cognitive science - wikipedia,

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5/13/2014 Cognitive science - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_science

Figure illustrating the fields that contributed to the birth of

cognitive science, including linguistics, neuroscience, artificial

Intelligence, philosophy, anthropology, and psychology. Adapted

from Miller, George A (2003). "The cognitive revolution: a

historical perspective". Trends in Cognitive Sciences7.

Cognitive scienceFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For the journal, see Cognitive Science (journal).

Cognitive scienceis the interdisciplinary

scientific study of the mind and its processes.[1]

It examines what cognition is, what it does and

how it works. It includes research on

intelligence and behavior, especially focusing on

how informationis represented, processed, and

transformed (in faculties such as perception,

language, memory, reasoning, andemotion)

within nervous systems (human or other animal)

and machines (e.g. computers). Cognitive

science consists of multiple research disciplines,

including psychology, artificial intelligence,

philosophy, neuroscience, linguistics, and

anthropology.[2]It spans many levels of

analysis, from low-level learning and decision

mechanisms to high-level logic and planning;

from neural circuitry to modular brain

organization. The fundamental concept of

cognitive science is "that thinking can best be

understood in terms of representational

structures in the mind andcomputational

procedures that operate on those structures."[2]

Contents

1 Principles

1.1 Levels of analysis

1.2 Interdisciplinary nature

1.3 Cognitivescience: the term

2 Scope

2.1 Artificial intelligence

2.2 Attention

2.3 Knowledge and processing

of language

2.4 Learning and development

2.5 Memory

2.6 Perception and action
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_science 2

3 Research methods

3.1 Behavioral experiments

3.2 Brain imaging

3.3 Computational modeling

3.4 Neurobiological methods

4 Key findings

5 History

6 Notable researchers

7 See also

8 References

9 External links

Principles

Levels of analysis

A central tenet of cognitive science is that a complete understanding of the mind/brain cannot be attained by

studying only a single level. An example would be the problem of remembering a phone number and recalling it

later. One approach to understanding this process would be to study behavior through direct observation. A perso

could be presented with a phone number, asked to recall it after some delay. Then the accuracy of the response

could be measured. Another approach would be to study the firings of individual neurons while a person is trying to

remember the phone number. Neither of these experiments on its own would fully explain how the process of

remembering a phone number works. Even if the technology to map out every neuron in the brain in real-time wereavailable, and it were known when each neuron was firing, it would still be impossible to know how a particular

firing of neurons translates into the observed behavior. Thus an understanding of how these two levels relate to eac

other is needed. The Embodied Mind: Cognitive Science and Human Experience says the new sciences of the

mind need to enlarge their horizon to encompass both lived human experience and the possibilities for

transformation inherent in human experience.[3]This can be provided by a functional level account of the process

Studying a particular phenomenon from multiple levels creates a better understanding of the processes that occur i

the brain to give rise to a particular behavior. Marr[4]gave a famous description of three levels of analysis:

1. the computational theory, specifying the goals of the computation;

2. representation and algorithm, giving a representation of the input and output and the algorithm which

transforms one into the other; and

3. the hardware implementation, how algorithm and representation may be physically realized.

(See also the entry on functionalism.)

Interdisciplinary nature
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Cognitive science is an interdisciplinary field with contributors from various fields, including psychology,

neuroscience, linguistics, philosophy of mind, computer science, anthropology, sociology, and biology. Cognitive

science tends to view the world outside the mind much as other sciences do. Thus it too has an objective, observe

independent existence. The field is usually seen as compatible with the physical sciences, and uses the scientific

method as well as simulation or modeling, often comparing the output of models with aspects of human behavior.

Some doubt whether there is a unified cognitive science and prefer to speak of the cognitive sciences in plural. [5]

Many, but not all, who consider themselves cognitive scientists have a functionalist view of the mindthe view tha

mental states are classified functionally, such that any system that performs the proper function for some mental

state is considered to be in that mental state. According to some versions of functionalism, even non-human

systems, such as other animal species, alien life forms, or advanced computers can, in principle, have mental states

Cognitivescience: the term

The term "cognitive" in "cognitive science" is "used for any kind of mental operation or structure that can be studied

in precise terms" (Lakoff and Johnson, 1999). This conceptualization is very broad, and should not be confused

with how "cognitive" is used in some traditions of analytic philosophy, where "cognitive" has to do only with formal

rules and truth conditional semantics.

The earliest entries for the word "cognitive" in the OED take it to mean roughlypertaining "to the action or

rocess of knowing". The first entry, from 1586, shows the word was at one time used in the context of

discussions of Platonic theories of knowledge. Most in cognitive science, however, presumably do not believe thei

field is the study of anything as certain as the knowledge sought by Plato.

Scope

Cognitive science is a large field, and covers a wide array of topics on cognition. However, it should be recognized

that cognitive science is not equally concerned with every topic that might bear on the nature and operation of themind or intelligence. Social and cultural factors, emotion, consciousness, animal cognition, comparative and

evolutionary approaches are frequently de-emphasized or excluded outright, often based on key philosophical

conflicts. Another important mind-related subject that the cognitive sciences tend to avoid is the existence of qualia

with discussions over this issue being sometimes limited to only mentioning qualia as a philosophically open matter.

Some within the cognitive science community, however, consider these to be vital topics, and advocate the

importance of investigating them.[6]

Below are some of the main topics that cognitive science is concerned with. This is not an exhaustive list, but is

meant to cover the wide range of intelligent behaviors. See List of cognitive science topics for a list of various

aspects of the field.

Artificial intelligence

Main article: Artificial intelligence

"... One major contribution of AI and cognitive science to psychology has been the information processing

model of human thinking in which the metaphor of brain-as-computer is taken quite literally. ."AAAI Web

ages (http://www.aaai.org/AITopics/html/cogsci.html#simon).
http://www.aaai.org/AITopics/html/cogsci.html#simonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_science_topicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qualiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparative_psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_cognitionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytic_philosophyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Johnson_(professor)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Lakoffhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model_(abstract)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simulationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_methodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_mindhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurosciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology


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The Necker cube, an

example of an optical

illusion

An optical illusion. The square A is

exactly the same shade of gray as

square B. See checker shadow

illusion.

Perception and action

Main article: Perception

Perception is the ability to take in information via the senses, and process it in some

way. Vision and hearing are two dominant senses that allow us to perceive the

environment. Some questions in the study of visual perception, for example, include:

(1) How are we able to recognize objects?, (2) Why do we perceive a continuous

visual environment, even though we only see small bits of it at any one time? One tool

for studying visual perception is by looking at how people process optical illusions.

The image on the right of a Necker cube is an example of a bistable percept, that is,

the cube can be interpreted as being oriented in two different directions.

The study of haptic (tactile), olfactory, and gustatory stimuli also fall into the domain

of perception.

Action is taken to refer to the output of a system. In humans, this is

accomplished through motor responses. Spatial planning and movement,

speech production, and complex motor movements are all aspects ofaction.

Research methods

Many different methodologies are used to study cognitive science. As the

field is highly interdisciplinary, research often cuts across multiple areas of

study, drawing on research methods from psychology, neuroscience,

computer science and systems theory.

Behavioral experiments

In order to have a description of what constitutes intelligent behavior, one must study behavior itself. This type of

research is closely tied to that in cognitive psychology and psychophysics. By measuring behavioral responses to

different stimuli, one can understand something about how those stimuli are processed. Lewandowski and

Strohmetz (2009) review a collection of innovative uses of behavioral measurement in psychology including

behavioral traces, behavioral observations, and behavioral choice.[10]Behavioral traces are pieces of evidence tha

indicate behavior occurred, but the actor is not present (e.g., litter in a parking lot or readings on an electric meter)

Behavioral observations involve the direct witnessing of the actor engaging in the behavior (e.g., watching how clo

a person sits next to another person). Behavioral choices are when a person selects between two or more options(e.g., voting behavior, choice of a punishment for another participant).

Reaction time.The time between the presentation of a stimulus and an appropriate response can indicate

differences between two cognitive processes, and can indicate some things about their nature. For example

if in a search task the reaction times vary proportionally with the number of elements, then it is evident that

this cognitive process of searching involves serial instead of parallel processing.

Psychophysical responses.Psychophysical experiments are an old psychological technique, which has bee
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Image of the human head

with the brain. The arrow

indicates the position of

the hypothalamus.

adopted by cognitive psychology. They typically involve making judgments of some physical property, e.g.

the loudness of a sound. Correlation of subjective scales between individuals can show cognitive or sensory

biases as compared to actual physical measurements. Some examples include:

sameness judgments for colors, tones, textures, etc.

threshold differences for colors, tones, textures, etc.

Eye tracking.This methodology is used to study a variety of cognitive processes, most notably visual

perception and language processing. The fixation point of the eyes is linked to an individual's focus of

attention. Thus, by monitoring eye movements, we can study what information is being processed at a given

time. Eye tracking allows us to study cognitive processes on extremely short time scales. Eye movements

reflect online decision making during a task, and they provide us with some insight into the ways in which

those decisions may be processed.

Brain imaging

Main article: Neuroimaging

Brain imaging involves analyzing activity within the brain while performing various

tasks. This allows us to link behavior and brain function to help understand how

information is processed. Different types of imaging techniques vary in their temporal

(time-based) and spatial (location-based) resolution. Brain imaging is often used in

cognitive neuroscience.

Single photon emission computed tomographyandPositron emission

tomography. SPECT and PET use radioactive isotopes, which are injected

into the subject's bloodstream and taken up by the brain. By observing which

areas of the brain take up the radioactive isotope, we can see which areas of

the brain are more active than other areas. PET has similar spatial resolution to

fMRI, but it has extremely poor temporal resolution.

Electroencephalography. EEG measures the electrical fields generated by

large populations of neurons in the cortex by placing a series of electrodes on the scalp of the subject. This

technique has an extremely high temporal resolution, but a relatively poor spatial resolution.

Functional magnetic resonance imaging. fMRI measures the relative amount of oxygenated blood flowinto different parts of the brain. More oxygenated blood in a particular region is assumed to correlate with an

increase in neural activity in that part of the brain. This allows us to localize particular functions within

different brain regions. fMRI has moderate spatial and temporal resolution.

Optical imaging. This technique uses infrared transmitters and receivers to measure the amount of light

reflectance by blood near different areas of the brain. Since oxygenated and deoxygenated blood reflects

light by different amounts, we can study which areas are more active (i.e., those that have more oxygenated

blood). Optical imaging has moderate temporal resolution, but poor spatial resolution. It also has the
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A neural network with two layers

advantage that it is extremely safe and can be used to study infants' brains.

Magnetoencephalography.MEG measures magnetic fields resulting from cortical activity. It is similar to

EEG, except that it has improved spatial resolution since the magnetic fields it measures are not as blurred o

attenuated by the scalp, meninges and so forth as the electrical activity measured in EEG is. MEG uses

SQUID sensors to detect tiny magnetic fields.

Computational modeling

Computational models require a mathematically and logically formal

representation of a problem. Computer models are used in the simulation

and experimental verification of different specific and general properties of

intelligence. Computational modeling can help us to understand the functional

organization of a particular cognitive phenomenon. There are two basic

approaches to cognitive modeling. The first is focused on abstract mental

functions of an intelligent mind and operates using symbols, and the second,

which follows the neural and associative properties of the human brain, is

called subsymbolic.

Symbolic modelingevolved from the computer science paradigms using the technologies of Knowledge-

based systems, as well as a philosophical perspective, see for example "Good Old-Fashioned Artificial

Intelligence" (GOFAI). They are developed by the first cognitive researchers and later used in information

engineering for expert systems . Since the early 1990s it was generalized in systemics for the investigation o

functional human-like intelligence models, such as personoids, and, in parallel, developed as the SOAR

environment. Recently, especially in the context of cognitive decision making, symbolic cognitive modeling i

extended to socio-cognitive approach including social and organization cognition interrelated with a sub-symbolic not conscious layer.

Subsymbolic modelingincludes Connectionist/neural network models.Connectionism relies on the idea

that the mind/brain is composed of simple nodes and that the power of the system comes primarily from the

existence and manner of connections between the simple nodes. Neural nets are textbook implementations

this approach. Some critics of this approach feel that while these models approach biological reality as a

representation of how the system works, they lack explanatory powers because complicated systems of

connections with even simple rules are extremely complex and often less interpretable than the system they

model.

Other approaches gaining in popularity include the use of dynamical systems theory and also techniques putting

symbolic models and connectionist models into correspondence (Neural-symbolic integration). Bayesian models,

often drawn from machine learning, are also gaining popularity.

All the above approaches tend to be generalized to the form of integrated computational models of a

synthetic/abstract intelligence, in order to be applied to the explanation and improvement of individual and

social/organizational decision-making and reasoning.
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Neurobiological methods

Research methods borrowed directly from neuroscience and neuropsychology can also help us to understand

aspects of intelligence. These methods allow us to understand how intelligent behavior is implemented in a physica

system.

Single-unit recording

Direct brain stimulationAnimal models

Postmortem studies

Key findings

Cognitive science has given rise to models of human cognitive bias and risk perception, and has been influential in

the development of behavioral finance, part of economics. It has also given rise to a new theory of the philosophy

mathematics, and many theories of artificial intelligence, persuasion and coercion. It has made its presence known

the philosophy of language and epistemology - a modern revival of rationalism - as well as constituting a substantiawing of modern linguistics. Fields of cognitive science have been influential in understanding the brain's particular

functional systems (and functional deficits) ranging from speech production to auditory processing and visual

perception. It has made progress in understanding how damage to particular areas of the brain affect cognition, an

it has helped to uncover the root causes and results of specific dysfunction, such as dyslexia, anopia, and

hemispatial neglect.

History

Cognitive science has a pre-history traceable back to ancient Greek philosophical texts (see Plato's Meno andAristotle's De Anima); and includes writers such as Descartes, David Hume, Immanuel Kant, Benedict de Spinoza

Nicolas Malebranche, Pierre Cabanis, Leibniz and John Locke. However, although these early writers contributed

greatly to the philosophical discovery of mind and this would ultimately lead to the development of psychology, the

were working with an entirely different set of tools and core concepts than those of the cognitive scientist.

The modern culture of cognitive science can be traced back to the early cyberneticists in the 1930s and 1940s,

such as Warren McCulloch and Walter Pitts, who sought to understand the organizing principles of the mind.

McCulloch and Pitts developed the first variants of what are now known as artificial neural networks, models of

computation inspired by the structure of biological neural networks.

Another precursor was the early development of the theory of computation and the digital computer in the 1940sand 1950s. Alan Turing and John von Neumann were instrumental in these developments. The modern computer,

or Von Neumann machine, would play a central role in cognitive science, both as a metaphor for the mind, and as

tool for investigation.

The first instance of cognitive science experiments being done at an academic institution took place at MIT Sloan

School of Management, established by J.C.R. Licklider working within the social psychology department and

conducting experiments using computer memory as models for human cognition.[11]
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philosophy, computer science, and anthropology that seek to understand the mind. How We Learn: Ask the

Cognitive Scientist (http://www.aft.org/newspubs/periodicals/ae/summer2002/willingham.cfm)

2. ^ abThagard, Paul, Cognitive Science (http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2008/entries/cognitive-science/), The

Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy(Fall 2008 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).

3. ^Varela, F. J., Thompson, E., & Rosch, E. (1991). The embodied mind: cognitive science and human experienc

Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.

4. ^Marr, D. (1982). Vision: A Computational Investigation into the Human Representation and Processing of

VisualInformation. W. H. Freeman.

5. ^Miller, G. A. (2003). The cognitive revolution: a historical perspective. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 7, 141-14

doi:10.1016/S1364-6613(03)00029-9 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2FS1364-6613%2803%2900029-9)

6. Ânumber of authors consider the qualia problem to be part of the cognitive science field, e.g. Some

philosophical issues in cognitive science: qualia, intentionality, and the mind-body problem

(http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=166791.166844), Qualia: The Hard Problem

(http://chil.rice.edu/byrne/Pubs/cogsci96.pdf), and indeed the entire discipline of philosophy as being part of the

cogsci field, e.g. What is Cognitive Science? (http://ls.berkeley.edu/ugis/cogsci/major/about.php), while otherreputable sources that cover both qualia and cog sc i do not draw any obvious connection between them, e.g. the

Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy (http://plato.stanford.edu) (Jan 2008 online edition) does have full-size article

onboth qualia (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/qualia/) and cog sci (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/cognitive-

science/), but qualia are not even mentioned in the cog sci article while cog sci is not mentioned in the qualia

article.

7. ^Sun, Ron (ed.) (2008). The Cambridge Handbook of Computational Psychology. Cambridge University Press,

NewYork.

8. Îsac, Daniela; Charles Reiss (2013).I-language: An Introduction to Linguistics as Cognitive Science, 2nd editio

(http://linguistics.concordia.ca/i-language/). Oxford University Press. p. 5. ISBN 978-0199660179.

9. ^Pinker S., Bloom P. (1990). "Natural language and natural selection". Behavioral and Brain Sciences13(4):

707784. doi:10.1017/S0140525X00081061 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1017%2FS0140525X00081061).

10. ^Lewandowski, Gary; Strohmetz, David (2009). "Actions can speak as loud as words: Measuring behavior in

psychological science". Social and Personality Psychology Compass3(6): 9921002. doi:10.1111/j.1751-

9004.2009.00229 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1751-9004.2009.00229).

11. ^Hafner, K., & Lyon, M. (1996). Where wizards stay up late: The origins of the Internet. New York: Simon &

Schuster., page 32

12. ^Longuet-Higgins, H. C. (1973). "Comments on the Lighthill Report and the Sutherland Reply", in Artif icial

Intelligence: a paper symposium, Science Research Council, 35-37

13. ^Cognitive Science Society (http://www.cognitivesciencesociety.org/about_description.html)

14. ^Box729. "About - Cognitive Science - Vassar College" (http://cogsci.vassar.edu/about/index.html).

Cogsci.vassar.edu. Retrieved 2012-08-15.

15. Ârtur S. d'Avila Garcez, Luis C. Lamb and Dov M. Gabbay. Neural-Symbolic Cognitive Reasoning. Cognitive

Technologies. Springer, 2008, ISBN 978-3-540-73245-7, 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783540732457http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artur_S._d%27Avila_Garcezhttp://cogsci.vassar.edu/about/index.htmlhttp://www.cognitivesciencesociety.org/about_description.htmlhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1751-9004.2009.00229http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1017%2FS0140525X00081061http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199660179http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://linguistics.concordia.ca/i-language/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/cognitive-science/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/qualia/http://plato.stanford.edu/http://ls.berkeley.edu/ugis/cogsci/major/about.phphttp://chil.rice.edu/byrne/Pubs/cogsci96.pdfhttp://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=166791.166844http://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2FS1364-6613%2803%2900029-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_N._Zaltahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophyhttp://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2008/entries/cognitive-science/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thagard,_Paulhttp://www.aft.org/newspubs/periodicals/ae/summer2002/willingham.cfm


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External links

Cognitive Science Society (http://www.cognitivesciencesociety.org)

Cognitive Science Movie Index: A broad list of movies showcasing themes in the Cognitive Sciences

(https://www.indiana.edu/~cogfilms)

List of leading thinkers in cognitive science (http://carbon.ucdenver.edu/~mryder/itc/cogsci.html)

Dr. Carl Stahmer's history page at the University of Santa Barbara

(http://www.carlstahmer.com/cogsci/index.php)

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Categories: Cognitive science

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