collection of useful phrases for writing dissertation

7/12/2014 70 useful sentences for academic writing

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70 useful sentences for academic writing

Posted on April 17, 2013 Written by Luiz Otvio[1] 80 Comments

Back in the late 90s, in the process of reading for my MA dissertation, I put together

a collection of hundreds of sentence stems that I felt could help me with my

academic writing later on. And they did. Immensely. After the course was over, I

stacked my sentences away, but kept wondering if I could ever put them to good use

and perhaps help other DELTA / Trinity / MA / PhD students who know exactly what

they want to say, but might have trouble finding the best way to say it.

[2]So here are 70 sentences extracted and adapted from

the original compilation, which ran for almost 10 pages. This list is organized

around keywords (rather than functions / discourse categories) so I can explore each

words ecosystem better, highlight common collocations and so on.

Before you start:

1. Pay close attention to the words in bold, which are often used in conjunction

with the main word.

2. [ ] means insert a suitable word here, while ( ) means this word is optional.

3. Bear in mind that, within each group, some examples are slightly more formal /

less frequent than others.

4. I am not claiming, by any stretch of the imagination, that these are the most

common ways to use each word. These are just examples of academic discourse that I

collected randomly in the late 90s.

Argue

a. Along similar lines, [X] argues that ___.

b. There seems to be no compelling reason to argue that ___.

c. As a rebuttal to this point, it might be (convincingly) argued that ___.

d. There are [three] main arguments that can be advanced to support ___.



e. The underlying argument in favor of / against [X] is that ___.

f. [X]s argument in favor of / against [Y] runs as follows: ___.

Claim

a. In this [paper], I put forward the claim that ___.

b. [X] develops the claim that ___.

c. There is ample / growing support for the claim that ___.

d. [X]s findings lend support to the claim that ___.

e. Taking a middle-ground position, [X] claims that ___.

Data

a. The data gathered in the [pilot study] suggests / suggest that ___.

b. The data appears / appear to suggest that ___.

c. The data yielded by this [study] provides strong / convincing evidence that ___.

(yielded = generated)

d. A closer look at the data indicates that ___.

e. The data generated by [X] is / are reported in [table 1].

f. The aim of this [section] is to generalize beyond the data and ___.

In modern usage, data can also be treated as a mass / uncountable noun, like

information. Before you submit your work, check whether the institution youre

writing for / on behalf of prefers data + plural verb.

Debate

a. [X] has fostered debate on ___. (fostered = encouraged)

b. There has been an inconclusive debate about whether ___.

c. The question of whether ___ has caused much debate in [our profession] [over

the years].

d. (Much of) the current debate revolves around ___.

Discussion

a. In this section / chapter, the discussion will point to ___.

b. The foregoing discussion implies that ___. (foregoing = that came before)

c. For the sake of discussion, I would like to argue that ___.

d. In this study, the question under discussion is ___.

e. In this paper, the discussion centers on ___.

f. [X] lies at the heart of the discussion on ___.

Evidence (Remember: Evidence is uncountable.)

a. The available evidence seems to suggest that ___ / point to ___.



b. On the basis of the evidence currently available, it seems fair to suggest that ___.

c. There is overwhelming evidence corroborating the notion that ___.

(corroborating = confirming)

d. Further evidence supporting / against [X] may lie in the findings of [Y], who ___.

e. These results provide confirmatory evidence that ___.

Ground

a. I will now summarize the ground covered in this [chapter] by ___.

b. On logical grounds, there is no compelling reason to argue that ___.

c. [X] takes a middle-ground position on [Y] and argues that ___.

d. On these grounds, we can argue that ___.

e. [X]s views are grounded on the assumption that ___.

Issue

a. This study is an attempt to address the issue of ___.

b.In the present study, the issue under scrutiny is ___.

c. The issue of whether ___ is clouded by the fact that ___. (clouded = made less

clear)

d. To portray the issue in [X]s terms, ___.

e. Given the centrality of this issue to [my claim], I will now ___.

f. This [chapter] is concerned with the issue of [how/whether/what] ___.

Literature

a. [X] is prominent in the literature on [Y].

b. There is a rapidly growing literature on [X], which indicates that ___.

c. The literature shows no consensus on [X], which means that ___.

d. The (current) literature on [X] abounds with examples of ___.

Premise

a. The main theoretical premise behind [X] is that ___.

b. [X] and [Y] share an important premise: ___.

c. [X] is premised on the assumption that ___.

d. The basic premises of [X]s theory / argument are ___.

e. The arguments against [X]s premise rest on [four] assumptions: ___.

Research

a.This study draws on research conducted by ___.

b. Although there has been relatively little research on / into [X], ___.

c. In the last [X] years, [educational] research has provided ample support for the

assertion that ___.



1. http://www.luizotaviobarros.com/author/tavinhoELT/

2. http://www.luizotaviobarros.com/2013/04/academic-writing-useful-expressions.html/abc-

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d. Current research appears / seems to validate the view that ___.

e. Research on / into ___ does not support the view that ___.

f. Further research in this area may include ___ and ___.

g. Evidence for [X] is borne out by research that shows ___.

h. There is insufficient research on / into ___ to draw any firm conclusions about /

on ___.

a. The consensus view seems to be that ___.

b. [X] propounds the view that ___. (propound = put forward for consideration)

c. Current research (does not) appear(s) to validate such a view.

d. There have been dissenters to the view that ___. (dissenter = someone who

disagrees)

e. The answer to [X] / The difference between [X] and [Y] is not as clear-cut as

popular views might suggest.

f. The view that _____ is (very much) in line with [common sense].

g. I am not alone in my view that ___.

h. [X] puts forward the view that ___.

i. [X]s views rest on the assumption that ___.

Thanks for reading and good luck!

This leaflet is available in other formats on request. July 2014

This publication will explain the main characteristics of academic writing and provide several examples of good practice.

What is academic writing?

When you write an assignment or essay, you must use an academic style of writing. This is similar to your own natural style of writing but has several characteristics which set it apart from more informal types of writing. One of the biggest misconceptions about academic writing is that it uses complex language. This is incorrect, academic writing should be as concise, simple and as clear as possible. The following characteristics are typical of academic writing:

You will not be expected to write wonderfully written academic arguments straight away. As you progress in your course, you will start to read more textbooks and journal articles. You will also receive feedback on your writing from tutors. Using this feedback and reading more in your subject area will gradually develop your academic writing.

How to improve your

academic writing

Use of correct grammar and punctuation

Uses cautious language

Avoids subjective and emotive language

Uses linking words and phrases

Uses correct referencing

Clear and concise language

Formal writing style

Correct spelling

Start reading to develop your academic writing

One of the best ways of developing your academic writing is to read textbooks and journal articles in your area of study. Read articles for style as well as content. You could set yourself the task of reading at least one relevant journal article each week. When reading relevant journals or textbooks try to be aware of the language used and how the author makes use of sentences and paragraphs. The best place to find relevant and appropriate material is the Library Catalogue and NORA.

Formal writing style

Academic writing is formal in style, not chatty, so do not write as you would on Facebook or with a text message. Do not use slang expressions and always write words out in full. Write words out in full

The evidence should not rather than The evidence shouldnt...

Current research did not reflect the findings... rather than Current research didnt reflect the findings.

Most modern televisions make use of polymers... rather than Most modern TVs make use of polymers... Do not use colloquialisms or slang

The evidence should be taken with a pinch of salt.

The results were as clear as mud.

The use of cautious language

Because research and theories are being developed and updated all the time, writers tend to use cautious or tentative language. The language used in academic writing should reflect the amount of strength of evidence to support a topic or claim. This is sometimes called hedging. Academic language is therefore usually cautious in nature.


Language that is not cautious Jennings (2010) research shows that smoking tobacco causes lung cancer. Smiths (2011) evidence says that greenhouse gases have an effect on the climate. Cautious language Jennings (2010) research would appear to show that smoking tobacco may cause lung cancer. Smiths (2011) evidence suggests that greenhouse gases may have an effect on the climate.

Use correct punctuation and grammar Correct use of punctuation is another characteristic of academic writing. Incorrect use of grammar can undermine your assignment or dissertation so it is a good idea to ensure you have an understanding of basic grammar. Knowing how to use correct grammar is a valuable skill for life. Try to learn and understand the correct use of full stops, commas, colons and semi colons, hyphens and apostrophes. Some of the most common punctuation and grammar mistakes students make include:

There are many books available in the University Library on punctuation and grammar. There is also a good resource called Improving your Academic Writing (University of Essex 2012). You can also use the Grammar Beagle (Learnhigher 2012) which can help you overcome the most common grammar and punctuation mistakes.

Structuring your writing A well structured piece of writing is important for several reasons. It helps you present your arguments in a logical way and can provide a framework for presenting your findings. The correct use of paragraphs and sentences are vital for a well structured piece of writing. The use of paragraphs and sentences is covered in more details in the Essay Writing helpguide. Points to remember for good structure:

Try and group similar ideas and concepts together.

Use paragraphs to divide different sections up and ensure that each paragraph has a point.

Use the first sentence of each paragraph to introduce the theme or topic of the paragraph.

Ensure that your sections and paragraphs flow in a logical manner.

Avoid subjective or emotive language A key characteristic of academic writing is that it is objective and neutral. Subjective The residue from the experiment was a beautiful red colour. Browns contribution to the field of quantum physics is extremely important because... Objective The residue from the experiment was red in colour. Brown made a significant contribution to the field of quantum physics because

Writing in the third person Most academic writing uses the third person, in other words the writer does not use I. This helps to ensure the writing stays objective. If you are writing a personal reflection or a reflective report, then you may be required to write in the first person but check with your tutor first. Examples This essay will discuss the effect of The researcher found that the results seemed to indicate It could be argued that... The results appeared to show that

Incorrect use of tenses

Incorrect use of speech marks

Incorrect use of single and plural

Incorrect syntax and sentence structure

Incorrect use of commas and apostrophes


Precise and concise language Academic writing is precise and not vague. Do not be tempted to add extra big words to your assignment to make it appear more academic. Your writing should be as concise as possible. Do not try and use extra words just to increase your word count!

Not precise

The earthquake was strong.

A cupful of methanol was added to the solution.

Precise

The earthquake measured 6.4 on the Richter scale.

400ml of methanol was added to the solution.

Not concise

Owing to the fact that wet weather can contribute towards

erosion in metals

Concise

Because wet weather can contribute towards erosion in

metals

Useful Phrases In academic writing, you will need to compare, contrast and explain different ideas and concepts. The phrases below are examples you can use to compare, contrast, introduce and report results or information. You will encounter these, or similar phrases, as you begin to read more journal articles and textbooks. There is an excellent resource at the Academic Phrasebank (Manchester University, 2012). This resource has many examples of academic phrases and language you can use in your own writing.

Why not build your own phrasebook from useful phrases you encounter in your own reading?

Phrases used to report or interpret results

It is likely that ...suggests that... It appears that...

It is possible that... ...probably means that... ...would appear to show that...

Words used to compare and contrast

Equally... Likewise... It appears that... Similarly...

However... On the contrary... Despite being... On the other hand...

Words used to show examples and draw conclusions

For example... As can be seen... This demonstrates... For instance...

To summarise... In conclusion... In other words... Finally...

Words used to present an authors work

Russell (2011) argued that... McGuirk (2009) estimated... Roll (2009) stated that...

DeMille (1999) concluded that... Evans (2006) believed that... King (2007) suggested that...

Referencing and bibliographies A key characteristic of academic writing is referencing any sources that you use. Referencing usually involves creating an in-text citation and a reference list. An in-text citation is how you refer to, or cite, an author in your own writing. A reference list goes at the end of your assignment and is a complete list of all the resources you have referred to in your writing. The University uses several different referencing styles, we recommend you consult your tutor to clarify which style you should use. A bibliography contains everything that is in your reference list but also any resources you may have read but have not referred to directly in your writing. For this reason, your bibliography is always longer than your reference list.


What makes a good piece of academic writing? The following are generic marking criteria for different Faculties within Northumbria University. You might find them helpful when thinking about what makes a good piece of academic writing. These are taken from Guidelines for Good Assessment Practice at Northumbria University (Northumbria University, 2011).

Geography and Environmental Management - an exceptional answer Excellent in every respect, showing extensive knowledge and understanding, and an outstanding ability to analyse, synthesise and evaluate. Evidence of very extensive, if not exhaustive reading and study beyond the course content. Exemplars are well chosen and specified in considerable detail. An accurate answer presented in a very well organised manner, with excellent presentation. A well balanced answer, very sharply focused on the question and stylishly written. Exhibits a high level of insight, and a strong element of originality.

Newcastle Business School, Undergraduate Year 1, First (70 - 100) Exceptional comprehension of knowledge demonstrated. Sophisticated skill shown in formation of relevant

argument or analytical reasoning. Thorough knowledge and understanding demonstrated. Fluent and focused. Shows ability to contextualise knowledge and sustain a relevant argument or logical reasoning.

Newcastle Business School, Undergraduate Year 3, First (70 - 100) Exceptional scholarship for subject. Outstanding ability to apply, in the right measure, the skills necessary to achieve highly sophisticated and fluent challenges to received wisdom. Knowledge and understanding is comprehensive both as to breadth and depth. A mature ability to critically appreciate concepts and their inter-relationship is demonstrated. Clear evidence of independent thought. Presentation of work is fluent, focused and accurate.

Arts and Social Sciences, Psychology, Undergraduate Year 1, First (70 - 100) Covers all aspects of the question. Evidence of independent reading (mainly books, but perhaps some journal articles). All the material is accurate and directly relevant. All points expressed clearly and succinctly. Excellent organisation of the material. Shows good appreciation of the strengths and weaknesses of theories, methodologies and empirical evidence.

Further reading and useful links

Manchester University (2012) Academic Phrasebank. Available at: http://www.phrasebank.manchester.ac.uk/discussions.htm (Accessed: 5 March 2013).

Northumbria University (2012) Northumbria Skills Plus. Available at: http://www.northumbria.ac.uk/skillsplus (Accessed: 1 May 2013).

University of Essex (2012) How to improve your academic writing. Available at: http://www.essex.ac.uk/myskills/How_to_improve_your_academic_writing.pdf (Accessed: 1 May 2013).

University of Bristol (2012) Improve your writing. Available at: http://www.northumbria.ac.uk/skillsplus (Accessed: 7 July 2014).

University of Westminster http://gsearch.wmin.ac.uk/search?q=cache:qjMrJmby7iAJ:www.wmin.ac.uk/sshl/page-2224+academic+phrases&site=default_collection&client=default_frontend&access=p&ie=UTF-8&output=xml_no_dtd&proxystylesheet=default_frontend&oe=ISO-8859-1Accessed 22/10/09

Academic Writing Centre Useful phrases for academic writing Here are suggestions for using words and phrases which could improve your academic writing structure and style significantly. 1. INTRODUCTION

This essay will deal with the following aspects of the question... The aim of this essay is ......

_______________________________________ 2. GIVING AN OVERVIEW OF THE ESSAY CONTENT

In order to link.... with ...., the background to ... will be briefly outlined. The first part of the analysis will examine.... The second part of this analysis will consider... The final level of the analysis consists of...

__________________________________________ 3. MAKING A POINT

It is clear/ noticeable that... It is necessary/ important/ useful/ interesting/to note/point out/ highlight/

emphasise that

___________________________________________ 4. EMPHASIS MARKERS show clearly what you think is most important but allow you to avoid personal language such as 'I think' Adjectives: main, crucial, important, significant, key, essential Nouns: focus, element, concept, theory, aspect, part, idea, point, argument, discussion, debate Verbs: to emphasise, to summarise, to focus, to highlight Examples:

The key aspect of this argument is The most crucial point made so far It is worth noting that Another relevant point is that ___________________________________________


5. INTRODUCING A NEW IDEA

Turning now to the question of Bearing in mind the previous points, Having considered (X) With regard to As far as ....... is concerned

___________________________________________

6. HEDGING

The group of 11 words called modals can help you avoid over-generalisation as they express degrees of certainty and possibility, thereby avoiding making statements which claim too much or suggest you know everything about a subject. The 11 modals are: CAN MAY COULD MIGHT WILL WOULD SHALL SHOULD, OUGHT TO MUST NEEDN'T By far the most useful modal verbs are CAN, MAY, COULD and MIGHT. If you say something IS true you may well be guilty of over-generalisation. If you say something MAY or MIGHT be true you avoid this problem.

It could/might be said that .... It seems/appears ... It is generally thought/considered ...... Some/many people think/believe ......

___________________________________________

7. CITING RESEARCH

It has been found that Research has shown that

___________________________________________

8. MAKING HYPOTHESES

If, then Assuming that

___________________________________________ 9. STATING CONDITIONS

Given that Provided that Granted that If it is the case that & then,

___________________________________________


10. GIVING EXAMPLES

For example/instance In this situation/case To illustrate

___________________________________________ 11. ADDING INFORMATION

Again/ besides/ equally important/ in addition/ further/ furthermore/ moreover

It must also be noted/ remembered that

___________________________________________ 12. DISCUSSION MARKERS

On the one hand, on the other hand Although it may be true that....however Whilst it is generally agreed that There exists a contradiction between ..... and Those in favour of/ Supporters/Advocates of Those opposed to/ Critics of

___________________________________________ 13. RE-PHRASING

In other words To put it another way That is to say

___________________________________________ 14. EVALUATIVE LANGUAGE. This is used to show more clearly what you think about different points. Do you already use these words? Could you use them more? Positive adjectives: remarkable, innovative, complex, interesting, profound, comprehensive, powerful, rigorous, systematic, useful, sensitive, reliable, logical, Negative adjectives: flawed, modest, unsatisfactory, inadequate, limited, restricted Nouns: synthesis, survey, topic, study, review, history, concept, area, theme, overview, analysis, system


Verbs: explain, discuss, study, present, describe, bring into focus, consider, explore, illuminate, introduce, analyse, constitute Examples:

The UNO has published an interesting survey... It presents a useful concept... However, the study is limited in that...

___________________________________________ 15. REPEATING In general, DON'T! Try to organise your writing so that you stick to one point at a time. But if you must, you can use phrases such as:

To return to an earlier point

As noted before/above

___________________________________________ 16. SUMMING UP

Briefly, we can say/ it can be said that To sum up Hence/therefore/accordingly/ consequently The evidence suggests, therefore In general what this means/ suggests/ indicates is It is clear from the above that

___________________________________________ 17. CONCLUSION

To conclude/In conclusion,

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USEFUL PHRASESUseful phrases when writing a dissertation abstract

This section sets out some useful phrases that you can use and build on when writing your undergraduate or master's level

dissertation abstract. As the section, How to structure your dissertation abstract explains, the abstract has a number of

components, typically including: (a) study background and significance; (b) components of your research strategy; (c)

findings; and (d) conclusions. The phrases below build on these four components.

COMPONENT #1: Study background and significance

COMPONENT #2: Components of your research strategy

COMPONENT #3: Findings

COMPONENT #4: Conclusions

COMPONENT #1Build the background to the study

Introductory sentences

This study (dissertation, research)?

aims to illuminate?

examines the role of...

explores why...

investigates the effects of...

assesses the impact of...on...

developed and tested the idea that...

I...

investigated the role of...

outline how...

introduce the concept of...

extend prior work on...

examine the relationship between...and...

identify...

evaluate these...by...

In this study (dissertation, research) I...

propose a model of...

Leading with research questions

This study (dissertation, research)...

GETTING STARTED QUANTITATIVE DISSERTATIONS FUNDAMENTALS

Quantitative Dissertations Dissertation Essentials Research Strategy Data Analysis



is motivated by two research questions: (1) [Insert research question one]? (2) [Insert research question two]? To

examine these questions, the study?

"[Insert a research question]?" is a fundamental question in [the name of your area of interest]. We suggest [argue] that

a new generation of research in this area needs to address the extended question: [Insert your research question]?

Leading with research hypotheses


offers two hypotheses: (1) [insert research hypothesis one]; and (2) [insert research hypothesis two].

tested hypotheses regarding the relationship between...and...

It was

hypothesized that [insert variable] is negatively [positively] related to...

hypothesized that [insert variable] is more negatively [positively] related to [insert variable] than [insert variable].

Leading with a dissertation aim or goals


has three goals: (1) [insert goal one], (2) [insert goal two], and (3) [insert goal three].

Literature component

Previous research (extent research, previous studies, or prior studies)...

indicates that...

offers a descriptive account of...

has shown that...

Literature on [insert area of the literature] has focused almost exclusively on...

Synthesizing [e.g., name of theories], this research built and tested a theoretical model linking...

This model addresses X (e.g., 2) major gaps in the literature.

Drawing on [insert name] research, we argue that...

In bridging the two literature gaps, a model of [insert text] is proposed.

Significance of the study

We develop theory to explain how...

Our most important contribution is...

This study advances our understanding of...

To date, no systematic investigation has considered...

We examine how organisations use [insert text] to overcome...

COMPONENT #2Components of research strategy

We conducted...

in-depth case studies of [X number of private/public] enterprises in [country].

a laboratory experiment and a field study to test our hypotheses.

an inductive study of...

We employed...

multiple methods to test...



previous 1 2 3 4 5

Using...

a sample of [X number of people, firms, data, objects, e.g., doctors, banks, songs], we collected data from three

sources [e.g., X, Y and Z].

comparative case analysis, this research explored the role of...

To illustrate these ideas, [insert company name or type] was used as a case study to show how...

We tested these hypotheses using [e.g., student test score] data to measure [e.g., teacher performance].

We developed a 9-item scale to measure...

Using data from...

COMPONENT #3Major findings

The findings from the research...

illustrate how...

show that the impact of [insert text] on [insert text] is more complex than previously thought/assumed.

address a controversial belief among practitioners that...

illustrate the antecedents and consequences of [insert text] and [insert text] in...

suggest that the effect of [variable X] on [variable Y] was moderated over time when...

A predicted, the...

Contrary to our expectations...

COMPONENT #4Conclusion

The results, implications for managers, and future research are discussed.

Theoretical contributions and managerial implications of the findings are discussed.

The findings...

provide support for the key arguments.

support the prediction that...

support the model:

offer insights into...

prompt a re-thinking of [insert your area of interest]

We conclude that...

If you would like us to add more of these kinds of phrases, please leave us feedback.

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1

Academic WritingAcademic WritingAcademic WritingAcademic Writing 1111 What is it hat is it hat is it hat is it ---- what is it not? what is it not? what is it not? what is it not?

What is formal writing? It is usually defined by what it is not. It is not colloquial, not personal, nor is it subjective. Some characteristics of formal writing: The academic writer's approach to his or her writing is: The academic writer's tone is:

1.11.11.11.1 SSSStyletyletyletyle

In addition the academic writer makes more frequent use of

impersonal pronouns and phrases

qualifying words and phrases

complex sentence structures

specialized vocabulary

passive forms of verbs

analytical rather than impressionistic objective rather than subjective intellectual rather than emotional rational rather than polemical

serious rather than conversational impersonal rather than personal formal rather than colloquial


2 1.21.21.21.2 CCCConventionsonventionsonventionsonventions

Some conventions of formal academic writing Generally:Generally:Generally:Generally: avoid words and expressions from spoken English. Colloquialisms are

usually inappropriate when using formal language. try to remove slang where possible, choose more formal vocabulary. Avoid contractions. Avoid contractions. Avoid contractions. Avoid contractions.

Do not use Instead use

don't do not wasn't was not can't cannot isn't is not it's it is

Find alternatives to beginning a sentence with so, and, or but. Instead of So try As a result / Therefore, / Consequently, Instead of And try In addition, / Furthermore, Instead of But try However, (For more suggestions, see the section on Transitions that follows later)


3

2222 PPPPassive voice assive voice assive voice assive voice The passive voice means changing from phrasing things in this form "I did this to that object" to "that object had this done to it" suddenly, you don't need to know that I I I I did it. The use of I, We and You: How to write in the third person when expressing opinions.

Try to avoid: I believe NATO'S strategy was poorly designed and carelessly implemented.

We argue NATO'S strategy was poorly designed and carelessly implemented.

You can see NATO'S strategy was poorly designed and carelessly implemented.

The phrases I believe /We argue / You can see can be found in academic writing but they are not formal enough for many departments. If you need to be more formal, you have to learn how to use impersonal structures Try stating the opinion directly . . . NATO'S strategy was poorly designed and carelessly implemented. You can also invoke an authority . . . Fred Bloggs, in his study NATO in the Nineties (1997), argues that NATO'S strategy was poorly designed and carelessly implemented. Whether you agree or not will become clearer in the sentences that follow, e.g. This is confirmed by the catastrophic events that followed. or However, this seems to fly in the face of accounts by local inhabitants.


4 Some other impersonal constructions: It is argued that it has been asserted that it will be shown that it can be seen that _________________________________________________________________ Policy makers have claimed that Politicians have maintained that Researchers have suggested that _________________________________________________________________ The critic Olivia Robinson disputes The policy's main opponent, Dr. Kissinger, doubts Dr. George Simpson questions _________________________________________________________________ advocates dismiss environmentalists urge realists recommend ________________________________________________________________ Exercise: Exercise: Exercise: Exercise: iiiimpersonal constructionmpersonal constructionmpersonal constructionmpersonal constructionssss Rewrite each sentence by making it more formal, but do not change the author's meaning. It is okay to add words, if necessary. The first one has been done for you. 1. Most people considered that it was a good decision. It was considered to be a good decision.


5 2. I think that the government's policy was successful in this regard. It can be argued that the government's policy was successful in this regard. 3. It's obvious that this was going to happen. It is obvious that this was going to happen. It was apparent to many that this would be the likely outcome. 4. I intend to disprove her argument in my essay. 5. I feel that the fall of communism was a good thing. It has been pointed out that the fall of communism was a good thing. 6. People were surprised at the results of the election and some were very upset. The results of the election were surprising. 7. We all know that the assassination was a desperate attempt to prevent democracy from taking hold in the country. N.B. For those of you working in departments less preoccupied with rigid adherence to this convention, another advantage of generally using the passive voice is that it adds gravitas to those few occasions and opinions expressed using the active voice; use sparingly and your opinions will carry weight.


6 3333 HHHHow to convey emotion while using the passive voice ow to convey emotion while using the passive voice ow to convey emotion while using the passive voice ow to convey emotion while using the passive voice

3.13.13.13.1 CCCChoice of words:hoice of words:hoice of words:hoice of words: Where you wish to add emphasis deliberately choose either abrupt, staccato synonyms or deliberately more elaborate, grandiose synonyms. Your choice of words or synonyms will relay your judgments. for example think about how different news programmes/papers use language to confer judgements while still appearing impartial from the obvious freedom fighter vs terrorist to more subtle examples such as spying vs intelligence gathering deeply irresponsible vs cavalier whistle-blower vs informant ploughed into vs ran into

Now, try meddling with

1. The chicken crossed the road.

2. The government is set to backtrack on key areas of the anti-terror laws, the shadow

home secretary claims.

3. The detainee was head of the regime's intelligence services before becoming a

presidential adviser.

3.23.23.23.2 SSSStyle tricks:tyle tricks:tyle tricks:tyle tricks:

1. alliteration alliteration alliteration alliteration - beginning a series of two or more words with the same sound e.g. bbbbig bbbbang, cocococondescending, cocococonvoluted ccccoooodswallop and crcrcrcreative crcrcrcrap at that - you don't even need an exclamation mark when you've got alliteration - which reminds me - don't use exclamation marks in academic writing.

2. idioms idioms idioms idioms - phrases that are part of language without being colloquial or clichd, e.g. straight faced, passing the buck, odds and ends, part and parcel. Use of these could act to lighten the tone of an essay that might otherwise become stuffy, but use with care.

3. sparinglysparinglysparinglysparingly reverting to reverting to reverting to reverting to the active voice the active voice the active voice the active voice as stated at the end of section 2 (if your department is not a stickler for the convention).

In creative writing... In creative writing... In creative writing... In creative writing... (e.g. poetry / prose) you could use the following to great effect (however, in academic writing you would generally be well advised to avoid) metaphorsmetaphorsmetaphorsmetaphors - comparisons between dissimilar entities expressed as statements of fact, typically using some form of to be, e.g. he is a shark/ she's a sausage/ he's putting down roots. similes similes similes similes - comparisons between dissimilar entities using words such as like and as, e.g. it was as if the heavens opened hyperbolehyperbolehyperbolehyperbole - wild exaggeration, e.g. the old clich I could eat a horse litoteslitoteslitoteslitotes - a form of understatement that implies something by stating that it is not its opposite, e.g. saying not bad instead of saying good. anthropomorphism anthropomorphism anthropomorphism anthropomorphism - giving animals/inanimate objects human qualities, emotions or intent, e.g. that step tripped me/ the chair welcomed me/ I left the computer to its own devices.


7 4444 SignpostingSignpostingSignpostingSignposting

There are two aspects to sign posting:

the first is saying where you are:

the second is saying where you're going / implying relationships that lend structure to your essay as a whole.

4.14.14.14.1 Saying where you areSaying where you areSaying where you areSaying where you are....

One of the problems many of us dyslexics experience is that we're often reluctant to state the obvious, because it's -er- obvious: we tend to go straight for the meat of the argument. However, if you think of the obvious as being the "big picture message" or the skeleton instead, it becomes more apparent why its inclusion can help give structure to your arguments. This can be done by using the IDEAL paragraph format, i.e.

I Introduce the idea (i.e. the topic of that paragraph) D Define the idea (e.g. new terminology in the paragraph) E Explore the idea (e.g. background / relevance / context) A Add evidence about the idea (quotes, statistics, etc.) L Lastly, conclude (state the obvious) Holding to this kind of structure will also help you avoid both repetition (sending you over your word count) and not putting in sufficient shoehorning language (which would pull you under your word count). If, after applying the IDEAL format, you're still significantly under or over your word count then there's a very high probability that you're pitching your assignment at the wrong level (either too low or too high respectively) especially if the second section on sign posting (whichll help improve the readability of your essay) also leaves you wide of the mark.


84.24.24.24.2 Saying where you're going Saying where you're going Saying where you're going Saying where you're going ---- linking sentences & paragraphs linking sentences & paragraphs linking sentences & paragraphs linking sentences & paragraphs::::

Use transition words or phrases between sentences and between paragraphs. These emphasise the relationships between ideas They help readers follow your train of thought or see

connections they might otherwise miss or misunderstand. REMEMBER All academic writing is written to be read by someone else HOWEVER, Some of us become so involved with the hassle of getting things down that we do not think of the person were writing for. Preoccupied with off-loading our information and ideas we lose sight of our reader. So, remember: you need to show your train of thought you need to show how your ideas connect up you need to show how your paragraphs are linked dont fall into the trap of thinking these links are just a waste of space/ "padding" or "fluff" - trying to put your thoughts down using a minimum number of words: this will not help your reader. Instead, connect your work with words and phrases which tell the reader what you have done what you are going to do how your points link up


9 Now look at some examples of transitional words and

phrases can you think of any others? ADDITION adding more to a point that has already been made in addition, again, also, and, besides, finally, first, further, furthermore, last, moreover, second, too, next, indeed, in fact CAUSE AND EFFECT - this is where you show the effects of something accordingly, as a result, consequently, hence, otherwise, therefore, thus; so, it can be seen that; it is evident that; because of this; this suggests that; it follows that; COMPARISON similarly, likewise CONTRAST - introducing an alternative viewpoint in contrast, although, and yet, however, nevertheless, on the other hand, on the contrary, but, alternatively, against this it could be argued; conversely; on the contrary EXAMPLES OR SPECIAL FEATURES for example, for instance, in other words, in illustration, an illustration of this is, in this case, in particular, specifically, evidence to support this can be found in. CONNECTIONS IN TIME after a short time, afterwards, as long as, as soon as, at last, at length, at that time, at the same time, before, earlier, of late, immediately, in the meantime, lastly, lately, later, meanwhile, presently, shortly, since, soon, temporarily, thereafter, until, when, while. SUMMING UP OR CONCLUDING in brief, in conclusion, in short, on the whole, to conclude, to summarise, to sum up, all in all, on the whole, on balance, it could be claimed, as a consequence of this; in the final analysis


10Now look at these examples of 'before' and 'after' paragraphs. Example oneExample oneExample oneExample one Before Harrison's use of the word public asserts his belief that poetry should be available for all. Poetry is not something that readily embraces such a categorisation. Geoffrey Grigson has suggested that poetry is essentially a 'private art'. It is 'the necessary secret possession of select individuals. It isn't choral, it isn't communal [] it is resistant to vulgarisation.' Alan Bold, has argued that 'there is nothing intrinsically private about poetry'. C. K. Stead has said: 'Poetry is neither 'public' as in the moralist tradition, nor 'private' as in the aesthete's'. After It is arguable that Harrison's use of the word public asserts his belief that poetry should be available for all. For some critics, however, poetry is not something that readily embraces such a categorisation. Geoffrey Grigson, for example, has suggested that poetry is essentially a 'private art'. For him it is 'the necessary secret possession of select individuals. It isn't choral, it isn't communal [ consequently ] it is resistant to vulgarisation.' Alan Bold, on the other hand, has argued succinctly that 'there is nothing intrinsically private about poetry' whereas for C. K. Stead: 'Poetry is neither 'public' as in the moralist tradition, nor 'private' as in the aesthete's'.


11Example twoExample twoExample twoExample two Before Television has been blamed by researchers for many social problems. Families do not communicate. They do not eat together. Many families have the television on all the time. Children watch unsuitable videos. This may cause psychological disturbance. It may lead to violent and aggressive behaviour. But television has many good points. People learn more from it, because it is a visual medium. Families can share watching a good film and talk about it. It can pass on news very quickly. It has interesting documentaries. It is good entertainment for people who cannot afford to go out. After On the one hand, television has been blamed by researchers for many social problems. The first is that because many families have the television on all the time, they do not communicate. Secondly, they do not eat together. Another criticism is that children watch unsuitable videos and this may cause psychological disturbance. This in turn may lead to violent and aggressive behaviour. On the other hand, however, television has many good points. For instance, people learn more from it, because it is a visual medium. Moreover, families can share watching a good film and talk about it. In addition, it can pass on news very quickly. It also shows interesting documentaries. Finally, it is good entertainment for people who cannot afford to go out. The points made in both pieces are the same but the second piece makes the links between the ideas stand out more clearly.


125555 OOOOther types of paragraphther types of paragraphther types of paragraphther types of paragraph

If you find the IDEAL paragraph too rigid there are four, more loosely defined examples below. Use of these can provide variety to your style and flow to your arguments. The descriptions of the different types mimic what they are trying to define. loose:loose:loose:loose:

A intro sentence A followed by examples and/or evidence.

mixed:mixed:mixed:mixed:

p build up to the central topic p introduce the central topic p this may be particularly useful if the central topic of the paragraph is

sufficiently complex that preliminary explanation is required p followed by supporting information

but use these sparingly as they do not provide the reader with good signposting... certainly, don't start or end a subsection with this type of paragraph. periodic:periodic:periodic:periodic:

d sometimes development is needed d these set the scene for the main topic sentence d so, when the topic sentence finally comes, and ends the paragraph... d the main topic sentence is a logical conclusion and therefore easy to

remember. it should be noted that following a periodic paragraph with a loose (or - better still - an IDEAL) paragraph can be a nice way of linking ideas, which will help your arguments flow. cyclic:cyclic:cyclic:cyclic:

8 a cyclic paragraph is a paragraph that starts and finishes with the main topic.

8 within the paragraph the topic is explored/ evidence is provided

8 in fact, the IDEAL paragraph format is an example

8 by starting and finishing with the main topic, a cyclic paragraph provides both a preview and a review of the topic.


13

6666 TipsTipsTipsTips

6.16.16.16.1 Think about Think about Think about Think about howhowhowhow to write as well as to write as well as to write as well as to write as well as whatwhatwhatwhat to write to write to write to write However, you may have problems with your short-term memory so if you can mind map/put down an outline note of everything you want to include in your assignment, you won't have to worry about losing the idea while youre thinking about howhowhowhow to say the whatwhatwhatwhat that you want to say. If you can reduce your levels of multitasking youll probably also reduce the stress you can experience while writing.

6.26.26.26.2 Avoid repetition Avoid repetition Avoid repetition Avoid repetition Planning will also help you avoid repetition

6.36.36.36.3 Help your reader by signposting your arguments Help your reader by signposting your arguments Help your reader by signposting your arguments Help your reader by signposting your arguments

6.46.46.46.4 Avoid Avoid Avoid Avoid clichesclichesclichescliches ----erererer---- like the plague like the plague like the plague like the plague They're tedious even before you repeat them and therefore are likely to alienate your reader. Idioms may be more appropriate - they're familiar turns of phrase without being as tired as clichs.

6.56.56.56.5 Read otRead otRead otRead other people's stuff and nick the nonher people's stuff and nick the nonher people's stuff and nick the nonher people's stuff and nick the non----contentsycontentsycontentsycontentsy----linkylinkylinkylinky----bits you like bits you like bits you like bits you like (that doesn't count as plagiarism)(that doesn't count as plagiarism)(that doesn't count as plagiarism)(that doesn't count as plagiarism)


14

Academic Academic Academic Academic WritingWritingWritingWriting

1

What is it - What is it - What is it - What is it - what is it what is it what is it what is it

not?not?not?not?

2

passive passive passive passive voice voice voice voice

TipsTipsTipsTips

Saying where you're going - linking sentences & paragraphs

Avoid cliches -er- like the plague

Think about howhowhowhow to write as well as

whatwhatwhatwhat to write

Avoid repetition

Help your reader by signposting your arguments

Read other people's stuff and nick the non-contentsy-

linky-bits you like (that doesn't count as plagiarism)

style

conventions

3

How to convey How to convey How to convey How to convey emotion while emotion while emotion while emotion while

using the using the using the using the passive voice passive voice passive voice passive voice

choice of words:

style tricks:

In creative writing...

How to evaluate How to evaluate How to evaluate How to evaluate your own workyour own workyour own workyour own work

5

other other other other types of types of types of types of

paragraphparagraphparagraphparagraph

4

SignpostingSignpostingSignpostingSignposting

7 deadly sins7 deadly sins7 deadly sins7 deadly sins

circumlocution circumlocution circumlocution circumlocution - not expressing yourself directly

tautology tautology tautology tautology - using two words that repeat the meaning

gobbledygook gobbledygook gobbledygook gobbledygook - if you look like you're trying to impress your reader with convoluted

arguments you will instead alienate/

confuse him/her instead; s/he may even get the impression that you don't know what

you're talking about

jargonjargonjargonjargon - don't use it

unnecessarily and always

define, otherwise

you'll be back in

gobbledygook land

euphemismeuphemismeuphemismeuphemism - clarity is essential

clichesclichesclichescliches - because they're tired; I

wouldn't touch them with a ten foot barge pole

overloading overloading overloading overloading - overly long sentences/ too much detail/ non sequitur

(things that don't follow on logically)

Saying where you are

e.g. e.g. e.g. e.g. actual fact, added bonus, arid desert,

innocent victims, and George W. Bush's "As long as necessary but not a day longer.

It may be the intention to add emphasis but use of tautologies detract instead

e.g.e.g.e.g.e.g. using

due to the fact that when because will do;in the majority of cases - usually ;

or I beg to differ - I disagree


15

Academic Styles of Writing Where in this style spectrum you should aim your writing style will depend on your subject/department see where you think you should be aiming relative to these two extremes of the academic style spectrum

One extreme tick where in the spectrum you think your department would like your work to appear the other

Every attempt is made to control the conditions under which the research takes place, so that the researcher can decide which variable to manipulate and measure.

Every attempt is made to keep the research true to life, i.e. to give it ecological validity.

Results can be generalised, i.e. they would hold true if the research was repeated.

The unique is considered worth of study results may be impossible to repeat exactly.

Numbers and standardised measurements make it easier to generalise results.

Creative interpretation is highly valued.

Objective views are formed, based on the evidence and facts rather than personal opinion

Subjective responses, feelings, intuition and creativity are regarded as valuable resources.

The role of the scientist is minimised and rarely discussed

The role of the researcher is made explicit it is considered useful to discuss how the researchers presence influenced the results.

Individual differences are not important general findings are valued

Individual instances, and opportunities for detailed interpretation, are valued.

Personal experiences are regarded as individual and irrelevant: they are not referred to

Personal experience is highly valued as giving insight and a deeper understanding

The language used is clinical, neutral, impersonal and dispassionate, even if the researcher feels passionately about the subject.

The language allows the personality and feelings of the writer to shine through

Which subjects do you think are at this end of the spectrum?

Which subjects do you think are in the middle?

Which subjects do you think are at this end of the spectrum?


16

Useful phrases

The lists below offer general phrases that can be used in many kinds of research papers. For

mastering the terminology and phraseology specific to a field, regular reading of the relevant

literature is necessary.

Note: The numbering below follows the numbering of the parts in the Guidelines for writing

a paper.

3. Abstract As the Abstract is a short version of the paper, some of the phrases used in the other parts

of the paper are also used in the abstract and are not mentioned here. You can find them

below under each section of the paper. Some hints on how to start the Abstract follow:

Introductory sentences

The paper/article

discusses/deals with/analyses/considers/explains/describes/establishes/introduces ..

develops/presents/provides/studies/represents/features/contains/concentrates on ..

covers/suggests/proposes/shows ..

demonstrates the feasibility of ..

opens up a new field/issue

gives/aims to give a comprehensive account of ..

offers a solution to ..

serves as an introduction to ..

The main objective/goal/purpose of the paper/article is ..

Common mistakes:

Wrong: Right:

In this paper there/it is presented a novel This paper presents a novel method of ..

method of .. In this paper, a novel method of .. is

presented

4. Sections of the paper

4.1. Introduction In most cases, the Introduction section is treated as a whole and is not divided into

subsections. The subheadings below should only help you organize the information.

4.1.1. Problem background, state of the art

.. plays an important/vital role in ..

.. is an important issue for ..

.. is extensively/widely used in ..

.. is a very effective method for ..

In the last few years there has been a growing interest in ..

Quite recently, considerable attention has been paid to ..

.. have/has been gaining importance in recent years ..

.. have/has been utilized in many applications such as ..

4.1.2. Literature review/Summary of previous research

- Referring to the sources in general

Current research on .. is focused on ..

Previous studies indicate that ..

The literature on .. shows a variety of approaches

Much research on .. has been done.

The focus of recent research has been on ..

.. has/have been widely researched/investigated.

In recent years, research on/into .. has become very popular.

In the last decade .. has attracted much attention from research teams ..

For several years great effort has been devoted to the study of ..

Several publications have appeared in recent years documenting ..

Previous research has documented/shown/demonstrated that ..

To solve this problem/issue, many researchers have proposed various methods of (+-ing)

In the literature, several theories have been proposed to explain ..

- Referring to individual authors .. and . are discussed in [3] and [6].

X [4] and Y [3] indicate that ..

X et al. [1] argue that ..

One of the first examples of .. is presented in [2].

Another/The latest solution is described in [3].

The results obtained/offered by X in [5] suggest that ..

Recently, several authors [4], [5], [7] have proposed (a new theory) ..

X [2] and X [5] have demonstrated that ..

A/The most interesting approach to this issue has been proposed by [2].

X [6] has also found that .. . However, our researchers have arrived at the conclusion/have

concluded that ..

.. was experimentally measured by [7].

X et al. [7] studied .. and showed that ..

X [11] developed a novel sensor using ..

In this work and in related references it was observed that ..

In [8] it was shown that ..

As reported by X [2], ..

In a recent paper by X [9], ..

- Saying that little research has been done in a particular field

However, to the authors/authors best knowledge, very few publications can be found/are

available in the literature that discuss/address the issue of .

To the authors/authors knowledge, .. has/have been scarcely investigated from the point

of view of ../from the theoretical point of view.

- Pointing out limitations of previous research

A key limitation of this research is that (it does not address the problem of ..)

The major drawback of this approach is ..

However, most of the previous studies do not take into account ..

This approach may not be practical/orthodox/conventional in all situations.

Reference [3] analyses and compares various aspects of .. . Nevertheless, there are still

some interesting and relevant problems to be addressed.

However, studies on .. are still lacking.

The problem with this approach is in that it ..

Although several studies have indicated that .., little attention has been paid/given to ..

4.1.3. Problem statement, purpose/main objective of the paper

- Problem statement and description of the objective of the paper are very specific parts of the paper and the phrases used depend on the nature of the problem. Examples showing

how closely this part is related to the literature review and previous research are given

below.

(A .. theory of .. ) has recently been presented in [..]. However, several practical

questions arise when dealing with ..: 1) It is important to (identify ..). 2) It is key to

(predict ..). 3. It is crucial to (establish when ..). To answer all these questions, we present

an original approach which .. .

Even though (the efficiency of ..) has been improved in recent years, most improvements

have been achieved by (minimizing the amount of energy lost in ..). Nonetheless, it is

possible to further improve (the efficiency by ..). With this goal, this work (explores, seeks

to ..).

Based on the approach presented in [3], the purpose of this paper is to .

In this paper, while we refer to our earlier work [2], [3], and [4], the focus is different.

Like most authors, we ..

The objective/aim of this paper/study is to propose ..

The paper presents/proposes a new approach to ..

This article introduces a new type of ..

In this paper, we/the authors offer ..

In this paper, we explore the possibility of ..

In this study, a new technique that improves .. is suggested.

See also Abstract, Introductory sentences.

4.1.4. Framework of the paper (usually the last part of the Introduction) The remainder of the paper is organized as follows/into .. sections:

Section II describes/outlines .., Section III discusses/analyses .. . (Experimental results)

are presented in Section IV; Section V concludes the paper.

In Section II, .. will be discussed. Section III is devoted to .. . Section IV presents (the

experimental results). The conclusion is reported in Section V.

The proposed (design) is discussed in Section II (The implementation of the proposed

design) is presented in Section III. Section IV shows (the experimental results of

..). Finally, Section V concludes with a summary.

In Section II we explain .. . In Section III we introduce our .. . The measurements are

presented in Section IV. Section V summarizes the results of this work and draws

conclusions.

4.2. Body/Core of the paper General information

The Body of the paper is very specific in its content. For this reason, the number of generally

applicable phrases is smaller than in the other parts. Examples of some of these phrases are

given below.

There are, however, linguistic means common to all kinds of research papers, i.e. words and

phrases expressing cause, results, addition, similarity, etc. For lists and usage of these words

and phrases see A Remedial Course in English Grammar: Clauses and Guidelines for

Academic Writing: Text structure.

4.2.1. Materials and Methods/Methods of Approach

- Describing what was done and how it was done

We started by investigating ..

We designed a new technique for

We used a new approach.

These experiments were carried out to find out ..

In order to verify the validity of the .. method, we carried out several experiments.

All the tests/measurements were carried out at room temperature.

The (signals) were measured before and after ..

To illustrate .., a simulation was performed.

The .. analysis was performed in order to ..

We checked for the presence of ..

(The chemical structure of ..) was examined by (the .. technique).

A gradual change (in temperature) was observed.

The increase in .. was not caused by/was not due to a decrease in ...

The (optimized condition) was obtained from .

- Describing numerical methods

The equation that describes .. is as follows:

Equation (2) represents/defines/expresses ..

The equation can be written as .., where ..

Thus, the following equation is obtained:

.. can be computed by the following equation:

Equations (5) and (6) approximate (the original formulas).

.. satisfies equation (3).

Equations (2) and (3) demonstrate that ..

(3) implies that ..

.. is described by (5).

The function f is given/defined by...

Let f be given/defined by ..

To simplify (3) we can ..

For simplicity we ignore the dependence of .. on ..

It follows from (3) that ..

Substituting/inserting (4) and (6a) in(to) (6b), we obtain ..

Substitution/Insertion of (4) in(to) (5) yields ..

Now we can derive .. according to (2)

We can now proceed analogously to ..

This is true for ../This holds for ..

Similarly, (5) is also valid/true for the following relation.

Assume/Let us assume that (3) holds for ..

(6) holds under the condition that ..

We will make the following assumptions: ..

From now on we assume that ..

Let us define the following dependence/relation by/as ..

Let (3) satisfy the following relation ...

Equality holds in (10) if and only if ..

The inequality is satisfied if and only if ..

We shall write the above expression as ..

In this way we obtain ...

According to (5) we have/obtain ..

. is obtained as ../can be obtained as ..

.. is denoted (M) and defined as ..

.. takes the form .. /.. can be written in the form ..

As is clear from (5,) ..

We first prove that ../Let us first prove that ..

It remains to prove that ..

It is clear/evident/obvious that ..

From this we conclude/see/deduce that ..

- Referring to/Describing figures, graphs, tables, diagrams

Fig. 2 shows/presents/depicts/outlines/illustrates/represents ..

Fig. 3 gives an example of ..

Such cases are depicted in the following figures.

This is illustrated in Fig. 5.

.. is/are shown/given in Figs. 3 and 4.

.. can be found in Fig. 8.

Consider Fig. 2, which plots .. versus/against .. .

As can be seen from Figs. 5 and 3, ..

As shown in Fig. 1, ..

As follows from the figures shown above, ..

From this figure it can be seen that ..

For the resulting plot, see Fig. 2.

For visual representation of the dependence .. the reader is referred to Tables V and VI.

Table II summarizes ..

The graph/diagram suggests/indicates that ..

Common mistake

Wrong Right

As shown in the Fig. 1 As shown in Fig. 1

The Fig. 2 presents .. Fig. 2 presents ..

See also Guidelines for Presentations, Discussions and Chairing: Slides, graphs, tables,

diagrams.

4.2.2. Results

Some of the phrases listed under Materials and Methods may also be suitable for the

Results section, e.g. summarizing what was done, referring to diagrams, graphs, etc.

It has been found that ..

The results show that ..

The results thus obtained are compatible with ..

The overall measurement results are summarized in Table II.

As mentioned earlier/above, ..

The previous sections have shown that ..

This method is based on ..

The method was tested on ..

The method is an effective way to improve ..

The analysis and simulation indicate that ..

The . analysis plays a crucial role in ..

As may be seen below, ..

We have introduced a new approach to ..

A similar approach is used for ..

This approach may fail if/due to ..

One of the big advantages of (this approach/method) .. is that ..

To verify this method, .. is compared with ..

The only disadvantage/drawback of such .. is ..

There is no evident relationship between .. and ..

.. are in good agreement/correspond with ..

There is a good match between .. and ..

To illustrate the result, a simulation of .. was performed.

The simulation results match the calculations.

The differences in (temperature) result in significant differences in ..

The decrease/increase in .. can be contributed to ..

To overcome/avoid this problem/difficulty, it is necessary to adopt a ..

One possible solution to this problem is to (use)

This solution requires ..

4.2.3. Discussion For more phrases see also Introduction and Conclusion(s).

- Stating the main objective

In this paper we propose/examine/study ..

This paper proposes/has proposed ..

The purpose of the paper/study is to ..

The paper presents/has presented several solutions to ..

This paper is a modest contribution to the ongoing discussions about/on ..

It was the main purpose of the paper to draw attention to ..

The main concern of the paper was to ..

In our paper, the focus of attention was/is on ..

This study shows/has shown that ..

This experiment/technique/demonstrates that ..

- Specifying the objective

Particular attention is paid to ..

The authors attention was focused/concentrated not only on .. but also on ..

We have addressed not only .. but also ..

We have also considered the consequences of ..

- Pointing out the originality of the solution

Our paper presents an innovative/a novel view of ..

The originality of our solution lies in the fact that ..

This is a novel solution to ..

Our results describe for the first time the ..

To our knowledge, this is the first study to deal with/examine/investigate ..

Only one other study, to our knowledge, has come up with ..

This paper presents a pilot study to find the answer to ..

Our observations that .. are not new, but ..

- Interpreting the facts

The data obtained is/are broadly consistent with the major trends ..

These results agree/concur/are consistent/are in good agreement with other studies which

have shown that ..

In contrast to some reports in the literature, there were ..

An important implication of these findings is that ..

The finding was quite unexpected/surprising and suggests that ..

The most likely explanation of the negative result is ..

The findings have a number of possible limitations, namely ..

So far, the significance of this finding is not clear.

- Stating the limitations of the research

The main limitation of the experimental result is ..

One question still unanswered is whether ..

The analysis does not enable us to determine ..

These results are not conclusive.

- Suggesting possible applications (possible applications are commonly found in the

Conclusion(s) section; they may, however, be mentioned in this section, too. For useful

phrases see Conclusion(s).

4.2.4. Conclusion(s) The Conclusion(s) section usually starts with

- Stating the objective

The objective presented in the Conclusion(s) section should agree with the objective stated

in the Introduction. For suitable phrases see Introduction and Discussion.

- Drawing conclusions

From the research that has been carried out/done/conducted/performed/undertaken, it is

possible to conclude that ..

Based on the results, it can be concluded that the research into .. has been very successful.

From the outcome of our investigation it is possible to conclude that ..

The findings of our research are quite convincing, and thus the following conclusions can be

drawn: ..

Summing up the results, it can be concluded that ..

In conclusion, it is evident that this study has shown ..

This paper has clearly shown that ..

It has been demonstrated/shown/found that ..

The results/data obtained indicate/have indicated/suggest/show that ..

The existence of (these effects ) implies that ..

- Suggesting possible application(s)

The proposed method can be readily used in practice.

The technique/approach/result is applicable to ..

.. can be successfully used for a number of .. applications.

The/our .. has great potential for other applications such as ..

This research was concerned with ..; however, the results should be applicable also to ..

The findings suggest that this approach could also be useful for ..

The findings are of direct practical relevance.

- Suggesting further research

In our future research we intend to concentrate on ..

Future work will involve ..

On the basis of the promising findings presented in this paper, work on the remaining issues

is continuing and will be presented in future papers.

The next stage of our research will be (experimental confirmation of our theory).

Further study of the issue would be of interest.

Clearly, further research will be needed/required to prove/validate ..

Several other questions remain to be addressed/resolved.

More research into .. is still necessary before obtaining a definitive answer to ..

Further study of the issue is still required.

Further research on/into .. is desirable/necessary (to extend our knowledge of) ..

Continuing/continued research on/into .. appears fully justified because ..

More tests/experiments/calculations will be needed to verify whether ..

5. Acknowledgement - Thanking for assistance, acknowledging financial assistance

The authors would like to thank their colleagues/Dr X and Dr Y for

- many useful comments and discussions on ..

- their valuable insights and recommendations

- their technical assistance

- their contribution in conducting some of the experiments

for the research

The authors would like to acknowledge the valuable comments and suggestions of the

reviewers, which have improved the quality of this paper.

Fruitful discussions in the early stages of experiments with Professor X are gratefully

acknowledged.

The authors wish to acknowledge the assistance and support of ..

The authors appreciate the efforts and assistance of .. regarding .. .

The authors thanks are due to Dr X for kindly granting permission to include Fig. 9.

The authors thanks are also extended to Dr Y for his support and help in completing the

paper.

The author would like to extend his/her thanks to (name of institution) for its support in

implementing the project.

The authors gratefully acknowledge the generous financial support of (name of institution).

Financial support from the Czech Science Foundation, Grant No. .., (project topic), is

gratefully acknowledged.

- Stating financial support

This research/work was supported by the European Regional Development Fund and

Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports of the Czech Republic under Project No.

Academic Writing CentreUseful phrases for academic writing

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current debate

inconclusive debate

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