Cognitive semantics of G. Lakoff

CSCTR – Session 5Dana Retová

Cognitive linguistics School of linguistics within cognitive science

that conceives language creation, learning and usage as a part of a larger psychological theory of how human understand the world

Emerged in the 1970s It advocates three principal positions:

◦ It denies the existence of an autonomous linguistic faculty in the mind

◦ It understands linguistic phenomena in terms of conceptualization

◦ It claims that knowledge of language arises out of language use.

Shift of focus on semantics and embodiment

The conceptual structure originates in our preconceptual experiences.

We tend to structure our experience on the basic level of conceptualization that is characterized byGestelt perceptionMental imageryMotor competence

Cognitive linguistics

Lakoff’s “Woman, Fire and Dangerous Things: What categories reveal about the mind.”

Categorization is one of the most basic ability of living beings. ◦ Even amoeba categorizes the things into food and

nonfood. ◦ Animals categorize food predators, possible

mates, members of their own species, etc. Why do we need categorization?

◦ Reduction in complexity of rich sensory input◦ Generalization

Categorization

Objectivistic Aristotelian view◦ Woman, fire and dangerous things

have some properties in common Research on categories

◦ Wittgenstein Family resemblances Central and non-central members

◦ Berlin & Kay Neurophysiology of vision Colors are not objectively “out

there”◦ Eleanor Rosh

What exactly categories are?

Prototype theory◦ Research in New Guinea

Dani language Mili = dark/cool (black, green, blue) Mola = light/warm (white, red, yellow)

◦ They choose focal colors as best examples◦ Primary colors are psychologically real even if

they can’t name them◦ Focal colors are learned more readily

Eleanor Rosch

Asymmetry◦ Prototypical members are more representative

than other members◦ New information about a representative member

is more likely to be generalized E.g. Mexico is similar to USA vs USA is similar to

Mexico Cognitive reference points

◦ The basis for inferences E.g 10, 1000, 1000 000

98 is more like 100 than 100 is like 98

Eleanor Rosch

Eleanor Rosch Brown and Berlin

◦ Basic level in nature

Basic-level categories

Basic-level categories

Eleanor Rosch Brown and Berlin

◦ Basic level in nature People tend to name things on the level of genus

instead of species Short, most frequent, simple Learned early in children, more readily Greater cultural significance Perceived as gestalts

Basic-level categories

Levels of conceptualization

Superordinate •Fruit

Basic•Apple

Subordinate•Golden delicious apple•Jonagold apple•Granny Smith apple

1. Mental images◦ It is the highest level at which a single mental

image can represent the entire category2. Gestalt perception

◦ It is the highest level at which category members have similarly perceived overall shapes

3. Motor programs◦ It is the highest level at which a person uses

similar motor actions for interacting with category members.

4. Knowledge structure◦ It is the level at which most of our knowledge is

organized

Basic-level categories

And why so many philosophers supported objective categorization?

It seems that on basic level, most categories map pretty well to reality.

Notice that philosophical discussions about the relationship between our categories and things in the world tend to use basic-level examples◦ The cat is on the mat◦ The boy hit the ball

Why do “Aristotelian” categories seem right?

How we make sense of space around us◦ We automatically “perceive” one entity as in, on,

or across from another entity.◦ However such perception depends on an

enormous amount of unconscious mental activity◦ Most spatial relations are complexes made up of

elementary spatial relation E.g. into, on

◦ Elementary spatial relation have own structure Image schema Profile Trajector-landmark structure

Spatial-relations concepts

English in consists of◦ Container schema (a bounded region in space)◦ Profile that highlights the interior of the schema◦ A structure that identifies the boundary of the

interior as the landmark◦ Object overlapping with the interior as a trajector.

Spatial relations have built-in spatial “logics”◦ Given 2 containers, A and B, and an object X, if A

is in B and X is in A, then X is in B.

Spatial-relations concepts

Structure of container schema◦ Inside◦ Boundary◦ Outside

It is a gestalt structure◦ The parts make no sense without the whole

There is no inside without an inside The structure is topological

◦ The boundary can be made larger, smaler or distorted and still remain boundary

Container schema

Structure of source-path-goal schema◦ A trajector that moves◦ A source location◦ A goal◦ A route from the source to the goal◦ The actual trajectory of motion◦ The position of the trajector at a given time◦ The direction of the trajector at that time◦ The actual final location of the trajector (which may or

may not be the intended destination) It too has internal spatial logic and built-in

inferences

Source-path-goal schema

If you have traversed a route to a current location, you have been at all previous locations of that route.

If you travel from A to B and from B to C, then you have traveled from A to C.

If there is a direct route from A to B and you are moving along that route toward B, then you will keep getting closer to B.

If X and Y are traveling along a direct route from A to B and X passes Y, then X is further from A and closer to B than Y is.

If X and Y start from A at the same time moving along the same route toward B and if X moves faster than Y, then X will arrive at B before Y.

Internal logic of this schema

Clear instances how our body shapes conceptual structure◦ In front of

we project fronts and backs onto objects Artifacts (the side with which we interact) Natural objects, e.g. trees (the side which faces us)

◦ The cat is behind the tree only relative to our capacity to project fronts and backs onto trees and to impose relations onto visual scenes relative to such projections

Bodily projections

Part-whole Center-periphery Link Cycle Iteration Contact Adjacency Forced motion

◦ Pushing / pulling,…

Support Balance Near-far

Orientations◦ Vertical◦ Horizontal◦ Front-back

Other image schemas and elements of spatial relations

Conceptual metaphor theory Classical theories viewed metaphors as novel or

poetic linguistic expressions outside the realm of ordinary everyday language.

Metaphor has is in many cases central to understanding the meaning of many abstract concepts.Many concepts that are important to us are either

abstract or not well-defined in our experienceemotions, thoughts, time,…

We need to mediate access to them through the concepts that we understand more clearlyspatial orientation, objects,…

“When in the Course of human events it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature’s God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.”

US Declaration of Independence

“When in the Course of human events it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature’s God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.”

US Declaration of Independence

“When in the Course of human events it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature’s God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.”

US Declaration of Independence

“When in the Course of human events it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature’s God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.”

US Declaration of Independence

“When in the Course of human events it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature’s God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.”

US Declaration of Independence

“When in the Course of human events it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature’s God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.”

US Declaration of Independence

“When in the Course of human events it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature’s God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.”

US Declaration of Independence

“When in the Course of human events it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature’s God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.”

US Declaration of Independence

“When in the Course of human events it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature’s God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.”

US Declaration of Independence

“When in the Course of human events it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature’s God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.”

US Declaration of Independence

“When in the Course of human events it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature’s God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.”

US Declaration of Independence

“When in the Course of human events it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature’s God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.”

US Declaration of Independence

“When in the Course of human events it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature’s God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.”

US Declaration of Independence

“When in the Course of human events it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature’s God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.”

US Declaration of Independence

“When in the Course of human events it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature’s God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.”

US Declaration of Independence

“When in the Course of human events it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature’s God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.”

US Declaration of Independence

“When in the Course of human events it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature’s God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.”

US Declaration of Independence

“When in the Course of human events it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature’s God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.”

US Declaration of Independence

“When in the Course of human events it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature’s God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.”

US Declaration of Independence

“When in the Course of human events it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature’s God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.”

US Declaration of Independence

Conceptual metaphors Metaphors are “general mappings across

conceptual domain” (Lakoff, 1992). ◦ Metaphoric projection is equivalent to

simultaneous activation of neural maps in the brain.

We do not have to define the domains of experience linguistically; they are inherent in our experience.

This mapping has common structure

Human intelligence is a product of◦ Conceptualization

concepts at basic-level spatial /force dynamic concepts

◦ Metaphor Metaphor allows the mind to use a few basic

ideas (substance, location, force, goal) to understand more abstract domains. Combinatorics allows a finite set of simple ideas to give rise to an infinite set of complex ones

Consequences of metaphor theory

Role of metaphors in reasoning

Metaphors are “general mappings across conceptual domain” (Lakoff, 1992). ◦ Metaphoric projection is equivalent to simultaneous activation of neural

maps in the brain. We do not have to define the domains of experience

linguistically; they are inherent in our experience. This mapping has common structure:

SOURCE DOMAIN RELATIONSHIP TARGET DOMAIN

LOVE IS A JOURNEY

Example of conceptual metaphor

SOURCE – HOT FLUID IN A CONTAINER → TARGET - ANGER

Container → Body

Temperature / fluid level → Intensity of anger

Temperature of the fluid / container → Body temperature

Pressure in the container → Blood pressure

Simmer of fluid → Shivering of the body

Explosion → Loss of self-control

Cold / still fluid → Absence of anger

ANGER IS HOT FLUID IN CONTAINER His anger reached the top His blood boiled He was blowing off steam He was about to blow out

HAPPY IS UP◦ When evaluating words as positive or negative,

people are faster when word is flashed correspondingly (Meier & Robinson, 2004)

Metaphorical movement◦ Quicker pushing button near/far to their bodies

upon reading Adam conveyed the message to you / You conveyed

the message to Adam

Simple metaphor processing

Cannot be learned by mere association Similarity ?

◦ Learn that GOAL IS A JOURNEY by association◦ Extent the metaphor to relationship because

goals are similar

GOAL:◦ Abstract

concept doingall the work

More complex metaphors ?

SOURCE DOMAIN RELATIONSHIP TARGET DOMAIN

LOVE IS A JOURNEY

Human intelligence is a product of◦ Conceptualization

concepts at basic-level spatial /force dynamic concepts

◦ Metaphor Metaphor allows the mind to use a few basic

ideas (substance, location, force, goal) to understand more abstract domains. Combinatorics allows a finite set of simple ideas to give rise to an infinite set of complex ones

Framing of a problem is important

Consequences of metaphor theory

2 views:a) After the metaphor is used long enough, “the

ladder is kicked away” people seem to use “dead” metaphors without really

using original metaphorical sources. b) All metaphorical projections are real

Human mind can directly think only about concrete experiences

Capacity for abstract thoughts evolved from primate capacity to cope with the physical and social world and capacity to extend these to new domains by metaphorical abstraction

“Dead” metaphor debade

Apparently in some cases, people not only do access the underlying metaphor but are readily able to generate new examples:

Metaphors are alive!

SOURCE DOMAIN RELATIONSHIP TARGET DOMAIN

LOVE IS A JOURNEY

Metaphor in science

Skeleton of spatial and force-dynamic concepts like◦ Thing, substance, aggregate, place, path, agonist, antagonist,

goal, means,… What is the role of metaphor then?

◦ There are tools of inference that can be carried over from the physical to the nonphysical realms, where they can do real work Space, time, causation

If A moves B over to C, then B was at C at a previous time, though now it is.

◦ They support analogical reasoning “A is to B as X is to Y” The source (e.g. a journey) is stripped down to some essential

components (A,B,C) The metaphor puts these components into correspondence with the

components of the target (X,Y,Z) One can reason about these components using experience with the

source domain

Reasoning with abstract elements

Metaphor can power sophisticated inferences◦ Paintbrush problem (Schön, 1993)

Paintbrush as a pump

Metaphor in reasoning

Metaphors in reasoning Typical case is „framing“

◦ Many arguments are not based on disagreement in data or use of logic but the frame in which the problem is set Which metaphor is used to describe it

◦ Example: Tversky & Kahneman A new type of virus appeared. 600 people are infected

and will die without treatment 2 programs of fighting the epidemics are suggested:

Treatment A: 200 people will be saved Treatment B: with p=1/3 all 600 people will survive

and with p=2/3 no one will survive.

Doctors would choose A – certainty to risk

Metaphors in reasoning Typical case is „framing“

◦ Many arguments are not based on disagreement in data or use of logic but the frame in which the problem is set Which metaphor is used to describe it

◦ Example: Tversky & Kahneman A new type of virus appeared. 600 people are infected

and will die without treatment 2 programs of fighting the epidemics are suggested:

Treatment C: 400 people will die Treatment D: with p=1/3 no one will die and with

p=2/3 all 600 will die.

Doctors would choose D – risk to certainty

Metaphors in reasoningTreatment as “gain” (saved lives)

Treatment as “loss” (lost lives)

A: 200 will survive C: 400 will dieB: p=1/3; 600 will survive p=2/3; 600 will die

D: p=1/3; 600 will survive p=2/3; 600 will die

Unpleasant feeling from the loss is stronger than pleasant feeling from gain

Risk aversion of people

Abstract concepts are acquired through associative conditioning with the source domain◦ There is no objective truth but only competing

metaphors which are more or less apt for the purposes of the people who live by them Liberating Iraq vs. Invading Iraq

“Show me a relativist at 30,000 feet and I will show you a hypocrite” (R. Dawkins)◦ Scientific metaphors are not merely “useful” in

teaching abstract concepts◦ It seems that some metaphors can express truths

about the world

Is it all a matter of framing?

Glucksberg & Keysar (1993)◦ Conventional metaphor: “Love is a patient

(challenge)”, said Lisa. “I feel that this relationship is on its last legs (in trouble). How can we have a strong marriage if you keep admiring other women?” “You’re infected with this disease”

◦ Novel metaphor: “Love is a patient”, said Lisa. “I feel that this relationship is about to flatline. How can we administer the medicine if you keep admiring other women?”

Is most of our thinking metaphorical?

3D domain of space is inherently more concrete and richly organized than the 1D domain of time

Metaphor in language acquisition◦ In children (Bowerman, 1983)

Can I have any reading behind [=after] the dinner? The balloons is on the other side, after I ate. But

there might have been more on the first side [=before eating]

Today we’ll be packing because tomorrow there won’t be enough space to pack

Friday is covering Saturday and Sunday so I can’t have Saturday and Sunday if I don’t go through Friday.

TIME IS SPACE metaphor

We do not necessarily conceptualize time as space◦ Kemmerer (2005)

Double dissociation in brain-damaged patients “She is at the corner” vs. “She arrived at 1:30” “She ran through the forest” vs. “She worked through

the evening” Different circuits

responsible for understanding spaceand time

TIME IS SPACE metaphor

Or do we?◦ Casasanto & Boroditsky (2008)

Time and space are asymmetrically dependent representational domains Space being a more rich and embodied domain

It is used more often to represent time than time is used to represent space

Spatial dimension directly affects temporal estimation

Duration of an event has no effect on length estimation

TIME IS SPACE metaphor

◦ “Wednesday meeting has been moved forward two days.”

◦ What day will it fall on?

TIME IS A PROCESSION vs. TIME IS A LANDSCAPE (Boroditski, 2000)

TIME metaphors

Ego-moving vs. Time-moving

Gentner et al. (2002, p. 539)

Núñez & Sweetser (2006):◦ Speakers of Aymara face

the past and have their backs to the future Nayra = past (eye, sight, or

front) Q’’ipa = future (behind,

back) Q’’ipüru = tomorrow = q’’ipa

+ uru (some day behind one’s back)

◦ Analyzed gestures use when talking about time

Cultural variance

Questions?