Cognition & Development3. Development of social cognition

Development of the childs sense of self

Activity - questionsWhen you look in the mirror how do you know its you?How do you know what other people feel?

IntroductionInterpersonal behaviors begin in infancy, when children show an interest in other people and make simple social gestures. Youngsters continue to acquire and refine their social skills (e.g., cooperation, negotiation, conflict resolution) throughout childhood and adolescence, especially as they spend more and more of their time with peers rather than adults. First of all though they need to develop a sense of self.

What is the self?Self and self-concept are used interchangeably to refer to an individuals overall self-awareness. Burns (1980) defines the self as: a set of attitudes a person holds towards himself.

According to Leary (2004), the self is a cognitive structure that permits self-reflection and organises information about oneself. It also has motivational features, in particular:Self consistency (to maintain, if not verify ones existing view of oneself)Self-evaluation (self assessment to see oneself accurately)Self-enhancement (to maintain a positive image of oneself)

Our existing view of ourselves is our self-image (how we describe ourselves, what we think were like). This includes social roles, personality traits and physical characteristics (our body image/bodily self). Our self-evaluation determines our self-esteem (or self-regard) which refers to how much we like the kind of person we think we are.

Factors influencing the development of the self-conceptArgyle (1983) identifies three major influences;

the reaction of otherscomparison with otherssocial roles

The importance of these factors extends beyond childhood, since our self-concept is constantly being revised.

1. The reaction of othersKelly (1955) believes that we derive our pictures of ourselves through what we learn of others pictures of us. So the crucial evidence is the reaction of others to us, both by what they say about us and the implications of their behaviour towards us. Parents are all powerful in forming a childs self-concept, if a child is repeatedly told how beautiful, clever, etc, they are , they will believe this as. Parents form their frame of reference.

Coopersmith (1967) Longitudinal StudyFollowed 9 year old white, middle class, boys through to adulthood and found that high-self-esteem boys consistently outperformed the low-self-esteem-boys both educationally and occupationally.Optimum conditions for development for high self-esteem involve a combination of firm enforcement of limits on the childs behaviour, plus a good deal of acceptance of the childs autonomy and freedom-within those limits.

2. Comparison with othersBannister & Agnew (1976) suggest that the personal construct of self is intrinsically bipolar, that is, having a concept of self implies a concept of not-self.

So one way in which we come to form pictures of what were like is to see how we compare with others. Parents and other adults often react to children by comparing them with other children (such as siblings).

If a child is told repeatedly that shes less clever than her bigger sister then shell come to incorporate this into her self-image and will probably have lower self-esteem as a result. In turn this could affect their future academic performance, so that she doesnt achieve I in line with her true ability i.e. Self fulfilling prophecy..

A child with above average intelligence who has grown up in the shadow of brilliant sibling may be less successful academically than an average or even below-average child whos not had to face such unfavourable comparisons.

However...Tesser (2004) suggests the converse to be true, i.e. that ones view of self can affect how we compare ourselves with others. For example, the poorer our performance in say, athletics, the more charitable we are in evaluating others athletic performance. If I do poorly, then others who do poorly are OK; if I do well, the people who do poorly are rated down.

3. Social Roles Kuhn & McPartland (1954) asked 7 year olds and undergraduate students to give 20 different answers to the question Who am I?. The children gave an average of five answers, while the students gave an average of ten. As we get older we incorporate more and more roles into our self-image, reflecting the increasing number and variety of roles we actually take on. The young child may have a sibling or two, and may also be a friend to another child, but the range of roles are limited compared to those of older children or adults.

Developmental changes in the self conceptSelf Schema (Lewis, 1990)Lewis suggests that achieving identity -the sense of acquiring a set of beliefs about the self (self-schema ) is one of the central developmental tasks of a social being. It progresses through several levels of complexity and continues to develop through the lifespan.According to Macoby (1980) we are able to distinguish between ourselves and others on two counts..

Sensation - their own fingers hurt when bitten (but they dont have any such sensations when they bite their rattle or their mothers fingers)Feelings- probably quite early in life, they begin to associate feelings from their own bodily movements with the sight of their own limbs and the sounds of their cries. These sense impressions are bound together into a cluster that defines the bodily self, so this is probably the first aspect of the self-concept to develop.

Self RecognitionOne way in which the development of bodily self has been studied is through self-recognition, which involves more than just a simple discrimination of bodily features. To determine that the person in a photograph, film, mirror is oneself, certain knowledge seems to be necessary:a basic knowledge of oneself as continuous through time (i.e. necessary for recognising ourselves in photographs or movies)knowledge of particular features (i.e. what we look like).

Although other kinds of self-recognition are possible (such as ones voice or feelings), only visual self-recognition has been studied extensively, both in humans and non-humans. Many non-humans (i.e. fish, chickens, elephants) react to their self-images as if they were other animals: they dont seem to recognise them as their own reflections. However, self-recognition has been observed in higher primates such as chimpanzees and other great apes. Gallups study with chimpanzees is one example.

Activity: using A2 textbook outline Gallups mirror test research

Mirror Test (Gallup, 1977)AimTo investigate whether chimpanzees are capable of self-recognition. Previously it has been thought that this ability was unique to humans.MethodGallup placed a full-length mirror on the wall of each chimps cage. At first they threatened the mirror thinking it was another chimp then over three days they examined themselves more closely. A bright red spot was then painted on their heads while they were anaesthetised.

Results

After recovering from the anaesthetic they were returned to their cages-mirror was removed. It was observed how many times they touched the painted marks. The mirror was then replaced and each chimp began to explore the marked spots about 25 times more often than it had done before. The procedure was repeated with chimps that had never seen themselves in the mirror and they reacted to the image as if it were another chimp (they didnt touch the spots).

Conclusions

The first group had apparently learned to recognise themselves through exposure to the mirror image. Its generally agreed that passing the mirror test is strong evidence that a chimp, like humans and orang-utans, has a self-concept. Gallup suggests that this also implies that they can infer the mental states of others, i.e. sympathise, empathise and attribute intent in others (i.e. theory of mind). These attributes some might consider to be exclusively human and this theory of mind this will be examined later.

The psychological selfMacoby (1980) asks what children mean when they refer to themselves as I or me . Are they referring to anything more than a physical entity enclosed by skin?Flavell (1978) investigated development of the psychological self in two and a half to five year olds. In one study, a doll was placed on the table in front of the child, and it was explained that dolls are like people in some ways. Then the child was asked how dolls are different from people, i.e. whether they know their names and think about things, etc. Most children said a doll doesnt know its name and cannot talk about things-but people can.Then they were asked What is the part of you that knows your name and thinks about things? A total of 14 out of 22 children gave fairly clear explanations for their thinking, namely in their heads while others found it difficult.

These answers suggest that children from three and a half to four years old have a basic concept of a private thinking self thats not visible. They can distinguish this from the bodily self that it knows is visible to others, so these children then are beginning to develop a theory of mind, i.e. the awareness that they and other people have mental processes (Wellman, 1990; Shatz, 1994).

THEORY OF MIND

ToMTheory of mind Autistic children characteristics + spectrum/scaleFirst and second order tests

Activity InterviewsIn groups construct interview questions for illiciting information about whether/how people empathise with othersOne group conduct interviews with other group complete individuallyReport back findings to class

So...You will have found that people vary as to the degree of empathy or understanding of other peoples feelings/point of view.. they show...i.e. their theory of mind ...So imagine not having ANY at all...

Theory of MindAs we have seen Gallups study into self-recognition in monkeys ended by him claiming that they had this theory of mind ability.In general, as children too grow older, they become increasing attuned to and interested in the mental lives of those around them. In the process of developing a theory of mind, they gradually learn that people have thoughts, feelings, and motives different from their own and that these thoughts, feelings, and motives can be complex and at times contradictory. They also become increasingly skilled in taking the perspectives of others: They can imagine how other people must think and feel and begin to empathize with those who are suffering or in need.

Developing a theory of mind allows an individual to begin to understand other people, and to predict what other people are likely to do and believe. It is the ability to think about other peoples, or one's own thoughts.

AutismBaron-Cohen (1985) argues that impairments in the development of a theory of mind may underlie the social, communicative, and imaginative impairments of people with Autism or Asperger Syndrome since a theory of mind is necessary for normal development in each of these three areas.

Theory of mindDefinition The ability to understand other peoples mental states, i.e. that they have independent minds of their own. This is therefore a cognitive deficit (Leslie, 1987).

AutismThe term autism was originally introduced by Kanner (1943) to describe a syndrome (a collection of symptoms) he observed in some of his child patients. Kanner identified the key features of autism, which include impairments in social interaction and communication skills, coupled with unusual interest patterns and stereotyped behaviours. He suggested that autism was an inborn defect, as he observed that symptoms were often present from a very young age.Nowadays autism is characterised by a triad of impairments (Martin et al (1997) including;1. Difficulties with social interaction2. Difficulties with verbal and non-verbal communication 3. A lack of imaginative play. Autistic children also often display a restricted range of activities and interests and obsessive tendencies, i.e. repetitive patterns of behaviour

Activity: watch autism clips Clip1 (Transporters - 4 mins)Clip 2(Boy incredible brain 10 mins)

Asperger SyndromeThe term autism is now used as a general term to describe a wide spectrum of disorders from Asperger syndrome at one end through to individuals showing severe forms of autism at the other extreme.Asperger syndrome is a form of autism used to describe people who are usually at the higher functioning end of the autistic spectrum. People with Asperger syndrome usually have fewer problems with language than those with autism, often speaking fluently, though their words can sometimes sound formal or stilted. People with Asperger syndrome do not usually have the accompanying learning disabilities associated with autism; in fact, people with Asperger syndrome are often of average or above average intelligence. There have been many explanations for the origins of autism and attempts have been made to identify a core deficit which can account for the symptoms of autism. According to Baron-Cohen (1985) the core deficit of autism is the autistic persons inability to employ a theory of mind.

Autistic spectrum Severe autistic levelDifficulties with;-social interaction-verbal/non-verbal communication-obsessive behaviourHigher functioning levelHigher intelligence-Aspergers syndrome-Autistic savantsKim Peek

Activity In groups construct your own research method to test theory of mind

Theory of mind (Baron-Cohen et al 1985, 1997)Baron-Cohen et al.(1985) have demonstrated using first-order tests of theory of mind that children with autism can not employ a theory of mind. An example of a first-order test is the Sally Ann test

Sally anne test cliphttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QjkTQtggLH4

Sally Anne Test (Baron-Cohen et al 1985)

ProcedureBaron-Cohen et al used 20 autistic children, 14 downs children and 27 normal children. The normal and downs children served as control groups, with the autistic group as the experimental group.. In this test ..The child is presented with two dolls (Sally and Anne) a marble, a box and a basket. 2. Sally puts her marble in her basket and leaves the room. 3. Anne then moves the marble from the basket to her box. 4. Sally returns and the child is then asked three questions;where is the marble really? (reality question)where was the marble in the beginning? (memory question)where will Sally look for the marble? (belief question)

The correct answer required the child to attribute a false belief to Sally (shell look in the wrong place). The first two questions acted as control questions-used to ensure that the child knows the current location of the marble and remembers where it was before.

Findings All the children passed the naming, reality and memory questions. The autistic children were significantly less likely to pass the false-belief question (20%) compared with the normal children (85%). Those who failed pointed to where the marble really was, rather than to any of the other possible locations.ConclusionsThese findings strongly support the Theory of Mind hypothesis; that autistic children are unable to attribute beliefs to others, which puts them at a serious advantage when asked to predict other peoples behaviour.

EvaluationActivity : in groups describe three weaknesses of this research method

CriticismHowever further research has suggested that adults with autism and Asperger syndrome can pass such tests, e.g;

Frith (1994) has found that adults with Asperger syndrome or with high functioning autism can pass second-order theory of mind tests. Second order theory of mind tests involve the participant reasoning about what one person thinks about another persons thoughts. For example in the Sally Anne test this would involve asking the participant where does Anne think that Sally will look for the marble? The correct answer is to say that Anne believes that Sally will look in her own basket. A number of studies have found that people with Asperger syndrome can pass this second order test which can also be passed by 6 year old normal children.

In addition..Mitchell et al (1997) also suggest that some autistic children can pass the Sally-Anne test and that the theory of mind hypothesis doesnt account for all the impairments/difficulties associated with autism, such as restricted range of interest, obsessive routines, etc.

And..Frith (1996) suggests that it fails to address some of the apparent strengths of some autistic individuals, e.g. excellent memory (Stephen Wiltshire, Kim Peek and other savants).

Activity watch savant clip of Kim PeekCLIP

PEE P Frith (1996) suggests that the theory of mind hypothesis may have low internal validity, E as it fails to address some of the apparent individual differences, i.e. strengths of some autistic individuals, E e.g. excellent memory (Stephen Wiltshire

Support for Baron-CohenHowever, support for Baron-Cohen comes from Happe (1994) who has demonstrated that adults with autism and Asperger syndrome had problems passing a strange stories task which involved participants understanding another persons mental state. This more advanced theory of mind test was designed for the level of a normal 8-9 year old. It involved story comprehension, where the key question in the task either concerned a character's mental states (the experimental condition) or physical events (the control condition). Here is an example of a typical story..

Reading the mind in the Eyes Task (Baron-Cohen et al 1997) This advanced test aims to discover if high functioning adults with autism and Asperger syndrome do have problems with mind reading which it is argued is related to the ability to employ a theory of mind..

Participants were asked what people in pictures were thinking or feeling. As predicted high functioning adults with autism or Asperger syndrome did have more difficulties with the Eye Task than normal adults.

Findings from this new research suggested that there may be sex differences in the rate of development of theory of mind in early childhood and that this may be the cause of some gender differences found in experimental results.

Finally For more information...Use www.holah.co.uk - study, activities - quizeswww.psychexchange articles, videos, etc.

Sample exam question Critically consider psychological research into the development of the childs sense of self, including theory of mind (Baron-Cohen). (8 + 16 marks)

ESSAY PLANAO1Definition of selfArgyle 3 influencesFlavell findings only link to Theory of mindDescribe Theory of mind 3 features/spectrumAO2/03 Evaluation CriticismFrith (1994)Mitchell (1997)Frith (1996)

SupportSally Anne TestHappe (1994)Baron-Cohen (1997)Debate ?nature vs nurtureIssues ? Animal researchA03- terms

Critically consider psychological research into the development of the childs sense of self

8 + 16 marksOr.