COARSE GRAINSAND PULSES

IN NEPALRole and Prospects

Bed B. Khadka

The CGPRT Centre

CG PR T No. 6

COARSE GRAINS AND PULSES

IN NEPAL

Role and Prospects

CGPRT NO. 6

COARSE GRAINS

AND PULSES IN NEPAL

Role and Prospects

Bed B. Khadka UN/ESCAP CGPRT Centre Regional Co-ordination Centre for Research and Development of Coarse Grains, Roots and Tuber crops in the Humid Tropics of Asia and the Pacific

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FOREWORD

The regional research project RAS/82/002 is funded by the UNDP, and is implemented by the FAO and the ESCAP CGPRT Centre.

One of the important objectives is to identify and analyze socioeconomic constraints to increased production and efficient distribution, and to formulate strategies to exploit economic, employment and nutritional potential of coarse grains and food legumes under varying farming systems.

In line with its mandate, the CGPRT Centre was requested to implement socio-economic studies in selected countries of Asia. Initiated in late 1984, country studies were conducted in 7 countries, namely, Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Nepal, the Philippines, Sri Lanka and Thailand. Selection of crops was based on their importance to the individual country and on the priority set by the CGPRT Centre, namely, selected pulses for the southern Asia sub-region and either maize or soybean for Southeast Asian countries.

The research report "Coarse Grains and Pulses in Nepal: Role and Prospects" is the second in this series of country reports. It describes the role of coarse grains and pulses in commercial as well as in subsistence agriculture.

Mr. Khadka points out that in Nepal the growth of food production is not keeping pace with population growth, and that increasing produ- ctivity is necessary for Nepal to maintain its self-sufficiency in food. Recent production increases can be ascribed to area expansion, while yields are diminishing. The report points out that area-specific research is necessary to increase productivity among subsistence farmers in the hilly and mountainous areas in Nepal.

I am pleased to present this report, and I hope it will contribute to research planning in Nepal and development of CGPRT crops in the region. For the convenience of the reader, an extensive bibliography is included at the end of the report.

Director Shiro Okabe

CGPRT Centre

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SUMMARY

This report attempts to analyse the rate of growth and prospects for coarse grains in Nepal. It points out present trends in production and consumption in the various regions in Nepal and implications for Nepal's research programme.

Major food crops in Nepal are rice, maize, wheat, millets,and pulses. Barley, buckwheat, and other minor crops are important food crops in the high mountains and the mid-hills. While crop yields have been at best stable over the years, population pressure is mounting rapidly. Per capita food production and the availability of food is decreasing.

Nepal can be divided into three ecological zones: The high mountains and the mid-hills, which account for three-fourths of the land area, and the tarai, a narrow strip of deep, fertile soil. Nepal depends largely on agriculture, which engages 90 percent of the labour force, and which accounts for 70 to 80 percent of Nepal's exports.

Coarse grains and pulses are important in the diet of the Nepalese people. Maize is second only to rice in nutritional signi-ficance, but first in the hills. Of all maize consumed, over 75 per- cent is accounted for by hill dwellers. Similarly, 89 percent of all millets and 86 percent of the barley is consumed in the hills; Almost all the buckwheat produced is consumed in the higher hills. Virtually all farmers grow legumes or pulses in Nepal, but per capita consumption is low.

Coarse grains and pulses as a group have a dual function in Nepal. They are important both in commerce and in subsistence, which may account for the low reported yields of, in particular, pulses. Yields of maize are reported to be decreasing because of the expansion of production to more marginal lands.

The need for increasing production and productivity is becoming pressing. As shown by research, substantial increases in yields of various food crops are possible through improved crop production technology. Currently, the Seventh Development Plan of the country has targeted crop production to increase by 20 percent during the plan period (1985/86-1989/90).

While research and development efforts need to be stepped up, all the available information on the subject should be utilized to help increase production. Millets, barley and buckwheat, although treated as minor crops in the country, should receive more attention because of their importance as staple crops in the hills. A pulse improvement programme might also be pursued more vigorously.

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CONTENTS

Foreword v

Summary vii

List of Tables xi

Glossary xi

I. Background 1

II. Coarse Grains and Pulses 2.1 Maize 5 2.2 Millet 7 2.3 Barley 8 2.4 Buckwheat 9 2.5 Grain Amaranths 9 2.6 Pulses 9 2.6.1 Grasspea 5 2.6.2 Lentil 11 2.6.3 Chickpea 11 2.6.4 Horsegram 11 2.6.5 Soybean 11 2.6.6 Blackgram 11 2.6.7 Mungbean 12 2.6.8 Pigeonpea 12 2.6.9 Fieldpea 12 2.6.10 Commonbean 13 2.6.11 Cowpea 13 2.6.12 Broadbean 13

III. Food and Nutrition 15

IV. Production and Demand 19

V. Constraints and Issues 25

VI. Suggestions For a Strategy 29

Bibliography 33

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List of Tables

Page

Table 1 Comparisons of 5-year Average Yields of Some of the Coarse Grains 7

Table 2 Production, Area and Yield of Some of the Major Grain Legumes in 1983 10

Table 3 Share of Maize, Millet, Barley and Pulses in the Consumption Pattern 18

Table 4 5-year Averages of the Combined Production of Rice, Maize, Wheat, Millet and Barley for the Period 1961 to 1983 21

Table 5 Share of Different Crops in Nepal's Seventh Development Plan 24

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GLOSSARY

Comparative Crop Names

English Name Local Name Scientific Name

COARSE GRAINS Amaranths Latte Amaranthus caudatus Barley Jau Amaranthus leucocarpus Buckwheat Phapar Hordeum vulgare

Common or Sweet mitthe Fagopyrum esculentum Tartary or Bitter tite Fagopyrum tartaricum

Maize Makai Zea mays

MILLETS

Fingermillet Kodo Eleusine coracana

Common Millet Chinu Panicum miliacum

Italian Millet Kaguno Setaria italica

Sorghum Junelo Sorghum bicolor

Quinoa Chenopodium quinoa

PULSES Blackgram Mas, Kalo dal Vigna radiata var. mungo

Broadbean Bakulla Vicio faba

Chickpea/Gram Chana Cicer arietinum

Cowpea Bodi Vigna unquiculata

Fieldpea Kerau/Matar Pisum sativum var. arvense

Grasspea/Chicling vetch/Chickling pea Khesari Lathyrus sativus

Horsegram/ Microtyloma uniform/ Horsebean Gahat Dolichos biflorus Lentil Musuro Lens culinaris/ Lens esculentus

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Mungbean Mungi Vigna radiata var. aureus

Phaseolus bean/ Simi Phaseolus vulgaris Kidneybean

Pigeonpea Rahar/Arahar Cajanus cajan

Ricebean Mashyang Vigna umbellata

Soybean Bhatmas Glycine max

Commonly Used Terms

D a l Mature dried seeds of legumes, cooked whole, split, broken or ground in water with some spices and other additions to form a sort of thick soup or sauce.

In ne r tarai Tropical to subtropical areas more or less enclosed by lower hills (Siwalik) in the south and higher hills (part of Siwalik and Mahabharat range) in the north.

Pulse Dried legume seeds.

T a r a i Low-lying narrow strip of deep, fertile, alluvial flatland, south of the foothills with tropical to subtropical climate.

Acronyms

AVRDC Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center (Taiwan)

ICARDA International Center for Agricultural Research in Dry Areas (Syria)

ICP Nepal’s Integrated Cereal Project

ICRISAT International Crops Research Institute for

Semi-Arid Tropics (India)

IITA I n t e r n a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e o f T r o p i c a l A g r i c u l t u r e ( N i g e r i a )

I N T S O Y International Soybean Program (USA) N M D P Nepal’s National Maize Development Programme N W D P Nepal’s National Wheat Development Programme

I. Background

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Nepal is a small country with a predominance of hills and mountains, which account for more than three-fourths of the land area. The country is divided into parallels of three ecological zones extending from east to west: the high mountains, the mid-hills (both situated in the rugged flanks and foothills of the steeply-dissected Himalayan range), and a narrow strip of deep, fertile, alluvial flatland, populary known as tarai [refer to the glossary]. Nearly two-thirds of the population live in the hills or the mountains, with only one-third of the land presently under cultivation.

Nepal's economy depends largely on agriculture, which engages over 90 percent of the total labour force and accounts for 53 percent of the country's GDP and 70 to 80 percent of all exports.

Agriculture in Nepal is basically subsistence, with crops, livestock, and trees forming integral parts of the existing farming system. The farming system is based predominantly on cereal crop production to sustain the farm family. This is supplemented by smaller amounts of legumes, some perennial crops (mainly fruits) and livestock for cash income and home consumption. Nationally, rice is the preferred annual crop, which is cultivated even at high elevations where water-holding terraces are possible. In the hills, however, maize is even more important as a food crop and is grown on slopes and terraces. Wheat is rapidly increasing both in acreage and production and is the most important winter cereal. Other common cereals are fingermillet, barley and buckwheat.

Farming conditions in the tarai are vastly different from those of the hills. While farming in the hills is mostly subsistence with characteristic diversity in an effort to meet the needs of the family, tarai farming is more uniform. About 90 percent of cultivated land is under food crops.

New technology, management practices, and improved methods and materials have not yet made many roads into the farming community. The hills have features which limit both agricultural potential and development. The rugged topography limits accessibility; diverse microclimates and ecological niches, predominantly small farm sizes and farming systems with limited scope for change are a problem. Limited availability of resources, and weakly developed institutional support services, are some of the major constraints to agricultural development in the hills.

While the number of people dependent on agriculture is increasing by about four-tenths of one million each year, productivity in agriculture has failed to register any significant gain. Marginal production increases have evolved largely out of expansion of area under cultivation.

In the following chapters, the role and prospects of coarse grains and pulses in Nepal will be analyzed in some detail. Prevailing trends in production and consumption will be depicted in their parti-cular settings in the various sub-regions of Nepal.

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I. Coarse Grains and Pulses

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Several varieties of coarse grains and pulses are grown in Nepal. Some are important major components in diet, and others provide much needed nutrients in the diet of the common people. The terrain, topo-graphy, elevation, climate, size of holding, type of land, and family needs all have direct bearing on the type of the crop to be grown in any part of the country. The following is a brief resume of the coarse grains and pulses grown in the country.

2.1 MAIZE

Among food crops cultivated in Nepal, maize comes second only to rice both in acres planted and in production, and is the most important food crop of the hills. Nearly 75 percent of the total area under maize lies in the hills, where it is grown as a summer crop under rainfed conditions. Although often grown at altitudes over 3,100 metres, the upper limit of maize as a staple crop is considered to be around 2,300 metres'. At higher elevations, maize is either a single annual crop or is rotated with barley or millet. It is grown both as a summer and as a winter crop in the tarai, and winter crop acreage is steadily rising, since higher yields are being obtained during this period11.

A look at the production figures over the 15 year period of 1967/68 - 1981/82 shows that the yield of maize has been steadily declining (Table 1). An additional 63,000 hectares of land was brought under maize cultivation during this period; most of the increases in acreage was in the hills. In spite of the additional land brought under maize, annual production has remained more or less unchanged: around 0.75 million metric tons annually during this 1.5 year period except for four years when production crossed 0.8 million tons. In terms of percent share of total food crop area, maize remained at around 21 percent throughout this period.

Table 1. Comparisons of 5-year average yields of some of the coarse grains (in Kg/ha).

Crop 1967-1972 1977-1982 Percent change Maize 1,811 1,560 (-14) Millets 1,100 1,023 (-7) Barley 919 874 (-5)

Source: Agricultural Statistics of Nepal, 1983.

Maize is used primarily for human consumption in Nepal and is consumed in different forms. Highest per capita consumption of maize (as well as of millets) is in those districts which are without access to roads. Although maize is used as food in quantities second only to rice at the national level, it ranks first in the hills, as stated previously. Over and above being a staple food for the majority of the people, maize is also being used increasingly for feed in some parts of the country where rearing livestock and raising poultry are assuming economic importance.

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Maize has received national priority in research and develop -

ment. The National Maize Development Programme (NMDP), with head-quarters in the central inner tarai region, and with satellite testing sites at various locations both in the hills and in the tarai, has been established for some time now. Its objectives are to co-ordinate and participate in research and development activities,and to increase the production and productivity of the crop. Furthermore, research and extension services are linked together through outreach programmes in assigned target areas.

The decline in the yield of maize is reportedly due to decreasing soil fertility and increasing incidence of pests and disease. Many of the improved varieties released earlier did not find wide acceptance due to late maturity and other characteristics which did not meet farmers' requirements. Recent varieties, however, have shown promise of wider acceptance.

2.2 MILLET

The most common millet grown in Nepal is fingermillet. It is cultivated extensively in the hills and the mountains, where it is one of the more important food crops. Although cultivated on a limited scale at altitudes of up to 3,700 metres, the average upper limit for staple crop cultivation is around 2,250 metres. At altitudes lower than 1,000 metres, it can be transplanted after maize; between 1,000 and 1,500 metres, a considerable part of its growing season overlaps with that of maize. Here, millet is generally relayed into the maize field.

At over 1,500 metres, the growing season of millet completely overlaps that of maize. For this reason, millet is rotated with maize in the hills, but grown as a monocrop both in the higher hills and in the tarai. In certain hilly areas, millet is also grown mixed with soybean. National yield rates of millet have yet to show any en-couraging sign; moreover, they are declining (Table 1). The area under millets,has not changed much during the 1972/73 - 1981/82 period (around 122,000 hectares), and its share in the total food crop area during the same period has remained around 6 percent. Although slight improvement in yield has been noticed in the tarai, the hills and mountains show declining trends both in production and in productivity over a considerable period of time.

Fingermillet in Nepal is a multipurpose crop, used for traditional porridge, some kinds of bread as well as for alcoholic beverages. In some areas it is the exclusive staple food and, as it is considered to provide sufficient energy for working people, it is often served to manual labourers. The fodder (stalks) is highly valued and the spent seeds after brewing are fed to cattle. Of total millet consumed, mountain dwellers claim the highest share at about 48 per- cent, followed by the hills with 41 percent and 11 percent in the tarai. Millet is valued in the hills for its excellent long-term storage properties with no deterioration or infestation.

In contrast to other major cereal crops, finger millet has suffered from serious neglect in research and development. Although a millet improvement programme ryas initiated as early as 1970, little headway seems to have been made5. Objectives of this programme included developing improved varieties for higher and more stable yields, synchronous maturity, disease resistance, easy threshing and respon- siveness to fertilizer application. Two improved varieties were released in 1979 with limited success. Recently, some trials on

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varieties of millets were reported to be in progress44.

Other millets are grown in Nepal in small and scattered patches without economic significance, such as commonmillet, Italian millet, and sorghum.

2.3 BARLEY

The area under barley in Nepal is very small, at about 26,000 hectares, occupying less than 1.5 percent of the total cultivated area under food crops. Hills and mountains account for 77 percent (hills 40 percent and mountains 37 percent) of the total area under barley. The upper limit for cultivation of barley as a staple crop is around 2,860 metres above sea level, in Nepal, and at that and higher elevations it is the dominant crop at altitudes around 4,400 metres, it is the only crop21.

Barley yields are declining both in the hills and in the mountains, but slight increments in yield have been seen in the tarai, which accounts for less than one-fourth of the area under barley. Of all barley consumed, 70 percent is consumed in the mountains, 16 per-cent in the hills and 14 percent in the tarai. In the mountains, a naked type of barley (locally called "Uwe or "Karu") is cultivated extensively and is prized as a higly nutritious food5.

Some effort has gone into researching varieties with higher yields, disease resistance, malt content, etc. Although some varieties have been recommended for cultivation, there is practically no programme to extend this information to the farmer. Varieties with yield potentials of some 3,000 kg/ha and greater have been identified.

2.4 BUCKWHEAT

Cultivation of buckwheat is limited to areas above 2,000 metres. Although barley is often cultivated at high elevations, it is buckwheat that is the upper elevation limit of cultivation of crops in Nepal. The upper limit for its cultivation as a staple crop is around 3,950 metres above sea level.

Two varieties of buckwheat are cultivated in Nepal: common buckwheat (sweet type) and tartary buckwheat (bitter type), both of which are used as food in Nepal. Common buckwheat is predominant. Common buckwheat is normally cultivated at lower altitudes, since tartary buckwheat is bitter when cultivated below 2,800 metres. At over 3,700 metres, only the tartary variety is grown, and it tastes sweet at this high elevation. Although accurate figures for acreage under buckwheat are not known, it is, nevertheless, an important crop in the hills of Nepal.

Very little research on buckwheat has been done, and there is practically no extension programme for this crop. Preliminary trials on varieties both indigenous and exotic have been carried out, but no conclusive results are available so far.

2.5 GRAIN AMARANTHS

Grain amaranths are important in the highlands of Nepal. When forest areas are cleared for crop cultivation in the high mountains, amaranths is one conventional crop grown in the newly opened fields. Although some amaranths can be found growing near households almost everywhere in the country, they are most common at elevations between 2,000 and 3,000 metres above sea level.

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Two species of grain amaranths (Amaranthus caudatus and A. leucocarpus) are cultivated in Nepal. Amaranths grain is used exclusively for human consumption. The yield is quite good, and little effort is needed to grow this crop. Acreage, production and yields of amaranths are not known: no research or development programme for this crop exists.

2.6 PULSES

Although pulses are very important in nutrition, for protein in particular, and are grown extensively in Nepal, information on cultivation, acreage, production, trade, and consumption have not been readily available until very recently.

Virtually all farmers in Nepal grow one or more species of pulses or grain legumes. In the mountains and hills, legumes are grown primarily for home consumption, while in the tarai and also in some warmer valleys, they are grown both for home consumption and for the market. The bulk of production in the tarai and inner tarai is from the winter pulses of grasspea, lentil, chickpea, and in the summer, from pigeonpea. In the hills, summer legumes such as soybean, blackgram, horsegram, and ricebean dominate legume cultivation, while in the higher mountainous regions, peas and phaseolus beans are the two most important summer legumes.

Pulses are also important as components of indigenous cropping systems. In the hills and higher hills, pulses do not usually compete with other crops, as they are generally planted in areas where other food crops are not planted. Aggregated, pulses rank fourth in terms,of acreage and fifth in production after rice, maize, wheat and millet28. Per capita consumption of pulses is rather low; its availability is influenced not only by production but also by the amount exported --mostly through unregulated trade.

Table 2. Production, area and yield of some of the major grainLegumes in 1983

Crop Area Production Yield (ha) (mt) (kg/ha)

Grasspea 49,200 18,700 380 Lentil 44,500 17,000 382 Chickpea 34,300 13,100 381 Soybean 18,400 10,100 548 Horsegram 20,700 7,900 381 Mungbean/ Blackgram 16,000 6,100 381 Pigeonpea 12,700 4,800 377 Fieldpea 11,200 4,300 383 Others 6,000 2,300 366

Source : Rachie and Bharati, 1985

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Highly diverse climatic and environmental conditions in the country allow cultivation of at least one dozen species of pulses in Nepal. Blackgram, broadbean, chickpea, cowpea, fieldpea, grasspea, horsegram, lentil, mungbean, phaseolus bean, pigeonpea, ricebean, and soybean are commonly grown pulses. Table 2 presents the areas, produc-tion and yields of the various kinds of pulses cultivated in 1983.

Grain legumes are used in many forms for human consumption in Nepal. Tender pods and green seeds of several species are used as vegetables. Mature dried seeds cooked whole, split, broken or ground are the most common forms of preparation for consumption. Dried seeds are also steeped in water and then cooked as a vegetable, as are the sprouted seeds. Some of the beans are roasted and used like groundnuts. Certain by-products, and soybean cakes, are used in livestock and poultry feed.

2.6.1 Grasspea cultivation is confined to inner and outer tarai. It is popular with the farmers, since it can be grown under low fertility conditions without irrigation and tillage, and can be sown as a relay crop while paddy or maize is still standing in the field. It is much cheaper in the market than other pulses, and is consumed mostly by the low income groups. However, its main drawback is that it causes lathirism if consumed regularly. There is practically no formal re-search or development on this crop in the country.

2.6.2 Lentil production is generally confined to inner and outer tarai, but is also grown in warmer areas of the hills. Lentil is nutritious and easily digestible, and is often given to convalescing patients. It is one of the most commonly consumed pulses, and is important as an export commodity. Some research on the selection of varieties has been carried out and, as a result, some varieties for cultivation have been recommended.

2.6.3 Chickpea is extensively cultivated in the tarai districts. In the hilly areas, its cultivation is limited to certain warmer areas. Greengram is used to make curry, and dried grams to make either curry or dal. Gram flour is also used in the preparation of certain snack items and some sweets, and is fed to animals as well (especially horses). There are some research programmes in progress on this crop in Nepal, notably some collaborative research with ICRISAT and ICARDA, to identify better varieties, and as a result, some varieties have been released for cultivation.

2.6.4 Horsegram is a hardy crop. It is grown in marginal lands of low fertility where other crops would not be worthwhile. It is grown in the warmer areas in the hills, and is consumed mostly by poorer people, especially in winter months, as it is believed to generate heat in the body. (Special mention should be made of local use of this legume in the treatment of patients suffering from kidney stones, and in breaking stone boulders in nature: it is believed that kidney stones are disintegrated with the consumption of this legume; also, soaked seeds packed into the holes and crevices of stone boulders are reported to create cracks, which facilitates the breaking of boulders into a manageable size.) A certain quantity of horsegram is also given to animals. As yet, no research and development efforts on this crop in the country are apparent.

2.6.5 Soybean cultivation, formerly limited to the mid-hills, is now extending to inner and outer tarai. In the hills and valleys, soybean is cultivated in association with or intercropped with maize. Mono-cropped soybean is grown only in small areas, and sometimes it is grown

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on paddy bunds. Soybean is a popular leguminous food in the hills, where roasted soybean is taken along with puffed maize as a morning or midday snack. Green pods are boiled and the seeds are eaten as such, or fried or made into curry. Some soybean is used for its oil, and the cakes are then used in feeds. In recent years, small industries have been set up to convert soybean into soymilk, soybean curd and other products.

Research in collaboration with INTSOY, IITA, AVRDC and other agencies has already been carried out. Some studies have been con-ducted in connection with hill cropping systems in order to improve crop performance. Numerous types and varieties are already cultivated in Nepal, and the research programmes have tendered some improved varieties for cultivation.

2.6.6 Blackgram has a wide range of adaptability, and in Nepal it is grown from 100 to 1,900 metres above sea level. It is the most impor-tant summer pulse grown in Nepal. Farmers grow it on the ridges, bunds, and risers of paddy fields for home consumption. In the mid-hills, it is grown in upland areas as produce for the market. Because of its colour and taste, it is very popular with hill people; however, other pulses are more popular in the tarai. The colour of the grain from this pulse is dark brown to black in the hills and higher hills, but in warmer areas and in tarai, the colour is lighter and often greenish. Hill people like its dark colour, and to make it even darker or black, they cook it in, iron pots.

Most people prepare dal from this legume. The dried seeds can be soaked, dehusked and ground to make various other preparations; the husks are then fed to cattle. Although collection of cultivars and introduction of new varieties are being carried out, progress toward blackgram improvement is still minimal.

2.6.7 Mungbean is not an important crop in Nepal, compared to blackgram. Its cultivation is limited to certain areas in the tarai, and its use is also limited. Mungbean is more easily cooked than blackgram, and soup prepared from this bean is given to convalescing patients. Improved mungbean varieties introduced from India are being cultivated by farmers in Nepal.

2.6.8 Pigeonpea is an important summer legume in the tarai and inner tarai. It is also grown in the uplands of warmer hilly regions. There, it is sometimes grown as a sole crop, but is often intercropped with maize in the summer and harvested the following spring. Highly drought tolerant, this legume, once established, can give a yield up to 1,500 kg/ha without irrigation. Primary use of this legume is for dal. Not much research work on the improvement of pigeonpea is being done in the country, although identification of certain lines for cold tolerance is reported°. Collaborative research with ICRISAT and other agencies has been planned.

2.6.9 Fieldpea is a very common legume in Nepal. Although the area under fieldpea is not as large as for other legumes, it is cultivated from less than 100 metres to over 3,000 metres above sea level. It is an important winter crop in most parts of Nepal, but at higher eleva-tions, it is a summer crop. Places like Mustang valley (elevation over 3,000 metres) grow small-grain peas in summer. Fieldpea is mostly grown as a monocrop, but is often grown mixed or in association with other winter crops or vegetables. Both large and small grain types of fieldpea are common in Nepal.

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Uses of this legume begin with the tender shoots, which make an excellent vegetable dish. Tender green pods and seeds are used to make curry, while the dried seeds mixed with other vegetables and potato make various types of vegetable preparations. Dried seeds are also used to make dal. Soaked seeds are often used to make chutney, and sprouted seeds, along with other beans, are used to make special dishes.

Very few research activities are underway with regard to fieldpeas. Some hill stations reporting trial results have indicated that for intercropping fieldpeas with,wheat or mustard, pea variety should be of the early maturing type'. Combined yield of peas and wheat or peas and mustard under improved practices have been higher and encouraging. Numerous types of fieldpeas from many countries have been introduced into the country by various enthusiastic growers, both local and expatriate. Hundreds of seed packets from seed companies all over the world arrive in Nepal each year. Although such an indiscriminate practice in the introduction of seeds is far from desirable, this has certainly provided the market with different types of peas, such as early, late, dwarf, tall, larger seed type, and sweet, among others.

2.6.10 Commonbean. Although 97 percent of the reported area under pulses are occupied by the legumes so far discussed, there are other legumes which, if not significant in area and production, are signi-ficant from the point of view of their contribution to the diet of the common folk. Among the summer beans, mention must be made of the field or commonbean (Phaseolus vulqaris), which is extensively grown from low-lying plains of tarai to the high mountains, usually in small patches of land, separately, or intercropped with maize and other summer crops. These beans are cultivated primarily for domestic con-sumption and are an important source of protein.

Green pods and seeds are cooked in curry, and dry seeds are either soaked in water and then cooked in curry or ground and cooked into dal. Several types of this bean exist in the country, and seeds of improved types are imported.

2.6.11 Cowpea is another important bean. It is cultivated mostly in warm valleys and in some parts of tarai. For consuption of its green pods and seeds, this bean is grown solely or in association with low-lying vegetables. For production of dry seeds, it is grown with maize which acts as support for the climbing beans. Most of this bean is consumed green. Dry seeds are used in making curry or some other similar preparations, but rarely as dal. Both short and long and green and white varieties are grown in Nepal.

2.6.12 Broadbean, a winter legume, is another important bean in Nepal. This bean is very common in valleys like Kathmandu, and is also grown in some parts of the tarai. The type grown is the hilly areas has larger seeds than the type in the tarai. This bean is generally used like a green vegetable -- both green pods and seeds -- and is popular in winter months when other vegetables are not so common. Dry seeds are roasted and used like peanuts, or soaked in water and used as curry; not much is used as dal.

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III.Food and Nutrition

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Normally, Nepal is self-sufficient in food. However, the slack-ening growth in food production and rapid growth in population begin to present a serious long-term problem for the country. Nepalese food is based on cereals, which constitute about 80 percent of the diet in the hills and 85 percent in the tarai. Numerous estimates of per capita food consumption are available, but it is difficult to accurately estimate the actual volume of food consumed on a regional basis. Estimates of caloric contribution from cereals vary from 1,800 to 2,400 cal. per person per day.

FAO's estimated daily per capita energy requirement for Nepal stands at 2,200 calories. The World Bank has estimated per capita daily subsistence needs at 2,000 calories for tarai and 2,200 for the hills and mountains, and the required needs at 2,210 for tarai and 2,410 for the hills. Although limited in area and scope, studies carried out to determine the actual quantity of food consumed and the consequent caloric intake are worth noting. For some hilly districts, caloric, intake of small farmers was estimated to be between 2,335 and 2,4041°. Year-round studies of a village in the hills showed that the average caloric intake for men varied from 2,300 to 2,510, depending upon the season, while intake for women was 10 to 15 percent less than that 22.

Of the cereals consumed22, maize topped the list with 36 percent, followed by millets 30 percent, wheat 17, rice 9 and barley 8 percent. While cereals contribute 89.4 percent to the total caloric intake, fresh green pulses contribute 0.5 and dried pulses 0.3 percent only. A study of one of the agricultural villages within the Kathmandu valley showed that while consumption of cereals by male members of the family was marginally lower than the recommended requirement, consumption by females is slightly higher36. Consumption of pulses, however, is much below the recommended level, at 61% of the required daily intake for men and 57% for women. Other studies have shown that cereals contribute 2,059 calories to the diet of the people in western hills and 2,005 to 2,110 calories in the far western tarai. Pulses constitute 4.6 percent of the diet of the people of high caste in a western hill district and 12 percent in the far-western tarai.

On the basis of previous studies and of the availability of food during the year 1979/80, estimated per capita consumption patterns show that cereals, pulses and potato (as food) together amount to 173 kg, in the hills and 196 kg in the tarai, with a national average of 183 kg20 The share of maize, millet, barley and pulses in this con-sumption pattern is given in the Table 3.

It is of interest to note that there is practically no information on buckwheat and grain amaranths entering into the diet of the people, especially in the higher hills.

18

Table 3. Share of maize, millet, barley and pulses in the consumption pattern

Hill

Tarai All Nepal

Crop Kg per capita

Percent of all cereals

Kg per capita

Percent of all cereals

Kg per capita

Percent of all cereals

Maize 69.39 45.0 36.79 19.7 56.67 34.0 Millet 14.07 9.1 3.39 1.8 9.90 5.9 Barley 3.24 2.1 1.53 0.8 2.57 1.5 Pulses 2.07 2.07 2.28 1.2 2.61 1.5

* Consumption of green pulses (pods and seeds) are not taken into account

Although pulses are a common item in the daily diet of Nepalese people, per capita consumption is quite low, especially in the context of total protein intake. Average caloric contribution of leguminous crops to the daily ration is estimate at around 2 percent, in the mountains, 2.5 percent in the hills and 4 percent in the tarai.1 Along with limited use of other nutritious food items, low intake of leguminous crops indicates deficiencies of calories, proteins and other important nutrients in many areas of the country, especially among lower socio-economic groups.

19

IV. Production and Demand

21

Slow growth in agricultural development and declining pro-ductivity have not only slowed down the pace of economic development but have also affected the country's otherwise comfortable food situa-tion. Increasing population pressure and declining fertility of the land are major constraints. Growth in production of food, grains during the last 20 years has been particularly sluggish11. Table 4 illustrates this situation.

Table 4. 5-year averages of the combined production of rice, maize, wheat, millet and barley for the period 1961 to 1983

5-year average 1961-66 1970-75 1978-83

Production ('000 mt) (including wheat)

3238 3550 3602

Percent growth over 1961-66

9 11

Percent growth over 1970-75

1.4

Production ('000 mt) (without wheat)

3100 3276 3099

Percent growth over 1961-66

- 5.6 0

Percent growth - - (-5.4) Source: Agricultural Statistics of Nepal, 1983.

A linear extrapolation for production for the years 1990 and 2000 shows that the likely gains in 1990 will be be about 9.7 percent, and in 2000,18 percent over the production of 198020. However, production of maize will suffer most if these trends continue, with projected declines of 13 percent in 1990 and 25 percent in 2000 over the production of 1980. Barley production may also slightly decline. However, millet production is projected to increase by 6 percent in 1990 and 12 percent in 2000.

Small gains in food grain production have come largely from expanding the area under cultivation. Although area under wheat is expanding mostly near areas already under cultivation, maize, millet, and rice cultivation is expanding into new areas, most of which is marginal land with low fertility and prone to erosion.

Attempts have been made to project demand on the basis, of actual intake of calories and of actual requirements. Existing caloric intake from cereals is 2080, 2095 and 2260 cal. for mountains, hills and tarai residents respectively2. Based on actual requirements and the growing population, cereal production should be increased by 16 percent by 1990 and by 40 percent by the year 2000 over the production of 1985.

22

The projections as presented above give an indication of the widening gap between production and demand which makes it worthwhile to examine the potential for increasing the production of some of the crops relevant to this review. It should be noted, however, that increasing demand for food crops can only be met through increasing cropping intensity and productivity per unit of land, and not by bringing additional land under cultivation.

Research results have shown that substantial increases in yields of various food crops are possible through improved crop production technology. Significantly higher yields of rice, maize, and wheat have been obtained in the fields using improved practices, and as many as,30 improved cropping patterns for higher production are available

15.

Cropping intensity in irrigated areas has increased from 135 to 240 percent. Higher productivity, disease resistance, earliness and other desirable characteristics are found in the newer varieties. The pros-pects for increasing productivity of cereal crops appear enormous, especially because present yields are among the lowest in the world.

Attention has been focused on the development of potentially higher yielding maize varieties suitable for higher hills, mid-hills and tarai. In the recent past, such varieties, maturing early enough to fit in the farmer's cropping sequences, have been released. Widely adapted varieties like Arun-2 are now being used by farmers. In the uplands of the hills, this variety under better management has given yields,of 4,240 kg/ha, and at higher elevations, yields of 3,500 kg per ha

27.

Other varieties expected to meet the requirement of earliness, colour preference, adapatibility, tolerance to cropping hazards, and potentially high yielding, will be released shortly37. These varieties are reported to have grain yield potential between 3,600 and 3,900 kg/ha. At higher elevations, about 2,000 metres above sea level, yields from improved varieties are reported to be around 3,300 kg/ha

26.

Although maize is a summer crop in Nepal, winter and spring planting in warmer areas are becoming increasingly popular. In the tarai, where irrigation facilities exist, yields of maize planted in winter were as high as 5,980 kg/ha, and about 2,980 kg/ha for spring maize in uplands of the inner tarai. Even some warm areas in the hills have reported yields of 3,170 kg/ha in winter and 2,070 kg/ha in spring

15. Various rotation patterns and relay and mixed cropping based on

maize have also been reported. Improved varieties of maize with relayed millet report a combined yield of over 4,400 kg/ha in higher hills27 and over 6,100 kg/ha at lower heights39. Under rainfed condi-tions in lowlands, improved technology has given a total yield of 5,300 kg/ha in a rotation of maize-rice-fallow

13. In irrigated areas,

total yields of 11,500 kg/ha and 11,000 kg/ha are reported from rotations of maize-rice-maize and maize-mungbean-rice respectively

40.

Similarly, maize-maize-fallow in rainfed uplands and maize-rice-wheat in lowlands, both in the hills, have given 5,560 and 7,260 kg/ha respectively

38.

Yield increases of 85 percent over local farm practices have been reported following improved practices with maize-rice-wheat, 91 percent with maize relayed with fingermillet-wheat and 117 percent with maize-rice-fallow rotations at some hill locations15. Without irrigation in hilly uplands, a combined yield of over 6,000 kg/ha from a maize/fingermillet-wheat cropping pattern has been reported

10.

Losses due to insects and disease, which usually account for 21 to 37 percent losses in the field, have been effectively controlled in research trials30 .

23

Improved varieties of fingermillet, suitable for high hills,

mid-hills, and inner tarai, have been released for the farmer's use since the late seventies. The relay cropping system, especially with maize, accounts for at least 60 percent of fingermillet cultivation. Improved,varieties are reported to yield over 3,400 kg/ha in hilly locations

13.Local varieties have also reported yields of over 2,200

kg/ha under improved practices14. As millet stalks are important fodder for livestock, the yield of stalks plays a significant role in the selection of varieties. Yields of up to 7,000 kg/ha from some varieties have been reported, with popular and stable varieties yielding around 3,000 kg/ha

44.

High yielding varieties of barley have been recommended since the early seventies. Variety Bonus has given a top yield of 3,620 kg/ha and a varietal mean of 2,290 kg/ha in the fields. Variety CI-10448, adapted to poor environments, has given a mean yield of 2,560, and variety Galt, recommended for its high malt content and food and feed usefulness, has yielded 2,283 kg/ha. Variety HBL-56, a widely adapted type, is reported to yield over 3,000 kg/ha 3,23,24,35. Variety Bonus has consistently given higher yields in the mid-hills

32,33.

While present buckwheat yield is estimated at around 570 kg/ha, some of the varieties in trials have shown potentials of over 2,500 kg/ha44 Some varieties have been selected for further testing as well as for use in the fields. Although high yield potentials are apparent, the technology is not yet available for use by the farmer.

As yields of important pulses are very low in Nepal, it would be appropriate to examine research findings in order to determine the potential for increasing yields. Varietal trials on legumes, especial ly soybean, mungbean, lentil, chickpea, and some other legumes, have been carried out in the country for many years. High yielding, improved varieties of soybean have been released for cultivation. Varieties of soybean under testing promise yields over 1,500 kg/ha33. Improved cultivars in trials have been reported to give 63 to 216 percent higher yields than the locals. Improved soybean and maize have given higher total productivity

7,29.

Improved varieties of mungbean have been under observation for some time. Some varieties released for cultivation have not been very popular for lack of uniform maturity. Mungbean-rice-wheat and mung-bean-rice-rice rotations have been reported to perform very well in irrigated lowlands

39. In rainfed lowlands of warm hilly areas,

mungbean-rice-fallow rotation has given excellent results12. Cultivars

with yield potential of over 1,600 kg/ha are under investiga-tion25.

In the case of blackgram, one improved variety has already been released.

Lentil varieties developed in India have been found suitable for cultivation in Nepal. Variety Simrik (T-36) has been ,doing well even in the. hills up to about 1,700 metres above sea level33. Some of the varieties in trials have given yields of around 1,300 kg/ha.

Very prom sing and widely adapated varieties of chickpea have been identified

6 , but some of the top yielders are late maturing17.

Chickpea-fallowice rotation has consistently given total yield of over 4,200 kg/ha

39. Chickpea mixed with mustard after rice has been

reported to give 127 percent incase in total yield of the two crops over the farmers' local practices

41.

24

Varieties of several types of beans, pigeonpea and peas have been introduced into the country, There are reports of trials in different parts of the country but no conclusive findings are available as yet.

In view of the importance of the coarse grains and pulses in the diet of Nepalese people, it would be useful to review these crops, vis-a-vis the country's development plans and programmes. Nepal has completed six development plans and the seventh plan is now being implemented, in which overall food production is targeted to increase by the end of the plan period (1985/86 - 1989/90) by 20 percent8. Table 5 shows the contribution of different crops toward the targeted growth.

Table 5. Share of different crops in Nepal’s Seventh Development Plan.

Crop Percent share in the planned

Planned increments over the production of 1984/1985 (percent)

Rice 62.3 20 Maize 16.8 8Wheat 16.5 50Millet 2.2 4Barley 0.5 8Pulses 1.7 8

Source: National Planning Commission, Nepal, 1985.

These targets do not seem impressive, especially in light of the deteriorating food situation and the role played by the coarse grains and pulses in the diet of the common people. However, the task at hand is first to reverse the trend of declining yields and falling produc-tion, and then to work toward achieving the production targets. Although some technology for increasing production is now available, the plan stresses the need for suitable and more appropriate technology to be developed during this period in order to step up production programmes during subsequent plans.

25

V. Constraints and Issues

27

For many years, the productivity of agriculture in Nepal has remained static, in spite of the fact that during the past decade, use of fertilizer quadrupled, the amount of improved seeds increased five-fold, agricultural credit increased twelve fold, agricultural tech-nicians increased from 1,400 to 3,200, some 150,000 hectares of land were brought under irrigation, and government outlay in agriculture increased more than sevenfold'. Trends in agricultural growth versus projections of population growth hold little promise. More and more hill districts are showing symptoms of food deficit. The rugged topog-raphy of the country not only limits the pace of development but also makes transportation difficult and expensive. The existence of varying agro-ecological zones and climatic diversities even within a small given area makes it difficult to use the available technology advanta-geously. The majority of the population are poor and rurally based, and their well-being depends entirely upon being able to produce more. In subsistence-oriented farming systems, component-biased technology, however superior, often finds no place.

Inadequate food supply, especially in the hilly areas, and low nutritional levels, are causes for serious concern. The cold climate and the constant need to walk up and down the slopes in the hills and mountains necessarily demand more calories and more nutritious food. Buckwheat, barley, maize, and millet are considered fine as food, but the diet must be adequate, and supplemented with legumes and other foodstuffs.

The problem of land is already a serious one. Large areas of infertile, erosion prone, marginal land are now planted to field crops in the hills and foothills. It is generally believed that additional land for cultivation of crops is no longer available. The thrust, therefore, should be to increase productivity per unit of land.

Soil fertility, especially in the hilly regions of the country, is declining due largely to the washing away of the topsoil each year during the rainy season (monsoon), and the lack of soil replenishment. Due to the low and decreasing fertility of the land, crop yield is not sufficient to justify maintenance of the terraces, which in the absence of proper maintenance, will suffer more in subsequent years.

There are farming areas in Nepal in which missing a traditionally established date in farm operation profoundly influences the farmer's attitude. However, research has shown that simple Changes in factors such as the time of planting and land preparation have been reported to increase productivity substantially46,47. Dealing with situations in which there is only one crop per year, or three in two years, the technology to be introduced should rather be risk free and precise. Traditional dates and practices may have been rigidly followed simply because of fear of taking risks.

Post harvest losses and storage problems are not receiving as much attention as required. Avoidable losses of precious food should be a priority research issue. Food saved is food served.

28

Hills and especially mountains, not being conducive to comfortable living, have discouraged agricultural workers and scientists. Not much headway can be expected when knowledgeable and dedicated people will not work in such areas.

Nepal is a country of vast opportunities--but limited resources. In order to exploit the opportunities that exist and benefit the larger section of the population, external resources and assistance are essential. Such resources and assistance should, however, be utilized in providing impetus to local efforts to initiate useful and effective programmes.

By the year 2000, population is projected to increase by about 35 percent over 1985, which means that in the next 15 years, almost 6 million new mouths will be added to an already worsening food situa-tion.

29

VI. Suggestion for a strategy

31

Nepal faces an urgent need to achieve immediate and substantial gains in the production of basic food crops. In recognition of this, the Seventh Development Plan of the country has made provisions for increasing production to meet the rising needs. However, in order to meet the challenges of the impending food shortages, and to promote rural prosperity as a basis for national economic growth, a concerted effort to increase farm productivty and income must be made without further delay. The aim of such eforts should be to obtain greatest gain in output in minimum time, and at reasonable cost. This is more easily said than done.

Most of the gain, however, must come from improvement in crop yield in areas where gain in most needed, that is, in the hills and mountains. Because of the subsistence nature of agriculture there, and the difficult terrain, gains made elsewhere may not be so useful to people who have very little purchasing capacity.

Due to diversities in ecological and climatic conditions, a general approach to production planning may have limited impact, es-pecially in the hills of Nepal. Area- and location-specific ap- proaches, which seek identification of needed changes and improvements in cropping patterns and in the use of available technology, could have great impact.

Essential ingredients for increased production of maize, millet, barley, and certain legumes for various agro climatic zones have been identified and verified. Extensive adaptive trials have been carried out on the farm for many of the major crops

15. Proven and tested

technology needs to be spread as widely and as quickly as possible. However, the absence of interactive research involving biological scientists, socio-economists, nutritionists, extension agents, and farmers has apparently resulted in incomplete packages of practices, a situation which should be corrected as early as possible. The aim of the research should be to continually strive for better, cheaper, risk- free, adaptive, and acceptable technology.

Although coarse grains constitute the major portion of the diet of the people in the hills, the social stigma that this is second-rate food is still prevalent. There is a need to make these crops and preparations from them more respectable and socially acceptable.

The known potential of improved varieties, better farming prac-tices, and higher technology is beginning to see some realization. In a country like Nepal, where importation of fertilizers poses certain problems, and transportation being a big bottleneck, improvements and maintenance of soil fertility through biological means should be given top priority, especially in the hills and higher hills. In the higher hills, there is already the practice of conserving, converting, and utilizing almost all organic waste as manure. Ways and means to improve upon such practices may be necessary.

Millet, barley, and buckwheat have in the past been treated as minor cereal crops in Nepal. Because of their importance in the hills and mountains, specially designated research-and-development teams for these crops should be appointed to bring about the needed changes.

32

A pulse improvement programme is long overdue. A report on the improvement of pulses in Nepal has just recently been prepared. The intention of this report is to establish a nationally co-ordinated pulse improvement programme in order to increase production and productivity of pulses in Nepal. However, dissemination of available information and outreach programmes for increasing yield should not await establishment of facilities for research.

Although grown in limited areas, one of the important crops is grain amaranths. It is not only nutritious but a hardy crop which yields reasonably well. Some attention should be given to research, development, and cultivation of this crop. High altitude crops like quinoa, which has about 12 percent protein, 6 percent fat, and 68 percent carbohydrate, grown in the Andes around 3,600 metres above sea-level, is one possibility for a new crop in the mountains. This crop is reported to have a 5- to 6-month growing period, with the ability to grow in marginal lands with minimum input, and to produce reasonably high yields.

As success or failure in agriculture will determine the prosperity and well-being of the country, the need to adequately motivate agricultural workers to work in remote and difficult areas of the country can hardly be overemphasized. Well-meaning, motivated people, and hard work, will no doubt bring about much needed changes in the hills and mountains of Nepal.

33

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