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QUESTIONS:Does anyone know about how large these essays should be? As in a full page vs a few paragraphs? TIA :)i feel like since we’re doing 2 they should be a about a page each? (like the length of the critical review maybe?)

I asked and he said 1 page maximum each.→ Do we need to cite anything?

He also said the answer should be in “narrative style”...

Do you guys know if the paper is double spaced or single? - most likely single. definitely single-spaced

Whoever had a question about #9 I sorta tried to explain it a little.

1. What are the costs of being social? What does mirroring have to do with sociality? What would you say is

the most likely reason for the existence of mirror neurons? Explain why.- mirror neurons have been shown to help with understanding with actions & intentions- Simulation, imitation learning, understanding actions, understanding intentions, empathy, Theory of Mind,

Language- MNS allows us to relate to one another, the more you mirror the more the persons likely to like you

- empathy/theory of mind- As humans we’ve become more social, the extension of our knowledge in the MNS and the extension of human

MN’s compared to other primates shows the necessity for mirroring for relationships and social networks- for the cost of being social, could you talk about how you tend to lose a sense of individuality? You feel the need to

conform and imitate others? With the idea of mirror neurons and how they play a role in imitation, people tend toimitate others who are more fitting for survival in society. (this is kind of a cogs102a information)

- Most likely reason for mirror neurons is for adaptability and survival2. What are two different hypotheses on how mirror neurons came to be? What is the strongest evidence in

support of each? ASSOCIATIVE LEARNING HYPOTHESIS

● Mirror Neuron are the Result of associative learning

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● Associative learning results from conditioning or the exposure to a relationship between two events.- Such conditioning is a function of “contiguity”, meaning that the closure two events are in time, the stronger the association- It is also a function of “contingency”, that is that one event must reliably predict the other (correlated activity)- The change in behavior results primarily from the strengthening of connections between event representations. Neurally, this

means increasing efficacy of synaptic transmission.- “What fires together wires together” (HEBBIAN LEARNING)● Motor neurons and associative learning did not evolve for the “purpose” of producing mirror neurons● Motor neurons are forged through sensorimotor experience, that is the correlated experience of observing and executing the

same action● Cecilia Heyes promotes associative learning hypothesis:- Each hypothesis acknowledges genetic and experiential contributions to MN development- Each offers plausible accounts of the origins of mirror neurons- However, the implications are different.

● the associative hypothesis has some advantages over the adaptation hypothesis- Associative Learning advantages:

- A task-general process of learning found in most species- it explains the existence of mirror neurons in many areas of the brain- it is consistent with evidence indicating that MNs contribute to a range of social cognitive functions, but do not play a

dominant, specialized role in any of them (especially action understanding)- It’s supported by recent data showing that, even in adults, one can transform the MNS by sensorimotor learning- It provides an empirically testable explanation for the differences between monkeys and humans

- Cecilia Heyes: Where do mirror neurons come from

- associative hypothesis: mirror neurons come from sensorimotor experience & the experience is obtainedthrough interaction with others- 3 advantages: provides straightforward, testable explanation for the difference between monkeys and

humans ; consistent with emerging evidence that mirror neurons contribute to a range of social cognitivefunctions ; recent data showing that even in adulthood, the MN system can be transformed bysensorimotor learning

- strongest evidence would be Hebbian learning- that synaptic efficacy increases if there is correlated activity in pre and post synapse.

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- correlated meaning both contiguity and contingency.- neurons that wire together fire together

● adaptation hypothesis : born with mirror neurons- capacity to match observed with executed actions is inherited- adaptation: phylogenetic natural selection and canalization processes

- evolved to fulfill a particular function and solve a specific problem in an efficient, reliable, and preciseway; in this theory, experience has a minor role as either a trigger or to facilitate MN development

- Strongest evidence: found in day old babies and primates- Arguments against it: can’t find out if mirror neurons are present at birth (unethical) or wired between

birth and testing; retained functionality and exaptation argue against a previous function in evolution(mirror neurons in primates and birds) having the same current function (mirror neurons in humans)

- evidence for this would be monkeys? Natural selection through understanding observed actions and executingthem and you can see this occurs through monkeys.

3. How do we bridge the gap between animal and human studies with respect to mirror neurons? What areproblems with animal models? How do we deal with functional differences across species? What are theconstraints?

My guess is that you focus on parts of the mirror neurons that both animals and humans have in common. Example ofthe selective imitation and the overimitation. Results show that monkeys focus on the end goal instead of the process.Children on the other hand, they follow the process and this is explained by the societal pressure to follow adults andconform, etc.Problem with animal models is that they don’t have the exact same mirror neurons that humans have. Example abovewith the box and how they test to see if monkeys imitate just like humans.

➔ deal with functional differences across species by

4. What populations of individuals may not have properly functioning mirror neuron systems? What evidencewould support their classification as having dysfunctional mirroring?

ASD(?) : Deficits/delays in social interaction (which relates to social function of MNS)◆ Interactive/symbolic play ( another social function of MNS)

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◆ Joint attention (mirroring), imitation (mirroring), empathy◆ Children with ASD have a lack of social understanding.

➔ There is evidence of EEGs measures mu suppression and they found out that ASD has less mu suppression.◆ Although ASD children are able to imitate and observe, they lack the aspect that connects MNS to an

emotional experience.◆ The MNS regions responsible for action understanding was not active while the MNS regions

responsible for observing and imitating was.◆ dysfunctional mirroring because evidence from Pineda that shows that researchers did neurofeedback

training to improve mu suppression in children with ASD and it works.➔ Evidence in the Dapretto reading- ASD showed no mirror neuron activity in inferior frontal gyrus which is also

related to social cognition- therefore it suggests that a dysfunctional mns is the cause of social deficits inautism.

5. What evidence supports the MNS theory of autism? Describe what a mu rhythm is and where it comes from?What are some issues about the relationship between mu suppression and MN activity? What factorscontribute to the diversity of results in the autism-MNS literature? What would you want or need to know todevelop an effective autism intervention?

➔ MNS Theory of ASD: MNS said to be involved in imitation and empathy, two important issues for people with ASD◆ From ppt: “If the MNS is dysfunctional in autistics, Mu rhythm suppression should not occur (to the same

extent as in neurotypicals)”➔ Mu Rhythm:8-13 Hz band generated by sensorimotor areas (from ppt)

◆ Suppressed by self-initiated movement, observation of movement and imagined movement.

Issues Mu/MNS: From the powerpoint, the relationship between mu suppression and mirror neurons is that they arenot exclusive. If there is

- there are broad wide regions sensitive to visual input that mediate mu suppression so it is not just limited tomirror neurons.

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-6. Which of Hickok’s 8 arguments is the strongest and poses a real problem for proponents of mirroring as

instantiated by mirror neurons? How would you address his criticism that it’s difficult to gain trueunderstanding when we define fuzzy terms with even fuzzier concepts?

Week 10:

How would you address his criticism...

It is not obvious from the definitions what ‘‘action understanding’’ means.

DEFINITION 1 : Gallese et al. (1996) define action understanding as ‘‘the capacity to recognize that an individual is

performing an action, to differentiate this action from others analogous to it, and to use this information in order toact appropriately’’ (p. 606).

For example, with respect to the first definition, upon seeing an individual producing meaningless, non-goal-directedactions (e.g., flailing the arms, which should yield no mirror neuron activity), one could presumably ‘‘recognize’’ thatactions are being performed, ‘‘differentiate’’ such actions from other actions (e.g., swinging the arms rhythmically),and ‘‘act appropriately’’ in response (walk away or call 911), all without ‘‘understanding’’ the meaning of the actions inthe goal-directed sense.

DEFINITION 2 : Rizzolatti et al. (2001) propose that action understanding is ‘‘the capacity to achieve the internaldescription of an action and to use it to organize appropriate future behavior’’ (p. 661).

The nature of the ‘‘internal description’’ in the second definition is itself undefined and therefore adds little clarity tothe nature of action understanding.

DEFINITION 3 : Rizzolatti and Craighero (2004) claim, ‘‘Each time an individual sees an action done by anotherindividual, neurons that represent that action are activated in the observer’s premotor cortex. This automaticallyinduced, motor representation of the observed action corresponds to that which is spontaneously generated during

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active action and whose outcome is known to the acting individual. Thus, the mirror system transforms visualinformation into knowledge’’ (p. 172).

In the third definition, the idea that understanding is achieved by knowing the ‘‘outcome’’ is also somewhat vague

because ‘‘outcome’’ is not defined.

DEFINITION 4 : Nelissen et al. (2005) state that ‘‘A mere visual representation [of an action], without involvementof the motor system, provides a description of the visible aspects of the movement of the agent, but does not giveinformation critical for understanding action semantics, i.e., what the action is about, what its goal is, and how it isrelated to other actions’’ (p. 332).

The fourth definition also includes concepts that are underspecified: What is the action of grasping a peanut ‘‘about’’? What is the ‘‘goal’’ of such an action? And on what level of analysis is ‘‘relation’’ between actions defined?

Dr. Jamie Pineda “Does a lack of consensus on definition invalidate the research? Clearly not…”

7. Thomas Nagel argued that we will never know “what it’s like to be a bat” – but, is it possible to know what it’slike to be another human? Can aspects of subjective experience be reduced to brain activity? How does theexistence of mirror neurons, mirroring, and embodiment fit into this argument?

8. If we can simulate the motor actions of others, how does that lead to empathy, which may be viewed as asimulation of the mental states of other people? What neural machinery, in addition to mirroring, might benecessary to make that happen?

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9. Proper functioning of the mirror neuron system is necessary for imitation, and the ability to imitate isessential for the normal development of social cognition. Is this relationship a simple causal relationship?Or, more complex? In what ways?

* I dont understand what this question is asking! Can someone explain please?

--- It appears to be asking: Explain the ability to imitate in relation to social cognition. Does social cognition developabnormally?

More-so, is the Mirror Neuron System causative of developing normal social cognition in terms of Imitation ?

The “Or, more complex?” part means: Yes, it is more complex. Explain how.

That’s my understanding of this question. Hope that helps a little.

10.Would you expect mirroring mechanisms to be the same for hand movements as for facial expressions? Inwhat ways are they different? In what ways might they be the same? Is it fair/safe to call both of themmirroring?

GROUP PRESENTATIONS:

Mirroring and Mimicking in the Absence of Facial Expression (Katie Jue, Jen Windsor, Chris Lim, Tiffany Lim):https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1gGDv03OZ_lomgttyj_-7B4poTYxU7irWGu4Xh7Amivc/edit?usp=sharing

Mu rhythms and sleep spindles

https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1iGtZ22eXTCu4_6Joh1ZqdtfeLS8wUusOs82bzhuFQ-o/edit

https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1iGtZ22eXTCu4_6Joh1ZqdtfeLS8wUusOs82bzhuFQ-o/edithttps://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1gGDv03OZ_lomgttyj_-7B4poTYxU7irWGu4Xh7Amivc/edit?usp=sharing

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Physical Imitation Training

https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/12zsw9BAntvg_pF-EBdG2lHhGTwW_7BAY8dssaSDJJqc/edit?usp=sharing

Horror Movies, Empathy, and the Mirror Neuron System

https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1CH_pB_6cWgTCCpT8X79wKrspUS5W5Lp8p0cQlapEo14/edit#slide=id.p

Understanding the relationship between humans and domesticated canines - Imitation as the foundation for empathy:

https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1EGRITEKeI8cGbRu_oElUZZbkpUjZcbf6Gg4Fb3VZeYw/edit?usp=sharing

https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1EGRITEKeI8cGbRu_oElUZZbkpUjZcbf6Gg4Fb3VZeYw/edit?usp=sharinghttps://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1CH_pB_6cWgTCCpT8X79wKrspUS5W5Lp8p0cQlapEo14/edit#slide=id.phttps://docs.google.com/presentation/d/12zsw9BAntvg_pF-EBdG2lHhGTwW_7BAY8dssaSDJJqc/edit?usp=sharing