Lawrie HunterKochi University of Technology

http://lawriehunter.com

Cmaps as intellectual prosthesis:

Cycling between text analysis and rhetorical mapping 

34

DOMAINES, TERRITOIRES ET FRONTIÈRES EN ANGLAIS DE SPECIALITE  34e colloque du GERAS, É cole normale supé rieure de Cachan, 21, 22, 23 mars

Cmaps as intellectual prosthesis: Cycling between text analysis and rhetorical mapping   Mind maps are ubiquitous today, and have great fruitful applications. However, in mind maps the links between nodes in mind maps are simply lines representing association; each dyad (two nodes joined by a line) looks like every other. The mind map maker cannot articulate the relations between nodes and hence the clusters of nodes in a mind map can be interpreted widely. This raises a question: are there low text representations of the content of text that reveal rhetorical structure or orchestration (or their absence)? In Novakian maps, or Cmaps, each link between two nodes is labeled with a phrase specifying the relation between those nodes. As well, applying several visual metaphors (up is abstract, down is concrete; up is overarching, down is subordinate) can make the representation even more compressed. This presents an altogether more powerful representation than mind maps. Cmap representation has gained a wide usership, particularly in science education, thanks to the popularity of the freeware Cmap Tools, which forces the user to specify the relations between links.  This paper reports a case study of a fruitful application of Cmaps, wherein EAP learners of academic writing for management discover intellectual leverage in mapping. The learners were asked to draw a constrained map (fewer than 10 nodes, 4 words or fewer per node, links must be verbs) of the content of the introduction section of a published research paper, and then to critique their maps and arrive at consensus on an accurate mapping. Then they were asked to write a new version of the introduction based only on the content of the map. The learners developed their own approach, working in an iterative manner, mapping in counterpoint with text analysis work. This paper tracks the learners' cycling between moves analysis and concept mapping as they worked to unpack a paper that they had initially identified as a 'good model'. The observations made here suggest that the Cmap deserves a place amongst the essential tools for instructional discourse, particularly in settings such as EAP where the identification of rhetorical orchestration is difficult, where argument is often masked by other rhetorical devices, and where one's own thinking about an approach to a problem is complex and difficult to encode directly in text.

Biodata: Lawrie Hunter is a professor at Kochi University of Technology. His infostructure maps provide the underlying structure of "Critical Thinking" (Greene & Hunter, Asahi Press 2002) and "Thinking in English" (Hunter, Cengage 2008).He is also the author of "How Academic Writing Works" and "Technical Academic Writing". http://www.core.kochi-tech.ac.jp/hunter/

No need to take notes (:^0)

All materials can be downloadedfrom Hunter’s websiteshttp://lawriehunter.com/http://www.core.kochi-tech.ac.jp/hunter/

and many more ppts available athttp://slideshare.net/rolenzo/

http://wordle.net

Case study: Cmaps in academic writing

Asian EAP PhD students of academic writing for management.

Case study: Cmaps in academic writing

Asian EAP PhD students of academic writing for management.

KUT

7

Dimensions of Media Object Compehensibility

Lawrie HunterKochi University of Technology

http://www.core.kochi-tech.ac.jp/hunter/

KUT

Island of Shikoku

Foreign PhD students 2003-2013

China 93Thailand 14Bangladesh

5

Vietnam 9Cambodia 3Mongolia 2Spain 2Czech 1India 1Indonesia 2Jordan 1Myanmar 1Nepal 1Niger 1Pakistan 1Sri Lanka 2Uzbekistan 1TOTAL 140

KUT EAP scenario

9

Since 2003: - Japanese government scholarships

- for foreign students - in technical doctoral programmes.

! Graduation requirements:

- 2+ refereed papers in top journals- dissertation in English

L2 studyduring the PhD programis NOT a realistic strategy.

KUT EAP scenario

Clientneeds

accessiblewriting

soundargument

productionstrategy

readabletext

explicitcohesion clarity logicality mimicry,

conformity assistance

Clientneeds

accessiblewriting

soundargument

productionstrategy

readabletext

explicitcohesion clarity logicality mimicry,

conformity assistance

Intervention:instruction,exercises,low-text tools

Intervention:instruction,exercises,mapping

Intervention:instruction,exercises,simulations

Clientneeds

accessiblewriting

soundargument

productionstrategy

readabletext

explicitcohesion

Exercises: -topic/stress-S-V separation-old/new-pronoun reference-logical connectors

Exercises: -topic based cohesion-pronoun reference-logical connectorsTools:-cohesion charts

Clientneeds

accessiblewriting

soundargument

productionstrategy

clarity logicality

Exercises: -parallelism-nominalization-subordinate clauses-eliminating vagueness-eliminating ambiguity

Exercises: -claim and hedging-summarizing-data commentaryTools:Argument maps

Clientneeds

accessiblewriting

soundargument

productionstrategy

mimicry assistanceconformity

Exercises: -paraphrasing-concordance-citation-lexical unitsActivity:-dossier creation

Exercises: -register (FAE)-usageTools:-style guides-word lists

Activity:-self assessment-editor/mentor-coded feedback-communication

Clientprofile

TL reading-slow-persistent-compliant

L1 persuasion:-by repetition-by continuation-unsignalled

TL writing-jumbled-unsignalled-malsignalled

Case study

L1: first languageTL: target language

Clientstrategies

Argument construction-using L1 skills-using L1 knowledge

Writing:use model TL-for structure-for style-for cohesion-for logic-for proof

Case study

L1: first languageTL: target language

Case study

L1: first languageTL: target languageHW: homework tasks

HW feedback:-edit surface-critique structure-critique cohesion-critique argument

Instructorinterventions

Analytical work:-analyze model TL-summarize model TL

Construction work-cluster of concepts-find structure-create expression

grammar/surface features

usage/convention

document format

argumentsupporting claim

18

Possible EAP teaching approach

research design/results

researchersstart here

grammar/surface features

usage/convention

document format

argumentsupporting claim

19

Possible EAP teaching approach

research design/results

Writinginstructionstarts here

Case study: Step 1: map an RP's introductionClients draw a constrained map the introduction section of a research paper.

Constraints:-fewer than 10 nodes, -fewer than 5 words/node-links must be verbs

Step 1: map an RP's introduction

Step 1: map an RP's introduction

Step 1: map an RP's introduction

Step 2: critique the maps

The clients critique their maps and arrive at consensus on an accurate mapping.

Key point:-no reading between the lines!

Visual metaphors in concept maps

overarching

subordinateabstract

concrete

passage through time

more importantless important

more salient

less salient

rhe

torica

lflo

w

arg

um

en

td

irectio

n

cause-effect

Step 2: critique the maps

Check:1. Same level, same rank?2. Nodecontent isuniform?3. Link labelsare uniform?

Step 3: make a consensus map

The clients come to agreement on an optimal map.

!!!

Step 3: make a consensus map

Step 4: rewrite the text

The clients write a new version of the introduction, based only on the content of the map.

Critiquethe map

Make aconsensus

map

Write asummary from map

Hunter'soriginalvision

Mapsource

text

Client behavior: text analysis

The clients developed their own approach, using text analysis charts from previous course work:

-core content vs background charts-communication moves analysis charts

Client behavior: text analysis

The clients developed their own approach, using text analysis charts from previous course work:

-core content vs background charts-communication moves analysis charts

They worked in a cyclic manner, mapping in counterpoint with text analysis work.

Text analysis: core/background chart

Core content Background

Text analysis: core/background chart

Core content Background Persuasion

Communication moves analysis(freestyle)

Communication moves analysis(prescribed: following Swales & Feak)

Swales, J.M.. and Feak, C.B. (2004) Academic writing for graduate students University of Michigan Press.

Communication moves analysis(prescribed: following Glasman-Deal)

Glasman-Deal, H. (2012) Science Research WritingImperial College Press.

Client behavior: remapping

The clients worked in a cyclic manner, going back to mapping to apply realizations from their text analysis work.

Reordered chart

G R O U P I N G Key

Principles of TQM

1-2 Much research has been done with regard to the implementation of TQM and it is believed that the benefits of higher customer satisfaction, better quality products, and higher market share are often obtained following the adoption of TQM by construction companies.

2-2 TQM is a way of thinking about goals, organizations, processes, and people to ensure that the right things are done right the first time.

3-1 TQM is an approach to improving the competitiveness, effectiveness, and flexibility of the whole organization.

3-2 Oakland (1995) observed that it is essentially a way of planning, organizing, and understanding each activity that depends on each individual at each level.

Requirement to implement

TQM

1-3 It requires a complete turnaround in corporate culture and management approach (Quazi and Padibjo 1997) as compared to the traditional way of top management giving orders and employees merely obeying them.

2-1 It is believed that the single most important determinant of the success an organization in

implementing TQM is its ability to translate, integrate, and ultimately institutionalize TQM behaviors into everyday practice on the job.

2-3 Motwani (2001) feels that implementing TQM is a major organizational change that requires a transformation in the culture, process, strategic priorities, beliefs, etc. of an organization.

3-3 Ideas of continuous learning allied to concepts such as empowerment and partnership, which are

facets of TQM, also imply that a change in behavior and culture is required if construction firms are to become learning organizations (Love et al. 2000).

Benefit of implementing

TQM

1-2 Much research has been done with regard to the implementation of TQM and it is believed that the benefits of higher customer satisfaction, better quality products, and higher market share are often obtained following the adoption of TQM by construction companies.

4-1 Idris et al. (1996) showed that the electrical and electronic engineering industry in Malaysia has

widely adopted TQM and the main benefits that resulted were improved customer satisfaction, teamwork, productivity, communication, and efficiency.

4-2 ~

4-3

Mc-Cabe (1996) reported a study of UK companies from different industries which have already implemented TQM. The results showed that a majority had achieved greater success against performance indicators than was the average for their respective industries.

4-4 ~

4-6

Culp (1993) cited an example of HDR Inc., Omaha, Nebraska, a large engineering firm that has implemented TQM. The experience of applying TQM concepts provided the organization with improvements, information, and learning that occurred only because of the TQM process. This is in addition to positive customer responses and client referrals that the organization received as a result of implementing TQM.

5-1 There are also other means of achieving TQM success. Ford Motor Company has found success by

implementing its own Ford’s Q1 Award process which, in essence, involves the implementation of many quality principles and tools that are often associated with a TQM organization (Stephens 1997).

Problems

5-2 ~

5-3

According to Ghosh and Wee (1996), manufacturing companies in Singapore have reached a certain state of development with regard to TQM and, hence, are on their way to world-class manufacturing. However, their survey indicated that Japanese manufacturing companies showed a greater commitment to TQM than their local/regional counterparts.

5-4 ~

5-6

In a survey carried out by the National Productivity Board in Singapore, Quazi and Padibjo (1997) reported that out of the 300 firms surveyed, only one-third of the manufacturing companies and one-fourth of the services and construction companies had implemented TQM programs. Of those companies that have implemented TQM, most were of foreign origin. This appears to suggest that local companies were lagging behind their foreign competitors.

Research objectives

6-1 The aim of this paper is to examine how TQM can be applied more actively in the construction industry.

6-2 It seeks to assist contractors in identifying the steps necessary for the implementation of TQM.

Research methodology

6-3 For this purpose, a comparison of the benefits experienced and the TQM performance measures in two case studies are presented.

Reordered chartwith cohesionwork

Critiquethe map

Make aconsensus

map

Writesummary from map

Hunter'soriginalvision

Mapsource

text

Mapsource

text

Critiquethe map

Make aconsensus

map

Writesummary from map

Analyzesource

text

Rewritesummary

Emergentprocess

Clients' variable processClient 1 Client 2 Client 3 Client 4

Map the source text Map the source text Map the source text Map the source text

Critique the map Critique the map Critique the map Critique the map

Make consensus map

Make consensus map

Make consensus map

Make consensus map

Rewrite from map Rewrite from map Rewrite from map Rewrite from map

Analyze original text: freestyle moves

Reorder source text+ insert cohesion

Rewrite/extract some sentences of source text

Analyze original text: freestyle moves

Reorder/reduce source text

Rewrite own version

Rewrite own version

Rewrite own version

Combine own version with reordered source text

Note: this chart is approximate, due to partial reporting

Evaluation of writing product

1. Line of argumentBefore: flawed, clutteredAfter: sound, uncluttered

2. ClarityBefore: unsatisfactoryAfter: satisfactory to good

3. CohesionBefore: variable, generally weakAfter: in 3 cases, good, consistent

Sample size: 4Intervention time 3 hours in a 3 week periodClient effort time: 5-6 hours

Question:

Is Cmap Tools the best argument mapping tool?

Horn’s argument mapping

www.stanford.edu/~rhorn/index.htmlwww.macrovu.com/

Argument mapping

Info-structure mapping

Syntactic mapping

Grammar mapping (pseudo)

Association mapping

Horn’s argument mapping

www.stanford.edu/~rhorn/index.htmlwww.macrovu.com/

Relations in links: 1. is supported by 2. is disputed by

AusThink argument mapping

http://www.austhink.com/

Argument mapping

Info-structure mapping

Syntactic mapping

Grammar mapping (pseudo)

Association mapping

AusThink argument mapping

http://www.austhink.com/

Relations in links: 1. supports 2. opposes

Rationale argument mapping

www.austhink.com/

Argument mapping

Info-structure mapping

Syntactic mapping

Grammar mapping (pseudo)

Association mapping

Rationale argument mapping

www.austhink.com/

Relations in links: 1. but 2. because 3. however

Node character: 1. position 2. reason 3. objection 4. rebuttal

RST mapping

Bill Mann’s Rhetorical Structure Theory (RST) uses various sorts of "building blocks" to describe texts.

The principal block type deals with "nuclearity" and "relations" (often called coherence relations in the linguistic literature.)

Rhetoric mapping

Info-structure mapping

Syntactic mapping

Grammar mapping (pseudo)

Association mapping

www.sil.org/~mannb/rst/

RST mappingBill Mann’s Rhetorical Structure Theory (RST) mappinguses various sorts of "building blocks" to describe texts.

The principal block type deals with "nuclearity" and "relations" (often called coherence relations in the linguistic literature.)

www.sil.org/~mannb/rst/

Link relations:31 phrases(31 rhetorical moves)

http://cmap.ihmc.us/

Optimum: Novakian: Cmaps

Matching mapping stylesto instructional purposes

Representations of the information structures underlying the witting use of maps:

Writers work withRhetorical structure Argument structureInformation structureText structureParagraph structureSentence structure

Matching mapping stylesto instructional purposes

Representations of the information structures underlying the witting use of maps:

Writers work withRhetorical structure Argument structureInformation structureText structureParagraph structureSentence structure

Mappers makeRhetorical structure maps Argument mapsInformation structure maps Association maps (mind maps) Syntactic mapsGrammar maps (not maps)

mysteryzone

Thank you for your attention.Please write to me.

I'm happy to share/teach/collaborate.

Download this .ppt and many others fromhttp://www.lawriehunter.com/presns/

or view/download athttp://slideshare.net/rolenzo/

Lawrie HunterKochi University of Technology

http://www.core.kochi-tech.ac.jp/hunter/

References

Cmaps as intellectual prosthesis: Cycling between text analysis and rhetorical mapping   Mind maps are ubiquitous today, and have great fruitful applications. However, in mind maps the links between nodes in mind maps are simply lines representing association; each dyad (two nodes joined by a line) looks like every other. The mind map maker cannot articulate the relations between nodes and hence the clusters of nodes in a mind map can be interpreted widely. This raises a question: are there low text representations of the content of text that reveal rhetorical structure or orchestration (or their absence)? In Novakian maps, or Cmaps, each link between two nodes is labeled with a phrase specifying the relation between those nodes. As well, applying several visual metaphors (up is abstract, down is concrete; up is overarching, down is subordinate) can make the representation even more compressed. This presents an altogether more powerful representation than mind maps. Cmap representation has gained a wide usership, particularly in science education, thanks to the popularity of the freeware Cmap Tools, which forces the user to specify the relations between links.  This paper reports a case study of a fruitful application of Cmaps, wherein EAP learners of academic writing for management discover intellectual leverage in mapping. The learners were asked to draw a constrained map (fewer than 10 nodes, 4 words or fewer per node, links must be verbs) of the content of the introduction section of a published research paper, and then to critique their maps and arrive at consensus on an accurate mapping. Then they were asked to write a new version of the introduction based only on the content of the map. The learners developed their own approach, working in an iterative manner, mapping in counterpoint with text analysis work. This paper tracks the learners' cycling between moves analysis and concept mapping as they worked to unpack a paper that they had initially identified as a 'good model'. The observations made here suggest that the Cmap deserves a place amongst the essential tools for instructional discourse, particularly in settings such as EAP where the identification of rhetorical orchestration is difficult, where argument is often masked by other rhetorical devices, and where one's own thinking about an approach to a problem is complex and difficult to encode directly in text.

Biodata: Lawrie Hunter is a professor at Kochi University of Technology. His infostructure maps provide the underlying structure of "Critical Thinking" (Greene & Hunter, Asahi Press 2002) and "Thinking in English" (Hunter, Cengage 2008).He is also the author of "How Academic Writing Works" and "Technical Academic Writing". http://www.core.kochi-tech.ac.jp/hunter/

Sources: GRAPHIC ORGANIZERS

Suggested Reading About Visual Thinking and Learning Ausubel, D. (1968). Educational psychology: A cognitive view. New York: Holt, Reinhart and Winston.

Buzan, T. & Buzan, B. (1993). The mind map book: How to use radiant thinking to maximize your brain's untapped potential. New York: Penguin Books USA Inc.

Buzan, T. (1983). Use both sides of your brain: New techniques to help you read efficiently, study effectively, solve problems, remember more, think clearly. New York: E.P. Dutton.

Jonassen, D.H. (1996). Computers in the classroom: Mindtools for critical thinking. Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Novak, J.D. & Gowin, D.B. (1984). Learning how to learn. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Novak, J.D. (1998). Learning, creating and using knowledge: Concept map® as facilitative tools in schools and corporations. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

http://www.inspiration.com/Parents/Visual-Thinking-and-Learning

Sources: academic writingHunter

the style dossier approachSTRUCTURE

Banerjee, D. and Wall, D. (2006) Assessing and reporting performances on pre-sessional EAP courses: Developing a final assessment checklist and investigating its validity. Journal of English for academic purposes 5(2006) 50-69.

Ferris, D. (2002) Treatment of error in second language student writing. University of Michigan Press.

Ginther, A. and Grant, L. (1996) A review of the academic needs of native English-speaking college students in the United States. Research monograph series MS-1. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service.

Glasman-Deal, H. (2010) Science Research Writing. Imperial College Press.Gopen, G.D. & Swan, J.A. (1990) The Science of Scientific Writing. American Scientist 78 550-558.

http://www.americanscientist.org/template/AssetDetail/assetid/23947Harwood, N. (2006) What do we want EAP teaching materials for? Journal of English for Academic

Purposes 4 (2005) 149-161.Hunter, L. Online resource for English for Academic Purposes:

http://del.icio.us/rolenzo/eapKoutsantoni, D. (2006) Rhetorical strategies in engineering research articles and research theses:

Advanced academic literacy and relations of power. Journal of English for Academic Purposes 5 (2006) 19-36.

Liu, M. & Braine, G. (2005) Cohesive features in argumentative writing produced by Chinese undergraduates. English for specific purposes 24 (2005)

Rowley-Jolivet, E. & Carter-Thomas, S. (2005) Genre awareness and rhetorical appropriacy: Manipulation of information structure by NS and NNS scientists in the international conference setting. System 33 (2005) 41-64.

Swales, J.M.. and Feak, C.B. (2004) Academic writing for graduate students: essential tasks and skills (2nd ed.). University of Michigan Press.

Swales, J.M.. and Feak, C.B. (2001) English in Today's Research World: A Writing Guide. University of Michigan Press.

 Fauconnier, G. (1997) Mappings in Thought and Language. Cambridge U. Press.

Gentner, D., & Wolff, P.(1997). Alignment in the Processing of Metaphor. Journal of Memory and Language, 37, 331-355. 

Kurosawa, M., & Kawahara, T. (1999). An Experimental Study in Metaphor Comprehension. Bulletin of the Graduate School of Education, The University of Tokyo 39, 247-257.

Kurosawa, M., & Kawahara, T. (1999). Alignment or Abstraction? Metaphor Comprehension in Japanese.  Proceedings, Second International Conference on Cognitive Science. http://www.jcss.gr.jp/iccs99OLP/p3-19/p3-19.htm

Lakoff, George and Mark Johnson 1980. Metaphors We Live By. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.  

Mazuka,  R. (1998) The Development of Language Strategies: a Cross-Linguistic Study Between Japanese and English. Erlbaum.

Nisbett, R.E. (2003) The geography of thought. Free Press.

Novak, J.D. (1998). Learning, creating and using knowledge: Concept map® as facilitative tools in schools and corporations. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. 

Sources: mapping and metaphor

Baddeley, A. D. & Hitch, G. (2001). Working memory in perspective: Foreword. In J. Andrade (Ed.), Working memory in perspective (pp. xv-xix). Hove: Psychology Press.Cañas, A. J., & Novak, J.D. (2006) Re-examining the foundations for effective use of concept maps. In Cañas, A. J., & Novak, J.D. (Eds.), Concept Maps: Theory, Methodology, Technology. Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Concept Mapping.Cañas, A. J., Hill, G., Carff, R., Suri, N., Lott, J., Eskridge, T., Gomez, G., Arroyo, M. and Carvajal, R. (2004) Cmaptools: A knowledge modeling and sharing environment. Downloaded April 8, 2008 from http://cmc.ihmc.us/papers/cmc2004-283.pdf

Chandler, P. and J. Sweller (1992) The split-attention effect as a factor in the design of instruction. British Journal of Educational Psychology 62: 233-246.

Chun, D. M. and Plass, J. L. 1997. Research on text comprehension in multimedia environments. Language learning and technology 1(1): 60-81.

Cmap tools. Institute for Human & Machine Cognition. http://cmap.ihmc.us/

Dansereau, D.F. (2005) Node-Link Mapping Principles for Visualizing Knowledge and Information. In Tergan, S. and Keller, T. (Eds.) Node-Link Mapping Principles for Visualizing Knowledge and Information. Springer. 61-81.

Fulkerson, R. (1996) Teaching the argument in writing. Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English.

Goldman, S.R., & Rakestraw, J.A. (2000). Structural aspects of constructing meaning from text. In M.L. Kamil, P. B. Mosenthal, P. D. Pearson, & R. Barr (Eds.), Handbook of reading research (Vol. II, pp. 311-335). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Gopen, G.D. and Swan, J.A. (1990) The Science of Scientific Writing. American Scientist (Nov-Dec 1990), Volume 78, 550-558. Downloadable as a pdf from http://www.amstat.org/publications/jcgs/sci.pdf

Grow, G. (1996) Serving the strategic reader: cognitive reading theoryand its implications for the teaching of writing. Viewed June 30, 2007 at http://www.longleaf.net/ggrow/StrategicReader/index.html

Horn, R. E. (1998) Visual Language: Global Communication for the 21st Century. Bainbridge Island, WA: MacroVU Press. http://www.macrovu.com

Hunter L. (2005) Technical Hypertext Accessibility: Information Structures and Rhetorical Framing. Presentation at HyperText 2005, Salzburg. http://www.lawriehunter.com/presns/%20HT05poster0818.htm

Hunter, L. (2002) Information structure diagrams as link icons. Learning Technology 4(3) July 2002. ISSN 1438-0625. 2002. http://lttf.ieee.org/learn_tech/issues/july2002/index.html#1

Hunter, L. (1998) Text nouveau, visible structure in text presentation. Computer Assisted Language Learning 11 (4) October 1998.

Mann, B. (1999) An introduction to rhetorical structure theory (RST). http://www.sil.org/mannb/rst/rintro99.htm

Moffett, J. (1992). Detecting growth in language. New Hampshire: Boynton/Cook.Mohan, B.A. (1986) Language and content. Addison-Wesley.

Novak, J.D. and Cañas, A.J. (2006) The theory underlying concept maps and how to construct them. Report IHMC CmapTools 2006-01, Florida Institute for Human and Machine Cognition (IHMC), 2006. Viewed April 8, 2008 at http://cmap.ihmc.us/Publications/ResearchPapers/TheoryCmaps/TheoryUnderlyingConceptMaps.htm

Olive, Thierry (2004) Working memory in writing: Empirical evidence from the dual-task technique. European psychologist 9(1), pp. 32-42. Working paper downloaded from http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=15431008

Shannon, C.E., & Weaver, W. (1949). The mathematical theory of communication. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. Explained at http://www.cultsock.ndirect.co.uk/MUHome/cshtml/introductory/sw.html

Taboada, M. and Mann, W.C. (2006) Rhetorical Structure Theory: looking back and moving ahead. Discourse studies 8: 423-459

Tufte, E.R. (1990) Envisioning information. Cheshire, CONN: Graphics Press.

Ueta, R., Hunter, L. & Ren, X. Text usability for non-native readers of English. Proceedings, Information Processing Society of Japan, Vol. 2003.7. Pp. 199-200.