcir one wlrh some oOl1-governmentJ)J represemation) the InrernatlonaL lab01lrOtganiution (no)
Whirworths studies show rhar thr IPPF tended ro accept the deshyemphasizlng oi the gendered oamfr of reproducdoo and (f) ignore rhe imponaoce ofbirth comcol foc womens reproductive freroom Instead in an effort tu popularize birth rontrol srrel~ WWl placoo on paremhooJ rather than iexclust the womans choice However IPPF poUcy beeiexcllme more radirnl in (he 19905- with Hnks beirtg made berween II1M control alld womeos ~)tu~ ality (WbJtworth 1997 ch 4 pmim)
The RO eoucerned itself with WQmen as workern It cnnsidercd that tbey oeeded spec-ial atrention and promoted ptoteCtlvt legiexcl~lacion This reiexcln~ forced me view (har [he male worxer Wall the norm with women workers nor deserving the same rights remunfration lOO mndirions Latterly however the JLO ha~ reflectoo views rhat prodaim wornens elt)ualily in rhe workforce and has sunoo tuacute assess the importanee of policies on womens role in rhe workplace as weU as in sodery more wjdely (Whlrwnrth J997 ch 5 panm) Whitworth comes [O the eondusion rhu iexclln iexcllnaLyiexcli~ of gernler in rbe IPPF and no shows how tbese rdiexcliexcldonsbips llnd definirions ni what it is to be a womltn oc man are structuted relationsrups3nd hlsrQciudly hve been scrurtured tu disadvantage women (ibid 15n
lo eommon with the critkal meorists Whitworth has useQ au examinamiddot doo of two intetnational organixations (O deroonstrate a puinr about imerflational relatiexclon~ indeed sodal rctatrol1s mOte widely The poinr is
I1
I
middot - ~-_ --___ aOOuc powec and iu use not (O balance oue SCdre ligaiOSf anorher but fm une gooup ro domiaare morher Jn chis case it 1$ ma the dominution of one dass me m culcnre over $ofU)(her (though Whirworrh recognizes those reLationshyships ti wcll) but of roen over women The crititUl uudy oiacute (wo jnceraational mganirations dealing with iSSlle5 recoSniud ti beiiexclg oiacute impocshycanee or WOfficn suggesu rha( tltOO simihu research on orher internacional organizadons could proJuce interening aOO uwfuiexcl resulrs
Pllit~ism
Thc posc-moderruacutesr $opprooch lO intetaarional rcllldon is one tlur bas (ome ro che fote Jn che perlod sinee lite end of rhe Cold War Jr is based on $o widcr imellectual viewpoim insrigated by l1rench iorcUtcruals of the 196()s gener~ ation _ Bllrrhes Derrida FouclIul and Lyorard - and whkh suggested rhat the modero era liad becn overome 11 fejeas mera-nattatives gnlud accounv- of hi5tory aoa iacuteNIacuteler subjecu as having no independem rubstance Scientifk btliefs induding [hose oiacute rhe $)(ial scJcllces are rooted in (lllxure polill(os arul mores oJ a wciery and are lherekJre subjective As rhere is 00
oblcctive reality cmpirical daims bave fl() spccial sunding in rhe rralms of koowledge IndeeJ ir i$ power aod knowledge are intimatel) incerwirud Posr-moJernism Hllnds against rhe belief of rbe modero pcfiod which LI seco as beginning wiacuterh rhe enlightenmcm of mid-eightcenth cenrufy Europe and AmeriCll Ir rheldore rejcn~ rhe COMCpr$ oC rationalirl and progrcss aSSuacutedared wi(h [he enlighrenment and [he moocrn age Thc uniry of IOOnkind iexclirW iexcldells such liS rhe untveIsWiI) of human aacuteghrs are rejcuoo lnsceadlocal aetion in smallgroups 15 advuacuteClmd
Post-modetnist ideas have affected tite srOOy of inremruionaJ rdarions as (bey have ocher social scienccs Posr-modern imeraarional relariops theoriscs havc ustd heir view$ 00 objecuumlviry (o exiexcltmine che rrmhs of international relatiom en see how rhe concepts iexclind knowledge-dairm (bar dominare the Jisdpline in faer are highiy conringenr on spccific power relatiom (Smith 1997 181) Post-modemisrs bave lltfa(red me mcta-narratives of the reelshy1m and reformlsu aHke The objectiacutevemiddot aaallses of the realim Ilnd neo-realisu are setn as being deJl(nclent on the subjective standpojnts of cheif mainly Amen(an and Europeau authors Ijcharcl amphiel (1986 258) daimed he works o[ Kenneth Waler men the leading neo-realillt trrat the glven ordcr a rhe natural nrder Jjmirs rarheE (lian 1XpawU political discllUtse negales oc rriviuliliS the signifinnce uf variely urOiS time and plue Whar emerges ii an ideology tllar anridpatcs iegirimires ancl onents a totalitarian projen 01 global ptoponioo~ che rattoualiaciuacuten of global poHcics iexclbe reformius are likcwise tainted Md have Ji mhr$lren belief in pmgress The posc-modernl$rs poinr m rh Helocausr as rhe heighr oiacute mooemism a rombimiddot Halioe of science dnd polidcal otganizillnon Il was SCruTely progreso
Given an antifllthy mwards rhe MlVe[iacute~ign srae borh as a centre of powet ll1ld as a crearioll Jiten imbutol wlth a wncepltliexcl uf progress pest~miexclJdetniexclsls
wHungJ mi Im~iexcliexclrun wgltiIRrzuJlU7iJ 1J7
can lOUcdy be expcctcd to vIacuteew intergovernmencal organiUlrions wirh sympilthy Tbe prefetted iacuteonu of internacional organizations when mentioned are those thiexcltt ltlj~plal differemes snd dlvenity in global pelitlcil duu are reginnaUy based or rhar reflec irKlividual actlOn Tndecd ir SeeIJS
rbat Michel Fomawt was involved with an alliance oiacute twO INGOs (Miquestdecin du Monde and Tertl-s do Hommes) in proresting agaiust internadonal iH~shydon over rhe boat people who flcd Vietnam in tite lare 1970s and ear1y 19S(k He is gU()[ed 11$ sayillg tbar Amnelltl Internnrlonal Teueiexcl dts Hommes Mfiiecin du Monde lHt inirilltives whiacutech have created a nrw righr rile dAht of privare individuss ro iexclntervene in [he otder of polino and internatioont snateg(eiexcl (dred in CampheH 1998 516)
Aootber researcher has exnmined ~he Europcan Communities Ilr che point wben Jr was mnslorming intO me European Unioo and askOO whether ir was a pootmodew ConJigUflHton (Nstrgaard 1994) Hi condusions wcre mar ir was gualiwiveJy a new organizarion oC human calJecrlvJties which mighr U$hec the coming of post-moderniry (Ntgttgnatd 1994 27j) The basis fO[ [bis judgemem was rhat me Ee did nO approximate anl modero form of piexcliexcl1idUll Ofpnizarion it did OOt commatld che means oiacute violence its au[hotity derives noc from die people and ir appeared to be a fCgJoo trying ro pOrecr itiexcliexclelf againsr globaliacutezadun iacuteN0rgaaro 1994 274--5) Ir remllins ro be sren whether [he BU tJf [he twenry-first cenrury wHl fu1fi1 rhtgtse hopes Ot wiU stllrr ro teVen
to a more scate-like being Generall) dIe cririolapproaches ro interruHiorud relarious hiexclJve provided
1lOOIe innovatIacuteve insigllls iexclnro rhe study uf imemarional orgsnizations The crtrical theorists llave becn sh3rpest in rheir unde[$(iexcltnding nf internarional ofgiexclt1lizacious as servsnrs of a dominiexcliexclIf power configuracion thoogh the) lave pemaps Umieed cbelr scope wllen viewing internacional organizadons Feminis[ wJiters ruave given Vltike to whac i5 after aH tbe scmi-sileut majoric) in rhe world and Ilre ouly srarting in qnest10niug the male dOmimiddot nance nuacutet iexclusr of the nmning of IGOs huc aloo of theic agenda Tite post-modemisrs are iMlSr concerned oiacute he (bree 8rOUp5 with inretnationlll organiucioru as such bllr rIacuteleic intellecrual approach is the ffiOSt tadkal aud can lelld tuuml a fnon of nihilism
GltJbaliacutesf lIiu
A gIobalisr perspective does oor viacuteew world poliacutetica as being predomishynandl arout iotergovernmemal relatlnn~ Ili would realisu or illbour inrentare aruI imersocietal rdations as a number uf reformisu llliexclll consider lnsteaacuted it cakes a more holisdc view Problems are (cmfronred ac Ji global level wlurions have tO be sou8ht here as weil This iexcls not ro neglcct (he 10tal Ol rhe ~tlte level ir is more J recognilion of the limiutshydoos of acdviuumles rhere The world-vicw like rhe reformists places empllasu on whal unIacutetes people Ilnd has lirde time for lhe demaoos of power pouumlics aad stare-cemrir orglLuiwrjollS Ir goe~ fllrther by nor
1 V WNimgJ lJ7f tIfernattmiexcliexclJ 11fK4111141tOnJ
liminog in view eirhec ro pans of che world or ro rellltions berweeo particuJar poliric~ lr ioded jlLSr m the economic social and poJitical demaods of mankind Paradoxically ir can be seen as IIn approach rhe very OppoSllC of the fimctionalist wirb whom tbere 5 much io common In nmtrast lO rhe fnnctionaHst (or neo-fllnctiooalisr or intetclependeuce srhuul) and ccrrainly in contrast ro rhe powet politks aOO MaOIacuteIt writers (be whole world approach places emphasis not 00 the discrere r~uiexclreshymems of groups SClteiexcl or individulI1s bm 00 tbe wel1-bciog of the tCOsystem in which rhf5f funnioll cbe planet Eanh The conccen of chis apptoach which is rcflccted il] in ttcumeUr of illternational urganizatiom is for the survival of lhe plunet for its effident funccioning in its widest SeILie aud fot che survival oiacute rhe myriad oiacute speoacutees - ollly one of which is homo sapiens - tbat inhabh me globe
Sinle tbe 196Os a number of wtiters on imernational affairs have expounded 00 tbis view and llave cOl1l~uendy ronsideted the implicadons for intemational organizacions Jobfl Button in bis World Society ronsldeted iflmstatt relations to be onIy a pan of wodd poli[iacutea and wrore
lf we employ rhe term world rociety imiexclreui of internanofla relarions iIacute we apptoo(h OUt study in this global way insread of the more tradi~ lonal nattonal way we will end to have a wider focos ro ask quesrions rhat are moee fundlmenral aOO imponant lO civilization and be ahle ro assess bettet me relevance of om own national bduviour ro be wider worW envifonment
(Button 1972 21)
Rkhacd Stetling posed the problem more spedfically
Nuclear esCllatiofl the popullltion explosion the pollmiofl of tbe envishyronmcnt the communkations rtvolurion rbe world~wide concentNdon of wC1llch and world~wide expansiofl of pltlvcrty are iexcliexcl11 essemially global and not 1laquo al pbellomena They have given rise jn tutn ro eartbshyspamuacutellg and revolutionary demands ror mass education rnass hesltb malts welfure and maltgts participation in che dccisions affecting roans fare
(Srerling 1974 322)
This wodd-view of rhe problems of the s)Jaceamphip EQlth begged fur global oolutlofl$ It suggcsred iexclhu not onIy iJ the system of sovereign stares as yer unable oc unwiHing to COme to grips with the above-menuontd prohlelUS but that a network of llllergoVCtn1lental organiutlom bGsed 00 me rights of statc wVfretgnt will ~lso be hammllng Globtl problems needed global solutlons based on institutinos rhat can (ake a global petsplaquoshytive Thus Sterling considetecl thllt it ~ tlOt unreasooable (O amidpate tme tbe member stares will be moved ro considft equippifllil the Unitw Nttous witb mote crunprebensive powen 1lt global pressUfes build 0974 323)
~h~ laquoo ~gt~ _- -gt bullbull (_bullbullbull __ - bullbull
A more compeluumlng cdH wus lAltiexclued by Barban Ward and Rene Dubas in their book prepared for [he UN Gmference of ehe Humafl EnVJroJlmenl 01lly UIIt EaFlh The c~ altJ Mdilllt1JatfCe (JI d Sflall Pta~t (972) 111ey stremsed the ufliry of tbe Eanh Jnd in eovironment and the )Jroblems in(ed by Jts iohabitants emntially thost oudined by SterJiog The ~uthoflgt poillted OUt rhat rhF envitonmenral qmosrion had by 1972 already had 50me impaltl on guvernments and im(rnarional organl1Jtion but the effior was somewhat ltInJOrdinated and unfocuseL In (hree particular aren - tbe global atmosphere rhe oceaml the worlds weather sysrellU - tbt-y saw [bl jmmediate neOO for (OmInOn poliey und co-ocdinared actiollS where vcerenshysions to national sovercigmy have no relevance ro ptrreived problems Bu rbefe was a need to go furrher and denl wirh other global problems di5Case srarvation iHitmcy unemployrnem ovcfllwding rntetnational poliCJcs wece at the 5tage reachOO wlrhin rhe devdoping s[ate~ of the ninettTtb (entury Elche they wiU move O to a wmmIlJlity bL~ro UiexclXIIl a more systematic sharin8 of weaJtb Ot tbey wiH break down in revoh and anareby (Wacd and Dubos 1972 295- -6) They Looked forward ro a sense of gLobal rommuniry 00seJ on he bope vf Irotecdon (from war aOO disaster) and the hope of enhancemenr (ecologic$1 as well as economid The ptlKtic~ and insrirutlofiS with whkh we are familiar inide our domestk sociecies would become suitably modlfied che basis of planetary oroer (Ward aOO Dubos 1972 297-8) This woold indude non~violent settlement of disputes witb legal arbirration ~nd polioacuteng ptocedures on an international basis jr would mea the Hansfer uf resoucces from rkh ro peor Ilnd inerCllSlaquo co-operaeion in arealt 5uch as health and edUcatIO farming uroon planning aud )JOlJution control As [befe halt been a shift of loyalty rom taroliy to dan from dan to tlation and from nation to fedctation there Wampll
hope clajmoo Wl1fd and Dubo$ for an ultimare lnyalty tuacute OUt single beau~ tifulllud vulnerable Planet Eanh (Ward and Dubas 1972 298)
Whilst the institutiona fmmework and organizational stfllCtuteS remain of necenity -ague in Oltl OM EaFtA iacutet is del( rhat the authors Wfre atming 11( a tlttwork oiacute world-wide fflnctionaUy hased organlzatiofll (both lOOs and JNGOs) char couId take on much of the work )JfCsendy done by governshymems o( rather whkh ougbt [O be dont by governmems UacuteJter writing-s have attempted (O deal wjth thc policy impliration$ of delllJng with )JrobshyJems globdly sroos (986) has poiacutenred en what 1w already been achieved in gtobal problem solving l1nd ha~ soughr ro buHd on rhis His critio have prunted out tha( what has already becn undertiacutelken has bren done more along rradicional Jntergovernmentallines (Donnelly 1990 121-30) Orbe writen have tied rubievemen[ in addressiacuteng [he global agenda more to renewed rutiviry in the UN (Rochester 1990 141-54) or to greater grass~ roots aud INOO acriviSffi Wget 1990 155-~8) Either way globaJj~m offeacuters a distinct W1ly of rackling the worlds ptublem~ It 1$ u ViIOIl thar sttesiexcles uniey and common (am( ntthet than disasreemem and roofrontashytion ir (ould thereIacuteore (oresce disputes being sruved inlernationally vety
much in (he way tbar chey are pre~ndy solvcd within tunny MtiOO iexclrares by more ro arbitratwn and Jaw and by entorcemenf ir neteS$il1) In this rhey have muh in COIDfllOfi wirh tire imerrnuiona lawyers iacuteUld idenlist writer of me eady (wenuacuteeh eemury mentioned at the beginning of tbu chaptet The globalisn are inspirecl jn rheir thinking more by ten Ot lt nudeal holocatlsr and by environmenml breakdown tnan by rhe duumleet elrpeshytieme uf wa dlllf aiacutefected rhe wricings of Woolf ol Ikierly
TIacutete globalisl appro~(h is opert ro the criticism of bcing roo idealistk jn a cynical world and lOO iIDpracrical in in uacutelstitutional sU8scsrioll5 Bur the di$mi$Slil oC rh~ words as globaloney cKleS HOt lid lite wctld oC che probw lems which hey have 50 effectively publiacutedzed They lutve uied to add anorIte dimensioacuten ro whar is possibte by showlng thar ie is nOCeSSiexcllty fOl rhe iexclurviwl of che planee
Tlle radical approach to the smdy oC iOternational orgllnizarions reflocu worIdmiddotvitws that normaUy lO beyond -dmse Jominated by rhe ltctivities of iexcltatcs or of LIte organizltuumlnns chemselves There is a sceprical view of whut is happeoing al soy one uacuteme in imernarional celarions and of he abilicy of mOfe cradicional wcifecs on imernafional cdarions ro explain let aJone llOderstand what is happeoing Ir is the feeling rhar approaches such ll1 (he MaNisr tlwt of rhe ideal theorisrs and some of rhe globuli~rs ur~ coming cber (O uodemaoding humanicys wider dilemmas rhar makes rhero so amactive They ar~ less Iikdy co apply rhemselves to rhe defais rutd wnrk~ ings oiacute p$cdcular imernatinnaJ organizations but neverrheless providt iotriguiog insighrs 00 [his phenomenoo by seeing rhem rhrollgh mol panoprk phHosophical lenses
SUMMARY
The rhree flIajor $chuols dealr wich io chis chaprer - the tcatiacuten the reformisrs iacutei1d che radical$ and rhe variarions (bey contain did not and do tlOf exJn iexcln a hiSforlcaj vacnum lde-as Wele foffilulared wirhio lhe COnten oiacute panicular sodedcs uoo in response ltO pUticular problems rbe communl (adom reYoludon of fhe nineteemb century the Finr World Wlli rhe rise of Nui Germany the spreading of nudeu weapons the deve1opmeof of plthitshy
$econd Workl War Europe fbe pnxeues of decoloniwion and deacuteteme rhe end oiacute the Cold War and rhe advaoce oiacute che inCormatton revolution In sorne CilSC$ the views oiacute rhose wdtings on inttmiddotrnational ocganUatlOHS have liad un efiecr on evenrs rhemelves pirlKulatly 00 rbe actitudes oC govetnrnents mwards tnternatiorW orgdflixauons AIl tXample is the work oC LecnarJ Woolf woose suggesnons Ctmceming a world organizatloo conttibuted lO fhe detailed preparnion oC the Lague oC Nations by me British goveltr mene Likewise Hans Morgeruhau and EK Can provided seimuli fot infiiexclrmoo US and Btirish governmcllul rhinking abom inrerruuional rela~ tiom iexclrom the 194Ck onwards In mher cases rhe general writings cJ persons lgtuch as Marx Leoin Mao Tse-tung and che dependencia school have affecred
rhe poJirk1ll dimare wirhin which govemmcncs conduce rheJe poUcy iucluding thar wwards jnternaclorull otgauj~atjon$
Orber ruCfOf$ aplft froro their historial cuntexc Iuve affencd the views of rhe schunl$ rncntioned They have differint backgtounJs io cheit ideruogy (Wesrero commllniSf Third World radical environmenralisr) and in theit level of $nalysis of inrernarional rebtions (stare Centuacutec inretesr aoo rramna~ dona groups cLitraquo dominanr global) This a(icca the typC oC inrernatiacuteonal organizariacuteon dominam io their studies (IGOs INCo) auJ thcic 8eograph~ kai $rea of interest (the Nonh Adandc Europe ThinJ WodJ Ot global)
TIte range of wcitings about intetnational organizarions has ull dte whole teflecfeJ wiJec llooersundings of imetoational ceJarions and wuumltld polidcs These io rhernselves have fed 00 tbe gtVidc iacutellccUecmal fcnnent and on developrnenrs in world affiuacuters Viewl about iacutellteftlational ocgsnizatJoos wiU continue ro take accOlnt of the ince1leeruaJ debate ill the studjes oiacute polishydes internacional re1atioO$ philosophy ecooomics imematluacutellal uw sociology histoty and geogrilphy They will also reflecto among other ampcton che stntcegk balance in tbe world [he relafIacuteve power of tiJe United Stares aod oroer nares me scate of wotld markers [be pto-ess uf Euwpeiexcliexcln tlllegrashytion che relacive positloo of the developing warIdgt iexclbe levd of cootlicc througbolc the world fhe -ratC of dte environfneot and the ahility oiacute huge StatCS to wiacutethswnd cenrrifttgal force Tbe way tIacuteult imematiornal organiuiexclshydons ret1ect tbese developrnents and tIacuteleir t1Ipability lO deal wich some of them will provide (he tllW fiWifcrial foc funue smdies
This SIoacuteCElOn has betn sub-middotdivided imo rhree gthe fUS( are the econ01nk srructuralists and indude Marxists and Third Wocld wruumlers cririclll of rhe cutrem imernruionallyuem They haacuteve in common a belief mar che polltshyiexclcal srructUres of me world halle leeo wbloned mainiexcly by eltonomic fiiexclctors and rhAr mere has bren an intiacuteJUIllity builr imo the presen sytem lhe recood are the cruumliral app~es who5e radicalilifl1 is mure of the iacutemellec~ cual SOrt They rejeCf - Uf at 19$[ question - Jhatly of rhe usumpcions utlderlying be lIiews ofhe world tepresented by the realists and refotmers Finally mere are the globalim Theit perspective ls planerary ana theiacuter rnain conrtrn h fM rhc survival uf Earth Agilln they challcnge che mme statemiddotbuled approaches of both realjsts and reformers
Stnuturaluacutet lIiews
Ihe srructuralist appmiexclch rO (he swcly of inrematioOlIl relations differs In imporrant wars tO thoee of me realists and refotmuu tbough ir has some elemeou in comroon with mands ofb04h schools As roany of (he neo-realistsshyemphasite (he power scructure of wudd potities this sectiacuteon willlimir jwgtlf ro (hose writers roncerned wich the impacr 00 me political S)Srem of rhe wodds ccooomic strucrure Unliacuteke che ttalist approach the erooomk srrucruralisrs are OOr jUSt concemed with swtts io wodd polilla and rhelr economic and poIitkal differencC$ but alw with the divisioru within f1tld berween SoOCieties (WiIIeas 1990 263) They are [heretOre romerncd witl the rifi berween riel iexclmd poor within scares and rhar herwtto udl and poor glohally This leads ro an interese lO trulSlUirional reladoru as well as in inrergo~romenmt links Th(f have this in corrunon wim refPrtllist views bm diexclfier foom chem in (he emphast~ placeoacute on rhe structures of world pollics beinc formuared by eltooomic fiexcliexclcmn In rhis selttion attentioo wilt be given te MarxiS[ wtlletS lIud sume Thir1 Wodd view$ - partiuilarly (hose of rhe cependency sdlOOf and rhe developmemalj~[II - who have made a cootribution quite separare from rhat of rhe Muxiacutesr uadidon
Marxill laquoewl
There is no one Marxisr interptetariacuteon of me role of imerniexcliexcltional Olganiza~ cions in world politics Sur Manis[ approschf3 have certain elements in common and form a di~dnctive 5ch001 of rhough[ about lnrernartonal telamiddot tions generaHy and therefore ahotu international ocganizadoos These appmaches are based 00 du writiflgS of Karl Marx (l818~) in coshyoperarioo witb Fuacutewrich Engels (1820-95) with perhaps tbe gtearest later conrribution being maJe by VL Lenin kader of (he 1917 fo1shevik revolushydon in Rurna They are cf importanee pany becau1e ehey ficm tlle 00515 for mmmuniSt [hinking and (hm mey have an anactunenr m rhe Soviet Unian whieh WIlS be suongc1t commnuist stare unrII 1991 and EO rhe Peoples Republic of China COlUT1UnJSl sinee 1949 Apan ftom lbis ManiS( beliefs
had a irmng inpur mm Wescern imdleltrual cruoking and conunue ro iruoan some viewi abom wodd politics in rhe Third Wodd
Neither Marx no Mancisrs took rhe stare ro be (he curtency of iacutenteInashy(iexclonal relations Unlike (he realist viewpoints chey did fiO( coruider interactions blaquoween soveteigu ltates to be ofovettidi importance UnHke tbe funcrionalists aud other modem Westetn views rbar srress non-stare actocs Marxiexclsts in particular emphasized cbus relatlonships born wiexclrhin nates and IiCOOSS Stare boundaries Indeed ie is diffku[r ro talle only of a MaIXIacutest view of inrernatiooal re1atioll5 lec ttltme of iorernarional orgnniza~ UumlOOy as rhis separares ene particular aspecr of human behavinur tor MIlIXIsr rrearment divorcing ir from the undedying relleCS of Marxlc beliefs Man-ism provides a framcwok of undemanding by whkh ir iacutes daimed ~ociery pan lind vresen can be explaioed and che furure development of mankiexclnd determined
According ro Maf1 relariooshipamp between people and the futm~ mar insdmdooallzed rhose relatienshfpamp depended on rhe economic $truCtUR of soday fhe way rhat productlon was organized He traced the history of dvilixed maokind through five hiuorical staBes - AAjade mdenr feudal capttalin and socialin - which have ditTereru dominant methods of produc~ tioll leadiog 10 a complirared arrnngement of $OCiety ioto various ordetS 11 manifuld graduadon of sociru tank (Marx llnd Boge1s 1965 40) amph form of sorlef has coutained rhe conflictual divisiQl$ which help [Q tranuacuteorm the narun of rhat $Ocjeey coRrradicrioru in the mode ofpcoducfIacuteon placed srrain nn rhe existing social nrder sharpeniug rhe divide berween economic founshydatinn of sociery and a mpld aansIacuteonnlltion of in SOpel1Ullcture in legal polidcal and re1igious it1$tirutioos Thus by 11 confronration of da$~ Conrramiddot dkeions one historlraJ form of soc1ery wus transfocmcd into a bigher stage uf social devdopmem the history of aH hitherto existing ~ociexclety is the histoty uf dass struggles (MaDI Illld Bngets 15 39) Marx and Bnsels were parriculady conceroed wich capita1i$t sociery - ac its Oeyday during theiacuter Uves - and its tmnsrormarion iexcluto ampocis1iu sodety Wlthln rrus form of SoOCiety rOete would be no division of laboU4 and no eWses Illld no SUtes no elCpropnation of labours 5urplus vruue I1nd (bus no private property 00 exploira(ion of ene clilllS ny iexcliexcloother with 00 need fue war
For Marx and fingeJs C1ass then and noiexcl fllltions or sutea are rhe bade units in hurO) llIIIl che struggle between clAssts Jnstead oiacute infeutliltl contlict ocrupies rhe centre of acrention (Berki 1971 R1iexcl From me nlneteenth celUUf onwards rhis struggle -n in Marxisr cerros has been primarUy between [his capicalist dass ([he OOurgeoisic) aOO the bbouring dw (me proletariat) AA (he trarurormatlon fmm capltalisr SoOCIety [O ~OCialiexclMl ro comrounism rook p~e (he superstruerutt of bourgtOis SoOCilaquoy - religioo national divisiacuteon boutgmis politicnl insrirudnns rhe SOlte - woold be swept flway and in Engtls pmse rhe gOlcrotnent nf persons is replaced by [he udminlsuacion of things Fetter 19 (47) with me itEte relegated lO the mmeum iexclngemer Wlth lile spinshyning wheel Qnd [he bronze axe (Feuer 1969 433)
154 WrituacutetKiexclI mJenl4tiorJal rngmZtlJilm
Mux saw the European SUtes of his own rime as being rntans by which the ruBng dass (011amp oppress the work~ng clw by using (he agentl of tht 5tare such as the iudidary the poliee the army and rhe church he (xrerual Ilctlvities of the stare wete also determined by its Chtss namre MeanwhiJe rrmllnat]onat Rlations of a more meaningfuL kind WQuld bt creared by trade rhe movement of capital and incteaiitd romac[ and llOIacuteldarity betwten the prolerariat of vanoulS nations riacuteidefd rhe internacional nriexclaniutions of which Marx and Engels hnd dire(t experiena- wtfe the Fi~t Internatiomd and for Engels the Secund lntemarional both of which atttmpted lO orgashynJxe the represemarives of wruking people aiexclros fronden Onc~ agaJn this stteAAe$ the Marxist empbois on transnarional dass relutions rnther than on intentate relarionships
Whibt Soviet writlngs on international organizatinn1 wtte falrly desulshytory in Scalins reigu 0924-53) rhey did lmerIy hernld rbe move towams peaceful co-existerne arul roreshadowffi the lartf rnrhe[ restrktive view of Imch organi2Atinm hy Soviet commentators
In the post-Second Wodd War period and In patticular in the post-Stalin era Soviet liternmre on international organiuttions bl(lSsomed This has reflected Soviet membership oC ma1ly 1osiexcl-1945 organixations the emershygence of a socialist bloc of sta[C$ and tbe incre-ase in the mlmber of Sowcreign s[ates all flUtontilde demaruHng a more sophisricared Soviet view of lnter~llate reLadoru than che survivalism of Stalins period Uuring rhe lare 19805 i( auo ret1ected the new thinking iacutemroduced by Gorbachev
StalintI suIXessor KrU$hchev developed a revised view of internacional relaCtons which gave a positio1l ro the emerging Third Wnrhl (Tbe Third Wotld was then taken to mean rhotle IItates thar had emerged ftom colo~ nialiacutesm In effect rhe terrn later induded tbe stares of Latin America Africa - exclnding the rhen apaftbeid stnre of South Africa - the Middle Rasr Oceaniacutea and South Asia) Peace(ul co-exiuence between oda1ist and (apltaJisr states WM $til comidered nece1sary but this diacuted noc predude the ideologiacutecal stmggle between rhe two campsmiddot iexclndeed lhe Soviet inter~ national lawyer GI Ihnkiacuten wrote pearcfut cocx15tence of sutes represeonng che tWO differeor rodal sysems is a slccific form uf dass struggie beween socialism and calitllllsm (Osakwe 1972 37) The Soviet Union abo deveJoped relatlons wirh rbe newly emerging exshycoloniaJ cOllntdeJ and Soviet writiog had tu take ~ount of this developmem There wru a recognirion of a third group of stattli between rhe capitalist aud the communlsr that of poteorially friendly indtptomiddot deut $tarem io Europe and Asia such as India Egypt Indnnesia and Yugoslavia which would filrm a tone of peace Although the rebtions wiacuteth rhe capitaliacutest sures sriacuteH remaioecl embedded in pelteful coshyexluencc rhere was an emphasis by postmiddotStalinist Soviet writets on the da eJement in lile telatiomhil - that is rhe wntact with progressive elements in Weste1l sodeey smh as che Jabonr mnvement Ncither diexcld peaceful co-exiucuce rule OUt ~upport o[ middotjUSt wars of nationallibcrildon
WIacuteJIacute11gs tm iacutenUrllUtional WjatlJZtiacutelJlff 155
iexclndeed ir was seen lt a strategy fo wodd reloludon Fiacutenally (he rrlashyfIacuteonhips berween the Sovier Union and East Eumpean countries vere deerned ro be based on sociali internationalism posmlating a haemony of natinnal and commllnity interests and mndllding thar jnde~ndeuce and sovereioiexclnty of a soctalist uate means aoove aH indepltndencc from capitalism (Red Star 1 December 18)
Tunkin underljned traditional Soviet thiacutenking rllar the mngtrltllenl imrrllment of an ioretnational urganization (fne example the Chaner oiacute the UN) was all-impottant in derermining tIte enene rrun the otganizauumlon bad an international legal pcntildeonaliry rhar iexcl5 a standing in internacional 1l1w 5imilar tu titar of a sovereigo staxe Examining lhe question of the antonomOllS wiU oiacute international nrganitatioll Tunldn allowed thl1 they need not jmt act as agtnts for member stares
In imernatiunal ptacrke trellties conduded by jntcrl~ational mSaniacutezashytinns take their speciaJ piare as treacies by wbkh internationsl organimtiom aequire righu and take upon themselves cerrain obligiexcllshytioos Intctnat10nal organizatiou are created by Hares hey are broughr iexclnto being by states but the actloacuteos of imcmational organi7ashydoos are nlt)( in any way de facto or de jure ro be tqt1sred lO the actions of scates
(Osakwe J972 23)
Thi did nor mean than M internadonal organiacuteiariexclon was an entity indeshypendem of its memher us[es as any powers (har they hacl were delegated by [he members In Jine wirh che ampwiet doctrine of peareful co-exiacutesteme Tunkin placed Uress pn (he nature and rhe membership of an international organiacuteution dlOSe which drew their membersbip from commlmi1t c1Ipishytalist and TIiexclird World tares could expcct tu be genel1llly mognized as having an incernarional personaliacutery He wrote
TIte namre of tontemporary international prganiurions is lO a very great exttm derefmined by [he existerue of Haces beJonging ro differem wcio-economk systems and the ioevitable muggle between them Thar is why pcaceful crexislence is now the bl-sic condition of rh~ dfVC1iexclpshyment ufgeneral interoational ntganization
(Osltuumlltwlt 1972 289)
Mor07JN Clt1ntrlbuterl sorne extra points Fintildet be iududed JNGOs in his stndy He wrote dlQt lotetnational orgaruulions have as iI rol 8t least three member coumries TheM may be government$ offidJ orgilnlzarions or 0CInshy
guvernmental organizatiow (Morowv 1977 30) In a 11Iter seccion m NGo thcy were ldencifred as che la~ group of inrerrulttonal organiuttiolls wim two aspccn rbar concttntd socuIacuteiacuteIgtt commemarors tbe NGOriexcl auirude towards the preservarion of pealaquo wkh the Wnrld Feieradon ofTrade Unions
6 _ 0
rhe Wodd Fedemion oE Democratk Youth and otber meiexclllbtrs oiacute tbe Sovittshybacked World Peace (ounaacutel gaining special mentioo and the specialiuJ chataCrer of sorne NGOs itl(h as rhe ruerrutriunal Couocil of Scientifu Unions and che Scienrifk OJmmiuee on Antnrctk Research MOrlrLOv memioned how NGOs can belp emblish a social dimate citillg their contti shybution ro (he setdemenr of a number of internacional confHcu swh as dlilr in Vietnam He aOO dealr wirh the role of che NGOs io cbe UN aud che consuJshyrative srarus [hey llave witn lGOs saying du[ smdems of internariooal affitjoiexcl
in [he socjalisr councrics m critieal of many asplaquots of (his system fur the eoruulrarive StatuS amogemenrs stiU fall shon of wha( [he deveJopmenc of modern inretnatlonal relarions in fac[ catls fur (Morozov 1977 43) Tbe specialized namre ufNGOs Wamp1 atttibuted by M((2OV tu
tht increased Jnfiuence of the pubic at large un roreign polky [he grearer iexclmpat of public opininn in imernatiunal reladuns and [he greater importante uf me ideological fiexclUtot 10 $ucb relations Accoum should abo be raen of che proccsses of cconomic developmenr and [he coosequenc~ of [he scienrific and rechnological tevolutioo which has also led ro a greatet number of speoacutealized NGOs
(Morozov 1977 42)
Second Morozov wridog jo d~ late 197amp made moU pos-irive refershyencelgt (O [he role oiacute Trurd Wodd SUtes in imemaciooa otganimrions He noted rbar rbe emetgtoce oiacute ti large oumbe of Oung natiooal stares h8ve kd fO che emetgcnce of intetnarJonal Drganizadons among develcpi08 ecuoshytries (Mororov 1977 29) aod claimed hat partkiparion in (hese organh311oos is part uf he process uf consolidating their sovereigocy and ruuional jndependenu~ aod of wlviog cheir pressing ecoOfJmic anJ orher pmbemsmiddot (Morozov 1177 31)
Finally Momzov developed the puint made by fimkin aOOut he limited llalUre of ioternationaJ organiurjQn$ - ~econd-dllSS ffitrnbers nf the inrershynarloual sysrem as opposed tu rhe firsr-diexcllSS members SQvereJgn stateiexcl by reretcme tO theit dedsioos There bave resulted froro che inrelllctioo of politicuJ euroorces within the organil1ldons and
Thecombined will uf chcse lGOs i5 disuumlnc[ from [he wllls of theuuml indishyvidual members io in eflSenlte and ln in narure The v1ilflous wills in thb case are nor agsregued arirhmetically each one exim indepenshydendy ur oside a homogeneQu~ socio-political gOUP wirbin whose frarnework (hey can be combjlled
(Murozov 1977 34)
AfLer lhe comiog ro powet ofMikhail Gorbachev in the Soviet Union io 19Bgt a Ihaoge rook place jo $oVJIl policies rowards imeroadonal relations irutuding international organi1ations and [his has been reflecred in new
~ M-- bull 6_V_
Soviet writings un [he subJect Gorbachev inttoducetl a owjor review of [he fureign poljcy uf the Soviet Union (har marchcd rhe inremiry of his dmncslic refotmS He encouraged new rhinking- based on a revjeJ vlew of che world siruation Peaceful co-existence wirh iexclhe capiralisr tirares WlCgt no looger seeo a~ being a spetjfic fum of dass srruggle as Tunkin had written bUI 35 being in the commoo intecesu oiacute all countriCl Ir WIi$ predishycued on the neOO fin surviva of (he human nce which in ShakhfUlZOlrQvmiddot$ word$ must ofCOUIse take fim place Lighe 1988 297gt- Thjs ml$or rhar a new COIKeuropt of seGldty had ro he adopreJ hy che Soviers rhar oiacute common security which wa5 based un sume of he ideas of -che Palme Comminion (see he1ow) Greater emphasis wu given ro arms control and dlsarmament agreemenrs wirh the Wesr 11nd to co-opttation in international uffuirs whilst Soviet intervention io che Third Wodd enbed and milirary 5UppOtC 1m [he East European communisr govcfomentS WlS withdrawn
Soviet wdcings on inremurionilJ relations both offidal and academic came to mirror Gorhachevs new rhJnkiog bur eho lilete iexcl$ evety sigo chut rbese id~ were dmwu no only from rhe Wesr but alw Uacutenm Moscow mink-tanks slleh as lMEMO th~ JflSIirure of World Eronomy and Inremlfona Relacions) Liacuteght 1988 29~n Gorbschev aun his forngn minisrer FQllard Shevaronadre gave rhe academiacuten a Breen light for funher diSClViiacuteon ud debare (Shevaronadre 1990 23) As II reampul srudies examlned he role of che Uniacutered Nariacuteons as sn ugem for peoce (Kolyrev 1990 12-19 NesrerenkQ 1990 65 Petoovsky 1990 42--3) and rhe mte of inrernational or811nizadons in environmental mliLffers IiLnd disurmamenc qutsdmuuml Chodsulkwsky 1988j NikitiM 1989 123-32 Roginko 1989 133-43) and internarionallaw was teassesred (Sutier 1989~ 363-75)
Once che Sovier Union collapsed many of me wrifetS losr rhe main point of political reference A nwllber Iefi academc orhets adapted thelt ideas ro WCtem oues and a few remnioed as policy rulviseni ro che new Russian goVefrutJenL However cornmunism as M imellectually dominant organiuog rotce wlch pnliiisJ dour had djsappeared in Russia togerllef with much uf the persptr1ve ir provided - wben seen thmugh me unen distotdng leos uf tbe Sovier lfulon - oiacute inrernatiooaJ relatlons and inremariooal organhattnru
Chinese Marxisr wrirers have iexclargeIy reflected rhe views of the leadershyship in Chinll sioce [he coming ro power of rhe Commun1sr Patty in 1949 Undl (he 1970$ communist China was elduded from almon aH iotttllJishytional of811nizIiLtIOns and ie is flot surpriamping tha whae lirde writing tbete WUtl on the st1bje(r Wal fairly dismiacutesampive usuaUy consisdng uf coudemnaM tinos of (he UN fnf its action tn Korea aud rhe security allianes fot teir hegernonic narure Chjnese Marxisr rhinking hiacuteu divided (he modem wotld jnro three groups ihe Birsr World consisred of rile fWQ imperialist superpowers namely he USA ano the USSR The Second World was made up uf otbet areaa uf advamed industrilllired cnuntries primariacutely EUfape aod Japa which were opea ro donunariou by lite Sllperpowers bu( which could $tan a dialogue wirh rhe Thiacuterd World Theu (here was rhe Third
158 Writings OtJ internationdl organizatioru
Wodcl iexcltreI( coruisting of the Afro-Asiacutean-Lario Americltlu sta tes supported in their muggte aAainSt Picsr World imperialism by Chinls This viexclew of the wmId colouted tyJst Chiacutenese wridngs on iacuteoternatiollill oeganharions Tbe $uperJowers were seen as cynical lTlllnipubtors Qf inrernarionaJ jnsti~ tutions Mao Tre~tuog wOre of US poliey towards such insdfutions Ir mam use or them when it neOOS rhem and kicks them 3way when ir does flot (Society (or Anglo-Chinese Underuanding 1979 42) US-domioated pill-~ such amp$ SEATO and imperialist groupiacutengs like rhe Alliance tor PfOgre~( wttt detided Spedal viuiot was saved roc the Warsaw freaty Orgaoizatiun whieh in one aetide was described as Soviet sodal~ imperialisms mol fur aggression (Ming Sung circd Jn Chen 1979 194) fhe Soviet Union was aceuseQ of trying tu manipulate che Pan and negnshydate wlth Wesrem eouorries rhmugh the Enropean Scltwiry Conferenee tn consolidare irs begemonic status in Basrern Enrope at the same time iexcliexcll dividiog Wes(ern Europe squeezing Out the USA ro as ro muSte way (0(
iu expansion and infilrmrion into Westem Europe (Ming Sung clted in Chen 1979 197)
Chinese writecs Fegatded tbe Ntildegttood Worid espedally Western Europe as being a pen force io telmS of imperialism which Ww tdponeed to the lhird World wich diaJogu as io the Jmueacute Convention berweoen tIacute1e European Commnnitiacutees and AF~ican Carib~an and Paciuacutet srUe5
Furrhermore the defensive $spects of NATO were sttessed and with growing European cohcsion the trend iexclS IJkely to ~ towatds a fuoce in which the American elemenr is seen as 1 temporary neceuity eventual1y to be phased out (Sodety fur Anglo-Chioese Undetstanding 1979 90)
lthe countries of the Third World were setn as coostirotiog rbe mluumln force comb$dng imperiaJi~m colonialism and hegemonJsm reEerring nor only to the vestiges of Wesr Etl-OOptan foloniiexcliexclJism bOl abo to US iexclnpetlshyalism and gwwiog Soviet soci$l~imperiacutea1ism Tbe Third Wodd eQuld hdp tn exclude the gre$t powers ny baoding cogecher io such otganizatinos aiexcl tht DAU aod rhey could work ro correct unequiexcliexcl nade and eeonomk reladons with che sUpetpowers through UN iexcliexclgeucies and eonferences such as UNCTAD and UNaos Abo rtlW material ancl exporting orgllnizations liexclke OPEC rbe Incernadonal Bauxilaquo Association ancl the Onion of Banana Bxporting Counuies were proised a ehanging (he old interntlrional eumomic Ome and banerlog che biggest roarerJal plunderers in rile world rhe United Srates and (he Soviet Uoleo (Ptking Rt1Jiew 26 Septtmbtr 1975 cited in Cheo 1979 309)
111e poverty oiacute ehinne study of intetnatlenal erganhuions no dounr caused by the lack of Chinese membership of such etganizacions unril the 197amp and the turmoit ef the Cultural Revulution eiexcliexclme ro an enel by the 1980s Jnstead oere was a more reaHs( viexclew (lE rbe worlcl iexclf one S~shytimes coucbed In Manlst terms In Chlnese univenittes there was a growtb io detailed studies of iutemationalntgsnizations aod the nuropean Union
WritingI un inlmullPmnl vrgrsrtilpiill1J 159
Tbird Wwld vlewJ
Many Third Wodd Afro-Asian aoo Latin Atrusican) writers 00 jntemsw
tional organizaion have adopte a structtulIist framework and are particufarly nm(etnecl abour how insdtutions can be wcd as tools of exploitadon uf rhe nitd World aud how $ome cau be used lIS agenrs of libenuion They llave nor been induded in the ~ettiexcloo un Marxist viltws (or three feamm nOI al of them are Mandst thIJM who are Manisr place particular stresS on (he posicion oF thE l1lIacuterd World and as ThJrd Worlcl eitizens they have through theit own experience unother pe~cdve rhan [Mt of writers from industri$lized srates
Yash 18ndon (1978 377) has identjfied thNf nuacuterd World penfIXrives en inrernational Olganizatiolls Fim [here is that or the bourgeois Of perry natiunalisrs who are in power in mos[ Third World statcs and who are progressive in [errru of anti-impcrialism but are rraniollary ro the C1tccnr WC they would sooner mau thcir pcaee with imperialism rhan iluwnder power (e the masses and peasancs This group uses ineernational orgllniexclm~ tions ro pur presrure 0lI imperialisc states in order to extntCt concession5 from them and appease tbe masses in their own coontries TIley see che UN as an opportunity to parley witb their entwhiacutele impecild masters t a presumed kvd uf equa1iry (Tandoo 1978 365) Thc scltond pcrspective is rhat ofthe reaIly backward regimes of thl Thitd Wodd such un Taiwiexcliexcln and Jotdan or whnm intemarional orguniacutelattnnS are of margJna1 signifieance [)t they prefet tu dea wirh impcrialism iquestirt(tiy The rhird petSPCCrive idenrified by landOll is that uf rhe masses vi thc TIlird World for wbom toterntlunaJ orgmilAriom are petiphewl fin liS Jong as hey rontinue fO reflect the muing balanlte uf clas$ forces in hvour uf impeuacuteJism (fandon J 978 378) Sioce the ene of he 196amp rorces representing thu third group have bccome lnott prominent in world polido in che form of liberarioo groop1 lttCn as tbe PLO and whilst chese have f)tgten interested in galnin8 telaquolgnJtlon rOt rhemshyselves at the UN and the spedaliled agcodes rhey are not depeuden 00 these or8ani1Jlton~ rndecd Tandoo romioeted (hat fo che revoludonary snnggles in SOUfh~E3SC A~a and AfrJctI iOfernattonal otgilnizalJons are tOO peripheml to be of much $ignilJeaoce (Tandon )9713 377)
Tancloo providcd n inrere~tiog history of the Jevelopment uf the anrishycolonialist forees in che Third Wruld sinee 1945 bur hi~ clivi~iexcl()H iexcloro he three perspenives is roo stark leaving aside rhe leil important backWllro regimes be has basiclllly grO~lped tbe Third World leadershp joto the revoshylutionaries who have Uttle netd (or imernatiooa otgllnizatiooll and those who llave suumlpped into refOrmism and have beco duped iot() bdieving (hat they elln ehaoge chelr c1ependeoce 00 industtia1i1Cd nBfiexclmL~ lhrough intemadonal organiwtions Thjs seems to undelsrare me use or ~mh organishyzations by revolutionllry groups - especiiexcliexcllIy che PLO anel tlle SoUthem African liberadon OtgllOiexcl7arionS - whieb have made substaotial use oiacute [he UN me Arah League ano the OAU tO sustain rhe polirical aspeets of theit effOrt5 1t alS(l uverestimatcs the extent tu whieh the Third World countries
J UU wnlmgl 1111 JTiUrllamm41 ergtIttJ1I0fll
have any iUwinru about imetnariooal Qrganizarioos such a~ UNC1~D
Furchermorc the identificador of 800d revolutionaries and falten refurmislS i~ tuller impliexclstjc~ rhe maIur sponrot of the UNs New Ecooomic Order l wruch Tandon hal roudemned as rhe Old Economic Order with a diffefent rltetoric WIIS the Algetian radinu governmenr of Boumediemu rhe PLO irself ha heen dependem on a numlgttr of bnurgeWs Arab goveromenrs foc financial 00 diploJUlltic suppon and ro Tandoos duumlertion that PQr narlonallibemwn movemenn guided by a proktatlan idoology such liS rhose in Chifliexcl1 lIlud Vietnam iruemarionaJ organlwtlona WtU of no 1J5e can be- added the re5ervarion until chey carne (O power Whiht ir took some twenty years belote communist Qtill1 made use nf suth organiutions the unified communiSl Stale ol Vietnam was quick fO cake up it position in the UN ro ask [Ol aid thtough UN agencies liS well as w become ji membet of he CMEA (Comecon)
Third Wodd commemscOt1l on world politics have emphasized the nature uf rheir atea$ potirical ecoOoacutemtc Ilud culmral relatloosluumlp wilh rhe iHdllsrriexcl~ alixed Nonh TitilO is iOO$t Oflltl rypified aiexcliexcl bciug OHe of ueo-folonialism _ COntrol of che Third Wtltld by lhe Nortb by indirecl means ratlet (han by direa colonial tule and of Kf)IomIacute( dRptwJmry (o dtpmdemjiexcliexcl) lntetnationaiacute rdsdOOi bcrween sures are sublumed ro relations between claue$ world wide Ixtween on rhe one lIand the expluacuteiting impetialist capitetists in rhe northcm iru1usuialized couotries 2100 rhcir middle-ltlass collaboratotS in the 50Uthem SUtes aud on the othet band he exploiced masses rhe proleuriat ol [he $Ourhern contJnems The Lurcr gmupS have been 1I1iide ecooomkaUy dependent on [he furmer so char hey lIre in rhe wuacutetds uf the Bruiliiln T Dos SantOS in a situadon jn which the economy of a cetuin group of counshytrles is condiacutedoned by rhe develOplllent aad expansion of aoother ecouomy lO which thcit own 15 subjecred (Bodenheimer 1971 327)
The uOOerdeveloped tounrries depend uacuten [be developed ror their capital nd ercperdse they find key sectors of ehdr eroooroy conrrolled from OUtsJde rhey act as a SOUfce of raw marerials lIS ji lthetip source of labour arul as a rnarket fur mllnuf8ccurers from Euttipe ]apan and North America As thejr living standards were deterrniud by rhe vicissinWeS of the Northern~ dominated wodd marker the relationship was Otle uf unequa exchange (he [esule of which was a world experiencing woequal developmenr with a developed rieh indwtriaJiud capiralisr Notthern centre and d poor underdeveklpedgt agciculrutitlly backwarn eXFloired periphery in che 50mb The dependem 80mh has been divided berween rhe ptedominanr undemeshyveloped area~ lUld a few Cenfres of deve10prnenr wirh their ttade culrural rraffie and polidcal linL to [he deveJoped North - rhe depeOOem develop~ memo omlinea by EH Cardosa (1974) allodlt~r Bruiliall Mmir Amiu (977) rejC(ted the prosptltt of aH antonomous capitalist development in [he Third Work the oew bourgeaisJe of Lacin Ametica Africa and Asia were in allianec with capitalisrs from rhe Nnnh and rhe mato $OUrce of finance ror lmported equipmem was fmm the expon of raw materials to rhe indu~rial
5 ~ _~ smiddot_middot~~
iexclred smes Amin (1977 1-21) SllW rhe can made ror a New Imernational Ecooomic Order (NIEO) by Third World leaders at rbe UN UNCTAD aod che Vilrlous North-Sourh dialogues as an nrtempt LO iexclnerease the price of chelr ntw mattIial exporrs obraio more lmpotted technol08Y snd chus finance a new srage of develQpmenr He saw this ti placing the Thitd World more in the gttp of the neo-co1onialist sysrem and iostmd recommended 11
more self~rcuumlanr development wlrh murrud assismnce between Third World sures a reducdon in [ade wirh rhe induuialized wotld and Chlll a loos~ ening of dependenre Amin lJke TaOOon had Jittle fairh in presenc imtrnruional organizaciexclon Il tools foc fasbiooing a more independent Tbiacuten Wotd His sU88tl1cion of grearer mUtual ilSlgtistaoce between ThUd WorId uate~ implied somtthing more sophillticated than a numbtr of bilateral arrmgements As rbe present orgauizarions used fu iexclncm~Thjrd World cnshyoperation (che OAU he Atab League ASEAN) are domitllued by jusr dl()llC govetnmenrg chM accept lhe eowse coodemned by Amio _ the NIEO ami greater jmegrndon iexcluro rhe world economic sysrem ~hen Amia solutloil involves like-minded deveJoping counrries or more like1y political changes leading ro such indigenous intemuional orgilniwrions
Other Trufd Wodd wdten have plllCtXl emphasls on grearer use 01 exisring insdtutions lOO can broadJy be deKfibed lIS Wopmenraluli huI Prebisch an Argentinian econOmigf has not only studied the que5iaacuteon uf ecooomic dependency but his ideas llave been used as the baJiexclis for che wotk of cwo miexclljoc iexcliexcluemariOOiexcll1 organizadons rhe UN Enmomic Commission fa utin Ameriea (ECLA) and UNCfAD Iu his smdy of Briliacutesh-Argerl(inian trading relntioflS Prebisch bad idenrified rhe unequRl tecrns ol Hade between he favoured (ndusrrislized s(ate of tbe centre and he les privj~ leged llOIl-indumialiacutewl periphery Prebisch unlike rhe dependencia gtChool of Amiacuten Dos Sancos and Cardosa believed thu this inequaLity could be overcome by political acrinn by trade pre[ereonces fuvouring the pedphery by eoo1ruooiacutery agreemenrs by intelnatiacuteowll aid and by more foreiga imvestment in che ~riphery It was thele remedies thiexcllr Prebiacutesch eneouraged when he WiIS Executive SecrCrary of ECLA from 1955 lO 1963 aOO Secrewy-Genernl ofUNCTAD ftoro 14 ro 196tL In~d rhe amoum of aid the periphery needed in omer to overeome their Unfuvoluable rrnde balance became known io UNCTAD clrcles as [he Prebiexclsch Giexcllp
The distinguished Afiican aC1ldentie Aji Mazn1i has wricren un the plighr Qf (bar conciflfnt aod j~ role in pmem~day interruUIDllfl1 afmits He soughr ro answer rhe quesdon Now rlw Imperial Order is eoming ro an end who is going tO keep rhe peaee in Aampica and tu examine he concept of Pax AfrlclllUl the African s ambidoo ro be his OWh palaman The JXIliacutecillJS and se[f~8overnment ufAfriea depended on the nodan ofan African self which Mauui discusseJ in decaH He considered how this 1ndepen~ denre might be threarened by the politicaI and cultural fragmenMion of the contillenr Ellld eronomieally by deperulence on Europe He quoted Kwame Nkntmah finr President uf Ghaniexcll on rhe Europe-Jn ECOntunir Communiry
162 Wilihgr rm intd1JatirmallJrganizatimu
ihe ireaty of Romemarks the advent of oeoKolonitJism [n Afriacuteen snd bears unqutSrlonably the marks of Freneh neo-colonuumlllism (Murui 1967 93) He moduded from tM that Wlut AfrlOlns tbelaquofore neecletl was II
renerru authotity of cheir owa tI) ((lordilJlte fheir eltonomk and policicat deCena- sgain5t trus rnreat (Mamtiexcl 1961 93)
Given this theme it is not surprising tlwt Mazrui ser srore by rhe OAU bU[ he was realistic in bis judgement
In relatioos betwlaquon African statts lIOflesr step rowards Pu Africana was taken when rhe Organiution oiacute Aftlaquolln Uniey set up in Commissiacuteon ofMediauacuteoo Conci1illtion aud Arhitmion
Anormr OAU Commissioo of relevance fot Fax AftlOlna ls che Defence Cornmission Sor me Defeme Commlnion 1w se Car been among che lean effecdve QfPan-Aiacutericun ins(kndons Afrka mar indeed aspire to be her owu ptlliceman bur she does nO seem ready as yel to par the price iacutem it
(Mauui 19612[3)
Mazrui oudined the varicd backgrounds of [he lemen oiacute newly illdepenshydent Africa and thdr radical and revolmionary ideas and it is pethaps swprising rhat the insrirutions rhey created fur me coutinenf wete so mnservative with [he p05sible exceprion oiacute the OAUs Natiomtl Libetttion Comminee Mazrui no[ed thac Africa srill has the problem of how othet powetS respond tu its behaviour and [har forcigo iotmsilm in AJtica continued Indetd the I990s proved tO be a dC(ade of disusrer for AfrieR The debiacute burden contimlld while Ilome states collapsed lnro civil war ami others took to iutenoendoo in thejr ueighbonrs affairs Outslde interference from borh Enrope and North Amecica euodoned One of rhe fcw brlghr spots was the end of apallhcid in South Africa and the peaceful transitioo ro majoriry mJe lo al thiexcl~ tn quote Juliacuteus Nyerere rhe ampcmer pre~iexcldenl of Tan1ania The OAU exists outr ror tbe prorecdoo of (he Afrinllt Head~ oiacute State (cited io AlilgapPltl 1998 1 ) The relarive optimism of Maztui has giveu way ro Afriam writers examining sorne of me disrnrbing details of inaction by [be OAU and regtonal orgauiacutezatJuns nlCh as ECOWAS beiog used as doaks fu the machinations oE regional hegemou$ suth as Nigcria (Mibe 1m 61-9(1)
Radha Sinha$ problem--ortented undy Food iexcllfId PIWt11y (1976) has an IItgent message Sinha a former consultaot of the FAO prodnced an iofuacuterrned aUllyiexcljiexcl of the world$ food problem stress1Og in paniacutecular the maldistribution of food and other resources Noting he profO$ab of UNCTAD with heit muld-rommodJty approach and buffer nocks provjshySiOfli he commented rhe grearesr weakness oE the UNCTAD scheme js les Hkdy politlca1 unilcceptablliry ro me developed (ountdes parriculady che USA (Sinhil 1916 114) a propheey that has proved to he cortect He identitled a more aggresslve attitnde by Third World sutes e5pedally
WrilirrgJ on i1tternatiflii1l rHgarrtzatitmlt 163shy
after the uH prite cise of 197314 when the developing coonuies tried to maximize their own market powers by formin cartcls such as rhe Intematimlal BaurdtC Association the Intemuional Coundl of Copper Expotcing Countries aud the Intema[ional Tin Agrcrmenr He gave n qualified wekome ro the Lomeacute Convention betwcen the European (omrounities anJ cenain African Padfic and Caribbean Haces Writing in 1976 he commented
The receot cbange in rhe luirudes of tite tiche countries is largely due tu the incIeasing miliuncy of the Third World countries lt is almost ertalll utar the magnitude offuture cnnc~sions in me coune ofGAIT aud UNCTAD IV Ilegotiarioos wiU deperu mainly on (he continued solidariry uf the devdoping counlrtes
(Siha 1976 116)
Sinha was pardy correct as tbe solidatity cf rhe Tbird Workl states cracked se the induurialized wodd withheld funher Con(eampSJoru but ir was able tO do so because market condidons swung against che primaty producen
In his condusion Sinha called ror a IIDre1 shttting of wnrld t($nmes and power if confrontarion was ro he avoidOO He feared that the ffa of roshyoptradon berween [ieh and pool conntries hiid ((lT1e to an end and that batde lines were being drawn Instead he advOOIreltI majnr concessions from the dcher coumries on trnde lInd aid issues and a1so a ma~lt te$ltUcrnring of the incematiotlill organization~ aoo negoacutetiating ffiarhinery in order tu provide a much gtC2ter say fm me poorer countries in internatiooal tJ1lde invesrment and mooetaiexcly armngemenrs (SiMa 1976 132) GAn 1BRD aud IMF have been the presenoe of [he ri h with voting weighted m faacutevour of rhe OECD countries and Sinha re(()ffimended thlll GATr aoo UNCiAD be merged inro an Intemacional irade Organization (ITO) and che creatlon of a Third World permanent secrctariat iexclnvolved in all trade and aia negoriarioru Thoogh less radical than Amin Sinha aIso recomrnrnded gttter coshyoperation berween developing coulltries and an eoo ro their inkrtotity complex with instead a sense of m~ttnal sdiacute-e$teem and trust being devel~ oped (Sinha 1976 ch 10) Litde that h~ happened during the 19905 woo1d have encouraged Sinha The World iratle Organiaadon has emerged as the presenoe of the dlVelupeJ tares and lw brushed aside many of thc mucerns cf UNCTAD Debr ha~ edged on ro dlt wudd iexclagenda but mainly at the beheS[
of a non-governmental organization )ubiacutelec 2000 nd the promi$e~ of the main financill jnsrirutluru lO pursue dcbc-rclicf produred but a thiniexclmfl
In aH Third WQrld commenrarors have provided a vatied and lively approruh fOwards tne problems uf intetniexclational organizarions Their emphasis has niltntaHy beCl Qn tbe use of wurld lmtirutions to change the econornic condidon or the Southern cominents As this enndition is likely to worscn in the near filrtltf further more lJica conrtibutions on the rule oC
-- --- ~- __ _~- __- imernatIacuteonal orgaoilarions in Nonh-Smuh relarJons tOiexclghf be apected from rhe Third Worid A1ternaciveJy wrirers (mm rhat ares rmy jW ltIacuteespUacutet rm imergovemmemal orgaoizarions ar lealaquo Mee rhem $O Hrrle
Cfili~ald~heJ
Critica approadvs lO the nudy uf intetnadonal relations are (hose har rejee( the dominating vleW1iexcli repr=med by tbe realist and reformistS as oudined aboye In paHicular rhey reglUd realists as apologisu for the currem con6gutltion of power 10 (he wiexcldd sytem and considet [har rhe refOnntstS are elrher unable ro undersraoo he fUe llamee )( (hi sysrem oc ille UDwiUing to accepc rilar ir needs more rhan mooest refotlllS TIlOugh they may sympalhi-ze wirh rhe agenda of some Marxists aud Third World wt1cers chey do [lO( llave rhe hisrockal certaimy of the former not rarely do they have the experience and perspective of ehe larter TItey view intenUishy(jnl1ill nrganiutions wirh a jaundiced eye as these are mainly the lll$tmmenfS of rhose who dominare rhe syuem This section COlllaios an wcoum nf three approaches tmt of the critical rheorlsti- of kmintsc wrirshy[1185 ulld pose~mooernismlt
Cri(~1 herJrY The approach of critical theory 10 JnrematlonaJ o(ganizatiooll iSi determtoed by their wider world-view which in itsclf is explaiiexclwd by tbeir llame One of the leading exponents Roben Cox said [har ie is cririca1 in cne Jensc rha h srands apan 100m che prevailiog order of rhe wOlld and asks how tb$t oroer came iexcllPouc Ir does nor r-ake existing irucimtioM lIl1KI JIQwer relaclons rOl granred bu c311s them iacutemo queuion Ir 1S diexclrlaquoced ro rhe social itnd JIQiirshyical complex as a wItole rarhet (hall he stparate pirtt IUthet than subdiide and Imic an examination of a problem it looks al the wger pkturc of whkh rhe problem is jwt oue part and trio rO wJdeThwod the processeS uf change ill which botIt pans ulld whole ure involved laquo(ox 1993 277~S)
Ai a thoory cridQiIacute theory rejeen tbe daims of posicivism of an external Nulity and to be mue-free ror critkal rheorIacutests koowledge ti nor moraUy IleUc1ll1 ic is more che result of the social background of tbose Wt hold ir Given this ctitkal tbeory alJows foc a normarive choice in favoU of a social ancl iexclJlieiexcl(ld order diflerent f(cm rhe prevruHng arder bur it limiu the ruuse 01 chotce ti a1remative orders which are feasibJe mmsformations ofme cxvaing worJd h musr rejEC[ improbable alternadVe8 ju~t as ir rejecrs rhe pcrmanctlly nr lhe exiscing order (Cox 19 90)
Cridcal rheory differs lrom Marxist upproElchcs beCElUS( of iu tejection nf any daim to hold the objenive tru[h and betause or it~ avoidance of (he pmslllt ol il utopia Neverrhe1ess [heir analysis of incernarional relarln1l$ is one tbu hEls u numher of similariuumles wich the Marxisc pcrspecdve It regurds rhl tlistlng suucrures of world polirics as beiug oppressie not
- _ __ _-
lean because of rhe dominance of (he capitalism of che Unired StElte~ For many che USA is seco as a hegemonic power the prevailing urder - in re[ms rbar reReet he wrirings of the Itallan Marxisc writer Amonio Gramscl (1891-1932) Gramsd advanced the nodon of ln hisrori(middot bloc which in itself refilaquors che $Ocial reladons oE ptoducdoo The dominanr dass in a counrty - 01 indeed aoy social grouping - mlinrains cohesion and idenciry withio [he bloc [hrough the ptopagacion of a COIDmOfl culturegt A new bloc can be formelt when a subordinate dau can euablish tU hegeshymony over orher subotdioate gtOllpS (Cox 1993 56--7) The IDove rowuds hegemony comeS with the piexclt$ting fmm che spediacutek inrercsrs ofa gronp Ol
dass tO rhe building uf inrimdons aOO elaoorarion uf ideologies (Cox 1993 57-8) It Loiexcl rhat ptOCe$S thar embeds the incemu of the dominanc dan in an imttmrional form thae [w an appeal widet [ban that dan ine1f It the-refole repreSoems mote tlmn jUSt (he drunJnaoce oE one state ovec anocher bllt implies a cemufi acceptante of the tules arJd institutions purouized by [he hegemonic JIQwer Jo other woros it is all order wbicb most Olher Sta[e-~ (01 at 1enst those within reath of die hegernouy) couId find compatible- wirh their iexclmetem (Cox 1993 6t) h aJso involves noe just inttt-staee rueivirle5 bur rhose oiacute tlvilliOCiety (oon-Stllte socieM instishycudons) ebereby encoumging Hnks between social dus$ts iexcln the connules covered by ebe hegemony
What does Cox llave to uy about ioccmational Otgsniuciexclons 1bey Ilre scen in he oontext ofme wiacuteoo unaemanduuml18 of itnernational reUacuteltions mentloned iexcliexclhove He is direcr 000t mem Ooc mechanisru chrough wruch the universal norms of a wodd hegemony are expttssed js the interoatiooal organisation (Cox 1993 62) Why is chis so Cox U993 62) gives five teIlSons
bull They e-mbody rules cOae help (be- apwlSion of a hegemonic wodd iexclrder These insdwrians reflcct the intererts ()( the dominam social anil economic force- buc a1low a cettain amOunt oC adjusrment ro accommodare other subordinared interests TIms the USA WllS preplltoo ro mm conccssions to
bciI18 in Lhe EU srares and Japan ro rhe Wotld Trade Otganizatimt They a[e prooucrs of that order Though [he insrimrions and rules Ilce
nurITlllUy initiared by the hegemook power ir takes cate ro involve aOO comule a numbe-r of second-ronk stares and gaio theit supporc he Wotld Bank and Inte[nacional Mooetaty Fund were very much pan of [he world order thar emerged afrer [he Second World Wat and which was dominared by rhe Uoiced Stlres
They ltgidmi7e i[s nOlms by providing guidance for SllIteS and by legitshyimiuacuteulS cerraIacuten IlCdviries Ilr me narional leveL he OBCD afie rhe inrerruuiooal financia) irntuumluriom lave spread an acceptante of mllrket coodirions and sHict mOllerary iexclJlides
They co-opr elites from pelipheral counrrie Ihlented sraH commg 110m the Thiacuterd Wocld are expected tO dCCept he scriexclpt wcittttt by the domishynam power Bouuos Bourros-Ghati as Secteury General uf the Unired
166 Jiexclljiexclr1giexcl Qr1 ifJfCflrttuacutemal IWgaizati(ifJJ
Nadons stroyed too amp~r ftOm the gtip of Washinston and his second term was VCtoM by rhe USA His sucecssor Kofi Annan will no doubt undentand what 1$ n-quired of him He brings the mncerns of orhe states ro che UN bUf nor in a way thu threatt1l$ the USA
bull They absorb counter-hegemonic ideas Ideaiexcl $uch as 1iustainable dlYClop_ ment tukl even debr foTgiwness are taken 00 board by the intetnatwnal finarnial institlltion$ blu are trandirmel into pulido rhat swt them
Wh~t is ro be done Cox thinks thar the pfQblem of changiog dw world orUer 1iMuld be shlfred back from intern~tional insritutions tO niexcllriacuteooal $OIacuteishyeties where the sodo-political b~se for a new historie bloc mighr be ereated (Cox 1993 64) FaiJing the creadon of a new historie bloc of the new working cla$s and rural and urb~o marginal groups there might be tnmdorshymadon oC the curtent monopoly-libcral hegemony by adjusting to rhe demanJs oiacute local ello$ for polides 5uch as natlonaHution Cox 199~ 65) He aw advocates te-regulation of erooomies and a re-wmpositjon of civil sodery Internatiotla lnstlcutions induding organiutions can berome eontact puint1i fOr new $OCia[ furtt (Cox 1994 (11)
Critica throrJm $uch as Cox oifee a refreshing exposidon oiacute che posidofl oC imernatiooal ofganizatioos in a wocld where the main revolutionary powe~ have either collapsed (rhe Soviet Union) or se(tled into a cautious ronservatirun (China) Ir provlde~ a sceptical arf realisric world~view without acreptins tbe inevuumlahility ni a illture domlnared by mooopoly eapi~ ujsm sud the Utlired States J-Iowevtr its appllcariexclon to intemationa1 organhatJons 11 StImewha( timited tQ the maln global jnsdm(jons and th financial and economlc orgmiutions Ir has 1m (O say aboue regional nrgashynjudon Uf abour N(JUacutes Furthermore iu alternarive fu(ure testS on ourcoroes thu are far froro certain RevnJutlons in the Thied World are roore likely to be- irupired by nadondi$m oc by IsJaroic fllndamentaHfl OCalaquoely [he solid ooses for new historie blocs
Fwinuumll aNml4cbts
Feminist perspcctives 0f1 inttmatlonal rtlatioos llave in common wirh the erit~ ical rheocillu a rejclaquoion of (he dominance in rhe $Ilbjecr of the rcnHst and rdOrmisrs Although fuminist writen cover a wide 5laquolpe the gencral basis oiacute their aqurnent 1S har in interwnional relatioM ru in most politkal aud tcooomk acdvity women are diexclSJtdvantagt~l Alchoogh they own ahour 1 pet tCfH oC the worlJs lfOpeny and tiexcliexclxe heme 10 peiacute ceoc ofincome they perfurm 60 per eenr of working houn and provide 80 per eent of nfusets (petetsen and Runyan 1993 6) This is a derDOnstrndon of gender inequalitie~ the sodalJy learned behavior and expecratioos thar distioguish berween maKuliniry and femininity (Petetsen and Runpn 1993 5) Feminist aprroaches ofren So bejond the $tati~tks and examine (he mind~se[ of those engaged in the pmctice of intemadonal rdations whiexclch (bey ampee as geodered In other woros che world
Writingc Off inlmhJliofMl vrgntiZdlMm 167
illeen in a mlLlndine way thar kvrntB (he posjtiOll o( mnles in rhe hitgtranhy and devlllues the c041trihution of WQmeO (Sylvestet 1994) War in pattKular is gendered in a way chat keeps wornen and metl from qUtstioniog the essentiat pmpose and he neglltive effects of war militarization ~nd viQleme on their awn and orhers livts (Petetsen and Ruoyan J993 9 t)
What of wminist view$ uf imernationaJ organizationsr Ir IS not possible ro presem a rollf(tive vjew that eneomp3$~e~ rhe works of radicaJ femjnisu and ny iexclihetal teminists (rutead the work of one author Sandra Whitworth (1997) will be used as me pily$ rornt attrntion ro inrernarlonal organizations Aamper inrroductions ro feminilfr theory and internacional frIamiddot tiom and gendet and internacional relatlons Whirworrh examines geodet and imernational organilions She screpts Coxs vjew oiacute inrernational orgashynjzarions [har they retleltr (he dominant powet relations in che intetnational system and rhae internaliomd otgaoiution h che procelt of imcitntionaJshyiling and regulating conOice - eicher rhat which may IIrise among siexclates o( char which has iu (onU io transnationaI society (Cox 1980 375) TIte way duu pcople orgaoire themelve$ wirhin international iostirurjons reflects a variety of power relations ineludi~ of rollJSe gendec relatiull3 (Whitworth 1997 74) lbe triad of jnstirutions ideas and material rQudi~ tioru help ro hxare uSllmptiolls aboue geoocr withiu jntetmltional rewtioos Whitworth uses thesr tn examine lhe uooerstandillg oiacuteScndec io an INGO the Internadonal PlarUled ParenthooJ Federatlou (JPPF) and an intergnvemmental organilJ1rion (albcir one wlrh some oOl1-governmentJ)J represemation) the InrernatlonaL lab01lrOtganiution (no)
Whirworths studies show rhar thr IPPF tended ro accept the deshyemphasizlng oi the gendered oamfr of reproducdoo and (f) ignore rhe imponaoce ofbirth comcol foc womens reproductive freroom Instead in an effort tu popularize birth rontrol srrel~ WWl placoo on paremhooJ rather than iexclust the womans choice However IPPF poUcy beeiexcllme more radirnl in (he 19905- with Hnks beirtg made berween II1M control alld womeos ~)tu~ ality (WbJtworth 1997 ch 4 pmim)
The RO eoucerned itself with WQmen as workern It cnnsidercd that tbey oeeded spec-ial atrention and promoted ptoteCtlvt legiexcl~lacion This reiexcln~ forced me view (har [he male worxer Wall the norm with women workers nor deserving the same rights remunfration lOO mndirions Latterly however the JLO ha~ reflectoo views rhat prodaim wornens elt)ualily in rhe workforce and has sunoo tuacute assess the importanee of policies on womens role in rhe workplace as weU as in sodery more wjdely (Whlrwnrth J997 ch 5 panm) Whitworth comes [O the eondusion rhu iexclln iexcllnaLyiexcli~ of gernler in rbe IPPF and no shows how tbese rdiexcliexcldonsbips llnd definirions ni what it is to be a womltn oc man are structuted relationsrups3nd hlsrQciudly hve been scrurtured tu disadvantage women (ibid 15n
lo eommon with the critkal meorists Whitworth has useQ au examinamiddot doo of two intetnational organixations (O deroonstrate a puinr about imerflational relatiexclon~ indeed sodal rctatrol1s mOte widely The poinr is
I1
I
middot - ~-_ --___ aOOuc powec and iu use not (O balance oue SCdre ligaiOSf anorher but fm une gooup ro domiaare morher Jn chis case it 1$ ma the dominution of one dass me m culcnre over $ofU)(her (though Whirworrh recognizes those reLationshyships ti wcll) but of roen over women The crititUl uudy oiacute (wo jnceraational mganirations dealing with iSSlle5 recoSniud ti beiiexclg oiacute impocshycanee or WOfficn suggesu rha( tltOO simihu research on orher internacional organizadons could proJuce interening aOO uwfuiexcl resulrs
Pllit~ism
Thc posc-moderruacutesr $opprooch lO intetaarional rcllldon is one tlur bas (ome ro che fote Jn che perlod sinee lite end of rhe Cold War Jr is based on $o widcr imellectual viewpoim insrigated by l1rench iorcUtcruals of the 196()s gener~ ation _ Bllrrhes Derrida FouclIul and Lyorard - and whkh suggested rhat the modero era liad becn overome 11 fejeas mera-nattatives gnlud accounv- of hi5tory aoa iacuteNIacuteler subjecu as having no independem rubstance Scientifk btliefs induding [hose oiacute rhe $)(ial scJcllces are rooted in (lllxure polill(os arul mores oJ a wciery and are lherekJre subjective As rhere is 00
oblcctive reality cmpirical daims bave fl() spccial sunding in rhe rralms of koowledge IndeeJ ir i$ power aod knowledge are intimatel) incerwirud Posr-moJernism Hllnds against rhe belief of rbe modero pcfiod which LI seco as beginning wiacuterh rhe enlightenmcm of mid-eightcenth cenrufy Europe and AmeriCll Ir rheldore rejcn~ rhe COMCpr$ oC rationalirl and progrcss aSSuacutedared wi(h [he enlighrenment and [he moocrn age Thc uniry of IOOnkind iexclirW iexcldells such liS rhe untveIsWiI) of human aacuteghrs are rejcuoo lnsceadlocal aetion in smallgroups 15 advuacuteClmd
Post-modetnist ideas have affected tite srOOy of inremruionaJ rdarions as (bey have ocher social scienccs Posr-modern imeraarional relariops theoriscs havc ustd heir view$ 00 objecuumlviry (o exiexcltmine che rrmhs of international relatiom en see how rhe concepts iexclind knowledge-dairm (bar dominare the Jisdpline in faer are highiy conringenr on spccific power relatiom (Smith 1997 181) Post-modemisrs bave lltfa(red me mcta-narratives of the reelshy1m and reformlsu aHke The objectiacutevemiddot aaallses of the realim Ilnd neo-realisu are setn as being deJl(nclent on the subjective standpojnts of cheif mainly Amen(an and Europeau authors Ijcharcl amphiel (1986 258) daimed he works o[ Kenneth Waler men the leading neo-realillt trrat the glven ordcr a rhe natural nrder Jjmirs rarheE (lian 1XpawU political discllUtse negales oc rriviuliliS the signifinnce uf variely urOiS time and plue Whar emerges ii an ideology tllar anridpatcs iegirimires ancl onents a totalitarian projen 01 global ptoponioo~ che rattoualiaciuacuten of global poHcics iexclbe reformius are likcwise tainted Md have Ji mhr$lren belief in pmgress The posc-modernl$rs poinr m rh Helocausr as rhe heighr oiacute mooemism a rombimiddot Halioe of science dnd polidcal otganizillnon Il was SCruTely progreso
Given an antifllthy mwards rhe MlVe[iacute~ign srae borh as a centre of powet ll1ld as a crearioll Jiten imbutol wlth a wncepltliexcl uf progress pest~miexclJdetniexclsls
wHungJ mi Im~iexcliexclrun wgltiIRrzuJlU7iJ 1J7
can lOUcdy be expcctcd to vIacuteew intergovernmencal organiUlrions wirh sympilthy Tbe prefetted iacuteonu of internacional organizations when mentioned are those thiexcltt ltlj~plal differemes snd dlvenity in global pelitlcil duu are reginnaUy based or rhar reflec irKlividual actlOn Tndecd ir SeeIJS
rbat Michel Fomawt was involved with an alliance oiacute twO INGOs (Miquestdecin du Monde and Tertl-s do Hommes) in proresting agaiust internadonal iH~shydon over rhe boat people who flcd Vietnam in tite lare 1970s and ear1y 19S(k He is gU()[ed 11$ sayillg tbar Amnelltl Internnrlonal Teueiexcl dts Hommes Mfiiecin du Monde lHt inirilltives whiacutech have created a nrw righr rile dAht of privare individuss ro iexclntervene in [he otder of polino and internatioont snateg(eiexcl (dred in CampheH 1998 516)
Aootber researcher has exnmined ~he Europcan Communities Ilr che point wben Jr was mnslorming intO me European Unioo and askOO whether ir was a pootmodew ConJigUflHton (Nstrgaard 1994) Hi condusions wcre mar ir was gualiwiveJy a new organizarion oC human calJecrlvJties which mighr U$hec the coming of post-moderniry (Ntgttgnatd 1994 27j) The basis fO[ [bis judgemem was rhat me Ee did nO approximate anl modero form of piexcliexcl1idUll Ofpnizarion it did OOt commatld che means oiacute violence its au[hotity derives noc from die people and ir appeared to be a fCgJoo trying ro pOrecr itiexcliexclelf againsr globaliacutezadun iacuteN0rgaaro 1994 274--5) Ir remllins ro be sren whether [he BU tJf [he twenry-first cenrury wHl fu1fi1 rhtgtse hopes Ot wiU stllrr ro teVen
to a more scate-like being Generall) dIe cririolapproaches ro interruHiorud relarious hiexclJve provided
1lOOIe innovatIacuteve insigllls iexclnro rhe study uf imemarional orgsnizations The crtrical theorists llave becn sh3rpest in rheir unde[$(iexcltnding nf internarional ofgiexclt1lizacious as servsnrs of a dominiexcliexclIf power configuracion thoogh the) lave pemaps Umieed cbelr scope wllen viewing internacional organizadons Feminis[ wJiters ruave given Vltike to whac i5 after aH tbe scmi-sileut majoric) in rhe world and Ilre ouly srarting in qnest10niug the male dOmimiddot nance nuacutet iexclusr of the nmning of IGOs huc aloo of theic agenda Tite post-modemisrs are iMlSr concerned oiacute he (bree 8rOUp5 with inretnationlll organiucioru as such bllr rIacuteleic intellecrual approach is the ffiOSt tadkal aud can lelld tuuml a fnon of nihilism
GltJbaliacutesf lIiu
A gIobalisr perspective does oor viacuteew world poliacutetica as being predomishynandl arout iotergovernmemal relatlnn~ Ili would realisu or illbour inrentare aruI imersocietal rdations as a number uf reformisu llliexclll consider lnsteaacuted it cakes a more holisdc view Problems are (cmfronred ac Ji global level wlurions have tO be sou8ht here as weil This iexcls not ro neglcct (he 10tal Ol rhe ~tlte level ir is more J recognilion of the limiutshydoos of acdviuumles rhere The world-vicw like rhe reformists places empllasu on whal unIacutetes people Ilnd has lirde time for lhe demaoos of power pouumlics aad stare-cemrir orglLuiwrjollS Ir goe~ fllrther by nor
1 V WNimgJ lJ7f tIfernattmiexcliexclJ 11fK4111141tOnJ
liminog in view eirhec ro pans of che world or ro rellltions berweeo particuJar poliric~ lr ioded jlLSr m the economic social and poJitical demaods of mankind Paradoxically ir can be seen as IIn approach rhe very OppoSllC of the fimctionalist wirb whom tbere 5 much io common In nmtrast lO rhe fnnctionaHst (or neo-fllnctiooalisr or intetclependeuce srhuul) and ccrrainly in contrast ro rhe powet politks aOO MaOIacuteIt writers (be whole world approach places emphasis not 00 the discrere r~uiexclreshymems of groups SClteiexcl or individulI1s bm 00 tbe wel1-bciog of the tCOsystem in which rhf5f funnioll cbe planet Eanh The conccen of chis apptoach which is rcflccted il] in ttcumeUr of illternational urganizatiom is for the survival of lhe plunet for its effident funccioning in its widest SeILie aud fot che survival oiacute rhe myriad oiacute speoacutees - ollly one of which is homo sapiens - tbat inhabh me globe
Sinle tbe 196Os a number of wtiters on imernational affairs have expounded 00 tbis view and llave cOl1l~uendy ronsideted the implicadons for intemational organizacions Jobfl Button in bis World Society ronsldeted iflmstatt relations to be onIy a pan of wodd poli[iacutea and wrore
lf we employ rhe term world rociety imiexclreui of internanofla relarions iIacute we apptoo(h OUt study in this global way insread of the more tradi~ lonal nattonal way we will end to have a wider focos ro ask quesrions rhat are moee fundlmenral aOO imponant lO civilization and be ahle ro assess bettet me relevance of om own national bduviour ro be wider worW envifonment
(Button 1972 21)
Rkhacd Stetling posed the problem more spedfically
Nuclear esCllatiofl the popullltion explosion the pollmiofl of tbe envishyronmcnt the communkations rtvolurion rbe world~wide concentNdon of wC1llch and world~wide expansiofl of pltlvcrty are iexcliexcl11 essemially global and not 1laquo al pbellomena They have given rise jn tutn ro eartbshyspamuacutellg and revolutionary demands ror mass education rnass hesltb malts welfure and maltgts participation in che dccisions affecting roans fare
(Srerling 1974 322)
This wodd-view of rhe problems of the s)Jaceamphip EQlth begged fur global oolutlofl$ It suggcsred iexclhu not onIy iJ the system of sovereign stares as yer unable oc unwiHing to COme to grips with the above-menuontd prohlelUS but that a network of llllergoVCtn1lental organiutlom bGsed 00 me rights of statc wVfretgnt will ~lso be hammllng Globtl problems needed global solutlons based on institutinos rhat can (ake a global petsplaquoshytive Thus Sterling considetecl thllt it ~ tlOt unreasooable (O amidpate tme tbe member stares will be moved ro considft equippifllil the Unitw Nttous witb mote crunprebensive powen 1lt global pressUfes build 0974 323)
~h~ laquoo ~gt~ _- -gt bullbull (_bullbullbull __ - bullbull
A more compeluumlng cdH wus lAltiexclued by Barban Ward and Rene Dubas in their book prepared for [he UN Gmference of ehe Humafl EnVJroJlmenl 01lly UIIt EaFlh The c~ altJ Mdilllt1JatfCe (JI d Sflall Pta~t (972) 111ey stremsed the ufliry of tbe Eanh Jnd in eovironment and the )Jroblems in(ed by Jts iohabitants emntially thost oudined by SterJiog The ~uthoflgt poillted OUt rhat rhF envitonmenral qmosrion had by 1972 already had 50me impaltl on guvernments and im(rnarional organl1Jtion but the effior was somewhat ltInJOrdinated and unfocuseL In (hree particular aren - tbe global atmosphere rhe oceaml the worlds weather sysrellU - tbt-y saw [bl jmmediate neOO for (OmInOn poliey und co-ocdinared actiollS where vcerenshysions to national sovercigmy have no relevance ro ptrreived problems Bu rbefe was a need to go furrher and denl wirh other global problems di5Case srarvation iHitmcy unemployrnem ovcfllwding rntetnational poliCJcs wece at the 5tage reachOO wlrhin rhe devdoping s[ate~ of the ninettTtb (entury Elche they wiU move O to a wmmIlJlity bL~ro UiexclXIIl a more systematic sharin8 of weaJtb Ot tbey wiH break down in revoh and anareby (Wacd and Dubos 1972 295- -6) They Looked forward ro a sense of gLobal rommuniry 00seJ on he bope vf Irotecdon (from war aOO disaster) and the hope of enhancemenr (ecologic$1 as well as economid The ptlKtic~ and insrirutlofiS with whkh we are familiar inide our domestk sociecies would become suitably modlfied che basis of planetary oroer (Ward aOO Dubos 1972 297-8) This woold indude non~violent settlement of disputes witb legal arbirration ~nd polioacuteng ptocedures on an international basis jr would mea the Hansfer uf resoucces from rkh ro peor Ilnd inerCllSlaquo co-operaeion in arealt 5uch as health and edUcatIO farming uroon planning aud )JOlJution control As [befe halt been a shift of loyalty rom taroliy to dan from dan to tlation and from nation to fedctation there Wampll
hope clajmoo Wl1fd and Dubo$ for an ultimare lnyalty tuacute OUt single beau~ tifulllud vulnerable Planet Eanh (Ward and Dubas 1972 298)
Whilst the institutiona fmmework and organizational stfllCtuteS remain of necenity -ague in Oltl OM EaFtA iacutet is del( rhat the authors Wfre atming 11( a tlttwork oiacute world-wide fflnctionaUy hased organlzatiofll (both lOOs and JNGOs) char couId take on much of the work )JfCsendy done by governshymems o( rather whkh ougbt [O be dont by governmems UacuteJter writing-s have attempted (O deal wjth thc policy impliration$ of delllJng with )JrobshyJems globdly sroos (986) has poiacutenred en what 1w already been achieved in gtobal problem solving l1nd ha~ soughr ro buHd on rhis His critio have prunted out tha( what has already becn undertiacutelken has bren done more along rradicional Jntergovernmentallines (Donnelly 1990 121-30) Orbe writen have tied rubievemen[ in addressiacuteng [he global agenda more to renewed rutiviry in the UN (Rochester 1990 141-54) or to greater grass~ roots aud INOO acriviSffi Wget 1990 155-~8) Either way globaJj~m offeacuters a distinct W1ly of rackling the worlds ptublem~ It 1$ u ViIOIl thar sttesiexcles uniey and common (am( ntthet than disasreemem and roofrontashytion ir (ould thereIacuteore (oresce disputes being sruved inlernationally vety
much in (he way tbar chey are pre~ndy solvcd within tunny MtiOO iexclrares by more ro arbitratwn and Jaw and by entorcemenf ir neteS$il1) In this rhey have muh in COIDfllOfi wirh tire imerrnuiona lawyers iacuteUld idenlist writer of me eady (wenuacuteeh eemury mentioned at the beginning of tbu chaptet The globalisn are inspirecl jn rheir thinking more by ten Ot lt nudeal holocatlsr and by environmenml breakdown tnan by rhe duumleet elrpeshytieme uf wa dlllf aiacutefected rhe wricings of Woolf ol Ikierly
TIacutete globalisl appro~(h is opert ro the criticism of bcing roo idealistk jn a cynical world and lOO iIDpracrical in in uacutelstitutional sU8scsrioll5 Bur the di$mi$Slil oC rh~ words as globaloney cKleS HOt lid lite wctld oC che probw lems which hey have 50 effectively publiacutedzed They lutve uied to add anorIte dimensioacuten ro whar is possibte by showlng thar ie is nOCeSSiexcllty fOl rhe iexclurviwl of che planee
Tlle radical approach to the smdy oC iOternational orgllnizarions reflocu worIdmiddotvitws that normaUy lO beyond -dmse Jominated by rhe ltctivities of iexcltatcs or of LIte organizltuumlnns chemselves There is a sceprical view of whut is happeoing al soy one uacuteme in imernarional celarions and of he abilicy of mOfe cradicional wcifecs on imernafional cdarions ro explain let aJone llOderstand what is happeoing Ir is the feeling rhar approaches such ll1 (he MaNisr tlwt of rhe ideal theorisrs and some of rhe globuli~rs ur~ coming cber (O uodemaoding humanicys wider dilemmas rhar makes rhero so amactive They ar~ less Iikdy co apply rhemselves to rhe defais rutd wnrk~ ings oiacute p$cdcular imernatinnaJ organizations but neverrheless providt iotriguiog insighrs 00 [his phenomenoo by seeing rhem rhrollgh mol panoprk phHosophical lenses
SUMMARY
The rhree flIajor $chuols dealr wich io chis chaprer - the tcatiacuten the reformisrs iacutei1d che radical$ and rhe variarions (bey contain did not and do tlOf exJn iexcln a hiSforlcaj vacnum lde-as Wele foffilulared wirhio lhe COnten oiacute panicular sodedcs uoo in response ltO pUticular problems rbe communl (adom reYoludon of fhe nineteemb century the Finr World Wlli rhe rise of Nui Germany the spreading of nudeu weapons the deve1opmeof of plthitshy
$econd Workl War Europe fbe pnxeues of decoloniwion and deacuteteme rhe end oiacute the Cold War and rhe advaoce oiacute che inCormatton revolution In sorne CilSC$ the views oiacute rhose wdtings on inttmiddotrnational ocganUatlOHS have liad un efiecr on evenrs rhemelves pirlKulatly 00 rbe actitudes oC govetnrnents mwards tnternatiorW orgdflixauons AIl tXample is the work oC LecnarJ Woolf woose suggesnons Ctmceming a world organizatloo conttibuted lO fhe detailed preparnion oC the Lague oC Nations by me British goveltr mene Likewise Hans Morgeruhau and EK Can provided seimuli fot infiiexclrmoo US and Btirish governmcllul rhinking abom inrerruuional rela~ tiom iexclrom the 194Ck onwards In mher cases rhe general writings cJ persons lgtuch as Marx Leoin Mao Tse-tung and che dependencia school have affecred
rhe poJirk1ll dimare wirhin which govemmcncs conduce rheJe poUcy iucluding thar wwards jnternaclorull otgauj~atjon$
Orber ruCfOf$ aplft froro their historial cuntexc Iuve affencd the views of rhe schunl$ rncntioned They have differint backgtounJs io cheit ideruogy (Wesrero commllniSf Third World radical environmenralisr) and in theit level of $nalysis of inrernarional rebtions (stare Centuacutec inretesr aoo rramna~ dona groups cLitraquo dominanr global) This a(icca the typC oC inrernatiacuteonal organizariacuteon dominam io their studies (IGOs INCo) auJ thcic 8eograph~ kai $rea of interest (the Nonh Adandc Europe ThinJ WodJ Ot global)
TIte range of wcitings about intetnational organizarions has ull dte whole teflecfeJ wiJec llooersundings of imetoational ceJarions and wuumltld polidcs These io rhernselves have fed 00 tbe gtVidc iacutellccUecmal fcnnent and on developrnenrs in world affiuacuters Viewl about iacutellteftlational ocgsnizatJoos wiU continue ro take accOlnt of the ince1leeruaJ debate ill the studjes oiacute polishydes internacional re1atioO$ philosophy ecooomics imematluacutellal uw sociology histoty and geogrilphy They will also reflecto among other ampcton che stntcegk balance in tbe world [he relafIacuteve power of tiJe United Stares aod oroer nares me scate of wotld markers [be pto-ess uf Euwpeiexcliexcln tlllegrashytion che relacive positloo of the developing warIdgt iexclbe levd of cootlicc througbolc the world fhe -ratC of dte environfneot and the ahility oiacute huge StatCS to wiacutethswnd cenrrifttgal force Tbe way tIacuteult imematiornal organiuiexclshydons ret1ect tbese developrnents and tIacuteleir t1Ipability lO deal wich some of them will provide (he tllW fiWifcrial foc funue smdies
154 WrituacutetKiexclI mJenl4tiorJal rngmZtlJilm
Mux saw the European SUtes of his own rime as being rntans by which the ruBng dass (011amp oppress the work~ng clw by using (he agentl of tht 5tare such as the iudidary the poliee the army and rhe church he (xrerual Ilctlvities of the stare wete also determined by its Chtss namre MeanwhiJe rrmllnat]onat Rlations of a more meaningfuL kind WQuld bt creared by trade rhe movement of capital and incteaiitd romac[ and llOIacuteldarity betwten the prolerariat of vanoulS nations riacuteidefd rhe internacional nriexclaniutions of which Marx and Engels hnd dire(t experiena- wtfe the Fi~t Internatiomd and for Engels the Secund lntemarional both of which atttmpted lO orgashynJxe the represemarives of wruking people aiexclros fronden Onc~ agaJn this stteAAe$ the Marxist empbois on transnarional dass relutions rnther than on intentate relarionships
Whibt Soviet writlngs on international organizatinn1 wtte falrly desulshytory in Scalins reigu 0924-53) rhey did lmerIy hernld rbe move towams peaceful co-existerne arul roreshadowffi the lartf rnrhe[ restrktive view of Imch organi2Atinm hy Soviet commentators
In the post-Second Wodd War period and In patticular in the post-Stalin era Soviet liternmre on international organiuttions bl(lSsomed This has reflected Soviet membership oC ma1ly 1osiexcl-1945 organixations the emershygence of a socialist bloc of sta[C$ and tbe incre-ase in the mlmber of Sowcreign s[ates all flUtontilde demaruHng a more sophisricared Soviet view of lnter~llate reLadoru than che survivalism of Stalins period Uuring rhe lare 19805 i( auo ret1ected the new thinking iacutemroduced by Gorbachev
StalintI suIXessor KrU$hchev developed a revised view of internacional relaCtons which gave a positio1l ro the emerging Third Wnrhl (Tbe Third Wotld was then taken to mean rhotle IItates thar had emerged ftom colo~ nialiacutesm In effect rhe terrn later induded tbe stares of Latin America Africa - exclnding the rhen apaftbeid stnre of South Africa - the Middle Rasr Oceaniacutea and South Asia) Peace(ul co-exiuence between oda1ist and (apltaJisr states WM $til comidered nece1sary but this diacuted noc predude the ideologiacutecal stmggle between rhe two campsmiddot iexclndeed lhe Soviet inter~ national lawyer GI Ihnkiacuten wrote pearcfut cocx15tence of sutes represeonng che tWO differeor rodal sysems is a slccific form uf dass struggie beween socialism and calitllllsm (Osakwe 1972 37) The Soviet Union abo deveJoped relatlons wirh rbe newly emerging exshycoloniaJ cOllntdeJ and Soviet writiog had tu take ~ount of this developmem There wru a recognirion of a third group of stattli between rhe capitalist aud the communlsr that of poteorially friendly indtptomiddot deut $tarem io Europe and Asia such as India Egypt Indnnesia and Yugoslavia which would filrm a tone of peace Although the rebtions wiacuteth rhe capitaliacutest sures sriacuteH remaioecl embedded in pelteful coshyexluencc rhere was an emphasis by postmiddotStalinist Soviet writets on the da eJement in lile telatiomhil - that is rhe wntact with progressive elements in Weste1l sodeey smh as che Jabonr mnvement Ncither diexcld peaceful co-exiucuce rule OUt ~upport o[ middotjUSt wars of nationallibcrildon
WIacuteJIacute11gs tm iacutenUrllUtional WjatlJZtiacutelJlff 155
iexclndeed ir was seen lt a strategy fo wodd reloludon Fiacutenally (he rrlashyfIacuteonhips berween the Sovier Union and East Eumpean countries vere deerned ro be based on sociali internationalism posmlating a haemony of natinnal and commllnity interests and mndllding thar jnde~ndeuce and sovereioiexclnty of a soctalist uate means aoove aH indepltndencc from capitalism (Red Star 1 December 18)
Tunkin underljned traditional Soviet thiacutenking rllar the mngtrltllenl imrrllment of an ioretnational urganization (fne example the Chaner oiacute the UN) was all-impottant in derermining tIte enene rrun the otganizauumlon bad an international legal pcntildeonaliry rhar iexcl5 a standing in internacional 1l1w 5imilar tu titar of a sovereigo staxe Examining lhe question of the antonomOllS wiU oiacute international nrganitatioll Tunldn allowed thl1 they need not jmt act as agtnts for member stares
In imernatiunal ptacrke trellties conduded by jntcrl~ational mSaniacutezashytinns take their speciaJ piare as treacies by wbkh internationsl organimtiom aequire righu and take upon themselves cerrain obligiexcllshytioos Intctnat10nal organizatiou are created by Hares hey are broughr iexclnto being by states but the actloacuteos of imcmational organi7ashydoos are nlt)( in any way de facto or de jure ro be tqt1sred lO the actions of scates
(Osakwe J972 23)
Thi did nor mean than M internadonal organiacuteiariexclon was an entity indeshypendem of its memher us[es as any powers (har they hacl were delegated by [he members In Jine wirh che ampwiet doctrine of peareful co-exiacutesteme Tunkin placed Uress pn (he nature and rhe membership of an international organiacuteution dlOSe which drew their membersbip from commlmi1t c1Ipishytalist and TIiexclird World tares could expcct tu be genel1llly mognized as having an incernarional personaliacutery He wrote
TIte namre of tontemporary international prganiurions is lO a very great exttm derefmined by [he existerue of Haces beJonging ro differem wcio-economk systems and the ioevitable muggle between them Thar is why pcaceful crexislence is now the bl-sic condition of rh~ dfVC1iexclpshyment ufgeneral interoational ntganization
(Osltuumlltwlt 1972 289)
Mor07JN Clt1ntrlbuterl sorne extra points Fintildet be iududed JNGOs in his stndy He wrote dlQt lotetnational orgaruulions have as iI rol 8t least three member coumries TheM may be government$ offidJ orgilnlzarions or 0CInshy
guvernmental organizatiow (Morowv 1977 30) In a 11Iter seccion m NGo thcy were ldencifred as che la~ group of inrerrulttonal organiuttiolls wim two aspccn rbar concttntd socuIacuteiacuteIgtt commemarors tbe NGOriexcl auirude towards the preservarion of pealaquo wkh the Wnrld Feieradon ofTrade Unions
6 _ 0
rhe Wodd Fedemion oE Democratk Youth and otber meiexclllbtrs oiacute tbe Sovittshybacked World Peace (ounaacutel gaining special mentioo and the specialiuJ chataCrer of sorne NGOs itl(h as rhe ruerrutriunal Couocil of Scientifu Unions and che Scienrifk OJmmiuee on Antnrctk Research MOrlrLOv memioned how NGOs can belp emblish a social dimate citillg their contti shybution ro (he setdemenr of a number of internacional confHcu swh as dlilr in Vietnam He aOO dealr wirh the role of che NGOs io cbe UN aud che consuJshyrative srarus [hey llave witn lGOs saying du[ smdems of internariooal affitjoiexcl
in [he socjalisr councrics m critieal of many asplaquots of (his system fur the eoruulrarive StatuS amogemenrs stiU fall shon of wha( [he deveJopmenc of modern inretnatlonal relarions in fac[ catls fur (Morozov 1977 43) Tbe specialized namre ufNGOs Wamp1 atttibuted by M((2OV tu
tht increased Jnfiuence of the pubic at large un roreign polky [he grearer iexclmpat of public opininn in imernatiunal reladuns and [he greater importante uf me ideological fiexclUtot 10 $ucb relations Accoum should abo be raen of che proccsses of cconomic developmenr and [he coosequenc~ of [he scienrific and rechnological tevolutioo which has also led ro a greatet number of speoacutealized NGOs
(Morozov 1977 42)
Second Morozov wridog jo d~ late 197amp made moU pos-irive refershyencelgt (O [he role oiacute Trurd Wodd SUtes in imemaciooa otganimrions He noted rbar rbe emetgtoce oiacute ti large oumbe of Oung natiooal stares h8ve kd fO che emetgcnce of intetnarJonal Drganizadons among develcpi08 ecuoshytries (Mororov 1977 29) aod claimed hat partkiparion in (hese organh311oos is part uf he process uf consolidating their sovereigocy and ruuional jndependenu~ aod of wlviog cheir pressing ecoOfJmic anJ orher pmbemsmiddot (Morozov 1177 31)
Finally Momzov developed the puint made by fimkin aOOut he limited llalUre of ioternationaJ organiurjQn$ - ~econd-dllSS ffitrnbers nf the inrershynarloual sysrem as opposed tu rhe firsr-diexcllSS members SQvereJgn stateiexcl by reretcme tO theit dedsioos There bave resulted froro che inrelllctioo of politicuJ euroorces within the organil1ldons and
Thecombined will uf chcse lGOs i5 disuumlnc[ from [he wllls of theuuml indishyvidual members io in eflSenlte and ln in narure The v1ilflous wills in thb case are nor agsregued arirhmetically each one exim indepenshydendy ur oside a homogeneQu~ socio-political gOUP wirbin whose frarnework (hey can be combjlled
(Murozov 1977 34)
AfLer lhe comiog ro powet ofMikhail Gorbachev in the Soviet Union io 19Bgt a Ihaoge rook place jo $oVJIl policies rowards imeroadonal relations irutuding international organi1ations and [his has been reflecred in new
~ M-- bull 6_V_
Soviet writings un [he subJect Gorbachev inttoducetl a owjor review of [he fureign poljcy uf the Soviet Union (har marchcd rhe inremiry of his dmncslic refotmS He encouraged new rhinking- based on a revjeJ vlew of che world siruation Peaceful co-existence wirh iexclhe capiralisr tirares WlCgt no looger seeo a~ being a spetjfic fum of dass srruggle as Tunkin had written bUI 35 being in the commoo intecesu oiacute all countriCl Ir WIi$ predishycued on the neOO fin surviva of (he human nce which in ShakhfUlZOlrQvmiddot$ word$ must ofCOUIse take fim place Lighe 1988 297gt- Thjs ml$or rhar a new COIKeuropt of seGldty had ro he adopreJ hy che Soviers rhar oiacute common security which wa5 based un sume of he ideas of -che Palme Comminion (see he1ow) Greater emphasis wu given ro arms control and dlsarmament agreemenrs wirh the Wesr 11nd to co-opttation in international uffuirs whilst Soviet intervention io che Third Wodd enbed and milirary 5UppOtC 1m [he East European communisr govcfomentS WlS withdrawn
Soviet wdcings on inremurionilJ relations both offidal and academic came to mirror Gorhachevs new rhJnkiog bur eho lilete iexcl$ evety sigo chut rbese id~ were dmwu no only from rhe Wesr but alw Uacutenm Moscow mink-tanks slleh as lMEMO th~ JflSIirure of World Eronomy and Inremlfona Relacions) Liacuteght 1988 29~n Gorbschev aun his forngn minisrer FQllard Shevaronadre gave rhe academiacuten a Breen light for funher diSClViiacuteon ud debare (Shevaronadre 1990 23) As II reampul srudies examlned he role of che Uniacutered Nariacuteons as sn ugem for peoce (Kolyrev 1990 12-19 NesrerenkQ 1990 65 Petoovsky 1990 42--3) and rhe mte of inrernational or811nizadons in environmental mliLffers IiLnd disurmamenc qutsdmuuml Chodsulkwsky 1988j NikitiM 1989 123-32 Roginko 1989 133-43) and internarionallaw was teassesred (Sutier 1989~ 363-75)
Once che Sovier Union collapsed many of me wrifetS losr rhe main point of political reference A nwllber Iefi academc orhets adapted thelt ideas ro WCtem oues and a few remnioed as policy rulviseni ro che new Russian goVefrutJenL However cornmunism as M imellectually dominant organiuog rotce wlch pnliiisJ dour had djsappeared in Russia togerllef with much uf the persptr1ve ir provided - wben seen thmugh me unen distotdng leos uf tbe Sovier lfulon - oiacute inrernatiooaJ relatlons and inremariooal organhattnru
Chinese Marxisr wrirers have iexclargeIy reflected rhe views of the leadershyship in Chinll sioce [he coming ro power of rhe Commun1sr Patty in 1949 Undl (he 1970$ communist China was elduded from almon aH iotttllJishytional of811nizIiLtIOns and ie is flot surpriamping tha whae lirde writing tbete WUtl on the st1bje(r Wal fairly dismiacutesampive usuaUy consisdng uf coudemnaM tinos of (he UN fnf its action tn Korea aud rhe security allianes fot teir hegernonic narure Chjnese Marxisr rhinking hiacuteu divided (he modem wotld jnro three groups ihe Birsr World consisred of rile fWQ imperialist superpowers namely he USA ano the USSR The Second World was made up uf otbet areaa uf advamed industrilllired cnuntries primariacutely EUfape aod Japa which were opea ro donunariou by lite Sllperpowers bu( which could $tan a dialogue wirh rhe Thiacuterd World Theu (here was rhe Third
158 Writings OtJ internationdl organizatioru
Wodcl iexcltreI( coruisting of the Afro-Asiacutean-Lario Americltlu sta tes supported in their muggte aAainSt Picsr World imperialism by Chinls This viexclew of the wmId colouted tyJst Chiacutenese wridngs on iacuteoternatiollill oeganharions Tbe $uperJowers were seen as cynical lTlllnipubtors Qf inrernarionaJ jnsti~ tutions Mao Tre~tuog wOre of US poliey towards such insdfutions Ir mam use or them when it neOOS rhem and kicks them 3way when ir does flot (Society (or Anglo-Chinese Underuanding 1979 42) US-domioated pill-~ such amp$ SEATO and imperialist groupiacutengs like rhe Alliance tor PfOgre~( wttt detided Spedal viuiot was saved roc the Warsaw freaty Orgaoizatiun whieh in one aetide was described as Soviet sodal~ imperialisms mol fur aggression (Ming Sung circd Jn Chen 1979 194) fhe Soviet Union was aceuseQ of trying tu manipulate che Pan and negnshydate wlth Wesrem eouorries rhmugh the Enropean Scltwiry Conferenee tn consolidare irs begemonic status in Basrern Enrope at the same time iexcliexcll dividiog Wes(ern Europe squeezing Out the USA ro as ro muSte way (0(
iu expansion and infilrmrion into Westem Europe (Ming Sung clted in Chen 1979 197)
Chinese writecs Fegatded tbe Ntildegttood Worid espedally Western Europe as being a pen force io telmS of imperialism which Ww tdponeed to the lhird World wich diaJogu as io the Jmueacute Convention berweoen tIacute1e European Commnnitiacutees and AF~ican Carib~an and Paciuacutet srUe5
Furrhermore the defensive $spects of NATO were sttessed and with growing European cohcsion the trend iexclS IJkely to ~ towatds a fuoce in which the American elemenr is seen as 1 temporary neceuity eventual1y to be phased out (Sodety fur Anglo-Chioese Undetstanding 1979 90)
lthe countries of the Third World were setn as coostirotiog rbe mluumln force comb$dng imperiaJi~m colonialism and hegemonJsm reEerring nor only to the vestiges of Wesr Etl-OOptan foloniiexcliexclJism bOl abo to US iexclnpetlshyalism and gwwiog Soviet soci$l~imperiacutea1ism Tbe Third Wodd eQuld hdp tn exclude the gre$t powers ny baoding cogecher io such otganizatinos aiexcl tht DAU aod rhey could work ro correct unequiexcliexcl nade and eeonomk reladons with che sUpetpowers through UN iexcliexclgeucies and eonferences such as UNCTAD and UNaos Abo rtlW material ancl exporting orgllnizations liexclke OPEC rbe Incernadonal Bauxilaquo Association ancl the Onion of Banana Bxporting Counuies were proised a ehanging (he old interntlrional eumomic Ome and banerlog che biggest roarerJal plunderers in rile world rhe United Srates and (he Soviet Uoleo (Ptking Rt1Jiew 26 Septtmbtr 1975 cited in Cheo 1979 309)
111e poverty oiacute ehinne study of intetnatlenal erganhuions no dounr caused by the lack of Chinese membership of such etganizacions unril the 197amp and the turmoit ef the Cultural Revulution eiexcliexclme ro an enel by the 1980s Jnstead oere was a more reaHs( viexclew (lE rbe worlcl iexclf one S~shytimes coucbed In Manlst terms In Chlnese univenittes there was a growtb io detailed studies of iutemationalntgsnizations aod the nuropean Union
WritingI un inlmullPmnl vrgrsrtilpiill1J 159
Tbird Wwld vlewJ
Many Third Wodd Afro-Asian aoo Latin Atrusican) writers 00 jntemsw
tional organizaion have adopte a structtulIist framework and are particufarly nm(etnecl abour how insdtutions can be wcd as tools of exploitadon uf rhe nitd World aud how $ome cau be used lIS agenrs of libenuion They llave nor been induded in the ~ettiexcloo un Marxist viltws (or three feamm nOI al of them are Mandst thIJM who are Manisr place particular stresS on (he posicion oF thE l1lIacuterd World and as ThJrd Worlcl eitizens they have through theit own experience unother pe~cdve rhan [Mt of writers from industri$lized srates
Yash 18ndon (1978 377) has identjfied thNf nuacuterd World penfIXrives en inrernational Olganizatiolls Fim [here is that or the bourgeois Of perry natiunalisrs who are in power in mos[ Third World statcs and who are progressive in [errru of anti-impcrialism but are rraniollary ro the C1tccnr WC they would sooner mau thcir pcaee with imperialism rhan iluwnder power (e the masses and peasancs This group uses ineernational orgllniexclm~ tions ro pur presrure 0lI imperialisc states in order to extntCt concession5 from them and appease tbe masses in their own coontries TIley see che UN as an opportunity to parley witb their entwhiacutele impecild masters t a presumed kvd uf equa1iry (Tandoo 1978 365) Thc scltond pcrspective is rhat ofthe reaIly backward regimes of thl Thitd Wodd such un Taiwiexcliexcln and Jotdan or whnm intemarional orguniacutelattnnS are of margJna1 signifieance [)t they prefet tu dea wirh impcrialism iquestirt(tiy The rhird petSPCCrive idenrified by landOll is that uf rhe masses vi thc TIlird World for wbom toterntlunaJ orgmilAriom are petiphewl fin liS Jong as hey rontinue fO reflect the muing balanlte uf clas$ forces in hvour uf impeuacuteJism (fandon J 978 378) Sioce the ene of he 196amp rorces representing thu third group have bccome lnott prominent in world polido in che form of liberarioo groop1 lttCn as tbe PLO and whilst chese have f)tgten interested in galnin8 telaquolgnJtlon rOt rhemshyselves at the UN and the spedaliled agcodes rhey are not depeuden 00 these or8ani1Jlton~ rndecd Tandoo romioeted (hat fo che revoludonary snnggles in SOUfh~E3SC A~a and AfrJctI iOfernattonal otgilnizalJons are tOO peripheml to be of much $ignilJeaoce (Tandon )9713 377)
Tancloo providcd n inrere~tiog history of the Jevelopment uf the anrishycolonialist forees in che Third Wruld sinee 1945 bur hi~ clivi~iexcl()H iexcloro he three perspenives is roo stark leaving aside rhe leil important backWllro regimes be has basiclllly grO~lped tbe Third World leadershp joto the revoshylutionaries who have Uttle netd (or imernatiooa otgllnizatiooll and those who llave suumlpped into refOrmism and have beco duped iot() bdieving (hat they elln ehaoge chelr c1ependeoce 00 industtia1i1Cd nBfiexclmL~ lhrough intemadonal organiwtions Thjs seems to undelsrare me use or ~mh organishyzations by revolutionllry groups - especiiexcliexcllIy che PLO anel tlle SoUthem African liberadon OtgllOiexcl7arionS - whieb have made substaotial use oiacute [he UN me Arah League ano the OAU tO sustain rhe polirical aspeets of theit effOrt5 1t alS(l uverestimatcs the extent tu whieh the Third World countries
J UU wnlmgl 1111 JTiUrllamm41 ergtIttJ1I0fll
have any iUwinru about imetnariooal Qrganizarioos such a~ UNC1~D
Furchermorc the identificador of 800d revolutionaries and falten refurmislS i~ tuller impliexclstjc~ rhe maIur sponrot of the UNs New Ecooomic Order l wruch Tandon hal roudemned as rhe Old Economic Order with a diffefent rltetoric WIIS the Algetian radinu governmenr of Boumediemu rhe PLO irself ha heen dependem on a numlgttr of bnurgeWs Arab goveromenrs foc financial 00 diploJUlltic suppon and ro Tandoos duumlertion that PQr narlonallibemwn movemenn guided by a proktatlan idoology such liS rhose in Chifliexcl1 lIlud Vietnam iruemarionaJ organlwtlona WtU of no 1J5e can be- added the re5ervarion until chey carne (O power Whiht ir took some twenty years belote communist Qtill1 made use nf suth organiutions the unified communiSl Stale ol Vietnam was quick fO cake up it position in the UN ro ask [Ol aid thtough UN agencies liS well as w become ji membet of he CMEA (Comecon)
Third Wodd commemscOt1l on world politics have emphasized the nature uf rheir atea$ potirical ecoOoacutemtc Ilud culmral relatloosluumlp wilh rhe iHdllsrriexcl~ alixed Nonh TitilO is iOO$t Oflltl rypified aiexcliexcl bciug OHe of ueo-folonialism _ COntrol of che Third Wtltld by lhe Nortb by indirecl means ratlet (han by direa colonial tule and of Kf)IomIacute( dRptwJmry (o dtpmdemjiexcliexcl) lntetnationaiacute rdsdOOi bcrween sures are sublumed ro relations between claue$ world wide Ixtween on rhe one lIand the expluacuteiting impetialist capitetists in rhe northcm iru1usuialized couotries 2100 rhcir middle-ltlass collaboratotS in the 50Uthem SUtes aud on the othet band he exploiced masses rhe proleuriat ol [he $Ourhern contJnems The Lurcr gmupS have been 1I1iide ecooomkaUy dependent on [he furmer so char hey lIre in rhe wuacutetds uf the Bruiliiln T Dos SantOS in a situadon jn which the economy of a cetuin group of counshytrles is condiacutedoned by rhe develOplllent aad expansion of aoother ecouomy lO which thcit own 15 subjecred (Bodenheimer 1971 327)
The uOOerdeveloped tounrries depend uacuten [be developed ror their capital nd ercperdse they find key sectors of ehdr eroooroy conrrolled from OUtsJde rhey act as a SOUfce of raw marerials lIS ji lthetip source of labour arul as a rnarket fur mllnuf8ccurers from Euttipe ]apan and North America As thejr living standards were deterrniud by rhe vicissinWeS of the Northern~ dominated wodd marker the relationship was Otle uf unequa exchange (he [esule of which was a world experiencing woequal developmenr with a developed rieh indwtriaJiud capiralisr Notthern centre and d poor underdeveklpedgt agciculrutitlly backwarn eXFloired periphery in che 50mb The dependem 80mh has been divided berween rhe ptedominanr undemeshyveloped area~ lUld a few Cenfres of deve10prnenr wirh their ttade culrural rraffie and polidcal linL to [he deveJoped North - rhe depeOOem develop~ memo omlinea by EH Cardosa (1974) allodlt~r Bruiliall Mmir Amiu (977) rejC(ted the prosptltt of aH antonomous capitalist development in [he Third Work the oew bourgeaisJe of Lacin Ametica Africa and Asia were in allianec with capitalisrs from rhe Nnnh and rhe mato $OUrce of finance ror lmported equipmem was fmm the expon of raw materials to rhe indu~rial
5 ~ _~ smiddot_middot~~
iexclred smes Amin (1977 1-21) SllW rhe can made ror a New Imernational Ecooomic Order (NIEO) by Third World leaders at rbe UN UNCTAD aod che Vilrlous North-Sourh dialogues as an nrtempt LO iexclnerease the price of chelr ntw mattIial exporrs obraio more lmpotted technol08Y snd chus finance a new srage of develQpmenr He saw this ti placing the Thitd World more in the gttp of the neo-co1onialist sysrem and iostmd recommended 11
more self~rcuumlanr development wlrh murrud assismnce between Third World sures a reducdon in [ade wirh rhe induuialized wotld and Chlll a loos~ ening of dependenre Amin lJke TaOOon had Jittle fairh in presenc imtrnruional organizaciexclon Il tools foc fasbiooing a more independent Tbiacuten Wotd His sU88tl1cion of grearer mUtual ilSlgtistaoce between ThUd WorId uate~ implied somtthing more sophillticated than a numbtr of bilateral arrmgements As rbe present orgauizarions used fu iexclncm~Thjrd World cnshyoperation (che OAU he Atab League ASEAN) are domitllued by jusr dl()llC govetnmenrg chM accept lhe eowse coodemned by Amio _ the NIEO ami greater jmegrndon iexcluro rhe world economic sysrem ~hen Amia solutloil involves like-minded deveJoping counrries or more like1y political changes leading ro such indigenous intemuional orgilniwrions
Other Trufd Wodd wdten have plllCtXl emphasls on grearer use 01 exisring insdtutions lOO can broadJy be deKfibed lIS Wopmenraluli huI Prebisch an Argentinian econOmigf has not only studied the que5iaacuteon uf ecooomic dependency but his ideas llave been used as the baJiexclis for che wotk of cwo miexclljoc iexcliexcluemariOOiexcll1 organizadons rhe UN Enmomic Commission fa utin Ameriea (ECLA) and UNCfAD Iu his smdy of Briliacutesh-Argerl(inian trading relntioflS Prebisch bad idenrified rhe unequRl tecrns ol Hade between he favoured (ndusrrislized s(ate of tbe centre and he les privj~ leged llOIl-indumialiacutewl periphery Prebisch unlike rhe dependencia gtChool of Amiacuten Dos Sancos and Cardosa believed thu this inequaLity could be overcome by political acrinn by trade pre[ereonces fuvouring the pedphery by eoo1ruooiacutery agreemenrs by intelnatiacuteowll aid and by more foreiga imvestment in che ~riphery It was thele remedies thiexcllr Prebiacutesch eneouraged when he WiIS Executive SecrCrary of ECLA from 1955 lO 1963 aOO Secrewy-Genernl ofUNCTAD ftoro 14 ro 196tL In~d rhe amoum of aid the periphery needed in omer to overeome their Unfuvoluable rrnde balance became known io UNCTAD clrcles as [he Prebiexclsch Giexcllp
The distinguished Afiican aC1ldentie Aji Mazn1i has wricren un the plighr Qf (bar conciflfnt aod j~ role in pmem~day interruUIDllfl1 afmits He soughr ro answer rhe quesdon Now rlw Imperial Order is eoming ro an end who is going tO keep rhe peaee in Aampica and tu examine he concept of Pax AfrlclllUl the African s ambidoo ro be his OWh palaman The JXIliacutecillJS and se[f~8overnment ufAfriea depended on the nodan ofan African self which Mauui discusseJ in decaH He considered how this 1ndepen~ denre might be threarened by the politicaI and cultural fragmenMion of the contillenr Ellld eronomieally by deperulence on Europe He quoted Kwame Nkntmah finr President uf Ghaniexcll on rhe Europe-Jn ECOntunir Communiry
162 Wilihgr rm intd1JatirmallJrganizatimu
ihe ireaty of Romemarks the advent of oeoKolonitJism [n Afriacuteen snd bears unqutSrlonably the marks of Freneh neo-colonuumlllism (Murui 1967 93) He moduded from tM that Wlut AfrlOlns tbelaquofore neecletl was II
renerru authotity of cheir owa tI) ((lordilJlte fheir eltonomk and policicat deCena- sgain5t trus rnreat (Mamtiexcl 1961 93)
Given this theme it is not surprising tlwt Mazrui ser srore by rhe OAU bU[ he was realistic in bis judgement
In relatioos betwlaquon African statts lIOflesr step rowards Pu Africana was taken when rhe Organiution oiacute Aftlaquolln Uniey set up in Commissiacuteon ofMediauacuteoo Conci1illtion aud Arhitmion
Anormr OAU Commissioo of relevance fot Fax AftlOlna ls che Defence Cornmission Sor me Defeme Commlnion 1w se Car been among che lean effecdve QfPan-Aiacutericun ins(kndons Afrka mar indeed aspire to be her owu ptlliceman bur she does nO seem ready as yel to par the price iacutem it
(Mauui 19612[3)
Mazrui oudined the varicd backgrounds of [he lemen oiacute newly illdepenshydent Africa and thdr radical and revolmionary ideas and it is pethaps swprising rhat the insrirutions rhey created fur me coutinenf wete so mnservative with [he p05sible exceprion oiacute the OAUs Natiomtl Libetttion Comminee Mazrui no[ed thac Africa srill has the problem of how othet powetS respond tu its behaviour and [har forcigo iotmsilm in AJtica continued Indetd the I990s proved tO be a dC(ade of disusrer for AfrieR The debiacute burden contimlld while Ilome states collapsed lnro civil war ami others took to iutenoendoo in thejr ueighbonrs affairs Outslde interference from borh Enrope and North Amecica euodoned One of rhe fcw brlghr spots was the end of apallhcid in South Africa and the peaceful transitioo ro majoriry mJe lo al thiexcl~ tn quote Juliacuteus Nyerere rhe ampcmer pre~iexcldenl of Tan1ania The OAU exists outr ror tbe prorecdoo of (he Afrinllt Head~ oiacute State (cited io AlilgapPltl 1998 1 ) The relarive optimism of Maztui has giveu way ro Afriam writers examining sorne of me disrnrbing details of inaction by [be OAU and regtonal orgauiacutezatJuns nlCh as ECOWAS beiog used as doaks fu the machinations oE regional hegemou$ suth as Nigcria (Mibe 1m 61-9(1)
Radha Sinha$ problem--ortented undy Food iexcllfId PIWt11y (1976) has an IItgent message Sinha a former consultaot of the FAO prodnced an iofuacuterrned aUllyiexcljiexcl of the world$ food problem stress1Og in paniacutecular the maldistribution of food and other resources Noting he profO$ab of UNCTAD with heit muld-rommodJty approach and buffer nocks provjshySiOfli he commented rhe grearesr weakness oE the UNCTAD scheme js les Hkdy politlca1 unilcceptablliry ro me developed (ountdes parriculady che USA (Sinhil 1916 114) a propheey that has proved to he cortect He identitled a more aggresslve attitnde by Third World sutes e5pedally
WrilirrgJ on i1tternatiflii1l rHgarrtzatitmlt 163shy
after the uH prite cise of 197314 when the developing coonuies tried to maximize their own market powers by formin cartcls such as rhe Intematimlal BaurdtC Association the Intemuional Coundl of Copper Expotcing Countries aud the Intema[ional Tin Agrcrmenr He gave n qualified wekome ro the Lomeacute Convention betwcen the European (omrounities anJ cenain African Padfic and Caribbean Haces Writing in 1976 he commented
The receot cbange in rhe luirudes of tite tiche countries is largely due tu the incIeasing miliuncy of the Third World countries lt is almost ertalll utar the magnitude offuture cnnc~sions in me coune ofGAIT aud UNCTAD IV Ilegotiarioos wiU deperu mainly on (he continued solidariry uf the devdoping counlrtes
(Siha 1976 116)
Sinha was pardy correct as tbe solidatity cf rhe Tbird Workl states cracked se the induurialized wodd withheld funher Con(eampSJoru but ir was able tO do so because market condidons swung against che primaty producen
In his condusion Sinha called ror a IIDre1 shttting of wnrld t($nmes and power if confrontarion was ro he avoidOO He feared that the ffa of roshyoptradon berween [ieh and pool conntries hiid ((lT1e to an end and that batde lines were being drawn Instead he advOOIreltI majnr concessions from the dcher coumries on trnde lInd aid issues and a1so a ma~lt te$ltUcrnring of the incematiotlill organization~ aoo negoacutetiating ffiarhinery in order tu provide a much gtC2ter say fm me poorer countries in internatiooal tJ1lde invesrment and mooetaiexcly armngemenrs (SiMa 1976 132) GAn 1BRD aud IMF have been the presenoe of [he ri h with voting weighted m faacutevour of rhe OECD countries and Sinha re(()ffimended thlll GATr aoo UNCiAD be merged inro an Intemacional irade Organization (ITO) and che creatlon of a Third World permanent secrctariat iexclnvolved in all trade and aia negoriarioru Thoogh less radical than Amin Sinha aIso recomrnrnded gttter coshyoperation berween developing coulltries and an eoo ro their inkrtotity complex with instead a sense of m~ttnal sdiacute-e$teem and trust being devel~ oped (Sinha 1976 ch 10) Litde that h~ happened during the 19905 woo1d have encouraged Sinha The World iratle Organiaadon has emerged as the presenoe of the dlVelupeJ tares and lw brushed aside many of thc mucerns cf UNCTAD Debr ha~ edged on ro dlt wudd iexclagenda but mainly at the beheS[
of a non-governmental organization )ubiacutelec 2000 nd the promi$e~ of the main financill jnsrirutluru lO pursue dcbc-rclicf produred but a thiniexclmfl
In aH Third WQrld commenrarors have provided a vatied and lively approruh fOwards tne problems uf intetniexclational organizarions Their emphasis has niltntaHy beCl Qn tbe use of wurld lmtirutions to change the econornic condidon or the Southern cominents As this enndition is likely to worscn in the near filrtltf further more lJica conrtibutions on the rule oC
-- --- ~- __ _~- __- imernatIacuteonal orgaoilarions in Nonh-Smuh relarJons tOiexclghf be apected from rhe Third Worid A1ternaciveJy wrirers (mm rhat ares rmy jW ltIacuteespUacutet rm imergovemmemal orgaoizarions ar lealaquo Mee rhem $O Hrrle
Cfili~ald~heJ
Critica approadvs lO the nudy uf intetnadonal relations are (hose har rejee( the dominating vleW1iexcli repr=med by tbe realist and reformistS as oudined aboye In paHicular rhey reglUd realists as apologisu for the currem con6gutltion of power 10 (he wiexcldd sytem and considet [har rhe refOnntstS are elrher unable ro undersraoo he fUe llamee )( (hi sysrem oc ille UDwiUing to accepc rilar ir needs more rhan mooest refotlllS TIlOugh they may sympalhi-ze wirh rhe agenda of some Marxists aud Third World wt1cers chey do [lO( llave rhe hisrockal certaimy of the former not rarely do they have the experience and perspective of ehe larter TItey view intenUishy(jnl1ill nrganiutions wirh a jaundiced eye as these are mainly the lll$tmmenfS of rhose who dominare rhe syuem This section COlllaios an wcoum nf three approaches tmt of the critical rheorlsti- of kmintsc wrirshy[1185 ulld pose~mooernismlt
Cri(~1 herJrY The approach of critical theory 10 JnrematlonaJ o(ganizatiooll iSi determtoed by their wider world-view which in itsclf is explaiiexclwd by tbeir llame One of the leading exponents Roben Cox said [har ie is cririca1 in cne Jensc rha h srands apan 100m che prevailiog order of rhe wOlld and asks how tb$t oroer came iexcllPouc Ir does nor r-ake existing irucimtioM lIl1KI JIQwer relaclons rOl granred bu c311s them iacutemo queuion Ir 1S diexclrlaquoced ro rhe social itnd JIQiirshyical complex as a wItole rarhet (hall he stparate pirtt IUthet than subdiide and Imic an examination of a problem it looks al the wger pkturc of whkh rhe problem is jwt oue part and trio rO wJdeThwod the processeS uf change ill which botIt pans ulld whole ure involved laquo(ox 1993 277~S)
Ai a thoory cridQiIacute theory rejeen tbe daims of posicivism of an external Nulity and to be mue-free ror critkal rheorIacutests koowledge ti nor moraUy IleUc1ll1 ic is more che result of the social background of tbose Wt hold ir Given this ctitkal tbeory alJows foc a normarive choice in favoU of a social ancl iexclJlieiexcl(ld order diflerent f(cm rhe prevruHng arder bur it limiu the ruuse 01 chotce ti a1remative orders which are feasibJe mmsformations ofme cxvaing worJd h musr rejEC[ improbable alternadVe8 ju~t as ir rejecrs rhe pcrmanctlly nr lhe exiscing order (Cox 19 90)
Cridcal rheory differs lrom Marxist upproElchcs beCElUS( of iu tejection nf any daim to hold the objenive tru[h and betause or it~ avoidance of (he pmslllt ol il utopia Neverrhe1ess [heir analysis of incernarional relarln1l$ is one tbu hEls u numher of similariuumles wich the Marxisc pcrspecdve It regurds rhl tlistlng suucrures of world polirics as beiug oppressie not
- _ __ _-
lean because of rhe dominance of (he capitalism of che Unired StElte~ For many che USA is seco as a hegemonic power the prevailing urder - in re[ms rbar reReet he wrirings of the Itallan Marxisc writer Amonio Gramscl (1891-1932) Gramsd advanced the nodon of ln hisrori(middot bloc which in itself refilaquors che $Ocial reladons oE ptoducdoo The dominanr dass in a counrty - 01 indeed aoy social grouping - mlinrains cohesion and idenciry withio [he bloc [hrough the ptopagacion of a COIDmOfl culturegt A new bloc can be formelt when a subordinate dau can euablish tU hegeshymony over orher subotdioate gtOllpS (Cox 1993 56--7) The IDove rowuds hegemony comeS with the piexclt$ting fmm che spediacutek inrercsrs ofa gronp Ol
dass tO rhe building uf inrimdons aOO elaoorarion uf ideologies (Cox 1993 57-8) It Loiexcl rhat ptOCe$S thar embeds the incemu of the dominanc dan in an imttmrional form thae [w an appeal widet [ban that dan ine1f It the-refole repreSoems mote tlmn jUSt (he drunJnaoce oE one state ovec anocher bllt implies a cemufi acceptante of the tules arJd institutions purouized by [he hegemonic JIQwer Jo other woros it is all order wbicb most Olher Sta[e-~ (01 at 1enst those within reath of die hegernouy) couId find compatible- wirh their iexclmetem (Cox 1993 6t) h aJso involves noe just inttt-staee rueivirle5 bur rhose oiacute tlvilliOCiety (oon-Stllte socieM instishycudons) ebereby encoumging Hnks between social dus$ts iexcln the connules covered by ebe hegemony
What does Cox llave to uy about ioccmational Otgsniuciexclons 1bey Ilre scen in he oontext ofme wiacuteoo unaemanduuml18 of itnernational reUacuteltions mentloned iexcliexclhove He is direcr 000t mem Ooc mechanisru chrough wruch the universal norms of a wodd hegemony are expttssed js the interoatiooal organisation (Cox 1993 62) Why is chis so Cox U993 62) gives five teIlSons
bull They e-mbody rules cOae help (be- apwlSion of a hegemonic wodd iexclrder These insdwrians reflcct the intererts ()( the dominam social anil economic force- buc a1low a cettain amOunt oC adjusrment ro accommodare other subordinared interests TIms the USA WllS preplltoo ro mm conccssions to
bciI18 in Lhe EU srares and Japan ro rhe Wotld Trade Otganizatimt They a[e prooucrs of that order Though [he insrimrions and rules Ilce
nurITlllUy initiared by the hegemook power ir takes cate ro involve aOO comule a numbe-r of second-ronk stares and gaio theit supporc he Wotld Bank and Inte[nacional Mooetaty Fund were very much pan of [he world order thar emerged afrer [he Second World Wat and which was dominared by rhe Uoiced Stlres
They ltgidmi7e i[s nOlms by providing guidance for SllIteS and by legitshyimiuacuteulS cerraIacuten IlCdviries Ilr me narional leveL he OBCD afie rhe inrerruuiooal financia) irntuumluriom lave spread an acceptante of mllrket coodirions and sHict mOllerary iexclJlides
They co-opr elites from pelipheral counrrie Ihlented sraH commg 110m the Thiacuterd Wocld are expected tO dCCept he scriexclpt wcittttt by the domishynam power Bouuos Bourros-Ghati as Secteury General uf the Unired
166 Jiexclljiexclr1giexcl Qr1 ifJfCflrttuacutemal IWgaizati(ifJJ
Nadons stroyed too amp~r ftOm the gtip of Washinston and his second term was VCtoM by rhe USA His sucecssor Kofi Annan will no doubt undentand what 1$ n-quired of him He brings the mncerns of orhe states ro che UN bUf nor in a way thu threatt1l$ the USA
bull They absorb counter-hegemonic ideas Ideaiexcl $uch as 1iustainable dlYClop_ ment tukl even debr foTgiwness are taken 00 board by the intetnatwnal finarnial institlltion$ blu are trandirmel into pulido rhat swt them
Wh~t is ro be done Cox thinks thar the pfQblem of changiog dw world orUer 1iMuld be shlfred back from intern~tional insritutions tO niexcllriacuteooal $OIacuteishyeties where the sodo-political b~se for a new historie bloc mighr be ereated (Cox 1993 64) FaiJing the creadon of a new historie bloc of the new working cla$s and rural and urb~o marginal groups there might be tnmdorshymadon oC the curtent monopoly-libcral hegemony by adjusting to rhe demanJs oiacute local ello$ for polides 5uch as natlonaHution Cox 199~ 65) He aw advocates te-regulation of erooomies and a re-wmpositjon of civil sodery Internatiotla lnstlcutions induding organiutions can berome eontact puint1i fOr new $OCia[ furtt (Cox 1994 (11)
Critica throrJm $uch as Cox oifee a refreshing exposidon oiacute che posidofl oC imernatiooal ofganizatioos in a wocld where the main revolutionary powe~ have either collapsed (rhe Soviet Union) or se(tled into a cautious ronservatirun (China) Ir provlde~ a sceptical arf realisric world~view without acreptins tbe inevuumlahility ni a illture domlnared by mooopoly eapi~ ujsm sud the Utlired States J-Iowevtr its appllcariexclon to intemationa1 organhatJons 11 StImewha( timited tQ the maln global jnsdm(jons and th financial and economlc orgmiutions Ir has 1m (O say aboue regional nrgashynjudon Uf abour N(JUacutes Furthermore iu alternarive fu(ure testS on ourcoroes thu are far froro certain RevnJutlons in the Thied World are roore likely to be- irupired by nadondi$m oc by IsJaroic fllndamentaHfl OCalaquoely [he solid ooses for new historie blocs
Fwinuumll aNml4cbts
Feminist perspcctives 0f1 inttmatlonal rtlatioos llave in common wirh the erit~ ical rheocillu a rejclaquoion of (he dominance in rhe $Ilbjecr of the rcnHst and rdOrmisrs Although fuminist writen cover a wide 5laquolpe the gencral basis oiacute their aqurnent 1S har in interwnional relatioM ru in most politkal aud tcooomk acdvity women are diexclSJtdvantagt~l Alchoogh they own ahour 1 pet tCfH oC the worlJs lfOpeny and tiexcliexclxe heme 10 peiacute ceoc ofincome they perfurm 60 per eenr of working houn and provide 80 per eent of nfusets (petetsen and Runyan 1993 6) This is a derDOnstrndon of gender inequalitie~ the sodalJy learned behavior and expecratioos thar distioguish berween maKuliniry and femininity (Petetsen and Runpn 1993 5) Feminist aprroaches ofren So bejond the $tati~tks and examine (he mind~se[ of those engaged in the pmctice of intemadonal rdations whiexclch (bey ampee as geodered In other woros che world
Writingc Off inlmhJliofMl vrgntiZdlMm 167
illeen in a mlLlndine way thar kvrntB (he posjtiOll o( mnles in rhe hitgtranhy and devlllues the c041trihution of WQmeO (Sylvestet 1994) War in pattKular is gendered in a way chat keeps wornen and metl from qUtstioniog the essentiat pmpose and he neglltive effects of war militarization ~nd viQleme on their awn and orhers livts (Petetsen and Ruoyan J993 9 t)
What of wminist view$ uf imernationaJ organizationsr Ir IS not possible ro presem a rollf(tive vjew that eneomp3$~e~ rhe works of radicaJ femjnisu and ny iexclihetal teminists (rutead the work of one author Sandra Whitworth (1997) will be used as me pily$ rornt attrntion ro inrernarlonal organizations Aamper inrroductions ro feminilfr theory and internacional frIamiddot tiom and gendet and internacional relatlons Whirworrh examines geodet and imernational organilions She screpts Coxs vjew oiacute inrernational orgashynjzarions [har they retleltr (he dominant powet relations in che intetnational system and rhae internaliomd otgaoiution h che procelt of imcitntionaJshyiling and regulating conOice - eicher rhat which may IIrise among siexclates o( char which has iu (onU io transnationaI society (Cox 1980 375) TIte way duu pcople orgaoire themelve$ wirhin international iostirurjons reflects a variety of power relations ineludi~ of rollJSe gendec relatiull3 (Whitworth 1997 74) lbe triad of jnstirutions ideas and material rQudi~ tioru help ro hxare uSllmptiolls aboue geoocr withiu jntetmltional rewtioos Whitworth uses thesr tn examine lhe uooerstandillg oiacuteScndec io an INGO the Internadonal PlarUled ParenthooJ Federatlou (JPPF) and an intergnvemmental organilJ1rion (albcir one wlrh some oOl1-governmentJ)J represemation) the InrernatlonaL lab01lrOtganiution (no)
Whirworths studies show rhar thr IPPF tended ro accept the deshyemphasizlng oi the gendered oamfr of reproducdoo and (f) ignore rhe imponaoce ofbirth comcol foc womens reproductive freroom Instead in an effort tu popularize birth rontrol srrel~ WWl placoo on paremhooJ rather than iexclust the womans choice However IPPF poUcy beeiexcllme more radirnl in (he 19905- with Hnks beirtg made berween II1M control alld womeos ~)tu~ ality (WbJtworth 1997 ch 4 pmim)
The RO eoucerned itself with WQmen as workern It cnnsidercd that tbey oeeded spec-ial atrention and promoted ptoteCtlvt legiexcl~lacion This reiexcln~ forced me view (har [he male worxer Wall the norm with women workers nor deserving the same rights remunfration lOO mndirions Latterly however the JLO ha~ reflectoo views rhat prodaim wornens elt)ualily in rhe workforce and has sunoo tuacute assess the importanee of policies on womens role in rhe workplace as weU as in sodery more wjdely (Whlrwnrth J997 ch 5 panm) Whitworth comes [O the eondusion rhu iexclln iexcllnaLyiexcli~ of gernler in rbe IPPF and no shows how tbese rdiexcliexcldonsbips llnd definirions ni what it is to be a womltn oc man are structuted relationsrups3nd hlsrQciudly hve been scrurtured tu disadvantage women (ibid 15n
lo eommon with the critkal meorists Whitworth has useQ au examinamiddot doo of two intetnational organixations (O deroonstrate a puinr about imerflational relatiexclon~ indeed sodal rctatrol1s mOte widely The poinr is
I1
I
middot - ~-_ --___ aOOuc powec and iu use not (O balance oue SCdre ligaiOSf anorher but fm une gooup ro domiaare morher Jn chis case it 1$ ma the dominution of one dass me m culcnre over $ofU)(her (though Whirworrh recognizes those reLationshyships ti wcll) but of roen over women The crititUl uudy oiacute (wo jnceraational mganirations dealing with iSSlle5 recoSniud ti beiiexclg oiacute impocshycanee or WOfficn suggesu rha( tltOO simihu research on orher internacional organizadons could proJuce interening aOO uwfuiexcl resulrs
Pllit~ism
Thc posc-moderruacutesr $opprooch lO intetaarional rcllldon is one tlur bas (ome ro che fote Jn che perlod sinee lite end of rhe Cold War Jr is based on $o widcr imellectual viewpoim insrigated by l1rench iorcUtcruals of the 196()s gener~ ation _ Bllrrhes Derrida FouclIul and Lyorard - and whkh suggested rhat the modero era liad becn overome 11 fejeas mera-nattatives gnlud accounv- of hi5tory aoa iacuteNIacuteler subjecu as having no independem rubstance Scientifk btliefs induding [hose oiacute rhe $)(ial scJcllces are rooted in (lllxure polill(os arul mores oJ a wciery and are lherekJre subjective As rhere is 00
oblcctive reality cmpirical daims bave fl() spccial sunding in rhe rralms of koowledge IndeeJ ir i$ power aod knowledge are intimatel) incerwirud Posr-moJernism Hllnds against rhe belief of rbe modero pcfiod which LI seco as beginning wiacuterh rhe enlightenmcm of mid-eightcenth cenrufy Europe and AmeriCll Ir rheldore rejcn~ rhe COMCpr$ oC rationalirl and progrcss aSSuacutedared wi(h [he enlighrenment and [he moocrn age Thc uniry of IOOnkind iexclirW iexcldells such liS rhe untveIsWiI) of human aacuteghrs are rejcuoo lnsceadlocal aetion in smallgroups 15 advuacuteClmd
Post-modetnist ideas have affected tite srOOy of inremruionaJ rdarions as (bey have ocher social scienccs Posr-modern imeraarional relariops theoriscs havc ustd heir view$ 00 objecuumlviry (o exiexcltmine che rrmhs of international relatiom en see how rhe concepts iexclind knowledge-dairm (bar dominare the Jisdpline in faer are highiy conringenr on spccific power relatiom (Smith 1997 181) Post-modemisrs bave lltfa(red me mcta-narratives of the reelshy1m and reformlsu aHke The objectiacutevemiddot aaallses of the realim Ilnd neo-realisu are setn as being deJl(nclent on the subjective standpojnts of cheif mainly Amen(an and Europeau authors Ijcharcl amphiel (1986 258) daimed he works o[ Kenneth Waler men the leading neo-realillt trrat the glven ordcr a rhe natural nrder Jjmirs rarheE (lian 1XpawU political discllUtse negales oc rriviuliliS the signifinnce uf variely urOiS time and plue Whar emerges ii an ideology tllar anridpatcs iegirimires ancl onents a totalitarian projen 01 global ptoponioo~ che rattoualiaciuacuten of global poHcics iexclbe reformius are likcwise tainted Md have Ji mhr$lren belief in pmgress The posc-modernl$rs poinr m rh Helocausr as rhe heighr oiacute mooemism a rombimiddot Halioe of science dnd polidcal otganizillnon Il was SCruTely progreso
Given an antifllthy mwards rhe MlVe[iacute~ign srae borh as a centre of powet ll1ld as a crearioll Jiten imbutol wlth a wncepltliexcl uf progress pest~miexclJdetniexclsls
wHungJ mi Im~iexcliexclrun wgltiIRrzuJlU7iJ 1J7
can lOUcdy be expcctcd to vIacuteew intergovernmencal organiUlrions wirh sympilthy Tbe prefetted iacuteonu of internacional organizations when mentioned are those thiexcltt ltlj~plal differemes snd dlvenity in global pelitlcil duu are reginnaUy based or rhar reflec irKlividual actlOn Tndecd ir SeeIJS
rbat Michel Fomawt was involved with an alliance oiacute twO INGOs (Miquestdecin du Monde and Tertl-s do Hommes) in proresting agaiust internadonal iH~shydon over rhe boat people who flcd Vietnam in tite lare 1970s and ear1y 19S(k He is gU()[ed 11$ sayillg tbar Amnelltl Internnrlonal Teueiexcl dts Hommes Mfiiecin du Monde lHt inirilltives whiacutech have created a nrw righr rile dAht of privare individuss ro iexclntervene in [he otder of polino and internatioont snateg(eiexcl (dred in CampheH 1998 516)
Aootber researcher has exnmined ~he Europcan Communities Ilr che point wben Jr was mnslorming intO me European Unioo and askOO whether ir was a pootmodew ConJigUflHton (Nstrgaard 1994) Hi condusions wcre mar ir was gualiwiveJy a new organizarion oC human calJecrlvJties which mighr U$hec the coming of post-moderniry (Ntgttgnatd 1994 27j) The basis fO[ [bis judgemem was rhat me Ee did nO approximate anl modero form of piexcliexcl1idUll Ofpnizarion it did OOt commatld che means oiacute violence its au[hotity derives noc from die people and ir appeared to be a fCgJoo trying ro pOrecr itiexcliexclelf againsr globaliacutezadun iacuteN0rgaaro 1994 274--5) Ir remllins ro be sren whether [he BU tJf [he twenry-first cenrury wHl fu1fi1 rhtgtse hopes Ot wiU stllrr ro teVen
to a more scate-like being Generall) dIe cririolapproaches ro interruHiorud relarious hiexclJve provided
1lOOIe innovatIacuteve insigllls iexclnro rhe study uf imemarional orgsnizations The crtrical theorists llave becn sh3rpest in rheir unde[$(iexcltnding nf internarional ofgiexclt1lizacious as servsnrs of a dominiexcliexclIf power configuracion thoogh the) lave pemaps Umieed cbelr scope wllen viewing internacional organizadons Feminis[ wJiters ruave given Vltike to whac i5 after aH tbe scmi-sileut majoric) in rhe world and Ilre ouly srarting in qnest10niug the male dOmimiddot nance nuacutet iexclusr of the nmning of IGOs huc aloo of theic agenda Tite post-modemisrs are iMlSr concerned oiacute he (bree 8rOUp5 with inretnationlll organiucioru as such bllr rIacuteleic intellecrual approach is the ffiOSt tadkal aud can lelld tuuml a fnon of nihilism
GltJbaliacutesf lIiu
A gIobalisr perspective does oor viacuteew world poliacutetica as being predomishynandl arout iotergovernmemal relatlnn~ Ili would realisu or illbour inrentare aruI imersocietal rdations as a number uf reformisu llliexclll consider lnsteaacuted it cakes a more holisdc view Problems are (cmfronred ac Ji global level wlurions have tO be sou8ht here as weil This iexcls not ro neglcct (he 10tal Ol rhe ~tlte level ir is more J recognilion of the limiutshydoos of acdviuumles rhere The world-vicw like rhe reformists places empllasu on whal unIacutetes people Ilnd has lirde time for lhe demaoos of power pouumlics aad stare-cemrir orglLuiwrjollS Ir goe~ fllrther by nor
1 V WNimgJ lJ7f tIfernattmiexcliexclJ 11fK4111141tOnJ
liminog in view eirhec ro pans of che world or ro rellltions berweeo particuJar poliric~ lr ioded jlLSr m the economic social and poJitical demaods of mankind Paradoxically ir can be seen as IIn approach rhe very OppoSllC of the fimctionalist wirb whom tbere 5 much io common In nmtrast lO rhe fnnctionaHst (or neo-fllnctiooalisr or intetclependeuce srhuul) and ccrrainly in contrast ro rhe powet politks aOO MaOIacuteIt writers (be whole world approach places emphasis not 00 the discrere r~uiexclreshymems of groups SClteiexcl or individulI1s bm 00 tbe wel1-bciog of the tCOsystem in which rhf5f funnioll cbe planet Eanh The conccen of chis apptoach which is rcflccted il] in ttcumeUr of illternational urganizatiom is for the survival of lhe plunet for its effident funccioning in its widest SeILie aud fot che survival oiacute rhe myriad oiacute speoacutees - ollly one of which is homo sapiens - tbat inhabh me globe
Sinle tbe 196Os a number of wtiters on imernational affairs have expounded 00 tbis view and llave cOl1l~uendy ronsideted the implicadons for intemational organizacions Jobfl Button in bis World Society ronsldeted iflmstatt relations to be onIy a pan of wodd poli[iacutea and wrore
lf we employ rhe term world rociety imiexclreui of internanofla relarions iIacute we apptoo(h OUt study in this global way insread of the more tradi~ lonal nattonal way we will end to have a wider focos ro ask quesrions rhat are moee fundlmenral aOO imponant lO civilization and be ahle ro assess bettet me relevance of om own national bduviour ro be wider worW envifonment
(Button 1972 21)
Rkhacd Stetling posed the problem more spedfically
Nuclear esCllatiofl the popullltion explosion the pollmiofl of tbe envishyronmcnt the communkations rtvolurion rbe world~wide concentNdon of wC1llch and world~wide expansiofl of pltlvcrty are iexcliexcl11 essemially global and not 1laquo al pbellomena They have given rise jn tutn ro eartbshyspamuacutellg and revolutionary demands ror mass education rnass hesltb malts welfure and maltgts participation in che dccisions affecting roans fare
(Srerling 1974 322)
This wodd-view of rhe problems of the s)Jaceamphip EQlth begged fur global oolutlofl$ It suggcsred iexclhu not onIy iJ the system of sovereign stares as yer unable oc unwiHing to COme to grips with the above-menuontd prohlelUS but that a network of llllergoVCtn1lental organiutlom bGsed 00 me rights of statc wVfretgnt will ~lso be hammllng Globtl problems needed global solutlons based on institutinos rhat can (ake a global petsplaquoshytive Thus Sterling considetecl thllt it ~ tlOt unreasooable (O amidpate tme tbe member stares will be moved ro considft equippifllil the Unitw Nttous witb mote crunprebensive powen 1lt global pressUfes build 0974 323)
~h~ laquoo ~gt~ _- -gt bullbull (_bullbullbull __ - bullbull
A more compeluumlng cdH wus lAltiexclued by Barban Ward and Rene Dubas in their book prepared for [he UN Gmference of ehe Humafl EnVJroJlmenl 01lly UIIt EaFlh The c~ altJ Mdilllt1JatfCe (JI d Sflall Pta~t (972) 111ey stremsed the ufliry of tbe Eanh Jnd in eovironment and the )Jroblems in(ed by Jts iohabitants emntially thost oudined by SterJiog The ~uthoflgt poillted OUt rhat rhF envitonmenral qmosrion had by 1972 already had 50me impaltl on guvernments and im(rnarional organl1Jtion but the effior was somewhat ltInJOrdinated and unfocuseL In (hree particular aren - tbe global atmosphere rhe oceaml the worlds weather sysrellU - tbt-y saw [bl jmmediate neOO for (OmInOn poliey und co-ocdinared actiollS where vcerenshysions to national sovercigmy have no relevance ro ptrreived problems Bu rbefe was a need to go furrher and denl wirh other global problems di5Case srarvation iHitmcy unemployrnem ovcfllwding rntetnational poliCJcs wece at the 5tage reachOO wlrhin rhe devdoping s[ate~ of the ninettTtb (entury Elche they wiU move O to a wmmIlJlity bL~ro UiexclXIIl a more systematic sharin8 of weaJtb Ot tbey wiH break down in revoh and anareby (Wacd and Dubos 1972 295- -6) They Looked forward ro a sense of gLobal rommuniry 00seJ on he bope vf Irotecdon (from war aOO disaster) and the hope of enhancemenr (ecologic$1 as well as economid The ptlKtic~ and insrirutlofiS with whkh we are familiar inide our domestk sociecies would become suitably modlfied che basis of planetary oroer (Ward aOO Dubos 1972 297-8) This woold indude non~violent settlement of disputes witb legal arbirration ~nd polioacuteng ptocedures on an international basis jr would mea the Hansfer uf resoucces from rkh ro peor Ilnd inerCllSlaquo co-operaeion in arealt 5uch as health and edUcatIO farming uroon planning aud )JOlJution control As [befe halt been a shift of loyalty rom taroliy to dan from dan to tlation and from nation to fedctation there Wampll
hope clajmoo Wl1fd and Dubo$ for an ultimare lnyalty tuacute OUt single beau~ tifulllud vulnerable Planet Eanh (Ward and Dubas 1972 298)
Whilst the institutiona fmmework and organizational stfllCtuteS remain of necenity -ague in Oltl OM EaFtA iacutet is del( rhat the authors Wfre atming 11( a tlttwork oiacute world-wide fflnctionaUy hased organlzatiofll (both lOOs and JNGOs) char couId take on much of the work )JfCsendy done by governshymems o( rather whkh ougbt [O be dont by governmems UacuteJter writing-s have attempted (O deal wjth thc policy impliration$ of delllJng with )JrobshyJems globdly sroos (986) has poiacutenred en what 1w already been achieved in gtobal problem solving l1nd ha~ soughr ro buHd on rhis His critio have prunted out tha( what has already becn undertiacutelken has bren done more along rradicional Jntergovernmentallines (Donnelly 1990 121-30) Orbe writen have tied rubievemen[ in addressiacuteng [he global agenda more to renewed rutiviry in the UN (Rochester 1990 141-54) or to greater grass~ roots aud INOO acriviSffi Wget 1990 155-~8) Either way globaJj~m offeacuters a distinct W1ly of rackling the worlds ptublem~ It 1$ u ViIOIl thar sttesiexcles uniey and common (am( ntthet than disasreemem and roofrontashytion ir (ould thereIacuteore (oresce disputes being sruved inlernationally vety
much in (he way tbar chey are pre~ndy solvcd within tunny MtiOO iexclrares by more ro arbitratwn and Jaw and by entorcemenf ir neteS$il1) In this rhey have muh in COIDfllOfi wirh tire imerrnuiona lawyers iacuteUld idenlist writer of me eady (wenuacuteeh eemury mentioned at the beginning of tbu chaptet The globalisn are inspirecl jn rheir thinking more by ten Ot lt nudeal holocatlsr and by environmenml breakdown tnan by rhe duumleet elrpeshytieme uf wa dlllf aiacutefected rhe wricings of Woolf ol Ikierly
TIacutete globalisl appro~(h is opert ro the criticism of bcing roo idealistk jn a cynical world and lOO iIDpracrical in in uacutelstitutional sU8scsrioll5 Bur the di$mi$Slil oC rh~ words as globaloney cKleS HOt lid lite wctld oC che probw lems which hey have 50 effectively publiacutedzed They lutve uied to add anorIte dimensioacuten ro whar is possibte by showlng thar ie is nOCeSSiexcllty fOl rhe iexclurviwl of che planee
Tlle radical approach to the smdy oC iOternational orgllnizarions reflocu worIdmiddotvitws that normaUy lO beyond -dmse Jominated by rhe ltctivities of iexcltatcs or of LIte organizltuumlnns chemselves There is a sceprical view of whut is happeoing al soy one uacuteme in imernarional celarions and of he abilicy of mOfe cradicional wcifecs on imernafional cdarions ro explain let aJone llOderstand what is happeoing Ir is the feeling rhar approaches such ll1 (he MaNisr tlwt of rhe ideal theorisrs and some of rhe globuli~rs ur~ coming cber (O uodemaoding humanicys wider dilemmas rhar makes rhero so amactive They ar~ less Iikdy co apply rhemselves to rhe defais rutd wnrk~ ings oiacute p$cdcular imernatinnaJ organizations but neverrheless providt iotriguiog insighrs 00 [his phenomenoo by seeing rhem rhrollgh mol panoprk phHosophical lenses
SUMMARY
The rhree flIajor $chuols dealr wich io chis chaprer - the tcatiacuten the reformisrs iacutei1d che radical$ and rhe variarions (bey contain did not and do tlOf exJn iexcln a hiSforlcaj vacnum lde-as Wele foffilulared wirhio lhe COnten oiacute panicular sodedcs uoo in response ltO pUticular problems rbe communl (adom reYoludon of fhe nineteemb century the Finr World Wlli rhe rise of Nui Germany the spreading of nudeu weapons the deve1opmeof of plthitshy
$econd Workl War Europe fbe pnxeues of decoloniwion and deacuteteme rhe end oiacute the Cold War and rhe advaoce oiacute che inCormatton revolution In sorne CilSC$ the views oiacute rhose wdtings on inttmiddotrnational ocganUatlOHS have liad un efiecr on evenrs rhemelves pirlKulatly 00 rbe actitudes oC govetnrnents mwards tnternatiorW orgdflixauons AIl tXample is the work oC LecnarJ Woolf woose suggesnons Ctmceming a world organizatloo conttibuted lO fhe detailed preparnion oC the Lague oC Nations by me British goveltr mene Likewise Hans Morgeruhau and EK Can provided seimuli fot infiiexclrmoo US and Btirish governmcllul rhinking abom inrerruuional rela~ tiom iexclrom the 194Ck onwards In mher cases rhe general writings cJ persons lgtuch as Marx Leoin Mao Tse-tung and che dependencia school have affecred
rhe poJirk1ll dimare wirhin which govemmcncs conduce rheJe poUcy iucluding thar wwards jnternaclorull otgauj~atjon$
Orber ruCfOf$ aplft froro their historial cuntexc Iuve affencd the views of rhe schunl$ rncntioned They have differint backgtounJs io cheit ideruogy (Wesrero commllniSf Third World radical environmenralisr) and in theit level of $nalysis of inrernarional rebtions (stare Centuacutec inretesr aoo rramna~ dona groups cLitraquo dominanr global) This a(icca the typC oC inrernatiacuteonal organizariacuteon dominam io their studies (IGOs INCo) auJ thcic 8eograph~ kai $rea of interest (the Nonh Adandc Europe ThinJ WodJ Ot global)
TIte range of wcitings about intetnational organizarions has ull dte whole teflecfeJ wiJec llooersundings of imetoational ceJarions and wuumltld polidcs These io rhernselves have fed 00 tbe gtVidc iacutellccUecmal fcnnent and on developrnenrs in world affiuacuters Viewl about iacutellteftlational ocgsnizatJoos wiU continue ro take accOlnt of the ince1leeruaJ debate ill the studjes oiacute polishydes internacional re1atioO$ philosophy ecooomics imematluacutellal uw sociology histoty and geogrilphy They will also reflecto among other ampcton che stntcegk balance in tbe world [he relafIacuteve power of tiJe United Stares aod oroer nares me scate of wotld markers [be pto-ess uf Euwpeiexcliexcln tlllegrashytion che relacive positloo of the developing warIdgt iexclbe levd of cootlicc througbolc the world fhe -ratC of dte environfneot and the ahility oiacute huge StatCS to wiacutethswnd cenrrifttgal force Tbe way tIacuteult imematiornal organiuiexclshydons ret1ect tbese developrnents and tIacuteleir t1Ipability lO deal wich some of them will provide (he tllW fiWifcrial foc funue smdies
6 _ 0
rhe Wodd Fedemion oE Democratk Youth and otber meiexclllbtrs oiacute tbe Sovittshybacked World Peace (ounaacutel gaining special mentioo and the specialiuJ chataCrer of sorne NGOs itl(h as rhe ruerrutriunal Couocil of Scientifu Unions and che Scienrifk OJmmiuee on Antnrctk Research MOrlrLOv memioned how NGOs can belp emblish a social dimate citillg their contti shybution ro (he setdemenr of a number of internacional confHcu swh as dlilr in Vietnam He aOO dealr wirh the role of che NGOs io cbe UN aud che consuJshyrative srarus [hey llave witn lGOs saying du[ smdems of internariooal affitjoiexcl
in [he socjalisr councrics m critieal of many asplaquots of (his system fur the eoruulrarive StatuS amogemenrs stiU fall shon of wha( [he deveJopmenc of modern inretnatlonal relarions in fac[ catls fur (Morozov 1977 43) Tbe specialized namre ufNGOs Wamp1 atttibuted by M((2OV tu
tht increased Jnfiuence of the pubic at large un roreign polky [he grearer iexclmpat of public opininn in imernatiunal reladuns and [he greater importante uf me ideological fiexclUtot 10 $ucb relations Accoum should abo be raen of che proccsses of cconomic developmenr and [he coosequenc~ of [he scienrific and rechnological tevolutioo which has also led ro a greatet number of speoacutealized NGOs
(Morozov 1977 42)
Second Morozov wridog jo d~ late 197amp made moU pos-irive refershyencelgt (O [he role oiacute Trurd Wodd SUtes in imemaciooa otganimrions He noted rbar rbe emetgtoce oiacute ti large oumbe of Oung natiooal stares h8ve kd fO che emetgcnce of intetnarJonal Drganizadons among develcpi08 ecuoshytries (Mororov 1977 29) aod claimed hat partkiparion in (hese organh311oos is part uf he process uf consolidating their sovereigocy and ruuional jndependenu~ aod of wlviog cheir pressing ecoOfJmic anJ orher pmbemsmiddot (Morozov 1177 31)
Finally Momzov developed the puint made by fimkin aOOut he limited llalUre of ioternationaJ organiurjQn$ - ~econd-dllSS ffitrnbers nf the inrershynarloual sysrem as opposed tu rhe firsr-diexcllSS members SQvereJgn stateiexcl by reretcme tO theit dedsioos There bave resulted froro che inrelllctioo of politicuJ euroorces within the organil1ldons and
Thecombined will uf chcse lGOs i5 disuumlnc[ from [he wllls of theuuml indishyvidual members io in eflSenlte and ln in narure The v1ilflous wills in thb case are nor agsregued arirhmetically each one exim indepenshydendy ur oside a homogeneQu~ socio-political gOUP wirbin whose frarnework (hey can be combjlled
(Murozov 1977 34)
AfLer lhe comiog ro powet ofMikhail Gorbachev in the Soviet Union io 19Bgt a Ihaoge rook place jo $oVJIl policies rowards imeroadonal relations irutuding international organi1ations and [his has been reflecred in new
~ M-- bull 6_V_
Soviet writings un [he subJect Gorbachev inttoducetl a owjor review of [he fureign poljcy uf the Soviet Union (har marchcd rhe inremiry of his dmncslic refotmS He encouraged new rhinking- based on a revjeJ vlew of che world siruation Peaceful co-existence wirh iexclhe capiralisr tirares WlCgt no looger seeo a~ being a spetjfic fum of dass srruggle as Tunkin had written bUI 35 being in the commoo intecesu oiacute all countriCl Ir WIi$ predishycued on the neOO fin surviva of (he human nce which in ShakhfUlZOlrQvmiddot$ word$ must ofCOUIse take fim place Lighe 1988 297gt- Thjs ml$or rhar a new COIKeuropt of seGldty had ro he adopreJ hy che Soviers rhar oiacute common security which wa5 based un sume of he ideas of -che Palme Comminion (see he1ow) Greater emphasis wu given ro arms control and dlsarmament agreemenrs wirh the Wesr 11nd to co-opttation in international uffuirs whilst Soviet intervention io che Third Wodd enbed and milirary 5UppOtC 1m [he East European communisr govcfomentS WlS withdrawn
Soviet wdcings on inremurionilJ relations both offidal and academic came to mirror Gorhachevs new rhJnkiog bur eho lilete iexcl$ evety sigo chut rbese id~ were dmwu no only from rhe Wesr but alw Uacutenm Moscow mink-tanks slleh as lMEMO th~ JflSIirure of World Eronomy and Inremlfona Relacions) Liacuteght 1988 29~n Gorbschev aun his forngn minisrer FQllard Shevaronadre gave rhe academiacuten a Breen light for funher diSClViiacuteon ud debare (Shevaronadre 1990 23) As II reampul srudies examlned he role of che Uniacutered Nariacuteons as sn ugem for peoce (Kolyrev 1990 12-19 NesrerenkQ 1990 65 Petoovsky 1990 42--3) and rhe mte of inrernational or811nizadons in environmental mliLffers IiLnd disurmamenc qutsdmuuml Chodsulkwsky 1988j NikitiM 1989 123-32 Roginko 1989 133-43) and internarionallaw was teassesred (Sutier 1989~ 363-75)
Once che Sovier Union collapsed many of me wrifetS losr rhe main point of political reference A nwllber Iefi academc orhets adapted thelt ideas ro WCtem oues and a few remnioed as policy rulviseni ro che new Russian goVefrutJenL However cornmunism as M imellectually dominant organiuog rotce wlch pnliiisJ dour had djsappeared in Russia togerllef with much uf the persptr1ve ir provided - wben seen thmugh me unen distotdng leos uf tbe Sovier lfulon - oiacute inrernatiooaJ relatlons and inremariooal organhattnru
Chinese Marxisr wrirers have iexclargeIy reflected rhe views of the leadershyship in Chinll sioce [he coming ro power of rhe Commun1sr Patty in 1949 Undl (he 1970$ communist China was elduded from almon aH iotttllJishytional of811nizIiLtIOns and ie is flot surpriamping tha whae lirde writing tbete WUtl on the st1bje(r Wal fairly dismiacutesampive usuaUy consisdng uf coudemnaM tinos of (he UN fnf its action tn Korea aud rhe security allianes fot teir hegernonic narure Chjnese Marxisr rhinking hiacuteu divided (he modem wotld jnro three groups ihe Birsr World consisred of rile fWQ imperialist superpowers namely he USA ano the USSR The Second World was made up uf otbet areaa uf advamed industrilllired cnuntries primariacutely EUfape aod Japa which were opea ro donunariou by lite Sllperpowers bu( which could $tan a dialogue wirh rhe Thiacuterd World Theu (here was rhe Third
158 Writings OtJ internationdl organizatioru
Wodcl iexcltreI( coruisting of the Afro-Asiacutean-Lario Americltlu sta tes supported in their muggte aAainSt Picsr World imperialism by Chinls This viexclew of the wmId colouted tyJst Chiacutenese wridngs on iacuteoternatiollill oeganharions Tbe $uperJowers were seen as cynical lTlllnipubtors Qf inrernarionaJ jnsti~ tutions Mao Tre~tuog wOre of US poliey towards such insdfutions Ir mam use or them when it neOOS rhem and kicks them 3way when ir does flot (Society (or Anglo-Chinese Underuanding 1979 42) US-domioated pill-~ such amp$ SEATO and imperialist groupiacutengs like rhe Alliance tor PfOgre~( wttt detided Spedal viuiot was saved roc the Warsaw freaty Orgaoizatiun whieh in one aetide was described as Soviet sodal~ imperialisms mol fur aggression (Ming Sung circd Jn Chen 1979 194) fhe Soviet Union was aceuseQ of trying tu manipulate che Pan and negnshydate wlth Wesrem eouorries rhmugh the Enropean Scltwiry Conferenee tn consolidare irs begemonic status in Basrern Enrope at the same time iexcliexcll dividiog Wes(ern Europe squeezing Out the USA ro as ro muSte way (0(
iu expansion and infilrmrion into Westem Europe (Ming Sung clted in Chen 1979 197)
Chinese writecs Fegatded tbe Ntildegttood Worid espedally Western Europe as being a pen force io telmS of imperialism which Ww tdponeed to the lhird World wich diaJogu as io the Jmueacute Convention berweoen tIacute1e European Commnnitiacutees and AF~ican Carib~an and Paciuacutet srUe5
Furrhermore the defensive $spects of NATO were sttessed and with growing European cohcsion the trend iexclS IJkely to ~ towatds a fuoce in which the American elemenr is seen as 1 temporary neceuity eventual1y to be phased out (Sodety fur Anglo-Chioese Undetstanding 1979 90)
lthe countries of the Third World were setn as coostirotiog rbe mluumln force comb$dng imperiaJi~m colonialism and hegemonJsm reEerring nor only to the vestiges of Wesr Etl-OOptan foloniiexcliexclJism bOl abo to US iexclnpetlshyalism and gwwiog Soviet soci$l~imperiacutea1ism Tbe Third Wodd eQuld hdp tn exclude the gre$t powers ny baoding cogecher io such otganizatinos aiexcl tht DAU aod rhey could work ro correct unequiexcliexcl nade and eeonomk reladons with che sUpetpowers through UN iexcliexclgeucies and eonferences such as UNCTAD and UNaos Abo rtlW material ancl exporting orgllnizations liexclke OPEC rbe Incernadonal Bauxilaquo Association ancl the Onion of Banana Bxporting Counuies were proised a ehanging (he old interntlrional eumomic Ome and banerlog che biggest roarerJal plunderers in rile world rhe United Srates and (he Soviet Uoleo (Ptking Rt1Jiew 26 Septtmbtr 1975 cited in Cheo 1979 309)
111e poverty oiacute ehinne study of intetnatlenal erganhuions no dounr caused by the lack of Chinese membership of such etganizacions unril the 197amp and the turmoit ef the Cultural Revulution eiexcliexclme ro an enel by the 1980s Jnstead oere was a more reaHs( viexclew (lE rbe worlcl iexclf one S~shytimes coucbed In Manlst terms In Chlnese univenittes there was a growtb io detailed studies of iutemationalntgsnizations aod the nuropean Union
WritingI un inlmullPmnl vrgrsrtilpiill1J 159
Tbird Wwld vlewJ
Many Third Wodd Afro-Asian aoo Latin Atrusican) writers 00 jntemsw
tional organizaion have adopte a structtulIist framework and are particufarly nm(etnecl abour how insdtutions can be wcd as tools of exploitadon uf rhe nitd World aud how $ome cau be used lIS agenrs of libenuion They llave nor been induded in the ~ettiexcloo un Marxist viltws (or three feamm nOI al of them are Mandst thIJM who are Manisr place particular stresS on (he posicion oF thE l1lIacuterd World and as ThJrd Worlcl eitizens they have through theit own experience unother pe~cdve rhan [Mt of writers from industri$lized srates
Yash 18ndon (1978 377) has identjfied thNf nuacuterd World penfIXrives en inrernational Olganizatiolls Fim [here is that or the bourgeois Of perry natiunalisrs who are in power in mos[ Third World statcs and who are progressive in [errru of anti-impcrialism but are rraniollary ro the C1tccnr WC they would sooner mau thcir pcaee with imperialism rhan iluwnder power (e the masses and peasancs This group uses ineernational orgllniexclm~ tions ro pur presrure 0lI imperialisc states in order to extntCt concession5 from them and appease tbe masses in their own coontries TIley see che UN as an opportunity to parley witb their entwhiacutele impecild masters t a presumed kvd uf equa1iry (Tandoo 1978 365) Thc scltond pcrspective is rhat ofthe reaIly backward regimes of thl Thitd Wodd such un Taiwiexcliexcln and Jotdan or whnm intemarional orguniacutelattnnS are of margJna1 signifieance [)t they prefet tu dea wirh impcrialism iquestirt(tiy The rhird petSPCCrive idenrified by landOll is that uf rhe masses vi thc TIlird World for wbom toterntlunaJ orgmilAriom are petiphewl fin liS Jong as hey rontinue fO reflect the muing balanlte uf clas$ forces in hvour uf impeuacuteJism (fandon J 978 378) Sioce the ene of he 196amp rorces representing thu third group have bccome lnott prominent in world polido in che form of liberarioo groop1 lttCn as tbe PLO and whilst chese have f)tgten interested in galnin8 telaquolgnJtlon rOt rhemshyselves at the UN and the spedaliled agcodes rhey are not depeuden 00 these or8ani1Jlton~ rndecd Tandoo romioeted (hat fo che revoludonary snnggles in SOUfh~E3SC A~a and AfrJctI iOfernattonal otgilnizalJons are tOO peripheml to be of much $ignilJeaoce (Tandon )9713 377)
Tancloo providcd n inrere~tiog history of the Jevelopment uf the anrishycolonialist forees in che Third Wruld sinee 1945 bur hi~ clivi~iexcl()H iexcloro he three perspenives is roo stark leaving aside rhe leil important backWllro regimes be has basiclllly grO~lped tbe Third World leadershp joto the revoshylutionaries who have Uttle netd (or imernatiooa otgllnizatiooll and those who llave suumlpped into refOrmism and have beco duped iot() bdieving (hat they elln ehaoge chelr c1ependeoce 00 industtia1i1Cd nBfiexclmL~ lhrough intemadonal organiwtions Thjs seems to undelsrare me use or ~mh organishyzations by revolutionllry groups - especiiexcliexcllIy che PLO anel tlle SoUthem African liberadon OtgllOiexcl7arionS - whieb have made substaotial use oiacute [he UN me Arah League ano the OAU tO sustain rhe polirical aspeets of theit effOrt5 1t alS(l uverestimatcs the extent tu whieh the Third World countries
J UU wnlmgl 1111 JTiUrllamm41 ergtIttJ1I0fll
have any iUwinru about imetnariooal Qrganizarioos such a~ UNC1~D
Furchermorc the identificador of 800d revolutionaries and falten refurmislS i~ tuller impliexclstjc~ rhe maIur sponrot of the UNs New Ecooomic Order l wruch Tandon hal roudemned as rhe Old Economic Order with a diffefent rltetoric WIIS the Algetian radinu governmenr of Boumediemu rhe PLO irself ha heen dependem on a numlgttr of bnurgeWs Arab goveromenrs foc financial 00 diploJUlltic suppon and ro Tandoos duumlertion that PQr narlonallibemwn movemenn guided by a proktatlan idoology such liS rhose in Chifliexcl1 lIlud Vietnam iruemarionaJ organlwtlona WtU of no 1J5e can be- added the re5ervarion until chey carne (O power Whiht ir took some twenty years belote communist Qtill1 made use nf suth organiutions the unified communiSl Stale ol Vietnam was quick fO cake up it position in the UN ro ask [Ol aid thtough UN agencies liS well as w become ji membet of he CMEA (Comecon)
Third Wodd commemscOt1l on world politics have emphasized the nature uf rheir atea$ potirical ecoOoacutemtc Ilud culmral relatloosluumlp wilh rhe iHdllsrriexcl~ alixed Nonh TitilO is iOO$t Oflltl rypified aiexcliexcl bciug OHe of ueo-folonialism _ COntrol of che Third Wtltld by lhe Nortb by indirecl means ratlet (han by direa colonial tule and of Kf)IomIacute( dRptwJmry (o dtpmdemjiexcliexcl) lntetnationaiacute rdsdOOi bcrween sures are sublumed ro relations between claue$ world wide Ixtween on rhe one lIand the expluacuteiting impetialist capitetists in rhe northcm iru1usuialized couotries 2100 rhcir middle-ltlass collaboratotS in the 50Uthem SUtes aud on the othet band he exploiced masses rhe proleuriat ol [he $Ourhern contJnems The Lurcr gmupS have been 1I1iide ecooomkaUy dependent on [he furmer so char hey lIre in rhe wuacutetds uf the Bruiliiln T Dos SantOS in a situadon jn which the economy of a cetuin group of counshytrles is condiacutedoned by rhe develOplllent aad expansion of aoother ecouomy lO which thcit own 15 subjecred (Bodenheimer 1971 327)
The uOOerdeveloped tounrries depend uacuten [be developed ror their capital nd ercperdse they find key sectors of ehdr eroooroy conrrolled from OUtsJde rhey act as a SOUfce of raw marerials lIS ji lthetip source of labour arul as a rnarket fur mllnuf8ccurers from Euttipe ]apan and North America As thejr living standards were deterrniud by rhe vicissinWeS of the Northern~ dominated wodd marker the relationship was Otle uf unequa exchange (he [esule of which was a world experiencing woequal developmenr with a developed rieh indwtriaJiud capiralisr Notthern centre and d poor underdeveklpedgt agciculrutitlly backwarn eXFloired periphery in che 50mb The dependem 80mh has been divided berween rhe ptedominanr undemeshyveloped area~ lUld a few Cenfres of deve10prnenr wirh their ttade culrural rraffie and polidcal linL to [he deveJoped North - rhe depeOOem develop~ memo omlinea by EH Cardosa (1974) allodlt~r Bruiliall Mmir Amiu (977) rejC(ted the prosptltt of aH antonomous capitalist development in [he Third Work the oew bourgeaisJe of Lacin Ametica Africa and Asia were in allianec with capitalisrs from rhe Nnnh and rhe mato $OUrce of finance ror lmported equipmem was fmm the expon of raw materials to rhe indu~rial
5 ~ _~ smiddot_middot~~
iexclred smes Amin (1977 1-21) SllW rhe can made ror a New Imernational Ecooomic Order (NIEO) by Third World leaders at rbe UN UNCTAD aod che Vilrlous North-Sourh dialogues as an nrtempt LO iexclnerease the price of chelr ntw mattIial exporrs obraio more lmpotted technol08Y snd chus finance a new srage of develQpmenr He saw this ti placing the Thitd World more in the gttp of the neo-co1onialist sysrem and iostmd recommended 11
more self~rcuumlanr development wlrh murrud assismnce between Third World sures a reducdon in [ade wirh rhe induuialized wotld and Chlll a loos~ ening of dependenre Amin lJke TaOOon had Jittle fairh in presenc imtrnruional organizaciexclon Il tools foc fasbiooing a more independent Tbiacuten Wotd His sU88tl1cion of grearer mUtual ilSlgtistaoce between ThUd WorId uate~ implied somtthing more sophillticated than a numbtr of bilateral arrmgements As rbe present orgauizarions used fu iexclncm~Thjrd World cnshyoperation (che OAU he Atab League ASEAN) are domitllued by jusr dl()llC govetnmenrg chM accept lhe eowse coodemned by Amio _ the NIEO ami greater jmegrndon iexcluro rhe world economic sysrem ~hen Amia solutloil involves like-minded deveJoping counrries or more like1y political changes leading ro such indigenous intemuional orgilniwrions
Other Trufd Wodd wdten have plllCtXl emphasls on grearer use 01 exisring insdtutions lOO can broadJy be deKfibed lIS Wopmenraluli huI Prebisch an Argentinian econOmigf has not only studied the que5iaacuteon uf ecooomic dependency but his ideas llave been used as the baJiexclis for che wotk of cwo miexclljoc iexcliexcluemariOOiexcll1 organizadons rhe UN Enmomic Commission fa utin Ameriea (ECLA) and UNCfAD Iu his smdy of Briliacutesh-Argerl(inian trading relntioflS Prebisch bad idenrified rhe unequRl tecrns ol Hade between he favoured (ndusrrislized s(ate of tbe centre and he les privj~ leged llOIl-indumialiacutewl periphery Prebisch unlike rhe dependencia gtChool of Amiacuten Dos Sancos and Cardosa believed thu this inequaLity could be overcome by political acrinn by trade pre[ereonces fuvouring the pedphery by eoo1ruooiacutery agreemenrs by intelnatiacuteowll aid and by more foreiga imvestment in che ~riphery It was thele remedies thiexcllr Prebiacutesch eneouraged when he WiIS Executive SecrCrary of ECLA from 1955 lO 1963 aOO Secrewy-Genernl ofUNCTAD ftoro 14 ro 196tL In~d rhe amoum of aid the periphery needed in omer to overeome their Unfuvoluable rrnde balance became known io UNCTAD clrcles as [he Prebiexclsch Giexcllp
The distinguished Afiican aC1ldentie Aji Mazn1i has wricren un the plighr Qf (bar conciflfnt aod j~ role in pmem~day interruUIDllfl1 afmits He soughr ro answer rhe quesdon Now rlw Imperial Order is eoming ro an end who is going tO keep rhe peaee in Aampica and tu examine he concept of Pax AfrlclllUl the African s ambidoo ro be his OWh palaman The JXIliacutecillJS and se[f~8overnment ufAfriea depended on the nodan ofan African self which Mauui discusseJ in decaH He considered how this 1ndepen~ denre might be threarened by the politicaI and cultural fragmenMion of the contillenr Ellld eronomieally by deperulence on Europe He quoted Kwame Nkntmah finr President uf Ghaniexcll on rhe Europe-Jn ECOntunir Communiry
162 Wilihgr rm intd1JatirmallJrganizatimu
ihe ireaty of Romemarks the advent of oeoKolonitJism [n Afriacuteen snd bears unqutSrlonably the marks of Freneh neo-colonuumlllism (Murui 1967 93) He moduded from tM that Wlut AfrlOlns tbelaquofore neecletl was II
renerru authotity of cheir owa tI) ((lordilJlte fheir eltonomk and policicat deCena- sgain5t trus rnreat (Mamtiexcl 1961 93)
Given this theme it is not surprising tlwt Mazrui ser srore by rhe OAU bU[ he was realistic in bis judgement
In relatioos betwlaquon African statts lIOflesr step rowards Pu Africana was taken when rhe Organiution oiacute Aftlaquolln Uniey set up in Commissiacuteon ofMediauacuteoo Conci1illtion aud Arhitmion
Anormr OAU Commissioo of relevance fot Fax AftlOlna ls che Defence Cornmission Sor me Defeme Commlnion 1w se Car been among che lean effecdve QfPan-Aiacutericun ins(kndons Afrka mar indeed aspire to be her owu ptlliceman bur she does nO seem ready as yel to par the price iacutem it
(Mauui 19612[3)
Mazrui oudined the varicd backgrounds of [he lemen oiacute newly illdepenshydent Africa and thdr radical and revolmionary ideas and it is pethaps swprising rhat the insrirutions rhey created fur me coutinenf wete so mnservative with [he p05sible exceprion oiacute the OAUs Natiomtl Libetttion Comminee Mazrui no[ed thac Africa srill has the problem of how othet powetS respond tu its behaviour and [har forcigo iotmsilm in AJtica continued Indetd the I990s proved tO be a dC(ade of disusrer for AfrieR The debiacute burden contimlld while Ilome states collapsed lnro civil war ami others took to iutenoendoo in thejr ueighbonrs affairs Outslde interference from borh Enrope and North Amecica euodoned One of rhe fcw brlghr spots was the end of apallhcid in South Africa and the peaceful transitioo ro majoriry mJe lo al thiexcl~ tn quote Juliacuteus Nyerere rhe ampcmer pre~iexcldenl of Tan1ania The OAU exists outr ror tbe prorecdoo of (he Afrinllt Head~ oiacute State (cited io AlilgapPltl 1998 1 ) The relarive optimism of Maztui has giveu way ro Afriam writers examining sorne of me disrnrbing details of inaction by [be OAU and regtonal orgauiacutezatJuns nlCh as ECOWAS beiog used as doaks fu the machinations oE regional hegemou$ suth as Nigcria (Mibe 1m 61-9(1)
Radha Sinha$ problem--ortented undy Food iexcllfId PIWt11y (1976) has an IItgent message Sinha a former consultaot of the FAO prodnced an iofuacuterrned aUllyiexcljiexcl of the world$ food problem stress1Og in paniacutecular the maldistribution of food and other resources Noting he profO$ab of UNCTAD with heit muld-rommodJty approach and buffer nocks provjshySiOfli he commented rhe grearesr weakness oE the UNCTAD scheme js les Hkdy politlca1 unilcceptablliry ro me developed (ountdes parriculady che USA (Sinhil 1916 114) a propheey that has proved to he cortect He identitled a more aggresslve attitnde by Third World sutes e5pedally
WrilirrgJ on i1tternatiflii1l rHgarrtzatitmlt 163shy
after the uH prite cise of 197314 when the developing coonuies tried to maximize their own market powers by formin cartcls such as rhe Intematimlal BaurdtC Association the Intemuional Coundl of Copper Expotcing Countries aud the Intema[ional Tin Agrcrmenr He gave n qualified wekome ro the Lomeacute Convention betwcen the European (omrounities anJ cenain African Padfic and Caribbean Haces Writing in 1976 he commented
The receot cbange in rhe luirudes of tite tiche countries is largely due tu the incIeasing miliuncy of the Third World countries lt is almost ertalll utar the magnitude offuture cnnc~sions in me coune ofGAIT aud UNCTAD IV Ilegotiarioos wiU deperu mainly on (he continued solidariry uf the devdoping counlrtes
(Siha 1976 116)
Sinha was pardy correct as tbe solidatity cf rhe Tbird Workl states cracked se the induurialized wodd withheld funher Con(eampSJoru but ir was able tO do so because market condidons swung against che primaty producen
In his condusion Sinha called ror a IIDre1 shttting of wnrld t($nmes and power if confrontarion was ro he avoidOO He feared that the ffa of roshyoptradon berween [ieh and pool conntries hiid ((lT1e to an end and that batde lines were being drawn Instead he advOOIreltI majnr concessions from the dcher coumries on trnde lInd aid issues and a1so a ma~lt te$ltUcrnring of the incematiotlill organization~ aoo negoacutetiating ffiarhinery in order tu provide a much gtC2ter say fm me poorer countries in internatiooal tJ1lde invesrment and mooetaiexcly armngemenrs (SiMa 1976 132) GAn 1BRD aud IMF have been the presenoe of [he ri h with voting weighted m faacutevour of rhe OECD countries and Sinha re(()ffimended thlll GATr aoo UNCiAD be merged inro an Intemacional irade Organization (ITO) and che creatlon of a Third World permanent secrctariat iexclnvolved in all trade and aia negoriarioru Thoogh less radical than Amin Sinha aIso recomrnrnded gttter coshyoperation berween developing coulltries and an eoo ro their inkrtotity complex with instead a sense of m~ttnal sdiacute-e$teem and trust being devel~ oped (Sinha 1976 ch 10) Litde that h~ happened during the 19905 woo1d have encouraged Sinha The World iratle Organiaadon has emerged as the presenoe of the dlVelupeJ tares and lw brushed aside many of thc mucerns cf UNCTAD Debr ha~ edged on ro dlt wudd iexclagenda but mainly at the beheS[
of a non-governmental organization )ubiacutelec 2000 nd the promi$e~ of the main financill jnsrirutluru lO pursue dcbc-rclicf produred but a thiniexclmfl
In aH Third WQrld commenrarors have provided a vatied and lively approruh fOwards tne problems uf intetniexclational organizarions Their emphasis has niltntaHy beCl Qn tbe use of wurld lmtirutions to change the econornic condidon or the Southern cominents As this enndition is likely to worscn in the near filrtltf further more lJica conrtibutions on the rule oC
-- --- ~- __ _~- __- imernatIacuteonal orgaoilarions in Nonh-Smuh relarJons tOiexclghf be apected from rhe Third Worid A1ternaciveJy wrirers (mm rhat ares rmy jW ltIacuteespUacutet rm imergovemmemal orgaoizarions ar lealaquo Mee rhem $O Hrrle
Cfili~ald~heJ
Critica approadvs lO the nudy uf intetnadonal relations are (hose har rejee( the dominating vleW1iexcli repr=med by tbe realist and reformistS as oudined aboye In paHicular rhey reglUd realists as apologisu for the currem con6gutltion of power 10 (he wiexcldd sytem and considet [har rhe refOnntstS are elrher unable ro undersraoo he fUe llamee )( (hi sysrem oc ille UDwiUing to accepc rilar ir needs more rhan mooest refotlllS TIlOugh they may sympalhi-ze wirh rhe agenda of some Marxists aud Third World wt1cers chey do [lO( llave rhe hisrockal certaimy of the former not rarely do they have the experience and perspective of ehe larter TItey view intenUishy(jnl1ill nrganiutions wirh a jaundiced eye as these are mainly the lll$tmmenfS of rhose who dominare rhe syuem This section COlllaios an wcoum nf three approaches tmt of the critical rheorlsti- of kmintsc wrirshy[1185 ulld pose~mooernismlt
Cri(~1 herJrY The approach of critical theory 10 JnrematlonaJ o(ganizatiooll iSi determtoed by their wider world-view which in itsclf is explaiiexclwd by tbeir llame One of the leading exponents Roben Cox said [har ie is cririca1 in cne Jensc rha h srands apan 100m che prevailiog order of rhe wOlld and asks how tb$t oroer came iexcllPouc Ir does nor r-ake existing irucimtioM lIl1KI JIQwer relaclons rOl granred bu c311s them iacutemo queuion Ir 1S diexclrlaquoced ro rhe social itnd JIQiirshyical complex as a wItole rarhet (hall he stparate pirtt IUthet than subdiide and Imic an examination of a problem it looks al the wger pkturc of whkh rhe problem is jwt oue part and trio rO wJdeThwod the processeS uf change ill which botIt pans ulld whole ure involved laquo(ox 1993 277~S)
Ai a thoory cridQiIacute theory rejeen tbe daims of posicivism of an external Nulity and to be mue-free ror critkal rheorIacutests koowledge ti nor moraUy IleUc1ll1 ic is more che result of the social background of tbose Wt hold ir Given this ctitkal tbeory alJows foc a normarive choice in favoU of a social ancl iexclJlieiexcl(ld order diflerent f(cm rhe prevruHng arder bur it limiu the ruuse 01 chotce ti a1remative orders which are feasibJe mmsformations ofme cxvaing worJd h musr rejEC[ improbable alternadVe8 ju~t as ir rejecrs rhe pcrmanctlly nr lhe exiscing order (Cox 19 90)
Cridcal rheory differs lrom Marxist upproElchcs beCElUS( of iu tejection nf any daim to hold the objenive tru[h and betause or it~ avoidance of (he pmslllt ol il utopia Neverrhe1ess [heir analysis of incernarional relarln1l$ is one tbu hEls u numher of similariuumles wich the Marxisc pcrspecdve It regurds rhl tlistlng suucrures of world polirics as beiug oppressie not
- _ __ _-
lean because of rhe dominance of (he capitalism of che Unired StElte~ For many che USA is seco as a hegemonic power the prevailing urder - in re[ms rbar reReet he wrirings of the Itallan Marxisc writer Amonio Gramscl (1891-1932) Gramsd advanced the nodon of ln hisrori(middot bloc which in itself refilaquors che $Ocial reladons oE ptoducdoo The dominanr dass in a counrty - 01 indeed aoy social grouping - mlinrains cohesion and idenciry withio [he bloc [hrough the ptopagacion of a COIDmOfl culturegt A new bloc can be formelt when a subordinate dau can euablish tU hegeshymony over orher subotdioate gtOllpS (Cox 1993 56--7) The IDove rowuds hegemony comeS with the piexclt$ting fmm che spediacutek inrercsrs ofa gronp Ol
dass tO rhe building uf inrimdons aOO elaoorarion uf ideologies (Cox 1993 57-8) It Loiexcl rhat ptOCe$S thar embeds the incemu of the dominanc dan in an imttmrional form thae [w an appeal widet [ban that dan ine1f It the-refole repreSoems mote tlmn jUSt (he drunJnaoce oE one state ovec anocher bllt implies a cemufi acceptante of the tules arJd institutions purouized by [he hegemonic JIQwer Jo other woros it is all order wbicb most Olher Sta[e-~ (01 at 1enst those within reath of die hegernouy) couId find compatible- wirh their iexclmetem (Cox 1993 6t) h aJso involves noe just inttt-staee rueivirle5 bur rhose oiacute tlvilliOCiety (oon-Stllte socieM instishycudons) ebereby encoumging Hnks between social dus$ts iexcln the connules covered by ebe hegemony
What does Cox llave to uy about ioccmational Otgsniuciexclons 1bey Ilre scen in he oontext ofme wiacuteoo unaemanduuml18 of itnernational reUacuteltions mentloned iexcliexclhove He is direcr 000t mem Ooc mechanisru chrough wruch the universal norms of a wodd hegemony are expttssed js the interoatiooal organisation (Cox 1993 62) Why is chis so Cox U993 62) gives five teIlSons
bull They e-mbody rules cOae help (be- apwlSion of a hegemonic wodd iexclrder These insdwrians reflcct the intererts ()( the dominam social anil economic force- buc a1low a cettain amOunt oC adjusrment ro accommodare other subordinared interests TIms the USA WllS preplltoo ro mm conccssions to
bciI18 in Lhe EU srares and Japan ro rhe Wotld Trade Otganizatimt They a[e prooucrs of that order Though [he insrimrions and rules Ilce
nurITlllUy initiared by the hegemook power ir takes cate ro involve aOO comule a numbe-r of second-ronk stares and gaio theit supporc he Wotld Bank and Inte[nacional Mooetaty Fund were very much pan of [he world order thar emerged afrer [he Second World Wat and which was dominared by rhe Uoiced Stlres
They ltgidmi7e i[s nOlms by providing guidance for SllIteS and by legitshyimiuacuteulS cerraIacuten IlCdviries Ilr me narional leveL he OBCD afie rhe inrerruuiooal financia) irntuumluriom lave spread an acceptante of mllrket coodirions and sHict mOllerary iexclJlides
They co-opr elites from pelipheral counrrie Ihlented sraH commg 110m the Thiacuterd Wocld are expected tO dCCept he scriexclpt wcittttt by the domishynam power Bouuos Bourros-Ghati as Secteury General uf the Unired
166 Jiexclljiexclr1giexcl Qr1 ifJfCflrttuacutemal IWgaizati(ifJJ
Nadons stroyed too amp~r ftOm the gtip of Washinston and his second term was VCtoM by rhe USA His sucecssor Kofi Annan will no doubt undentand what 1$ n-quired of him He brings the mncerns of orhe states ro che UN bUf nor in a way thu threatt1l$ the USA
bull They absorb counter-hegemonic ideas Ideaiexcl $uch as 1iustainable dlYClop_ ment tukl even debr foTgiwness are taken 00 board by the intetnatwnal finarnial institlltion$ blu are trandirmel into pulido rhat swt them
Wh~t is ro be done Cox thinks thar the pfQblem of changiog dw world orUer 1iMuld be shlfred back from intern~tional insritutions tO niexcllriacuteooal $OIacuteishyeties where the sodo-political b~se for a new historie bloc mighr be ereated (Cox 1993 64) FaiJing the creadon of a new historie bloc of the new working cla$s and rural and urb~o marginal groups there might be tnmdorshymadon oC the curtent monopoly-libcral hegemony by adjusting to rhe demanJs oiacute local ello$ for polides 5uch as natlonaHution Cox 199~ 65) He aw advocates te-regulation of erooomies and a re-wmpositjon of civil sodery Internatiotla lnstlcutions induding organiutions can berome eontact puint1i fOr new $OCia[ furtt (Cox 1994 (11)
Critica throrJm $uch as Cox oifee a refreshing exposidon oiacute che posidofl oC imernatiooal ofganizatioos in a wocld where the main revolutionary powe~ have either collapsed (rhe Soviet Union) or se(tled into a cautious ronservatirun (China) Ir provlde~ a sceptical arf realisric world~view without acreptins tbe inevuumlahility ni a illture domlnared by mooopoly eapi~ ujsm sud the Utlired States J-Iowevtr its appllcariexclon to intemationa1 organhatJons 11 StImewha( timited tQ the maln global jnsdm(jons and th financial and economlc orgmiutions Ir has 1m (O say aboue regional nrgashynjudon Uf abour N(JUacutes Furthermore iu alternarive fu(ure testS on ourcoroes thu are far froro certain RevnJutlons in the Thied World are roore likely to be- irupired by nadondi$m oc by IsJaroic fllndamentaHfl OCalaquoely [he solid ooses for new historie blocs
Fwinuumll aNml4cbts
Feminist perspcctives 0f1 inttmatlonal rtlatioos llave in common wirh the erit~ ical rheocillu a rejclaquoion of (he dominance in rhe $Ilbjecr of the rcnHst and rdOrmisrs Although fuminist writen cover a wide 5laquolpe the gencral basis oiacute their aqurnent 1S har in interwnional relatioM ru in most politkal aud tcooomk acdvity women are diexclSJtdvantagt~l Alchoogh they own ahour 1 pet tCfH oC the worlJs lfOpeny and tiexcliexclxe heme 10 peiacute ceoc ofincome they perfurm 60 per eenr of working houn and provide 80 per eent of nfusets (petetsen and Runyan 1993 6) This is a derDOnstrndon of gender inequalitie~ the sodalJy learned behavior and expecratioos thar distioguish berween maKuliniry and femininity (Petetsen and Runpn 1993 5) Feminist aprroaches ofren So bejond the $tati~tks and examine (he mind~se[ of those engaged in the pmctice of intemadonal rdations whiexclch (bey ampee as geodered In other woros che world
Writingc Off inlmhJliofMl vrgntiZdlMm 167
illeen in a mlLlndine way thar kvrntB (he posjtiOll o( mnles in rhe hitgtranhy and devlllues the c041trihution of WQmeO (Sylvestet 1994) War in pattKular is gendered in a way chat keeps wornen and metl from qUtstioniog the essentiat pmpose and he neglltive effects of war militarization ~nd viQleme on their awn and orhers livts (Petetsen and Ruoyan J993 9 t)
What of wminist view$ uf imernationaJ organizationsr Ir IS not possible ro presem a rollf(tive vjew that eneomp3$~e~ rhe works of radicaJ femjnisu and ny iexclihetal teminists (rutead the work of one author Sandra Whitworth (1997) will be used as me pily$ rornt attrntion ro inrernarlonal organizations Aamper inrroductions ro feminilfr theory and internacional frIamiddot tiom and gendet and internacional relatlons Whirworrh examines geodet and imernational organilions She screpts Coxs vjew oiacute inrernational orgashynjzarions [har they retleltr (he dominant powet relations in che intetnational system and rhae internaliomd otgaoiution h che procelt of imcitntionaJshyiling and regulating conOice - eicher rhat which may IIrise among siexclates o( char which has iu (onU io transnationaI society (Cox 1980 375) TIte way duu pcople orgaoire themelve$ wirhin international iostirurjons reflects a variety of power relations ineludi~ of rollJSe gendec relatiull3 (Whitworth 1997 74) lbe triad of jnstirutions ideas and material rQudi~ tioru help ro hxare uSllmptiolls aboue geoocr withiu jntetmltional rewtioos Whitworth uses thesr tn examine lhe uooerstandillg oiacuteScndec io an INGO the Internadonal PlarUled ParenthooJ Federatlou (JPPF) and an intergnvemmental organilJ1rion (albcir one wlrh some oOl1-governmentJ)J represemation) the InrernatlonaL lab01lrOtganiution (no)
Whirworths studies show rhar thr IPPF tended ro accept the deshyemphasizlng oi the gendered oamfr of reproducdoo and (f) ignore rhe imponaoce ofbirth comcol foc womens reproductive freroom Instead in an effort tu popularize birth rontrol srrel~ WWl placoo on paremhooJ rather than iexclust the womans choice However IPPF poUcy beeiexcllme more radirnl in (he 19905- with Hnks beirtg made berween II1M control alld womeos ~)tu~ ality (WbJtworth 1997 ch 4 pmim)
The RO eoucerned itself with WQmen as workern It cnnsidercd that tbey oeeded spec-ial atrention and promoted ptoteCtlvt legiexcl~lacion This reiexcln~ forced me view (har [he male worxer Wall the norm with women workers nor deserving the same rights remunfration lOO mndirions Latterly however the JLO ha~ reflectoo views rhat prodaim wornens elt)ualily in rhe workforce and has sunoo tuacute assess the importanee of policies on womens role in rhe workplace as weU as in sodery more wjdely (Whlrwnrth J997 ch 5 panm) Whitworth comes [O the eondusion rhu iexclln iexcllnaLyiexcli~ of gernler in rbe IPPF and no shows how tbese rdiexcliexcldonsbips llnd definirions ni what it is to be a womltn oc man are structuted relationsrups3nd hlsrQciudly hve been scrurtured tu disadvantage women (ibid 15n
lo eommon with the critkal meorists Whitworth has useQ au examinamiddot doo of two intetnational organixations (O deroonstrate a puinr about imerflational relatiexclon~ indeed sodal rctatrol1s mOte widely The poinr is
I1
I
middot - ~-_ --___ aOOuc powec and iu use not (O balance oue SCdre ligaiOSf anorher but fm une gooup ro domiaare morher Jn chis case it 1$ ma the dominution of one dass me m culcnre over $ofU)(her (though Whirworrh recognizes those reLationshyships ti wcll) but of roen over women The crititUl uudy oiacute (wo jnceraational mganirations dealing with iSSlle5 recoSniud ti beiiexclg oiacute impocshycanee or WOfficn suggesu rha( tltOO simihu research on orher internacional organizadons could proJuce interening aOO uwfuiexcl resulrs
Pllit~ism
Thc posc-moderruacutesr $opprooch lO intetaarional rcllldon is one tlur bas (ome ro che fote Jn che perlod sinee lite end of rhe Cold War Jr is based on $o widcr imellectual viewpoim insrigated by l1rench iorcUtcruals of the 196()s gener~ ation _ Bllrrhes Derrida FouclIul and Lyorard - and whkh suggested rhat the modero era liad becn overome 11 fejeas mera-nattatives gnlud accounv- of hi5tory aoa iacuteNIacuteler subjecu as having no independem rubstance Scientifk btliefs induding [hose oiacute rhe $)(ial scJcllces are rooted in (lllxure polill(os arul mores oJ a wciery and are lherekJre subjective As rhere is 00
oblcctive reality cmpirical daims bave fl() spccial sunding in rhe rralms of koowledge IndeeJ ir i$ power aod knowledge are intimatel) incerwirud Posr-moJernism Hllnds against rhe belief of rbe modero pcfiod which LI seco as beginning wiacuterh rhe enlightenmcm of mid-eightcenth cenrufy Europe and AmeriCll Ir rheldore rejcn~ rhe COMCpr$ oC rationalirl and progrcss aSSuacutedared wi(h [he enlighrenment and [he moocrn age Thc uniry of IOOnkind iexclirW iexcldells such liS rhe untveIsWiI) of human aacuteghrs are rejcuoo lnsceadlocal aetion in smallgroups 15 advuacuteClmd
Post-modetnist ideas have affected tite srOOy of inremruionaJ rdarions as (bey have ocher social scienccs Posr-modern imeraarional relariops theoriscs havc ustd heir view$ 00 objecuumlviry (o exiexcltmine che rrmhs of international relatiom en see how rhe concepts iexclind knowledge-dairm (bar dominare the Jisdpline in faer are highiy conringenr on spccific power relatiom (Smith 1997 181) Post-modemisrs bave lltfa(red me mcta-narratives of the reelshy1m and reformlsu aHke The objectiacutevemiddot aaallses of the realim Ilnd neo-realisu are setn as being deJl(nclent on the subjective standpojnts of cheif mainly Amen(an and Europeau authors Ijcharcl amphiel (1986 258) daimed he works o[ Kenneth Waler men the leading neo-realillt trrat the glven ordcr a rhe natural nrder Jjmirs rarheE (lian 1XpawU political discllUtse negales oc rriviuliliS the signifinnce uf variely urOiS time and plue Whar emerges ii an ideology tllar anridpatcs iegirimires ancl onents a totalitarian projen 01 global ptoponioo~ che rattoualiaciuacuten of global poHcics iexclbe reformius are likcwise tainted Md have Ji mhr$lren belief in pmgress The posc-modernl$rs poinr m rh Helocausr as rhe heighr oiacute mooemism a rombimiddot Halioe of science dnd polidcal otganizillnon Il was SCruTely progreso
Given an antifllthy mwards rhe MlVe[iacute~ign srae borh as a centre of powet ll1ld as a crearioll Jiten imbutol wlth a wncepltliexcl uf progress pest~miexclJdetniexclsls
wHungJ mi Im~iexcliexclrun wgltiIRrzuJlU7iJ 1J7
can lOUcdy be expcctcd to vIacuteew intergovernmencal organiUlrions wirh sympilthy Tbe prefetted iacuteonu of internacional organizations when mentioned are those thiexcltt ltlj~plal differemes snd dlvenity in global pelitlcil duu are reginnaUy based or rhar reflec irKlividual actlOn Tndecd ir SeeIJS
rbat Michel Fomawt was involved with an alliance oiacute twO INGOs (Miquestdecin du Monde and Tertl-s do Hommes) in proresting agaiust internadonal iH~shydon over rhe boat people who flcd Vietnam in tite lare 1970s and ear1y 19S(k He is gU()[ed 11$ sayillg tbar Amnelltl Internnrlonal Teueiexcl dts Hommes Mfiiecin du Monde lHt inirilltives whiacutech have created a nrw righr rile dAht of privare individuss ro iexclntervene in [he otder of polino and internatioont snateg(eiexcl (dred in CampheH 1998 516)
Aootber researcher has exnmined ~he Europcan Communities Ilr che point wben Jr was mnslorming intO me European Unioo and askOO whether ir was a pootmodew ConJigUflHton (Nstrgaard 1994) Hi condusions wcre mar ir was gualiwiveJy a new organizarion oC human calJecrlvJties which mighr U$hec the coming of post-moderniry (Ntgttgnatd 1994 27j) The basis fO[ [bis judgemem was rhat me Ee did nO approximate anl modero form of piexcliexcl1idUll Ofpnizarion it did OOt commatld che means oiacute violence its au[hotity derives noc from die people and ir appeared to be a fCgJoo trying ro pOrecr itiexcliexclelf againsr globaliacutezadun iacuteN0rgaaro 1994 274--5) Ir remllins ro be sren whether [he BU tJf [he twenry-first cenrury wHl fu1fi1 rhtgtse hopes Ot wiU stllrr ro teVen
to a more scate-like being Generall) dIe cririolapproaches ro interruHiorud relarious hiexclJve provided
1lOOIe innovatIacuteve insigllls iexclnro rhe study uf imemarional orgsnizations The crtrical theorists llave becn sh3rpest in rheir unde[$(iexcltnding nf internarional ofgiexclt1lizacious as servsnrs of a dominiexcliexclIf power configuracion thoogh the) lave pemaps Umieed cbelr scope wllen viewing internacional organizadons Feminis[ wJiters ruave given Vltike to whac i5 after aH tbe scmi-sileut majoric) in rhe world and Ilre ouly srarting in qnest10niug the male dOmimiddot nance nuacutet iexclusr of the nmning of IGOs huc aloo of theic agenda Tite post-modemisrs are iMlSr concerned oiacute he (bree 8rOUp5 with inretnationlll organiucioru as such bllr rIacuteleic intellecrual approach is the ffiOSt tadkal aud can lelld tuuml a fnon of nihilism
GltJbaliacutesf lIiu
A gIobalisr perspective does oor viacuteew world poliacutetica as being predomishynandl arout iotergovernmemal relatlnn~ Ili would realisu or illbour inrentare aruI imersocietal rdations as a number uf reformisu llliexclll consider lnsteaacuted it cakes a more holisdc view Problems are (cmfronred ac Ji global level wlurions have tO be sou8ht here as weil This iexcls not ro neglcct (he 10tal Ol rhe ~tlte level ir is more J recognilion of the limiutshydoos of acdviuumles rhere The world-vicw like rhe reformists places empllasu on whal unIacutetes people Ilnd has lirde time for lhe demaoos of power pouumlics aad stare-cemrir orglLuiwrjollS Ir goe~ fllrther by nor
1 V WNimgJ lJ7f tIfernattmiexcliexclJ 11fK4111141tOnJ
liminog in view eirhec ro pans of che world or ro rellltions berweeo particuJar poliric~ lr ioded jlLSr m the economic social and poJitical demaods of mankind Paradoxically ir can be seen as IIn approach rhe very OppoSllC of the fimctionalist wirb whom tbere 5 much io common In nmtrast lO rhe fnnctionaHst (or neo-fllnctiooalisr or intetclependeuce srhuul) and ccrrainly in contrast ro rhe powet politks aOO MaOIacuteIt writers (be whole world approach places emphasis not 00 the discrere r~uiexclreshymems of groups SClteiexcl or individulI1s bm 00 tbe wel1-bciog of the tCOsystem in which rhf5f funnioll cbe planet Eanh The conccen of chis apptoach which is rcflccted il] in ttcumeUr of illternational urganizatiom is for the survival of lhe plunet for its effident funccioning in its widest SeILie aud fot che survival oiacute rhe myriad oiacute speoacutees - ollly one of which is homo sapiens - tbat inhabh me globe
Sinle tbe 196Os a number of wtiters on imernational affairs have expounded 00 tbis view and llave cOl1l~uendy ronsideted the implicadons for intemational organizacions Jobfl Button in bis World Society ronsldeted iflmstatt relations to be onIy a pan of wodd poli[iacutea and wrore
lf we employ rhe term world rociety imiexclreui of internanofla relarions iIacute we apptoo(h OUt study in this global way insread of the more tradi~ lonal nattonal way we will end to have a wider focos ro ask quesrions rhat are moee fundlmenral aOO imponant lO civilization and be ahle ro assess bettet me relevance of om own national bduviour ro be wider worW envifonment
(Button 1972 21)
Rkhacd Stetling posed the problem more spedfically
Nuclear esCllatiofl the popullltion explosion the pollmiofl of tbe envishyronmcnt the communkations rtvolurion rbe world~wide concentNdon of wC1llch and world~wide expansiofl of pltlvcrty are iexcliexcl11 essemially global and not 1laquo al pbellomena They have given rise jn tutn ro eartbshyspamuacutellg and revolutionary demands ror mass education rnass hesltb malts welfure and maltgts participation in che dccisions affecting roans fare
(Srerling 1974 322)
This wodd-view of rhe problems of the s)Jaceamphip EQlth begged fur global oolutlofl$ It suggcsred iexclhu not onIy iJ the system of sovereign stares as yer unable oc unwiHing to COme to grips with the above-menuontd prohlelUS but that a network of llllergoVCtn1lental organiutlom bGsed 00 me rights of statc wVfretgnt will ~lso be hammllng Globtl problems needed global solutlons based on institutinos rhat can (ake a global petsplaquoshytive Thus Sterling considetecl thllt it ~ tlOt unreasooable (O amidpate tme tbe member stares will be moved ro considft equippifllil the Unitw Nttous witb mote crunprebensive powen 1lt global pressUfes build 0974 323)
~h~ laquoo ~gt~ _- -gt bullbull (_bullbullbull __ - bullbull
A more compeluumlng cdH wus lAltiexclued by Barban Ward and Rene Dubas in their book prepared for [he UN Gmference of ehe Humafl EnVJroJlmenl 01lly UIIt EaFlh The c~ altJ Mdilllt1JatfCe (JI d Sflall Pta~t (972) 111ey stremsed the ufliry of tbe Eanh Jnd in eovironment and the )Jroblems in(ed by Jts iohabitants emntially thost oudined by SterJiog The ~uthoflgt poillted OUt rhat rhF envitonmenral qmosrion had by 1972 already had 50me impaltl on guvernments and im(rnarional organl1Jtion but the effior was somewhat ltInJOrdinated and unfocuseL In (hree particular aren - tbe global atmosphere rhe oceaml the worlds weather sysrellU - tbt-y saw [bl jmmediate neOO for (OmInOn poliey und co-ocdinared actiollS where vcerenshysions to national sovercigmy have no relevance ro ptrreived problems Bu rbefe was a need to go furrher and denl wirh other global problems di5Case srarvation iHitmcy unemployrnem ovcfllwding rntetnational poliCJcs wece at the 5tage reachOO wlrhin rhe devdoping s[ate~ of the ninettTtb (entury Elche they wiU move O to a wmmIlJlity bL~ro UiexclXIIl a more systematic sharin8 of weaJtb Ot tbey wiH break down in revoh and anareby (Wacd and Dubos 1972 295- -6) They Looked forward ro a sense of gLobal rommuniry 00seJ on he bope vf Irotecdon (from war aOO disaster) and the hope of enhancemenr (ecologic$1 as well as economid The ptlKtic~ and insrirutlofiS with whkh we are familiar inide our domestk sociecies would become suitably modlfied che basis of planetary oroer (Ward aOO Dubos 1972 297-8) This woold indude non~violent settlement of disputes witb legal arbirration ~nd polioacuteng ptocedures on an international basis jr would mea the Hansfer uf resoucces from rkh ro peor Ilnd inerCllSlaquo co-operaeion in arealt 5uch as health and edUcatIO farming uroon planning aud )JOlJution control As [befe halt been a shift of loyalty rom taroliy to dan from dan to tlation and from nation to fedctation there Wampll
hope clajmoo Wl1fd and Dubo$ for an ultimare lnyalty tuacute OUt single beau~ tifulllud vulnerable Planet Eanh (Ward and Dubas 1972 298)
Whilst the institutiona fmmework and organizational stfllCtuteS remain of necenity -ague in Oltl OM EaFtA iacutet is del( rhat the authors Wfre atming 11( a tlttwork oiacute world-wide fflnctionaUy hased organlzatiofll (both lOOs and JNGOs) char couId take on much of the work )JfCsendy done by governshymems o( rather whkh ougbt [O be dont by governmems UacuteJter writing-s have attempted (O deal wjth thc policy impliration$ of delllJng with )JrobshyJems globdly sroos (986) has poiacutenred en what 1w already been achieved in gtobal problem solving l1nd ha~ soughr ro buHd on rhis His critio have prunted out tha( what has already becn undertiacutelken has bren done more along rradicional Jntergovernmentallines (Donnelly 1990 121-30) Orbe writen have tied rubievemen[ in addressiacuteng [he global agenda more to renewed rutiviry in the UN (Rochester 1990 141-54) or to greater grass~ roots aud INOO acriviSffi Wget 1990 155-~8) Either way globaJj~m offeacuters a distinct W1ly of rackling the worlds ptublem~ It 1$ u ViIOIl thar sttesiexcles uniey and common (am( ntthet than disasreemem and roofrontashytion ir (ould thereIacuteore (oresce disputes being sruved inlernationally vety
much in (he way tbar chey are pre~ndy solvcd within tunny MtiOO iexclrares by more ro arbitratwn and Jaw and by entorcemenf ir neteS$il1) In this rhey have muh in COIDfllOfi wirh tire imerrnuiona lawyers iacuteUld idenlist writer of me eady (wenuacuteeh eemury mentioned at the beginning of tbu chaptet The globalisn are inspirecl jn rheir thinking more by ten Ot lt nudeal holocatlsr and by environmenml breakdown tnan by rhe duumleet elrpeshytieme uf wa dlllf aiacutefected rhe wricings of Woolf ol Ikierly
TIacutete globalisl appro~(h is opert ro the criticism of bcing roo idealistk jn a cynical world and lOO iIDpracrical in in uacutelstitutional sU8scsrioll5 Bur the di$mi$Slil oC rh~ words as globaloney cKleS HOt lid lite wctld oC che probw lems which hey have 50 effectively publiacutedzed They lutve uied to add anorIte dimensioacuten ro whar is possibte by showlng thar ie is nOCeSSiexcllty fOl rhe iexclurviwl of che planee
Tlle radical approach to the smdy oC iOternational orgllnizarions reflocu worIdmiddotvitws that normaUy lO beyond -dmse Jominated by rhe ltctivities of iexcltatcs or of LIte organizltuumlnns chemselves There is a sceprical view of whut is happeoing al soy one uacuteme in imernarional celarions and of he abilicy of mOfe cradicional wcifecs on imernafional cdarions ro explain let aJone llOderstand what is happeoing Ir is the feeling rhar approaches such ll1 (he MaNisr tlwt of rhe ideal theorisrs and some of rhe globuli~rs ur~ coming cber (O uodemaoding humanicys wider dilemmas rhar makes rhero so amactive They ar~ less Iikdy co apply rhemselves to rhe defais rutd wnrk~ ings oiacute p$cdcular imernatinnaJ organizations but neverrheless providt iotriguiog insighrs 00 [his phenomenoo by seeing rhem rhrollgh mol panoprk phHosophical lenses
SUMMARY
The rhree flIajor $chuols dealr wich io chis chaprer - the tcatiacuten the reformisrs iacutei1d che radical$ and rhe variarions (bey contain did not and do tlOf exJn iexcln a hiSforlcaj vacnum lde-as Wele foffilulared wirhio lhe COnten oiacute panicular sodedcs uoo in response ltO pUticular problems rbe communl (adom reYoludon of fhe nineteemb century the Finr World Wlli rhe rise of Nui Germany the spreading of nudeu weapons the deve1opmeof of plthitshy
$econd Workl War Europe fbe pnxeues of decoloniwion and deacuteteme rhe end oiacute the Cold War and rhe advaoce oiacute che inCormatton revolution In sorne CilSC$ the views oiacute rhose wdtings on inttmiddotrnational ocganUatlOHS have liad un efiecr on evenrs rhemelves pirlKulatly 00 rbe actitudes oC govetnrnents mwards tnternatiorW orgdflixauons AIl tXample is the work oC LecnarJ Woolf woose suggesnons Ctmceming a world organizatloo conttibuted lO fhe detailed preparnion oC the Lague oC Nations by me British goveltr mene Likewise Hans Morgeruhau and EK Can provided seimuli fot infiiexclrmoo US and Btirish governmcllul rhinking abom inrerruuional rela~ tiom iexclrom the 194Ck onwards In mher cases rhe general writings cJ persons lgtuch as Marx Leoin Mao Tse-tung and che dependencia school have affecred
rhe poJirk1ll dimare wirhin which govemmcncs conduce rheJe poUcy iucluding thar wwards jnternaclorull otgauj~atjon$
Orber ruCfOf$ aplft froro their historial cuntexc Iuve affencd the views of rhe schunl$ rncntioned They have differint backgtounJs io cheit ideruogy (Wesrero commllniSf Third World radical environmenralisr) and in theit level of $nalysis of inrernarional rebtions (stare Centuacutec inretesr aoo rramna~ dona groups cLitraquo dominanr global) This a(icca the typC oC inrernatiacuteonal organizariacuteon dominam io their studies (IGOs INCo) auJ thcic 8eograph~ kai $rea of interest (the Nonh Adandc Europe ThinJ WodJ Ot global)
TIte range of wcitings about intetnational organizarions has ull dte whole teflecfeJ wiJec llooersundings of imetoational ceJarions and wuumltld polidcs These io rhernselves have fed 00 tbe gtVidc iacutellccUecmal fcnnent and on developrnenrs in world affiuacuters Viewl about iacutellteftlational ocgsnizatJoos wiU continue ro take accOlnt of the ince1leeruaJ debate ill the studjes oiacute polishydes internacional re1atioO$ philosophy ecooomics imematluacutellal uw sociology histoty and geogrilphy They will also reflecto among other ampcton che stntcegk balance in tbe world [he relafIacuteve power of tiJe United Stares aod oroer nares me scate of wotld markers [be pto-ess uf Euwpeiexcliexcln tlllegrashytion che relacive positloo of the developing warIdgt iexclbe levd of cootlicc througbolc the world fhe -ratC of dte environfneot and the ahility oiacute huge StatCS to wiacutethswnd cenrrifttgal force Tbe way tIacuteult imematiornal organiuiexclshydons ret1ect tbese developrnents and tIacuteleir t1Ipability lO deal wich some of them will provide (he tllW fiWifcrial foc funue smdies
158 Writings OtJ internationdl organizatioru
Wodcl iexcltreI( coruisting of the Afro-Asiacutean-Lario Americltlu sta tes supported in their muggte aAainSt Picsr World imperialism by Chinls This viexclew of the wmId colouted tyJst Chiacutenese wridngs on iacuteoternatiollill oeganharions Tbe $uperJowers were seen as cynical lTlllnipubtors Qf inrernarionaJ jnsti~ tutions Mao Tre~tuog wOre of US poliey towards such insdfutions Ir mam use or them when it neOOS rhem and kicks them 3way when ir does flot (Society (or Anglo-Chinese Underuanding 1979 42) US-domioated pill-~ such amp$ SEATO and imperialist groupiacutengs like rhe Alliance tor PfOgre~( wttt detided Spedal viuiot was saved roc the Warsaw freaty Orgaoizatiun whieh in one aetide was described as Soviet sodal~ imperialisms mol fur aggression (Ming Sung circd Jn Chen 1979 194) fhe Soviet Union was aceuseQ of trying tu manipulate che Pan and negnshydate wlth Wesrem eouorries rhmugh the Enropean Scltwiry Conferenee tn consolidare irs begemonic status in Basrern Enrope at the same time iexcliexcll dividiog Wes(ern Europe squeezing Out the USA ro as ro muSte way (0(
iu expansion and infilrmrion into Westem Europe (Ming Sung clted in Chen 1979 197)
Chinese writecs Fegatded tbe Ntildegttood Worid espedally Western Europe as being a pen force io telmS of imperialism which Ww tdponeed to the lhird World wich diaJogu as io the Jmueacute Convention berweoen tIacute1e European Commnnitiacutees and AF~ican Carib~an and Paciuacutet srUe5
Furrhermore the defensive $spects of NATO were sttessed and with growing European cohcsion the trend iexclS IJkely to ~ towatds a fuoce in which the American elemenr is seen as 1 temporary neceuity eventual1y to be phased out (Sodety fur Anglo-Chioese Undetstanding 1979 90)
lthe countries of the Third World were setn as coostirotiog rbe mluumln force comb$dng imperiaJi~m colonialism and hegemonJsm reEerring nor only to the vestiges of Wesr Etl-OOptan foloniiexcliexclJism bOl abo to US iexclnpetlshyalism and gwwiog Soviet soci$l~imperiacutea1ism Tbe Third Wodd eQuld hdp tn exclude the gre$t powers ny baoding cogecher io such otganizatinos aiexcl tht DAU aod rhey could work ro correct unequiexcliexcl nade and eeonomk reladons with che sUpetpowers through UN iexcliexclgeucies and eonferences such as UNCTAD and UNaos Abo rtlW material ancl exporting orgllnizations liexclke OPEC rbe Incernadonal Bauxilaquo Association ancl the Onion of Banana Bxporting Counuies were proised a ehanging (he old interntlrional eumomic Ome and banerlog che biggest roarerJal plunderers in rile world rhe United Srates and (he Soviet Uoleo (Ptking Rt1Jiew 26 Septtmbtr 1975 cited in Cheo 1979 309)
111e poverty oiacute ehinne study of intetnatlenal erganhuions no dounr caused by the lack of Chinese membership of such etganizacions unril the 197amp and the turmoit ef the Cultural Revulution eiexcliexclme ro an enel by the 1980s Jnstead oere was a more reaHs( viexclew (lE rbe worlcl iexclf one S~shytimes coucbed In Manlst terms In Chlnese univenittes there was a growtb io detailed studies of iutemationalntgsnizations aod the nuropean Union
WritingI un inlmullPmnl vrgrsrtilpiill1J 159
Tbird Wwld vlewJ
Many Third Wodd Afro-Asian aoo Latin Atrusican) writers 00 jntemsw
tional organizaion have adopte a structtulIist framework and are particufarly nm(etnecl abour how insdtutions can be wcd as tools of exploitadon uf rhe nitd World aud how $ome cau be used lIS agenrs of libenuion They llave nor been induded in the ~ettiexcloo un Marxist viltws (or three feamm nOI al of them are Mandst thIJM who are Manisr place particular stresS on (he posicion oF thE l1lIacuterd World and as ThJrd Worlcl eitizens they have through theit own experience unother pe~cdve rhan [Mt of writers from industri$lized srates
Yash 18ndon (1978 377) has identjfied thNf nuacuterd World penfIXrives en inrernational Olganizatiolls Fim [here is that or the bourgeois Of perry natiunalisrs who are in power in mos[ Third World statcs and who are progressive in [errru of anti-impcrialism but are rraniollary ro the C1tccnr WC they would sooner mau thcir pcaee with imperialism rhan iluwnder power (e the masses and peasancs This group uses ineernational orgllniexclm~ tions ro pur presrure 0lI imperialisc states in order to extntCt concession5 from them and appease tbe masses in their own coontries TIley see che UN as an opportunity to parley witb their entwhiacutele impecild masters t a presumed kvd uf equa1iry (Tandoo 1978 365) Thc scltond pcrspective is rhat ofthe reaIly backward regimes of thl Thitd Wodd such un Taiwiexcliexcln and Jotdan or whnm intemarional orguniacutelattnnS are of margJna1 signifieance [)t they prefet tu dea wirh impcrialism iquestirt(tiy The rhird petSPCCrive idenrified by landOll is that uf rhe masses vi thc TIlird World for wbom toterntlunaJ orgmilAriom are petiphewl fin liS Jong as hey rontinue fO reflect the muing balanlte uf clas$ forces in hvour uf impeuacuteJism (fandon J 978 378) Sioce the ene of he 196amp rorces representing thu third group have bccome lnott prominent in world polido in che form of liberarioo groop1 lttCn as tbe PLO and whilst chese have f)tgten interested in galnin8 telaquolgnJtlon rOt rhemshyselves at the UN and the spedaliled agcodes rhey are not depeuden 00 these or8ani1Jlton~ rndecd Tandoo romioeted (hat fo che revoludonary snnggles in SOUfh~E3SC A~a and AfrJctI iOfernattonal otgilnizalJons are tOO peripheml to be of much $ignilJeaoce (Tandon )9713 377)
Tancloo providcd n inrere~tiog history of the Jevelopment uf the anrishycolonialist forees in che Third Wruld sinee 1945 bur hi~ clivi~iexcl()H iexcloro he three perspenives is roo stark leaving aside rhe leil important backWllro regimes be has basiclllly grO~lped tbe Third World leadershp joto the revoshylutionaries who have Uttle netd (or imernatiooa otgllnizatiooll and those who llave suumlpped into refOrmism and have beco duped iot() bdieving (hat they elln ehaoge chelr c1ependeoce 00 industtia1i1Cd nBfiexclmL~ lhrough intemadonal organiwtions Thjs seems to undelsrare me use or ~mh organishyzations by revolutionllry groups - especiiexcliexcllIy che PLO anel tlle SoUthem African liberadon OtgllOiexcl7arionS - whieb have made substaotial use oiacute [he UN me Arah League ano the OAU tO sustain rhe polirical aspeets of theit effOrt5 1t alS(l uverestimatcs the extent tu whieh the Third World countries
J UU wnlmgl 1111 JTiUrllamm41 ergtIttJ1I0fll
have any iUwinru about imetnariooal Qrganizarioos such a~ UNC1~D
Furchermorc the identificador of 800d revolutionaries and falten refurmislS i~ tuller impliexclstjc~ rhe maIur sponrot of the UNs New Ecooomic Order l wruch Tandon hal roudemned as rhe Old Economic Order with a diffefent rltetoric WIIS the Algetian radinu governmenr of Boumediemu rhe PLO irself ha heen dependem on a numlgttr of bnurgeWs Arab goveromenrs foc financial 00 diploJUlltic suppon and ro Tandoos duumlertion that PQr narlonallibemwn movemenn guided by a proktatlan idoology such liS rhose in Chifliexcl1 lIlud Vietnam iruemarionaJ organlwtlona WtU of no 1J5e can be- added the re5ervarion until chey carne (O power Whiht ir took some twenty years belote communist Qtill1 made use nf suth organiutions the unified communiSl Stale ol Vietnam was quick fO cake up it position in the UN ro ask [Ol aid thtough UN agencies liS well as w become ji membet of he CMEA (Comecon)
Third Wodd commemscOt1l on world politics have emphasized the nature uf rheir atea$ potirical ecoOoacutemtc Ilud culmral relatloosluumlp wilh rhe iHdllsrriexcl~ alixed Nonh TitilO is iOO$t Oflltl rypified aiexcliexcl bciug OHe of ueo-folonialism _ COntrol of che Third Wtltld by lhe Nortb by indirecl means ratlet (han by direa colonial tule and of Kf)IomIacute( dRptwJmry (o dtpmdemjiexcliexcl) lntetnationaiacute rdsdOOi bcrween sures are sublumed ro relations between claue$ world wide Ixtween on rhe one lIand the expluacuteiting impetialist capitetists in rhe northcm iru1usuialized couotries 2100 rhcir middle-ltlass collaboratotS in the 50Uthem SUtes aud on the othet band he exploiced masses rhe proleuriat ol [he $Ourhern contJnems The Lurcr gmupS have been 1I1iide ecooomkaUy dependent on [he furmer so char hey lIre in rhe wuacutetds uf the Bruiliiln T Dos SantOS in a situadon jn which the economy of a cetuin group of counshytrles is condiacutedoned by rhe develOplllent aad expansion of aoother ecouomy lO which thcit own 15 subjecred (Bodenheimer 1971 327)
The uOOerdeveloped tounrries depend uacuten [be developed ror their capital nd ercperdse they find key sectors of ehdr eroooroy conrrolled from OUtsJde rhey act as a SOUfce of raw marerials lIS ji lthetip source of labour arul as a rnarket fur mllnuf8ccurers from Euttipe ]apan and North America As thejr living standards were deterrniud by rhe vicissinWeS of the Northern~ dominated wodd marker the relationship was Otle uf unequa exchange (he [esule of which was a world experiencing woequal developmenr with a developed rieh indwtriaJiud capiralisr Notthern centre and d poor underdeveklpedgt agciculrutitlly backwarn eXFloired periphery in che 50mb The dependem 80mh has been divided berween rhe ptedominanr undemeshyveloped area~ lUld a few Cenfres of deve10prnenr wirh their ttade culrural rraffie and polidcal linL to [he deveJoped North - rhe depeOOem develop~ memo omlinea by EH Cardosa (1974) allodlt~r Bruiliall Mmir Amiu (977) rejC(ted the prosptltt of aH antonomous capitalist development in [he Third Work the oew bourgeaisJe of Lacin Ametica Africa and Asia were in allianec with capitalisrs from rhe Nnnh and rhe mato $OUrce of finance ror lmported equipmem was fmm the expon of raw materials to rhe indu~rial
5 ~ _~ smiddot_middot~~
iexclred smes Amin (1977 1-21) SllW rhe can made ror a New Imernational Ecooomic Order (NIEO) by Third World leaders at rbe UN UNCTAD aod che Vilrlous North-Sourh dialogues as an nrtempt LO iexclnerease the price of chelr ntw mattIial exporrs obraio more lmpotted technol08Y snd chus finance a new srage of develQpmenr He saw this ti placing the Thitd World more in the gttp of the neo-co1onialist sysrem and iostmd recommended 11
more self~rcuumlanr development wlrh murrud assismnce between Third World sures a reducdon in [ade wirh rhe induuialized wotld and Chlll a loos~ ening of dependenre Amin lJke TaOOon had Jittle fairh in presenc imtrnruional organizaciexclon Il tools foc fasbiooing a more independent Tbiacuten Wotd His sU88tl1cion of grearer mUtual ilSlgtistaoce between ThUd WorId uate~ implied somtthing more sophillticated than a numbtr of bilateral arrmgements As rbe present orgauizarions used fu iexclncm~Thjrd World cnshyoperation (che OAU he Atab League ASEAN) are domitllued by jusr dl()llC govetnmenrg chM accept lhe eowse coodemned by Amio _ the NIEO ami greater jmegrndon iexcluro rhe world economic sysrem ~hen Amia solutloil involves like-minded deveJoping counrries or more like1y political changes leading ro such indigenous intemuional orgilniwrions
Other Trufd Wodd wdten have plllCtXl emphasls on grearer use 01 exisring insdtutions lOO can broadJy be deKfibed lIS Wopmenraluli huI Prebisch an Argentinian econOmigf has not only studied the que5iaacuteon uf ecooomic dependency but his ideas llave been used as the baJiexclis for che wotk of cwo miexclljoc iexcliexcluemariOOiexcll1 organizadons rhe UN Enmomic Commission fa utin Ameriea (ECLA) and UNCfAD Iu his smdy of Briliacutesh-Argerl(inian trading relntioflS Prebisch bad idenrified rhe unequRl tecrns ol Hade between he favoured (ndusrrislized s(ate of tbe centre and he les privj~ leged llOIl-indumialiacutewl periphery Prebisch unlike rhe dependencia gtChool of Amiacuten Dos Sancos and Cardosa believed thu this inequaLity could be overcome by political acrinn by trade pre[ereonces fuvouring the pedphery by eoo1ruooiacutery agreemenrs by intelnatiacuteowll aid and by more foreiga imvestment in che ~riphery It was thele remedies thiexcllr Prebiacutesch eneouraged when he WiIS Executive SecrCrary of ECLA from 1955 lO 1963 aOO Secrewy-Genernl ofUNCTAD ftoro 14 ro 196tL In~d rhe amoum of aid the periphery needed in omer to overeome their Unfuvoluable rrnde balance became known io UNCTAD clrcles as [he Prebiexclsch Giexcllp
The distinguished Afiican aC1ldentie Aji Mazn1i has wricren un the plighr Qf (bar conciflfnt aod j~ role in pmem~day interruUIDllfl1 afmits He soughr ro answer rhe quesdon Now rlw Imperial Order is eoming ro an end who is going tO keep rhe peaee in Aampica and tu examine he concept of Pax AfrlclllUl the African s ambidoo ro be his OWh palaman The JXIliacutecillJS and se[f~8overnment ufAfriea depended on the nodan ofan African self which Mauui discusseJ in decaH He considered how this 1ndepen~ denre might be threarened by the politicaI and cultural fragmenMion of the contillenr Ellld eronomieally by deperulence on Europe He quoted Kwame Nkntmah finr President uf Ghaniexcll on rhe Europe-Jn ECOntunir Communiry
162 Wilihgr rm intd1JatirmallJrganizatimu
ihe ireaty of Romemarks the advent of oeoKolonitJism [n Afriacuteen snd bears unqutSrlonably the marks of Freneh neo-colonuumlllism (Murui 1967 93) He moduded from tM that Wlut AfrlOlns tbelaquofore neecletl was II
renerru authotity of cheir owa tI) ((lordilJlte fheir eltonomk and policicat deCena- sgain5t trus rnreat (Mamtiexcl 1961 93)
Given this theme it is not surprising tlwt Mazrui ser srore by rhe OAU bU[ he was realistic in bis judgement
In relatioos betwlaquon African statts lIOflesr step rowards Pu Africana was taken when rhe Organiution oiacute Aftlaquolln Uniey set up in Commissiacuteon ofMediauacuteoo Conci1illtion aud Arhitmion
Anormr OAU Commissioo of relevance fot Fax AftlOlna ls che Defence Cornmission Sor me Defeme Commlnion 1w se Car been among che lean effecdve QfPan-Aiacutericun ins(kndons Afrka mar indeed aspire to be her owu ptlliceman bur she does nO seem ready as yel to par the price iacutem it
(Mauui 19612[3)
Mazrui oudined the varicd backgrounds of [he lemen oiacute newly illdepenshydent Africa and thdr radical and revolmionary ideas and it is pethaps swprising rhat the insrirutions rhey created fur me coutinenf wete so mnservative with [he p05sible exceprion oiacute the OAUs Natiomtl Libetttion Comminee Mazrui no[ed thac Africa srill has the problem of how othet powetS respond tu its behaviour and [har forcigo iotmsilm in AJtica continued Indetd the I990s proved tO be a dC(ade of disusrer for AfrieR The debiacute burden contimlld while Ilome states collapsed lnro civil war ami others took to iutenoendoo in thejr ueighbonrs affairs Outslde interference from borh Enrope and North Amecica euodoned One of rhe fcw brlghr spots was the end of apallhcid in South Africa and the peaceful transitioo ro majoriry mJe lo al thiexcl~ tn quote Juliacuteus Nyerere rhe ampcmer pre~iexcldenl of Tan1ania The OAU exists outr ror tbe prorecdoo of (he Afrinllt Head~ oiacute State (cited io AlilgapPltl 1998 1 ) The relarive optimism of Maztui has giveu way ro Afriam writers examining sorne of me disrnrbing details of inaction by [be OAU and regtonal orgauiacutezatJuns nlCh as ECOWAS beiog used as doaks fu the machinations oE regional hegemou$ suth as Nigcria (Mibe 1m 61-9(1)
Radha Sinha$ problem--ortented undy Food iexcllfId PIWt11y (1976) has an IItgent message Sinha a former consultaot of the FAO prodnced an iofuacuterrned aUllyiexcljiexcl of the world$ food problem stress1Og in paniacutecular the maldistribution of food and other resources Noting he profO$ab of UNCTAD with heit muld-rommodJty approach and buffer nocks provjshySiOfli he commented rhe grearesr weakness oE the UNCTAD scheme js les Hkdy politlca1 unilcceptablliry ro me developed (ountdes parriculady che USA (Sinhil 1916 114) a propheey that has proved to he cortect He identitled a more aggresslve attitnde by Third World sutes e5pedally
WrilirrgJ on i1tternatiflii1l rHgarrtzatitmlt 163shy
after the uH prite cise of 197314 when the developing coonuies tried to maximize their own market powers by formin cartcls such as rhe Intematimlal BaurdtC Association the Intemuional Coundl of Copper Expotcing Countries aud the Intema[ional Tin Agrcrmenr He gave n qualified wekome ro the Lomeacute Convention betwcen the European (omrounities anJ cenain African Padfic and Caribbean Haces Writing in 1976 he commented
The receot cbange in rhe luirudes of tite tiche countries is largely due tu the incIeasing miliuncy of the Third World countries lt is almost ertalll utar the magnitude offuture cnnc~sions in me coune ofGAIT aud UNCTAD IV Ilegotiarioos wiU deperu mainly on (he continued solidariry uf the devdoping counlrtes
(Siha 1976 116)
Sinha was pardy correct as tbe solidatity cf rhe Tbird Workl states cracked se the induurialized wodd withheld funher Con(eampSJoru but ir was able tO do so because market condidons swung against che primaty producen
In his condusion Sinha called ror a IIDre1 shttting of wnrld t($nmes and power if confrontarion was ro he avoidOO He feared that the ffa of roshyoptradon berween [ieh and pool conntries hiid ((lT1e to an end and that batde lines were being drawn Instead he advOOIreltI majnr concessions from the dcher coumries on trnde lInd aid issues and a1so a ma~lt te$ltUcrnring of the incematiotlill organization~ aoo negoacutetiating ffiarhinery in order tu provide a much gtC2ter say fm me poorer countries in internatiooal tJ1lde invesrment and mooetaiexcly armngemenrs (SiMa 1976 132) GAn 1BRD aud IMF have been the presenoe of [he ri h with voting weighted m faacutevour of rhe OECD countries and Sinha re(()ffimended thlll GATr aoo UNCiAD be merged inro an Intemacional irade Organization (ITO) and che creatlon of a Third World permanent secrctariat iexclnvolved in all trade and aia negoriarioru Thoogh less radical than Amin Sinha aIso recomrnrnded gttter coshyoperation berween developing coulltries and an eoo ro their inkrtotity complex with instead a sense of m~ttnal sdiacute-e$teem and trust being devel~ oped (Sinha 1976 ch 10) Litde that h~ happened during the 19905 woo1d have encouraged Sinha The World iratle Organiaadon has emerged as the presenoe of the dlVelupeJ tares and lw brushed aside many of thc mucerns cf UNCTAD Debr ha~ edged on ro dlt wudd iexclagenda but mainly at the beheS[
of a non-governmental organization )ubiacutelec 2000 nd the promi$e~ of the main financill jnsrirutluru lO pursue dcbc-rclicf produred but a thiniexclmfl
In aH Third WQrld commenrarors have provided a vatied and lively approruh fOwards tne problems uf intetniexclational organizarions Their emphasis has niltntaHy beCl Qn tbe use of wurld lmtirutions to change the econornic condidon or the Southern cominents As this enndition is likely to worscn in the near filrtltf further more lJica conrtibutions on the rule oC
-- --- ~- __ _~- __- imernatIacuteonal orgaoilarions in Nonh-Smuh relarJons tOiexclghf be apected from rhe Third Worid A1ternaciveJy wrirers (mm rhat ares rmy jW ltIacuteespUacutet rm imergovemmemal orgaoizarions ar lealaquo Mee rhem $O Hrrle
Cfili~ald~heJ
Critica approadvs lO the nudy uf intetnadonal relations are (hose har rejee( the dominating vleW1iexcli repr=med by tbe realist and reformistS as oudined aboye In paHicular rhey reglUd realists as apologisu for the currem con6gutltion of power 10 (he wiexcldd sytem and considet [har rhe refOnntstS are elrher unable ro undersraoo he fUe llamee )( (hi sysrem oc ille UDwiUing to accepc rilar ir needs more rhan mooest refotlllS TIlOugh they may sympalhi-ze wirh rhe agenda of some Marxists aud Third World wt1cers chey do [lO( llave rhe hisrockal certaimy of the former not rarely do they have the experience and perspective of ehe larter TItey view intenUishy(jnl1ill nrganiutions wirh a jaundiced eye as these are mainly the lll$tmmenfS of rhose who dominare rhe syuem This section COlllaios an wcoum nf three approaches tmt of the critical rheorlsti- of kmintsc wrirshy[1185 ulld pose~mooernismlt
Cri(~1 herJrY The approach of critical theory 10 JnrematlonaJ o(ganizatiooll iSi determtoed by their wider world-view which in itsclf is explaiiexclwd by tbeir llame One of the leading exponents Roben Cox said [har ie is cririca1 in cne Jensc rha h srands apan 100m che prevailiog order of rhe wOlld and asks how tb$t oroer came iexcllPouc Ir does nor r-ake existing irucimtioM lIl1KI JIQwer relaclons rOl granred bu c311s them iacutemo queuion Ir 1S diexclrlaquoced ro rhe social itnd JIQiirshyical complex as a wItole rarhet (hall he stparate pirtt IUthet than subdiide and Imic an examination of a problem it looks al the wger pkturc of whkh rhe problem is jwt oue part and trio rO wJdeThwod the processeS uf change ill which botIt pans ulld whole ure involved laquo(ox 1993 277~S)
Ai a thoory cridQiIacute theory rejeen tbe daims of posicivism of an external Nulity and to be mue-free ror critkal rheorIacutests koowledge ti nor moraUy IleUc1ll1 ic is more che result of the social background of tbose Wt hold ir Given this ctitkal tbeory alJows foc a normarive choice in favoU of a social ancl iexclJlieiexcl(ld order diflerent f(cm rhe prevruHng arder bur it limiu the ruuse 01 chotce ti a1remative orders which are feasibJe mmsformations ofme cxvaing worJd h musr rejEC[ improbable alternadVe8 ju~t as ir rejecrs rhe pcrmanctlly nr lhe exiscing order (Cox 19 90)
Cridcal rheory differs lrom Marxist upproElchcs beCElUS( of iu tejection nf any daim to hold the objenive tru[h and betause or it~ avoidance of (he pmslllt ol il utopia Neverrhe1ess [heir analysis of incernarional relarln1l$ is one tbu hEls u numher of similariuumles wich the Marxisc pcrspecdve It regurds rhl tlistlng suucrures of world polirics as beiug oppressie not
- _ __ _-
lean because of rhe dominance of (he capitalism of che Unired StElte~ For many che USA is seco as a hegemonic power the prevailing urder - in re[ms rbar reReet he wrirings of the Itallan Marxisc writer Amonio Gramscl (1891-1932) Gramsd advanced the nodon of ln hisrori(middot bloc which in itself refilaquors che $Ocial reladons oE ptoducdoo The dominanr dass in a counrty - 01 indeed aoy social grouping - mlinrains cohesion and idenciry withio [he bloc [hrough the ptopagacion of a COIDmOfl culturegt A new bloc can be formelt when a subordinate dau can euablish tU hegeshymony over orher subotdioate gtOllpS (Cox 1993 56--7) The IDove rowuds hegemony comeS with the piexclt$ting fmm che spediacutek inrercsrs ofa gronp Ol
dass tO rhe building uf inrimdons aOO elaoorarion uf ideologies (Cox 1993 57-8) It Loiexcl rhat ptOCe$S thar embeds the incemu of the dominanc dan in an imttmrional form thae [w an appeal widet [ban that dan ine1f It the-refole repreSoems mote tlmn jUSt (he drunJnaoce oE one state ovec anocher bllt implies a cemufi acceptante of the tules arJd institutions purouized by [he hegemonic JIQwer Jo other woros it is all order wbicb most Olher Sta[e-~ (01 at 1enst those within reath of die hegernouy) couId find compatible- wirh their iexclmetem (Cox 1993 6t) h aJso involves noe just inttt-staee rueivirle5 bur rhose oiacute tlvilliOCiety (oon-Stllte socieM instishycudons) ebereby encoumging Hnks between social dus$ts iexcln the connules covered by ebe hegemony
What does Cox llave to uy about ioccmational Otgsniuciexclons 1bey Ilre scen in he oontext ofme wiacuteoo unaemanduuml18 of itnernational reUacuteltions mentloned iexcliexclhove He is direcr 000t mem Ooc mechanisru chrough wruch the universal norms of a wodd hegemony are expttssed js the interoatiooal organisation (Cox 1993 62) Why is chis so Cox U993 62) gives five teIlSons
bull They e-mbody rules cOae help (be- apwlSion of a hegemonic wodd iexclrder These insdwrians reflcct the intererts ()( the dominam social anil economic force- buc a1low a cettain amOunt oC adjusrment ro accommodare other subordinared interests TIms the USA WllS preplltoo ro mm conccssions to
bciI18 in Lhe EU srares and Japan ro rhe Wotld Trade Otganizatimt They a[e prooucrs of that order Though [he insrimrions and rules Ilce
nurITlllUy initiared by the hegemook power ir takes cate ro involve aOO comule a numbe-r of second-ronk stares and gaio theit supporc he Wotld Bank and Inte[nacional Mooetaty Fund were very much pan of [he world order thar emerged afrer [he Second World Wat and which was dominared by rhe Uoiced Stlres
They ltgidmi7e i[s nOlms by providing guidance for SllIteS and by legitshyimiuacuteulS cerraIacuten IlCdviries Ilr me narional leveL he OBCD afie rhe inrerruuiooal financia) irntuumluriom lave spread an acceptante of mllrket coodirions and sHict mOllerary iexclJlides
They co-opr elites from pelipheral counrrie Ihlented sraH commg 110m the Thiacuterd Wocld are expected tO dCCept he scriexclpt wcittttt by the domishynam power Bouuos Bourros-Ghati as Secteury General uf the Unired
166 Jiexclljiexclr1giexcl Qr1 ifJfCflrttuacutemal IWgaizati(ifJJ
Nadons stroyed too amp~r ftOm the gtip of Washinston and his second term was VCtoM by rhe USA His sucecssor Kofi Annan will no doubt undentand what 1$ n-quired of him He brings the mncerns of orhe states ro che UN bUf nor in a way thu threatt1l$ the USA
bull They absorb counter-hegemonic ideas Ideaiexcl $uch as 1iustainable dlYClop_ ment tukl even debr foTgiwness are taken 00 board by the intetnatwnal finarnial institlltion$ blu are trandirmel into pulido rhat swt them
Wh~t is ro be done Cox thinks thar the pfQblem of changiog dw world orUer 1iMuld be shlfred back from intern~tional insritutions tO niexcllriacuteooal $OIacuteishyeties where the sodo-political b~se for a new historie bloc mighr be ereated (Cox 1993 64) FaiJing the creadon of a new historie bloc of the new working cla$s and rural and urb~o marginal groups there might be tnmdorshymadon oC the curtent monopoly-libcral hegemony by adjusting to rhe demanJs oiacute local ello$ for polides 5uch as natlonaHution Cox 199~ 65) He aw advocates te-regulation of erooomies and a re-wmpositjon of civil sodery Internatiotla lnstlcutions induding organiutions can berome eontact puint1i fOr new $OCia[ furtt (Cox 1994 (11)
Critica throrJm $uch as Cox oifee a refreshing exposidon oiacute che posidofl oC imernatiooal ofganizatioos in a wocld where the main revolutionary powe~ have either collapsed (rhe Soviet Union) or se(tled into a cautious ronservatirun (China) Ir provlde~ a sceptical arf realisric world~view without acreptins tbe inevuumlahility ni a illture domlnared by mooopoly eapi~ ujsm sud the Utlired States J-Iowevtr its appllcariexclon to intemationa1 organhatJons 11 StImewha( timited tQ the maln global jnsdm(jons and th financial and economlc orgmiutions Ir has 1m (O say aboue regional nrgashynjudon Uf abour N(JUacutes Furthermore iu alternarive fu(ure testS on ourcoroes thu are far froro certain RevnJutlons in the Thied World are roore likely to be- irupired by nadondi$m oc by IsJaroic fllndamentaHfl OCalaquoely [he solid ooses for new historie blocs
Fwinuumll aNml4cbts
Feminist perspcctives 0f1 inttmatlonal rtlatioos llave in common wirh the erit~ ical rheocillu a rejclaquoion of (he dominance in rhe $Ilbjecr of the rcnHst and rdOrmisrs Although fuminist writen cover a wide 5laquolpe the gencral basis oiacute their aqurnent 1S har in interwnional relatioM ru in most politkal aud tcooomk acdvity women are diexclSJtdvantagt~l Alchoogh they own ahour 1 pet tCfH oC the worlJs lfOpeny and tiexcliexclxe heme 10 peiacute ceoc ofincome they perfurm 60 per eenr of working houn and provide 80 per eent of nfusets (petetsen and Runyan 1993 6) This is a derDOnstrndon of gender inequalitie~ the sodalJy learned behavior and expecratioos thar distioguish berween maKuliniry and femininity (Petetsen and Runpn 1993 5) Feminist aprroaches ofren So bejond the $tati~tks and examine (he mind~se[ of those engaged in the pmctice of intemadonal rdations whiexclch (bey ampee as geodered In other woros che world
Writingc Off inlmhJliofMl vrgntiZdlMm 167
illeen in a mlLlndine way thar kvrntB (he posjtiOll o( mnles in rhe hitgtranhy and devlllues the c041trihution of WQmeO (Sylvestet 1994) War in pattKular is gendered in a way chat keeps wornen and metl from qUtstioniog the essentiat pmpose and he neglltive effects of war militarization ~nd viQleme on their awn and orhers livts (Petetsen and Ruoyan J993 9 t)
What of wminist view$ uf imernationaJ organizationsr Ir IS not possible ro presem a rollf(tive vjew that eneomp3$~e~ rhe works of radicaJ femjnisu and ny iexclihetal teminists (rutead the work of one author Sandra Whitworth (1997) will be used as me pily$ rornt attrntion ro inrernarlonal organizations Aamper inrroductions ro feminilfr theory and internacional frIamiddot tiom and gendet and internacional relatlons Whirworrh examines geodet and imernational organilions She screpts Coxs vjew oiacute inrernational orgashynjzarions [har they retleltr (he dominant powet relations in che intetnational system and rhae internaliomd otgaoiution h che procelt of imcitntionaJshyiling and regulating conOice - eicher rhat which may IIrise among siexclates o( char which has iu (onU io transnationaI society (Cox 1980 375) TIte way duu pcople orgaoire themelve$ wirhin international iostirurjons reflects a variety of power relations ineludi~ of rollJSe gendec relatiull3 (Whitworth 1997 74) lbe triad of jnstirutions ideas and material rQudi~ tioru help ro hxare uSllmptiolls aboue geoocr withiu jntetmltional rewtioos Whitworth uses thesr tn examine lhe uooerstandillg oiacuteScndec io an INGO the Internadonal PlarUled ParenthooJ Federatlou (JPPF) and an intergnvemmental organilJ1rion (albcir one wlrh some oOl1-governmentJ)J represemation) the InrernatlonaL lab01lrOtganiution (no)
Whirworths studies show rhar thr IPPF tended ro accept the deshyemphasizlng oi the gendered oamfr of reproducdoo and (f) ignore rhe imponaoce ofbirth comcol foc womens reproductive freroom Instead in an effort tu popularize birth rontrol srrel~ WWl placoo on paremhooJ rather than iexclust the womans choice However IPPF poUcy beeiexcllme more radirnl in (he 19905- with Hnks beirtg made berween II1M control alld womeos ~)tu~ ality (WbJtworth 1997 ch 4 pmim)
The RO eoucerned itself with WQmen as workern It cnnsidercd that tbey oeeded spec-ial atrention and promoted ptoteCtlvt legiexcl~lacion This reiexcln~ forced me view (har [he male worxer Wall the norm with women workers nor deserving the same rights remunfration lOO mndirions Latterly however the JLO ha~ reflectoo views rhat prodaim wornens elt)ualily in rhe workforce and has sunoo tuacute assess the importanee of policies on womens role in rhe workplace as weU as in sodery more wjdely (Whlrwnrth J997 ch 5 panm) Whitworth comes [O the eondusion rhu iexclln iexcllnaLyiexcli~ of gernler in rbe IPPF and no shows how tbese rdiexcliexcldonsbips llnd definirions ni what it is to be a womltn oc man are structuted relationsrups3nd hlsrQciudly hve been scrurtured tu disadvantage women (ibid 15n
lo eommon with the critkal meorists Whitworth has useQ au examinamiddot doo of two intetnational organixations (O deroonstrate a puinr about imerflational relatiexclon~ indeed sodal rctatrol1s mOte widely The poinr is
I1
I
middot - ~-_ --___ aOOuc powec and iu use not (O balance oue SCdre ligaiOSf anorher but fm une gooup ro domiaare morher Jn chis case it 1$ ma the dominution of one dass me m culcnre over $ofU)(her (though Whirworrh recognizes those reLationshyships ti wcll) but of roen over women The crititUl uudy oiacute (wo jnceraational mganirations dealing with iSSlle5 recoSniud ti beiiexclg oiacute impocshycanee or WOfficn suggesu rha( tltOO simihu research on orher internacional organizadons could proJuce interening aOO uwfuiexcl resulrs
Pllit~ism
Thc posc-moderruacutesr $opprooch lO intetaarional rcllldon is one tlur bas (ome ro che fote Jn che perlod sinee lite end of rhe Cold War Jr is based on $o widcr imellectual viewpoim insrigated by l1rench iorcUtcruals of the 196()s gener~ ation _ Bllrrhes Derrida FouclIul and Lyorard - and whkh suggested rhat the modero era liad becn overome 11 fejeas mera-nattatives gnlud accounv- of hi5tory aoa iacuteNIacuteler subjecu as having no independem rubstance Scientifk btliefs induding [hose oiacute rhe $)(ial scJcllces are rooted in (lllxure polill(os arul mores oJ a wciery and are lherekJre subjective As rhere is 00
oblcctive reality cmpirical daims bave fl() spccial sunding in rhe rralms of koowledge IndeeJ ir i$ power aod knowledge are intimatel) incerwirud Posr-moJernism Hllnds against rhe belief of rbe modero pcfiod which LI seco as beginning wiacuterh rhe enlightenmcm of mid-eightcenth cenrufy Europe and AmeriCll Ir rheldore rejcn~ rhe COMCpr$ oC rationalirl and progrcss aSSuacutedared wi(h [he enlighrenment and [he moocrn age Thc uniry of IOOnkind iexclirW iexcldells such liS rhe untveIsWiI) of human aacuteghrs are rejcuoo lnsceadlocal aetion in smallgroups 15 advuacuteClmd
Post-modetnist ideas have affected tite srOOy of inremruionaJ rdarions as (bey have ocher social scienccs Posr-modern imeraarional relariops theoriscs havc ustd heir view$ 00 objecuumlviry (o exiexcltmine che rrmhs of international relatiom en see how rhe concepts iexclind knowledge-dairm (bar dominare the Jisdpline in faer are highiy conringenr on spccific power relatiom (Smith 1997 181) Post-modemisrs bave lltfa(red me mcta-narratives of the reelshy1m and reformlsu aHke The objectiacutevemiddot aaallses of the realim Ilnd neo-realisu are setn as being deJl(nclent on the subjective standpojnts of cheif mainly Amen(an and Europeau authors Ijcharcl amphiel (1986 258) daimed he works o[ Kenneth Waler men the leading neo-realillt trrat the glven ordcr a rhe natural nrder Jjmirs rarheE (lian 1XpawU political discllUtse negales oc rriviuliliS the signifinnce uf variely urOiS time and plue Whar emerges ii an ideology tllar anridpatcs iegirimires ancl onents a totalitarian projen 01 global ptoponioo~ che rattoualiaciuacuten of global poHcics iexclbe reformius are likcwise tainted Md have Ji mhr$lren belief in pmgress The posc-modernl$rs poinr m rh Helocausr as rhe heighr oiacute mooemism a rombimiddot Halioe of science dnd polidcal otganizillnon Il was SCruTely progreso
Given an antifllthy mwards rhe MlVe[iacute~ign srae borh as a centre of powet ll1ld as a crearioll Jiten imbutol wlth a wncepltliexcl uf progress pest~miexclJdetniexclsls
wHungJ mi Im~iexcliexclrun wgltiIRrzuJlU7iJ 1J7
can lOUcdy be expcctcd to vIacuteew intergovernmencal organiUlrions wirh sympilthy Tbe prefetted iacuteonu of internacional organizations when mentioned are those thiexcltt ltlj~plal differemes snd dlvenity in global pelitlcil duu are reginnaUy based or rhar reflec irKlividual actlOn Tndecd ir SeeIJS
rbat Michel Fomawt was involved with an alliance oiacute twO INGOs (Miquestdecin du Monde and Tertl-s do Hommes) in proresting agaiust internadonal iH~shydon over rhe boat people who flcd Vietnam in tite lare 1970s and ear1y 19S(k He is gU()[ed 11$ sayillg tbar Amnelltl Internnrlonal Teueiexcl dts Hommes Mfiiecin du Monde lHt inirilltives whiacutech have created a nrw righr rile dAht of privare individuss ro iexclntervene in [he otder of polino and internatioont snateg(eiexcl (dred in CampheH 1998 516)
Aootber researcher has exnmined ~he Europcan Communities Ilr che point wben Jr was mnslorming intO me European Unioo and askOO whether ir was a pootmodew ConJigUflHton (Nstrgaard 1994) Hi condusions wcre mar ir was gualiwiveJy a new organizarion oC human calJecrlvJties which mighr U$hec the coming of post-moderniry (Ntgttgnatd 1994 27j) The basis fO[ [bis judgemem was rhat me Ee did nO approximate anl modero form of piexcliexcl1idUll Ofpnizarion it did OOt commatld che means oiacute violence its au[hotity derives noc from die people and ir appeared to be a fCgJoo trying ro pOrecr itiexcliexclelf againsr globaliacutezadun iacuteN0rgaaro 1994 274--5) Ir remllins ro be sren whether [he BU tJf [he twenry-first cenrury wHl fu1fi1 rhtgtse hopes Ot wiU stllrr ro teVen
to a more scate-like being Generall) dIe cririolapproaches ro interruHiorud relarious hiexclJve provided
1lOOIe innovatIacuteve insigllls iexclnro rhe study uf imemarional orgsnizations The crtrical theorists llave becn sh3rpest in rheir unde[$(iexcltnding nf internarional ofgiexclt1lizacious as servsnrs of a dominiexcliexclIf power configuracion thoogh the) lave pemaps Umieed cbelr scope wllen viewing internacional organizadons Feminis[ wJiters ruave given Vltike to whac i5 after aH tbe scmi-sileut majoric) in rhe world and Ilre ouly srarting in qnest10niug the male dOmimiddot nance nuacutet iexclusr of the nmning of IGOs huc aloo of theic agenda Tite post-modemisrs are iMlSr concerned oiacute he (bree 8rOUp5 with inretnationlll organiucioru as such bllr rIacuteleic intellecrual approach is the ffiOSt tadkal aud can lelld tuuml a fnon of nihilism
GltJbaliacutesf lIiu
A gIobalisr perspective does oor viacuteew world poliacutetica as being predomishynandl arout iotergovernmemal relatlnn~ Ili would realisu or illbour inrentare aruI imersocietal rdations as a number uf reformisu llliexclll consider lnsteaacuted it cakes a more holisdc view Problems are (cmfronred ac Ji global level wlurions have tO be sou8ht here as weil This iexcls not ro neglcct (he 10tal Ol rhe ~tlte level ir is more J recognilion of the limiutshydoos of acdviuumles rhere The world-vicw like rhe reformists places empllasu on whal unIacutetes people Ilnd has lirde time for lhe demaoos of power pouumlics aad stare-cemrir orglLuiwrjollS Ir goe~ fllrther by nor
1 V WNimgJ lJ7f tIfernattmiexcliexclJ 11fK4111141tOnJ
liminog in view eirhec ro pans of che world or ro rellltions berweeo particuJar poliric~ lr ioded jlLSr m the economic social and poJitical demaods of mankind Paradoxically ir can be seen as IIn approach rhe very OppoSllC of the fimctionalist wirb whom tbere 5 much io common In nmtrast lO rhe fnnctionaHst (or neo-fllnctiooalisr or intetclependeuce srhuul) and ccrrainly in contrast ro rhe powet politks aOO MaOIacuteIt writers (be whole world approach places emphasis not 00 the discrere r~uiexclreshymems of groups SClteiexcl or individulI1s bm 00 tbe wel1-bciog of the tCOsystem in which rhf5f funnioll cbe planet Eanh The conccen of chis apptoach which is rcflccted il] in ttcumeUr of illternational urganizatiom is for the survival of lhe plunet for its effident funccioning in its widest SeILie aud fot che survival oiacute rhe myriad oiacute speoacutees - ollly one of which is homo sapiens - tbat inhabh me globe
Sinle tbe 196Os a number of wtiters on imernational affairs have expounded 00 tbis view and llave cOl1l~uendy ronsideted the implicadons for intemational organizacions Jobfl Button in bis World Society ronsldeted iflmstatt relations to be onIy a pan of wodd poli[iacutea and wrore
lf we employ rhe term world rociety imiexclreui of internanofla relarions iIacute we apptoo(h OUt study in this global way insread of the more tradi~ lonal nattonal way we will end to have a wider focos ro ask quesrions rhat are moee fundlmenral aOO imponant lO civilization and be ahle ro assess bettet me relevance of om own national bduviour ro be wider worW envifonment
(Button 1972 21)
Rkhacd Stetling posed the problem more spedfically
Nuclear esCllatiofl the popullltion explosion the pollmiofl of tbe envishyronmcnt the communkations rtvolurion rbe world~wide concentNdon of wC1llch and world~wide expansiofl of pltlvcrty are iexcliexcl11 essemially global and not 1laquo al pbellomena They have given rise jn tutn ro eartbshyspamuacutellg and revolutionary demands ror mass education rnass hesltb malts welfure and maltgts participation in che dccisions affecting roans fare
(Srerling 1974 322)
This wodd-view of rhe problems of the s)Jaceamphip EQlth begged fur global oolutlofl$ It suggcsred iexclhu not onIy iJ the system of sovereign stares as yer unable oc unwiHing to COme to grips with the above-menuontd prohlelUS but that a network of llllergoVCtn1lental organiutlom bGsed 00 me rights of statc wVfretgnt will ~lso be hammllng Globtl problems needed global solutlons based on institutinos rhat can (ake a global petsplaquoshytive Thus Sterling considetecl thllt it ~ tlOt unreasooable (O amidpate tme tbe member stares will be moved ro considft equippifllil the Unitw Nttous witb mote crunprebensive powen 1lt global pressUfes build 0974 323)
~h~ laquoo ~gt~ _- -gt bullbull (_bullbullbull __ - bullbull
A more compeluumlng cdH wus lAltiexclued by Barban Ward and Rene Dubas in their book prepared for [he UN Gmference of ehe Humafl EnVJroJlmenl 01lly UIIt EaFlh The c~ altJ Mdilllt1JatfCe (JI d Sflall Pta~t (972) 111ey stremsed the ufliry of tbe Eanh Jnd in eovironment and the )Jroblems in(ed by Jts iohabitants emntially thost oudined by SterJiog The ~uthoflgt poillted OUt rhat rhF envitonmenral qmosrion had by 1972 already had 50me impaltl on guvernments and im(rnarional organl1Jtion but the effior was somewhat ltInJOrdinated and unfocuseL In (hree particular aren - tbe global atmosphere rhe oceaml the worlds weather sysrellU - tbt-y saw [bl jmmediate neOO for (OmInOn poliey und co-ocdinared actiollS where vcerenshysions to national sovercigmy have no relevance ro ptrreived problems Bu rbefe was a need to go furrher and denl wirh other global problems di5Case srarvation iHitmcy unemployrnem ovcfllwding rntetnational poliCJcs wece at the 5tage reachOO wlrhin rhe devdoping s[ate~ of the ninettTtb (entury Elche they wiU move O to a wmmIlJlity bL~ro UiexclXIIl a more systematic sharin8 of weaJtb Ot tbey wiH break down in revoh and anareby (Wacd and Dubos 1972 295- -6) They Looked forward ro a sense of gLobal rommuniry 00seJ on he bope vf Irotecdon (from war aOO disaster) and the hope of enhancemenr (ecologic$1 as well as economid The ptlKtic~ and insrirutlofiS with whkh we are familiar inide our domestk sociecies would become suitably modlfied che basis of planetary oroer (Ward aOO Dubos 1972 297-8) This woold indude non~violent settlement of disputes witb legal arbirration ~nd polioacuteng ptocedures on an international basis jr would mea the Hansfer uf resoucces from rkh ro peor Ilnd inerCllSlaquo co-operaeion in arealt 5uch as health and edUcatIO farming uroon planning aud )JOlJution control As [befe halt been a shift of loyalty rom taroliy to dan from dan to tlation and from nation to fedctation there Wampll
hope clajmoo Wl1fd and Dubo$ for an ultimare lnyalty tuacute OUt single beau~ tifulllud vulnerable Planet Eanh (Ward and Dubas 1972 298)
Whilst the institutiona fmmework and organizational stfllCtuteS remain of necenity -ague in Oltl OM EaFtA iacutet is del( rhat the authors Wfre atming 11( a tlttwork oiacute world-wide fflnctionaUy hased organlzatiofll (both lOOs and JNGOs) char couId take on much of the work )JfCsendy done by governshymems o( rather whkh ougbt [O be dont by governmems UacuteJter writing-s have attempted (O deal wjth thc policy impliration$ of delllJng with )JrobshyJems globdly sroos (986) has poiacutenred en what 1w already been achieved in gtobal problem solving l1nd ha~ soughr ro buHd on rhis His critio have prunted out tha( what has already becn undertiacutelken has bren done more along rradicional Jntergovernmentallines (Donnelly 1990 121-30) Orbe writen have tied rubievemen[ in addressiacuteng [he global agenda more to renewed rutiviry in the UN (Rochester 1990 141-54) or to greater grass~ roots aud INOO acriviSffi Wget 1990 155-~8) Either way globaJj~m offeacuters a distinct W1ly of rackling the worlds ptublem~ It 1$ u ViIOIl thar sttesiexcles uniey and common (am( ntthet than disasreemem and roofrontashytion ir (ould thereIacuteore (oresce disputes being sruved inlernationally vety
much in (he way tbar chey are pre~ndy solvcd within tunny MtiOO iexclrares by more ro arbitratwn and Jaw and by entorcemenf ir neteS$il1) In this rhey have muh in COIDfllOfi wirh tire imerrnuiona lawyers iacuteUld idenlist writer of me eady (wenuacuteeh eemury mentioned at the beginning of tbu chaptet The globalisn are inspirecl jn rheir thinking more by ten Ot lt nudeal holocatlsr and by environmenml breakdown tnan by rhe duumleet elrpeshytieme uf wa dlllf aiacutefected rhe wricings of Woolf ol Ikierly
TIacutete globalisl appro~(h is opert ro the criticism of bcing roo idealistk jn a cynical world and lOO iIDpracrical in in uacutelstitutional sU8scsrioll5 Bur the di$mi$Slil oC rh~ words as globaloney cKleS HOt lid lite wctld oC che probw lems which hey have 50 effectively publiacutedzed They lutve uied to add anorIte dimensioacuten ro whar is possibte by showlng thar ie is nOCeSSiexcllty fOl rhe iexclurviwl of che planee
Tlle radical approach to the smdy oC iOternational orgllnizarions reflocu worIdmiddotvitws that normaUy lO beyond -dmse Jominated by rhe ltctivities of iexcltatcs or of LIte organizltuumlnns chemselves There is a sceprical view of whut is happeoing al soy one uacuteme in imernarional celarions and of he abilicy of mOfe cradicional wcifecs on imernafional cdarions ro explain let aJone llOderstand what is happeoing Ir is the feeling rhar approaches such ll1 (he MaNisr tlwt of rhe ideal theorisrs and some of rhe globuli~rs ur~ coming cber (O uodemaoding humanicys wider dilemmas rhar makes rhero so amactive They ar~ less Iikdy co apply rhemselves to rhe defais rutd wnrk~ ings oiacute p$cdcular imernatinnaJ organizations but neverrheless providt iotriguiog insighrs 00 [his phenomenoo by seeing rhem rhrollgh mol panoprk phHosophical lenses
SUMMARY
The rhree flIajor $chuols dealr wich io chis chaprer - the tcatiacuten the reformisrs iacutei1d che radical$ and rhe variarions (bey contain did not and do tlOf exJn iexcln a hiSforlcaj vacnum lde-as Wele foffilulared wirhio lhe COnten oiacute panicular sodedcs uoo in response ltO pUticular problems rbe communl (adom reYoludon of fhe nineteemb century the Finr World Wlli rhe rise of Nui Germany the spreading of nudeu weapons the deve1opmeof of plthitshy
$econd Workl War Europe fbe pnxeues of decoloniwion and deacuteteme rhe end oiacute the Cold War and rhe advaoce oiacute che inCormatton revolution In sorne CilSC$ the views oiacute rhose wdtings on inttmiddotrnational ocganUatlOHS have liad un efiecr on evenrs rhemelves pirlKulatly 00 rbe actitudes oC govetnrnents mwards tnternatiorW orgdflixauons AIl tXample is the work oC LecnarJ Woolf woose suggesnons Ctmceming a world organizatloo conttibuted lO fhe detailed preparnion oC the Lague oC Nations by me British goveltr mene Likewise Hans Morgeruhau and EK Can provided seimuli fot infiiexclrmoo US and Btirish governmcllul rhinking abom inrerruuional rela~ tiom iexclrom the 194Ck onwards In mher cases rhe general writings cJ persons lgtuch as Marx Leoin Mao Tse-tung and che dependencia school have affecred
rhe poJirk1ll dimare wirhin which govemmcncs conduce rheJe poUcy iucluding thar wwards jnternaclorull otgauj~atjon$
Orber ruCfOf$ aplft froro their historial cuntexc Iuve affencd the views of rhe schunl$ rncntioned They have differint backgtounJs io cheit ideruogy (Wesrero commllniSf Third World radical environmenralisr) and in theit level of $nalysis of inrernarional rebtions (stare Centuacutec inretesr aoo rramna~ dona groups cLitraquo dominanr global) This a(icca the typC oC inrernatiacuteonal organizariacuteon dominam io their studies (IGOs INCo) auJ thcic 8eograph~ kai $rea of interest (the Nonh Adandc Europe ThinJ WodJ Ot global)
TIte range of wcitings about intetnational organizarions has ull dte whole teflecfeJ wiJec llooersundings of imetoational ceJarions and wuumltld polidcs These io rhernselves have fed 00 tbe gtVidc iacutellccUecmal fcnnent and on developrnenrs in world affiuacuters Viewl about iacutellteftlational ocgsnizatJoos wiU continue ro take accOlnt of the ince1leeruaJ debate ill the studjes oiacute polishydes internacional re1atioO$ philosophy ecooomics imematluacutellal uw sociology histoty and geogrilphy They will also reflecto among other ampcton che stntcegk balance in tbe world [he relafIacuteve power of tiJe United Stares aod oroer nares me scate of wotld markers [be pto-ess uf Euwpeiexcliexcln tlllegrashytion che relacive positloo of the developing warIdgt iexclbe levd of cootlicc througbolc the world fhe -ratC of dte environfneot and the ahility oiacute huge StatCS to wiacutethswnd cenrrifttgal force Tbe way tIacuteult imematiornal organiuiexclshydons ret1ect tbese developrnents and tIacuteleir t1Ipability lO deal wich some of them will provide (he tllW fiWifcrial foc funue smdies
J UU wnlmgl 1111 JTiUrllamm41 ergtIttJ1I0fll
have any iUwinru about imetnariooal Qrganizarioos such a~ UNC1~D
Furchermorc the identificador of 800d revolutionaries and falten refurmislS i~ tuller impliexclstjc~ rhe maIur sponrot of the UNs New Ecooomic Order l wruch Tandon hal roudemned as rhe Old Economic Order with a diffefent rltetoric WIIS the Algetian radinu governmenr of Boumediemu rhe PLO irself ha heen dependem on a numlgttr of bnurgeWs Arab goveromenrs foc financial 00 diploJUlltic suppon and ro Tandoos duumlertion that PQr narlonallibemwn movemenn guided by a proktatlan idoology such liS rhose in Chifliexcl1 lIlud Vietnam iruemarionaJ organlwtlona WtU of no 1J5e can be- added the re5ervarion until chey carne (O power Whiht ir took some twenty years belote communist Qtill1 made use nf suth organiutions the unified communiSl Stale ol Vietnam was quick fO cake up it position in the UN ro ask [Ol aid thtough UN agencies liS well as w become ji membet of he CMEA (Comecon)
Third Wodd commemscOt1l on world politics have emphasized the nature uf rheir atea$ potirical ecoOoacutemtc Ilud culmral relatloosluumlp wilh rhe iHdllsrriexcl~ alixed Nonh TitilO is iOO$t Oflltl rypified aiexcliexcl bciug OHe of ueo-folonialism _ COntrol of che Third Wtltld by lhe Nortb by indirecl means ratlet (han by direa colonial tule and of Kf)IomIacute( dRptwJmry (o dtpmdemjiexcliexcl) lntetnationaiacute rdsdOOi bcrween sures are sublumed ro relations between claue$ world wide Ixtween on rhe one lIand the expluacuteiting impetialist capitetists in rhe northcm iru1usuialized couotries 2100 rhcir middle-ltlass collaboratotS in the 50Uthem SUtes aud on the othet band he exploiced masses rhe proleuriat ol [he $Ourhern contJnems The Lurcr gmupS have been 1I1iide ecooomkaUy dependent on [he furmer so char hey lIre in rhe wuacutetds uf the Bruiliiln T Dos SantOS in a situadon jn which the economy of a cetuin group of counshytrles is condiacutedoned by rhe develOplllent aad expansion of aoother ecouomy lO which thcit own 15 subjecred (Bodenheimer 1971 327)
The uOOerdeveloped tounrries depend uacuten [be developed ror their capital nd ercperdse they find key sectors of ehdr eroooroy conrrolled from OUtsJde rhey act as a SOUfce of raw marerials lIS ji lthetip source of labour arul as a rnarket fur mllnuf8ccurers from Euttipe ]apan and North America As thejr living standards were deterrniud by rhe vicissinWeS of the Northern~ dominated wodd marker the relationship was Otle uf unequa exchange (he [esule of which was a world experiencing woequal developmenr with a developed rieh indwtriaJiud capiralisr Notthern centre and d poor underdeveklpedgt agciculrutitlly backwarn eXFloired periphery in che 50mb The dependem 80mh has been divided berween rhe ptedominanr undemeshyveloped area~ lUld a few Cenfres of deve10prnenr wirh their ttade culrural rraffie and polidcal linL to [he deveJoped North - rhe depeOOem develop~ memo omlinea by EH Cardosa (1974) allodlt~r Bruiliall Mmir Amiu (977) rejC(ted the prosptltt of aH antonomous capitalist development in [he Third Work the oew bourgeaisJe of Lacin Ametica Africa and Asia were in allianec with capitalisrs from rhe Nnnh and rhe mato $OUrce of finance ror lmported equipmem was fmm the expon of raw materials to rhe indu~rial
5 ~ _~ smiddot_middot~~
iexclred smes Amin (1977 1-21) SllW rhe can made ror a New Imernational Ecooomic Order (NIEO) by Third World leaders at rbe UN UNCTAD aod che Vilrlous North-Sourh dialogues as an nrtempt LO iexclnerease the price of chelr ntw mattIial exporrs obraio more lmpotted technol08Y snd chus finance a new srage of develQpmenr He saw this ti placing the Thitd World more in the gttp of the neo-co1onialist sysrem and iostmd recommended 11
more self~rcuumlanr development wlrh murrud assismnce between Third World sures a reducdon in [ade wirh rhe induuialized wotld and Chlll a loos~ ening of dependenre Amin lJke TaOOon had Jittle fairh in presenc imtrnruional organizaciexclon Il tools foc fasbiooing a more independent Tbiacuten Wotd His sU88tl1cion of grearer mUtual ilSlgtistaoce between ThUd WorId uate~ implied somtthing more sophillticated than a numbtr of bilateral arrmgements As rbe present orgauizarions used fu iexclncm~Thjrd World cnshyoperation (che OAU he Atab League ASEAN) are domitllued by jusr dl()llC govetnmenrg chM accept lhe eowse coodemned by Amio _ the NIEO ami greater jmegrndon iexcluro rhe world economic sysrem ~hen Amia solutloil involves like-minded deveJoping counrries or more like1y political changes leading ro such indigenous intemuional orgilniwrions
Other Trufd Wodd wdten have plllCtXl emphasls on grearer use 01 exisring insdtutions lOO can broadJy be deKfibed lIS Wopmenraluli huI Prebisch an Argentinian econOmigf has not only studied the que5iaacuteon uf ecooomic dependency but his ideas llave been used as the baJiexclis for che wotk of cwo miexclljoc iexcliexcluemariOOiexcll1 organizadons rhe UN Enmomic Commission fa utin Ameriea (ECLA) and UNCfAD Iu his smdy of Briliacutesh-Argerl(inian trading relntioflS Prebisch bad idenrified rhe unequRl tecrns ol Hade between he favoured (ndusrrislized s(ate of tbe centre and he les privj~ leged llOIl-indumialiacutewl periphery Prebisch unlike rhe dependencia gtChool of Amiacuten Dos Sancos and Cardosa believed thu this inequaLity could be overcome by political acrinn by trade pre[ereonces fuvouring the pedphery by eoo1ruooiacutery agreemenrs by intelnatiacuteowll aid and by more foreiga imvestment in che ~riphery It was thele remedies thiexcllr Prebiacutesch eneouraged when he WiIS Executive SecrCrary of ECLA from 1955 lO 1963 aOO Secrewy-Genernl ofUNCTAD ftoro 14 ro 196tL In~d rhe amoum of aid the periphery needed in omer to overeome their Unfuvoluable rrnde balance became known io UNCTAD clrcles as [he Prebiexclsch Giexcllp
The distinguished Afiican aC1ldentie Aji Mazn1i has wricren un the plighr Qf (bar conciflfnt aod j~ role in pmem~day interruUIDllfl1 afmits He soughr ro answer rhe quesdon Now rlw Imperial Order is eoming ro an end who is going tO keep rhe peaee in Aampica and tu examine he concept of Pax AfrlclllUl the African s ambidoo ro be his OWh palaman The JXIliacutecillJS and se[f~8overnment ufAfriea depended on the nodan ofan African self which Mauui discusseJ in decaH He considered how this 1ndepen~ denre might be threarened by the politicaI and cultural fragmenMion of the contillenr Ellld eronomieally by deperulence on Europe He quoted Kwame Nkntmah finr President uf Ghaniexcll on rhe Europe-Jn ECOntunir Communiry
162 Wilihgr rm intd1JatirmallJrganizatimu
ihe ireaty of Romemarks the advent of oeoKolonitJism [n Afriacuteen snd bears unqutSrlonably the marks of Freneh neo-colonuumlllism (Murui 1967 93) He moduded from tM that Wlut AfrlOlns tbelaquofore neecletl was II
renerru authotity of cheir owa tI) ((lordilJlte fheir eltonomk and policicat deCena- sgain5t trus rnreat (Mamtiexcl 1961 93)
Given this theme it is not surprising tlwt Mazrui ser srore by rhe OAU bU[ he was realistic in bis judgement
In relatioos betwlaquon African statts lIOflesr step rowards Pu Africana was taken when rhe Organiution oiacute Aftlaquolln Uniey set up in Commissiacuteon ofMediauacuteoo Conci1illtion aud Arhitmion
Anormr OAU Commissioo of relevance fot Fax AftlOlna ls che Defence Cornmission Sor me Defeme Commlnion 1w se Car been among che lean effecdve QfPan-Aiacutericun ins(kndons Afrka mar indeed aspire to be her owu ptlliceman bur she does nO seem ready as yel to par the price iacutem it
(Mauui 19612[3)
Mazrui oudined the varicd backgrounds of [he lemen oiacute newly illdepenshydent Africa and thdr radical and revolmionary ideas and it is pethaps swprising rhat the insrirutions rhey created fur me coutinenf wete so mnservative with [he p05sible exceprion oiacute the OAUs Natiomtl Libetttion Comminee Mazrui no[ed thac Africa srill has the problem of how othet powetS respond tu its behaviour and [har forcigo iotmsilm in AJtica continued Indetd the I990s proved tO be a dC(ade of disusrer for AfrieR The debiacute burden contimlld while Ilome states collapsed lnro civil war ami others took to iutenoendoo in thejr ueighbonrs affairs Outslde interference from borh Enrope and North Amecica euodoned One of rhe fcw brlghr spots was the end of apallhcid in South Africa and the peaceful transitioo ro majoriry mJe lo al thiexcl~ tn quote Juliacuteus Nyerere rhe ampcmer pre~iexcldenl of Tan1ania The OAU exists outr ror tbe prorecdoo of (he Afrinllt Head~ oiacute State (cited io AlilgapPltl 1998 1 ) The relarive optimism of Maztui has giveu way ro Afriam writers examining sorne of me disrnrbing details of inaction by [be OAU and regtonal orgauiacutezatJuns nlCh as ECOWAS beiog used as doaks fu the machinations oE regional hegemou$ suth as Nigcria (Mibe 1m 61-9(1)
Radha Sinha$ problem--ortented undy Food iexcllfId PIWt11y (1976) has an IItgent message Sinha a former consultaot of the FAO prodnced an iofuacuterrned aUllyiexcljiexcl of the world$ food problem stress1Og in paniacutecular the maldistribution of food and other resources Noting he profO$ab of UNCTAD with heit muld-rommodJty approach and buffer nocks provjshySiOfli he commented rhe grearesr weakness oE the UNCTAD scheme js les Hkdy politlca1 unilcceptablliry ro me developed (ountdes parriculady che USA (Sinhil 1916 114) a propheey that has proved to he cortect He identitled a more aggresslve attitnde by Third World sutes e5pedally
WrilirrgJ on i1tternatiflii1l rHgarrtzatitmlt 163shy
after the uH prite cise of 197314 when the developing coonuies tried to maximize their own market powers by formin cartcls such as rhe Intematimlal BaurdtC Association the Intemuional Coundl of Copper Expotcing Countries aud the Intema[ional Tin Agrcrmenr He gave n qualified wekome ro the Lomeacute Convention betwcen the European (omrounities anJ cenain African Padfic and Caribbean Haces Writing in 1976 he commented
The receot cbange in rhe luirudes of tite tiche countries is largely due tu the incIeasing miliuncy of the Third World countries lt is almost ertalll utar the magnitude offuture cnnc~sions in me coune ofGAIT aud UNCTAD IV Ilegotiarioos wiU deperu mainly on (he continued solidariry uf the devdoping counlrtes
(Siha 1976 116)
Sinha was pardy correct as tbe solidatity cf rhe Tbird Workl states cracked se the induurialized wodd withheld funher Con(eampSJoru but ir was able tO do so because market condidons swung against che primaty producen
In his condusion Sinha called ror a IIDre1 shttting of wnrld t($nmes and power if confrontarion was ro he avoidOO He feared that the ffa of roshyoptradon berween [ieh and pool conntries hiid ((lT1e to an end and that batde lines were being drawn Instead he advOOIreltI majnr concessions from the dcher coumries on trnde lInd aid issues and a1so a ma~lt te$ltUcrnring of the incematiotlill organization~ aoo negoacutetiating ffiarhinery in order tu provide a much gtC2ter say fm me poorer countries in internatiooal tJ1lde invesrment and mooetaiexcly armngemenrs (SiMa 1976 132) GAn 1BRD aud IMF have been the presenoe of [he ri h with voting weighted m faacutevour of rhe OECD countries and Sinha re(()ffimended thlll GATr aoo UNCiAD be merged inro an Intemacional irade Organization (ITO) and che creatlon of a Third World permanent secrctariat iexclnvolved in all trade and aia negoriarioru Thoogh less radical than Amin Sinha aIso recomrnrnded gttter coshyoperation berween developing coulltries and an eoo ro their inkrtotity complex with instead a sense of m~ttnal sdiacute-e$teem and trust being devel~ oped (Sinha 1976 ch 10) Litde that h~ happened during the 19905 woo1d have encouraged Sinha The World iratle Organiaadon has emerged as the presenoe of the dlVelupeJ tares and lw brushed aside many of thc mucerns cf UNCTAD Debr ha~ edged on ro dlt wudd iexclagenda but mainly at the beheS[
of a non-governmental organization )ubiacutelec 2000 nd the promi$e~ of the main financill jnsrirutluru lO pursue dcbc-rclicf produred but a thiniexclmfl
In aH Third WQrld commenrarors have provided a vatied and lively approruh fOwards tne problems uf intetniexclational organizarions Their emphasis has niltntaHy beCl Qn tbe use of wurld lmtirutions to change the econornic condidon or the Southern cominents As this enndition is likely to worscn in the near filrtltf further more lJica conrtibutions on the rule oC
-- --- ~- __ _~- __- imernatIacuteonal orgaoilarions in Nonh-Smuh relarJons tOiexclghf be apected from rhe Third Worid A1ternaciveJy wrirers (mm rhat ares rmy jW ltIacuteespUacutet rm imergovemmemal orgaoizarions ar lealaquo Mee rhem $O Hrrle
Cfili~ald~heJ
Critica approadvs lO the nudy uf intetnadonal relations are (hose har rejee( the dominating vleW1iexcli repr=med by tbe realist and reformistS as oudined aboye In paHicular rhey reglUd realists as apologisu for the currem con6gutltion of power 10 (he wiexcldd sytem and considet [har rhe refOnntstS are elrher unable ro undersraoo he fUe llamee )( (hi sysrem oc ille UDwiUing to accepc rilar ir needs more rhan mooest refotlllS TIlOugh they may sympalhi-ze wirh rhe agenda of some Marxists aud Third World wt1cers chey do [lO( llave rhe hisrockal certaimy of the former not rarely do they have the experience and perspective of ehe larter TItey view intenUishy(jnl1ill nrganiutions wirh a jaundiced eye as these are mainly the lll$tmmenfS of rhose who dominare rhe syuem This section COlllaios an wcoum nf three approaches tmt of the critical rheorlsti- of kmintsc wrirshy[1185 ulld pose~mooernismlt
Cri(~1 herJrY The approach of critical theory 10 JnrematlonaJ o(ganizatiooll iSi determtoed by their wider world-view which in itsclf is explaiiexclwd by tbeir llame One of the leading exponents Roben Cox said [har ie is cririca1 in cne Jensc rha h srands apan 100m che prevailiog order of rhe wOlld and asks how tb$t oroer came iexcllPouc Ir does nor r-ake existing irucimtioM lIl1KI JIQwer relaclons rOl granred bu c311s them iacutemo queuion Ir 1S diexclrlaquoced ro rhe social itnd JIQiirshyical complex as a wItole rarhet (hall he stparate pirtt IUthet than subdiide and Imic an examination of a problem it looks al the wger pkturc of whkh rhe problem is jwt oue part and trio rO wJdeThwod the processeS uf change ill which botIt pans ulld whole ure involved laquo(ox 1993 277~S)
Ai a thoory cridQiIacute theory rejeen tbe daims of posicivism of an external Nulity and to be mue-free ror critkal rheorIacutests koowledge ti nor moraUy IleUc1ll1 ic is more che result of the social background of tbose Wt hold ir Given this ctitkal tbeory alJows foc a normarive choice in favoU of a social ancl iexclJlieiexcl(ld order diflerent f(cm rhe prevruHng arder bur it limiu the ruuse 01 chotce ti a1remative orders which are feasibJe mmsformations ofme cxvaing worJd h musr rejEC[ improbable alternadVe8 ju~t as ir rejecrs rhe pcrmanctlly nr lhe exiscing order (Cox 19 90)
Cridcal rheory differs lrom Marxist upproElchcs beCElUS( of iu tejection nf any daim to hold the objenive tru[h and betause or it~ avoidance of (he pmslllt ol il utopia Neverrhe1ess [heir analysis of incernarional relarln1l$ is one tbu hEls u numher of similariuumles wich the Marxisc pcrspecdve It regurds rhl tlistlng suucrures of world polirics as beiug oppressie not
- _ __ _-
lean because of rhe dominance of (he capitalism of che Unired StElte~ For many che USA is seco as a hegemonic power the prevailing urder - in re[ms rbar reReet he wrirings of the Itallan Marxisc writer Amonio Gramscl (1891-1932) Gramsd advanced the nodon of ln hisrori(middot bloc which in itself refilaquors che $Ocial reladons oE ptoducdoo The dominanr dass in a counrty - 01 indeed aoy social grouping - mlinrains cohesion and idenciry withio [he bloc [hrough the ptopagacion of a COIDmOfl culturegt A new bloc can be formelt when a subordinate dau can euablish tU hegeshymony over orher subotdioate gtOllpS (Cox 1993 56--7) The IDove rowuds hegemony comeS with the piexclt$ting fmm che spediacutek inrercsrs ofa gronp Ol
dass tO rhe building uf inrimdons aOO elaoorarion uf ideologies (Cox 1993 57-8) It Loiexcl rhat ptOCe$S thar embeds the incemu of the dominanc dan in an imttmrional form thae [w an appeal widet [ban that dan ine1f It the-refole repreSoems mote tlmn jUSt (he drunJnaoce oE one state ovec anocher bllt implies a cemufi acceptante of the tules arJd institutions purouized by [he hegemonic JIQwer Jo other woros it is all order wbicb most Olher Sta[e-~ (01 at 1enst those within reath of die hegernouy) couId find compatible- wirh their iexclmetem (Cox 1993 6t) h aJso involves noe just inttt-staee rueivirle5 bur rhose oiacute tlvilliOCiety (oon-Stllte socieM instishycudons) ebereby encoumging Hnks between social dus$ts iexcln the connules covered by ebe hegemony
What does Cox llave to uy about ioccmational Otgsniuciexclons 1bey Ilre scen in he oontext ofme wiacuteoo unaemanduuml18 of itnernational reUacuteltions mentloned iexcliexclhove He is direcr 000t mem Ooc mechanisru chrough wruch the universal norms of a wodd hegemony are expttssed js the interoatiooal organisation (Cox 1993 62) Why is chis so Cox U993 62) gives five teIlSons
bull They e-mbody rules cOae help (be- apwlSion of a hegemonic wodd iexclrder These insdwrians reflcct the intererts ()( the dominam social anil economic force- buc a1low a cettain amOunt oC adjusrment ro accommodare other subordinared interests TIms the USA WllS preplltoo ro mm conccssions to
bciI18 in Lhe EU srares and Japan ro rhe Wotld Trade Otganizatimt They a[e prooucrs of that order Though [he insrimrions and rules Ilce
nurITlllUy initiared by the hegemook power ir takes cate ro involve aOO comule a numbe-r of second-ronk stares and gaio theit supporc he Wotld Bank and Inte[nacional Mooetaty Fund were very much pan of [he world order thar emerged afrer [he Second World Wat and which was dominared by rhe Uoiced Stlres
They ltgidmi7e i[s nOlms by providing guidance for SllIteS and by legitshyimiuacuteulS cerraIacuten IlCdviries Ilr me narional leveL he OBCD afie rhe inrerruuiooal financia) irntuumluriom lave spread an acceptante of mllrket coodirions and sHict mOllerary iexclJlides
They co-opr elites from pelipheral counrrie Ihlented sraH commg 110m the Thiacuterd Wocld are expected tO dCCept he scriexclpt wcittttt by the domishynam power Bouuos Bourros-Ghati as Secteury General uf the Unired
166 Jiexclljiexclr1giexcl Qr1 ifJfCflrttuacutemal IWgaizati(ifJJ
Nadons stroyed too amp~r ftOm the gtip of Washinston and his second term was VCtoM by rhe USA His sucecssor Kofi Annan will no doubt undentand what 1$ n-quired of him He brings the mncerns of orhe states ro che UN bUf nor in a way thu threatt1l$ the USA
bull They absorb counter-hegemonic ideas Ideaiexcl $uch as 1iustainable dlYClop_ ment tukl even debr foTgiwness are taken 00 board by the intetnatwnal finarnial institlltion$ blu are trandirmel into pulido rhat swt them
Wh~t is ro be done Cox thinks thar the pfQblem of changiog dw world orUer 1iMuld be shlfred back from intern~tional insritutions tO niexcllriacuteooal $OIacuteishyeties where the sodo-political b~se for a new historie bloc mighr be ereated (Cox 1993 64) FaiJing the creadon of a new historie bloc of the new working cla$s and rural and urb~o marginal groups there might be tnmdorshymadon oC the curtent monopoly-libcral hegemony by adjusting to rhe demanJs oiacute local ello$ for polides 5uch as natlonaHution Cox 199~ 65) He aw advocates te-regulation of erooomies and a re-wmpositjon of civil sodery Internatiotla lnstlcutions induding organiutions can berome eontact puint1i fOr new $OCia[ furtt (Cox 1994 (11)
Critica throrJm $uch as Cox oifee a refreshing exposidon oiacute che posidofl oC imernatiooal ofganizatioos in a wocld where the main revolutionary powe~ have either collapsed (rhe Soviet Union) or se(tled into a cautious ronservatirun (China) Ir provlde~ a sceptical arf realisric world~view without acreptins tbe inevuumlahility ni a illture domlnared by mooopoly eapi~ ujsm sud the Utlired States J-Iowevtr its appllcariexclon to intemationa1 organhatJons 11 StImewha( timited tQ the maln global jnsdm(jons and th financial and economlc orgmiutions Ir has 1m (O say aboue regional nrgashynjudon Uf abour N(JUacutes Furthermore iu alternarive fu(ure testS on ourcoroes thu are far froro certain RevnJutlons in the Thied World are roore likely to be- irupired by nadondi$m oc by IsJaroic fllndamentaHfl OCalaquoely [he solid ooses for new historie blocs
Fwinuumll aNml4cbts
Feminist perspcctives 0f1 inttmatlonal rtlatioos llave in common wirh the erit~ ical rheocillu a rejclaquoion of (he dominance in rhe $Ilbjecr of the rcnHst and rdOrmisrs Although fuminist writen cover a wide 5laquolpe the gencral basis oiacute their aqurnent 1S har in interwnional relatioM ru in most politkal aud tcooomk acdvity women are diexclSJtdvantagt~l Alchoogh they own ahour 1 pet tCfH oC the worlJs lfOpeny and tiexcliexclxe heme 10 peiacute ceoc ofincome they perfurm 60 per eenr of working houn and provide 80 per eent of nfusets (petetsen and Runyan 1993 6) This is a derDOnstrndon of gender inequalitie~ the sodalJy learned behavior and expecratioos thar distioguish berween maKuliniry and femininity (Petetsen and Runpn 1993 5) Feminist aprroaches ofren So bejond the $tati~tks and examine (he mind~se[ of those engaged in the pmctice of intemadonal rdations whiexclch (bey ampee as geodered In other woros che world
Writingc Off inlmhJliofMl vrgntiZdlMm 167
illeen in a mlLlndine way thar kvrntB (he posjtiOll o( mnles in rhe hitgtranhy and devlllues the c041trihution of WQmeO (Sylvestet 1994) War in pattKular is gendered in a way chat keeps wornen and metl from qUtstioniog the essentiat pmpose and he neglltive effects of war militarization ~nd viQleme on their awn and orhers livts (Petetsen and Ruoyan J993 9 t)
What of wminist view$ uf imernationaJ organizationsr Ir IS not possible ro presem a rollf(tive vjew that eneomp3$~e~ rhe works of radicaJ femjnisu and ny iexclihetal teminists (rutead the work of one author Sandra Whitworth (1997) will be used as me pily$ rornt attrntion ro inrernarlonal organizations Aamper inrroductions ro feminilfr theory and internacional frIamiddot tiom and gendet and internacional relatlons Whirworrh examines geodet and imernational organilions She screpts Coxs vjew oiacute inrernational orgashynjzarions [har they retleltr (he dominant powet relations in che intetnational system and rhae internaliomd otgaoiution h che procelt of imcitntionaJshyiling and regulating conOice - eicher rhat which may IIrise among siexclates o( char which has iu (onU io transnationaI society (Cox 1980 375) TIte way duu pcople orgaoire themelve$ wirhin international iostirurjons reflects a variety of power relations ineludi~ of rollJSe gendec relatiull3 (Whitworth 1997 74) lbe triad of jnstirutions ideas and material rQudi~ tioru help ro hxare uSllmptiolls aboue geoocr withiu jntetmltional rewtioos Whitworth uses thesr tn examine lhe uooerstandillg oiacuteScndec io an INGO the Internadonal PlarUled ParenthooJ Federatlou (JPPF) and an intergnvemmental organilJ1rion (albcir one wlrh some oOl1-governmentJ)J represemation) the InrernatlonaL lab01lrOtganiution (no)
Whirworths studies show rhar thr IPPF tended ro accept the deshyemphasizlng oi the gendered oamfr of reproducdoo and (f) ignore rhe imponaoce ofbirth comcol foc womens reproductive freroom Instead in an effort tu popularize birth rontrol srrel~ WWl placoo on paremhooJ rather than iexclust the womans choice However IPPF poUcy beeiexcllme more radirnl in (he 19905- with Hnks beirtg made berween II1M control alld womeos ~)tu~ ality (WbJtworth 1997 ch 4 pmim)
The RO eoucerned itself with WQmen as workern It cnnsidercd that tbey oeeded spec-ial atrention and promoted ptoteCtlvt legiexcl~lacion This reiexcln~ forced me view (har [he male worxer Wall the norm with women workers nor deserving the same rights remunfration lOO mndirions Latterly however the JLO ha~ reflectoo views rhat prodaim wornens elt)ualily in rhe workforce and has sunoo tuacute assess the importanee of policies on womens role in rhe workplace as weU as in sodery more wjdely (Whlrwnrth J997 ch 5 panm) Whitworth comes [O the eondusion rhu iexclln iexcllnaLyiexcli~ of gernler in rbe IPPF and no shows how tbese rdiexcliexcldonsbips llnd definirions ni what it is to be a womltn oc man are structuted relationsrups3nd hlsrQciudly hve been scrurtured tu disadvantage women (ibid 15n
lo eommon with the critkal meorists Whitworth has useQ au examinamiddot doo of two intetnational organixations (O deroonstrate a puinr about imerflational relatiexclon~ indeed sodal rctatrol1s mOte widely The poinr is
I1
I
middot - ~-_ --___ aOOuc powec and iu use not (O balance oue SCdre ligaiOSf anorher but fm une gooup ro domiaare morher Jn chis case it 1$ ma the dominution of one dass me m culcnre over $ofU)(her (though Whirworrh recognizes those reLationshyships ti wcll) but of roen over women The crititUl uudy oiacute (wo jnceraational mganirations dealing with iSSlle5 recoSniud ti beiiexclg oiacute impocshycanee or WOfficn suggesu rha( tltOO simihu research on orher internacional organizadons could proJuce interening aOO uwfuiexcl resulrs
Pllit~ism
Thc posc-moderruacutesr $opprooch lO intetaarional rcllldon is one tlur bas (ome ro che fote Jn che perlod sinee lite end of rhe Cold War Jr is based on $o widcr imellectual viewpoim insrigated by l1rench iorcUtcruals of the 196()s gener~ ation _ Bllrrhes Derrida FouclIul and Lyorard - and whkh suggested rhat the modero era liad becn overome 11 fejeas mera-nattatives gnlud accounv- of hi5tory aoa iacuteNIacuteler subjecu as having no independem rubstance Scientifk btliefs induding [hose oiacute rhe $)(ial scJcllces are rooted in (lllxure polill(os arul mores oJ a wciery and are lherekJre subjective As rhere is 00
oblcctive reality cmpirical daims bave fl() spccial sunding in rhe rralms of koowledge IndeeJ ir i$ power aod knowledge are intimatel) incerwirud Posr-moJernism Hllnds against rhe belief of rbe modero pcfiod which LI seco as beginning wiacuterh rhe enlightenmcm of mid-eightcenth cenrufy Europe and AmeriCll Ir rheldore rejcn~ rhe COMCpr$ oC rationalirl and progrcss aSSuacutedared wi(h [he enlighrenment and [he moocrn age Thc uniry of IOOnkind iexclirW iexcldells such liS rhe untveIsWiI) of human aacuteghrs are rejcuoo lnsceadlocal aetion in smallgroups 15 advuacuteClmd
Post-modetnist ideas have affected tite srOOy of inremruionaJ rdarions as (bey have ocher social scienccs Posr-modern imeraarional relariops theoriscs havc ustd heir view$ 00 objecuumlviry (o exiexcltmine che rrmhs of international relatiom en see how rhe concepts iexclind knowledge-dairm (bar dominare the Jisdpline in faer are highiy conringenr on spccific power relatiom (Smith 1997 181) Post-modemisrs bave lltfa(red me mcta-narratives of the reelshy1m and reformlsu aHke The objectiacutevemiddot aaallses of the realim Ilnd neo-realisu are setn as being deJl(nclent on the subjective standpojnts of cheif mainly Amen(an and Europeau authors Ijcharcl amphiel (1986 258) daimed he works o[ Kenneth Waler men the leading neo-realillt trrat the glven ordcr a rhe natural nrder Jjmirs rarheE (lian 1XpawU political discllUtse negales oc rriviuliliS the signifinnce uf variely urOiS time and plue Whar emerges ii an ideology tllar anridpatcs iegirimires ancl onents a totalitarian projen 01 global ptoponioo~ che rattoualiaciuacuten of global poHcics iexclbe reformius are likcwise tainted Md have Ji mhr$lren belief in pmgress The posc-modernl$rs poinr m rh Helocausr as rhe heighr oiacute mooemism a rombimiddot Halioe of science dnd polidcal otganizillnon Il was SCruTely progreso
Given an antifllthy mwards rhe MlVe[iacute~ign srae borh as a centre of powet ll1ld as a crearioll Jiten imbutol wlth a wncepltliexcl uf progress pest~miexclJdetniexclsls
wHungJ mi Im~iexcliexclrun wgltiIRrzuJlU7iJ 1J7
can lOUcdy be expcctcd to vIacuteew intergovernmencal organiUlrions wirh sympilthy Tbe prefetted iacuteonu of internacional organizations when mentioned are those thiexcltt ltlj~plal differemes snd dlvenity in global pelitlcil duu are reginnaUy based or rhar reflec irKlividual actlOn Tndecd ir SeeIJS
rbat Michel Fomawt was involved with an alliance oiacute twO INGOs (Miquestdecin du Monde and Tertl-s do Hommes) in proresting agaiust internadonal iH~shydon over rhe boat people who flcd Vietnam in tite lare 1970s and ear1y 19S(k He is gU()[ed 11$ sayillg tbar Amnelltl Internnrlonal Teueiexcl dts Hommes Mfiiecin du Monde lHt inirilltives whiacutech have created a nrw righr rile dAht of privare individuss ro iexclntervene in [he otder of polino and internatioont snateg(eiexcl (dred in CampheH 1998 516)
Aootber researcher has exnmined ~he Europcan Communities Ilr che point wben Jr was mnslorming intO me European Unioo and askOO whether ir was a pootmodew ConJigUflHton (Nstrgaard 1994) Hi condusions wcre mar ir was gualiwiveJy a new organizarion oC human calJecrlvJties which mighr U$hec the coming of post-moderniry (Ntgttgnatd 1994 27j) The basis fO[ [bis judgemem was rhat me Ee did nO approximate anl modero form of piexcliexcl1idUll Ofpnizarion it did OOt commatld che means oiacute violence its au[hotity derives noc from die people and ir appeared to be a fCgJoo trying ro pOrecr itiexcliexclelf againsr globaliacutezadun iacuteN0rgaaro 1994 274--5) Ir remllins ro be sren whether [he BU tJf [he twenry-first cenrury wHl fu1fi1 rhtgtse hopes Ot wiU stllrr ro teVen
to a more scate-like being Generall) dIe cririolapproaches ro interruHiorud relarious hiexclJve provided
1lOOIe innovatIacuteve insigllls iexclnro rhe study uf imemarional orgsnizations The crtrical theorists llave becn sh3rpest in rheir unde[$(iexcltnding nf internarional ofgiexclt1lizacious as servsnrs of a dominiexcliexclIf power configuracion thoogh the) lave pemaps Umieed cbelr scope wllen viewing internacional organizadons Feminis[ wJiters ruave given Vltike to whac i5 after aH tbe scmi-sileut majoric) in rhe world and Ilre ouly srarting in qnest10niug the male dOmimiddot nance nuacutet iexclusr of the nmning of IGOs huc aloo of theic agenda Tite post-modemisrs are iMlSr concerned oiacute he (bree 8rOUp5 with inretnationlll organiucioru as such bllr rIacuteleic intellecrual approach is the ffiOSt tadkal aud can lelld tuuml a fnon of nihilism
GltJbaliacutesf lIiu
A gIobalisr perspective does oor viacuteew world poliacutetica as being predomishynandl arout iotergovernmemal relatlnn~ Ili would realisu or illbour inrentare aruI imersocietal rdations as a number uf reformisu llliexclll consider lnsteaacuted it cakes a more holisdc view Problems are (cmfronred ac Ji global level wlurions have tO be sou8ht here as weil This iexcls not ro neglcct (he 10tal Ol rhe ~tlte level ir is more J recognilion of the limiutshydoos of acdviuumles rhere The world-vicw like rhe reformists places empllasu on whal unIacutetes people Ilnd has lirde time for lhe demaoos of power pouumlics aad stare-cemrir orglLuiwrjollS Ir goe~ fllrther by nor
1 V WNimgJ lJ7f tIfernattmiexcliexclJ 11fK4111141tOnJ
liminog in view eirhec ro pans of che world or ro rellltions berweeo particuJar poliric~ lr ioded jlLSr m the economic social and poJitical demaods of mankind Paradoxically ir can be seen as IIn approach rhe very OppoSllC of the fimctionalist wirb whom tbere 5 much io common In nmtrast lO rhe fnnctionaHst (or neo-fllnctiooalisr or intetclependeuce srhuul) and ccrrainly in contrast ro rhe powet politks aOO MaOIacuteIt writers (be whole world approach places emphasis not 00 the discrere r~uiexclreshymems of groups SClteiexcl or individulI1s bm 00 tbe wel1-bciog of the tCOsystem in which rhf5f funnioll cbe planet Eanh The conccen of chis apptoach which is rcflccted il] in ttcumeUr of illternational urganizatiom is for the survival of lhe plunet for its effident funccioning in its widest SeILie aud fot che survival oiacute rhe myriad oiacute speoacutees - ollly one of which is homo sapiens - tbat inhabh me globe
Sinle tbe 196Os a number of wtiters on imernational affairs have expounded 00 tbis view and llave cOl1l~uendy ronsideted the implicadons for intemational organizacions Jobfl Button in bis World Society ronsldeted iflmstatt relations to be onIy a pan of wodd poli[iacutea and wrore
lf we employ rhe term world rociety imiexclreui of internanofla relarions iIacute we apptoo(h OUt study in this global way insread of the more tradi~ lonal nattonal way we will end to have a wider focos ro ask quesrions rhat are moee fundlmenral aOO imponant lO civilization and be ahle ro assess bettet me relevance of om own national bduviour ro be wider worW envifonment
(Button 1972 21)
Rkhacd Stetling posed the problem more spedfically
Nuclear esCllatiofl the popullltion explosion the pollmiofl of tbe envishyronmcnt the communkations rtvolurion rbe world~wide concentNdon of wC1llch and world~wide expansiofl of pltlvcrty are iexcliexcl11 essemially global and not 1laquo al pbellomena They have given rise jn tutn ro eartbshyspamuacutellg and revolutionary demands ror mass education rnass hesltb malts welfure and maltgts participation in che dccisions affecting roans fare
(Srerling 1974 322)
This wodd-view of rhe problems of the s)Jaceamphip EQlth begged fur global oolutlofl$ It suggcsred iexclhu not onIy iJ the system of sovereign stares as yer unable oc unwiHing to COme to grips with the above-menuontd prohlelUS but that a network of llllergoVCtn1lental organiutlom bGsed 00 me rights of statc wVfretgnt will ~lso be hammllng Globtl problems needed global solutlons based on institutinos rhat can (ake a global petsplaquoshytive Thus Sterling considetecl thllt it ~ tlOt unreasooable (O amidpate tme tbe member stares will be moved ro considft equippifllil the Unitw Nttous witb mote crunprebensive powen 1lt global pressUfes build 0974 323)
~h~ laquoo ~gt~ _- -gt bullbull (_bullbullbull __ - bullbull
A more compeluumlng cdH wus lAltiexclued by Barban Ward and Rene Dubas in their book prepared for [he UN Gmference of ehe Humafl EnVJroJlmenl 01lly UIIt EaFlh The c~ altJ Mdilllt1JatfCe (JI d Sflall Pta~t (972) 111ey stremsed the ufliry of tbe Eanh Jnd in eovironment and the )Jroblems in(ed by Jts iohabitants emntially thost oudined by SterJiog The ~uthoflgt poillted OUt rhat rhF envitonmenral qmosrion had by 1972 already had 50me impaltl on guvernments and im(rnarional organl1Jtion but the effior was somewhat ltInJOrdinated and unfocuseL In (hree particular aren - tbe global atmosphere rhe oceaml the worlds weather sysrellU - tbt-y saw [bl jmmediate neOO for (OmInOn poliey und co-ocdinared actiollS where vcerenshysions to national sovercigmy have no relevance ro ptrreived problems Bu rbefe was a need to go furrher and denl wirh other global problems di5Case srarvation iHitmcy unemployrnem ovcfllwding rntetnational poliCJcs wece at the 5tage reachOO wlrhin rhe devdoping s[ate~ of the ninettTtb (entury Elche they wiU move O to a wmmIlJlity bL~ro UiexclXIIl a more systematic sharin8 of weaJtb Ot tbey wiH break down in revoh and anareby (Wacd and Dubos 1972 295- -6) They Looked forward ro a sense of gLobal rommuniry 00seJ on he bope vf Irotecdon (from war aOO disaster) and the hope of enhancemenr (ecologic$1 as well as economid The ptlKtic~ and insrirutlofiS with whkh we are familiar inide our domestk sociecies would become suitably modlfied che basis of planetary oroer (Ward aOO Dubos 1972 297-8) This woold indude non~violent settlement of disputes witb legal arbirration ~nd polioacuteng ptocedures on an international basis jr would mea the Hansfer uf resoucces from rkh ro peor Ilnd inerCllSlaquo co-operaeion in arealt 5uch as health and edUcatIO farming uroon planning aud )JOlJution control As [befe halt been a shift of loyalty rom taroliy to dan from dan to tlation and from nation to fedctation there Wampll
hope clajmoo Wl1fd and Dubo$ for an ultimare lnyalty tuacute OUt single beau~ tifulllud vulnerable Planet Eanh (Ward and Dubas 1972 298)
Whilst the institutiona fmmework and organizational stfllCtuteS remain of necenity -ague in Oltl OM EaFtA iacutet is del( rhat the authors Wfre atming 11( a tlttwork oiacute world-wide fflnctionaUy hased organlzatiofll (both lOOs and JNGOs) char couId take on much of the work )JfCsendy done by governshymems o( rather whkh ougbt [O be dont by governmems UacuteJter writing-s have attempted (O deal wjth thc policy impliration$ of delllJng with )JrobshyJems globdly sroos (986) has poiacutenred en what 1w already been achieved in gtobal problem solving l1nd ha~ soughr ro buHd on rhis His critio have prunted out tha( what has already becn undertiacutelken has bren done more along rradicional Jntergovernmentallines (Donnelly 1990 121-30) Orbe writen have tied rubievemen[ in addressiacuteng [he global agenda more to renewed rutiviry in the UN (Rochester 1990 141-54) or to greater grass~ roots aud INOO acriviSffi Wget 1990 155-~8) Either way globaJj~m offeacuters a distinct W1ly of rackling the worlds ptublem~ It 1$ u ViIOIl thar sttesiexcles uniey and common (am( ntthet than disasreemem and roofrontashytion ir (ould thereIacuteore (oresce disputes being sruved inlernationally vety
much in (he way tbar chey are pre~ndy solvcd within tunny MtiOO iexclrares by more ro arbitratwn and Jaw and by entorcemenf ir neteS$il1) In this rhey have muh in COIDfllOfi wirh tire imerrnuiona lawyers iacuteUld idenlist writer of me eady (wenuacuteeh eemury mentioned at the beginning of tbu chaptet The globalisn are inspirecl jn rheir thinking more by ten Ot lt nudeal holocatlsr and by environmenml breakdown tnan by rhe duumleet elrpeshytieme uf wa dlllf aiacutefected rhe wricings of Woolf ol Ikierly
TIacutete globalisl appro~(h is opert ro the criticism of bcing roo idealistk jn a cynical world and lOO iIDpracrical in in uacutelstitutional sU8scsrioll5 Bur the di$mi$Slil oC rh~ words as globaloney cKleS HOt lid lite wctld oC che probw lems which hey have 50 effectively publiacutedzed They lutve uied to add anorIte dimensioacuten ro whar is possibte by showlng thar ie is nOCeSSiexcllty fOl rhe iexclurviwl of che planee
Tlle radical approach to the smdy oC iOternational orgllnizarions reflocu worIdmiddotvitws that normaUy lO beyond -dmse Jominated by rhe ltctivities of iexcltatcs or of LIte organizltuumlnns chemselves There is a sceprical view of whut is happeoing al soy one uacuteme in imernarional celarions and of he abilicy of mOfe cradicional wcifecs on imernafional cdarions ro explain let aJone llOderstand what is happeoing Ir is the feeling rhar approaches such ll1 (he MaNisr tlwt of rhe ideal theorisrs and some of rhe globuli~rs ur~ coming cber (O uodemaoding humanicys wider dilemmas rhar makes rhero so amactive They ar~ less Iikdy co apply rhemselves to rhe defais rutd wnrk~ ings oiacute p$cdcular imernatinnaJ organizations but neverrheless providt iotriguiog insighrs 00 [his phenomenoo by seeing rhem rhrollgh mol panoprk phHosophical lenses
SUMMARY
The rhree flIajor $chuols dealr wich io chis chaprer - the tcatiacuten the reformisrs iacutei1d che radical$ and rhe variarions (bey contain did not and do tlOf exJn iexcln a hiSforlcaj vacnum lde-as Wele foffilulared wirhio lhe COnten oiacute panicular sodedcs uoo in response ltO pUticular problems rbe communl (adom reYoludon of fhe nineteemb century the Finr World Wlli rhe rise of Nui Germany the spreading of nudeu weapons the deve1opmeof of plthitshy
$econd Workl War Europe fbe pnxeues of decoloniwion and deacuteteme rhe end oiacute the Cold War and rhe advaoce oiacute che inCormatton revolution In sorne CilSC$ the views oiacute rhose wdtings on inttmiddotrnational ocganUatlOHS have liad un efiecr on evenrs rhemelves pirlKulatly 00 rbe actitudes oC govetnrnents mwards tnternatiorW orgdflixauons AIl tXample is the work oC LecnarJ Woolf woose suggesnons Ctmceming a world organizatloo conttibuted lO fhe detailed preparnion oC the Lague oC Nations by me British goveltr mene Likewise Hans Morgeruhau and EK Can provided seimuli fot infiiexclrmoo US and Btirish governmcllul rhinking abom inrerruuional rela~ tiom iexclrom the 194Ck onwards In mher cases rhe general writings cJ persons lgtuch as Marx Leoin Mao Tse-tung and che dependencia school have affecred
rhe poJirk1ll dimare wirhin which govemmcncs conduce rheJe poUcy iucluding thar wwards jnternaclorull otgauj~atjon$
Orber ruCfOf$ aplft froro their historial cuntexc Iuve affencd the views of rhe schunl$ rncntioned They have differint backgtounJs io cheit ideruogy (Wesrero commllniSf Third World radical environmenralisr) and in theit level of $nalysis of inrernarional rebtions (stare Centuacutec inretesr aoo rramna~ dona groups cLitraquo dominanr global) This a(icca the typC oC inrernatiacuteonal organizariacuteon dominam io their studies (IGOs INCo) auJ thcic 8eograph~ kai $rea of interest (the Nonh Adandc Europe ThinJ WodJ Ot global)
TIte range of wcitings about intetnational organizarions has ull dte whole teflecfeJ wiJec llooersundings of imetoational ceJarions and wuumltld polidcs These io rhernselves have fed 00 tbe gtVidc iacutellccUecmal fcnnent and on developrnenrs in world affiuacuters Viewl about iacutellteftlational ocgsnizatJoos wiU continue ro take accOlnt of the ince1leeruaJ debate ill the studjes oiacute polishydes internacional re1atioO$ philosophy ecooomics imematluacutellal uw sociology histoty and geogrilphy They will also reflecto among other ampcton che stntcegk balance in tbe world [he relafIacuteve power of tiJe United Stares aod oroer nares me scate of wotld markers [be pto-ess uf Euwpeiexcliexcln tlllegrashytion che relacive positloo of the developing warIdgt iexclbe levd of cootlicc througbolc the world fhe -ratC of dte environfneot and the ahility oiacute huge StatCS to wiacutethswnd cenrrifttgal force Tbe way tIacuteult imematiornal organiuiexclshydons ret1ect tbese developrnents and tIacuteleir t1Ipability lO deal wich some of them will provide (he tllW fiWifcrial foc funue smdies
162 Wilihgr rm intd1JatirmallJrganizatimu
ihe ireaty of Romemarks the advent of oeoKolonitJism [n Afriacuteen snd bears unqutSrlonably the marks of Freneh neo-colonuumlllism (Murui 1967 93) He moduded from tM that Wlut AfrlOlns tbelaquofore neecletl was II
renerru authotity of cheir owa tI) ((lordilJlte fheir eltonomk and policicat deCena- sgain5t trus rnreat (Mamtiexcl 1961 93)
Given this theme it is not surprising tlwt Mazrui ser srore by rhe OAU bU[ he was realistic in bis judgement
In relatioos betwlaquon African statts lIOflesr step rowards Pu Africana was taken when rhe Organiution oiacute Aftlaquolln Uniey set up in Commissiacuteon ofMediauacuteoo Conci1illtion aud Arhitmion
Anormr OAU Commissioo of relevance fot Fax AftlOlna ls che Defence Cornmission Sor me Defeme Commlnion 1w se Car been among che lean effecdve QfPan-Aiacutericun ins(kndons Afrka mar indeed aspire to be her owu ptlliceman bur she does nO seem ready as yel to par the price iacutem it
(Mauui 19612[3)
Mazrui oudined the varicd backgrounds of [he lemen oiacute newly illdepenshydent Africa and thdr radical and revolmionary ideas and it is pethaps swprising rhat the insrirutions rhey created fur me coutinenf wete so mnservative with [he p05sible exceprion oiacute the OAUs Natiomtl Libetttion Comminee Mazrui no[ed thac Africa srill has the problem of how othet powetS respond tu its behaviour and [har forcigo iotmsilm in AJtica continued Indetd the I990s proved tO be a dC(ade of disusrer for AfrieR The debiacute burden contimlld while Ilome states collapsed lnro civil war ami others took to iutenoendoo in thejr ueighbonrs affairs Outslde interference from borh Enrope and North Amecica euodoned One of rhe fcw brlghr spots was the end of apallhcid in South Africa and the peaceful transitioo ro majoriry mJe lo al thiexcl~ tn quote Juliacuteus Nyerere rhe ampcmer pre~iexcldenl of Tan1ania The OAU exists outr ror tbe prorecdoo of (he Afrinllt Head~ oiacute State (cited io AlilgapPltl 1998 1 ) The relarive optimism of Maztui has giveu way ro Afriam writers examining sorne of me disrnrbing details of inaction by [be OAU and regtonal orgauiacutezatJuns nlCh as ECOWAS beiog used as doaks fu the machinations oE regional hegemou$ suth as Nigcria (Mibe 1m 61-9(1)
Radha Sinha$ problem--ortented undy Food iexcllfId PIWt11y (1976) has an IItgent message Sinha a former consultaot of the FAO prodnced an iofuacuterrned aUllyiexcljiexcl of the world$ food problem stress1Og in paniacutecular the maldistribution of food and other resources Noting he profO$ab of UNCTAD with heit muld-rommodJty approach and buffer nocks provjshySiOfli he commented rhe grearesr weakness oE the UNCTAD scheme js les Hkdy politlca1 unilcceptablliry ro me developed (ountdes parriculady che USA (Sinhil 1916 114) a propheey that has proved to he cortect He identitled a more aggresslve attitnde by Third World sutes e5pedally
WrilirrgJ on i1tternatiflii1l rHgarrtzatitmlt 163shy
after the uH prite cise of 197314 when the developing coonuies tried to maximize their own market powers by formin cartcls such as rhe Intematimlal BaurdtC Association the Intemuional Coundl of Copper Expotcing Countries aud the Intema[ional Tin Agrcrmenr He gave n qualified wekome ro the Lomeacute Convention betwcen the European (omrounities anJ cenain African Padfic and Caribbean Haces Writing in 1976 he commented
The receot cbange in rhe luirudes of tite tiche countries is largely due tu the incIeasing miliuncy of the Third World countries lt is almost ertalll utar the magnitude offuture cnnc~sions in me coune ofGAIT aud UNCTAD IV Ilegotiarioos wiU deperu mainly on (he continued solidariry uf the devdoping counlrtes
(Siha 1976 116)
Sinha was pardy correct as tbe solidatity cf rhe Tbird Workl states cracked se the induurialized wodd withheld funher Con(eampSJoru but ir was able tO do so because market condidons swung against che primaty producen
In his condusion Sinha called ror a IIDre1 shttting of wnrld t($nmes and power if confrontarion was ro he avoidOO He feared that the ffa of roshyoptradon berween [ieh and pool conntries hiid ((lT1e to an end and that batde lines were being drawn Instead he advOOIreltI majnr concessions from the dcher coumries on trnde lInd aid issues and a1so a ma~lt te$ltUcrnring of the incematiotlill organization~ aoo negoacutetiating ffiarhinery in order tu provide a much gtC2ter say fm me poorer countries in internatiooal tJ1lde invesrment and mooetaiexcly armngemenrs (SiMa 1976 132) GAn 1BRD aud IMF have been the presenoe of [he ri h with voting weighted m faacutevour of rhe OECD countries and Sinha re(()ffimended thlll GATr aoo UNCiAD be merged inro an Intemacional irade Organization (ITO) and che creatlon of a Third World permanent secrctariat iexclnvolved in all trade and aia negoriarioru Thoogh less radical than Amin Sinha aIso recomrnrnded gttter coshyoperation berween developing coulltries and an eoo ro their inkrtotity complex with instead a sense of m~ttnal sdiacute-e$teem and trust being devel~ oped (Sinha 1976 ch 10) Litde that h~ happened during the 19905 woo1d have encouraged Sinha The World iratle Organiaadon has emerged as the presenoe of the dlVelupeJ tares and lw brushed aside many of thc mucerns cf UNCTAD Debr ha~ edged on ro dlt wudd iexclagenda but mainly at the beheS[
of a non-governmental organization )ubiacutelec 2000 nd the promi$e~ of the main financill jnsrirutluru lO pursue dcbc-rclicf produred but a thiniexclmfl
In aH Third WQrld commenrarors have provided a vatied and lively approruh fOwards tne problems uf intetniexclational organizarions Their emphasis has niltntaHy beCl Qn tbe use of wurld lmtirutions to change the econornic condidon or the Southern cominents As this enndition is likely to worscn in the near filrtltf further more lJica conrtibutions on the rule oC
-- --- ~- __ _~- __- imernatIacuteonal orgaoilarions in Nonh-Smuh relarJons tOiexclghf be apected from rhe Third Worid A1ternaciveJy wrirers (mm rhat ares rmy jW ltIacuteespUacutet rm imergovemmemal orgaoizarions ar lealaquo Mee rhem $O Hrrle
Cfili~ald~heJ
Critica approadvs lO the nudy uf intetnadonal relations are (hose har rejee( the dominating vleW1iexcli repr=med by tbe realist and reformistS as oudined aboye In paHicular rhey reglUd realists as apologisu for the currem con6gutltion of power 10 (he wiexcldd sytem and considet [har rhe refOnntstS are elrher unable ro undersraoo he fUe llamee )( (hi sysrem oc ille UDwiUing to accepc rilar ir needs more rhan mooest refotlllS TIlOugh they may sympalhi-ze wirh rhe agenda of some Marxists aud Third World wt1cers chey do [lO( llave rhe hisrockal certaimy of the former not rarely do they have the experience and perspective of ehe larter TItey view intenUishy(jnl1ill nrganiutions wirh a jaundiced eye as these are mainly the lll$tmmenfS of rhose who dominare rhe syuem This section COlllaios an wcoum nf three approaches tmt of the critical rheorlsti- of kmintsc wrirshy[1185 ulld pose~mooernismlt
Cri(~1 herJrY The approach of critical theory 10 JnrematlonaJ o(ganizatiooll iSi determtoed by their wider world-view which in itsclf is explaiiexclwd by tbeir llame One of the leading exponents Roben Cox said [har ie is cririca1 in cne Jensc rha h srands apan 100m che prevailiog order of rhe wOlld and asks how tb$t oroer came iexcllPouc Ir does nor r-ake existing irucimtioM lIl1KI JIQwer relaclons rOl granred bu c311s them iacutemo queuion Ir 1S diexclrlaquoced ro rhe social itnd JIQiirshyical complex as a wItole rarhet (hall he stparate pirtt IUthet than subdiide and Imic an examination of a problem it looks al the wger pkturc of whkh rhe problem is jwt oue part and trio rO wJdeThwod the processeS uf change ill which botIt pans ulld whole ure involved laquo(ox 1993 277~S)
Ai a thoory cridQiIacute theory rejeen tbe daims of posicivism of an external Nulity and to be mue-free ror critkal rheorIacutests koowledge ti nor moraUy IleUc1ll1 ic is more che result of the social background of tbose Wt hold ir Given this ctitkal tbeory alJows foc a normarive choice in favoU of a social ancl iexclJlieiexcl(ld order diflerent f(cm rhe prevruHng arder bur it limiu the ruuse 01 chotce ti a1remative orders which are feasibJe mmsformations ofme cxvaing worJd h musr rejEC[ improbable alternadVe8 ju~t as ir rejecrs rhe pcrmanctlly nr lhe exiscing order (Cox 19 90)
Cridcal rheory differs lrom Marxist upproElchcs beCElUS( of iu tejection nf any daim to hold the objenive tru[h and betause or it~ avoidance of (he pmslllt ol il utopia Neverrhe1ess [heir analysis of incernarional relarln1l$ is one tbu hEls u numher of similariuumles wich the Marxisc pcrspecdve It regurds rhl tlistlng suucrures of world polirics as beiug oppressie not
- _ __ _-
lean because of rhe dominance of (he capitalism of che Unired StElte~ For many che USA is seco as a hegemonic power the prevailing urder - in re[ms rbar reReet he wrirings of the Itallan Marxisc writer Amonio Gramscl (1891-1932) Gramsd advanced the nodon of ln hisrori(middot bloc which in itself refilaquors che $Ocial reladons oE ptoducdoo The dominanr dass in a counrty - 01 indeed aoy social grouping - mlinrains cohesion and idenciry withio [he bloc [hrough the ptopagacion of a COIDmOfl culturegt A new bloc can be formelt when a subordinate dau can euablish tU hegeshymony over orher subotdioate gtOllpS (Cox 1993 56--7) The IDove rowuds hegemony comeS with the piexclt$ting fmm che spediacutek inrercsrs ofa gronp Ol
dass tO rhe building uf inrimdons aOO elaoorarion uf ideologies (Cox 1993 57-8) It Loiexcl rhat ptOCe$S thar embeds the incemu of the dominanc dan in an imttmrional form thae [w an appeal widet [ban that dan ine1f It the-refole repreSoems mote tlmn jUSt (he drunJnaoce oE one state ovec anocher bllt implies a cemufi acceptante of the tules arJd institutions purouized by [he hegemonic JIQwer Jo other woros it is all order wbicb most Olher Sta[e-~ (01 at 1enst those within reath of die hegernouy) couId find compatible- wirh their iexclmetem (Cox 1993 6t) h aJso involves noe just inttt-staee rueivirle5 bur rhose oiacute tlvilliOCiety (oon-Stllte socieM instishycudons) ebereby encoumging Hnks between social dus$ts iexcln the connules covered by ebe hegemony
What does Cox llave to uy about ioccmational Otgsniuciexclons 1bey Ilre scen in he oontext ofme wiacuteoo unaemanduuml18 of itnernational reUacuteltions mentloned iexcliexclhove He is direcr 000t mem Ooc mechanisru chrough wruch the universal norms of a wodd hegemony are expttssed js the interoatiooal organisation (Cox 1993 62) Why is chis so Cox U993 62) gives five teIlSons
bull They e-mbody rules cOae help (be- apwlSion of a hegemonic wodd iexclrder These insdwrians reflcct the intererts ()( the dominam social anil economic force- buc a1low a cettain amOunt oC adjusrment ro accommodare other subordinared interests TIms the USA WllS preplltoo ro mm conccssions to
bciI18 in Lhe EU srares and Japan ro rhe Wotld Trade Otganizatimt They a[e prooucrs of that order Though [he insrimrions and rules Ilce
nurITlllUy initiared by the hegemook power ir takes cate ro involve aOO comule a numbe-r of second-ronk stares and gaio theit supporc he Wotld Bank and Inte[nacional Mooetaty Fund were very much pan of [he world order thar emerged afrer [he Second World Wat and which was dominared by rhe Uoiced Stlres
They ltgidmi7e i[s nOlms by providing guidance for SllIteS and by legitshyimiuacuteulS cerraIacuten IlCdviries Ilr me narional leveL he OBCD afie rhe inrerruuiooal financia) irntuumluriom lave spread an acceptante of mllrket coodirions and sHict mOllerary iexclJlides
They co-opr elites from pelipheral counrrie Ihlented sraH commg 110m the Thiacuterd Wocld are expected tO dCCept he scriexclpt wcittttt by the domishynam power Bouuos Bourros-Ghati as Secteury General uf the Unired
166 Jiexclljiexclr1giexcl Qr1 ifJfCflrttuacutemal IWgaizati(ifJJ
Nadons stroyed too amp~r ftOm the gtip of Washinston and his second term was VCtoM by rhe USA His sucecssor Kofi Annan will no doubt undentand what 1$ n-quired of him He brings the mncerns of orhe states ro che UN bUf nor in a way thu threatt1l$ the USA
bull They absorb counter-hegemonic ideas Ideaiexcl $uch as 1iustainable dlYClop_ ment tukl even debr foTgiwness are taken 00 board by the intetnatwnal finarnial institlltion$ blu are trandirmel into pulido rhat swt them
Wh~t is ro be done Cox thinks thar the pfQblem of changiog dw world orUer 1iMuld be shlfred back from intern~tional insritutions tO niexcllriacuteooal $OIacuteishyeties where the sodo-political b~se for a new historie bloc mighr be ereated (Cox 1993 64) FaiJing the creadon of a new historie bloc of the new working cla$s and rural and urb~o marginal groups there might be tnmdorshymadon oC the curtent monopoly-libcral hegemony by adjusting to rhe demanJs oiacute local ello$ for polides 5uch as natlonaHution Cox 199~ 65) He aw advocates te-regulation of erooomies and a re-wmpositjon of civil sodery Internatiotla lnstlcutions induding organiutions can berome eontact puint1i fOr new $OCia[ furtt (Cox 1994 (11)
Critica throrJm $uch as Cox oifee a refreshing exposidon oiacute che posidofl oC imernatiooal ofganizatioos in a wocld where the main revolutionary powe~ have either collapsed (rhe Soviet Union) or se(tled into a cautious ronservatirun (China) Ir provlde~ a sceptical arf realisric world~view without acreptins tbe inevuumlahility ni a illture domlnared by mooopoly eapi~ ujsm sud the Utlired States J-Iowevtr its appllcariexclon to intemationa1 organhatJons 11 StImewha( timited tQ the maln global jnsdm(jons and th financial and economlc orgmiutions Ir has 1m (O say aboue regional nrgashynjudon Uf abour N(JUacutes Furthermore iu alternarive fu(ure testS on ourcoroes thu are far froro certain RevnJutlons in the Thied World are roore likely to be- irupired by nadondi$m oc by IsJaroic fllndamentaHfl OCalaquoely [he solid ooses for new historie blocs
Fwinuumll aNml4cbts
Feminist perspcctives 0f1 inttmatlonal rtlatioos llave in common wirh the erit~ ical rheocillu a rejclaquoion of (he dominance in rhe $Ilbjecr of the rcnHst and rdOrmisrs Although fuminist writen cover a wide 5laquolpe the gencral basis oiacute their aqurnent 1S har in interwnional relatioM ru in most politkal aud tcooomk acdvity women are diexclSJtdvantagt~l Alchoogh they own ahour 1 pet tCfH oC the worlJs lfOpeny and tiexcliexclxe heme 10 peiacute ceoc ofincome they perfurm 60 per eenr of working houn and provide 80 per eent of nfusets (petetsen and Runyan 1993 6) This is a derDOnstrndon of gender inequalitie~ the sodalJy learned behavior and expecratioos thar distioguish berween maKuliniry and femininity (Petetsen and Runpn 1993 5) Feminist aprroaches ofren So bejond the $tati~tks and examine (he mind~se[ of those engaged in the pmctice of intemadonal rdations whiexclch (bey ampee as geodered In other woros che world
Writingc Off inlmhJliofMl vrgntiZdlMm 167
illeen in a mlLlndine way thar kvrntB (he posjtiOll o( mnles in rhe hitgtranhy and devlllues the c041trihution of WQmeO (Sylvestet 1994) War in pattKular is gendered in a way chat keeps wornen and metl from qUtstioniog the essentiat pmpose and he neglltive effects of war militarization ~nd viQleme on their awn and orhers livts (Petetsen and Ruoyan J993 9 t)
What of wminist view$ uf imernationaJ organizationsr Ir IS not possible ro presem a rollf(tive vjew that eneomp3$~e~ rhe works of radicaJ femjnisu and ny iexclihetal teminists (rutead the work of one author Sandra Whitworth (1997) will be used as me pily$ rornt attrntion ro inrernarlonal organizations Aamper inrroductions ro feminilfr theory and internacional frIamiddot tiom and gendet and internacional relatlons Whirworrh examines geodet and imernational organilions She screpts Coxs vjew oiacute inrernational orgashynjzarions [har they retleltr (he dominant powet relations in che intetnational system and rhae internaliomd otgaoiution h che procelt of imcitntionaJshyiling and regulating conOice - eicher rhat which may IIrise among siexclates o( char which has iu (onU io transnationaI society (Cox 1980 375) TIte way duu pcople orgaoire themelve$ wirhin international iostirurjons reflects a variety of power relations ineludi~ of rollJSe gendec relatiull3 (Whitworth 1997 74) lbe triad of jnstirutions ideas and material rQudi~ tioru help ro hxare uSllmptiolls aboue geoocr withiu jntetmltional rewtioos Whitworth uses thesr tn examine lhe uooerstandillg oiacuteScndec io an INGO the Internadonal PlarUled ParenthooJ Federatlou (JPPF) and an intergnvemmental organilJ1rion (albcir one wlrh some oOl1-governmentJ)J represemation) the InrernatlonaL lab01lrOtganiution (no)
Whirworths studies show rhar thr IPPF tended ro accept the deshyemphasizlng oi the gendered oamfr of reproducdoo and (f) ignore rhe imponaoce ofbirth comcol foc womens reproductive freroom Instead in an effort tu popularize birth rontrol srrel~ WWl placoo on paremhooJ rather than iexclust the womans choice However IPPF poUcy beeiexcllme more radirnl in (he 19905- with Hnks beirtg made berween II1M control alld womeos ~)tu~ ality (WbJtworth 1997 ch 4 pmim)
The RO eoucerned itself with WQmen as workern It cnnsidercd that tbey oeeded spec-ial atrention and promoted ptoteCtlvt legiexcl~lacion This reiexcln~ forced me view (har [he male worxer Wall the norm with women workers nor deserving the same rights remunfration lOO mndirions Latterly however the JLO ha~ reflectoo views rhat prodaim wornens elt)ualily in rhe workforce and has sunoo tuacute assess the importanee of policies on womens role in rhe workplace as weU as in sodery more wjdely (Whlrwnrth J997 ch 5 panm) Whitworth comes [O the eondusion rhu iexclln iexcllnaLyiexcli~ of gernler in rbe IPPF and no shows how tbese rdiexcliexcldonsbips llnd definirions ni what it is to be a womltn oc man are structuted relationsrups3nd hlsrQciudly hve been scrurtured tu disadvantage women (ibid 15n
lo eommon with the critkal meorists Whitworth has useQ au examinamiddot doo of two intetnational organixations (O deroonstrate a puinr about imerflational relatiexclon~ indeed sodal rctatrol1s mOte widely The poinr is
I1
I
middot - ~-_ --___ aOOuc powec and iu use not (O balance oue SCdre ligaiOSf anorher but fm une gooup ro domiaare morher Jn chis case it 1$ ma the dominution of one dass me m culcnre over $ofU)(her (though Whirworrh recognizes those reLationshyships ti wcll) but of roen over women The crititUl uudy oiacute (wo jnceraational mganirations dealing with iSSlle5 recoSniud ti beiiexclg oiacute impocshycanee or WOfficn suggesu rha( tltOO simihu research on orher internacional organizadons could proJuce interening aOO uwfuiexcl resulrs
Pllit~ism
Thc posc-moderruacutesr $opprooch lO intetaarional rcllldon is one tlur bas (ome ro che fote Jn che perlod sinee lite end of rhe Cold War Jr is based on $o widcr imellectual viewpoim insrigated by l1rench iorcUtcruals of the 196()s gener~ ation _ Bllrrhes Derrida FouclIul and Lyorard - and whkh suggested rhat the modero era liad becn overome 11 fejeas mera-nattatives gnlud accounv- of hi5tory aoa iacuteNIacuteler subjecu as having no independem rubstance Scientifk btliefs induding [hose oiacute rhe $)(ial scJcllces are rooted in (lllxure polill(os arul mores oJ a wciery and are lherekJre subjective As rhere is 00
oblcctive reality cmpirical daims bave fl() spccial sunding in rhe rralms of koowledge IndeeJ ir i$ power aod knowledge are intimatel) incerwirud Posr-moJernism Hllnds against rhe belief of rbe modero pcfiod which LI seco as beginning wiacuterh rhe enlightenmcm of mid-eightcenth cenrufy Europe and AmeriCll Ir rheldore rejcn~ rhe COMCpr$ oC rationalirl and progrcss aSSuacutedared wi(h [he enlighrenment and [he moocrn age Thc uniry of IOOnkind iexclirW iexcldells such liS rhe untveIsWiI) of human aacuteghrs are rejcuoo lnsceadlocal aetion in smallgroups 15 advuacuteClmd
Post-modetnist ideas have affected tite srOOy of inremruionaJ rdarions as (bey have ocher social scienccs Posr-modern imeraarional relariops theoriscs havc ustd heir view$ 00 objecuumlviry (o exiexcltmine che rrmhs of international relatiom en see how rhe concepts iexclind knowledge-dairm (bar dominare the Jisdpline in faer are highiy conringenr on spccific power relatiom (Smith 1997 181) Post-modemisrs bave lltfa(red me mcta-narratives of the reelshy1m and reformlsu aHke The objectiacutevemiddot aaallses of the realim Ilnd neo-realisu are setn as being deJl(nclent on the subjective standpojnts of cheif mainly Amen(an and Europeau authors Ijcharcl amphiel (1986 258) daimed he works o[ Kenneth Waler men the leading neo-realillt trrat the glven ordcr a rhe natural nrder Jjmirs rarheE (lian 1XpawU political discllUtse negales oc rriviuliliS the signifinnce uf variely urOiS time and plue Whar emerges ii an ideology tllar anridpatcs iegirimires ancl onents a totalitarian projen 01 global ptoponioo~ che rattoualiaciuacuten of global poHcics iexclbe reformius are likcwise tainted Md have Ji mhr$lren belief in pmgress The posc-modernl$rs poinr m rh Helocausr as rhe heighr oiacute mooemism a rombimiddot Halioe of science dnd polidcal otganizillnon Il was SCruTely progreso
Given an antifllthy mwards rhe MlVe[iacute~ign srae borh as a centre of powet ll1ld as a crearioll Jiten imbutol wlth a wncepltliexcl uf progress pest~miexclJdetniexclsls
wHungJ mi Im~iexcliexclrun wgltiIRrzuJlU7iJ 1J7
can lOUcdy be expcctcd to vIacuteew intergovernmencal organiUlrions wirh sympilthy Tbe prefetted iacuteonu of internacional organizations when mentioned are those thiexcltt ltlj~plal differemes snd dlvenity in global pelitlcil duu are reginnaUy based or rhar reflec irKlividual actlOn Tndecd ir SeeIJS
rbat Michel Fomawt was involved with an alliance oiacute twO INGOs (Miquestdecin du Monde and Tertl-s do Hommes) in proresting agaiust internadonal iH~shydon over rhe boat people who flcd Vietnam in tite lare 1970s and ear1y 19S(k He is gU()[ed 11$ sayillg tbar Amnelltl Internnrlonal Teueiexcl dts Hommes Mfiiecin du Monde lHt inirilltives whiacutech have created a nrw righr rile dAht of privare individuss ro iexclntervene in [he otder of polino and internatioont snateg(eiexcl (dred in CampheH 1998 516)
Aootber researcher has exnmined ~he Europcan Communities Ilr che point wben Jr was mnslorming intO me European Unioo and askOO whether ir was a pootmodew ConJigUflHton (Nstrgaard 1994) Hi condusions wcre mar ir was gualiwiveJy a new organizarion oC human calJecrlvJties which mighr U$hec the coming of post-moderniry (Ntgttgnatd 1994 27j) The basis fO[ [bis judgemem was rhat me Ee did nO approximate anl modero form of piexcliexcl1idUll Ofpnizarion it did OOt commatld che means oiacute violence its au[hotity derives noc from die people and ir appeared to be a fCgJoo trying ro pOrecr itiexcliexclelf againsr globaliacutezadun iacuteN0rgaaro 1994 274--5) Ir remllins ro be sren whether [he BU tJf [he twenry-first cenrury wHl fu1fi1 rhtgtse hopes Ot wiU stllrr ro teVen
to a more scate-like being Generall) dIe cririolapproaches ro interruHiorud relarious hiexclJve provided
1lOOIe innovatIacuteve insigllls iexclnro rhe study uf imemarional orgsnizations The crtrical theorists llave becn sh3rpest in rheir unde[$(iexcltnding nf internarional ofgiexclt1lizacious as servsnrs of a dominiexcliexclIf power configuracion thoogh the) lave pemaps Umieed cbelr scope wllen viewing internacional organizadons Feminis[ wJiters ruave given Vltike to whac i5 after aH tbe scmi-sileut majoric) in rhe world and Ilre ouly srarting in qnest10niug the male dOmimiddot nance nuacutet iexclusr of the nmning of IGOs huc aloo of theic agenda Tite post-modemisrs are iMlSr concerned oiacute he (bree 8rOUp5 with inretnationlll organiucioru as such bllr rIacuteleic intellecrual approach is the ffiOSt tadkal aud can lelld tuuml a fnon of nihilism
GltJbaliacutesf lIiu
A gIobalisr perspective does oor viacuteew world poliacutetica as being predomishynandl arout iotergovernmemal relatlnn~ Ili would realisu or illbour inrentare aruI imersocietal rdations as a number uf reformisu llliexclll consider lnsteaacuted it cakes a more holisdc view Problems are (cmfronred ac Ji global level wlurions have tO be sou8ht here as weil This iexcls not ro neglcct (he 10tal Ol rhe ~tlte level ir is more J recognilion of the limiutshydoos of acdviuumles rhere The world-vicw like rhe reformists places empllasu on whal unIacutetes people Ilnd has lirde time for lhe demaoos of power pouumlics aad stare-cemrir orglLuiwrjollS Ir goe~ fllrther by nor
1 V WNimgJ lJ7f tIfernattmiexcliexclJ 11fK4111141tOnJ
liminog in view eirhec ro pans of che world or ro rellltions berweeo particuJar poliric~ lr ioded jlLSr m the economic social and poJitical demaods of mankind Paradoxically ir can be seen as IIn approach rhe very OppoSllC of the fimctionalist wirb whom tbere 5 much io common In nmtrast lO rhe fnnctionaHst (or neo-fllnctiooalisr or intetclependeuce srhuul) and ccrrainly in contrast ro rhe powet politks aOO MaOIacuteIt writers (be whole world approach places emphasis not 00 the discrere r~uiexclreshymems of groups SClteiexcl or individulI1s bm 00 tbe wel1-bciog of the tCOsystem in which rhf5f funnioll cbe planet Eanh The conccen of chis apptoach which is rcflccted il] in ttcumeUr of illternational urganizatiom is for the survival of lhe plunet for its effident funccioning in its widest SeILie aud fot che survival oiacute rhe myriad oiacute speoacutees - ollly one of which is homo sapiens - tbat inhabh me globe
Sinle tbe 196Os a number of wtiters on imernational affairs have expounded 00 tbis view and llave cOl1l~uendy ronsideted the implicadons for intemational organizacions Jobfl Button in bis World Society ronsldeted iflmstatt relations to be onIy a pan of wodd poli[iacutea and wrore
lf we employ rhe term world rociety imiexclreui of internanofla relarions iIacute we apptoo(h OUt study in this global way insread of the more tradi~ lonal nattonal way we will end to have a wider focos ro ask quesrions rhat are moee fundlmenral aOO imponant lO civilization and be ahle ro assess bettet me relevance of om own national bduviour ro be wider worW envifonment
(Button 1972 21)
Rkhacd Stetling posed the problem more spedfically
Nuclear esCllatiofl the popullltion explosion the pollmiofl of tbe envishyronmcnt the communkations rtvolurion rbe world~wide concentNdon of wC1llch and world~wide expansiofl of pltlvcrty are iexcliexcl11 essemially global and not 1laquo al pbellomena They have given rise jn tutn ro eartbshyspamuacutellg and revolutionary demands ror mass education rnass hesltb malts welfure and maltgts participation in che dccisions affecting roans fare
(Srerling 1974 322)
This wodd-view of rhe problems of the s)Jaceamphip EQlth begged fur global oolutlofl$ It suggcsred iexclhu not onIy iJ the system of sovereign stares as yer unable oc unwiHing to COme to grips with the above-menuontd prohlelUS but that a network of llllergoVCtn1lental organiutlom bGsed 00 me rights of statc wVfretgnt will ~lso be hammllng Globtl problems needed global solutlons based on institutinos rhat can (ake a global petsplaquoshytive Thus Sterling considetecl thllt it ~ tlOt unreasooable (O amidpate tme tbe member stares will be moved ro considft equippifllil the Unitw Nttous witb mote crunprebensive powen 1lt global pressUfes build 0974 323)
~h~ laquoo ~gt~ _- -gt bullbull (_bullbullbull __ - bullbull
A more compeluumlng cdH wus lAltiexclued by Barban Ward and Rene Dubas in their book prepared for [he UN Gmference of ehe Humafl EnVJroJlmenl 01lly UIIt EaFlh The c~ altJ Mdilllt1JatfCe (JI d Sflall Pta~t (972) 111ey stremsed the ufliry of tbe Eanh Jnd in eovironment and the )Jroblems in(ed by Jts iohabitants emntially thost oudined by SterJiog The ~uthoflgt poillted OUt rhat rhF envitonmenral qmosrion had by 1972 already had 50me impaltl on guvernments and im(rnarional organl1Jtion but the effior was somewhat ltInJOrdinated and unfocuseL In (hree particular aren - tbe global atmosphere rhe oceaml the worlds weather sysrellU - tbt-y saw [bl jmmediate neOO for (OmInOn poliey und co-ocdinared actiollS where vcerenshysions to national sovercigmy have no relevance ro ptrreived problems Bu rbefe was a need to go furrher and denl wirh other global problems di5Case srarvation iHitmcy unemployrnem ovcfllwding rntetnational poliCJcs wece at the 5tage reachOO wlrhin rhe devdoping s[ate~ of the ninettTtb (entury Elche they wiU move O to a wmmIlJlity bL~ro UiexclXIIl a more systematic sharin8 of weaJtb Ot tbey wiH break down in revoh and anareby (Wacd and Dubos 1972 295- -6) They Looked forward ro a sense of gLobal rommuniry 00seJ on he bope vf Irotecdon (from war aOO disaster) and the hope of enhancemenr (ecologic$1 as well as economid The ptlKtic~ and insrirutlofiS with whkh we are familiar inide our domestk sociecies would become suitably modlfied che basis of planetary oroer (Ward aOO Dubos 1972 297-8) This woold indude non~violent settlement of disputes witb legal arbirration ~nd polioacuteng ptocedures on an international basis jr would mea the Hansfer uf resoucces from rkh ro peor Ilnd inerCllSlaquo co-operaeion in arealt 5uch as health and edUcatIO farming uroon planning aud )JOlJution control As [befe halt been a shift of loyalty rom taroliy to dan from dan to tlation and from nation to fedctation there Wampll
hope clajmoo Wl1fd and Dubo$ for an ultimare lnyalty tuacute OUt single beau~ tifulllud vulnerable Planet Eanh (Ward and Dubas 1972 298)
Whilst the institutiona fmmework and organizational stfllCtuteS remain of necenity -ague in Oltl OM EaFtA iacutet is del( rhat the authors Wfre atming 11( a tlttwork oiacute world-wide fflnctionaUy hased organlzatiofll (both lOOs and JNGOs) char couId take on much of the work )JfCsendy done by governshymems o( rather whkh ougbt [O be dont by governmems UacuteJter writing-s have attempted (O deal wjth thc policy impliration$ of delllJng with )JrobshyJems globdly sroos (986) has poiacutenred en what 1w already been achieved in gtobal problem solving l1nd ha~ soughr ro buHd on rhis His critio have prunted out tha( what has already becn undertiacutelken has bren done more along rradicional Jntergovernmentallines (Donnelly 1990 121-30) Orbe writen have tied rubievemen[ in addressiacuteng [he global agenda more to renewed rutiviry in the UN (Rochester 1990 141-54) or to greater grass~ roots aud INOO acriviSffi Wget 1990 155-~8) Either way globaJj~m offeacuters a distinct W1ly of rackling the worlds ptublem~ It 1$ u ViIOIl thar sttesiexcles uniey and common (am( ntthet than disasreemem and roofrontashytion ir (ould thereIacuteore (oresce disputes being sruved inlernationally vety
much in (he way tbar chey are pre~ndy solvcd within tunny MtiOO iexclrares by more ro arbitratwn and Jaw and by entorcemenf ir neteS$il1) In this rhey have muh in COIDfllOfi wirh tire imerrnuiona lawyers iacuteUld idenlist writer of me eady (wenuacuteeh eemury mentioned at the beginning of tbu chaptet The globalisn are inspirecl jn rheir thinking more by ten Ot lt nudeal holocatlsr and by environmenml breakdown tnan by rhe duumleet elrpeshytieme uf wa dlllf aiacutefected rhe wricings of Woolf ol Ikierly
TIacutete globalisl appro~(h is opert ro the criticism of bcing roo idealistk jn a cynical world and lOO iIDpracrical in in uacutelstitutional sU8scsrioll5 Bur the di$mi$Slil oC rh~ words as globaloney cKleS HOt lid lite wctld oC che probw lems which hey have 50 effectively publiacutedzed They lutve uied to add anorIte dimensioacuten ro whar is possibte by showlng thar ie is nOCeSSiexcllty fOl rhe iexclurviwl of che planee
Tlle radical approach to the smdy oC iOternational orgllnizarions reflocu worIdmiddotvitws that normaUy lO beyond -dmse Jominated by rhe ltctivities of iexcltatcs or of LIte organizltuumlnns chemselves There is a sceprical view of whut is happeoing al soy one uacuteme in imernarional celarions and of he abilicy of mOfe cradicional wcifecs on imernafional cdarions ro explain let aJone llOderstand what is happeoing Ir is the feeling rhar approaches such ll1 (he MaNisr tlwt of rhe ideal theorisrs and some of rhe globuli~rs ur~ coming cber (O uodemaoding humanicys wider dilemmas rhar makes rhero so amactive They ar~ less Iikdy co apply rhemselves to rhe defais rutd wnrk~ ings oiacute p$cdcular imernatinnaJ organizations but neverrheless providt iotriguiog insighrs 00 [his phenomenoo by seeing rhem rhrollgh mol panoprk phHosophical lenses
SUMMARY
The rhree flIajor $chuols dealr wich io chis chaprer - the tcatiacuten the reformisrs iacutei1d che radical$ and rhe variarions (bey contain did not and do tlOf exJn iexcln a hiSforlcaj vacnum lde-as Wele foffilulared wirhio lhe COnten oiacute panicular sodedcs uoo in response ltO pUticular problems rbe communl (adom reYoludon of fhe nineteemb century the Finr World Wlli rhe rise of Nui Germany the spreading of nudeu weapons the deve1opmeof of plthitshy
$econd Workl War Europe fbe pnxeues of decoloniwion and deacuteteme rhe end oiacute the Cold War and rhe advaoce oiacute che inCormatton revolution In sorne CilSC$ the views oiacute rhose wdtings on inttmiddotrnational ocganUatlOHS have liad un efiecr on evenrs rhemelves pirlKulatly 00 rbe actitudes oC govetnrnents mwards tnternatiorW orgdflixauons AIl tXample is the work oC LecnarJ Woolf woose suggesnons Ctmceming a world organizatloo conttibuted lO fhe detailed preparnion oC the Lague oC Nations by me British goveltr mene Likewise Hans Morgeruhau and EK Can provided seimuli fot infiiexclrmoo US and Btirish governmcllul rhinking abom inrerruuional rela~ tiom iexclrom the 194Ck onwards In mher cases rhe general writings cJ persons lgtuch as Marx Leoin Mao Tse-tung and che dependencia school have affecred
rhe poJirk1ll dimare wirhin which govemmcncs conduce rheJe poUcy iucluding thar wwards jnternaclorull otgauj~atjon$
Orber ruCfOf$ aplft froro their historial cuntexc Iuve affencd the views of rhe schunl$ rncntioned They have differint backgtounJs io cheit ideruogy (Wesrero commllniSf Third World radical environmenralisr) and in theit level of $nalysis of inrernarional rebtions (stare Centuacutec inretesr aoo rramna~ dona groups cLitraquo dominanr global) This a(icca the typC oC inrernatiacuteonal organizariacuteon dominam io their studies (IGOs INCo) auJ thcic 8eograph~ kai $rea of interest (the Nonh Adandc Europe ThinJ WodJ Ot global)
TIte range of wcitings about intetnational organizarions has ull dte whole teflecfeJ wiJec llooersundings of imetoational ceJarions and wuumltld polidcs These io rhernselves have fed 00 tbe gtVidc iacutellccUecmal fcnnent and on developrnenrs in world affiuacuters Viewl about iacutellteftlational ocgsnizatJoos wiU continue ro take accOlnt of the ince1leeruaJ debate ill the studjes oiacute polishydes internacional re1atioO$ philosophy ecooomics imematluacutellal uw sociology histoty and geogrilphy They will also reflecto among other ampcton che stntcegk balance in tbe world [he relafIacuteve power of tiJe United Stares aod oroer nares me scate of wotld markers [be pto-ess uf Euwpeiexcliexcln tlllegrashytion che relacive positloo of the developing warIdgt iexclbe levd of cootlicc througbolc the world fhe -ratC of dte environfneot and the ahility oiacute huge StatCS to wiacutethswnd cenrrifttgal force Tbe way tIacuteult imematiornal organiuiexclshydons ret1ect tbese developrnents and tIacuteleir t1Ipability lO deal wich some of them will provide (he tllW fiWifcrial foc funue smdies
-- --- ~- __ _~- __- imernatIacuteonal orgaoilarions in Nonh-Smuh relarJons tOiexclghf be apected from rhe Third Worid A1ternaciveJy wrirers (mm rhat ares rmy jW ltIacuteespUacutet rm imergovemmemal orgaoizarions ar lealaquo Mee rhem $O Hrrle
Cfili~ald~heJ
Critica approadvs lO the nudy uf intetnadonal relations are (hose har rejee( the dominating vleW1iexcli repr=med by tbe realist and reformistS as oudined aboye In paHicular rhey reglUd realists as apologisu for the currem con6gutltion of power 10 (he wiexcldd sytem and considet [har rhe refOnntstS are elrher unable ro undersraoo he fUe llamee )( (hi sysrem oc ille UDwiUing to accepc rilar ir needs more rhan mooest refotlllS TIlOugh they may sympalhi-ze wirh rhe agenda of some Marxists aud Third World wt1cers chey do [lO( llave rhe hisrockal certaimy of the former not rarely do they have the experience and perspective of ehe larter TItey view intenUishy(jnl1ill nrganiutions wirh a jaundiced eye as these are mainly the lll$tmmenfS of rhose who dominare rhe syuem This section COlllaios an wcoum nf three approaches tmt of the critical rheorlsti- of kmintsc wrirshy[1185 ulld pose~mooernismlt
Cri(~1 herJrY The approach of critical theory 10 JnrematlonaJ o(ganizatiooll iSi determtoed by their wider world-view which in itsclf is explaiiexclwd by tbeir llame One of the leading exponents Roben Cox said [har ie is cririca1 in cne Jensc rha h srands apan 100m che prevailiog order of rhe wOlld and asks how tb$t oroer came iexcllPouc Ir does nor r-ake existing irucimtioM lIl1KI JIQwer relaclons rOl granred bu c311s them iacutemo queuion Ir 1S diexclrlaquoced ro rhe social itnd JIQiirshyical complex as a wItole rarhet (hall he stparate pirtt IUthet than subdiide and Imic an examination of a problem it looks al the wger pkturc of whkh rhe problem is jwt oue part and trio rO wJdeThwod the processeS uf change ill which botIt pans ulld whole ure involved laquo(ox 1993 277~S)
Ai a thoory cridQiIacute theory rejeen tbe daims of posicivism of an external Nulity and to be mue-free ror critkal rheorIacutests koowledge ti nor moraUy IleUc1ll1 ic is more che result of the social background of tbose Wt hold ir Given this ctitkal tbeory alJows foc a normarive choice in favoU of a social ancl iexclJlieiexcl(ld order diflerent f(cm rhe prevruHng arder bur it limiu the ruuse 01 chotce ti a1remative orders which are feasibJe mmsformations ofme cxvaing worJd h musr rejEC[ improbable alternadVe8 ju~t as ir rejecrs rhe pcrmanctlly nr lhe exiscing order (Cox 19 90)
Cridcal rheory differs lrom Marxist upproElchcs beCElUS( of iu tejection nf any daim to hold the objenive tru[h and betause or it~ avoidance of (he pmslllt ol il utopia Neverrhe1ess [heir analysis of incernarional relarln1l$ is one tbu hEls u numher of similariuumles wich the Marxisc pcrspecdve It regurds rhl tlistlng suucrures of world polirics as beiug oppressie not
- _ __ _-
lean because of rhe dominance of (he capitalism of che Unired StElte~ For many che USA is seco as a hegemonic power the prevailing urder - in re[ms rbar reReet he wrirings of the Itallan Marxisc writer Amonio Gramscl (1891-1932) Gramsd advanced the nodon of ln hisrori(middot bloc which in itself refilaquors che $Ocial reladons oE ptoducdoo The dominanr dass in a counrty - 01 indeed aoy social grouping - mlinrains cohesion and idenciry withio [he bloc [hrough the ptopagacion of a COIDmOfl culturegt A new bloc can be formelt when a subordinate dau can euablish tU hegeshymony over orher subotdioate gtOllpS (Cox 1993 56--7) The IDove rowuds hegemony comeS with the piexclt$ting fmm che spediacutek inrercsrs ofa gronp Ol
dass tO rhe building uf inrimdons aOO elaoorarion uf ideologies (Cox 1993 57-8) It Loiexcl rhat ptOCe$S thar embeds the incemu of the dominanc dan in an imttmrional form thae [w an appeal widet [ban that dan ine1f It the-refole repreSoems mote tlmn jUSt (he drunJnaoce oE one state ovec anocher bllt implies a cemufi acceptante of the tules arJd institutions purouized by [he hegemonic JIQwer Jo other woros it is all order wbicb most Olher Sta[e-~ (01 at 1enst those within reath of die hegernouy) couId find compatible- wirh their iexclmetem (Cox 1993 6t) h aJso involves noe just inttt-staee rueivirle5 bur rhose oiacute tlvilliOCiety (oon-Stllte socieM instishycudons) ebereby encoumging Hnks between social dus$ts iexcln the connules covered by ebe hegemony
What does Cox llave to uy about ioccmational Otgsniuciexclons 1bey Ilre scen in he oontext ofme wiacuteoo unaemanduuml18 of itnernational reUacuteltions mentloned iexcliexclhove He is direcr 000t mem Ooc mechanisru chrough wruch the universal norms of a wodd hegemony are expttssed js the interoatiooal organisation (Cox 1993 62) Why is chis so Cox U993 62) gives five teIlSons
bull They e-mbody rules cOae help (be- apwlSion of a hegemonic wodd iexclrder These insdwrians reflcct the intererts ()( the dominam social anil economic force- buc a1low a cettain amOunt oC adjusrment ro accommodare other subordinared interests TIms the USA WllS preplltoo ro mm conccssions to
bciI18 in Lhe EU srares and Japan ro rhe Wotld Trade Otganizatimt They a[e prooucrs of that order Though [he insrimrions and rules Ilce
nurITlllUy initiared by the hegemook power ir takes cate ro involve aOO comule a numbe-r of second-ronk stares and gaio theit supporc he Wotld Bank and Inte[nacional Mooetaty Fund were very much pan of [he world order thar emerged afrer [he Second World Wat and which was dominared by rhe Uoiced Stlres
They ltgidmi7e i[s nOlms by providing guidance for SllIteS and by legitshyimiuacuteulS cerraIacuten IlCdviries Ilr me narional leveL he OBCD afie rhe inrerruuiooal financia) irntuumluriom lave spread an acceptante of mllrket coodirions and sHict mOllerary iexclJlides
They co-opr elites from pelipheral counrrie Ihlented sraH commg 110m the Thiacuterd Wocld are expected tO dCCept he scriexclpt wcittttt by the domishynam power Bouuos Bourros-Ghati as Secteury General uf the Unired
166 Jiexclljiexclr1giexcl Qr1 ifJfCflrttuacutemal IWgaizati(ifJJ
Nadons stroyed too amp~r ftOm the gtip of Washinston and his second term was VCtoM by rhe USA His sucecssor Kofi Annan will no doubt undentand what 1$ n-quired of him He brings the mncerns of orhe states ro che UN bUf nor in a way thu threatt1l$ the USA
bull They absorb counter-hegemonic ideas Ideaiexcl $uch as 1iustainable dlYClop_ ment tukl even debr foTgiwness are taken 00 board by the intetnatwnal finarnial institlltion$ blu are trandirmel into pulido rhat swt them
Wh~t is ro be done Cox thinks thar the pfQblem of changiog dw world orUer 1iMuld be shlfred back from intern~tional insritutions tO niexcllriacuteooal $OIacuteishyeties where the sodo-political b~se for a new historie bloc mighr be ereated (Cox 1993 64) FaiJing the creadon of a new historie bloc of the new working cla$s and rural and urb~o marginal groups there might be tnmdorshymadon oC the curtent monopoly-libcral hegemony by adjusting to rhe demanJs oiacute local ello$ for polides 5uch as natlonaHution Cox 199~ 65) He aw advocates te-regulation of erooomies and a re-wmpositjon of civil sodery Internatiotla lnstlcutions induding organiutions can berome eontact puint1i fOr new $OCia[ furtt (Cox 1994 (11)
Critica throrJm $uch as Cox oifee a refreshing exposidon oiacute che posidofl oC imernatiooal ofganizatioos in a wocld where the main revolutionary powe~ have either collapsed (rhe Soviet Union) or se(tled into a cautious ronservatirun (China) Ir provlde~ a sceptical arf realisric world~view without acreptins tbe inevuumlahility ni a illture domlnared by mooopoly eapi~ ujsm sud the Utlired States J-Iowevtr its appllcariexclon to intemationa1 organhatJons 11 StImewha( timited tQ the maln global jnsdm(jons and th financial and economlc orgmiutions Ir has 1m (O say aboue regional nrgashynjudon Uf abour N(JUacutes Furthermore iu alternarive fu(ure testS on ourcoroes thu are far froro certain RevnJutlons in the Thied World are roore likely to be- irupired by nadondi$m oc by IsJaroic fllndamentaHfl OCalaquoely [he solid ooses for new historie blocs
Fwinuumll aNml4cbts
Feminist perspcctives 0f1 inttmatlonal rtlatioos llave in common wirh the erit~ ical rheocillu a rejclaquoion of (he dominance in rhe $Ilbjecr of the rcnHst and rdOrmisrs Although fuminist writen cover a wide 5laquolpe the gencral basis oiacute their aqurnent 1S har in interwnional relatioM ru in most politkal aud tcooomk acdvity women are diexclSJtdvantagt~l Alchoogh they own ahour 1 pet tCfH oC the worlJs lfOpeny and tiexcliexclxe heme 10 peiacute ceoc ofincome they perfurm 60 per eenr of working houn and provide 80 per eent of nfusets (petetsen and Runyan 1993 6) This is a derDOnstrndon of gender inequalitie~ the sodalJy learned behavior and expecratioos thar distioguish berween maKuliniry and femininity (Petetsen and Runpn 1993 5) Feminist aprroaches ofren So bejond the $tati~tks and examine (he mind~se[ of those engaged in the pmctice of intemadonal rdations whiexclch (bey ampee as geodered In other woros che world
Writingc Off inlmhJliofMl vrgntiZdlMm 167
illeen in a mlLlndine way thar kvrntB (he posjtiOll o( mnles in rhe hitgtranhy and devlllues the c041trihution of WQmeO (Sylvestet 1994) War in pattKular is gendered in a way chat keeps wornen and metl from qUtstioniog the essentiat pmpose and he neglltive effects of war militarization ~nd viQleme on their awn and orhers livts (Petetsen and Ruoyan J993 9 t)
What of wminist view$ uf imernationaJ organizationsr Ir IS not possible ro presem a rollf(tive vjew that eneomp3$~e~ rhe works of radicaJ femjnisu and ny iexclihetal teminists (rutead the work of one author Sandra Whitworth (1997) will be used as me pily$ rornt attrntion ro inrernarlonal organizations Aamper inrroductions ro feminilfr theory and internacional frIamiddot tiom and gendet and internacional relatlons Whirworrh examines geodet and imernational organilions She screpts Coxs vjew oiacute inrernational orgashynjzarions [har they retleltr (he dominant powet relations in che intetnational system and rhae internaliomd otgaoiution h che procelt of imcitntionaJshyiling and regulating conOice - eicher rhat which may IIrise among siexclates o( char which has iu (onU io transnationaI society (Cox 1980 375) TIte way duu pcople orgaoire themelve$ wirhin international iostirurjons reflects a variety of power relations ineludi~ of rollJSe gendec relatiull3 (Whitworth 1997 74) lbe triad of jnstirutions ideas and material rQudi~ tioru help ro hxare uSllmptiolls aboue geoocr withiu jntetmltional rewtioos Whitworth uses thesr tn examine lhe uooerstandillg oiacuteScndec io an INGO the Internadonal PlarUled ParenthooJ Federatlou (JPPF) and an intergnvemmental organilJ1rion (albcir one wlrh some oOl1-governmentJ)J represemation) the InrernatlonaL lab01lrOtganiution (no)
Whirworths studies show rhar thr IPPF tended ro accept the deshyemphasizlng oi the gendered oamfr of reproducdoo and (f) ignore rhe imponaoce ofbirth comcol foc womens reproductive freroom Instead in an effort tu popularize birth rontrol srrel~ WWl placoo on paremhooJ rather than iexclust the womans choice However IPPF poUcy beeiexcllme more radirnl in (he 19905- with Hnks beirtg made berween II1M control alld womeos ~)tu~ ality (WbJtworth 1997 ch 4 pmim)
The RO eoucerned itself with WQmen as workern It cnnsidercd that tbey oeeded spec-ial atrention and promoted ptoteCtlvt legiexcl~lacion This reiexcln~ forced me view (har [he male worxer Wall the norm with women workers nor deserving the same rights remunfration lOO mndirions Latterly however the JLO ha~ reflectoo views rhat prodaim wornens elt)ualily in rhe workforce and has sunoo tuacute assess the importanee of policies on womens role in rhe workplace as weU as in sodery more wjdely (Whlrwnrth J997 ch 5 panm) Whitworth comes [O the eondusion rhu iexclln iexcllnaLyiexcli~ of gernler in rbe IPPF and no shows how tbese rdiexcliexcldonsbips llnd definirions ni what it is to be a womltn oc man are structuted relationsrups3nd hlsrQciudly hve been scrurtured tu disadvantage women (ibid 15n
lo eommon with the critkal meorists Whitworth has useQ au examinamiddot doo of two intetnational organixations (O deroonstrate a puinr about imerflational relatiexclon~ indeed sodal rctatrol1s mOte widely The poinr is
I1
I
middot - ~-_ --___ aOOuc powec and iu use not (O balance oue SCdre ligaiOSf anorher but fm une gooup ro domiaare morher Jn chis case it 1$ ma the dominution of one dass me m culcnre over $ofU)(her (though Whirworrh recognizes those reLationshyships ti wcll) but of roen over women The crititUl uudy oiacute (wo jnceraational mganirations dealing with iSSlle5 recoSniud ti beiiexclg oiacute impocshycanee or WOfficn suggesu rha( tltOO simihu research on orher internacional organizadons could proJuce interening aOO uwfuiexcl resulrs
Pllit~ism
Thc posc-moderruacutesr $opprooch lO intetaarional rcllldon is one tlur bas (ome ro che fote Jn che perlod sinee lite end of rhe Cold War Jr is based on $o widcr imellectual viewpoim insrigated by l1rench iorcUtcruals of the 196()s gener~ ation _ Bllrrhes Derrida FouclIul and Lyorard - and whkh suggested rhat the modero era liad becn overome 11 fejeas mera-nattatives gnlud accounv- of hi5tory aoa iacuteNIacuteler subjecu as having no independem rubstance Scientifk btliefs induding [hose oiacute rhe $)(ial scJcllces are rooted in (lllxure polill(os arul mores oJ a wciery and are lherekJre subjective As rhere is 00
oblcctive reality cmpirical daims bave fl() spccial sunding in rhe rralms of koowledge IndeeJ ir i$ power aod knowledge are intimatel) incerwirud Posr-moJernism Hllnds against rhe belief of rbe modero pcfiod which LI seco as beginning wiacuterh rhe enlightenmcm of mid-eightcenth cenrufy Europe and AmeriCll Ir rheldore rejcn~ rhe COMCpr$ oC rationalirl and progrcss aSSuacutedared wi(h [he enlighrenment and [he moocrn age Thc uniry of IOOnkind iexclirW iexcldells such liS rhe untveIsWiI) of human aacuteghrs are rejcuoo lnsceadlocal aetion in smallgroups 15 advuacuteClmd
Post-modetnist ideas have affected tite srOOy of inremruionaJ rdarions as (bey have ocher social scienccs Posr-modern imeraarional relariops theoriscs havc ustd heir view$ 00 objecuumlviry (o exiexcltmine che rrmhs of international relatiom en see how rhe concepts iexclind knowledge-dairm (bar dominare the Jisdpline in faer are highiy conringenr on spccific power relatiom (Smith 1997 181) Post-modemisrs bave lltfa(red me mcta-narratives of the reelshy1m and reformlsu aHke The objectiacutevemiddot aaallses of the realim Ilnd neo-realisu are setn as being deJl(nclent on the subjective standpojnts of cheif mainly Amen(an and Europeau authors Ijcharcl amphiel (1986 258) daimed he works o[ Kenneth Waler men the leading neo-realillt trrat the glven ordcr a rhe natural nrder Jjmirs rarheE (lian 1XpawU political discllUtse negales oc rriviuliliS the signifinnce uf variely urOiS time and plue Whar emerges ii an ideology tllar anridpatcs iegirimires ancl onents a totalitarian projen 01 global ptoponioo~ che rattoualiaciuacuten of global poHcics iexclbe reformius are likcwise tainted Md have Ji mhr$lren belief in pmgress The posc-modernl$rs poinr m rh Helocausr as rhe heighr oiacute mooemism a rombimiddot Halioe of science dnd polidcal otganizillnon Il was SCruTely progreso
Given an antifllthy mwards rhe MlVe[iacute~ign srae borh as a centre of powet ll1ld as a crearioll Jiten imbutol wlth a wncepltliexcl uf progress pest~miexclJdetniexclsls
wHungJ mi Im~iexcliexclrun wgltiIRrzuJlU7iJ 1J7
can lOUcdy be expcctcd to vIacuteew intergovernmencal organiUlrions wirh sympilthy Tbe prefetted iacuteonu of internacional organizations when mentioned are those thiexcltt ltlj~plal differemes snd dlvenity in global pelitlcil duu are reginnaUy based or rhar reflec irKlividual actlOn Tndecd ir SeeIJS
rbat Michel Fomawt was involved with an alliance oiacute twO INGOs (Miquestdecin du Monde and Tertl-s do Hommes) in proresting agaiust internadonal iH~shydon over rhe boat people who flcd Vietnam in tite lare 1970s and ear1y 19S(k He is gU()[ed 11$ sayillg tbar Amnelltl Internnrlonal Teueiexcl dts Hommes Mfiiecin du Monde lHt inirilltives whiacutech have created a nrw righr rile dAht of privare individuss ro iexclntervene in [he otder of polino and internatioont snateg(eiexcl (dred in CampheH 1998 516)
Aootber researcher has exnmined ~he Europcan Communities Ilr che point wben Jr was mnslorming intO me European Unioo and askOO whether ir was a pootmodew ConJigUflHton (Nstrgaard 1994) Hi condusions wcre mar ir was gualiwiveJy a new organizarion oC human calJecrlvJties which mighr U$hec the coming of post-moderniry (Ntgttgnatd 1994 27j) The basis fO[ [bis judgemem was rhat me Ee did nO approximate anl modero form of piexcliexcl1idUll Ofpnizarion it did OOt commatld che means oiacute violence its au[hotity derives noc from die people and ir appeared to be a fCgJoo trying ro pOrecr itiexcliexclelf againsr globaliacutezadun iacuteN0rgaaro 1994 274--5) Ir remllins ro be sren whether [he BU tJf [he twenry-first cenrury wHl fu1fi1 rhtgtse hopes Ot wiU stllrr ro teVen
to a more scate-like being Generall) dIe cririolapproaches ro interruHiorud relarious hiexclJve provided
1lOOIe innovatIacuteve insigllls iexclnro rhe study uf imemarional orgsnizations The crtrical theorists llave becn sh3rpest in rheir unde[$(iexcltnding nf internarional ofgiexclt1lizacious as servsnrs of a dominiexcliexclIf power configuracion thoogh the) lave pemaps Umieed cbelr scope wllen viewing internacional organizadons Feminis[ wJiters ruave given Vltike to whac i5 after aH tbe scmi-sileut majoric) in rhe world and Ilre ouly srarting in qnest10niug the male dOmimiddot nance nuacutet iexclusr of the nmning of IGOs huc aloo of theic agenda Tite post-modemisrs are iMlSr concerned oiacute he (bree 8rOUp5 with inretnationlll organiucioru as such bllr rIacuteleic intellecrual approach is the ffiOSt tadkal aud can lelld tuuml a fnon of nihilism
GltJbaliacutesf lIiu
A gIobalisr perspective does oor viacuteew world poliacutetica as being predomishynandl arout iotergovernmemal relatlnn~ Ili would realisu or illbour inrentare aruI imersocietal rdations as a number uf reformisu llliexclll consider lnsteaacuted it cakes a more holisdc view Problems are (cmfronred ac Ji global level wlurions have tO be sou8ht here as weil This iexcls not ro neglcct (he 10tal Ol rhe ~tlte level ir is more J recognilion of the limiutshydoos of acdviuumles rhere The world-vicw like rhe reformists places empllasu on whal unIacutetes people Ilnd has lirde time for lhe demaoos of power pouumlics aad stare-cemrir orglLuiwrjollS Ir goe~ fllrther by nor
1 V WNimgJ lJ7f tIfernattmiexcliexclJ 11fK4111141tOnJ
liminog in view eirhec ro pans of che world or ro rellltions berweeo particuJar poliric~ lr ioded jlLSr m the economic social and poJitical demaods of mankind Paradoxically ir can be seen as IIn approach rhe very OppoSllC of the fimctionalist wirb whom tbere 5 much io common In nmtrast lO rhe fnnctionaHst (or neo-fllnctiooalisr or intetclependeuce srhuul) and ccrrainly in contrast ro rhe powet politks aOO MaOIacuteIt writers (be whole world approach places emphasis not 00 the discrere r~uiexclreshymems of groups SClteiexcl or individulI1s bm 00 tbe wel1-bciog of the tCOsystem in which rhf5f funnioll cbe planet Eanh The conccen of chis apptoach which is rcflccted il] in ttcumeUr of illternational urganizatiom is for the survival of lhe plunet for its effident funccioning in its widest SeILie aud fot che survival oiacute rhe myriad oiacute speoacutees - ollly one of which is homo sapiens - tbat inhabh me globe
Sinle tbe 196Os a number of wtiters on imernational affairs have expounded 00 tbis view and llave cOl1l~uendy ronsideted the implicadons for intemational organizacions Jobfl Button in bis World Society ronsldeted iflmstatt relations to be onIy a pan of wodd poli[iacutea and wrore
lf we employ rhe term world rociety imiexclreui of internanofla relarions iIacute we apptoo(h OUt study in this global way insread of the more tradi~ lonal nattonal way we will end to have a wider focos ro ask quesrions rhat are moee fundlmenral aOO imponant lO civilization and be ahle ro assess bettet me relevance of om own national bduviour ro be wider worW envifonment
(Button 1972 21)
Rkhacd Stetling posed the problem more spedfically
Nuclear esCllatiofl the popullltion explosion the pollmiofl of tbe envishyronmcnt the communkations rtvolurion rbe world~wide concentNdon of wC1llch and world~wide expansiofl of pltlvcrty are iexcliexcl11 essemially global and not 1laquo al pbellomena They have given rise jn tutn ro eartbshyspamuacutellg and revolutionary demands ror mass education rnass hesltb malts welfure and maltgts participation in che dccisions affecting roans fare
(Srerling 1974 322)
This wodd-view of rhe problems of the s)Jaceamphip EQlth begged fur global oolutlofl$ It suggcsred iexclhu not onIy iJ the system of sovereign stares as yer unable oc unwiHing to COme to grips with the above-menuontd prohlelUS but that a network of llllergoVCtn1lental organiutlom bGsed 00 me rights of statc wVfretgnt will ~lso be hammllng Globtl problems needed global solutlons based on institutinos rhat can (ake a global petsplaquoshytive Thus Sterling considetecl thllt it ~ tlOt unreasooable (O amidpate tme tbe member stares will be moved ro considft equippifllil the Unitw Nttous witb mote crunprebensive powen 1lt global pressUfes build 0974 323)
~h~ laquoo ~gt~ _- -gt bullbull (_bullbullbull __ - bullbull
A more compeluumlng cdH wus lAltiexclued by Barban Ward and Rene Dubas in their book prepared for [he UN Gmference of ehe Humafl EnVJroJlmenl 01lly UIIt EaFlh The c~ altJ Mdilllt1JatfCe (JI d Sflall Pta~t (972) 111ey stremsed the ufliry of tbe Eanh Jnd in eovironment and the )Jroblems in(ed by Jts iohabitants emntially thost oudined by SterJiog The ~uthoflgt poillted OUt rhat rhF envitonmenral qmosrion had by 1972 already had 50me impaltl on guvernments and im(rnarional organl1Jtion but the effior was somewhat ltInJOrdinated and unfocuseL In (hree particular aren - tbe global atmosphere rhe oceaml the worlds weather sysrellU - tbt-y saw [bl jmmediate neOO for (OmInOn poliey und co-ocdinared actiollS where vcerenshysions to national sovercigmy have no relevance ro ptrreived problems Bu rbefe was a need to go furrher and denl wirh other global problems di5Case srarvation iHitmcy unemployrnem ovcfllwding rntetnational poliCJcs wece at the 5tage reachOO wlrhin rhe devdoping s[ate~ of the ninettTtb (entury Elche they wiU move O to a wmmIlJlity bL~ro UiexclXIIl a more systematic sharin8 of weaJtb Ot tbey wiH break down in revoh and anareby (Wacd and Dubos 1972 295- -6) They Looked forward ro a sense of gLobal rommuniry 00seJ on he bope vf Irotecdon (from war aOO disaster) and the hope of enhancemenr (ecologic$1 as well as economid The ptlKtic~ and insrirutlofiS with whkh we are familiar inide our domestk sociecies would become suitably modlfied che basis of planetary oroer (Ward aOO Dubos 1972 297-8) This woold indude non~violent settlement of disputes witb legal arbirration ~nd polioacuteng ptocedures on an international basis jr would mea the Hansfer uf resoucces from rkh ro peor Ilnd inerCllSlaquo co-operaeion in arealt 5uch as health and edUcatIO farming uroon planning aud )JOlJution control As [befe halt been a shift of loyalty rom taroliy to dan from dan to tlation and from nation to fedctation there Wampll
hope clajmoo Wl1fd and Dubo$ for an ultimare lnyalty tuacute OUt single beau~ tifulllud vulnerable Planet Eanh (Ward and Dubas 1972 298)
Whilst the institutiona fmmework and organizational stfllCtuteS remain of necenity -ague in Oltl OM EaFtA iacutet is del( rhat the authors Wfre atming 11( a tlttwork oiacute world-wide fflnctionaUy hased organlzatiofll (both lOOs and JNGOs) char couId take on much of the work )JfCsendy done by governshymems o( rather whkh ougbt [O be dont by governmems UacuteJter writing-s have attempted (O deal wjth thc policy impliration$ of delllJng with )JrobshyJems globdly sroos (986) has poiacutenred en what 1w already been achieved in gtobal problem solving l1nd ha~ soughr ro buHd on rhis His critio have prunted out tha( what has already becn undertiacutelken has bren done more along rradicional Jntergovernmentallines (Donnelly 1990 121-30) Orbe writen have tied rubievemen[ in addressiacuteng [he global agenda more to renewed rutiviry in the UN (Rochester 1990 141-54) or to greater grass~ roots aud INOO acriviSffi Wget 1990 155-~8) Either way globaJj~m offeacuters a distinct W1ly of rackling the worlds ptublem~ It 1$ u ViIOIl thar sttesiexcles uniey and common (am( ntthet than disasreemem and roofrontashytion ir (ould thereIacuteore (oresce disputes being sruved inlernationally vety
much in (he way tbar chey are pre~ndy solvcd within tunny MtiOO iexclrares by more ro arbitratwn and Jaw and by entorcemenf ir neteS$il1) In this rhey have muh in COIDfllOfi wirh tire imerrnuiona lawyers iacuteUld idenlist writer of me eady (wenuacuteeh eemury mentioned at the beginning of tbu chaptet The globalisn are inspirecl jn rheir thinking more by ten Ot lt nudeal holocatlsr and by environmenml breakdown tnan by rhe duumleet elrpeshytieme uf wa dlllf aiacutefected rhe wricings of Woolf ol Ikierly
TIacutete globalisl appro~(h is opert ro the criticism of bcing roo idealistk jn a cynical world and lOO iIDpracrical in in uacutelstitutional sU8scsrioll5 Bur the di$mi$Slil oC rh~ words as globaloney cKleS HOt lid lite wctld oC che probw lems which hey have 50 effectively publiacutedzed They lutve uied to add anorIte dimensioacuten ro whar is possibte by showlng thar ie is nOCeSSiexcllty fOl rhe iexclurviwl of che planee
Tlle radical approach to the smdy oC iOternational orgllnizarions reflocu worIdmiddotvitws that normaUy lO beyond -dmse Jominated by rhe ltctivities of iexcltatcs or of LIte organizltuumlnns chemselves There is a sceprical view of whut is happeoing al soy one uacuteme in imernarional celarions and of he abilicy of mOfe cradicional wcifecs on imernafional cdarions ro explain let aJone llOderstand what is happeoing Ir is the feeling rhar approaches such ll1 (he MaNisr tlwt of rhe ideal theorisrs and some of rhe globuli~rs ur~ coming cber (O uodemaoding humanicys wider dilemmas rhar makes rhero so amactive They ar~ less Iikdy co apply rhemselves to rhe defais rutd wnrk~ ings oiacute p$cdcular imernatinnaJ organizations but neverrheless providt iotriguiog insighrs 00 [his phenomenoo by seeing rhem rhrollgh mol panoprk phHosophical lenses
SUMMARY
The rhree flIajor $chuols dealr wich io chis chaprer - the tcatiacuten the reformisrs iacutei1d che radical$ and rhe variarions (bey contain did not and do tlOf exJn iexcln a hiSforlcaj vacnum lde-as Wele foffilulared wirhio lhe COnten oiacute panicular sodedcs uoo in response ltO pUticular problems rbe communl (adom reYoludon of fhe nineteemb century the Finr World Wlli rhe rise of Nui Germany the spreading of nudeu weapons the deve1opmeof of plthitshy
$econd Workl War Europe fbe pnxeues of decoloniwion and deacuteteme rhe end oiacute the Cold War and rhe advaoce oiacute che inCormatton revolution In sorne CilSC$ the views oiacute rhose wdtings on inttmiddotrnational ocganUatlOHS have liad un efiecr on evenrs rhemelves pirlKulatly 00 rbe actitudes oC govetnrnents mwards tnternatiorW orgdflixauons AIl tXample is the work oC LecnarJ Woolf woose suggesnons Ctmceming a world organizatloo conttibuted lO fhe detailed preparnion oC the Lague oC Nations by me British goveltr mene Likewise Hans Morgeruhau and EK Can provided seimuli fot infiiexclrmoo US and Btirish governmcllul rhinking abom inrerruuional rela~ tiom iexclrom the 194Ck onwards In mher cases rhe general writings cJ persons lgtuch as Marx Leoin Mao Tse-tung and che dependencia school have affecred
rhe poJirk1ll dimare wirhin which govemmcncs conduce rheJe poUcy iucluding thar wwards jnternaclorull otgauj~atjon$
Orber ruCfOf$ aplft froro their historial cuntexc Iuve affencd the views of rhe schunl$ rncntioned They have differint backgtounJs io cheit ideruogy (Wesrero commllniSf Third World radical environmenralisr) and in theit level of $nalysis of inrernarional rebtions (stare Centuacutec inretesr aoo rramna~ dona groups cLitraquo dominanr global) This a(icca the typC oC inrernatiacuteonal organizariacuteon dominam io their studies (IGOs INCo) auJ thcic 8eograph~ kai $rea of interest (the Nonh Adandc Europe ThinJ WodJ Ot global)
TIte range of wcitings about intetnational organizarions has ull dte whole teflecfeJ wiJec llooersundings of imetoational ceJarions and wuumltld polidcs These io rhernselves have fed 00 tbe gtVidc iacutellccUecmal fcnnent and on developrnenrs in world affiuacuters Viewl about iacutellteftlational ocgsnizatJoos wiU continue ro take accOlnt of the ince1leeruaJ debate ill the studjes oiacute polishydes internacional re1atioO$ philosophy ecooomics imematluacutellal uw sociology histoty and geogrilphy They will also reflecto among other ampcton che stntcegk balance in tbe world [he relafIacuteve power of tiJe United Stares aod oroer nares me scate of wotld markers [be pto-ess uf Euwpeiexcliexcln tlllegrashytion che relacive positloo of the developing warIdgt iexclbe levd of cootlicc througbolc the world fhe -ratC of dte environfneot and the ahility oiacute huge StatCS to wiacutethswnd cenrrifttgal force Tbe way tIacuteult imematiornal organiuiexclshydons ret1ect tbese developrnents and tIacuteleir t1Ipability lO deal wich some of them will provide (he tllW fiWifcrial foc funue smdies
166 Jiexclljiexclr1giexcl Qr1 ifJfCflrttuacutemal IWgaizati(ifJJ
Nadons stroyed too amp~r ftOm the gtip of Washinston and his second term was VCtoM by rhe USA His sucecssor Kofi Annan will no doubt undentand what 1$ n-quired of him He brings the mncerns of orhe states ro che UN bUf nor in a way thu threatt1l$ the USA
bull They absorb counter-hegemonic ideas Ideaiexcl $uch as 1iustainable dlYClop_ ment tukl even debr foTgiwness are taken 00 board by the intetnatwnal finarnial institlltion$ blu are trandirmel into pulido rhat swt them
Wh~t is ro be done Cox thinks thar the pfQblem of changiog dw world orUer 1iMuld be shlfred back from intern~tional insritutions tO niexcllriacuteooal $OIacuteishyeties where the sodo-political b~se for a new historie bloc mighr be ereated (Cox 1993 64) FaiJing the creadon of a new historie bloc of the new working cla$s and rural and urb~o marginal groups there might be tnmdorshymadon oC the curtent monopoly-libcral hegemony by adjusting to rhe demanJs oiacute local ello$ for polides 5uch as natlonaHution Cox 199~ 65) He aw advocates te-regulation of erooomies and a re-wmpositjon of civil sodery Internatiotla lnstlcutions induding organiutions can berome eontact puint1i fOr new $OCia[ furtt (Cox 1994 (11)
Critica throrJm $uch as Cox oifee a refreshing exposidon oiacute che posidofl oC imernatiooal ofganizatioos in a wocld where the main revolutionary powe~ have either collapsed (rhe Soviet Union) or se(tled into a cautious ronservatirun (China) Ir provlde~ a sceptical arf realisric world~view without acreptins tbe inevuumlahility ni a illture domlnared by mooopoly eapi~ ujsm sud the Utlired States J-Iowevtr its appllcariexclon to intemationa1 organhatJons 11 StImewha( timited tQ the maln global jnsdm(jons and th financial and economlc orgmiutions Ir has 1m (O say aboue regional nrgashynjudon Uf abour N(JUacutes Furthermore iu alternarive fu(ure testS on ourcoroes thu are far froro certain RevnJutlons in the Thied World are roore likely to be- irupired by nadondi$m oc by IsJaroic fllndamentaHfl OCalaquoely [he solid ooses for new historie blocs
Fwinuumll aNml4cbts
Feminist perspcctives 0f1 inttmatlonal rtlatioos llave in common wirh the erit~ ical rheocillu a rejclaquoion of (he dominance in rhe $Ilbjecr of the rcnHst and rdOrmisrs Although fuminist writen cover a wide 5laquolpe the gencral basis oiacute their aqurnent 1S har in interwnional relatioM ru in most politkal aud tcooomk acdvity women are diexclSJtdvantagt~l Alchoogh they own ahour 1 pet tCfH oC the worlJs lfOpeny and tiexcliexclxe heme 10 peiacute ceoc ofincome they perfurm 60 per eenr of working houn and provide 80 per eent of nfusets (petetsen and Runyan 1993 6) This is a derDOnstrndon of gender inequalitie~ the sodalJy learned behavior and expecratioos thar distioguish berween maKuliniry and femininity (Petetsen and Runpn 1993 5) Feminist aprroaches ofren So bejond the $tati~tks and examine (he mind~se[ of those engaged in the pmctice of intemadonal rdations whiexclch (bey ampee as geodered In other woros che world
Writingc Off inlmhJliofMl vrgntiZdlMm 167
illeen in a mlLlndine way thar kvrntB (he posjtiOll o( mnles in rhe hitgtranhy and devlllues the c041trihution of WQmeO (Sylvestet 1994) War in pattKular is gendered in a way chat keeps wornen and metl from qUtstioniog the essentiat pmpose and he neglltive effects of war militarization ~nd viQleme on their awn and orhers livts (Petetsen and Ruoyan J993 9 t)
What of wminist view$ uf imernationaJ organizationsr Ir IS not possible ro presem a rollf(tive vjew that eneomp3$~e~ rhe works of radicaJ femjnisu and ny iexclihetal teminists (rutead the work of one author Sandra Whitworth (1997) will be used as me pily$ rornt attrntion ro inrernarlonal organizations Aamper inrroductions ro feminilfr theory and internacional frIamiddot tiom and gendet and internacional relatlons Whirworrh examines geodet and imernational organilions She screpts Coxs vjew oiacute inrernational orgashynjzarions [har they retleltr (he dominant powet relations in che intetnational system and rhae internaliomd otgaoiution h che procelt of imcitntionaJshyiling and regulating conOice - eicher rhat which may IIrise among siexclates o( char which has iu (onU io transnationaI society (Cox 1980 375) TIte way duu pcople orgaoire themelve$ wirhin international iostirurjons reflects a variety of power relations ineludi~ of rollJSe gendec relatiull3 (Whitworth 1997 74) lbe triad of jnstirutions ideas and material rQudi~ tioru help ro hxare uSllmptiolls aboue geoocr withiu jntetmltional rewtioos Whitworth uses thesr tn examine lhe uooerstandillg oiacuteScndec io an INGO the Internadonal PlarUled ParenthooJ Federatlou (JPPF) and an intergnvemmental organilJ1rion (albcir one wlrh some oOl1-governmentJ)J represemation) the InrernatlonaL lab01lrOtganiution (no)
Whirworths studies show rhar thr IPPF tended ro accept the deshyemphasizlng oi the gendered oamfr of reproducdoo and (f) ignore rhe imponaoce ofbirth comcol foc womens reproductive freroom Instead in an effort tu popularize birth rontrol srrel~ WWl placoo on paremhooJ rather than iexclust the womans choice However IPPF poUcy beeiexcllme more radirnl in (he 19905- with Hnks beirtg made berween II1M control alld womeos ~)tu~ ality (WbJtworth 1997 ch 4 pmim)
The RO eoucerned itself with WQmen as workern It cnnsidercd that tbey oeeded spec-ial atrention and promoted ptoteCtlvt legiexcl~lacion This reiexcln~ forced me view (har [he male worxer Wall the norm with women workers nor deserving the same rights remunfration lOO mndirions Latterly however the JLO ha~ reflectoo views rhat prodaim wornens elt)ualily in rhe workforce and has sunoo tuacute assess the importanee of policies on womens role in rhe workplace as weU as in sodery more wjdely (Whlrwnrth J997 ch 5 panm) Whitworth comes [O the eondusion rhu iexclln iexcllnaLyiexcli~ of gernler in rbe IPPF and no shows how tbese rdiexcliexcldonsbips llnd definirions ni what it is to be a womltn oc man are structuted relationsrups3nd hlsrQciudly hve been scrurtured tu disadvantage women (ibid 15n
lo eommon with the critkal meorists Whitworth has useQ au examinamiddot doo of two intetnational organixations (O deroonstrate a puinr about imerflational relatiexclon~ indeed sodal rctatrol1s mOte widely The poinr is
I1
I
middot - ~-_ --___ aOOuc powec and iu use not (O balance oue SCdre ligaiOSf anorher but fm une gooup ro domiaare morher Jn chis case it 1$ ma the dominution of one dass me m culcnre over $ofU)(her (though Whirworrh recognizes those reLationshyships ti wcll) but of roen over women The crititUl uudy oiacute (wo jnceraational mganirations dealing with iSSlle5 recoSniud ti beiiexclg oiacute impocshycanee or WOfficn suggesu rha( tltOO simihu research on orher internacional organizadons could proJuce interening aOO uwfuiexcl resulrs
Pllit~ism
Thc posc-moderruacutesr $opprooch lO intetaarional rcllldon is one tlur bas (ome ro che fote Jn che perlod sinee lite end of rhe Cold War Jr is based on $o widcr imellectual viewpoim insrigated by l1rench iorcUtcruals of the 196()s gener~ ation _ Bllrrhes Derrida FouclIul and Lyorard - and whkh suggested rhat the modero era liad becn overome 11 fejeas mera-nattatives gnlud accounv- of hi5tory aoa iacuteNIacuteler subjecu as having no independem rubstance Scientifk btliefs induding [hose oiacute rhe $)(ial scJcllces are rooted in (lllxure polill(os arul mores oJ a wciery and are lherekJre subjective As rhere is 00
oblcctive reality cmpirical daims bave fl() spccial sunding in rhe rralms of koowledge IndeeJ ir i$ power aod knowledge are intimatel) incerwirud Posr-moJernism Hllnds against rhe belief of rbe modero pcfiod which LI seco as beginning wiacuterh rhe enlightenmcm of mid-eightcenth cenrufy Europe and AmeriCll Ir rheldore rejcn~ rhe COMCpr$ oC rationalirl and progrcss aSSuacutedared wi(h [he enlighrenment and [he moocrn age Thc uniry of IOOnkind iexclirW iexcldells such liS rhe untveIsWiI) of human aacuteghrs are rejcuoo lnsceadlocal aetion in smallgroups 15 advuacuteClmd
Post-modetnist ideas have affected tite srOOy of inremruionaJ rdarions as (bey have ocher social scienccs Posr-modern imeraarional relariops theoriscs havc ustd heir view$ 00 objecuumlviry (o exiexcltmine che rrmhs of international relatiom en see how rhe concepts iexclind knowledge-dairm (bar dominare the Jisdpline in faer are highiy conringenr on spccific power relatiom (Smith 1997 181) Post-modemisrs bave lltfa(red me mcta-narratives of the reelshy1m and reformlsu aHke The objectiacutevemiddot aaallses of the realim Ilnd neo-realisu are setn as being deJl(nclent on the subjective standpojnts of cheif mainly Amen(an and Europeau authors Ijcharcl amphiel (1986 258) daimed he works o[ Kenneth Waler men the leading neo-realillt trrat the glven ordcr a rhe natural nrder Jjmirs rarheE (lian 1XpawU political discllUtse negales oc rriviuliliS the signifinnce uf variely urOiS time and plue Whar emerges ii an ideology tllar anridpatcs iegirimires ancl onents a totalitarian projen 01 global ptoponioo~ che rattoualiaciuacuten of global poHcics iexclbe reformius are likcwise tainted Md have Ji mhr$lren belief in pmgress The posc-modernl$rs poinr m rh Helocausr as rhe heighr oiacute mooemism a rombimiddot Halioe of science dnd polidcal otganizillnon Il was SCruTely progreso
Given an antifllthy mwards rhe MlVe[iacute~ign srae borh as a centre of powet ll1ld as a crearioll Jiten imbutol wlth a wncepltliexcl uf progress pest~miexclJdetniexclsls
wHungJ mi Im~iexcliexclrun wgltiIRrzuJlU7iJ 1J7
can lOUcdy be expcctcd to vIacuteew intergovernmencal organiUlrions wirh sympilthy Tbe prefetted iacuteonu of internacional organizations when mentioned are those thiexcltt ltlj~plal differemes snd dlvenity in global pelitlcil duu are reginnaUy based or rhar reflec irKlividual actlOn Tndecd ir SeeIJS
rbat Michel Fomawt was involved with an alliance oiacute twO INGOs (Miquestdecin du Monde and Tertl-s do Hommes) in proresting agaiust internadonal iH~shydon over rhe boat people who flcd Vietnam in tite lare 1970s and ear1y 19S(k He is gU()[ed 11$ sayillg tbar Amnelltl Internnrlonal Teueiexcl dts Hommes Mfiiecin du Monde lHt inirilltives whiacutech have created a nrw righr rile dAht of privare individuss ro iexclntervene in [he otder of polino and internatioont snateg(eiexcl (dred in CampheH 1998 516)
Aootber researcher has exnmined ~he Europcan Communities Ilr che point wben Jr was mnslorming intO me European Unioo and askOO whether ir was a pootmodew ConJigUflHton (Nstrgaard 1994) Hi condusions wcre mar ir was gualiwiveJy a new organizarion oC human calJecrlvJties which mighr U$hec the coming of post-moderniry (Ntgttgnatd 1994 27j) The basis fO[ [bis judgemem was rhat me Ee did nO approximate anl modero form of piexcliexcl1idUll Ofpnizarion it did OOt commatld che means oiacute violence its au[hotity derives noc from die people and ir appeared to be a fCgJoo trying ro pOrecr itiexcliexclelf againsr globaliacutezadun iacuteN0rgaaro 1994 274--5) Ir remllins ro be sren whether [he BU tJf [he twenry-first cenrury wHl fu1fi1 rhtgtse hopes Ot wiU stllrr ro teVen
to a more scate-like being Generall) dIe cririolapproaches ro interruHiorud relarious hiexclJve provided
1lOOIe innovatIacuteve insigllls iexclnro rhe study uf imemarional orgsnizations The crtrical theorists llave becn sh3rpest in rheir unde[$(iexcltnding nf internarional ofgiexclt1lizacious as servsnrs of a dominiexcliexclIf power configuracion thoogh the) lave pemaps Umieed cbelr scope wllen viewing internacional organizadons Feminis[ wJiters ruave given Vltike to whac i5 after aH tbe scmi-sileut majoric) in rhe world and Ilre ouly srarting in qnest10niug the male dOmimiddot nance nuacutet iexclusr of the nmning of IGOs huc aloo of theic agenda Tite post-modemisrs are iMlSr concerned oiacute he (bree 8rOUp5 with inretnationlll organiucioru as such bllr rIacuteleic intellecrual approach is the ffiOSt tadkal aud can lelld tuuml a fnon of nihilism
GltJbaliacutesf lIiu
A gIobalisr perspective does oor viacuteew world poliacutetica as being predomishynandl arout iotergovernmemal relatlnn~ Ili would realisu or illbour inrentare aruI imersocietal rdations as a number uf reformisu llliexclll consider lnsteaacuted it cakes a more holisdc view Problems are (cmfronred ac Ji global level wlurions have tO be sou8ht here as weil This iexcls not ro neglcct (he 10tal Ol rhe ~tlte level ir is more J recognilion of the limiutshydoos of acdviuumles rhere The world-vicw like rhe reformists places empllasu on whal unIacutetes people Ilnd has lirde time for lhe demaoos of power pouumlics aad stare-cemrir orglLuiwrjollS Ir goe~ fllrther by nor
1 V WNimgJ lJ7f tIfernattmiexcliexclJ 11fK4111141tOnJ
liminog in view eirhec ro pans of che world or ro rellltions berweeo particuJar poliric~ lr ioded jlLSr m the economic social and poJitical demaods of mankind Paradoxically ir can be seen as IIn approach rhe very OppoSllC of the fimctionalist wirb whom tbere 5 much io common In nmtrast lO rhe fnnctionaHst (or neo-fllnctiooalisr or intetclependeuce srhuul) and ccrrainly in contrast ro rhe powet politks aOO MaOIacuteIt writers (be whole world approach places emphasis not 00 the discrere r~uiexclreshymems of groups SClteiexcl or individulI1s bm 00 tbe wel1-bciog of the tCOsystem in which rhf5f funnioll cbe planet Eanh The conccen of chis apptoach which is rcflccted il] in ttcumeUr of illternational urganizatiom is for the survival of lhe plunet for its effident funccioning in its widest SeILie aud fot che survival oiacute rhe myriad oiacute speoacutees - ollly one of which is homo sapiens - tbat inhabh me globe
Sinle tbe 196Os a number of wtiters on imernational affairs have expounded 00 tbis view and llave cOl1l~uendy ronsideted the implicadons for intemational organizacions Jobfl Button in bis World Society ronsldeted iflmstatt relations to be onIy a pan of wodd poli[iacutea and wrore
lf we employ rhe term world rociety imiexclreui of internanofla relarions iIacute we apptoo(h OUt study in this global way insread of the more tradi~ lonal nattonal way we will end to have a wider focos ro ask quesrions rhat are moee fundlmenral aOO imponant lO civilization and be ahle ro assess bettet me relevance of om own national bduviour ro be wider worW envifonment
(Button 1972 21)
Rkhacd Stetling posed the problem more spedfically
Nuclear esCllatiofl the popullltion explosion the pollmiofl of tbe envishyronmcnt the communkations rtvolurion rbe world~wide concentNdon of wC1llch and world~wide expansiofl of pltlvcrty are iexcliexcl11 essemially global and not 1laquo al pbellomena They have given rise jn tutn ro eartbshyspamuacutellg and revolutionary demands ror mass education rnass hesltb malts welfure and maltgts participation in che dccisions affecting roans fare
(Srerling 1974 322)
This wodd-view of rhe problems of the s)Jaceamphip EQlth begged fur global oolutlofl$ It suggcsred iexclhu not onIy iJ the system of sovereign stares as yer unable oc unwiHing to COme to grips with the above-menuontd prohlelUS but that a network of llllergoVCtn1lental organiutlom bGsed 00 me rights of statc wVfretgnt will ~lso be hammllng Globtl problems needed global solutlons based on institutinos rhat can (ake a global petsplaquoshytive Thus Sterling considetecl thllt it ~ tlOt unreasooable (O amidpate tme tbe member stares will be moved ro considft equippifllil the Unitw Nttous witb mote crunprebensive powen 1lt global pressUfes build 0974 323)
~h~ laquoo ~gt~ _- -gt bullbull (_bullbullbull __ - bullbull
A more compeluumlng cdH wus lAltiexclued by Barban Ward and Rene Dubas in their book prepared for [he UN Gmference of ehe Humafl EnVJroJlmenl 01lly UIIt EaFlh The c~ altJ Mdilllt1JatfCe (JI d Sflall Pta~t (972) 111ey stremsed the ufliry of tbe Eanh Jnd in eovironment and the )Jroblems in(ed by Jts iohabitants emntially thost oudined by SterJiog The ~uthoflgt poillted OUt rhat rhF envitonmenral qmosrion had by 1972 already had 50me impaltl on guvernments and im(rnarional organl1Jtion but the effior was somewhat ltInJOrdinated and unfocuseL In (hree particular aren - tbe global atmosphere rhe oceaml the worlds weather sysrellU - tbt-y saw [bl jmmediate neOO for (OmInOn poliey und co-ocdinared actiollS where vcerenshysions to national sovercigmy have no relevance ro ptrreived problems Bu rbefe was a need to go furrher and denl wirh other global problems di5Case srarvation iHitmcy unemployrnem ovcfllwding rntetnational poliCJcs wece at the 5tage reachOO wlrhin rhe devdoping s[ate~ of the ninettTtb (entury Elche they wiU move O to a wmmIlJlity bL~ro UiexclXIIl a more systematic sharin8 of weaJtb Ot tbey wiH break down in revoh and anareby (Wacd and Dubos 1972 295- -6) They Looked forward ro a sense of gLobal rommuniry 00seJ on he bope vf Irotecdon (from war aOO disaster) and the hope of enhancemenr (ecologic$1 as well as economid The ptlKtic~ and insrirutlofiS with whkh we are familiar inide our domestk sociecies would become suitably modlfied che basis of planetary oroer (Ward aOO Dubos 1972 297-8) This woold indude non~violent settlement of disputes witb legal arbirration ~nd polioacuteng ptocedures on an international basis jr would mea the Hansfer uf resoucces from rkh ro peor Ilnd inerCllSlaquo co-operaeion in arealt 5uch as health and edUcatIO farming uroon planning aud )JOlJution control As [befe halt been a shift of loyalty rom taroliy to dan from dan to tlation and from nation to fedctation there Wampll
hope clajmoo Wl1fd and Dubo$ for an ultimare lnyalty tuacute OUt single beau~ tifulllud vulnerable Planet Eanh (Ward and Dubas 1972 298)
Whilst the institutiona fmmework and organizational stfllCtuteS remain of necenity -ague in Oltl OM EaFtA iacutet is del( rhat the authors Wfre atming 11( a tlttwork oiacute world-wide fflnctionaUy hased organlzatiofll (both lOOs and JNGOs) char couId take on much of the work )JfCsendy done by governshymems o( rather whkh ougbt [O be dont by governmems UacuteJter writing-s have attempted (O deal wjth thc policy impliration$ of delllJng with )JrobshyJems globdly sroos (986) has poiacutenred en what 1w already been achieved in gtobal problem solving l1nd ha~ soughr ro buHd on rhis His critio have prunted out tha( what has already becn undertiacutelken has bren done more along rradicional Jntergovernmentallines (Donnelly 1990 121-30) Orbe writen have tied rubievemen[ in addressiacuteng [he global agenda more to renewed rutiviry in the UN (Rochester 1990 141-54) or to greater grass~ roots aud INOO acriviSffi Wget 1990 155-~8) Either way globaJj~m offeacuters a distinct W1ly of rackling the worlds ptublem~ It 1$ u ViIOIl thar sttesiexcles uniey and common (am( ntthet than disasreemem and roofrontashytion ir (ould thereIacuteore (oresce disputes being sruved inlernationally vety
much in (he way tbar chey are pre~ndy solvcd within tunny MtiOO iexclrares by more ro arbitratwn and Jaw and by entorcemenf ir neteS$il1) In this rhey have muh in COIDfllOfi wirh tire imerrnuiona lawyers iacuteUld idenlist writer of me eady (wenuacuteeh eemury mentioned at the beginning of tbu chaptet The globalisn are inspirecl jn rheir thinking more by ten Ot lt nudeal holocatlsr and by environmenml breakdown tnan by rhe duumleet elrpeshytieme uf wa dlllf aiacutefected rhe wricings of Woolf ol Ikierly
TIacutete globalisl appro~(h is opert ro the criticism of bcing roo idealistk jn a cynical world and lOO iIDpracrical in in uacutelstitutional sU8scsrioll5 Bur the di$mi$Slil oC rh~ words as globaloney cKleS HOt lid lite wctld oC che probw lems which hey have 50 effectively publiacutedzed They lutve uied to add anorIte dimensioacuten ro whar is possibte by showlng thar ie is nOCeSSiexcllty fOl rhe iexclurviwl of che planee
Tlle radical approach to the smdy oC iOternational orgllnizarions reflocu worIdmiddotvitws that normaUy lO beyond -dmse Jominated by rhe ltctivities of iexcltatcs or of LIte organizltuumlnns chemselves There is a sceprical view of whut is happeoing al soy one uacuteme in imernarional celarions and of he abilicy of mOfe cradicional wcifecs on imernafional cdarions ro explain let aJone llOderstand what is happeoing Ir is the feeling rhar approaches such ll1 (he MaNisr tlwt of rhe ideal theorisrs and some of rhe globuli~rs ur~ coming cber (O uodemaoding humanicys wider dilemmas rhar makes rhero so amactive They ar~ less Iikdy co apply rhemselves to rhe defais rutd wnrk~ ings oiacute p$cdcular imernatinnaJ organizations but neverrheless providt iotriguiog insighrs 00 [his phenomenoo by seeing rhem rhrollgh mol panoprk phHosophical lenses
SUMMARY
The rhree flIajor $chuols dealr wich io chis chaprer - the tcatiacuten the reformisrs iacutei1d che radical$ and rhe variarions (bey contain did not and do tlOf exJn iexcln a hiSforlcaj vacnum lde-as Wele foffilulared wirhio lhe COnten oiacute panicular sodedcs uoo in response ltO pUticular problems rbe communl (adom reYoludon of fhe nineteemb century the Finr World Wlli rhe rise of Nui Germany the spreading of nudeu weapons the deve1opmeof of plthitshy
$econd Workl War Europe fbe pnxeues of decoloniwion and deacuteteme rhe end oiacute the Cold War and rhe advaoce oiacute che inCormatton revolution In sorne CilSC$ the views oiacute rhose wdtings on inttmiddotrnational ocganUatlOHS have liad un efiecr on evenrs rhemelves pirlKulatly 00 rbe actitudes oC govetnrnents mwards tnternatiorW orgdflixauons AIl tXample is the work oC LecnarJ Woolf woose suggesnons Ctmceming a world organizatloo conttibuted lO fhe detailed preparnion oC the Lague oC Nations by me British goveltr mene Likewise Hans Morgeruhau and EK Can provided seimuli fot infiiexclrmoo US and Btirish governmcllul rhinking abom inrerruuional rela~ tiom iexclrom the 194Ck onwards In mher cases rhe general writings cJ persons lgtuch as Marx Leoin Mao Tse-tung and che dependencia school have affecred
rhe poJirk1ll dimare wirhin which govemmcncs conduce rheJe poUcy iucluding thar wwards jnternaclorull otgauj~atjon$
Orber ruCfOf$ aplft froro their historial cuntexc Iuve affencd the views of rhe schunl$ rncntioned They have differint backgtounJs io cheit ideruogy (Wesrero commllniSf Third World radical environmenralisr) and in theit level of $nalysis of inrernarional rebtions (stare Centuacutec inretesr aoo rramna~ dona groups cLitraquo dominanr global) This a(icca the typC oC inrernatiacuteonal organizariacuteon dominam io their studies (IGOs INCo) auJ thcic 8eograph~ kai $rea of interest (the Nonh Adandc Europe ThinJ WodJ Ot global)
TIte range of wcitings about intetnational organizarions has ull dte whole teflecfeJ wiJec llooersundings of imetoational ceJarions and wuumltld polidcs These io rhernselves have fed 00 tbe gtVidc iacutellccUecmal fcnnent and on developrnenrs in world affiuacuters Viewl about iacutellteftlational ocgsnizatJoos wiU continue ro take accOlnt of the ince1leeruaJ debate ill the studjes oiacute polishydes internacional re1atioO$ philosophy ecooomics imematluacutellal uw sociology histoty and geogrilphy They will also reflecto among other ampcton che stntcegk balance in tbe world [he relafIacuteve power of tiJe United Stares aod oroer nares me scate of wotld markers [be pto-ess uf Euwpeiexcliexcln tlllegrashytion che relacive positloo of the developing warIdgt iexclbe levd of cootlicc througbolc the world fhe -ratC of dte environfneot and the ahility oiacute huge StatCS to wiacutethswnd cenrrifttgal force Tbe way tIacuteult imematiornal organiuiexclshydons ret1ect tbese developrnents and tIacuteleir t1Ipability lO deal wich some of them will provide (he tllW fiWifcrial foc funue smdies
middot - ~-_ --___ aOOuc powec and iu use not (O balance oue SCdre ligaiOSf anorher but fm une gooup ro domiaare morher Jn chis case it 1$ ma the dominution of one dass me m culcnre over $ofU)(her (though Whirworrh recognizes those reLationshyships ti wcll) but of roen over women The crititUl uudy oiacute (wo jnceraational mganirations dealing with iSSlle5 recoSniud ti beiiexclg oiacute impocshycanee or WOfficn suggesu rha( tltOO simihu research on orher internacional organizadons could proJuce interening aOO uwfuiexcl resulrs
Pllit~ism
Thc posc-moderruacutesr $opprooch lO intetaarional rcllldon is one tlur bas (ome ro che fote Jn che perlod sinee lite end of rhe Cold War Jr is based on $o widcr imellectual viewpoim insrigated by l1rench iorcUtcruals of the 196()s gener~ ation _ Bllrrhes Derrida FouclIul and Lyorard - and whkh suggested rhat the modero era liad becn overome 11 fejeas mera-nattatives gnlud accounv- of hi5tory aoa iacuteNIacuteler subjecu as having no independem rubstance Scientifk btliefs induding [hose oiacute rhe $)(ial scJcllces are rooted in (lllxure polill(os arul mores oJ a wciery and are lherekJre subjective As rhere is 00
oblcctive reality cmpirical daims bave fl() spccial sunding in rhe rralms of koowledge IndeeJ ir i$ power aod knowledge are intimatel) incerwirud Posr-moJernism Hllnds against rhe belief of rbe modero pcfiod which LI seco as beginning wiacuterh rhe enlightenmcm of mid-eightcenth cenrufy Europe and AmeriCll Ir rheldore rejcn~ rhe COMCpr$ oC rationalirl and progrcss aSSuacutedared wi(h [he enlighrenment and [he moocrn age Thc uniry of IOOnkind iexclirW iexcldells such liS rhe untveIsWiI) of human aacuteghrs are rejcuoo lnsceadlocal aetion in smallgroups 15 advuacuteClmd
Post-modetnist ideas have affected tite srOOy of inremruionaJ rdarions as (bey have ocher social scienccs Posr-modern imeraarional relariops theoriscs havc ustd heir view$ 00 objecuumlviry (o exiexcltmine che rrmhs of international relatiom en see how rhe concepts iexclind knowledge-dairm (bar dominare the Jisdpline in faer are highiy conringenr on spccific power relatiom (Smith 1997 181) Post-modemisrs bave lltfa(red me mcta-narratives of the reelshy1m and reformlsu aHke The objectiacutevemiddot aaallses of the realim Ilnd neo-realisu are setn as being deJl(nclent on the subjective standpojnts of cheif mainly Amen(an and Europeau authors Ijcharcl amphiel (1986 258) daimed he works o[ Kenneth Waler men the leading neo-realillt trrat the glven ordcr a rhe natural nrder Jjmirs rarheE (lian 1XpawU political discllUtse negales oc rriviuliliS the signifinnce uf variely urOiS time and plue Whar emerges ii an ideology tllar anridpatcs iegirimires ancl onents a totalitarian projen 01 global ptoponioo~ che rattoualiaciuacuten of global poHcics iexclbe reformius are likcwise tainted Md have Ji mhr$lren belief in pmgress The posc-modernl$rs poinr m rh Helocausr as rhe heighr oiacute mooemism a rombimiddot Halioe of science dnd polidcal otganizillnon Il was SCruTely progreso
Given an antifllthy mwards rhe MlVe[iacute~ign srae borh as a centre of powet ll1ld as a crearioll Jiten imbutol wlth a wncepltliexcl uf progress pest~miexclJdetniexclsls
wHungJ mi Im~iexcliexclrun wgltiIRrzuJlU7iJ 1J7
can lOUcdy be expcctcd to vIacuteew intergovernmencal organiUlrions wirh sympilthy Tbe prefetted iacuteonu of internacional organizations when mentioned are those thiexcltt ltlj~plal differemes snd dlvenity in global pelitlcil duu are reginnaUy based or rhar reflec irKlividual actlOn Tndecd ir SeeIJS
rbat Michel Fomawt was involved with an alliance oiacute twO INGOs (Miquestdecin du Monde and Tertl-s do Hommes) in proresting agaiust internadonal iH~shydon over rhe boat people who flcd Vietnam in tite lare 1970s and ear1y 19S(k He is gU()[ed 11$ sayillg tbar Amnelltl Internnrlonal Teueiexcl dts Hommes Mfiiecin du Monde lHt inirilltives whiacutech have created a nrw righr rile dAht of privare individuss ro iexclntervene in [he otder of polino and internatioont snateg(eiexcl (dred in CampheH 1998 516)
Aootber researcher has exnmined ~he Europcan Communities Ilr che point wben Jr was mnslorming intO me European Unioo and askOO whether ir was a pootmodew ConJigUflHton (Nstrgaard 1994) Hi condusions wcre mar ir was gualiwiveJy a new organizarion oC human calJecrlvJties which mighr U$hec the coming of post-moderniry (Ntgttgnatd 1994 27j) The basis fO[ [bis judgemem was rhat me Ee did nO approximate anl modero form of piexcliexcl1idUll Ofpnizarion it did OOt commatld che means oiacute violence its au[hotity derives noc from die people and ir appeared to be a fCgJoo trying ro pOrecr itiexcliexclelf againsr globaliacutezadun iacuteN0rgaaro 1994 274--5) Ir remllins ro be sren whether [he BU tJf [he twenry-first cenrury wHl fu1fi1 rhtgtse hopes Ot wiU stllrr ro teVen
to a more scate-like being Generall) dIe cririolapproaches ro interruHiorud relarious hiexclJve provided
1lOOIe innovatIacuteve insigllls iexclnro rhe study uf imemarional orgsnizations The crtrical theorists llave becn sh3rpest in rheir unde[$(iexcltnding nf internarional ofgiexclt1lizacious as servsnrs of a dominiexcliexclIf power configuracion thoogh the) lave pemaps Umieed cbelr scope wllen viewing internacional organizadons Feminis[ wJiters ruave given Vltike to whac i5 after aH tbe scmi-sileut majoric) in rhe world and Ilre ouly srarting in qnest10niug the male dOmimiddot nance nuacutet iexclusr of the nmning of IGOs huc aloo of theic agenda Tite post-modemisrs are iMlSr concerned oiacute he (bree 8rOUp5 with inretnationlll organiucioru as such bllr rIacuteleic intellecrual approach is the ffiOSt tadkal aud can lelld tuuml a fnon of nihilism
GltJbaliacutesf lIiu
A gIobalisr perspective does oor viacuteew world poliacutetica as being predomishynandl arout iotergovernmemal relatlnn~ Ili would realisu or illbour inrentare aruI imersocietal rdations as a number uf reformisu llliexclll consider lnsteaacuted it cakes a more holisdc view Problems are (cmfronred ac Ji global level wlurions have tO be sou8ht here as weil This iexcls not ro neglcct (he 10tal Ol rhe ~tlte level ir is more J recognilion of the limiutshydoos of acdviuumles rhere The world-vicw like rhe reformists places empllasu on whal unIacutetes people Ilnd has lirde time for lhe demaoos of power pouumlics aad stare-cemrir orglLuiwrjollS Ir goe~ fllrther by nor
1 V WNimgJ lJ7f tIfernattmiexcliexclJ 11fK4111141tOnJ
liminog in view eirhec ro pans of che world or ro rellltions berweeo particuJar poliric~ lr ioded jlLSr m the economic social and poJitical demaods of mankind Paradoxically ir can be seen as IIn approach rhe very OppoSllC of the fimctionalist wirb whom tbere 5 much io common In nmtrast lO rhe fnnctionaHst (or neo-fllnctiooalisr or intetclependeuce srhuul) and ccrrainly in contrast ro rhe powet politks aOO MaOIacuteIt writers (be whole world approach places emphasis not 00 the discrere r~uiexclreshymems of groups SClteiexcl or individulI1s bm 00 tbe wel1-bciog of the tCOsystem in which rhf5f funnioll cbe planet Eanh The conccen of chis apptoach which is rcflccted il] in ttcumeUr of illternational urganizatiom is for the survival of lhe plunet for its effident funccioning in its widest SeILie aud fot che survival oiacute rhe myriad oiacute speoacutees - ollly one of which is homo sapiens - tbat inhabh me globe
Sinle tbe 196Os a number of wtiters on imernational affairs have expounded 00 tbis view and llave cOl1l~uendy ronsideted the implicadons for intemational organizacions Jobfl Button in bis World Society ronsldeted iflmstatt relations to be onIy a pan of wodd poli[iacutea and wrore
lf we employ rhe term world rociety imiexclreui of internanofla relarions iIacute we apptoo(h OUt study in this global way insread of the more tradi~ lonal nattonal way we will end to have a wider focos ro ask quesrions rhat are moee fundlmenral aOO imponant lO civilization and be ahle ro assess bettet me relevance of om own national bduviour ro be wider worW envifonment
(Button 1972 21)
Rkhacd Stetling posed the problem more spedfically
Nuclear esCllatiofl the popullltion explosion the pollmiofl of tbe envishyronmcnt the communkations rtvolurion rbe world~wide concentNdon of wC1llch and world~wide expansiofl of pltlvcrty are iexcliexcl11 essemially global and not 1laquo al pbellomena They have given rise jn tutn ro eartbshyspamuacutellg and revolutionary demands ror mass education rnass hesltb malts welfure and maltgts participation in che dccisions affecting roans fare
(Srerling 1974 322)
This wodd-view of rhe problems of the s)Jaceamphip EQlth begged fur global oolutlofl$ It suggcsred iexclhu not onIy iJ the system of sovereign stares as yer unable oc unwiHing to COme to grips with the above-menuontd prohlelUS but that a network of llllergoVCtn1lental organiutlom bGsed 00 me rights of statc wVfretgnt will ~lso be hammllng Globtl problems needed global solutlons based on institutinos rhat can (ake a global petsplaquoshytive Thus Sterling considetecl thllt it ~ tlOt unreasooable (O amidpate tme tbe member stares will be moved ro considft equippifllil the Unitw Nttous witb mote crunprebensive powen 1lt global pressUfes build 0974 323)
~h~ laquoo ~gt~ _- -gt bullbull (_bullbullbull __ - bullbull
A more compeluumlng cdH wus lAltiexclued by Barban Ward and Rene Dubas in their book prepared for [he UN Gmference of ehe Humafl EnVJroJlmenl 01lly UIIt EaFlh The c~ altJ Mdilllt1JatfCe (JI d Sflall Pta~t (972) 111ey stremsed the ufliry of tbe Eanh Jnd in eovironment and the )Jroblems in(ed by Jts iohabitants emntially thost oudined by SterJiog The ~uthoflgt poillted OUt rhat rhF envitonmenral qmosrion had by 1972 already had 50me impaltl on guvernments and im(rnarional organl1Jtion but the effior was somewhat ltInJOrdinated and unfocuseL In (hree particular aren - tbe global atmosphere rhe oceaml the worlds weather sysrellU - tbt-y saw [bl jmmediate neOO for (OmInOn poliey und co-ocdinared actiollS where vcerenshysions to national sovercigmy have no relevance ro ptrreived problems Bu rbefe was a need to go furrher and denl wirh other global problems di5Case srarvation iHitmcy unemployrnem ovcfllwding rntetnational poliCJcs wece at the 5tage reachOO wlrhin rhe devdoping s[ate~ of the ninettTtb (entury Elche they wiU move O to a wmmIlJlity bL~ro UiexclXIIl a more systematic sharin8 of weaJtb Ot tbey wiH break down in revoh and anareby (Wacd and Dubos 1972 295- -6) They Looked forward ro a sense of gLobal rommuniry 00seJ on he bope vf Irotecdon (from war aOO disaster) and the hope of enhancemenr (ecologic$1 as well as economid The ptlKtic~ and insrirutlofiS with whkh we are familiar inide our domestk sociecies would become suitably modlfied che basis of planetary oroer (Ward aOO Dubos 1972 297-8) This woold indude non~violent settlement of disputes witb legal arbirration ~nd polioacuteng ptocedures on an international basis jr would mea the Hansfer uf resoucces from rkh ro peor Ilnd inerCllSlaquo co-operaeion in arealt 5uch as health and edUcatIO farming uroon planning aud )JOlJution control As [befe halt been a shift of loyalty rom taroliy to dan from dan to tlation and from nation to fedctation there Wampll
hope clajmoo Wl1fd and Dubo$ for an ultimare lnyalty tuacute OUt single beau~ tifulllud vulnerable Planet Eanh (Ward and Dubas 1972 298)
Whilst the institutiona fmmework and organizational stfllCtuteS remain of necenity -ague in Oltl OM EaFtA iacutet is del( rhat the authors Wfre atming 11( a tlttwork oiacute world-wide fflnctionaUy hased organlzatiofll (both lOOs and JNGOs) char couId take on much of the work )JfCsendy done by governshymems o( rather whkh ougbt [O be dont by governmems UacuteJter writing-s have attempted (O deal wjth thc policy impliration$ of delllJng with )JrobshyJems globdly sroos (986) has poiacutenred en what 1w already been achieved in gtobal problem solving l1nd ha~ soughr ro buHd on rhis His critio have prunted out tha( what has already becn undertiacutelken has bren done more along rradicional Jntergovernmentallines (Donnelly 1990 121-30) Orbe writen have tied rubievemen[ in addressiacuteng [he global agenda more to renewed rutiviry in the UN (Rochester 1990 141-54) or to greater grass~ roots aud INOO acriviSffi Wget 1990 155-~8) Either way globaJj~m offeacuters a distinct W1ly of rackling the worlds ptublem~ It 1$ u ViIOIl thar sttesiexcles uniey and common (am( ntthet than disasreemem and roofrontashytion ir (ould thereIacuteore (oresce disputes being sruved inlernationally vety
much in (he way tbar chey are pre~ndy solvcd within tunny MtiOO iexclrares by more ro arbitratwn and Jaw and by entorcemenf ir neteS$il1) In this rhey have muh in COIDfllOfi wirh tire imerrnuiona lawyers iacuteUld idenlist writer of me eady (wenuacuteeh eemury mentioned at the beginning of tbu chaptet The globalisn are inspirecl jn rheir thinking more by ten Ot lt nudeal holocatlsr and by environmenml breakdown tnan by rhe duumleet elrpeshytieme uf wa dlllf aiacutefected rhe wricings of Woolf ol Ikierly
TIacutete globalisl appro~(h is opert ro the criticism of bcing roo idealistk jn a cynical world and lOO iIDpracrical in in uacutelstitutional sU8scsrioll5 Bur the di$mi$Slil oC rh~ words as globaloney cKleS HOt lid lite wctld oC che probw lems which hey have 50 effectively publiacutedzed They lutve uied to add anorIte dimensioacuten ro whar is possibte by showlng thar ie is nOCeSSiexcllty fOl rhe iexclurviwl of che planee
Tlle radical approach to the smdy oC iOternational orgllnizarions reflocu worIdmiddotvitws that normaUy lO beyond -dmse Jominated by rhe ltctivities of iexcltatcs or of LIte organizltuumlnns chemselves There is a sceprical view of whut is happeoing al soy one uacuteme in imernarional celarions and of he abilicy of mOfe cradicional wcifecs on imernafional cdarions ro explain let aJone llOderstand what is happeoing Ir is the feeling rhar approaches such ll1 (he MaNisr tlwt of rhe ideal theorisrs and some of rhe globuli~rs ur~ coming cber (O uodemaoding humanicys wider dilemmas rhar makes rhero so amactive They ar~ less Iikdy co apply rhemselves to rhe defais rutd wnrk~ ings oiacute p$cdcular imernatinnaJ organizations but neverrheless providt iotriguiog insighrs 00 [his phenomenoo by seeing rhem rhrollgh mol panoprk phHosophical lenses
SUMMARY
The rhree flIajor $chuols dealr wich io chis chaprer - the tcatiacuten the reformisrs iacutei1d che radical$ and rhe variarions (bey contain did not and do tlOf exJn iexcln a hiSforlcaj vacnum lde-as Wele foffilulared wirhio lhe COnten oiacute panicular sodedcs uoo in response ltO pUticular problems rbe communl (adom reYoludon of fhe nineteemb century the Finr World Wlli rhe rise of Nui Germany the spreading of nudeu weapons the deve1opmeof of plthitshy
$econd Workl War Europe fbe pnxeues of decoloniwion and deacuteteme rhe end oiacute the Cold War and rhe advaoce oiacute che inCormatton revolution In sorne CilSC$ the views oiacute rhose wdtings on inttmiddotrnational ocganUatlOHS have liad un efiecr on evenrs rhemelves pirlKulatly 00 rbe actitudes oC govetnrnents mwards tnternatiorW orgdflixauons AIl tXample is the work oC LecnarJ Woolf woose suggesnons Ctmceming a world organizatloo conttibuted lO fhe detailed preparnion oC the Lague oC Nations by me British goveltr mene Likewise Hans Morgeruhau and EK Can provided seimuli fot infiiexclrmoo US and Btirish governmcllul rhinking abom inrerruuional rela~ tiom iexclrom the 194Ck onwards In mher cases rhe general writings cJ persons lgtuch as Marx Leoin Mao Tse-tung and che dependencia school have affecred
rhe poJirk1ll dimare wirhin which govemmcncs conduce rheJe poUcy iucluding thar wwards jnternaclorull otgauj~atjon$
Orber ruCfOf$ aplft froro their historial cuntexc Iuve affencd the views of rhe schunl$ rncntioned They have differint backgtounJs io cheit ideruogy (Wesrero commllniSf Third World radical environmenralisr) and in theit level of $nalysis of inrernarional rebtions (stare Centuacutec inretesr aoo rramna~ dona groups cLitraquo dominanr global) This a(icca the typC oC inrernatiacuteonal organizariacuteon dominam io their studies (IGOs INCo) auJ thcic 8eograph~ kai $rea of interest (the Nonh Adandc Europe ThinJ WodJ Ot global)
TIte range of wcitings about intetnational organizarions has ull dte whole teflecfeJ wiJec llooersundings of imetoational ceJarions and wuumltld polidcs These io rhernselves have fed 00 tbe gtVidc iacutellccUecmal fcnnent and on developrnenrs in world affiuacuters Viewl about iacutellteftlational ocgsnizatJoos wiU continue ro take accOlnt of the ince1leeruaJ debate ill the studjes oiacute polishydes internacional re1atioO$ philosophy ecooomics imematluacutellal uw sociology histoty and geogrilphy They will also reflecto among other ampcton che stntcegk balance in tbe world [he relafIacuteve power of tiJe United Stares aod oroer nares me scate of wotld markers [be pto-ess uf Euwpeiexcliexcln tlllegrashytion che relacive positloo of the developing warIdgt iexclbe levd of cootlicc througbolc the world fhe -ratC of dte environfneot and the ahility oiacute huge StatCS to wiacutethswnd cenrrifttgal force Tbe way tIacuteult imematiornal organiuiexclshydons ret1ect tbese developrnents and tIacuteleir t1Ipability lO deal wich some of them will provide (he tllW fiWifcrial foc funue smdies
1 V WNimgJ lJ7f tIfernattmiexcliexclJ 11fK4111141tOnJ
liminog in view eirhec ro pans of che world or ro rellltions berweeo particuJar poliric~ lr ioded jlLSr m the economic social and poJitical demaods of mankind Paradoxically ir can be seen as IIn approach rhe very OppoSllC of the fimctionalist wirb whom tbere 5 much io common In nmtrast lO rhe fnnctionaHst (or neo-fllnctiooalisr or intetclependeuce srhuul) and ccrrainly in contrast ro rhe powet politks aOO MaOIacuteIt writers (be whole world approach places emphasis not 00 the discrere r~uiexclreshymems of groups SClteiexcl or individulI1s bm 00 tbe wel1-bciog of the tCOsystem in which rhf5f funnioll cbe planet Eanh The conccen of chis apptoach which is rcflccted il] in ttcumeUr of illternational urganizatiom is for the survival of lhe plunet for its effident funccioning in its widest SeILie aud fot che survival oiacute rhe myriad oiacute speoacutees - ollly one of which is homo sapiens - tbat inhabh me globe
Sinle tbe 196Os a number of wtiters on imernational affairs have expounded 00 tbis view and llave cOl1l~uendy ronsideted the implicadons for intemational organizacions Jobfl Button in bis World Society ronsldeted iflmstatt relations to be onIy a pan of wodd poli[iacutea and wrore
lf we employ rhe term world rociety imiexclreui of internanofla relarions iIacute we apptoo(h OUt study in this global way insread of the more tradi~ lonal nattonal way we will end to have a wider focos ro ask quesrions rhat are moee fundlmenral aOO imponant lO civilization and be ahle ro assess bettet me relevance of om own national bduviour ro be wider worW envifonment
(Button 1972 21)
Rkhacd Stetling posed the problem more spedfically
Nuclear esCllatiofl the popullltion explosion the pollmiofl of tbe envishyronmcnt the communkations rtvolurion rbe world~wide concentNdon of wC1llch and world~wide expansiofl of pltlvcrty are iexcliexcl11 essemially global and not 1laquo al pbellomena They have given rise jn tutn ro eartbshyspamuacutellg and revolutionary demands ror mass education rnass hesltb malts welfure and maltgts participation in che dccisions affecting roans fare
(Srerling 1974 322)
This wodd-view of rhe problems of the s)Jaceamphip EQlth begged fur global oolutlofl$ It suggcsred iexclhu not onIy iJ the system of sovereign stares as yer unable oc unwiHing to COme to grips with the above-menuontd prohlelUS but that a network of llllergoVCtn1lental organiutlom bGsed 00 me rights of statc wVfretgnt will ~lso be hammllng Globtl problems needed global solutlons based on institutinos rhat can (ake a global petsplaquoshytive Thus Sterling considetecl thllt it ~ tlOt unreasooable (O amidpate tme tbe member stares will be moved ro considft equippifllil the Unitw Nttous witb mote crunprebensive powen 1lt global pressUfes build 0974 323)
~h~ laquoo ~gt~ _- -gt bullbull (_bullbullbull __ - bullbull
A more compeluumlng cdH wus lAltiexclued by Barban Ward and Rene Dubas in their book prepared for [he UN Gmference of ehe Humafl EnVJroJlmenl 01lly UIIt EaFlh The c~ altJ Mdilllt1JatfCe (JI d Sflall Pta~t (972) 111ey stremsed the ufliry of tbe Eanh Jnd in eovironment and the )Jroblems in(ed by Jts iohabitants emntially thost oudined by SterJiog The ~uthoflgt poillted OUt rhat rhF envitonmenral qmosrion had by 1972 already had 50me impaltl on guvernments and im(rnarional organl1Jtion but the effior was somewhat ltInJOrdinated and unfocuseL In (hree particular aren - tbe global atmosphere rhe oceaml the worlds weather sysrellU - tbt-y saw [bl jmmediate neOO for (OmInOn poliey und co-ocdinared actiollS where vcerenshysions to national sovercigmy have no relevance ro ptrreived problems Bu rbefe was a need to go furrher and denl wirh other global problems di5Case srarvation iHitmcy unemployrnem ovcfllwding rntetnational poliCJcs wece at the 5tage reachOO wlrhin rhe devdoping s[ate~ of the ninettTtb (entury Elche they wiU move O to a wmmIlJlity bL~ro UiexclXIIl a more systematic sharin8 of weaJtb Ot tbey wiH break down in revoh and anareby (Wacd and Dubos 1972 295- -6) They Looked forward ro a sense of gLobal rommuniry 00seJ on he bope vf Irotecdon (from war aOO disaster) and the hope of enhancemenr (ecologic$1 as well as economid The ptlKtic~ and insrirutlofiS with whkh we are familiar inide our domestk sociecies would become suitably modlfied che basis of planetary oroer (Ward aOO Dubos 1972 297-8) This woold indude non~violent settlement of disputes witb legal arbirration ~nd polioacuteng ptocedures on an international basis jr would mea the Hansfer uf resoucces from rkh ro peor Ilnd inerCllSlaquo co-operaeion in arealt 5uch as health and edUcatIO farming uroon planning aud )JOlJution control As [befe halt been a shift of loyalty rom taroliy to dan from dan to tlation and from nation to fedctation there Wampll
hope clajmoo Wl1fd and Dubo$ for an ultimare lnyalty tuacute OUt single beau~ tifulllud vulnerable Planet Eanh (Ward and Dubas 1972 298)
Whilst the institutiona fmmework and organizational stfllCtuteS remain of necenity -ague in Oltl OM EaFtA iacutet is del( rhat the authors Wfre atming 11( a tlttwork oiacute world-wide fflnctionaUy hased organlzatiofll (both lOOs and JNGOs) char couId take on much of the work )JfCsendy done by governshymems o( rather whkh ougbt [O be dont by governmems UacuteJter writing-s have attempted (O deal wjth thc policy impliration$ of delllJng with )JrobshyJems globdly sroos (986) has poiacutenred en what 1w already been achieved in gtobal problem solving l1nd ha~ soughr ro buHd on rhis His critio have prunted out tha( what has already becn undertiacutelken has bren done more along rradicional Jntergovernmentallines (Donnelly 1990 121-30) Orbe writen have tied rubievemen[ in addressiacuteng [he global agenda more to renewed rutiviry in the UN (Rochester 1990 141-54) or to greater grass~ roots aud INOO acriviSffi Wget 1990 155-~8) Either way globaJj~m offeacuters a distinct W1ly of rackling the worlds ptublem~ It 1$ u ViIOIl thar sttesiexcles uniey and common (am( ntthet than disasreemem and roofrontashytion ir (ould thereIacuteore (oresce disputes being sruved inlernationally vety
much in (he way tbar chey are pre~ndy solvcd within tunny MtiOO iexclrares by more ro arbitratwn and Jaw and by entorcemenf ir neteS$il1) In this rhey have muh in COIDfllOfi wirh tire imerrnuiona lawyers iacuteUld idenlist writer of me eady (wenuacuteeh eemury mentioned at the beginning of tbu chaptet The globalisn are inspirecl jn rheir thinking more by ten Ot lt nudeal holocatlsr and by environmenml breakdown tnan by rhe duumleet elrpeshytieme uf wa dlllf aiacutefected rhe wricings of Woolf ol Ikierly
TIacutete globalisl appro~(h is opert ro the criticism of bcing roo idealistk jn a cynical world and lOO iIDpracrical in in uacutelstitutional sU8scsrioll5 Bur the di$mi$Slil oC rh~ words as globaloney cKleS HOt lid lite wctld oC che probw lems which hey have 50 effectively publiacutedzed They lutve uied to add anorIte dimensioacuten ro whar is possibte by showlng thar ie is nOCeSSiexcllty fOl rhe iexclurviwl of che planee
Tlle radical approach to the smdy oC iOternational orgllnizarions reflocu worIdmiddotvitws that normaUy lO beyond -dmse Jominated by rhe ltctivities of iexcltatcs or of LIte organizltuumlnns chemselves There is a sceprical view of whut is happeoing al soy one uacuteme in imernarional celarions and of he abilicy of mOfe cradicional wcifecs on imernafional cdarions ro explain let aJone llOderstand what is happeoing Ir is the feeling rhar approaches such ll1 (he MaNisr tlwt of rhe ideal theorisrs and some of rhe globuli~rs ur~ coming cber (O uodemaoding humanicys wider dilemmas rhar makes rhero so amactive They ar~ less Iikdy co apply rhemselves to rhe defais rutd wnrk~ ings oiacute p$cdcular imernatinnaJ organizations but neverrheless providt iotriguiog insighrs 00 [his phenomenoo by seeing rhem rhrollgh mol panoprk phHosophical lenses
SUMMARY
The rhree flIajor $chuols dealr wich io chis chaprer - the tcatiacuten the reformisrs iacutei1d che radical$ and rhe variarions (bey contain did not and do tlOf exJn iexcln a hiSforlcaj vacnum lde-as Wele foffilulared wirhio lhe COnten oiacute panicular sodedcs uoo in response ltO pUticular problems rbe communl (adom reYoludon of fhe nineteemb century the Finr World Wlli rhe rise of Nui Germany the spreading of nudeu weapons the deve1opmeof of plthitshy
$econd Workl War Europe fbe pnxeues of decoloniwion and deacuteteme rhe end oiacute the Cold War and rhe advaoce oiacute che inCormatton revolution In sorne CilSC$ the views oiacute rhose wdtings on inttmiddotrnational ocganUatlOHS have liad un efiecr on evenrs rhemelves pirlKulatly 00 rbe actitudes oC govetnrnents mwards tnternatiorW orgdflixauons AIl tXample is the work oC LecnarJ Woolf woose suggesnons Ctmceming a world organizatloo conttibuted lO fhe detailed preparnion oC the Lague oC Nations by me British goveltr mene Likewise Hans Morgeruhau and EK Can provided seimuli fot infiiexclrmoo US and Btirish governmcllul rhinking abom inrerruuional rela~ tiom iexclrom the 194Ck onwards In mher cases rhe general writings cJ persons lgtuch as Marx Leoin Mao Tse-tung and che dependencia school have affecred
rhe poJirk1ll dimare wirhin which govemmcncs conduce rheJe poUcy iucluding thar wwards jnternaclorull otgauj~atjon$
Orber ruCfOf$ aplft froro their historial cuntexc Iuve affencd the views of rhe schunl$ rncntioned They have differint backgtounJs io cheit ideruogy (Wesrero commllniSf Third World radical environmenralisr) and in theit level of $nalysis of inrernarional rebtions (stare Centuacutec inretesr aoo rramna~ dona groups cLitraquo dominanr global) This a(icca the typC oC inrernatiacuteonal organizariacuteon dominam io their studies (IGOs INCo) auJ thcic 8eograph~ kai $rea of interest (the Nonh Adandc Europe ThinJ WodJ Ot global)
TIte range of wcitings about intetnational organizarions has ull dte whole teflecfeJ wiJec llooersundings of imetoational ceJarions and wuumltld polidcs These io rhernselves have fed 00 tbe gtVidc iacutellccUecmal fcnnent and on developrnenrs in world affiuacuters Viewl about iacutellteftlational ocgsnizatJoos wiU continue ro take accOlnt of the ince1leeruaJ debate ill the studjes oiacute polishydes internacional re1atioO$ philosophy ecooomics imematluacutellal uw sociology histoty and geogrilphy They will also reflecto among other ampcton che stntcegk balance in tbe world [he relafIacuteve power of tiJe United Stares aod oroer nares me scate of wotld markers [be pto-ess uf Euwpeiexcliexcln tlllegrashytion che relacive positloo of the developing warIdgt iexclbe levd of cootlicc througbolc the world fhe -ratC of dte environfneot and the ahility oiacute huge StatCS to wiacutethswnd cenrrifttgal force Tbe way tIacuteult imematiornal organiuiexclshydons ret1ect tbese developrnents and tIacuteleir t1Ipability lO deal wich some of them will provide (he tllW fiWifcrial foc funue smdies
much in (he way tbar chey are pre~ndy solvcd within tunny MtiOO iexclrares by more ro arbitratwn and Jaw and by entorcemenf ir neteS$il1) In this rhey have muh in COIDfllOfi wirh tire imerrnuiona lawyers iacuteUld idenlist writer of me eady (wenuacuteeh eemury mentioned at the beginning of tbu chaptet The globalisn are inspirecl jn rheir thinking more by ten Ot lt nudeal holocatlsr and by environmenml breakdown tnan by rhe duumleet elrpeshytieme uf wa dlllf aiacutefected rhe wricings of Woolf ol Ikierly
TIacutete globalisl appro~(h is opert ro the criticism of bcing roo idealistk jn a cynical world and lOO iIDpracrical in in uacutelstitutional sU8scsrioll5 Bur the di$mi$Slil oC rh~ words as globaloney cKleS HOt lid lite wctld oC che probw lems which hey have 50 effectively publiacutedzed They lutve uied to add anorIte dimensioacuten ro whar is possibte by showlng thar ie is nOCeSSiexcllty fOl rhe iexclurviwl of che planee
Tlle radical approach to the smdy oC iOternational orgllnizarions reflocu worIdmiddotvitws that normaUy lO beyond -dmse Jominated by rhe ltctivities of iexcltatcs or of LIte organizltuumlnns chemselves There is a sceprical view of whut is happeoing al soy one uacuteme in imernarional celarions and of he abilicy of mOfe cradicional wcifecs on imernafional cdarions ro explain let aJone llOderstand what is happeoing Ir is the feeling rhar approaches such ll1 (he MaNisr tlwt of rhe ideal theorisrs and some of rhe globuli~rs ur~ coming cber (O uodemaoding humanicys wider dilemmas rhar makes rhero so amactive They ar~ less Iikdy co apply rhemselves to rhe defais rutd wnrk~ ings oiacute p$cdcular imernatinnaJ organizations but neverrheless providt iotriguiog insighrs 00 [his phenomenoo by seeing rhem rhrollgh mol panoprk phHosophical lenses
SUMMARY
The rhree flIajor $chuols dealr wich io chis chaprer - the tcatiacuten the reformisrs iacutei1d che radical$ and rhe variarions (bey contain did not and do tlOf exJn iexcln a hiSforlcaj vacnum lde-as Wele foffilulared wirhio lhe COnten oiacute panicular sodedcs uoo in response ltO pUticular problems rbe communl (adom reYoludon of fhe nineteemb century the Finr World Wlli rhe rise of Nui Germany the spreading of nudeu weapons the deve1opmeof of plthitshy
$econd Workl War Europe fbe pnxeues of decoloniwion and deacuteteme rhe end oiacute the Cold War and rhe advaoce oiacute che inCormatton revolution In sorne CilSC$ the views oiacute rhose wdtings on inttmiddotrnational ocganUatlOHS have liad un efiecr on evenrs rhemelves pirlKulatly 00 rbe actitudes oC govetnrnents mwards tnternatiorW orgdflixauons AIl tXample is the work oC LecnarJ Woolf woose suggesnons Ctmceming a world organizatloo conttibuted lO fhe detailed preparnion oC the Lague oC Nations by me British goveltr mene Likewise Hans Morgeruhau and EK Can provided seimuli fot infiiexclrmoo US and Btirish governmcllul rhinking abom inrerruuional rela~ tiom iexclrom the 194Ck onwards In mher cases rhe general writings cJ persons lgtuch as Marx Leoin Mao Tse-tung and che dependencia school have affecred
rhe poJirk1ll dimare wirhin which govemmcncs conduce rheJe poUcy iucluding thar wwards jnternaclorull otgauj~atjon$
Orber ruCfOf$ aplft froro their historial cuntexc Iuve affencd the views of rhe schunl$ rncntioned They have differint backgtounJs io cheit ideruogy (Wesrero commllniSf Third World radical environmenralisr) and in theit level of $nalysis of inrernarional rebtions (stare Centuacutec inretesr aoo rramna~ dona groups cLitraquo dominanr global) This a(icca the typC oC inrernatiacuteonal organizariacuteon dominam io their studies (IGOs INCo) auJ thcic 8eograph~ kai $rea of interest (the Nonh Adandc Europe ThinJ WodJ Ot global)
TIte range of wcitings about intetnational organizarions has ull dte whole teflecfeJ wiJec llooersundings of imetoational ceJarions and wuumltld polidcs These io rhernselves have fed 00 tbe gtVidc iacutellccUecmal fcnnent and on developrnenrs in world affiuacuters Viewl about iacutellteftlational ocgsnizatJoos wiU continue ro take accOlnt of the ince1leeruaJ debate ill the studjes oiacute polishydes internacional re1atioO$ philosophy ecooomics imematluacutellal uw sociology histoty and geogrilphy They will also reflecto among other ampcton che stntcegk balance in tbe world [he relafIacuteve power of tiJe United Stares aod oroer nares me scate of wotld markers [be pto-ess uf Euwpeiexcliexcln tlllegrashytion che relacive positloo of the developing warIdgt iexclbe levd of cootlicc througbolc the world fhe -ratC of dte environfneot and the ahility oiacute huge StatCS to wiacutethswnd cenrrifttgal force Tbe way tIacuteult imematiornal organiuiexclshydons ret1ect tbese developrnents and tIacuteleir t1Ipability lO deal wich some of them will provide (he tllW fiWifcrial foc funue smdies