coloniality kritik

7/24/2019 Coloniality Kritik

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Coloniality Kritik Coloniality Kritik......................................................................................................... 1

1nc Shell................................................................................................................. 4

Links...........................................................................................................................8

Link – Cuba..............................................................................................................9

Link – Mexico.........................................................................................................12

Link – Venezuela....................................................................................................14

Link – Mexico !!i"ration #$or%erlan%s&..............................................................1'

Link – (eneral....................................................................................................... 18

Link – )is*ano*hobia+(eneric...............................................................................21

Link – ,cono!ic ,n"a"e!ent...............................................................................22Link – -ra%e...........................................................................................................24

Link – (lobalization+La.......................................................................................2'

Link – -erroris!..................................................................................................... 28

Link – $or%er Security........................................................................................... /0

Link – ,con............................................................................................................ //

Link – e!ocracy.................................................................................................. /4

Link – ,niron!ent................................................................................................/3

Link $io*olitics.................................................................................................... 40

!*acts..................................................................................................................... 42

!*act – Militaris! an% ,niron!ent....................................................................4/

!*act 5acis!.................................................................................................... 4'

!*act – ,*iste!ic Violence..................................................................................48

!*act6 (enoci%e.................................................................................................. 70

!*act – ,niron!ent........................................................................................... 72

!*act – Soerei"nty............................................................................................ 74

ra!eork................................................................................................................77

2nc ra!eork block............................................................................................ 7'

ra!eork – ebate Key.......................................................................................78

ra!eork – ,*iste!olo"y irst............................................................................'1

lt............................................................................................................................. '2

lt – :e"atiity solency.......................................................................................'/

lt – 5e;use :eoliberal ,x*ansion.........................................................................'7

lt – ,*iste!olo"ical <raxis...................................................................................''



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lt – =ni>ueness....................................................................................................'3

lt soles a?.........................................................................................................'8

nsers to a? nsers............................................................................................'9

-6 <er!................................................................................................................ 30

26 <re%ictions...................................................................................................... 31-6 Ce%e the <olitical............................................................................................. 3/

-6 =til (oo%..........................................................................................................34

-6 5ealis!............................................................................................................3'

? nsers...............................................................................................................39

(eneral -hou"hts..................................................................................................80

<er!......................................................................................................................81

Ce%e the <olitical – State Key................................................................................8/

!*act ra!in" – =til (oo%...................................................................................84

!*act ra!in" – Conse>uentialis! irst.............................................................87

!*act ra!in" – ,cono!ic Calculations "oo%.....................................................8'

!*act -urn – Liberalis! (oo%..............................................................................88

!*act – :o i!*act+Liberalis! soles...................................................................90

lt Solency Liberalis! neitable......................................................................91

ra!eork 5ealis!............................................................................................. 9/

ra!eork – ,*iste!olo"y not irst......................................................................97

ra!eork ;ocus on *olitics "oo%......................................................................9'

Link -urn – Cuba.................................................................................................... 93

Link -urn Cuba.................................................................................................... 98

Link -urn Venezuela............................................................................................ 99



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1nc ShellThe spread of neoliberal market mechanisms by the US is part

of a colonial strategy that attempts to control Latin Americafor the benet of modernist structures.ignolo !""# $%alter &. ignolo' (rofessor of Cultural Studiesat &uke Uni)ersity' Citi*enship' Kno+ledge' and the Limits of,umanity American Literary ,istory 1-.! !""#/ 01!0012 ill %escribe the eile% connections as the lo"ic o; coloniality@ an% the sur;ace that coers it ill %escribe as the

rhetoric o; !o%ernity. -he rhetoric o; !o%ernity is that o; salation@ hereas the lo"ic o;coloniality is a lo"ic o; i!*erial o**ression. -hey "o han% in han% @ an% you cannothae !o%ernity ithout colonialityA the unBnishe% *roect o; !o%ernity carries oer its shoul%ers theunBnishe% *roect o; coloniality. ill conclu%e by su""estin" the nee% to %ecolonize Dknole%"eD an% Dbein"D an%a%ocatin" that the #%ecolonial& Dhu!anitiesD shall hae a ;un%a!ental role to *lay in this *rocess. -ruly@ D"lobalcitizenshi*D i!*lies oerco!in" the i!*erial an% colonial %i?erences that hae !a**e% an% continue to !a* "lobal

racis! an% "lobal *atriarchy. Chan"in" the la an% *ublic *olicies onEt be o; !uch hel* inthis *rocess. Fhat is nee%e% is that those ho chan"e the la an% *ublic *olicychan"e the!seles. $3nd (age 01!2 -he *roble! is ho that !ay take *lace i; e

oul% like to aoi% the !issionary zeal ;or conersionA the liberal and neoliberal

belief in the triumphal march of %estern ci)ili*ation and of market

democracy A an% the !oral i!*eraties an% ;orce% behaior i!*ose% by socialis!. s %o not beliee in a

ne abstract uniersal that ill be "oo% ;or the entire orl%@ the >uestion is ho *eo*le can chan"etheir belie; that the orl% to%ay is like it is an% that it ill be only throu"h theDhonestD *roects o; Christians@ liberals @ an% Marxistsocialists that the orl% coul%be better ;or all@ an% citizenshi* ill be a bene%iction ;or all. -he chan"es a!thinkin" about are ra%ical trans;or!ations in the naturalize% assu!*tions o; the

orl% or%er. -he naturalize% assu!*tions a! thinkin" about are i!*erial–colonial@ an% they hae sha*e% theorl% in hich e lie in the *ast Be hun%re% years hen Christianity an% ca*italis! ca!e to"ether an% create%

the con%itions ;or the sel;;ashione% narratie o; D!o%ernity.D )ence@ the trans;or!ations a! thinkin"about re>uire an e*iste!ic %ecolonial shi;t. :ot a Dne@D a D*ost@D or a Dneo@D hichare all chan"es ithin the sa!e !o%ern colonial e*iste!olo"y@ but a decolonial #an%

not either a D%econstructionD&@ hich !eans a %elinkin" ;ro! the rules o; the "a!e #e.".@ the%ecolonization o; the !in%@ in :"u"i Fa -hEion"oEs ocabulary& in hich %econstruction itsel; an% all the D*ostsD ;or

sure are cau"ht. elinkin" %oesnEt !ean to be Doutsi%eD o; either !o%ernity or Christian@Liberal@ Ca*italist@ an% Marxist he"e!ony but to %isen"a"e ;ro! the naturalize%assu!*tions that !ake o; these ;our !acronarraties Dune *ensee uni>ue@D to use "nacio

5a!onetEs ex*ression.2 -he %ecolonial shi;t be"ins by uneilin" the i!*erial*resu**ositions t hat !aintain a uniersal i%ea o; hu!anity an% o; hu!an bein" that

seres as a !o%el an% *oint o; arrial an% by constantly un%erscorin" the ;act thato**resse% an% racialize% subects %o not care an% are not B"htin" ;or Dhu!anri"hts D #base% on an i!*erial i%ea o; hu!anity& but to re"ain the Dhu!an %i"nityD #base% on a

%ecolonial i%ea o; hu!anity& that has an% continues to be taken aay ;ro! the! by thei!*erial rhetoric o; !o%ernity #e.".@ hite@ ,urocentere%@ heterosexual@ an% Christian+secular&. -hecon%itions ;or citizenshi* are still tie% to a racialize% hierarchy o; hu!an bein"s that%e*en%s on uniersal cate"ories o; thou"ht create% an% enacte% ;ro! thei%entitarian *ers*ecties o; ,uro*ean Christianity an% by hite !ales. n the ;ro

Caribbean intellectual tra%itionG;ro! C. L. 5. Ha!es to rantz anon@ Sylia Fynter@ an% Leis (or%onGthe ery

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conce*ts o; the human an% humanity are constantly un%er Bre./ Foul% in%ee% a black *erson a"ree ith the i%eathat hat DeD all hae in co!!on is our Dhu!anityD an% that e are Dall e>ualD in bein" D%i?erentDI oul%sus*ect that the ;or!ula oul% rather be o; the ty*e a%ance% by the $3nd (age 0102 Ja*atistas6 D$ecause e

are all e>ual e hae the ri"ht to be %i?erent.D4 -he uniersal i%ea o; hu!anity@ beliee !e@ is notthe sa!e ;ro! the *ers*ectie o; black history@ n%ian !e!ories@ or the !e!ories o; the

*o*ulation o; Central sia. -he hu!anities@ as a branch o; knole%"e in the history o; theuniersity since the ,uro*ean 5enaissance@ hae alays been co!*licitous ithi!*erial–colonial %esi"ns celebratin" a uniersal i%ea o; the hu!an !o%el. -he !o!enthas arrie% to *ut the hu!anities at the serice o; %ecolonial *roects in their ethical@ *olitical@ an% e*iste!ic%i!ensionsA to recast the reinscri*tion o; hu!an %i"nity as a %ecolonial *roect in the han%s o; the damnes ratherthan "ien to the! throu"h !ana"erial %esi"ns o; :(s an% )u!an 5i"hts Fatch that sel%o! i; eer are le% byactors hose hu!an %i"nity is at stake. ecolonial *roects i!*ly %onsizin" hu!an ri"hts to its real %i!ension6 anethical i!*eratie internal to i!*erial abuses but not really a *roect that e!*oers racialize% subects an% hel*sthe! to re"ain the hu!an %i"nity that racis! an% i!*erial *roects #;ro! the ri"ht@ the le;t@ an% the center& tookaay ;ro! the!.

The modus operandi of the a4rmati)e5s economics is thehistorical dri)e behind coloni*ation and mass )iolence againstLatin America culminating in +ars' )iolence and genocide inthe name of their economic ideals3scobar !""6 $Arturo' 7eyond the Third %orld89mperial:lobality' :lobal Coloniality' and Anti:lobali*ation Socialo)ements' Third +orld ;uarterly !""6.+++.nd.edu<=druccio<3scobar.pdf2

ne o; the !ain conse>uences@ ;or Santos@ o; the colla*se o; e!anci*ation into re"ulation is the structural*re%o!inance o; exclusion oer inclusion. ,ither because o; the exclusion o; !any o; those ;or!erly inclu%e%@ orbecause those ho in the *ast ere can%i%ates ;or inclusion are no *reente% ;ro! bein" so@ the *roble!atic o;exclusion has beco!e terribly accentuate%@ ith eer "roin" nu!bers o; *eo*le thron into a eritable Nstate o;nature.O -he size o; the exclu%e% class aries o; course ith the centrality o; the country in the orl% syste!@ but itis *articularly sta""erin" in sia@ ;rica an% Latin !erica. -he result is a ne ty*e o; social ;ascis! as Na socialan% ciilizational re"i!eO #*. 47/&. -his re"i!e@ *ara%oxically@ coexists ith %e!ocratic societies@ hence its noelty.

-his ;ascis! !ay o*erate in arious !o%es6 in ter!s o; s*atial exclusionA territories stru""le% oer by ar!e% actorsA

the ;ascis! o; insecurityA an% o; course the %ea%ly Bnancial ;ascis!@ hich at ti!es %ictates the !ar"inalization o;entire re"ions an% countries that %o not ;ulBll the con%itions nee%e% ;or ca*ital@ accor%in" to the M an% its ;aith;ul!ana"e!ent consultants #**. 443478&. -o the ;or!er -hir% Forl% corres*on%s the hi"hest leels o; social ;ascis!o; these kin%s. -his is@ in su!@ the orl% that is bein" create% by "lobalization ;ro! aboe@ or he"e!onic"lobalization. $e;ore !oin" on@ it is i!*ortant to co!*lete this rou"h re*resentation o; to%ayPs "lobal ca*italist!o%ernity by lookin" at the =Sle% inasion o; ra> in early 200/. !on" other thin"s@ this e*iso%e has !a%e at lastto thin"s *articularly clear6 Brst@ the illin"ness to use un*rece%ente% leels o; iolence to en;orce %o!inance ona "lobal scaleA secon%@ the uni*olarity o; the current e!*ire. n ascension since the -hatcher5ea"an years@ thisuni*olarity reache% its cli!ax ith the *ost9+11 re"i!e@ base% on a ne coner"ence o; !ilitary@ econo!ic@*olitical an% reli"ious interests in the =nite% States. n lain HoxePs #2002& co!*ellin" ision o; i!*erial "lobality@hat e hae been itnessin" since the Brst (ul; Far is the rise o; an e!*ire that increasin"ly o*erates throu"hthe !ana"e!ent o; asy!!etrical an% s*atialize% iolence@ territorial control@ subcontracte% !assacres@ an% Ncruellittle ars@O all o; hich are ai!e% at i!*osin" the neoliberal ca*italist *roect. t stake is a ty*e o; re"ulation that

o*erates throu"h the creation o; a ne horizon o; "lobal iolence. -his empire regulates disorderthrough nancial and military means' pushing chaos to the e>tent possible

to the outskirts of empire' creating a ?predatory@ peace to the benet of aglobal noble caste and lea)ing untold po)erty and suering in its path. t is

an e!*ire that %oes not take res*onsibility ;or the ellbein" o; those oer ho! it rules. s Hoxe *uts it6 NThe+orld today is united by a ne+ form of chaos' an imperial chaos'dominated by the imperium of the United States' though not controlled byit. Fe lack the or%s to %escribe this ne syste!@ hile bein" surroun%e% by its i!a"es. ... Forl% lea%ershi*throu"h chaos@ a %octrine that a rational ,uro*ean school oul% hae %iQculty i!a"inin"@ necessarily lea%s toeakenin" states –een in the =nite% StatesGthrou"h the e!er"in" sovereignty o; cor*orations an% !arkets.O

#20026 38@ 21/&. 3 -he ne+ empire thus operates not so much through con;uest'but through the imposition of norms #freemarkets' USstyle democracy an%










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cultural notions o; consu!*tion@ an% so ;orth&. The former Third %orld is' abo)e all' thetheatre of a multiplicity of cruel little +ars +hich' rather than barbaricthro+backs' are linked to the current global logic. Brom Colombia andCentral America to l"eria@ subSaharan ;rica an% the Mi%%le ,ast these +ars take place+ithin states or regions' +ithout threatening empire but fosteringconditions fa)orable to it . or much of the former Third %orld #an% o; course to the

-hir% Forl% ithin the core& is reser)ed ?the %orldchaos@ 1"/' freemarketsla)ery' and selecti)e genocide. n so!e cases@ this a!ounts to a sort o; N*aleo!icro

colonialis!O ithin re"ions #173&@ in others to balkanization@ in yet others to brutal internal ars an% !assie%is*lace!ent to ;ree u* entire re"ions ;or transnational ca*ital #*articularly in the case o; oil@ but also %ia!on%s@ti!ber@ ater@ "enetic resources@ an% a"ricultural lan%s&. ;ten ti!es these cruel little ars are ;uele% by MaBa

netorks@ an% inten%e% ;or !acroecono!ic "lobalization. t is clear that this ne+ :lobal 3mpire #Nthe

:e Forl% r%er o; the !erican i!*erial !onarchy@O *. 131& articulates the ?peacefule>pansion@ of the freemarket economy +ith omnipresent )iolence in ano)el regime of economic and military globality Din other +ords' the globaleconomy comes to be supported by a global organi*ation of )iolence and)ice )ersa #200&. n the subectie si%e@ hat increasin"ly one Bn%s in the Souths #inclu%in" the South ithinthe :orth& are N%ice% i%entitiesO an% the trans;or!ation o; cultures o; soli%arity into cultures o; %estruction.

The ;uestion of this debate is ho+ best to challenge colonialinstitutions and foreground the li)es of marginali*edpopulations D this is an ethical imperati)e.ignolo !""E%alter ignolo' !""E' 3pistemic &isobedience'9ndependent thought' and deconlonial freedom'http8<<+altermignolo.com<+pcontent<uploads<!"10<"0<epistemicdisobedience!.pdf ' %alterignolo is a semiotician and (rofessor at &uke Uni)eristy' +hohas published e>tensi)ely on semiotics and literary theory' and+orked on dierent aspect of the modern and colonial +orld'

e>ploring concepts such as global coloniality' the geopolitics of kno+ledge' transmodernity' border thinking' andpluri)ersality/&ecolonial thinking presupposes delinking #e*iste!ically an% *olitically& from the+eb of imperial kno+ledg e #theo an% e"o*olitically "roun%e%& ;ro! %isci*linary !ana"e!ent. Acommon topic of con)ersation today' after the nancial crisis on %allStreet' is Fho+ to sa)e capitalism5. A decolonial ;uestion +ould be8 F%hy+ould you +ant to sa)e capitalism and not sa)e human beingsG %hy sa)ean abstract entity and not the human li)es that capitalism is constantlydestroyingIP n the sa!e ein@ "eo an% bo%y*olitics o; knole%"e' decolonial thinking andthe decolonial option place human li)es and life in general rst rather

than making claims for the Ftransformation of the disciplines5. $ut@ still@ clai!in"li;e an% hu!an lies Brst@ %ecolonial thinkin" is not oinin" ;orces ith Rthe *olitics o; li;e in itsel;P as :icholas 5ose#2003& has it. 5osePs R*olitics o; li;e in itsel;P is the last %eelo*!ent in the R!ercantilization o; li;eP an% o; Rbio

*oerP #as oucault has it/. 9n the Fpolitics of life in itself5 political and economicstrategies for controlling life at the same time as creating moreconsumers Hoin forces. 7iopolitics' in Boucault5s conception' +as one ofthe practical conse;uences of an egopolitics of kno+ledge implementedin the sphere of the state. (olitics of life in itself e>tends it to the market.Thus' politics of life in itself describes the enormous potential of bio

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technology to generate consumers +ho in)est their earnings in buyinghealthpromoting products in order to maintain the reproduction oftechnology that +ill Fimpro)e5 the control of human beings at the sametime as creating more +ealth through the money in)ested by consumers+ho buy healthpromoting technology.

Iur alternati)e is to reHect the a4rmati)e D +hen confronted+ith colonial proHects the only ethical response is radicalnegati)ity. %e are compelled to be disobedient to modernity.ignolo "E $%alter &. ignolo' 3pistemic &isobedience'9ndependent Thought and &ecolonial Breedom' Theory andCulture !""E' published !""E2:C, =<: a ti!e scholars assu!e% that the knoin" subect in the %isci*lines is trans*arent@ %isincor*orate%;ro! the knon an% untouche% by the "eo*olitical conB"uration o; the orl% in hich *eo*le are racially ranke%an% re"ions are racially conB"ure%. ro! a %etache% an% neutral *oint o; obseration #that Colo!bian *hiloso*herSantia"o Castro(!ez #2003& %escribes as the hubris of the zero point &@ the knoin" subect !a*s the orl% an%its *roble!s@ classiBes *eo*le an% *roects into hat is "oo% ;or the!. -o%ay that assu!*tion is no lon"er tenable@althou"h there are still !any belieers. t stake is in%ee% the >uestion o; racis! an% e*iste!olo"y #Chuku%i,ze@

1993A Mi"nolo@ ;orthco!in"&. n%

once upon a time scholars assumed that if youFcome5 from Latin America you ha)e to Ftalk about5 Latin America J that insuch a case you ha)e to be a token of your culture. Such e>pectation +illnot arise if the author Fcomes5 from :ermany' Brance' 3ngland or the US. nsuch cases it is not assu!e% that you hae to be talkin" about your culture but can ;unction as a theoretically

!in%e% *erson. As +e kno+8 the rst +orld has kno+ledge' the third +orld hasculture J ati)e Americans ha)e +isdom' Anglo Americans ha)e science.The need for political and epistemic delinking here comes to the fore' as+ell as decoloniali*ing and decolonial kno+ledges' necessary steps forimagining and building democratic' Hust' and nonimperial<colonialsocieties. (eo*olitics o; knole%"e "oes han% in han% ith "eo*olitics o; knoin". %ho and +hen '+hy and +here is kno+ledge generated rather than produced' like cars orcell phones/G Asking these ;uestions means to shift the attention from theenunciated to the enunciation. n% by so %oin"@ turnin" escartesPs %ictu! insi%e out6 rather than

assu!in" that thinkin" co!es be;ore bein"@ one assu!es instea% that it is a racially marked bodyin a geohistorical marked space that feels the urge or get the call tospeak ' to articulate' in +hate)er semiotic system' the urge that makes ofli)ing organisms Fhuman5 beings. $y settin" the scenario in ter!s o; "eo an% bo%y*olitics a!startin" an% %e*artin" ;ro! alrea%y ;a!iliar notions o; Rsituate% knole%"esP. Sure@ all knole%"es are situate% an%eery knole%"e is constructe%. $ut that is ust the be"innin". -he >uestion is6 ho@ hen@ hy is constructin"

knole%"es #Mi"nolo@ 1999@ 2007 1997&I %hy did eurocentered epistemology concealits o+n geohistorical and biographical locations and succeed in creatingthe idea of uni)ersal kno+ledge as if the kno+ing subHects +ere alsouni)ersalG This illusion is per)asi)e today in the social sciences' thehumanities' the natural sciences and the professional schools. 3pistemic

disobedience means to delink from the illusion of the *ero pointepistemology. -he shi;t a! in%icatin" is the anchor #constructe% o; course@ locate% o; course@ not ust

anchore% by nature or by (o%& o; the ar"u!ent that ;ollos. 9t is the beginning of any epistemicdecolonial delinking +ith all its historical' political and ethicalconse;uences. FhyI 7ecause geohistorical and biographic loci ofenunciation ha)e been located by and through the making andtransformation of the colonial matri> of po+er8 a racial system of socialclassication that in)ented Iccidentalism #e.". n%iascci%entales&@ that create% the

con%itions ;or rientalis!A distinguished the South of 3urope from its center #)e"el&



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and' on that long history' remapped the +orld as rst' second and thirdduring the Cold %ar. (laces of nonthought of myth@ nonestern reli"ions@ ;olklore@

un%er%eelo*!ent inolin" re"ions an% *eo*le& to%ay hae been akin" u* ;ro! the lon" *rocess o;esternization. -he anthro*os inhabitin" non,uro*ean *laces %iscoere% that s+he ha% been inente%@ as

anthro*os@ by a locus o; enunciations sel;%eBne% as hu!anitas. :o@ there are currently t+o kindsor directions ad)anced by the former anthropos +ho are no longer

claiming recognition by or inclusion in the humanitas' but engaging inepistemic disobedience and delinking from the magic of the %estern ideaof modernity ' ideals of humanity and promises of economic gro+th andnancial prosperity %all Street di>it/. ne %irection un;ol%s ithin the "lobalization o; a ty*e

o; econo!y that in both liberal an% Marxist ocabulary is %eBne% as Rca*italis!P. ne o; the stron"est a%ocates o;this is the Sin"a*orean scholar@ intellectual an% *olitician Kishore Mahbubani@ to hich ill return later. ne o; hisearlier book titles carries the un!istakable an% irreerent !essa"e6 Can sians -hinkI6 =n%erstan%in" the ii%ebeteen ,ast an% Fest #2001&. olloin" MahbubaniPs on ter!inolo"y@ this %irection coul% be i%entiBe% as %eesternization. eesternization !eans@ ithin a ca*italist econo!y@ that the rules o; the "a!e an% the shots areno lon"er calle% by Festern *layers an% institutions. -he seenth oha roun% is a si"nal exa!*le o; %eesternizin" o*tions. -he secon% %irection is bein" a%ance% by hat %escribe as the %ecolonial o*tion. -he

%ecolonial o*tion is the sin"ular connector o; a %iersity o; %ecolonials. The decolonial paths ha)eone thing in common8 the colonial +ound' the fact that regions and peoplearound the +orld ha)e been classied as underde)eloped economically

and mentally. acism not only aects people but also regions or' betteryet' the conHunction of natural resources needed by humanitas in placesinhabited by anthropos. e colonial o*tions hae one as*ect in co!!on ith %eesternizin"ar"u!ents6 the %eBnitie reection o; Rbein" tol%P ;ro! the e*iste!ic *riile"es o; the zero *oint hat ReP are@ hatour rankin" is in relation to the i%eal o; hu!anitas an% hat e hae to %o to be reco"nize% as such. )oeer@%ecolonial an% %eesternizin" o*tions %ier"e in one crucial an% in %is*utable *oint6 hile the latter %o not>uestion the Rciilization o; %eathP hi%%en un%er the rhetoric o; !o%ernization an% *ros*erity@ o; the i!*roe!ent o; !o%ern institutions #e.". liberal %e!ocracy an% an econo!y *ro*elle% by the *rinci*le o; "roth an% *ros*erity&@

decolonial options start from the principle that the regeneration of lifeshall pre)ail o)er primacy of the production and reproduction of goods atthe cost of life #li;e in "eneral an% o; hu!anitas an% anthro*os alikeT&. illustrate this %irection@ belo@co!!entin" on <arthaChattereePs reorientin" Reurocentere% !o%ernityP toar% the ;uture in hich Rour !o%ernityP#in n%ia@ in Central sia an% the Caucasus@ in South !erica@ brieUy@ in all re"ions o; the orl% u*on hicheurocentere% !o%ernity as either i!*ose% or Ra%o*te%P by local actors assi!ilatin" to local histories inentin" an%enactin" "lobal %esi"ns& beco!es the state!ent o; interconnecte% %is*ersal in hich %ecolonial ;utures are bein"*laye% out. Last but not least@ !y ar"u!ent %oesnPt clai! ori"inality #Rori"inalityP is one o; the basic ex*ectations o; !o%ern control o; subectiity& but ai!s to !ake a contribution to "roin" *rocesses o; %ecoloniality aroun% the

orl%. y humble claim is that geo and bodypolitics of kno+ledge has beenhidden from the selfser)ing interests of %estern epistemology and that atask of decolonial thinking is the un)eiling of epistemic silences of%estern epistemology and a4rming the epistemic rights of the raciallyde)alued' and decolonial options to allo+ the silences to build argumentsto confront those +ho take Foriginality5 as the ultimate criterion for thenal Hudgment.1



8

Links



9

Link D Cuba3>panding globali*ation to Cuba is part of an imperial strategy

to displace re)olutionary potential in Cuba. The outcome of thee>pansion of globali*ation is en)ironmental destruction andine;uality.7liss !""M &r. Susan 7liss8 &irector of :lobal 3ducation'<M<!""M' ?Sustainability of odern Cuba5s post re)olutionglobalisation process@'/:lobalisation is not a ne+ phenomenon in Cuba ' e)ol)ing from the 1#thcentury +ith the rst e>pansion of 3uropean capitalism and acceleratingfrom 1-"1E16 +ith increased transport of goods. 7ut +hile the +orldbecame more globali*ed %rien by ;allin" tra%e barriers #19701980& an% %ere"ulation o; Bnancial

institutions #1980s& Cuba e>perienced restricted globalisation because of US

imposed sanctions #19'0s 2007&. Since the colla*se o; the Soiet =nion in 1989@ usherin" in *erestroika

an% "lasnost' globalisation has threatened to engulf Cuba that has respondedby de)eloping a uni;ue blend of both globalisation and localisation #"localisation& e!*hasisin" hetero"eneous %eelo*!ent an% cultural exclusieness trans;or!in" the econo!y an%

society ;ro! late 19th century. any Cubans still fer)ently adhere to strict egalitarian)alues of the re)olution #Stokes@ 200/& arguing that +estern' materialisticglobalisation ignores its dysfunctional aspects' such as en)ironmentaldegradation' loss of community' social ine;uality and needs to look atpossible multiple' eclectic approaches to societal de)elopment #-oer@ 1990& ;or

the %eelo*!ent o; a !ore sustainable@ e>uitable ;uture.W Bor Castro' the global economy is anune)en playing eld holding many dangers for small' de)elopingcountries' like Cuba' as it +orks to+ards a di4cult blend of global market

and restricted state and ci)il society economic management. or Cubans"lobalisation has a substantie !eanin" #transcontinental circuits o; ca*ital@ tra%e an% *ro%uction& but ani%eolo"ical use #neoliberalis!& that "re ith the %e!ise o; the socialist bloc in early 1990s an% ha% *ro;oun%

e?ects on the le"iti!acy o; Cuban socialis!@ as an alternatie to ca*italis!. ost Cuban socialistssupport antiglobalisation as they en)isage the US as the main dri)ingforce ad)ocating nancial imperati)es and the rule of the strong. 9ncontrast Cubans belie)e it should be replaced +ith a socialist system thatpromotes e;uality and shared )alues of humanity and markets that areFfree and fair5' e;uitably structured and immune from corporate po+er.

Cuban elites manipulate the plan to enHoin cuba toneoliberalism the alternati)e msut ethically refuse

neoliberalism as ine)itable in cuba(ere* !"1!' Nenisel odrigue* The 9deological Success ofeoliberalism in Cuba' april !E' !"1!http8<<+++.ha)anatimes.org<GpO#-"-Psthash.A,!iQn0E.dpuf )V: -M,S@ *ril 29 G -he econo!ic an% social ;ailure o; neoliberalis! is an establishe% ;act. n the econo!ics*here it has le% the orl% into a %ee* crisis@ hile socially it has "enerate% "reater ine>uality than any *reious

econo!ic !o%el. -hese e?ects are re*orte% %aily by the oQcial Cuban !e%ia. es*ite this@ e kno that theCuban go)ernment has aected a neoliberal shift in its reform policies. :onetheless@ een to%ay itPs %iQcult to Bn% a %irect connection beteen the socioecono!ic Nre;or!sO i!*le!ente%

http://www.havanatimes.org/?p=68708#sthash.AH2iVn39.dpuf

http://www.havanatimes.org/?p=68708#sthash.AH2iVn39.dpuf



10

by the "oern!ent an% ;un%a!entals o; international neoliberalis!. -he si!ilarities@ hich clearly exist@ ;ail to ;or!

a %eBnite *attern o; neoliberalstyle econo!ic an% social *olicy. This is +hy it5s so di4cult tofollo+ the economic mo)es of the political elite in their desperate retreatto+ard the deregulation of the economy. ,o+e)er at the ideological le)el'this complicity is apparent. tPs at this leel that neoliberalis! has beco!e he"e!onic in Cuba. Theideological foundations of neoliberalism ha)e achie)ed a tremendous

success in the sphere of the go)ernment on the island. The authoritiesha)e proclaimed the deregulation of Cuba5s economy as ine)itable' asthey ;uietly accept the consolidation of ine;uality as +ell as decreasedsocial spending and the renunciation of full employment as a goal. -hese arebasic *rinci*les o; neoliberalis!@ ones reUecte% by !easures hich they say shoul% "ui%e econo!ic *olicy oer the

ti!es to co!e. The go)ernment is con)inced that neoliberalism has +on theideological battle on the eld of international relations' despite itseconomic and social failures. 7ecause of this they are pa)ing the +ay for afuture of the radicali*ed application of its principles of economicderegulation and social ine;uality. (ien this@ the proposed real alternati)es

to the neoliberal model +ill remain the responsibility of the Cuban people

and nono4cial social mo)ements that are consolidating themsel)esacross the country . -hose on to* ill continue to sell out the country to the hi"hest bi%%er@ hich ill

alays be so!e e!*ire at the orl% scale.

Capital e>pansion into cuba replicates a segregation of theCuban population against the +estern )oyeur Rulie a**ei !"1! ' &epartment of (olitical Science' Kent StateUni)ersity' USA' egotiating domestic socialism +ith globalcapitalism8 Socalled tourist apartheid in Cuba' Communist and(ostCommunist Studies' Qolume 6M' 9ssues 1D!' archDRune

!"1!' (ages E1D1"0' 9n Search of Legitimacy8 (ostSo)iet &eBacto States 7et+een 9nstitutional Stabili*ation and (oliticalTransformationThe e>pansion into the ci)ilian economy' particularly capitalistcomponents of it' and its o)ersight of Hoint )entures procured an en)iablerole for the BA in the Cuban economy. any assess that high ranking andretired members of the BA ha)e become a class of indi)iduals +ith accessto ?Hobs and pri)ileges@ not a)ailable to a)erage Cubans' and that theseindi)iduals ha)e ?become the pri)ileged interlocutors +ith foreign capitaland perhaps an embryonic protocapitalist class@ #MualLen an% $uzn@20086 411–412&.Kle*ak #20076 87& in%icates that !e!bers o; the 5 ha% access to "oo%s ia the -5s or

NTiendas de Recuperacion de Divisas@D or ;orei"n currency recoery stores@ also !ana"e% un%er the !ilitary

syste!@ that aera"e Cubans %i% not@ thou"h he also in%icates that the a%anta"es hile real are *robably notextre!e #91&. ran%a #20106 20'A Mastra*a an% r!an%o@ 20006 4/1A Mora@ 2004& ar"ues that

the syste! has create% a "rou* o; elite co!*arable to the Nnational an% international bour"eoisie class that hel*saccount ;or ;orei"n ca*ital an% inest!ent in the $ureaucraticuthoritarianis! re"i!eXO ne coul% conclu%ethat the !ilitary as an institution an% its lea%ers as in%ii%uals hae "enerally beneBte% ;ro! the %ual econo!y

*erio%. -hus in Cuba there is a dominant group in the military<party' butCubans +ere not segregated from that dominant group #neither the !ilitary nor the

*arty&. This is not to say that the po+er elite in Cuba did not or do notcontinue to ha)e pri)ileges that ?a)erage@ Cubans do not ha)eA but this in an% o; itsel; %oes not constitute a*arthei% #an%@ in ;act@ can be seen in a ran"e o; %i?erent *olitical syste!s@ as Nthe 99YO

http://www.sciencedirect.com.ezproxy.lib.ou.edu/science/article/pii/S0967067X12000049?np=y#bib43



















11

occu*yin" Fall St. !i"ht ar"ue&. n too !any authoritarian re"i!es *articularly@ the state utilizes *oliciesun>uestionably %ebilitatin" ;or so!e !e!bers o; their *o*ulation@ *olicies that re*ress %issent@ restrict ri"hts an%outri"ht o**ress. oes this in%icate a syste! o; a*arthei%I Certainly it %oes not. *arthei% is a *articular ty*e o; authoritarianis!. urther!ore@ as note% extensiely aboe@ a*arthei% is a *articular ;or! o; se"re"ationA not allse"re"ation constitutes a syste! o; a*arthei%. Se"re"ation in Cuba %i% not se*arate the *oer elite ;ro! the

Nother@O %eBne% by so!e i%entitybase% collectiity@ as in a*arthei%. 5ather@ Cubans +ere deniedaccess to facilities reser)ed for a separate' unorgani*ed' e>trastate and

po+erless group8 tourists. Se"re"ation %i% not e!*oer tourists@ nor *ut the! in a *osition o; %o!inance oer the *rohibite% "rou*@ as in an a*arthei% syste!. n%ee%@ tourists represented anadditional actor not present in the apartheid system' an actor e>ternal tothe domestic socioDeconomic and political e;uation. -his is in%icatie that so!ethin">uite %i?erent as actually at *lay.

3ncouraging more foreign in)estment in Cuba +ill onlyincrease po)erty and massi)e social problems by increasede>posure to the neoliberal marketReyes 2000 [Hector Reyes, Cuba: The Crisis of State Capitalism, International

Socialist Review Issue , Sprin! 2000,http:""www#isreview#or!"issues""cuba$crisis#shtml%

Since the revolution, the U.S. has continuously attempted to undermine the Cuban state. The most recent act of economic sabotage, the

1995 Helms!urton la"#"hich penali$es countries and companies that do business in Cuba#confers on the U.S. president the

prerogative to define "hat constitutes democracy in Cuba. %othing could be more arrogant and hypocritical given the overt support the

U.S. has provided to every &ind of murderous dictator in 'atin (merica, from %icaragua)s Somo$a to Chile)s *inochet. This is "hy "ecelebrate the Cuban +evolution, because it gave U.S. imperialism a blac& eye#proving that it could be defeated in its o"n bac&yard. !ut

&efen&in! Cuba a!ainst 'merican &omination is not the same as i&entifyin! with Castro(s

re!ime. Cuba(s crisis is not separate from the severe economic recession that currently

affects nearly )0 percent of the worl&# n country after country, the political parties traditionally associated "ith

reforms#social democrats and liberals#have proven un"illing and incapable of effecting significant reforms. -n the contrary, they have

presided over etensive attac&s on their "or&ing classes. Cuba(s population is facin! a situation similar, but

much sharper, to that of wor*ers in +ritain, ermany an& the -#S#, who are sufferin!

from &rastic cuts in the welfare state. The strategy of the guerrillas/turned/bureaucrats has al"ays been playing the

international mar&et#a dead end for the Cuban "or&ing class. 0or in or&er for the Cuban economy to compete

favorably in that mar*et, continuous increases in pro&uctivity are &eman&e& from its wor*ers #in the form of longer "or&ing hours, speedups and lo"er "ages. ven in their o"n terms, the bureaucracy)s goals of national

development and of overcoming the dependence on sugar have failed "retchedly. There is a &ifferent roa&# It involves

not playin! the mar*et, but fi!htin! to en& the international capitalist system that relies on

that mar*et# Cuba(s wor*in! class nee&s to fi!ht its stru!!le on two fronts

simultaneously# .ne is to &efen& its livin! stan&ar&s a!ainst the impositions of its

rulin! class or!ani/e& in the CC# The other is a!ainst -#S# imperialism . Cuba)s fate has sho"ed

that there cannot be an island of 2socialism3 in a capitalist "orld. ven at its best, the conception of international revolution espoused by

some revolutionaries in Cuba#such as Che 4uevara#amounted to no more than a collection of nationalist revolutions that could come

together to resist the policies of the advanced countries.59 That "as in the 196s. Such rhetoric has been abandoned by the Cuban

leadership for many years. The liberation of the Cuban wor*in! class will come by means of a &ifferentstrate!y1throu!h its own selfactivity, &efen&in! its own interests an& 3oinin! the wor*ers of

the worl& in a common fi!ht to en& the international system of capitalism, which causes misery

in Cuba an& imperialist sie!e an& wars an& &estruction everywhere#



12

Link D e>icoe>icoUS economic engagement is the lynchpin and pro)ing

ground of neoliberalism D the a4rmati)e aides the globalsuccess of neoliberal e>ploitatione>ico Solidarity et+ork !"1! $e>ico A neoliberal3>periment'http8<<+++.me>icosolidarity.org<programs<alternati)eeconomy<neoliberalism2The -nite& States an& 4e5ico have been central to the &evelopment of the neoliberal mo&el . 7e

share a 8,666 mile border, the only place in the "orld "here the 4lobal %orth meets the South. The US/eico border is uni:ue, and the

relationship bet"een the t"o nations is e:ually uni:ue. n many "ays, this !eo!raphic marria!e represents the most

important relationship in the worl& a laboratory that is &efinin! the neoliberal mo&el# Three

historical mar&ers stand out as central to the development of neoliberalism; the establishment of free trade $ones and ma:uiladoras in195, Structural (d<ustment *rograms initiated by the nternational onetary 0und in 19=8, and the signing of the %orth (merica 0ree

Trade (greement in 199>. The -S4e5ico relationship has been the provin! !roun& for the practical

realities of the 6ashin!ton consensus: pro&uctionfore5port replacing production for internal consumption,

the use of &ebt as a lever to force structural ad<ustment programs, loose investment rules that allow hot money

to cross bor&ers in secon&s, an& a tra&e a!reement ?read %(0T(@ that is the model for a ne" legal frame"or& that

epands the rights of corporations at the epense of civil society. 75periments that 8wor*,8 from the perspective of

transnational capital ?and all of the above/mentioned eperiments A"or&edA@ are e5porte& to other countries#

This implies a complete restructurin! of the economies, politics an& cultures aroun& the worl&,

to ma*e them consistent with the neoliberal vision# 9early everythin! is on the table for reform;

economic policy, public subsidies, social programs, industrial policy, government procurement, intellectual property rights, patents,

ban&ing and financial services, a!ricultural policy, foreign direct investment, ener!y policy, labor re!ulations,

environmental protection, public education and health care / and the list goes on. Twentyfirst century

neoliberalism is a pro3ect for worl& &omination, an& the -S an& 4e5ico are at the center of the

vorte5#

The e>pansion of neoliberalism to me>ico is touted accordingto rationales of pragmatism and ine)itability +hich co)er thehistory of )iolence from ABTA' the plan is a liberal ploy tocontinue the economyI7 U93 !"1! $ob' artist and political economist in e+ Nork. Bree Trade and 3conomic 9mperialism 3conomic (rogressTo+ard 3cological Suicide %33K3& 3&9T9I IQ373 0"

0!' !"1!2Likeise@ political Fliberals5 ha)e been the primary facilitators of theascendancy of the radical right in both academia and politics. n academialiberals ha)e functioned much like progressi)es in an earlier age'producing Freasoned5 rationales in their economics for economicimperialism. n% in politics liberals play three essential roles8 to insistpolitical dierences are matters of degree to be F+orked through5 rather than

the irreconcilable %i?erences o; co!*etin" interestsJ to derail meaningful political action until a

Rbetter ti!eP in the ;uture that neer arries@ and to claim the political center no matter



1/

ho+ far the right+ard march has taken it. 9n the dimensions of economicsand the en)ironment Freason'5 both academic and political' is producingunreasonable outcomes for most people. The Fmanaged5 neoliberalism ofacademic economics pays lip ser)ice to the looming catastrophe o; "lobal

ar!in" that its on ra%ical ca*italis! *ro%uces. ; econo!ic R"roth@P as !easure% by tra%itional !etrics like (<#(ross o!estic <ro%uct&@ is %esirable an% it re*resents the out*ut o; in%ustrial ca*italis! contributin" to "lobalar!in"@ as it %oes@ then RsolutionsP to "lobal ar!in" are si!*ly atte!*ts to clean u* the catastro*hes an%%islocations that ca*italists an% their aca%e!ic a*olo"ists create. $ut as is beco!in" increasin"ly obious@ these

catastro*hes neer "et cleane% u*. or exa!*le@ about a decade after ABTA #:orth !erican ree

-ra%e "ree!ent& +as passed in the early 1EE"s cheap American corn oodede>ico and destroyed the peasant agriculture that had sustained millionsof peasant farmers for generations. Their li)elihoods destroyed' thoseFfreed5 from the land +ent to +ork either in a;uiladoras' factoriesestablished by multinational corporations in e>ico to e>ploit cheaplabor' or migrated to the U.S. in search of +ork. ost of the corn e>portedto e>ico is Fgenetically modied5 an% cross bree%s #*ollinates& ith %o!estic strains to ren%er

the tra%itional ;oo% su**ly sus*ect. Subse;uent U.S. policy di)erted U.S. corn from thefood supply to ethanol production causing its price to rise Hust as %allStreet began Fnanciali*ing5 agriculture through dedicated in)estment in

agricultural Fcommodities5 funds. The result +as that people +hoseindigenous economies had been destroyed by cheap agricultural importsinstantly faced star)ation as the imported food that consumed most oftheir incomes became unaordable. n the =.S. the Fnancial crisis5 and globalrecession caused by deregulated nance +as then e>ploited by cynicaland < or ignorant politicians to scapegoat for domestic economic tra)ailsthe displaced peasant farmers from e>ico +ho had come to the U.S.looking for +ork . The circumstances of these economic refugees thusdiminished' many no+ feed the detention and deportation Findustries5 asne+ and e)er more intrusi)e Ffreetrade5 agreements are negotiated insecret and to the e>clusion of those aected by them.

http://www.sfgate.com/news/article/Mexico-s-corn-farmers-see-their-livelihoods-2515188.php






14

Link D Qene*uelaAnd the foundation of colonial politics in the Americas traces

itself to Qene*uela. The US and 3uropean go)ernments usedeconomic tools as policing mechanisms upon Qene*uela. Theonroe &octrine became emblematic of all engagement in theAmericas. The US took a unilateral approach to controllingeconomic e>changes bet+een Latin American nations andpunished those +ho rebelled against its 9mperial control.ignolo "1 $%alter &. ignolo' (rofessor at &uke Uni)ersity'Coloniality at Large8 The %estern ,emisphere in the Colonial,ori*on of odernity29f the idea of the %estern ,emisphere found its moment of emergence in

the independence of Creoles in both Americas' its moment ofconsolidation can be found almost a century later' after the SpanishAmerican %ar and during the presidency of Theodore oose)elt' at theda+n of the t+entieth century. ; histories nee% a be"innin"@ then the history of thestrong rearticulation of the idea of the %estern ,emisphere in thet+entieth century had its beginning in Qene*uela hen ar!e% ;orces ;ro! (er!any an%

,n"lan% ,n% <a"e /3 initiate% a blocka%e to *ressure ;or the *ay!ent o; ;orei"n %ebts. The SpanishAmerican %ar #1898& had been a +ar for the control of the seas an% the <ana!a

Canal a"ainst the threats o; the ellestablishe% i!*erial nations o; Festern ,uro*e@ a danger that +asrepeated +ith the blockade against Qene*uela. The inter)ention of:ermany and 3ngland +as a good moment to re)i)e the call for autonomyfor the %estern ,emisphere@D hich ha% lost stren"th in the years *rior to an% %urin" the

!erican Ciil Far. The fact that the blockade +as against Qene*uela created theconditions for the idea and ideology of the %estern ,emisphere to bere)i)ed as not only a ;uestion of U.S. Hurisdiction' but also of the Hurisdiction of Latin American countries. -he r"entinean LuZs MarZa ra"o@ Minister o; orei"n?airs@ !a%e the Brst ste* in that %irection in ece!ber o; 1902 #Fhitaker 19746 83100&.Fhitaker *ro*oses@ in abroa% outline@ an inter*retation o; these years o; international *olitics that hel*s us to un%erstan% the ra%icalchan"e in the i!a"inary o; the !o%ern+colonial orl% syste! that took *lace at the be"innin" o; the tentiethcentury ith the 5ooseeltean reinter*retation o; the i%ea o; the DFestern )e!is*here.D ccor%in" to Fhitaker@ LuZs

MarZa &ragos proposed resolution to the embargo on Qene*uela #no knon as the

Dra"o octrineD& +as in reality a sort of corollary to the onroe &octrine froma multilateral perspecti)e that in)ol)ed' of course' all of the states of theAmericas. Fhitaker su""ests that ra"oEs *osition as not ell receie% in Fashin"ton because@ a!on" other

thin"s@ the United States considered the onroe &octrine a doctrine of

national politics and' indirectly' unilateral +hen applied to internationalrelations. Contrary to =.S. ies on the Monroe octrine@ ra"o inter*rete% it as a !ultilateral *rinci*le ali%

;or the hole Festern )e!is*here that coul% be execute% in an% ;ro! any *art o; the !ericas. The secondreason that %ashington shunned the &rago &octrine' according to%hitaker' +as a conse;uence of the rst8 if' in fact' a corollary had beennecessary to e>tend the eecti)ity of the onroe &octrine to internationalrelations' this corollary should ha)e come from %ashington and notArgentina' or any part of Latin America@ ;or that !atter. -his as@ accor%in" to Fhitaker@ theroa% Fashin"ton ;olloe% hen@ in ece!ber o; 1904@ 5ooseelt *ro*ose% his on DcorollaryD to the Monroe



17

octrine. lthou"h si!ilar to ra"oEs *ro*osal@ 5ooseeltEs ha% i!*ortant ,n% <a"e /8 %i?erences. Fhitakerenu!erates the ;olloin" *oints o; si!ilarity6 #a& both DcorollariesD ere %esi"ne% to sole the sa!e *roble!#,uro*ean interention in the !ericas& an% ere base% on the sa!e *re!ises #the Monroe octrine an% the i%ea

o; the Festern )e!is*here&A #b& both corollaries proposed to sol)e the problemthrough an e>ception to international la+ in fa)or of promoting the%estern ,emisphereA and c/ both proposed to achie)e this solutionthrough an American policy pronouncement' not through a uni)ersallyagreed amendment to international la+D #Fhitaker 19746 100&. -he %i?erences@ hoeer@

ere hat reoriente% the conB"uration o; the ne orl% or%er6 the ascent of one neocolonial orpostcolonial country to the group of imperial nationstatesVa change ofno small measure in the imaginary and structure of the modern<colonial+orld. -he %i?erences beteen 5ooseelt an% ra"o@ accor%in" to Fhitaker@ are ;oun% in the !anner o;i!*le!entin" the ne international *olitics. 5ooseelt *ro*ose% to %o it unilaterally@ ;ro! the =nite% States@ hilera"o *ro*ose% a !ultilateral action@ hich oul% be %e!ocratic an% inter!erican. -he results o; 5ooseeltEsDcorollaryD are ery %i?erent ;ro! hat coul% be i!a"ine% to hae ha**ene% i; the ra"o octrine ha% been

i!*le!ente%. )oeer' oose)elt claimed for America the monopoly of rights ofthe administration of autonomy and democracy in the %estern,emisphere #Fhitaker 19746 100&. The onroe &octrine' rearticulated +ith theidea of the %estern ,emisphere' introduced a fundamental change in

the conguration of the modern<colonial +orld and the imaginary ofmodernity<coloniality. FhitakerEs conclusion on this cha*ter o; the !o%ern+colonial orl% is a*t6 Ds a

result o; the i!*le!entation o; the D5ooseelt corollaryD instea% o; the Dra"o corollaryD the leader in%ashington and those in %estern 3urope came to understand each otherbetter and better as time +ent on. The same de)elopment' ho+e)er'+idened the already considerable gap bet+een AngloSa>on America andLatin America #Fhitaker 19746 103&.



1'

Link D e>ico 9mmigration7orderlands/

The US separated indigenous persons from their homeland andthen created conditions and challenges to return. 9mmigrationis both necessitated by conditions created by the US ande>ploited by US companies.

An*aldua 1E- $:loria An*aldua' (rofessor of Chicana CulturalTheory' 7orderlands<La Brontera8 The e+ esti*a' published1E-2La traesia. Bor many me>icanos del otro lado' the choice is to stay in e>icoand star)e or mo)e north and li)e. icen >ue ca%a !exicano sie!*re suena %e la con>uista en

los brazos %e cuatro "rin"as rubias@ la con>uista %el *als *o%eroso %el norte@ los ,sta%os =ni%os. ,n ca%a Cbicano y!exicano ie el !ito %el tesoro territorial *er%i%o. orth Americans call this return to thehomeland the silent in)asion. D la cuea olerlanD , <u!a en la cancion EEE!aliaEE South of the border' called orth Americas rubbish dump by Chicanos' me>icanoscongregate in the pla*as to talk about the best +ay to cross. S!u""lers@ coyotes@*asa%ores@ en"ancha%ores a**roach these *eo*le or are sou"ht out by the!. D[\ue %ia! !uchachos a echarsela%e !oia%oID D:o a!on" the alien "o%s ith ea*ons o; !a"ic a! .D :aao *rotection son"@ sun" hen "oin"

into battle. %e ha)e a tradition of migration' a tradition of long +alks. Today+e are +itnessing la migracion de los pueblos me>icanos' the returnodyssey to the historical' mythological' A*tlan. This time' the tra4c isfrom south to north. 3l retorno to the promised land rst began +ith the9ndians from the interior of e>ico and the mesti*os that came +ith thecon;uistadores in the 1M""5s. 9mmigration continued in the ne>t three

centuries' and' in this century' it continued +ith the braceros +ho helpedto build our railroads and +ho picked our fruit. Today thousands ofe>icans are crossing the border legally and illegallyJ ten million people+ithout documents ha)e returned to the South+est. Baceless' nameless'in)isible' taunted +ith ,ey cucaracho cockroach/. Trembling +ith fear'yet lled +ith courage' a courage born of desperation. 7arefoot anduneducated' e>icans +ith hands like boot soles gather at night by theri)er +here t+o +orlds merge creating +hat eagan calls a frontline' a+ar *one. The con)ergence has created a shock Culture' a border culture'a third country' a closed country. Fithout beneBt o; bri%"es@ the D!oa%osD #etbacks& Uoat oninUatable ra;ts across el rio (ran%e@ or a%e or si! across nake%@ clutchin" their clothes aer their hea%s. )ol%in"onto the "rass@ they *ull the!seles alon" the banks@ ith a *rayer to Vir"en %e (ua%alu*e on their li*s6 y

ir"encita !orena@. !i !a%recita@ %a!e tu ben%icion. The 7order (atrol hides behind thelocal c&onalds on the outskirts of 7ro+ns)ille' Te>as or some otherborder to+n. They set traps around the ri)er beds beneath the bridge. 16,unters in armygreen uniforms stalk and track these economic refugeesby the po+erful night )ision of electronic sensing de)ices planted in theground or mounted on 7order (atrol )ans. Cornere% by Uashli"hts@ ;riske% hile their ar!sstretch oer their hea%sD los !oa%os are han%cu?e%@ locke% in ee*s@ an% then kicke% back across the bor%er. neout o; eery three is cau"ht. So!e return to enact their rite o; *assa"e as !any as three ti!es a %ay. So!e o; thoseho !ake it across un%etecte% ;all *rey to Mexican robbers such as those in S!u""lersE Canyon on the !erican

si%e o; the bor%er near -iuana. As refugees in a homeland that does not +ant them'



13

many nd a +elcome hand holding out only suering' pain' and ignobledeath. Those +ho make it past the checking points of the 7order (atrolnd themsel)es in the midst of 1M" years of racism in Chicano barrios inthe South+est and in big northern cities. Li)ing in a nomansborderland'caught bet+een being treated as criminal and being able to eat' bet+eenresistance and deportation' the illegal refugees are some of the poorest

and the most e>ploited of any people in the U.S. 9t is illegal for e>icansto +ork +ithout green cards. 7ut big farming combines' farm bosses andsmugglers +ho bring them in make money o the +etbacks labortheydont ha)e to pay federal minimum +ages' or ensure ade;uate housing orsanitary conditions. -he Mexican o!an is es*ecially at risk. ;ten the coyote #s!u""ler& %oesnEt ;ee%

her ;or %ays or let her "o to the bathroo!. ;ten he ra*es her or sells her into *rostitution. She cannot call oncounty or state health or econo!ic resources because she %oesnEt kno ,n"lish an% she ;ears %e*ortation.!erican e!*loyers are >uick to take a%anta"e o; her hel*lessness. She canEt "o ho!e. SheEs sol% her house@ her;urniture@ borroe% ;ro! ;rien%s in or%er to *ay the coyote ho char"es her ;our or Be thousan% %ollars to s!u""leher to Chica"o. She !ay ork as a liein !ai% ;or hite@ Chicano or Latino househol%s ;or as little as ]17 a eek.r ork in the "ar!ent in%ustry@ %o hotel ork. solate% an% orrie% about her ;a!ily back ho!e@ a;rai% o; "ettin"cau"ht an% %e*orte%@ liin" ith as !any as B;teen *eo*le in one roo!@ the !exicana su?ers serious health*roble!s. Se en;er!a %e los nerios@ %e alta *resion. La !oa%a@ la !uerin%ocu!enta%aD is %oubly threatene% inthis country. :ot only %oes she hae to conten% ith sexual iolence@ but like all o!en@ she is *rey to a sense o;

*hysical hel*lessness. s a re;u"ee@ she leaes the ;a!iliar an% sa;e ho!e"roun% to enture into unknon an%*ossibly %an"erous terrain. -his is her ho!e this thin e%"e o; barbire



18

Link D :eneralLatin America is regarded by the plan according to a historical

binary that de)alues Latin America and naturali*es +esterneconomics and po+er relationships o)er the recipient countryTaylor !"10 $Lucy' &epartment of 9nternational (olitics'Aberyst+yth Uni)ersity' %ales' UK' !"10' Southsideup8imagining 9 through Latin America'http8<<millenniumHournal.les.+ordpress.com<!"1"<"E<taylorlucysouthsideupimaginingirthroughlatinamerica.doc.Let !e return to the issue that starte% ith – the sense that Latin America is irrele)ant to 9 inits o+n right and appears as the obHect of US fears and<or as the subHectof US inter)entions. n the one han%@ the Americas are understood as a binary@

%ii%e% by the 5io (ran%e. -his s*lit e!er"e% %urin" the !i%nineteenth century an% as ocalise% by the rench

intellectual Michel Chealier. )e %re on ,uro*ean un%erstan%in"s o; the!seles as bein" %ii%e% beteen theLatin@ Catholic@ southern@ #*oorer&@ countries an% the -eutonic@ <rotestant@ northern@ #richer& countries1. Thisbasic distinction +as transposed onto the Americas' setting up a binarythrough +hich Canada is lumped in +ith the USA and the Caribbean ise>cised. This sense of a binary in the Americas has been astonishinglyenduringJ the role of Latin America is to act as an Fother5 and it plays api)otal role in the making of US identity through imperialism. ^et on the other

han%@ Latin America5s position in the global order is not as a FThird %orldother5 but rather as an e>treme manifestation of the Iccident' of 3urope.

-his ie as establishe% at the outset@ as Falter Mi"nolo ex*lains6 Nurin" the sixteenth century@ hen R!ericaPbeca!e conce*tualize% as such by... intellectuals o; the :orth...@ it as i!*licit that !erica as neither the lan% o;

She! #the rient& nor the lan% o; )a! #;rica& but the enlar"e!ent o; the lan% o; Ha*hethO2. This ideaderi)ed from the assumed superiority of the con;uering classes +ho sa+nati)e Americans as being incapable of de)eloping the full potential of theAmericas' +hich legitimised their appropriation of the territory. 9ndeed'these supposedly primiti)e peoples +ere and still areW/ often consideredto be more a part of the e>ploitable natural +orld than the human one0

.

The notion that it +as the 3uropeans +ho Fmade5 the Americas both northand south/ is still an operational assumption and is one of the foundationsof anifest &estiny. -his intri"uin" %oubleness – ,uro*ean sa!eness+%i?erence – lies at the a!bi"uous

heart o; the !ericas@ but it is !uch !ore *lain to see in the South. -his is *artly because in%i"enous *eo*les are;ar !ore *ro!inent – nu!erically an% *olitically – in the South@ but also because the extre!e success o; the =S!akes it ery har% to ar"ue a"ainst as a !o%el ;or the R"oo% li;eP. et i; e take the lon" ie ;ro! 1492@ an% i; e

1 Falter Mi"nolo@ The Idea of Latin America, #x;or%6 $lackell@ 2007&@ **.7182.

nayatullah an% $laney ex*lain that the B"ure o; the RFil% !anP o; the !ericas asa central !eta*hor %e*loye% %urin" the intellectual battles o; the sixteenth an%seenteenth centuries.

2 Falter Mi"nolo@ Local Histories/lobal Designs! "oloniality, #ubaltern $no%ledgesand &order Thin'ing #<rinceton6 <rinceton =niersity <ress@ 2000&@ **.7879.

/ anielle VaVa>ueManty N-here are n%ians in the Museu! o; :atural )istoryO#(icazo #a Revie% Vol.17@ :o.1@ 2000@ **.3189&.

http://millenniumjournal.files.wordpress.com/2010/09/taylor-lucy-southside-up-imagining-ir-through-latin-america.doc






19

start our thinkin" about the !ericas ;ro! the south@ the =S be"ins to look ery %i?erent. -his in turn has so!e

bi" i!*lications ;or 5. The face +hich the US presents to the +orld is one of areconciled and settled settler society and its economic and social Fsuccess5 Husties the right to pronounce on the political and economic tness ofcountries' to set global policy agendas or to inter)ene' +here deemednecessary. 9t is precisely because Latin America is the United States5 alter

ego D its self and other' its disreputable cousin D that it is a perfect foil forthe US +hen looking from the topdo+n' making ob)ious the de)elopment'sophistication and success of the country. ; e turn this relationshi* on its hea%@ thou"h@an% look ;ro! the botto!u*@ the southern !ericas beco!e i%eally *lace% to *arochialize the "lobal he"e!on@

an% to reeal the inustice@ contin"ency an% sheer coloniality o; the =S4. Boregrounding theintimate connection bet+een coloniality and modernity in)ites us to openthe Fhidden5 colonial side of the US' a place +hich not only had colonialrelationships back then but also reects colonial e>periences right no+ )

The a4rmati)e5s depiction of Latin America identies the USacting upon a passi)e country framed around depictions ofpoor economics' drugs' or chaos as its sa)ior. This threatening

frame secures a )iolent relationship bet+een the actorsTaylor !"10 $Lucy' &epartment of 9nternational (olitics'Aberyst+yth Uni)ersity' %ales' UK' !"10' Southsideup8imagining 9 through Latin America'http8<<millenniumHournal.les.+ordpress.com<!"1"<"E<taylorlucysouthsideupimaginingirthroughlatinamerica.doc. ant to ar"ue that Latin America is in)isible to 9@ an% that takin" the re"ion seriously unsettlesthe %isci*line in to key ays@ es*ecially i; e e!brace an ex*licitly Latin !erican *ostcolonial *ers*ectie.irstly@ it *laces early colonial an% slae ex*eriences at the heart o; international relationshi*s. -his >uestions 5Psen%urin" e!*hasis on state soerei"nty an% interstate ar by ;ore"roun%in" hat call inter*olity relationshi*s

an% reco"nisin" inter*olity stru""les. Secon%ly@ reading 9 through Latin America D fromthe southside up D gi)es us a dierent perspecti)e on the USA' one +hichre)eals its coloniality in the past' and more importantly/ in the present. ar"ue that the ery s*ecial relationshi* beteen Latin !erica an% the =S@ so o;ten un%erstoo% as bein" si!*lyi!*erialistic@ !i"ht be thou"ht o; as a co!*lex !ix in hich Latin !erica is both %i?erent an% the sa!e@ both

RotherP an% RakinP. ecogni*ing this comple> relationship opens ne+ +ays ofthinking about the region D and international relations. t is intri"uin" that

9nternational elations hardly talks about Latin America at all D be itcon)entional 9 or indeed more postie or constructi)ist approachesM

. ost

4 i*esh Chakrabarty@ *rovincializing +urope! *ostcolonial Thought and HistoricalDierence, #<rinceton6 <rinceton =niersity <ress@ 2000&.

7 hae %eelo*e% these ar"u!ents in !uch "reater %e*th in a %ra;t articlesub!itte% to the 5eie o; nternational Stu%ies NSeein" Latin !erica6 coloniality

an% the *olitics o; re*resentation in 5O. or the %iscussant6 %urin" that stu%y@ consulte% aroun% thirty textbooks ;ocuse% on a ran"e o; to*ics an% ai!e% at ariousleels. ; es*ecial releance ere6 Hohn $aylis@ Stee S!ith an% <atricia ens@#e%s.&@ The lobalization of (orld *olitics, - ed), #x;or%6 x;or% =niersity <ress@2008&A ntony $est@ Hussi )anhi!_ki@ Hose*h . Maiolo an% Kirsten ,. Schulze@ AnInternational History of the T%entieth "entury, #Lon%on6 5outle%"e@ 200/&A Michael,. $ron@ #e%.&@ rave .e% (orld! #ecurity "hallenges in the T%entieth "entury, #(eor"eton6 (eor"eton =niersity <ress@ 200/&A $runo $ueno %e Mes>uite@







20

co)erage of the region is about the United States doing something to or inLatin America and such acti)ities are framed either as a Flegitimatesecurity concerns5' or as reecting a barely concealed imperialism. -hecontextual or historical ork ;ocuses on =S interentions #such as Chile@ (uate!ala or :icara"ua& an% Latin!erica is %e*loye% in cautionary tales about issues such as econo!ic instability@ *olitical corru*tion@ iolentsocieties an% the %ru"s tra%e. Latin !ericans also beco!e international actors i; they are !i"rants@ but only i;they atte!*t to set ;oot on =S soil. -hese issues are !ostly %ealt ith as bein" =S ;orei"n *olicy concerns an% the

i!*act on Latin !ericans the!seles is sel%o! consi%ere%. -his e!*hasis on =S actions an% its ;orei"n *olicyanxieties is on one leel ery un%erstan%able@ "ien the *ro!inence o; the =S in "lobal *olitics an% its unerrin"assu!*tion that it hol%s the *osition as re"ional lea%er. t is also *erha*s ex*laine% by the %o!inance o; =Sscholarshi* in 5 !ore "enerally@ an% o; =S scholarshi* about Latin !erica in *articular – this is their intellectual

backyar% as !uch as their "eo*olitical one'. ,s*ecially ;or conentional a**roaches to 5@ Latin America5simportance lies in its position on the %hitehouse or C9A agenda and as

*rinciples of International *olitics, ed.@ #Fashin"ton6 C\ <ress@ 2000&A <eterCalocoressi@ (orld *olitics since 01-2, 3 ed), #Lon%on6 Lon"!an@ 2000&A Hohn L.(a%%is@ (e .o% $no%! Rethin'ing "old (ar History, #x;or%6 x;or% =niersity<ress@ 1993&A K.).)olsti@ International *olitics! a 3rame%or' for Analysis, 4 ed), #Lon%on6 <rentice )all@ 1997&A 5obert Hackson@ The lobal "ovenant! Human"onduct in a (orld of #tates, #x;or%6 x;or% =niersity <ress@ 2000&A Charles

Ke"ley an% ,u"ene Fittko*;@ (orld *olitics! Trends and Transformations, 5 ed), #$oston6 $e%;or% St Martins@ 2001&A Fillia! Keylor@ The T%entieth "entury (orldand &eyond! an International History since 0166, 7 ed), #x;or%6 x;or% =niersity<ress@ 200'&A 5ichar% Mansbach an% Kirsten 5a?erty@ Introduction to lobal *olitics, #Lon%on6 5outle%"e@ 2003&A nthony Mc(re an% <aul Leis@ lobal *olitics, #Ca!bri%"e6 <olity@ 1992&A $ruce 5ussett@ )arey Starr an% ai% Kinsella@ (orld*olitics! the 7enu for "hoice, 4 ed), #Lon%on6 Fa%sorth@ 2004&A -reor Sal!on an%Mark !ber@ #e%s.&@ Issues in International Relations, ed), #Lon%on6 5outle%"e@2008&A Han art Scholte@ lobalization! a "ritical Introduction, #$asin"stoke6<al"rae@ 2000&A Stee S!ith@ !elia )a%Bel% an% -i! unne@ 3oreign *olicy!Theories, Actors, "ases, #x;or%6 x;or% =niersity <ress@ 2008&A <eter Sutch an%

Huanita ,lias@ International Relations! The &asics, #Lon%on6 5outle%"e@ 2003&A <aul 5.

Viotti an% Mark V@ Kau**i@ IR and (orld *olitics! #ecurity, +conomy, Identity, ed),#Lon%on6 <rentice )all@ 2001&A %% rne Festa%@ lobal "old (ar, #Ca!bri%"e6Ca!bri%"e =niersity <ress@ 2003&A $rian Fhite@ 5ichar% Little an% Michael S!ith@#e%s.&@ Issues in (orld *olitics, #$asin"stoke6 <al"rae@ 2007&A Hohn ^oun" an% HohnKent@ International Relations since 01-2! a lobal History, #x;or%6 x;or% =niersity<ress@ 2004&. also !a%e a closer rea%in" o; the ;olloin" !ore critical texts6 H.Marsall $eier@ International Relations in 8ncommon *laces! Indigeneity, "osmologyand the Limits of International Theory, #$asin"stoke6 <al"rae@ 2007&A (eetaCho%hury an% Sheila :air@ *o%er, *ostcolonialism and International Relations!Reading Race and ender, #Lon%on6 5outle%"e@ 2004&A 5oxanne oty@ Imperial+ncounters! the *olitics of Representation in .orth9#outh Relations, #Minnea*olis6=niersity o; Minnesota <ress@ 199'&A Henny ,%kins an% Maya Jeh;uss@ lobal

*olitics, #Lon%on6 5outle%"e@ 2009A Hi! (eor"e Discourses of lobal *olitics! A"ritical Re9Introduction to International Relations, #$oul%er6 Lynne 5ienner@1994&A:aee! nayatullah an% ai% L. $laney@ International Relations and the *roblem ofDierence, #Lon%on6 5outle%"e@ 200/&A (ilbert M. Hose*h@ Catherine C. Le"ran% an%5icar%o . Salatore@ #e%s.&@ "lose +ncounters of +mpire! (riting the "ulturalHistory of 8#9Latin American Relations, #urha!6 uke =niersity <ress@ 1998&ASankaran Krishna@ lobalization and *ostcolonialism! Hegemony and Resistance inthe T%enty9:rst "entury, #Lanha!6 5o!an ` LittleBel%@ 2009&A L.M.). Lin"@



21

such' it is mostly seen as a place of threat or pity/' as a caricature ofbarbaric danger' characterised by )iolence' terror' economic chaos' anddrugs. n this ay' Latin America is portrayed as a passi)e recipient of USactions' or if it is an agent' it is a dangerous one. The region isunner)ingly dangerous because its threats are underhand and not interstate +ars one of the curious characteristics of the region is that

remarkably fe+ interstate +ars ha)e taken place o)er the last !"" years. -his ren%ers Latin !erica inisible as an a"ent #because !akin" ars or *eace is a keysi"n o; a"ency ;or 5& yet

isible as a sha%oy@ !enacin" *resence. The region is therefore a place to be kno+nabout because it +as feared' not as a place to +arrant in)estigation on itso+n terms' a source of policy solutions or +here signicant and dierentkno+ledge might be generated. 9t seems that bad economics' corruptionand demagoguery is +hat 9 – or at least the conentional sort – is preprogrammed totake notice of. -his !akes it i!*ossible ;or 5 to RseeP Latin !erica@ hich in turn un%er!ines its clai! to!ake sense o; the orl%.

*ostcolonial International Relations! "on;uest and Desire bet%een Asia and the(est, #$asin"stoke6 <al"rae@ 2002&A Karena Sha@ Indigeneity and *olitical Theory!#overeignty and the Limits of the *olitical, #Lon%on6 5outle%"e@ 2008&A ai% Slater@eopolitics and the *ost9colonial! Rethin'ing .orth9#outh Relations, #x;or%6$lackell@ 200'&A Cynthia Feber@ International Relations Theory! A "riticalIntroduction, < ed,) #Lon%on6 5outle%"e@ 2009&.

' rlene -ickner@ R)earin" Latin !erican Voices in nternational 5elations Stu%iesP@International #tudies *erspectives@ ol.4@ no.4@ #200/& **./2770. )er lar"eresearch *roect conBr!s the %o!inance o; Festern 56 rlene $. -ickner@ RLatin!erica6 Still *olicy %e*en%ent a;ter all these yearsIP@ in rlene $. -ickner an% leFaeer@ #e%s&@ International Relations #cholarship Around the (orld, #Lon%on65outle%"e@ 2009&.



22

Link D ,ispanophobia<:eneric,istory has dened itself along a colonial matri> of po+er D

%estern 3urope and 9slamophobia ga)e +ay to the USA and,ispanophobia as the rising challenges of the !"th century.acial di)isions +ere categori*ed along a hierarchy of beingthat pri)ileged +hite and Christian bodies o)er their bro+n orindigenous counterparts.ignolo !""# $%alter &. ignolo' (rofessor of Cultural studiesat &uke Uni)ersity' 9slamophobia<,ispanophobia8 Thee/Conguration of the acial 9mperial<Colonial atri>',uman Architecture' !""#2n the =nite% States@ the specter of 9slam at a global scale has been accompanied

by the rising specter of ,ispanophobia. nterestin"ly enou"h@ Sa!uel ,untington hasbeen the ideologue that connected both in t+o inuential books timelypublished. -he Brst one@ that is !ore ellknon@ -he Clash o; Ciilizations #1997&@ as *ublishe% a;ter thecolla*se o; the Soiet =nion. -he secon% one@ Fho re FeI -he Challen"es o; !ericaPs :ational %entity #2004&@as *ublishe% a;ter 9+11 hich "ae the =.S. an excuse to intensi;y the *olitics o; national security. cha*ter o;

,untington5s second book +as prepublished +ith the title ?The ,ispanicChallenge.O ,o+ are these t+o historical se;uences and social imaginarieslinked in the imperial global designsI either of the t+o historicalse;uences and social imaginaries are obHecti)e or ?natural happenings@but in)ented and placed in a map of global designs. ,o+ then does the%estern imperial imaginary manage to connect 9slamophobia and,ispanophobia as a challenge #or a threatI& to the %est an% to the =.S. res*ectielyI

su""est so!e ansers to these >uestions in the ;olloin" *a"es. There is a common history thatlinks %estern and 3astern Christians. The di)ision bet+een ome andConstantinople' bet+een %estern and 3astern Christians' is +ell kno+n inthe history of Christianity. 3astern Christianity unfolded collecti)ely in:reece' the 7alkans' and 3astern 3urope. %estern Christians #or Christen%o!&

+ere located in the territory that e)entually became secular 3urope. -he

%i?erences beteen both ere base% on lan"ua"es@ theolo"ical *rinci*les@ an% *olitical *roects. eligiousdi)isions and distinctions +ere complemented by ethnicity. The Sla)icpeoples are dened by their linguistic attainment of the Sla)ic languages.They inhabitedVsince the #th century' about a century before theemergence of 9slamV+hat is today Central 3urope' 3astern 3urope' andthe 7alkans' +hile in the %est Latin language became the trademark ofChristianity and inhabitants5 ethnicity. n"loSaxons occu*ie% the territories to the est o;

Slaic *eo*les. or the *eo*le inhabitin" the northeast o; the Me%iterranean Sea #;ro! (reece to S*ain& there is nota sin"le na!e but seeral6 )is*ania@ (aul@ talia #ori"inally Vitalia&. -hus@ Festern an% ,astern Christians in reli"ionan% the arie"ate% ethnicities that e!brace% Christianity in its arious ,astern an% Festern ersions all con;ronte%the other reli"ions o; the book@ Hu%ais! an% sla!



2/

Link D 3conomic 3ngagement3conomic engagement uni)ersali*es a coloni*ing epistemology

that reinforces the hierarchy that perpetuates +ays of kno+ingthat pri)ilege the +hite heterose>ual male7aker !""E $ichael' Uni)ersity of ochester' %arner :raduateSchool of 3ducation and ,uman &e)elopment' :raduateStudent' Situating odern %estern 3ducation +ithin theodern<colonial %orld System' Unpublished (aper 'Rune !""E 'academia.edu

-his inter*retation o; !o%ernity as intertine% ith coloniality o; *oer o?ers an ori"inal criti>ue o; the,urocentric *ro%uction o; knole%"e an% subectiity@ "lobal racial ;or!ation@ an% their interrelate% links in

the history o; the orl% ca*italist syste!. odern epistemology and moderneconomic ideology are intert+ined in the relation bet+een a subHect

and an obHect' and the economical relation bet+een a subHect and itspri)ate property #\uiano@ 1999&. %estern epistemology ?runs parallel tothe history of capitalismO #Mi"nolo@ 2002@ *. 38& and is complicit +ith racism'se>ism' and uni)ersalism. The subHectobHect +esternepistemological model that organi*es mentalities and li)es in themodern +orld gre+ out of the historical process of colonial andeconomic dominance and has' in turn' pro)ided an ideological Hustication for this dominance #\uiano@ 2000A ussel@ 199/A Mi"nolo@ 2000a&. -he

*hiloso*hical ;oun%ation o; ,urocentric !o%ernity as built on the knoin" subect that as constructe%;ro! the *rototy*e o; Fhite@ heterosexual@ ,uro*ean !ale. -his *articular ethnocultural ay o; knoin"the orl% as uniersalize% as the only or best ay o; bein". Conse>uently@ knole%"es an% ex*erienceso; all those ho are not Fhite@ heterosexual@ ,uro*ean !en ere an% are exclu%e%@ unless they are illin"

an% able to acculturate #Mi"nolo@ 2007@ *. 1/8/. This 3urocentric conception of

kno+ledge pro)ides the po+erful Hustication for assuming theinferiority of all other kno+ing subHects +ho are not %hite'heterose>ual' male' and 3uropean #or o; ,uro*ean %escent& #Mi"nolo@ 2007@ *. 1/9&.

Coloniality essentially names the hegemony of 3uropean kno+ledgeand being through the hierarchical incorporation of all other culturesinto a 3urocentric cultural proHect. -he incor*oration o; such %ierse an% hetero"enous

cultural histories into a sin"le orl% %o!inate% by ,uro*e si"niBe% a cultural an% intellectualintersubectie conB"uration e>uialent to the articulation o; all ;or!s o; labor control aroun% ca*ital@ aconB"uration that establishe% orl% ca*italis!. n e?ect@ all the ex*eriences@ histories@ resources@ an%cultural *ro%ucts en%e% u* in one "lobal or%er reolin" aroun% ,uro*ean or Festern he"e!ony. ,uro*ePshe"e!ony oer the ne !o%el o; "lobal *oer concentrate% all ;or!s o; the control o; subectiity@culture@ an% es*ecially knole%"e an% the *ro%uction o; knole%"e un%er its he"e!ony. #\uiano@ 2008@

**. 188189& Coloniality of po+er is thus a principle and strategy ofcontrol and domination that is constituti)e of +estern modernity asa long series of political' economic' cultural and educationalproHects. ?The concept of coloniality has opened up the reconstruction and the restitution of silenced histories' repressedsubHecti)ities' subalterni*ed kno+ledges and languages performedby the Totality depicted under the names of modernity andrationality@ #Mi"nolo@ 2003@ *. 471&. -he criti>ue o; coloniality !ust there;ore entail the criti>ue o;

its e*iste!ic nucleus #,urocentris!&@ that is@ a criti>ue o; the ty*e o; knole%"e that contribute% to thele"iti!ation o; ,uro*ean colonial %o!ination an% its *retenses o; uniersal ali%ation. =n%erstan%in",urocentris! ithin the history o; its e!er"ence in the sixteenth century calls ;orth the creatie inclusion

http://rochester.academia.edu/

http://rochester.academia.edu/Departments/Warner_Graduate_School_of_Education_and_Human_Development







24

an% inte"ration o; subaltern knole%"es an% corres*on%in" ays o; bein" in the *ost,urocentriccurriculu!. n su!!ary@ the modern %orld9system can thus be characterize% in *art as a structure o;ex*loitation an% %o!ination@ conce*tualize% an% le"iti!ize% ithin the e*iste!ic ;ra!eork o;,urocentris! an% the rhetoric o; !o%ernity. -he history o; the !o%ern orl%syste! has been in lar"e *arta history o; the ex*ansion o; ,uro*ean states an% *eo*les into the rest o; the orl%. -his has been anessential *art o; the construction o; a ca*italist orl%econo!y. -he ex*ansion has inole%@ in !ostre"ions o; the orl%@ !ilitary con>uest@ econo!ic ex*loitation@ an% !assie inustices. -hose ho hae le%an% *roBte% !ost ;ro! this ex*ansion hae *resente% it to the!seles an% the orl% as ustiBe% on the

"roun%s o; the "reater "oo% that such ex*ansion has ha% ;or the orl%Ps *o*ulation. The ususalargument is that the e>pansion has spread something )ariouslycalled ci)ili*ation' economic gro+th' and de)elopment' and<orprogress. All of these +ords ha)e been interpreted as e>pressions of uni)ersal )alues' encrusted in +hat is often called natural la+.

-here;ore@ it has been asserted that this e>pansion +as not merelybenecial to humankind but also historically ine)itable. -he lan"u"e use% to

%escribe this actiity has been so!eti!es theolo"ical an% so!eti!es %erie% ;ro! a secular *hiloso*hicalorl%ie. #Fallerstein@ 200'@ *. 1&

The plan is a continuation of ideological pushes to impose

colonial )iolence upon countries designated as third +orld3scobar !""6 $Arturo' 7eyond the Third %orld89mperial:lobality' :lobal Coloniality' and Anti:lobali*ation Socialo)ements' Third +orld ;uarterly !""6.+++.nd.edu<=druccio<3scobar.pdf2

1. At the le)el of imperial globality' no)el types of coalitions' eitherregionally based #e.".@ the n%ean countriesA Fest ;rica& or net+orked according toother criteria #e.".@ si*e' e>istence of a large technocratic elite and economicand technological basisA ;or instance@ a coalition o; so!e o; the lar"er countries in the ;or!er -hir%Forl%@ een at the leel o; re;or!ist elites is is the excesses o; i!*erial "lobality&. $y noel !ean co!*licatin"the nationstate an% re"ional econo!ies@ ;or instance. s it unthinkable to i!a"ine@ ;or instance@ a *ann%ean

con;e%eration o; autono!ous re"ions %ran on culturalecolo"ical consi%erations@ rather than tra%itional "eo*olitical concernsI -his oul% be a con;e%eration ithout nationstates@ o; course. (ien the current role o; !anystates ithin i!*erial "lobality it is not unthinkable that the ;or!er -hir% Forl% coul% be better o? in a orl%ithout states@ ith the *roiso that both local+re"ional an% 19 !etanational ;or!s o; structurin" an% "oernancebe create% that aoi% the !ost %rea%;ul tra*s o; the nationstate hile creatin" ne ;or!s o; *rotection an%

ne"otiation. 2. t is clear by no that the Argentinean crisis +as caused not byinsu4cient integration into the global economy but rather because of ane>cess of it. ,en %uti;ully ;olloin" the neoliberal a%ise o; the M or ho!e"ron econo!ists %i% not saethis i!*ortant country ;ro! a *ro;oun% crisis. Fhy canPt e %are to i!a"ine the unai!a"inable@ that r"entinacoul% hae a better chance by ste**in" so!ehat outsi%e an% beyon% i!*erial "lobality@ rather than stayin" ;ully

ithin itI Can partial delinking Dselecti)e delinking and selecti)ereengagementVoer an alternati)e path' perhaps at the le)el of +orldregions #e."@ Southern Cone&@ or netork o; orl% re"ionsI -his !eans that it oul% be *ossible to rethink the

*ro*osal o; %elinkin" intro%uce% by Sa!ir !in in the 1930s to Bt the ne con%itions.

10

:ee%less to say@eerythin" see!s to !ilitate a"ainst this *ossibility. The proposal for a Bree Trade Area of theAmericas #LC@ as it is knon in Latin !erica an% - as it is knon in :orth !erica& is beingpushed for+ard +ith considerable force by the United States and mostLatin American leaders. And of course any country or region that dares toattempt a path of autonomy is bound to incur the ire of empire' riskingmilitary action. This is +hy opposition against ALCA is today indeliblylinked to opposition against militarism by most acti)ist organi*ations. -heseare ust to exa!*les o; the kin% o; N!acroO thinkin" that hile not ra%ical@ coul% create better con%itions ;or thestru""le a"ainst i!*erial "lobality an% "lobal coloniality. ; a**roache% ;ro! this anta"e *oint@ they are likely to



27

contribute to a%ance the i%ea that other orl%s are *ossible. The social mo)ements of the pastdecade are' in eect' a sign that this struggle is already under +ay.9magining ?after the Third %orld@ could become a more integral part ofthe imaginary of these mo)ementsJ this +ould in)ol)e' as +e sa+'imagining beyond modernity and the regimes of economy' +ar' coloniality'e>ploitation of people and nature' and social fascism it has brought about

in its imperial global incarnation.



2'

Link D TradeTrade is utili*ed by the %estern po+ers to create nancial

dependency of other nations and force a colonial strategyupon those populations and embeds )iolence and racism ine)eryday political life.Kanth !""M $aHani Kannepalli Kanth' Against 3urocentrism8 ATranscendent Criti;ue of odernist Science' Society' andorals ##E2

-he Brear!@ the *rintin" *ress@ *a*er@ an% the co!*ass ere to beco!e the *ri!etools o; Festern %o!ination o; nonFestern culturesA to%ay@ in the "ol%en era o;neoliberalist Bnance@ one !i"ht a%% only co!!erce an% cre%itGthat is@ tra%e an% Bnancial%e*en%encyGas the other set o; allie% !echanis!s. -he si!*le@ i; ironic@ ;act that all o; theseere ori"inally non,uro*ean inentions !ust be a soberin" thou"ht to those *rone to "enuUect be;ore the *utatie

su*eriority@ an% ori"inality@ o; !o%ernist science. t !i"ht also be note% that the #*utatie& absence o; a co!*ass%i% not inhibit nai"ation on the *art o; seeral non,uro*ean *eo*les ho en"a"e% in ex*lorations not o; necessity

conUuent ith the !oties o; tra%e an% con>uest. t as not a state o; !in%@ nor a *enchant ;orreUection@ that ;urthere% the ra*i% %eelo*!ent o; ,uro*ean natural science #althou"h

the entire e?ort as locate% ithin the !eta*hysical !atrix o; anthro*ocentris!& but rather %ire in%ustrialnecessity in the context o; %es*erate international@ an% internecine@ rialry an% ar@;eatures that hae but little chan"e% in the !o%ern *erio% here !ost research thatis a!*ly ;un%e% is still o; the strate"ic kin%. ; one but a%%s co!!ercial "ree%@ to in%ustrial nee%@

then e e?ectiely su! u* the %riin" ethosGthe colossal stren"ths an% eaknessGo; ,uro*ean science. Salutaryto note@ in this re"ar%@ that neither Ve%ic is%o!@ herein science an% ethics ere co!bine%@ nor $u%%hist or Hainex*lorations in !athe!atics@ ere either *rooke% by@ or ere conco!itants o;@ con>uest an% accu!ulation butbore a *urity o; ar%or an% en%eaor that has si!*ly no !o%ernist ,uro*ean e>uialent leastays in the classical*erio% o; the ,nli"hten!ent #this %oes not !ean that the later *ostVe%ic tra%ition %i% not inculcate *hiloso*hy asstatecra;t.. KautilyaEs rthashastra@ in that re"ar%@ co!*ares ;aorably ith@ i; lon" *rior to@ MachiaelliEs i%eas&.

)oeer@ the ne scientiBc outlook o; the ,nli"hten!ent as not en"en%ere% uno**ose% an% ha% to B"ht it ayoer the back o; ol%er tra%itions o; science that ere ;ar !ore hos*itable to hu!bler social nee%s an% necessities@that is@ they ere not %rien solely by "ree% or *oer. Much as the i%eas o; liberalis! triu!*he% oer churchi%eolo"y by irtue not o; better ar"u!ent or better ei%ence@ contrary to !o%ernist le"en%@ but the *oer o; betteror"anize% ;orce #as instance% in the *olitics o; (alileo in success@ an% the lost crusa%e o; the "reat <aracelsus@ in;ailure&@ the ne sciences si!*ly ex*elle% the ol% arts an% *ushe% the! to the outer !ar"ins o; existence.

Su*erior ;orce@ or"anization@ an% iron %isci*line ere the re%oubtable tools o;,uro*ean !astery@ but een they@ in the!seles@ !ay not hae suQce% to e?ectthe su*re!e %o!inance that is isible to%ay in all corners o; the orl% #exce*tin" China@

hich re!ains the least ,uro*eanize% o; any !o%ernist social ;or!ation& ere this ;orce not to besu**le!ente% ith a *hiloso*hy o; %o!ination that@ to this %ay@ has no *areil in thehistory o; hu!an en%eaors. :on,uro*ean e!*ires@ ;ace% ith the ,uro*ean *eril@ ha% tolearn the har% ay that "uns ithout ar"u!ents al!ost ;ail to Bre alto"ether.So!ehere in the 5enaissance@ ,uro*e *ossesse% itsel; o; such an inexorable

i%eolo"y@ a eritable !ani;est@ o; con>uest o; all thin"sGan% *eo*les. -he ery s*irito; the rulin" ,uro*ean #an% his :orth!erican counter*arts& to%ay is in;or!e% iththis antonly con>uista%orean@ car*etba""in"@ te!*er@ still seekin" "ulliblesubects cu! consu!ers@ hereer *ossible@ still seekin" to take ithout "iin"@ to rule

ithout consent@ rea%y to cheat on treaties@ rene"e on ;rien%s@ an% exact ;ro! the eak an% thehel*less. -he craen =.S. inasion o; (rena%a@ in;a!ous act o; state *iracy a*art@ here the!i"htiest ;orce on earth tra!*le% on the *oorest little islan% i!a"inable@ an% thenaar%e% the!seles a "litterin" "allery o; !e%alsG!ore than one !e%al each ;or eery sol%ier@



23

sailor@ an% !arine lan%e% #an% !any ho neer lan%e% inci%entally&Gcan coney but a ery s!alla**reciation o; ust ho ;ar ;ro! een the ery si!*lest nor!s o; !orality ,uro*eanDciilizationD has traerse% in but a ;e centuries #e>ually linear an% unbroken is there% line o; in;a!y that connects the atrocities o; the ,uro*eans in ;rica an% thetechnolo"y %rien saa"ery o; !ericans in Vietna!&. n%ee%@ the ery or% itsel;to%ay has no rea%ily a"ree% u*on !eanin" or si"niBcance in !o%ernist societyGust

as si!ilarly@ econo!ics@ the rulin" lo"os o; !o%ernis!@ has no *lace ;or@ an%

co!*rehension o;@ the i%ea o; ;airness or ustice@ ter!s hich are literally !eanin"lessithin that %iscourse. Fith the %estruction o; nor!atie ties@ the social basis o;!orality ero%es an% beco!es *riatize% #s!all on%er that the =.S. Su*re!e Court %ee!s@ ith!uch relie;@ !orality a local@ co!!unity resource subect to local a%u%ications an% alterations o; ;ashioris&.

Morality@ like ethics@ beco!es !erely an o*tion@ a!on" !any choices@ ;or theor%inary *erson@ to be exercise% hen it inoles the least cost to the *ractitioner Alike ;aith@ its close country cousin@ it has beco!e e?ectiely %is*ensable@ an% >uite subo*ti!al@ as a orkable co%e;or con%uct. nce a"ain@ the =nite% States #here ba% "uys in ith a "ri!@ %e"ra%in"@ !onotony&@ the !ost%e"enerately a%ance% in these %irections@ is liin" testi!ony to the si!*le rectitu%e o; these *ro*ositions@ hosetruth is conBr!able by si!*le@ %irect obseration alone.



28

Link D :lobali*ation<9La+:lobali*ation and integration into global markets is e>pansion

of the colonial proHect in +hich non+hite populations aredeemed back+ards and Hustify colonial control.ignolo !"" %alter &.' &epartment of omance Studies'&uke Uni)ersity' ?The geopolitics of kno+ledge and thecolonial dierence' ?Coloniality8 The &arker Side ofodernity'@ ant)ille.org'http8<<m1.ant)ille.org<static<m1<les<+alterXmignoloXmodernologiesXeng.pdf / Yrancisco %e Vitoria is ri"htly celebrate% !ainly a!on" S*anish an% other ,uro *ean scholars ;or bein" one o; the;athers o; international la. )is treatise@ 5electio %e n%is is consi%ere% ;oun%ational in the history o; the %isci*line.

Central to VitoriaPs ar"u!ent as the >uestion o; ius "entiu! #ri"hts o; the *eo*le or ri"hts o; nations&. us

"entiu! alloe% Vitoria to *ut at the sa!e leel o; hu!anity both S*aniar%s an%n%ians. )e %i% not *ay attention to the ;act that by colla*sin" \uechuas@ y!aras@:ahuatls@ Mayas@ etc@ un%er the label Rn%iansP he as alrea%y ste**in" into a racialclassiBcation. So it as not %iQcult ;or Vitoria to sli%e s!oothly into the secon% ste*o; his ar"u!ent6 althou"h e>ual to S*aniar%s in the %o!ain o; ius "entiu! @ Vitoriaconclu%e% #or he kne it Brst an% then ar"ue% it& n%ians ere sort o; chil%ish an% nee%e% the"ui%ance an% *rotection o; S*aniar%s. t that !o!ent Vitoria inserte% the colonial%i?erence #ontolo"ical an% e*iste!ic& into international la. -he colonial %i?erenceo*erates by conertin" %i?erences into alues an% establishin" a hierarchy o;hu!an bein"s ontolo"ically an% e*iste!ically. ntolo"ically@ is assu!e% that thereare in;erior hu!an bein"s. ,*iste!ically@ it is assu!e% that in;erior hu!an bein"sare rational an% aesthetically %eBcient. // Le"al scholar nthony n"hie has *roi%e% an insi"ht;ul

analysis o; the historical ;oun%ational !o!ent o; the colonial %i?erence. /4 n a nutshell the ar"u!ent is the;olloin"6 n%ians an% S*aniar%s are e>ual in the ;ace o; natural la as both@ by natural la@ are en%oe% ith ius"entiu! . n !akin" this !oe@ Vitoria *reente% the <o*e an% %iine la ;ro! le"islatin" on hu!an issues.)oeer@ once Vitoria establishe% the %istinction beteen R*rinci*es ChristianosP #as ell as Castilians in "eneral&an% Rlos brbarosP #e.".@ the anthro*os & on the other@ an% he !a%e his best e?ort to balance his ar"u!ents base%

on the e>uality he attribute% to both *eo*le by natural la an% ius "entiu! @ he turns into usti;yin"S*aniar%Ps ri"hts an% li!its toar% Rthe barbariansP to ex*ro*riate or notA to %eclarear or notA to "oern or not. Co!!unication an% interaction beteen Christians an%barbarians are onesi%e%6 the barbarians hae no say in hateer Vitoria sai%because barbarians ere %e*rie% ;ro! soerei"nty een hen they are reco"nise%as e>ual *er natural la an% ius "entiu!. The mo)e is foundational to the legaland philosophical constitution of modernity<coloniality and the principle of reasoning +ould be maintained through the centuries' modied in the

)ocabulary from barbarians to primiti)es' from primiti)es to communists'from communists to terrorists. /7 Thus orbis christianius ' secularcosmopolitanism and economic globalism are names corresponding todierent moments of the colonial order of po+er and distinct imperialleadership from Spain to 3ngland to the United States/. n"hie !a%e three %ecisie*oints about Vitoria an% the historical ori"ins o; international la that illu!inate ho !o%ernity+coloniality are

boun% to"ether an% ho salation ustiBes o**ression an% iolence. -he Brst is Rthat Qitoria isconcerned' not so much +ith the problem of order among so)ereign statesbut the problem of order among societies belonging to t+o dierent

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29

cultural systems P. /' -he secon% is that the frame+ork is there to regulate its)iolation. And +hen the )iolation occurs' then the creators and enforcersof the frame+ork had a Husti cation to in)ade and use force to punishand e>propriate the )iolator. -his lo"ic as on%er;ully rehearse% by Hohn Locke in his Secon%

-reatise on (oern!ent #1'81&. Ine can say that Fcoloniality5' in Qitoria' set the stagenot only for international la+ but also for Fmodern and 3uropean5

conceptions of go)ernmentality. t see!s obious that Locke %i% not "et as !uch ;ro! Machiaellias ;ro! the e!er"ence o; international la in the sixteenth century@ an% in the ay that Vitoria@ an% his ;olloers@settle% to %iscuss both the >uestion o; R*ro*ertyP an% R"oernanceP in the interaction beteen Christians an% thebarbarians. /3 -he thir% is that the R;ra!eorkP is not %ictate% by %iine or natural la but by hu!an interests@ an%

in this case@ the interests o; Christian Castilian !ales. -hus@ the Fframe+ork5 presupposes a )ery+ell located and singular locus of enunciation that' guarded by di)ine andnatural la+' it is presumed to be uni)ersal. And on the other hand' theuni)ersal and unilateral frame Fincludes5 the barbarians or 9ndians aprinciple that is )alid for all politics of inclusion +e hear today/ in theirdierence thus Hustifying any action Christians +ill take to tame them. -hecon struction o; the colonial %i?erence "oes han% in han% ith the establish!ent o; exteriority 6 exteriority is the*lace in hich the outsi%e #e.".@ anthro*os & is inente% in the *rocess o; creatin" the insi%e #e.".@ hu!anitas & tosecure the sa;e s*ace here the enunciator %ells. /8 Clearly@ then@ VitoriaPs ork su""ests that the conentionalie that soer ei"nty %octrine as %eelo*e% in the Fest an% then trans;erre% to the non,uro*ean orl% is@ ini!*ortant res*ects@ !islea%in". Soerei"nty %octrine ac>uire% its character throu"h the colonial encounter . -his isthe %arker history o; soerei"nty@ hich cannot be un%erstoo% by any account o; the %octrine that assu!es the

existence o; soerei"n states. $rieUy state%6 i; !o%ernity is a Festern inention #as (i%%enssays&@ so too is coloniality. -here;ore@ it see!s ery %iQcult to oerco!e coloniality;ro! a Festern !o%ern *ers*ectie. ecolonial ar"u!ents are *ressin" this blin%s*ot in both ri"htin" an% le;tin" oriente% ar"u!ents. /9



/1

labelled the ?most dangerous place on earth@G ,o+ did the cradle ofcreeds based on compassion' inclusi)eness and peace become the land ofhatred' e>clusion and potential nuclear +arG )o %i% a ciilization base% on %iersity

!utate into !ilitarize% !onoculturesI There are no onedimensional e>planations forthis tectonic transformation. 7ut three forms of )iolence ha)e con)ergedin space and time in the 9ndian subcontinent8 the )iolence of globali*ation'

the )iolence of a global +ar' and the )iolence unleashed by a politics offragmented and fundamentalist identities. :lobali*ation is forging globallyshaped' narro+ nationalist identities' +hilst national so)ereignty andeconomic democracy are destroyed. Bundamentalism and terrorism arethe other side of the globali*ation coin. The eruption of )iolence in 9ndia'the land of peace' is a product of the lethal mi> of free trade andglobali*ation D resulting in the impo)erishment and )ulnerability of theordinary people and the death of economic democracy D and the rise offragmenting politics based on fundamentalist ideologies' +hich both feedon people5s insecurities and di)ert political energies from the search for Hustice' basic needs and e;uality to a politics of hatred and +ar. The global+ar against terror unleashed since E<11 D +ith the backdrop of the?crusades@ and the ?clash of ci)ili*ations@ D has also contributed to thespread of the )irus of hatred. Violence@ ar an% "enoci%e hae been !a%e the nor! as cor*orate

"lobalization is ai%e% by the "lobalization o; ;ascis!. un%a!entalist )in%uta has "aine% su**ort ;ro! the "lobal

ar a"ainst terror to %eBne Musli!s as the Nene!yO. s the :eneral Secretary of the %orld,indu Council@ Visha )in%u <arisha% #V)<&@ stated' ?9t is necessary for 9ndia' Re+sand the %estern +orld to come together and ght 9slamic militants)O2

)oeer@ this construction remo)es uslims from their home in 9ndia andtreats them all as potential terrorists. E<11 and the response to it ha)ereshaped the contours of 9ndia5s politics and culture. They ha)e allo+edthe emergence of ne+ fascistic tendencies emboldened by the global +aragainst terror and the criminali*ation of all uslims.

Coloniality entails the era past colonialism that uses threats of terror to Hustify e>pansion and economic control3scobar !""6 $Arturo' 7eyond the Third %orld89mperial:lobality' :lobal Coloniality' and Anti:lobali*ation Socialo)ements' Third +orld ;uarterly !""6.+++.nd.edu<=druccio<3scobar.pdf

So!e *artial conclusions6 Coloniality incorporates colonialism and imperialism butgoes beyond themJ this is +hy coloniality did not end +ith the end ofcolonialism #;or!al in%e*en%ence o; nation states&@ but as rearticulate% in ter!s o; the *ostForl% Far

i!a"inary o; three orl%s #hich in turn re*lace% the *reious articulations in ter!s o; cci%entalis! an%rientalis!&. Si!ilarly@ the ?end of the Third %orld@ entails a rearticulation of thecoloniality of po+er and kno+ledge. s e hae seen@ this rearticulation takes the ;or! o; bothi!*erial "lobality #ne "lobal link beteen econo!ic an% !ilitary *oer& an% "lobal coloniality #the e!er"ent

classiBcatory or%ers an% ;or!s o; alterization that are re*lacin" the Col% Far or%er&. The ne+ colonialityregime is still di4cult to discern. ace' class and ethnicity +ill continue tobe important' but ne+' or ne+ly prominent' areas of articulation come intoe>istence' such as religion #an% "en%er linke% to it@ es*ecially in the case o; sla!ic societies@ as esa ;or the ar on ;"hanistan&. )oeer@ the sin"le !ost *ro!inent ehicle o; coloniality to%ay see!s to be the



/2

a!bi"uously %ran B"ure o; the Nterrorist.@ Linked most forcefully to the iddle 3ast'and thus to the immediate US oil and strategic interests in the region #is

is the ,uro*ean =nion an% 5ussia@ on the one han%@ an% China an% n%ia in *articular on the other@ as the !ost

;or!i%able *otential challen"ers&@ the imaginary of the terrorist can ha)e a +ide eldof application #it has already been applied to 7as;ue militants andColombian guerrillas@ ;or instance&. n%ee%@ after E<11' +e are all potential

terrorists' unless you are American' %hite' conser)ati)e Christian' andepublican Din actually or epistemically #that is@ in !in%set&. -his !eans that in seekingto o)ercome the myth of modernity' it is necessary to abandon the notionof the Third %orld as a particular articulation of that myth. Si!ilarly@ the

*roble!atic o; social e!anci*ation nee%s to be re;racte% throu"h the lens o; coloniality. 3mancipation@ as it

as !entione%@ needs to be de%esterni*ed also the economy/. 9f socialfascism has become a permanent condition of imperial globality'emancipation has to deal +ith global coloniality. -his !eans conceiin" it ;ro! the*ers*ectie o; the colonial %i?erence. Fhat %oes e!anci*ation –or liberation@ the *re;erre% lan"ua"e o; so!e o; theMC authors !ean hen seen throu"h the lens o; coloniality@ that is@ beyon% exclusion %eBne% in social@ econo!ican% *olitical ter!sI inally@ i; not the thir% orl%@ hatI NForl%s an% knole%"es otherise@O base% on the *olitics

o; %i?erence ;ro! the *ers*ectie o; the coloniality o; *oer@ as e shall see in the Bnal section.3



//

Link D 7order SecurityThe ;uestions of security are used to arouse emotional

responses to Hustify the liberal democratic control of bordersand immigration policy. The media sensationali*ation of thea4rmati)e is the same analysis that Husties e>clusion and>enophobia to+ards the foreign Fother5Quko) !""0 $Tamara' Concordia Uni)ersity in Canada'?9magining Communities Through 9mmigration (olicies 8:o)ernmental egulation' edia Spectacles and the Aecti)e(olitics of ational 7orders@' 9nternational Rournal of CulturalStudies !""0 #8 00M2 strict ;ocus on *olitical rationality an% the "oern!ental lo"ics o; *olicy %iscourse

in !uch "oern!entality theory ten%s to ne"lect the a?ectie %i!ensions o; bio*oliticalre"ulation an% its %is*ersion throu"h !e%ia culture into the eery%ay co!!on sense o;national belon"in". t is !y contention in hat ;ollos that the a?ectie %i!ensions o; "oernance arecrucial to the e?ectie re"ulation o; *o*ulations an% the cohesion o; *olitics ith the social@ *articularly hen>uestions o; i!!i"ration an% national boun%aries are concerne%. (oern!entality theory su""ests that the *osin"an% %ra!atization o; threats to the *o*ulation sere a strate"ic role in the bio*olitical interentions o; state racis!.

)oeer@ such a strate"ic bio*olitical *rocess %oes not ork throu"h a strictlyinstru!ental lo"ic@ a %ise!bo%ie% "oern!ental rationality or a to*%on *rocess o; !ass *ersuasion. <olitical a?ect is central to the e?ectie "oern!ental !obilizationo; a sense o; threat to the *o*ulation. urther!ore@ in conte!*orary liberal %e!ocraticnation states@ the strate"ic !obilization o; a sense o; threat or other such a?ectie*rocesses cannot e?ectiely take *lace outsi%e o; the !ass !e%ia@ *articularly thenes !e%ia. Me%iatize% threats that elicit stron" a?ectie res*onses are key to the ays in hich !e%ia

s*ectacles aroun% i!!i"ration oer the *ast 10 years hae increasin"ly articulate% i!!i"ration ith cri!inalityan% terroris!. -he social an% *olitical ;orce o; a?ect a!*liBe% throu"h nes !e%iacontributes to hat Larence

(rossber" calls a?ectie e*i%e!ics #(rossber"@ 1992&. ?ectie e*i%e!ics o; insecurity that*roli;erate throu"h nes !e%ia culture beco!e crucial to the ays in hich !anystates recu*erate their re"ulatory *ractices an% rationalize their *olicies #as itnesse% inthe =S a;ter the terrorist attacks o; 11 Se*te!ber 2001 an% %urin" the rench@ ustralian an% utch electoralca!*ai"ns o; 2002&. s so!e o; the recent ork on a?ect in cultural stu%ies clai!s@ it is i!*ortant to *oint out herethat a?ect is not re%ucible to e!otion #Massu!i@ 199'A Sei"orth@ 1999&. Fhereas e!otions ten% to re;er to%iscrete states that are ex*erience% as subectie !o!ents o; interiority@ a?ect re;ers to a less subectie@asi"ni;yin" set o; resonances@ sensations an% intensities that circulate socially beteen bo%ies an% accu!ulate to;or! a kin% o; back%ro* or cli!ate. ?ect traels beteen an% a!on" bo%ies an% *o*ulationsA it is a *rocess that

ce!ents the ;eel o; eery%ay li;e. ?ectie e*i%e!ics e!er"e hen s*eciBc resonancesbeco!e *articularly acute@ attainin" a hei"htene% leel or *itch an% tri""erin" anaccelerate% circulation a!on" *eo*les@ as occurs hen !e%ia s*ectacles aroun%

insecurity irru*t. n%ee%@ !e%ia culture is a key site ;or the *roli;eration o; a?ectie e*i%e!ics because o; theays in hich !ass !e%ia constitute such a back%ro* to %aily li;e an% because o; the intensiBe% circulation o;a?ect that they ;acilitate. Fhat can a sustaine% attention to a?ect brin" to an analysis o; "oern!entalityI ?ect iscrucial to >uestions o; "oern!entality because o; its !obilizin" social *oer@ the ;orce it carries in relation to the

re"ulatory an% structural rationalities o; "oernance. -ake@ ;or instance@ the current conuncture inhich so !any liberal %e!ocratic states hae a%o*te% a *osition in hich they nee%to be seen as bein" Rtou"hP on i!!i"ration an% cri!e. Fhile "oern!entality theory oul%ten% to acknole%"e that such bio*olitical interentions by states rely on the existence o; a sense o; threat a"ainsthich they can be seen to be securin" their *o*ulations@ a narro ;ocus on "oern!ental rationalities an% actionsoul% be li!ite% inso;ar as it took this sense o; threat ;or "rante%. $y insistin" on the a?ectie *rocesses that



/4

circulate to sustain such a cli!ate o; insecurity@ an analysis ;ore"roun%in" a?ect !i"ht seek to trace ho such asense o; threat has *roli;erate% throu"h the !e%ia@ the %iscourses an% social !yths throu"h hich it has beenre*resente% an% "ien !eanin"@ ho it has ;uele% *articular *olicies@ as ell as the %iQcult task o; ;or!ulatin"

strate"ies to contest its recu*eration ;or re"ressie "oern!ental a"en%as. ttention to a?ect shi;ts the;ocus o; analysis@ on the one han%@ to the ays in hich "oern!ental lo"icscirculate in *ublic culture throu"h the !e%iation o; i!!i"ration an% *o*ulationAan%@ reci*rocally@ to the "oern!entalization o; a?ect itsel;. Such an a**roach also

;ore"roun%s an% re*ositions !e%ia culture as a key site throu"h hich the a?ectie %i!ensions o; "oern!ental

*olicies an% *ractices can be trace% an% analyze%. n%ee%@ i!!i"ration is central to the a?ectiee*i%e!ics o; security an% insecurity that hae beco!e the ;ocal *oints o; !e%ias*ectacles an% "oern!ental *olicy. -he social an% *olitical ;orce o; a?ect resi%es in the ay it is tie%to hat (rossber" calls *o*ular R!atterin" !a*sP@ the a?ectie inest!ents – ;ro! !oo%@ to %esire@ to *assion or

ill – that anchor *eo*lePs ex*eriences in social an% *olitical ;or!ations. -he on"oin" irru*tion o; !e%ias*ectacles aroun% !i"ration s*eaks to the ays in hich i!!i"ration eokes stron"*olitical a?ect aroun% co!!onsense i!a"inin"s o; national belon"in"@ o; hoshoul% be inclu%e% an% exclu%e% in the national co!!unity. -he a?ectie a!*liBcation thatnes !e%ia %iscourses en"a"e in #hat )all et al. 1938 call the Ra!*liBcation s*iralP& *lays a crucial role inarticulatin" i!!i"ration@ cri!inality an% ;ear to"ether by !eans o; a?ectie resonance. Like !any nations@Cana%aPs lon"stan%in" tra%ition o; !e%ia s*ectacles aroun% i!!i"ration %ates back to historical !e%ia an% culturalR*anicsP aroun% socalle% un%esirable i!!i"rants@ such as the lan%in" o; the Ko!o"ata Maru in 1914 o? the coast

o; $ritish Colu!bia #Kelley an% -rebilcock@ 19986 170–2&. t the sa!e ti!e@ xeno*hilic !e%ia s*ectacles;ra!e i!!i"ration as crucial to the nation an% the "oern!entality o; *o*ulationhistorically #as a settler nation o; i!!i"rants&@ econo!ically an% ;or ;uture *o*ulation "roth.n settler nations such as Cana%a@ to *ro!inent sets o; *ublic articulations o; the nation an% its boun%ariese!er"e in the !oe!ent beteen a?ectie e*i%e!ics aroun% i!!i"ration an% *o*ulation in nes !e%ia culturean% the "oern!entality o; i!!i"ration *olicy. n the Brst instance@ a sexualize% ision o; i!!i"ration is *ose% askey to the li;e o; the *o*ulation an% *o*ulation "roth #inclu%in" the econo!y&. t the sa!e ti!e@ in the secon%

instance@ i!!i"ration is *ose% as a threat to the *o*ulation that !ust be continuallyre"ulate% an% containe% throu"h the !onitorin" o; security@ health@ sexuality an%race an% ethnicity. -his tension un%erlies the oscillation in settler nations beteen axeno*hilic@ *roi!!i"ration %iscourse o; econo!ic nationalis! an% *o*ulation"roth an% a xeno*hobic@ antii!!i"rant cultural nationalis!.4 -hese to articulations *laya %ecisie role in the or"anization an% re"ulation o; the %iscursie cate"ories o; Cana%ian i!!i"ration *olicy an%i!!i"rant selection@ *articularly in the ays that they are racialize% an% sexualize%. Fhile a**earin" on the sur;ace

to o?er contra%ictory res*onses to the %esirability o; i!!i"ration in ter!s o; "enerosity an%+or exclusion@ suchxeno*hilic an% xeno*hobic articulations are !utually in;or!in" ;acets o; a co!!on *olicy %iscourse that seeks toselect@ re"ulate an% *ro%uce the *o*ulation ;or the "oo% o; the nation.

The focus on ports replicates legal codiciations of identitiesthrough inspection D strengthening ports becomes anapparatus for managing populations,eyman !""6 $Rosiah' department of Sociology andAnthropology' Uni)ersity of Te>as' 3l (aso' (orts of 3ntry asodes in the %orld System' 9dentities8 :lobal Studies inCulture and (o+er' 1180' 0"00!2

%hen people mo)e through ports' legal identications are a4rmed'applied' or reHected through a bureaucraticDpolice process called?inspection.O ns*ection re se!bles oucal%ian Nsureillance@O thou"h it is not necessarily allenco!*assin"

an% e?ectie in internal %isci*linin" #)ey!an 1999a&. 5ather@ ports should be understood in theconte>t of the interplay of go)ernment o4cers and acti)e popu laces. s

lan S!art has ritten ;or the *airin" o; state la en;orce!ent an% ille "al *ractices@ N+e need to +orkfrom both ends simultaneously and hope that +e manage to connect up in



/7

the middleO #19996 100&. -hus@ in analyzin" ins*ections@ %istin"uish Ni%entiBcationsO i!*ose% ;ro! outsi%e

;ro! sel;assu!e% Ni%enti tiesO #)ey!an 20016 1/0&. 9nspections concentrate tremendouscomple>ity into a short moment of interaction. Understanding ho+inspectors and entrants orches trate these complicated actions demandsclose ethnographic attention' but repays it +ith great insights into themaking and regulation of mobility. <eo*le enter lan% *orts in to ays@ on ;oot an% as the %rier

an% *assen"ers in cars. -here are %i?erences in ho *orts han%le these to kin%s o; entrants@ but ill concentrateon crucial ele!ents o; ins*ection ;oun% in both cases. -he Brst !eetin" o; entrant ith state oQcer is calle%@ notsur*risin"ly@ N*ri!ary ins*ec tion.O -he %ecision at *ri!ary is hether *eo*le an% ehicles can %irectly *rocee%into the national interior or are sent to a aitin" area to the si%e o; the exit ;or !ore exten%e% Nsecon%aryins*ections.O t the latter@ %eBnite i%entiBcations are !a%e@ ;ro! a%!ission to reection or een arrest an%*rosecution. <ri!ary ins*ections at this bor%er inclu%e both exa!ination o; "oo%s #custo!s ;unctions& an% *eo*le

#i!!i"ration ;unctions& an% ins*ectors ;ro! the to ;e%eral a"encies #the Cus to!s Serice an% the :S1

& arecross%esi"nate% to share res*onsibility #these roles bi;urcate in the secon%ary area&. <ri!ary ins*ectors !ake%ecisions un%er a!az in"ly ti"ht ti!e constraints. -he !ana"e!ent yar%stick ;or busy *orts such as ,l <aso or San

^si%ro@ hich are un%er Neleate% threat a%isoryO #the current nor !al con%ition&@ is one ehicle cleare% eerythirty secon%s on aera"e. lthou"h *erio%ic Nhi"hO alert con%itions %ilate this ti!e stan%ar% #e.".@ by re>uirin"*hysi cal exa!ination o; at least one co!*art!ent *er ehicle&@ there are counterailin" *ressures to s*ee% u*traQc clearance un%er nor!al circu!stances@ inclu%in" the ne"atie health an% sa;ety e?ects o; backe%u* traQcan% the crossbor%er tour is!@ retail@ an% !anu;acturin" coalitions that *ressure *ort !ana"e!ent to ;acili tatebor%er crossin" #see )ey!an 1999b on local *olitical contexts o; *orts&. l thou"h a!bi"uous cases can be sent tosecon%ary@ in busy *orts secon%ary areas beco!e oercro%e% ith re;errals@ so there is constant erbal ;ee%back

on the aailability o; secon%ary s*ace to *ri!ary ins*ectors. )ence@ there is no substitute ;or sna* u%"!ents at

*ri!ary. The problem for inspectors is that they ha)e to make Hudgments atone restricted place and time about personal and legal situationsramifying back+ard and for +ard in time and space. or exa!*le@ a *erson s*eakin"

,n"lish ith a heay S*anish accent %eclare% that he as a =nite% States citizen@ returnin" ;ro! isit in" his!other in "ua <rieta@ Sonora@ an% that his resi%ence as south <hoenix. n !oin" ;ro! *ri!ary to secon%ary@here he as >uestione% in %etail@ he in%i cate% that he as born in the =nite% States@ !oe% ith his *arents toMexico in his early chil%hoo%@ an% returne% to the =nite% States to lie ith an ol%er sister as a B;teenyearol%@here he atten%e% hi"h school ;or to years be;ore %ro**in" out to ork on a "ar%enin" cre. -he >uestion atstake as hether he actually as a =nite% States citizen by birth ith eery ri"ht to return to his ho!e an% ob in<hoenix or as !akin" a ;alse clai! to =nite% States citizenshi*. -here is no %eBnitie i%entiBcation ;or =nite%States citizenshi*@ no national =nite% States i%entity car%@ so the a%!ission *rocess inoles a conteste% set o;in;erences about this *ersonPs *ast #hy he s*oke ,n"lish@ but ery *oorlyA hy he as ;a!iliar ith a hi"h schoolin <hoenix& an% his actiities an% societal inole!ents in to nations beyon% that obserable in the *ort itsel; #hyhe as in Sonora %urin" the Christ!as *erio%@ hat ri"hts he ha% or %i% not hae to be orkin" on a "ar%enin"

cre in rizona&. )e as a%!itte% ;ro! secon%ary@ in the s*ace o; to !inutes@ on the basis o; his ;a!iliarity iththe <hoenix hi"h school@ a reasonable an% *rob ably ;air but by no !eans certain %ecision. %e +ill ndcrucial the means by +hich such decisions are made' the conte>ts thatgo)ern these means' the aggre gate pattern of such decisions' and theaccumulated national and +orldsystemic impacts of that aggregatedmass of snap decisions.



/'

Link D 3conThe discourse of de)elopment and economic gro+th is

embedded in the uni)ersal rationality of economics. Thesetheories of science are used to shape policies that assumethere is a Fkno+ledge gap5 bet+een cultures.3labdin in !""6 $3iman' Associate (rofessor and Chair of3conomics Z Branklin [ arshall College' (ostcolonialismeets 3conomics' edited by 3iman 3labdin and S Charusheela0"012

-he *roble! o; knole%"e has been the obect o; intense reUection in the *ast hal;century. )ere@ a! not concerne% ith the nature o; knole%"e itsel; but ith therole o; econo!ics #stee*e% in the !o%ernist construc tion o; knole%"e as uniersaltruth@ rational@ instru!ental@ an%@ in a ay@ exclusie to Festern !o%ernity& in*ro%ucin" the subaltern subectiity o; un%er%eelo*!ent an% lack o; e*iste!icauthority.18 -he >uestion o; knole%"e@ hich un%errites both the Brst an% secon% tasks o; *ostcolonialis!@

is6 )o %oes the *ostcolonial secure suQcient e*iste!ic authority to rite its on histories an% to construct its on!eanin"sI -o be"in to anser this >uestion re>uires exa!inin" the ery ay in hich econo!ic knole%"e hasbeen conB"ure% so ;ar@ an% ho knole%"e G as a bo%y o; hu!an co"nitie relations to the orl% G has beenstructure% in ays that sere he"e!onic cultural *ur*oses. -he i!*lication o; knole%"e in syste!s o; *oer isol%@ at least eer since rancis $acon *roclai!e% that Nhu!an knole%"e an% hu!an *oer !eet in one@ ;or

here the cause is not knon the e?ect cannot be *ro%uce%O #Kra!nick 19976 /9&. <ostcolonial criticshae un%erscore% the !anner in hich knole%"e about certain societies as*ro%uce% an% e?ectiely %e*loye% as instru!ent o; %o!inion oer the! #Sai% 1938&.;rica as inente% by the aca%e!ic %iscourses o; *hiloso*hy an% anthro*olo"y that is@ *ro%uce% as a Bel% o; stu%ybase% on ,uro*ean a**rehensions about its *lace in )istory G recall )e"el G an% the co"nitie characteristics o;

its Nsaa"e !in%O #see Mu%i!be 1988&. -he conte!*orary exe!*lar o; this co!*lex o;

knole%"e+*oer is the %iscourse on %eel o*!ent@

hich has %eBne% the con%itionso; *ossibility o; all knole%"e about ;or!er colonies since the ;or!al en% o; thecolonial era. eelo*!ent as %iscourse o?ers both the RscientiBcP "roun%s ;ortheoretically *lacin" *ostcolonial societies in *re!o%ernity@ an% the conse>uent*olicy *rescri*tions ;or their !o%ernization thereo;. eelo*!ent not only e!bo%iesthe historicist un%erstan%in" o; social chan"e an% the belie; in the su*eriority o;in%ustrial culture@ it also contains knole%"e as its essential co!*onent since%eelo*!ent@ as a "eneral *heno!enon@ entails a learnin" *rocess. -he *roble! o;knole%"e@ hoeer sti*ulate% in econo!ics G as literacy@ the ac>uisition an% !astery o;

technolo"ical skills@ or si!*ly Rhu!an ca*italP G accounts ;or the R*oertyP o; any "ien society.

-he cause an% e?ect chain beteen knol e%"e an% econo!ic "roth #see Leis 1977@

5osto 19'0@ yres 19'2@ 5o%ney 1932& *roi%es the scientiBc basis ;or an acce*table social

theory. ccor%in"ly@ the %eelo*!ent %iscourse *resents knole%"e as an obstacle tobe sur!ounte% by the Rless %eelo*e%P an%@ at once@ *ro%uces the knole%"e thatbeco!es their ;ra!e o; re;erence ;or knoin" their on seles.



/3

Link D &emocracyThe focus on democracy fails to account for coloniality D the condition of

possibility for colonial )iolence is the epistemic starting point of the a Dtheir democracy participates in ne+ forms of imperialismCon+ay and Singh 11 $Ranet and Rakeet' (rofessor of Sociologyat 7rock Uni)ersity and (rofessor of (olitical Science atUni)ersity of Toronto' ?adical &emocracy in :lobal(erspecti)e8 notes from the pluri)erse'@ Third %orld Yuarterly'Qol 0!' 9ss 6' ay2n the %eca%e since the Brst Forl% Social oru! in 2001 !a%e it ;a!ous@ the rallyin" cry o; the "lobal ustice!oe!ent that Ranother orl% is *ossibleP has un%er"one a si"niBcant shi;t. 5eUectin" the inUuence o; !oe!entslike the Ja*atistas@ a ra%ical aareness o; *luralis! has been cou*le% ith a i%ely share% %esire ;or !ore *o*ular

%e!ocracy an% a criti>ue o; all ;or!s o; pensamientos =nicos to *ro*el a *luralisin" o; alternatie isions. Manyother orl%s are *ossible@ an% the share% stru""le is ;or a orl% in hich !any

orl%s Bt. or the Ja*atistas an% the !oe!ents o; the Forl% Social oru! these are isions an% stru""les*ose% a"ainst the authoritarian i!*osition o; neoliberal "lobalisation on eery society in the orl% an% a"ainst the

ne relations o; i!*erialis! it enacts. rturo ,scobar calls this *rocess a Rne =Sbase% ;or! o;i!*erial "lobality@ an econo!ic–!ilitary–i%eolo"ical or%er that subor%inates re"ions@*eo*les@ an% econo!ies orl%i%eP ne ;ace o; this i!*erial "lobality is the =Sle%%rie to ex*ort Festernstyle liberal %e!ocracy as the only le"iti!ate !o%e o;"oernance "lobally an% a *recon%ition ;or reco"nition@ ai% an% tra%e ith the Fest

#albeit hi"hly selectiely a**lie%&. s Ha!es -ully ar"ues@ Rthe %o!inant ;or!s o; re*resentatie%e!ocracy@ sel;%eter!ination an% %e!ocratisation *ro!ote% throu"h internationalla are not alternaties to i!*erialis!@ but@ rather@ the !eans throu"h hichin;or!al i!*erialis! o*erates a"ainst the ishes o; the !aority o; the *o*ulation o; the *ostcolonialorl%P -he i!brication o; %e!ocracy ith the "lobalisation o; Festern ca*italist !o%ernity has enor!ouslyco!*licate% e?orts by scholars ali"ne% ith the "lobal ustice !oe!ents to theorise %e!ocracy in "lobal

*ers*ectie. Many critical theories o; R"lobal %e!ocracyP unittin"ly *artici*ate in thei!*erial "lobality to hich ,scobar re;ers hen they ;ail to reco"nise the Festernca*italist–!o%ernist un%er*innin"s o; their *ro*osals an% knole%"es@ an% theiri!brication in ;urtherin" i!*erial %o!ination o; the -hir% an% ourth Forl%s. Critical@%ierse an% ra%ical %iscourses o; %e!ocracy aboun% on the "roun% in o**ositional !oe!ents aroun% the orl%.Sel;suQciency@ autono!y an% territory are a!on" the latterEs ne *olitical %e!an%s@ !arkin" a si"niBcant seachan"e in the ter!s o; e!anci*atory *olitics as it has been i!a"ine% by o**ositional !oe!ents arisin" ithin the

!o%ern Fest an% contestin" he"e!ony ithin the *ara!eters o; Festern ca*italist !o%ernity. n this article e*roble!atise one articulation o; Rra%ical %e!ocracyP ;ro! ithin Festern *oliticaltheory an% look toar%s alternatie a**roaches to theorisin" %e!ocracy an%%i?erence in "lobal *ers*ectie@ "roun%e% in an a**reciation o; the stru""le o;subaltern *eo*lesE !oe!ents to %e;en% their li;e s*aces@ their local econo!ies an%their ays o; li;e. ur *roect is theoretically in;or!e% by the Latin !ericanR!o%ernity+colonialityP *ers*ectie@/ hich hol%s that coloniality has been constitutie o; the !o%ern orl% syste! ;ro! its ince*tion in 1'th century ,uro*ean con>uest o;the !ericas into the *resent. Coloniality is the constitutie un%ersi%e o; !o%ernityan% is a con%ition o; its *ossibilityA there is no !o%ernity ithout coloniality.RColonial %i?erenceP is that hich has been inali%ate%@ shunne%@ su**resse%@ an%thus been R%isa**eare%P ;ro! orl% history throu"h the "lobal he"e!ony o;%iscourses centre% on Festern ciilisationA it is@ in other or%s@ that hich has been ren%ere%

in;erior or inisible throu"h the coloniality o; *oer. Festerncentric ;or!s o; knole%"e hae

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silence% the colonial other throu"h their *eculiar clai!s to uniersality@ theirsyste!atic reection o; their on historical–"eo"ra*hical *articularity@ their%iscre%itin" o; other knole%"es as unscientiBc@ an% their narraties o; thee!er"ence o; !o%ernity as a *rocess internal to ,uro*e. -his Re*iste!icethnocentris!P@ inclu%in" o; the le;t@ !akes inclusie *olitical *hiloso*hies "roun%e%solely in Festern tra%itions irtually i!*ossible.4 -hose orkin" ithin this ;ra!eork conten%

that solutions to the *roble!s create% by the !o%ern+colonial orl% syste! cannot be "enerate% strictly ;ro!ithin the tra%itions o; Festern knole%"e nor@ in%ee%@ ;ro! ithin !o%ernity.7 -he alternatieknole%"es an% *ractices that carry so!e *ossibility o; re%ressin" con%itions o;coloniality are those hich hae been su**resse% by !o%ernity an% hich ex*oseFestern cos!olo"ies an% rationalities as li!ite%@ *articular an% "eo"ra*hically an%historically s*eciBc. n this ;ra!eork Rcolonial %i?erenceP is an alternatie stan%*ointan% *riile"e% basis ;or knoin". -his is not a !oe to essentialise nonFesterncultures but to reco"nise@ in ,scobarEs or%s6 the articulation o; "lobal ;or!s o; *oerith *lacebase% orl%s. n other or%s@ there are *ractices o; %i?erence thatre!ain in the exteriority #a"ain@ not outsi%e& o; the !o%ern+colonial orl% syste!@inco!*letely con>uere% an% trans;or!e%@ i; you ish@ an% also *ro%uce% *artlythrou"h lon"stan%in" *lacebase% lo"ics that are irre%ucible to ca*ital an% i!*erial

"lobality.'

3urocentrism +orks through the spread of market ideals'+hether they be neoliberal or socialist. 3>pansion of USmarket inter)ention into Latin America is part a colonialprocess meant to ci)ili*e and eradicate bro+n bodies presentin Latin America.ignolo et al !""- arina :r\ini] and %alter &.' semioticianand professor at &uke Uni)ersity' USA' +ho has publishede>tensi)ely on semiotics and literary theory' and has +orkedon dierent aspects of the modern and colonial +orld'e>ploring concepts such as global coloniality' the geopolitics of kno+ledge' transmodernity and pluri)ersality' arina :r\ini]inter)ie+er/' ?&3L9K9: 3(9ST3ILI:N BI CA(9TAL A&(LU9Q3SAL9TN D A CIQ3SAT9I %9T, %ALT3 9:ILI'part !@' !""-' 9nter)ie+ transcript'http8<<+++.reartikulaciHa.org<GpO1M/ YThe colonial matri> of po+er@ or in a !ore co!!on *arlance@ the e>pansion of%estern ci)ili*ation to control the economy' authority' gender andse>uality' subHecti)ity and kno+ledge' has been gradual since the 1#th

century' and has encountered many dierent local histories' languages'religions' economies' epistemologies etc. -he res*onses to Festern ex*ansion ere an% arearie"ate%. -here are the *ro!oters in %i?erent *arts o; the orl% o; Festern ciilization #lately !o%ele% on the

=S&@ there are anti%esterns responses from manifestations to armed)iolence responding to the )iolence of %estern incursion in all thespheres mentioned abo)e/' and decolonial. &ecolonial responses ha)e' of necessity' to be founded on border epistemology. 9magining that %esternpolitical economy and political theory in their right or left )ersions/ +illbe helpful in imagining and creating the future of' say' 7oli)ia or 9ra; is' in




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my )ie+' an 3urocentric illusion. Fhen the "oern!ent o; ,o Morales@ as ell as $oliian

intellectuals #an% also in ,cua%or& talk about the %ecolonization o; the state an% o; the econo!y@ o; the re;oun%ation o; the state@ they are alrea%y enactin" bor%er e*iste!olo"y. -hat is to say@ Festern *olitical theory an%econo!y is there@ has been there since the ;oun%ation o; the re*ublic. $ut $oliia an% ,cua%or are colonial states@an% not !o%ern states like rance or ,n"lan%. -hus@ liberal %e!ocracy has a tra%ition in $oliia@ ;or sure. n% alsothe ayllu #in%i"enous ays o; li;e@ *olitical an% econo!ic or"anization@ knole%"e "roun%e% in y!ara an% \uechualan"ua"e&. -here is no reason@ exce*t i!*erial reason@ to ar"ue that liberal %e!ocracy is the ay to "o an% n%ianshae nothin" to say. -hat sai%@ it is not a >uestion o; "oin" back to the *ast or o; trans;or!in" $oliia into a bi"

ayllu #as eli*e \uis*e@ ,l Mallku oul% like to %o&. or the sa!e reason@ it is no lon"er sustainable to i!a"ine$oliia as bi" liberalcolonial state. Si!ultaneously@ an% since there is aroun% '0Y o; in%i"enous *o*ulation@ it is nolon"er *ossible to hae a liberal #een less neoliberal& state. Hust analyze this case6 the conUict beteen 5onal%Larsen #an !erican rancher in $oliia& an% the "oern!ent o; ,o Morales

#htt*6++.nyti!es.co!+2008+07+09+orl%+a!ericas+09boliia.ht!lI*a"eante%all&. This is not aconict bet+een liberals and ar>ists. 9t is a conict bet+een liberal andayllu democracy. Thus' border thinking or epistemology/ and interculturality implies the epistemic leadership of 9ndigenous epistemology inconict +ith %hite 3uropean descent/ modern<colonial epistemology in+hich economy' politics' education' subHecti)ity' etc. is formulated andenacted.1 n% let !e o?er another exa!*le o; the ineitability o; bor%er e*iste!olo"y as creatie res*onse toFestern intrusion an% the "lobal re*ro%uction o; ca*italis!. Much has been ritten about Sun ^atsen. )e has been

*ortraye% as *roco!!unist an% *roca*italist@ as conseratie an% tra%itionalist@ as close to the Hesuits@ etc. :o

one thou"ht that hat Sun atsen as %oin" as to think in the bor%ers o; Festernliberalis! an% Marxis! on the one han%@ an% Chinese lon" lastin" history an%ciilization on the other. t the *oint he as thinkin"@ it as – like in $oliia –i!*ossible an% i!a"inable to *reten% that China coul% "o back to its *ast@ be;orethe *iu! Far. n the other han%@ it as unthinkable also to "et a blue *rint o;liberalis! or co!!unis!A to erase Chinese *ast an% su**lant it ith the history o;the Festern orl% ;ro! (reece an% 5o!e until the Festern ca*italist i!*erialis!an% the a;ter!ath o; n%ustrial 5eolution. )e ha% then to theorize by %ellin" inthe bor%ers. )e hi!sel; as not yet rea%y to i!a"ine that it as *ossible to %etach;ro! the %uality beteen theory an% ;acts@ so that he o*te% ;or ;acts instea% o;theory to ;ra!e an% ar"ue ;or the three *rinci*le o; lielihoo% as a ision ;or China.(ien s*ace constraint here ust ant to un%erline his N;un%a!ental %i?erence

beteen the <rinci*le o; Lielihoo% an% ca*italis!.O Since the *rinci*le o; lielihoo% is also use%ithin the econo!ic *rinci*les o; ca*italist econo!y #e.". *roBt at the ex*enses o; li;e in "enera l an% not onlyhu!an li;e&@ Sun ^atsenPs <rinci*le o; Lielihoo% *oints toar% a %i?erent %irection. Like ,o MoralesP %istinctionbeteen Nbuen iirO an% Niir !eor >ue otrosO #to lie ell rather than to lie better than the other&@ Sun atsensees ca*italis! as a ciilization o; %eath6 N-he ;un%a!ental %i?erence beteen the <rinci*le o; Lielihoo% an%ca*italis! is this6 ca*italis! !akes *roBt its sole ai!@ hile the <rinci*le o; Lielihoo% !akes the nurture o; the*eo*le its ai!.O =n;ortunately@ it is not in this %irection that the history o; China@ in the *ast '0 years@ see!s to be

hea%in". -he lesson see!s to be that there is no ay out o; ca*italis! ithout %elinkin" ;ro! Festern e*iste!olo"y #in its ariety& an% ;ro! all *retense o; achiein"a Nne abstract uniersalO that ill correct all the errors an% li!itations o; *reiousones an% ill be "oo% ;or the *lanet an% its six billions *lus *eo*le. n% the lessonsee!s to be also that the %esire ;or ealth@ accu!ulation an% control is stron"erthan the %esire ;or Niir bienO an% Sun atsenPs *rinci*les o; lielihoo%. -he !o%estclai! o; %ecolonial thinkin" is that ithout %ecolonizin" knole%"e an% bein"#e.".@ nonconsu!erist subectiities&@ rea%in" Lenin an% cheerin" the "lobal!ultitu%e ill not take as ery ;ar.



40

Link D 3n)ironmentUni)ersal truth claims about the en)ironment ignore particular

histories and particular epistemologies +hich pri)ileges thematerial +orld and coloni*es both people and the en)ironmentin the sake of perfection.olyneu> and Steinberg 1EEM $a>ine and &eborah Lynn' iesand Shi)a5s 3cofeminism8 a ne+ testamentG (ublished Beministe)ie+ Spring 1EEM no. 6E2s the o*enin" >uote o; this *a*er su""ests@ narraties are essential to the ay e kno an% un%erstan% the orl%

in hich e lie. -hat is@ narrati)es describe the ontological structure of the +orldin +hich +e li)e and pro)ide guidelines for ho+ +e kno+ that +orld.

3pistemological and ontological foundations are often hidden innarrati)es. These hidden foundations +ithin narrati)es deny dierences

and de)alue the interrelated' ongoing process of all creation if theparticularity of the narrati)e is forgotten. -hat is@ their ideal/epistemological claims lose touch +ith the material/ ontological conte>tin +hich they are made. %hen kno+ledge claims no longer claimparticularity' but uni)ersality' they deny their conte>tuality and claim akno+ledge boundary beyond +hich no one can see and +hich must beassumed rather than critically engaged.! They then lead to hegemonickno+ledge claims that centrali*e kno+ledge' agency' and the capacity fortruth in the claimer of an assertion./ n other or%s@ they ideali*e the material+orld and all life therein and coloni*e that +orld +ith their o+n truthclaims.4 $oth i%ealis! an% !aterialis! are in this sense@ Ni%ealisticO6 all reality is !a%e to Bt one@ hu!an@ eco

socially locate% ex*lanation. r@ *ut another ay@ both are re%uctionistic6 they try to re%uce all reality to a hu!an

i%ea#l&. Contrarily@ epistemological and ontological narrati)es that recogni*e thepostfoundational' conte>tual nature of kno+ledge often recogni*e andrespect dierences and particularity precisely because they focus on theconte>ts of kno+ledge #thereby ex*osin" N;oun%ationsO as *artial rather than uniersal&.7 -hese

e*iste!olo"ies are more conduci)e to kno+ledge claims about ontology thatrecogni*e agency and thus )alue/ in the other and lead to understandingsof truth as a communicati)e and dialogical process rather than amonological claim/. -hat is@ throu"h a %ialo"ical *rocess@ these claims remain open tothe e)ol)ing material +orld and ?others5@ kno+ledge claims therein. -hey

alue both the !aterial an% the i%eal as*ects o; li;e. urther!ore' by ackno+ledging the tentati)enature bet+een kno+ing and reality' these postfoundational kno+ledgeclaims re;uire us to take responsibility for our kno+ledge assertions and

our actions based on these kno+ledge assertions.' -hese narraties@ then@ haei!*lications ;or anthro*olo"y an% ethics. Many *ostcolonial@ ;e!inist@ !uerista@ latina+o@ o!anist@ an% othercritical %iscourses share in this ;or! o; e*iste!olo"ical+ontolo"ical res*ect o; %iersity an% takin" res*onsibility ;or

knole%"e clai!s. -hese critical discourses ha)e unco)ered the hiddenassumptions about race' class' gender' in hegemonic narrati)es. Fhy@ then@ %o

;ocus on social+ist eco;e!inis!I3 Social+ist ecofeminist epistemologies<ontologiesinherently focus on the relationships among human beings gender' race'class' etc./' and on the relationships bet+een humans and the rest of thenatural +orld. -hat is@ they see hu!ans as *art o; the rest o; the natural orl% an% not as an exce*tion tothe rest o; the natural orl%. lthou"h the eco;e!inists hose ork exa!ine can be "rou*e% un%er the cate"ory



41

o; Nsocial+istO eco;e!inis!@ they are by no !eans a ho!o"eneous "rou* o; thinkers. Fhat %oes unite the! is ares*ect ;or the a"ential ca*acities an% alue o; all li;e on the *lanet alon" ith res*ect ;or the inherent %iersity o;

li;e on the *lanet. Likeise@ they claim that natureculture' selfother' consciousmatter are coconstituti)e' constructed categories. ?A )ie+ of nature canbe seen as a proHection of human perceptions of self and society onto thecosmos. Conersely@ theories about nature hae historically been inter*rete% as containin" i!*lications about

the ay in%ii%uals or social "rou*s behae or ou"ht to behae.O8 Bor humans' there is no gettingoutside the te>tof natureculture.E These social<ist ecofeminists challengefoundationalism that asserts a onetoone relationship bet+een thoughtand reality' and nonfoundationalism that claims that all reality is madethrough language systems alone. ?9n layers of history' layers of biology'layers of natureculture' comple>ity is the name of our game .O10 5ather than a<latonic #an% in !any cases Christian& aluin" o; the i%eal oer the !aterial or a *hysicalist re%uction o; the i%eal to

the !aterial #hich is also an i%ealis!@ i; one consi%ers that reality is i%eal!aterial&@ these ecofeministsassert that natureculture' idealmaterial' mindbody' spiritesh' are thestarting points for reection on the +orld in +hich +e humans li)e. This isthe e>act type of starting point' for instance' that osemary uethersuggests in the title and content/ of her book :aia earth<material/ and:od ideal<prophetic/.11 t is hat a! re;errin" to in this article as a social+ist eco;e!inist ecoontolo"y. ar ;ro! bein" relatiists@ these eco;e!inists ar"ue that hu!an bein"s !ust take res*onsibility ;or ourbelie;s about the orl% an% the actions that ensue ;ro! those belie;s. :either uniersality #a ;or! o; hy*eri%ealis!&nor relatiity #also a ;or! o; hy*eri%ealis!& allo ;or this ty*e o; e*iste!ic res*onsibility. N5elatiis! an%totalization are both R"o% tricksP *ro!isin" ision ;ro! eeryhere an% nohere e>ually an% ;ully.O12 $othuniersality an% relatiity lea% to a %enial o; the ecosocial contextual subect. ; one *osits no N;oun%ation@O thenneither relatiity nor uniersality !akes any senseA rather@ contextuality is the na!e o; the "a!e. or eco;e!inists@the ecolo"ical is ust as i!*ortant as the social+historical hen talkin" about e*iste!olo"ical locate%ness6 N-here isno e*iste!ic *rocess to hich e hae access that is not a !atter o; e!bo%i!ent ithin an ecolo"ical niche.O1/

Attempts to correct for en)ironmental catastrophe +ithouttaking into account colonial oppression risks serial policyfailure and further ensures coloniality endures.Smith E $Andy Smith' 3cofeminism through an anticolonial

frame+ork' published in 3cofeminism8 %omen' Culture'ature' pgs. !162Bor ati)e American +omen' se>ism oppression often seems secondary tocolonial oppression. s Lorelei Means states@ Fe are !erican n%ian o!en@ in that or%er. %e areoppressed@ Brst an% ;ore!ost@ as !erican n%ians@ as peoples coloni*ed by the UnitedStates of America@ not as o!en. s n%ians@ +e can ne)er forget that. ur surial@ the

surial o; eery one o; us!an@ o!an an% chil%as n%ians %e*en%s on it. &ecoloni*ation is theagenda' the +hole agenda' and until it is accomplished' it is the onlyagenda that counts for American 9ndians.7 Many :atie o!en co!*letely %is!iss ;e!inis!

in li"ht o; colonization.' 9 do not necessarily see one oppression as more importantthan others. ,o+e)er' most ati)e +omen probably feel the impact ofcoloni*ation on our e)eryday li)es more than other forms of oppression. ne

reason hy colonization see!s to be the *ri!ary issue ;or :atie o!en is that !ost ;or!s o; o**ression %i% not

exist in !ost :atie societies *rior to colonization.3 s <aula (unn llen an% nnette Hai!es hae shon@ priorto coloni*ation' 9ndian societies +ere not male dominated. %omen ser)edas spiritual' political' and military leaders. any societies +ere matrilinealand matrilocal. Qiolence against +omen and children +as unheard of.Although there e>isted at di)ision of labor bet+een +omen and men'+omens labor and mens labor +ere accorded similar status. ,niron!ental

%estruction also %i% not exist in n%ian societies. s Finona Lauke states@ -ra%itionally@ American 9ndian



42

+omen +ere ne)er subordinate to men. Ir )ice )ersa' for that matter.%hat nati)e societies ha)e al+ays been about is achie)ing balance in allthings' gender relations no less than any other. :obo%y nee%s to tell us ho to %o it.FeEe ha% that all orke% out ;or thousan%s ;or years. n%@ le;t to our on %eices@ thatEs exactly ho eE% be

liin" ri"ht no.8 %ith coloni*ation begins the domination of +omen and thedomination of nature. As Allen argues' subHugating 9ndian +omen +as

critical in our coloni*ers eorts to subHugate 9ndian societies as a +hole8The assault on the system of +oman po+er re;uires the replacing of apeaceful' nonpuniti)e' nonauthoritarian social system +herein +omen+ield po+er by making social life easy and gentle +ith one based on childterrori*ation' male dominance and submission of +omen to maleauthority.9 ther o!en@ *articularly hite o!en@ !ay not ex*erience colonization as a *ri!ary ;or! o;

o**ression to the %e"ree that :atie o!en %o. )oeer@ %o beliee it is essential thatecofeminist theory more seriously grapple +ith the issues of coloni*ation'particularly the coloni*ation of ati)e lands' in its analysis of oppression.

ne reason hy this is necessary is because ati)e lands are the site of themost en)ironmental destruction that takes place in this country. About #"percent of the energy resources #i.e.@ coal@ oil@ uraniu!& in this country are on

9ndian land. 10 n a%%ition@ 1"" percent of uranium production takes place on ornear 9ndian land.11 n the areas here there is uraniu! !inin"@ such as our Corners an% the $lack )ills '9ndian people face skyrocketing incidents of radiation poisoning and birthdefects.12 Many a)aHo traditionalists are speculating that the mystery)irus that is a^icting people in Ari*ona may be related to the uraniumtailings left by mining companies. They think that the uranium haspoisoned rats in the area.1/ Chil%ren "roin" u* in this area are %eelo*in" oarian an% testicularcancers at B;teen ti!es the national aera"e.14 n%ian o!en on <ine 5i%"e ex*erience a !iscarria"e rate six

ti!es hi"her than the national aera"e.17 ati)e reser)ations are often targeted forto>ic +aste dumps' since companies do not ha)e to meet the same 3(Astandards that they do on other lands.1# I)er fty reser)ations ha)ebeen targeted for +aste dumps.1 9n addition' military and nuclear testing

takes place on ati)e lands. or instance@ there hae been at least '70 nuclear ex*losions onShoshone lan% at the :ea%a test site. Bifty percent of the underground tests ha)eleaked radiation into the atmosphere.1- At the historic (eople of Color3n)ironmental Summit held in Ictober 1EE1 in %ashington' &.C.' ati)epeople from across the country reported the en)ironmental destructiontaking place on 9ndian lands through resource de)elopment. -he ^aki!a *eo*le inFashin"ton State state% that nuclear astes co!in" ;ro! the )an;or% nuclear reactor ha% been *lace% in suchunstable containers that they ere no leakin"@ an% they beliee% that their un%er"roun% ater as conta!inate%.

-hey sai% it oul% cost ]170 billion to clean u* these astes@19 an% *lans ere bein" !a%e to relocate the astesto a re*ository on ucca Mountain@ here the Shoshone lie@ at a cost o; ]/.27 billion. ucca Mountain is on anactie olcanic zone. Kiloton bo!bs are also ex*lo%e% nearby@ thus increasin" the risks o; ra%ioactie leaka"e.20

The 9nuit of Canada reported that ATI +ar e>ercises had been +reakingen)ironmental ha)oc +here they li)e. The -'""" lo+ le)el ights that hadalready taken place o)er 9nuit land had created so much noise from sonicbooms that it had disrupted the +ildlife and impaired the hearing of the9nuit. urther!ore@ oil falling from the Hets had poisoned the +ater supply. TheShoshone reported that lo+ le)el ying also takes place o)er their land. ne!an as kille% hen his horse thre hi! because it as ;ri"htene% by the noise o; the ets. -hey re*orte% that theUyin" ha% been sche%ule% to take *lace oer the cattle ran"e until the )u!ane Society interce%e%@ sayin" this

oul% be inhu!ane treat!ent o; the cattle. Conse>uently@ the +ar e>ercises +ere redirected totake place o)er 9ndian people instead. -he %ele"ates all re*orte% that they ere hain" anexcee%in"ly %iQcult ti!e in "ettin" the =.S. "oern!ent to acknole%"e the e?ects o; ra%iation on their *eo*le@%es*ite the obious an% i%es*rea% e?ects in the re"ion. ; the =nite% States reco"nizes one case o; ra%ioactie



4/

*oisonin"@ it ill hae to reco"nize thousan%s. 21 $ecause ati)e people suer the brunt ofen)ironmental destruction' it is incumbent upon ecofeminist theorists toanaly*e coloni*ation as a fundamental aspect of the domination of nature.This is true not Hust because +e should all be concerned about the +elfareof ati)e people but also because +hat befalls ati)e people +ille)entually aect e)eryone. adiation +ill not stay nicely packaged on

9ndian land_ it +ill e)entually aect all of the land.



44

Link 7iopoliticsTheories of 7iopolitics are still centered on 3uropean

understanding of the state and mechanisms of control.&ecoloniality escapes the 3urocentric trap and pro)ides abetter kno+ledge base for de)eloping countries to escapemodernity.ignolo !"11 %alter &.' is %illiam ,. %annamaker (rofessorof Literature and omance Studies and &irector of the Centerfor :lobal Studies and the ,umanities' at &uke Uni)ersity'?:eopolitics of Sensing and Kno+ing In &e/Coloniality'7order Thinking' and 3pistemic &isobedience'@ eipcp.net'!"11' http8<<eipcp.net<trans)ersal<"11!<mignolo<en/ Y#e&Coloniality$12 is@ in the Brst *lace@ a conce*t hose *oint o; ori"ination as the -hir% Forl%. $etter yet@ ite!er"e% at the ery !o!ent in hich the three orl% %iision as colla*sin" an% the celebration o; the en% o;history an% a ne orl% or%er as e!er"in". -he nature o; its i!*act as si!ilar to the i!*act *ro%uce% by the

intro%uction o; the concept of ?biopolitics'@ hose point of origination +as 3urope.

Like its ,uro*ean counter*art@ Ncoloniality@ mo)ed to the center of internationaldebates in the non3uropean +orld as +ell as in ?former 3astern 3urope.@%hile ?biopolitics@ mo)ed to center stage in ?former %estern 3uropeO #c;r.@the ,uro*ean =nion& an% the =nite% States@ as ell as a!on" so!e intellectual !inorities o; the non,uro*ean

;olloers o; i%eas that ori"inate% in ,uro*e@ but ho a%a*t the! to local circu!stances@ Ncoloniality@oers a needed sense of comfort to mainly people of color in de)elopingcountries' migrants and' in general' to a )ast ;uantitati)e maHority +hoselife e>periences' long and shortterm memories' languages and categoriesof thoughts are alienated to life e>perience' long and shortterm

memories' languages and categories of thought that brought about theconcept of ?biopolitics@ to account for mechanisms of control and stateregulations.$!2 odernity' postmodernity and altermodernity ha)e theirhistorical grounding in the 3nlightenment and the Brench e)olution.

ecoloniality has its historical "roun%in" in the $an%un" Con;erence o; 1977@ in hich 29

countries ;ro! sia an% ;rica "athere%. -he !ain "oal o; the con;erence as to Bn% aco!!on "roun% an% ision ;or the ;uture that as neither ca*italis! norco!!unis!. -hat ay as N%ecolonization.O t as not Na thir% ayO la (i%%ens@ but a%elinkin" ;ro! the to !aor Festern !acronarraties. -he con;erence o; the :onli"ne%countries ;olloe% suit in 19'1@ an% took *lace in $el"ra%e. n that occasion@ seeral Latin !erican countries

oine% ;orces ith sian an% ;rican countries. rantz anonPs -he Fretche% o; the ,arth as also *ublishe% in 19'1.

-hus@ the *olitical an% e*iste!ic ;oun%ations o; %ecoloniality ha% been establishe%

in B;tyBe years. ro! then until no an% ;ro! no to the ;uture@ it ill be %ecoloniality all the ay %on –

not as a ne uniersal that *resents itsel; as the ri"ht one that su*erse%es all the *reious an% existin" ones@ butas an o*tion. $y *resentin" itsel; as an o*tion@ the %ecolonial o*ens u* a ay o; thinkin" that %elinks ;ro! thechronolo"ies o; ne e*iste!es or ne *ara%i"!s #!o%ern@ *ost!o%ern@ alter!o%ern@ :etonian science@ >uantu!theory@ the theory o; relatiity@ etc.&. ,*iste!es an% *ara%i"!s are not alien to %ecolonial thinkin". -hey cannot be@

but are no lon"er the *oint o; re;erence an% o; e*iste!ic le"iti!acy. Fhile the $an%un" Con;erence*ronounce% itsel; in the *olitical terrain as neither ca*italis! nor co!!unis! but as%ecolonization@ to%ay@ thinkin" %ecolonially is concerne% ith "lobal e>uality an%econo!ic ustice@ but it also asserts that Festern %e!ocracy an% socialis! are notthe only to !o%els to orient our thinkin" an% our %oin". ecolonial ar"u!ents

http://eipcp.net/transversal/0112/mignolo/en

http://eipcp.net/transversal/0112/mignolo/en/#_ftn1


http://eipcp.net/transversal/0112/mignolo/en





47

*ro!ote the co!!unal as another o*tion next to ca*italis! an% co!!unis!. n thes*irit o; $an%un"@ y!ara intellectual@ Si!on ^a!*ara@ !akes clear that y!arasare neither ca*italist nor co!!unist. -hey *ro!ote %ecolonial thinkin" an%co!!unal %oin"./ $ecause %ecolonialityPs *oint o; ori"ination as the -hir% Forl%@ in its %iersity o; local

histories an% %i?erent ti!es an% Festern i!*erial countries that Brst inter;ere% ith those local histories – be it in -aantinsuyu in the sixteenth century@ China in the nineteenth century or ra> ;ro! the be"innin" o; the tentieth#rance an% ,n"lan%& to the be"innin" o; the tentyBrst century #the =S& – bor%er thinkin" is the e*iste!icsin"ularity o; any %ecolonial *roect. FhyI $ecause bor%er e*iste!olo"y is the e*iste!olo"y o; the anthropoi, ho%o not ant to sub!it to humanitas, but at the sa!e ti!e cannot aoi% it. ecoloniality an% bor%erthinkin"+sensin"+%oin" are then strictly interconnecte% since %ecoloniality coul%nPt be Cartesian or Marxian. n otheror%s@ %ecolonialityPs *oint o; ori"ination in the -hir% Forl% connects to Ni!!i"rant consciousnessO in Festern,uro*e an% the =S to%ay. N!!i"rant consciousnessO is locate% in the routes o; %is*ersion o; %ecolonial an% bor%erthinkin".






4'

9mpacts



43

9mpact D ilitarism and 3n)ironment

Cro+ding out indigenous kno+ledge is a )iolently dangerousproposition that risks e>tinction through militarism anden)ironmental destruction&arder !"1" $Antonia &istinguished (rofessor of 3ducationUni)ersity of 9llinois' Critical (edagogy' 3coliteracy' and(lanetary Crisis' (reface2The %estern ethos of mastery an% su*re!acy o)er nature has accompanied@ to our

%etri!ent@ the unrelenting e>pansion of capitalism and its unparalleleddomination o)er all aspects of human life . This hegemonic +orld)ie+ hasbeen unmercifully imparted throu"h a host o; *ublic *olicies an% *ractices that coneniently "lossoer "ross ine>ualities as co!!onsensical necessities ;or %e!ocracy to bloo!. s a conse>uence@ the liberal%e!ocratic rhetoric o; Ne are all create% e>ualO har%ly be"ins to touch the international *erasieness o; racis!@*atriarchy@ technocracy@ an% econo!ic *iracy by the Fest@ all hich hae ;ostere% the erosion o; ciil ri"hts an% theun*rece%ente% ecolo"ical ex*loitation o; societies@ creatin" con%itions that no threaten our *eril@ i; e %o not

reerse %irections. Cataclys!ic %isasters@ such as )urricane Katrina@ are un;ortunate testi!onies to the %an"er o;i"norin" the arnin"s o; the natural orl%@ es*ecially hen cou*le% ith e"re"ious "oern!ental ne"lect o;i!*oerishe% *eo*le. ,>ually %isturbin"@ is the !anner in hich ecolo"ical crisis is ul"arly ex*loite% byunscru*ulous an% ruthless ca*italists ho see no *roble! ith turnin" a *roBt o? the backs o; ailin" an% !ournin"o**resse% *o*ulations o; eery s*eciesGhether they be icti!s o; eather %isasters@ catastro*hic illnesses@in%ustrial *ollution@ or inhu!ane *ractices o; incarceration. =lti!ately@ these constitute ecolo"ical cala!ities thats*eak to the inhu!anity an% tyranny o; !aterial *roBteerin"@ at the ex*ense o; *recious li;e. -he arro"ance an%ex*loitation o; neoliberal alues o; consu!*tion %ishonor the conte!*orary su?erin" o; *oor an% !ar"inalize%*o*ulations aroun% the "lobe. :eoliberalis! %enies or si!*ly !ocks #Nrill baby %rillTO& the interrelationshi* an%

%elicate balance that exists beteen all liin" bein"s@ inclu%in" the bo%y earth. n its stea%@ )alues ofindi)idualism' competition' pri)ati*ation' and the ?free marketO

systematically debase the ancient ecological kno+ledge of indigenouspopulations@ +ho ha)e@ i!*licitly or ex*licitly@ reHected the fabricated ethos o; N*ro"ress

an% democracy@ propagated by the %est. n its consuming ;renzy to "obble u* the

natural resources o; the *lanet ;or its on hy*erbolic >uest for material domination' the e>ploitati)e nature of capitalism an% its bur"eonin" technocracy has dangerously deepened the structures of social e>clusion' through the destruction of the)ery biodi)ersity that has been key to our global sur)i)al ;or !illennia. Kahn insiststhat this %eastation o; all s*ecies an% the *lanet !ust be ;ully reco"nize% an% soberly criti>ue%. $ut he %oes notsto* there. lon"si%e@ he ri"htly ar"ues ;or *olitical *rinci*les o; en"a"e!ent ;or the construction o; a criticaleco*e%a"o"y an% ecoliteracy that is ;oun%e% on econo!ic re%istribution@ cultural an% lin"uistic %e!ocracy@in%i"enous soerei"nty@ uniersal hu!an ri"hts@ an% a ;un%a!ental res*ect ;or all li;e. s such@ Kahn seeks to brin"us all back to a ;or!i%able relationshi* ith the earth@ one that is un>uestionably roote% in an inte"ral or%er o;knole%"e@ i!bue% ith *hysical@ e!otional@ intellectual@ an% s*iritual is%o!. Fithin the context o; such anecolo"ically "roun%e% e*iste!olo"y@ Kahn unco!*ro!isin"ly ar"ues that our or"anic relationshi* ith the earth isalso inti!ately tie% to our stru""les ;or cultural sel;%eter!ination@ eniron!ental sustainability@ social an% !aterial

ustice@ an% "lobal *eace. -hrou"h a care;ully ;ra!e% analysis o; *ast %isasters an% current ecolo"ical crisis@ Kahn

issues an ur"ent call ;or a critical ecopedagogy that makes central e>plicit articulationsof the +ays in +hich societies construct ideological' political' and culturalsystems' based on social structures and practices that can ser)e topromote ecological sustainability an% bio%iersity or@ conersely@ lead us do+n adisastrous path of unsustainability an% e>tinction. n !akin" his case@ Kahn *roi%es a "roun%e%exa!ination o; the !anner in hich consu!in" ca*italis! !ani;ests its re*ressie ;orce throu"hout the "lobe@%isru*tin" the ery ecolo"ical or%er o; knole%"e essential to the *lanetPs sustainability. )e o?ers an un%erstan%in"

o; critical eco*e%a"o"y an% ecoliteracy that inherently criti>ues the history of %estern ci)ili*ationan% the anthro*o!or*hic assu!*tions that sustain patriarchy and thesubHugation of all subordinated li)ing beingsGassu!*tions that continue toinform traditional education discourses around the +orld. Kahn incisiely



48

%e!onstrates ho a theory o; !ulti*le technoliteracies can be use% to e?ectiely criti>ue the ecolo"ical corru*tionan% %estruction behin% !ainstrea! uses o; technolo"y an% the !e%ia in the interest o; the neoliberal !arket*lace.s such@ his ork *oints to the !anner in hich the sustainability rhetoric o; !ainstrea! eniron!entalis! actuallyca!ouUa"es retche% neoliberal *olicies an% *ractices that le;t unchecke% hasten the annihilation o; the "lobePsecosyste!. -rue to its *ro!ise@ the book cautions that any antihe"e!onic resistance !oe!ent that clai!s social

ustice@ uniersal hu!an ri"hts@ or "lobal *eace !ust conten% ;orthri"htly ith the %eterioratin" ecolo"ical crisis athan%@ as ell as consi%er *ossible strate"ies an% relationshi*s that ru*ture the status >uo an% trans;or!eniron!ental con%itions that threaten %isaster. ;ailure to inte"rate ecolo"ical sustainability at the core o; our

*olitical an% *e%a"o"ical stru""les ;or liberation@ Kahn ar"ues@ is to blin%ly an% !is"ui%e%ly a%here to ananthro*ocentric orl%ie in hich e!anci*atory %rea!s are %ee!e% solely about hu!an interests@ ithoutattention either to the health o; the *lanet or to the ellbein" o; all s*ecies ith ho! e alk the earth.!*ortant to the contributions o; this olu!e is the !anner in hich Kahn retains the criticality o; the reolutionary*roect in his e?orts to %ialectically en"a"e the theories o; <aulo reire an% an llich@ in ays that si"niBcantly*ushes reirePs ork toar% a !ore ecolo"ically centere% un%erstan%in" o; hu!an liberation an% that %e!onstratesllichPs continue% releance on these !atters. Key to his ar"u!ent is the reco"nition o; *lanetary sustainability as aital an% necessary critical *e%a"o"ical concern. n a thou"ht;ul an% e?ectie !anner #hich has been lon"co!in"&@ Kahn counters s*urious criticis!s raile% a"ainst the inte"rity o; critical *e%a"o"y an% its *ro*onents.nstea%@ he hi"hli"hts both the ra%ical un%er*innin"s o; critical theoretical *rinci*les an% the historicity o; itseolutionG acknole%"in" both its si"niBcant contributions to the Bel%@ as ell as its shortco!in"s in *astarticulations. 5ather than si!*ly echo %enounce!ents o; Nbeyon% critical *e%a"o"y@O Kahn intricately eaes*ossibilities %ran ;ro! reire an% llich@ neither essentializin" the ork o; these theorists nor i"norin" the*roble!atic instances o; their ;or!ulations. -his %iscussion brin"s a !ature an% re;reshin" sense o; both *olitical"race an% sober criti>ue@ hich su**orts the *assion o; our *e%a"o"ical tra%itions@ hile si!ultaneously chastisin"our sloness in takin" u* the !antle o; ecolo"ical res*onsibility. -hrou"h the re;or!ulation o; )erbert MarcusePscontributions to critical theories o; society@ Kahn "ies oice to a :orth !erican eco*e%a"o"y that thou"ht;ullyseizes the *oer o; ra%ical eniron!ental actiists@ hile si!ultaneously o**osin" an% callin" ;or the re!akin" o;ca*italist ecolo"ical *ractices@ as a key co!*onent to any critical *e%a"o"ical *roect. $y so %oin"@ critical*e%a"o"y is ;orce;ully challen"e% to ste* u* to the %e!an%s an% nee%s o; a orl% in ecolo"ical crisis@ in the ho*eso; trans;or!in" itsel; into a counterhe"e!onic resistance !oe!ent i!bue% ith ecolo"ical consciousness@res*ect ;or beauty in all li;e@ an% a serious co!!it!ent to *reserin" the !ulti;arious nature o; our hu!anity. n the*rocess@ Kahn *ro*els us beyon% the %ebilitatin" theoretical *osturin" o; the le;t in ays that liberate our *oliticalsensibilities an% "ui%e us toar% alternatie *e%a"o"ies o; knole%"e construction an% ne techno*olitics o;

e%ucation necessary ;or our ;uture sustainability. Si!ilar to reolutionary ecolo"ists be;ore hi!@ Kahn ur"es ;or acritical shift in our +orld)ie+ from one that is dominated by theinstrumentali*ation of ethnocentrism' >enophobia' militarism' and thefetishi*ing of all li)ing functions' to one that ackno+ledgesunapologetically and +holeheartedly the deep intimacy and organicconnection at +ork in all forms of e>istence. n the s*irit o; Van%ana ShiaPs Nearth%e!ocracy@O Kahn also ar"ues ;or a eco*e%a"o"y that %e!an%s e Nre!oe our blin%ers@ i!a"ine an% create other*ossibilities@O re!in%in" us that NLiberation in our "enoci%al ti!es@ is@ Brst an% ;ore!ost@ the ;ree%o! to stayalie.O1 -rue to this %ictu!@ Kahn una!bi"uously %e!an%s that the surial o; the *lanet #an% ourselesT&un%erscore our *olitical an% *e%a"o"ical %ecisions@ %es*ite the ;act that sel%o! hae >uestions o; ecolo"icalconcern been !a%e central to the eery%ay lies o; teachers an% stu%ents or to the lar"er context o; !oe!entork@ sae ;or the liberal a"en%a o; the Sierra Club or the ell!eanin" %iscourse on *o*ulation control ;or *oor an%racialize% o!en@ es*ouse% by *eo*le o; all i%eolo"ical stri*es. <erha*s@ it is this N!issin" linkO in the curriculu! o;both *ublic schools an% *olitical !oe!ents that is !ost res*onsible ;or the historically uncritical an% listlessres*onse to the "lobal su?erin" o; hu!an bein"s subecte% to i!*erial re"i!es o; "enoci%e@ slaery@ an%colonialis!. n truth@ a %ee*er analysis ex*oses shar*ly a le"acy that *ersists to%ay in the shrou%e% alues an%attitu%es o; e%ucators ;ro! the %o!inant class an% culture ho ex*ect that all o**resse% *o*ulations an% liin"s*ecies shoul% ac>uiesce to the %o!inion an% he"e!onic rule o; the ealthy elite. t is *recisely such a orl%ieo; %o!ination that *er*etuates the extinction o; hole s*ecies@ as it %oes the cultural an% lin"uistic %estruction o;*eo*les an% nations outsi%e o; a NBrstorl%O classiBcation. s a conse>uence@ our bio%iersity is sli**in" aay@%es*ite scientiBc Bn%in"s that clearly arn o; the loss o; har%iness an% itality to hu!an li;e@ as a %irectconse>uence o; the ho!o"enization o; our %i?erences. t is e>ually ironic to note here ho re*ression o; the bo%yitsel; is !ani;este% ithin the ca*italist ;eror to co!!o%i;y or colonize all ;or!s o; ital existence. Schools@

un;ortunately@ are one o; the !ost co!*licit institutions in the exercise o; such ecolo"ical re*ression@ "enerallycarrie% out throu"h the i!!obilization o; the bo%y an% the subor%ination o; our e!otional nature@ our sexualener"ies@ an% s*iritual ca*acities. n res*onse@ Kahn elo>uently ar"ues ;or a critical eco*e%a"o"y an% ecoliteracythat su**orts teachers in en"a"in" substantiely stu%entsP inte"ral natures@ in an e?ort to ;or"e an e!anci*atorylearnin" eniron!ent here all can thrie a!i% eery%ay concerns. s such@ he !akes clear that@ althou"hi!*ortant@ it is not enou"h to rely solely on abstract co"nitie *rocesses@ here only the analysis o; or%s an% textsare *riile"e% in the construction o; knole%"e. Such an e%ucational *rocess o; estran"e!ent ;unctions to alienatean% isolate stu%ents ;ro! the natural orl% aroun% the!@ ;ro! the!seles@ an% one another. -his@ unittin"ly@

seres to rein;orce an anthro*ocentric rea%in" o; the orl%@ hich %enies and disregards the +isdomand kno+ledge outside %estern formulations. n contrast@ an ecopedagogy that



49

sustains life andcreati)ity is rmlygroundedin a material and socialunderstanding of our interconnected organic e>istence' as a starting placefor classroom practice and political strategies for rein)enting the +orld.lso si"niBcant to KahnPs notion o; eco*e%a"o"y is an engagement +ith the emancipatoryinsights and cultural kno+ledge of indigenous populations' "ien that the !aority

o; the social an% *olitical *roble!s ;acin" us to%ay are ;un%a!entally roote% in !ainstrea! social relations an%

!aterial con%itions that ;uel authoritarianis!@ ;ra"!entation@ alienation@ iolence@ an% "ree%. Such antiecolo"ical%yna!ics are *re%icate% on an ahistorical an% uncritical ie o; li;e that enables the *oer;ul to ab%icate theircollectie res*onsibility to %e!ocratic i%eals@ hile su*eri!*osin" a technocratic an% instru!ental rationality thatco!!o%iBes an% obectiBes all existence. Such a *ractice o; e%ucation seres to ar* or !ar"inalize %iersein%i"enous knole%"e an% *ractices@ by *riile"in" re*etitie an% uni!a"inatie curricula an% ;etishize% !etho%s.nchore% u*on such a *ers*ectie o; schoolin"@ classroo! curriculu! socializes stu%ents into ;ullblon i%entitiesas entitle% consu!in" !asters an% ex*loiters o; the earth@ rather than collectie caretakers o; the *lanet. ncontrast@ Kahn ex*lores the inherent *ossibilities at ork ithin in%i"enous knole%"e an% tra%itions@ in ays thatenhance our ca*acity to not only criti>ue con%itions o; ecolo"ical crisis@ but to consi%er ays in hich nonFesternsocieties an% *eo*les hae enacte% ecolo"ically sustainin" *ractices ithin the eery%ay lies o; their co!!unities.)e turns the ;alse %o!inion o; the Fest on its hea%@ o?erin" alternatie ays o; bein" that hol% *ossibilities ;or thereconstruction o; institutional culture@ the trans;or!ation o; ho e ie technolo"y an% science@ an% thus there;or!ulation o; *ublic *olicy. s critical e%ucators an% reolutionary actiists across co!!unities o; %i?erence@ eare encoura"e% to turn to the is%o! o; our on historical surial@ in serious an% sustaine% ays@ in or%er to orktoar% the aban%on!ent o; colonizin" alues an% *ractices that ;or centuries hae %eni"rate% our cultural ays

an% atte!*te% to %isable our li;esustainin" ca*acities. Moreoer@ to contendeecti)ely +ith

issues of racism' se>ism' homophobia' disablism' and other forms ofine;ualities' a lifea4rming ecological pra>is is paramount. That is' onethat encompasses a refusal to adhere to political' economic' andphilosophical disconnections' +hich falsely separate humankind fromthose ecological dynamics thatshape local' global' regional' rural' andurban landscapes.9nstead' static )ie+s of humanityand the planet' +hichinad)ertently ser)e the commodifying interests of capital andits penchantto di)ide and con;uer' are challenged and dismantled through an integralpolitical solidarity o; heart@ !in%@ bo%y@ an% s*irit. ccor%in"ly@ a critical eco*e%a"o"y !ust then

enco!*ass those *hiloso*hical *rinci*les that are at ho!e ith a!bi"uity@ %issonance@ %i?erence@ an%hetero"eneity@ as an eer*resent *heno!enon. Such an ethos su**orts a orl% here crosss*ecies concerns areboth co!!on*lace an% alue% ;or their creatie *otential in the !akin" o; a truly %e!ocratic@ ust@ an% *eace;ulorl%.



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9mpact acismColonial modernity is predicated upon racial dierences that

marks non+hite kno+ledge as useless and cro+ds outeecti)e local solutions.ignolo !"1" %alter &.' &epartment of omance Studies'&uke Uni)ersity' ?The geopolitics of kno+ledge and thecolonial dierence'@ (ra>is (ublica' Ictober !"1"'http8<<pra>ispublica.org<+pcontent<uploads<!"1"<1"<%ALT39:ILI:3I(IL9T9CSIBKI%L3&:3&UK3U9Q3S9TN.pdf /Y

-he irre%ucible colonial %i?erence that a! tryin" to chart@ startin" ;ro! usselEs %ialo"ueith Vatti!o@ as also *erceie% by 5obert $ernasconi in the challen"e that ;rican <hiloso*hy *uts ;orar% to

Continental <hiloso*hy. Si!*ly *ut@ $ernasconi notes that DFestern *hiloso*hy tra*s ;rican

*hiloso*hy in a %ouble bin%6 either ;rican *hiloso*hy is so si!ilar to Festern*hiloso*hy that it !akes no %istinctie contribution an% e?ectiely %isa**earsA or itis so %i?erent that its cre%entials to be "enuine *hiloso*hy ill alays be i n %oubt

#$ernasconi 1998@ 188&.D -his %ouble bin% is the colonial %i?erence an% it creates thecon%ition ;or hat hae elsehere calle% Dbor%er thinkin"D. hae %eBne% bor%erthinkin" as an e*iste!olo"y ;ro! a subaltern *ers*ectie. lthou"h $ernascon i%escribes the *heno!ena in a %i?erent ter!inolo"y@ the *roble! e are %ealin"ith here is the sa!e. urther!ore@ $ernasconi !akes his *oint ith the su**ort o; ;ro !erican*hiloso*her Lucius utla in an article entitle% D;rican E*hiloso*hyE6 %econs tructie an% reconstructiechallen"esD. ,!*hasizin" the sense in hich utla uses the conce*t o; D%econstructionD@ $ernasconi at the sa!eti!e un%erlines the li!its o; erri%aEs %econstructie o*eration an% the closure o; Festern !eta*hysics. erri%a@ accor%in" to $ernasconi@ o?ers no s*ace in hich to ask the >uestion about Chinese@ n%ian@ an% es*ecially ;rican*hiloso*hy. Latin an% n"lo !erican *hiloso*hy shoul% be a%%e% to this. ;ter a care;ul %iscussion o; erri%aEs

*hiloso*hy@ an% *on%erin" *os sible alternaties ;or the DextensionD o; %econstruction@ $ernasconi conclu%es bysayin"6 D...een a;ter such reisions@ it is not clear hat contribution %econstruction coul% !ake to theconte!*orary %ialo"ue beteen Festern *hiloso*hy an% ;rican *hiloso*h yD #1998@ 183&. r@ i; a contributioncoul% be ;oreseen@ it has to be ;ro! the *ers*ectie that utla a**ro*riates an% hich D%enaturalizesD%econstruction o; Festern !eta*hysics ;ro! insi%e #an% !aintains the totality@ a la erri%a&. -hat is to say@ it h asto be a D%econstructionD ;ro! the DexteriorityD o; Festern !eta*hysics@ ;ro! the Falter . Mi"nolo *ers*ectie o;the %ouble bin% that $ernasconi %etecte% in the inter%e*en%ence #an% *oer relations& beteen Festern an%;rican *hiloso*hy. )oeer@ i; e inert the *ers* ectie@ e are locate% in a *articular %econstructie strate"ythat oul% rather na!e the D%ecolonization o; *hiloso*hyD #or o; any other branch o; knole%"e@ natural sciences@social sciences@ an% the hu!anities&. Such a %is*lace!ent o; *ers*ectie as alrea%y su""este% by Moroccan*hiloso*her b%elkhebir Khatibi@ hich hae %iscusse% at len"th elsehere #Mi"nolo 1999a&. )oeer@ certainly$ernasconi ill concur ith Khatibi in na!in" %ecolonization as the ty*e o; %econstructie o*eration *ro*ose% by

utla@ thus !aintainin" an% un%oin" the colonial %i?erence ;ro! the colonial %i?erence itsel;. D -he existential%i!ension o; ;rican *hiloso*hyEs challen"e to Festern *hiloso*hy in "eneral an%Continental *hiloso*hy in *articular is locate% in the nee% to %ecolonize the !in%.

-his task is at least as i!*ortant ;or the colonizer as it is ;or the colonize%. or;ricans@ %ecolonizin" the !in% takes *lace not only in ;acin" the ex*erience o;colonialis!@ but also in reco"nizin" the *recolonial@ hich establishe% the%estructie i!*ortance o; so calle% ethno*hiloso*hy #$ernasconi 1998@ 191&. -he %oublebin% re>uires also a %ouble o*eration ;ro! the *ers*ectie o; ;rican *hiloso*hy6 ana**ro*riation o; Festern *hiloso*hy an% at the sa!e ti!e a reection o; it "roun%e%in the colonial %i?erence. $ernasconi reco"nizes that these@ hoeer@ are tasks an% issues ;or ;rican*hiloso*hers. Fhat oul% be si!ilar issues ;or a Continental *hiloso*herI or ,uro*eans@ $ernasconi a%%s@D%ecolonizin" the colonial !in% nece ssitates an encounter ith the colonize%@ here Bnally the ,uro*ean has the

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ex*erience o; bein" seen as u%"e% by those they hae %enie%. -he extent to hich ,uro*ean *hiloso*hycha!*ione% colonialis!@ an% !ore *articularly hel*e% to usti;y it throu"h a *hiloso*hy o; history that *riile"e%,uro*e@ !akes it a**arent that such a %ecolonizin" is an ur"ent task ;or ,uro*ean thou"htD #$ernasconi 1998@ 192&

The aciali*ation of Africa and the Americas took place +ith noinput from the persons in)ol)ed. The colonial matri> of po+errests upon its ability to categori*e +ithout consent and di)idethe +orld along broad s+eeping lines +ith no regards for theindi)iduality of cultures in)ol)edignolo !""# $%alter &. ignolo' (rofessor of Cultural studiesat &uke Uni)ersity' 9slamophobia<,ispanophobia8 Thee/Conguration of the acial 9mperial<Colonial atri>',uman Architecture' !""#2

-hus@ the point of departure o; !y ar"u!ent is that current debates about+hether ?race@ is an eighteenth and nineteenthcentury discourse' or+hether in the si>teenth century ?caste@ +as the proper system of

classication' both assume that the classications concocted byenaissance men of letters or 3nlightenment ?philosophies@ +ereuni)ersal. My *oint o; %e*arture is that the system of classication and hierarchiesduring the enaissance or during the 3nlightenment +as a local one inthis precise sense8 people in 9ndia' China' Ittoman' Ta+antinsuyu'Anahuac' etc.' certainly +ere part of the classication but none of them'e>cept Christian theologians' had any say in the classication. The onlypossibility to those +ho did not participate in the imperial organi*ation ofkno+ledge +as either to accept ho+ they +ere classied or to reclassifythemsel)es for their o+n pride but +ith little eect on the organi*ation of+orld po+er that +as at stake. Let !e ex*lain. iscourses o; %i?erence in the ,uro*ean5enaissance ent han% in han% ith %iscourses o; ;ear.1 -here is *lenty o; ei%ence about Christians in S*ain butalso in ,n"lan%. $ritish traelers to the )a*sbur" or ustro)un"arian ,!*ires ex*resse% their stran"eness an% the

%isco!;ort isis the -urks. The 3uropean enaissance could be taken as areference period in +hich se)eral ?empires@ #a "eneral na!e exten%e% a;ter the na!e o;

the 5o!an ,!*eror instea%@ ;or exa!*le@ o; Sultan or -zar& coe>istedJ although the discoursesof Christianity and later on of political theory and political economyemerged as the dominant imperial discourses of %estern capitalistempires. 5acis! ent han% in han% ith the historical ;oun%ation o; ca*italis! as e kno it to%ay. Takethe 7lack Legend as a good and early e>ample of the propagation of theuslim ?menace@ from the 9berian (eninsula to the Atlantic countries'north of the (yrenees. The 7lack Legend is' rst and foremost' an internalconict in 3urope and for that reason 9 +ill describe it as the imperialinternal dierence. 7ut the 7lack Legend' initiated and propelled by3ngland' shared +ith the Spaniards the Christian cosmology that

distinguished itself from the uslim' the Turks and the ussian Irthodo>. -hat is@ the $lack Le"en% contribute% to the rein;orce!ent o; an i!*erial %ii%e that as alrea%y carrie% out by the

S*anish Kin"%o! o; Charles an% the S*anish ,!*ire un%er <hili* . %e all kno+ it8 in16E!' theoors and the Re+s +ere prosecuted in the 9berian (eninsulaJ 9ndians+ere ?disco)ered@ in the e+ %orld and massi)e contingents of Africansla)es +ere transported through the Atlantic. The ?disco)ery@ of the e+%orld posed a dierent problem for %estern Christians dealing +ithuslims' Re+s and Turks8 if Re+s and oors +ere classied according totheir belief in the +rong :od' 9ndians and later on 7lack Africans/' had to



72

be classied assuming that they had no religions. Thus' the ;uestion of?purity of blood@ ac;uired in the e+ %orld a meaning totally dierentfrom the one it had in the 9berian (eninsula. :onetheless@ the ;act re!ains that ith the

%ouble ex*ulsion o; Moors an% Hes ;ro! the berian <eninsula@ the e+ %orld brought a dierentdimension to the classicatory and hierarchical system. Fhile in S*ain Hes an%

Musli!s i%entiBe% the!seles ith those racialize% labels@ there ere no Nn%iansO in the :e Forl%. To

become ?9ndian@ +as a long and painful process for the di)ersity ofpeoples@ the %iersity o; lan"ua"es@ an% the %iersity o; !e!ories an% rituals ;ro! to%ayPs Southern Chile to

Cana%a. And there +ere no ?7lacks@ either. Africans transported to the ne+%orld from dierent regions of the continent had dierent languages'memories and religions' but no+ all of them became 7lacks in the e+%orld. n other or%s@ +hate)er the system of classication in the 9berian(eninsula and in the e+ %orld' that system of classication +ascontrolled by Christian Theology as the o)erarching and hegemonic frameof kno+ledge. :either the N-urks@O nor the Mu"hal@ nor the Christian rtho%ox in 5ussia ha% any say in itGeen less@ o; course@ n%ians an% $lacks.



7/

9mpact D 3pistemic QiolenceColonialism5s )iolence is not Hust physical )iolence' but a

genocide of both the body and the mind through the erasure of non3uropean cultures.ignolo and Tlostano)a E $%alter &.' &octor of semiotics andliterary theory' prof of decoloniality at &uke Uni)ersity'adina' &octor of literature and postcolonial studies'professor at (eople5s Briendship Uni)ersity of ussia' ?Timesfor rethinking' relearning and net+orking' Bebruary'9nter)ie+' http8<<kristinabo*ic.+ordpress.com<decoloni*ationinter)ie+<2

Fhat i; any is the %i?erence beteen colonization an% "enoci%eI <ro; Mi"nolo6 -here is a%i?erence@ thou"h neer really thou"ht o; it. -he Brst thin" that co!es to !in% is that genocide is aconse;uence of colonialism. nother >uestion is can this be clai!e% ;or all "enoci%esI <ro;

-lostanoa6 )olocaust@ ;or exa!*le. <ro; Mi"nolo6 oh. LetPs start the other ay roun%. Ine of thefeatures of coloniality is its connection to economy based ondispensability of human life' +hich is seen as a commodity8 you sell sugaror you sell sla)es. :enocide means +e do not care. Therefore' genocide ispossible because certain human li)es are dispensable. ra>i lies are !ore %is*ensable

than !erican lies. )olocaust@ hoeer as base% on stri**in" hu!an li;e o; le"al ri"hts@ as )annah ren%trites. So it as not about the %is*ensability o; hu!an li;e in ter!s o; econo!y but it *resente% bareness o; li;e in

relation to the state an% la. Bor +hite 3uropean bourgeoisie Christians the reallyhorrible part of holocaust +as not the crime itself but the fact that it +ascommitted against +hite people using the techni;ue 3urope learned in itscolonies. 3conomic dispensability of human life that build the system ofthe economy liberals and ar>ists call capitalism came back on the le)elof the state. Hes ere internally in;erior. ill not say that all "enoci%es hae been a conse>uence o;

coloniality@ but oul% !ake these to connections. -he thir% one coul% be 5an%a. -here colonialists'especially of the second +a)e after the 3nlightenment created the idea ofnational identity. 7efore there e>isted communities of faith' not of birth.:enocide there +as therefore a conse;uence of conditions colonialists leftbehind. Fe coul% think o; other "enoci%es X )o can e think StalinPs "enoci%eI <ro; -lostanoa6 as ustthinkin" about it. t as not ;ra!e% in racial ter!s@ thou"h !any scholars to%ay >uestion this. -hey ask i; StalinPs"enoci%es ere connecte% ith *eo*lePs ethnic ori"ins an% race or only ith class. -here as no racial %iscourse inSoiet =nion but cri!es ere o;ten co!!itte% on racial "roun%s – nobo%y has eer *ut 5ussian in ail ;ornationalistic reasons hile all other nationals ere i!*risone%@ i; their belie; in the Soiet i%ea as not stron"

enou"h. think it as base% on race althou"h it as !aske% as a class B"ht. <ro; Mi"nolo6 So there is theunderlying notion of dispensability of human life as an economic category'+hile genocide on the le)el of the state also includes the idea ofelimination of an enemy. 7e it ,itler5s Aryan state or Stalin5s communiststate. <ro; -lostanoa6 7ut ,itler tried to make Re+s economically e4cientas +ell. 9n concentration camps there +as the c&onald5s logic D before Re+s +ere killed they took e)erything of use and )alue from them Dclothes' hair' teeth ` Stalin made enemies build things' sometimesuseless. They ha)e built the osco+ State uni)ersity. %hat about the genocide asa tool for eradication of culture or religionG <ro; Mi"nolo6 think this in inclu%e% in the notion o; %is*ensability



74

o; the hu!an li;e – be it or"ans or so!ethin" else. Another thing is if these are used topresent the enemy you +ant to eradicate. 9slam or the criminal inside thesociety' or the Communists in the US during the Cold %ar. There seem tobe t+o types of genocide D one moti)ated by economics D and here +e donot ha)e the notion of an enemy ` it is Hust a tool. <ro; -lostanoa6 ^ou %o not kill on

*ur*ose@ it is a conse>uence o; use. <ro; Mi"nolo6 es@ you hae a horse to ork or you hae a slae to ork. )e is

not your ene!y – on the contrary@ it is use;ul – it is a tool. ^ou buy it@ sell it@ use it. %i?erent kin% o; "enoci%e ishen you hae to era%icate. )oeer@ era%ication %oes not necessarily i!*ly "enoci%e. n colonial <eru there asera%ication o; i%eolo"y. -hey %i% not kill@ they ust conerte% to Christianity. -hey ante% to con>uer souls. <ro;

-lostanoa6 That is +hy 9 think coloniality is +ider and deeper than genocide. Nou can lea)e people ali)e but you +ipe e)erything out of their minds toput something else there. 9n a +ay this is also a genocide D you lea)e themtheir physical li)es but you take a+ay their inside ` <ro; Mi"nolo6 %e call itepistemic lobotomy. o+ that 9 think of' the cleaning of ideology mighthad been a forerunner of ,itler5s +ork. 3>cept that 9ndians of the time+ere not the menace for Christian theologians like Re+s +ere for ,itler.

Christians are ery clear o; ho their ene!ies are – at that !o!ent in history it as sla! an% <rotestants.Catholics controlle% the "a!e but they ante% a %an"erous ene!y ea"er to %estroy the! – this as also the $ush%iscourse a;ter the 9+11. <ro; -lostanoa6 -his is a ery !erican %iscourse. t is the only ay ho to kee* !ericato"ether an% ;or! its national i%entity. -o be to"ether a"ainst so!eone. n ,uro*e think there is bi""er co!!on

base o; reli"ion@ roots@ culture X



77

9mpact8 :enocide

Colonial identity production has reduced ati)es to a constantstate of neardeath. The ability of the biopolitical to mandatethe rele)ance of ati)e culture produces a )iolent racism thatseeks to erase ati)e thought and life.Smith 0 $Andrea' ?ot an 9ndian Tradition8 The Se>ualColoni*ation of ati)e (eoples@' ,ypatia' Qolume 1-' umber!' Spring' pp. "-M2nn Stoler ar"ues that racis!@ ;ar ;ro! bein" a reaction to crisis in hich racial others are sca*e"oate% ;or social

ills@ is a *er!anent *art o; the social ;abric. N5acis! is not an e?ect but a tactic in the internalBssion o; society into binary o**osition@ a !eans o; creatin" Rbiolo"ize%P internalene!ies@ a"ainst ho! society !ust %e;en% itsel;O #1993@ 79&. She notes that in the

!o%ern state@ the constant *uriBcation an% eli!ination o; racialize% ene!ies ithinthat state ensures the "roth o; the national bo%y. N5acis! %oes not !erely arise in!o!ents o; crisis@ in s*ora%ic cleansin"s. t is internal to the bio*olitical state@ oen into the

eb o; the social bo%y@ threa%e% throu"h its ;abricO #1993@ 79&. Si!ilarly@ Kate Shanley notes that :atie*eo*les are a *er!anent N*resent absenceO in the =.S. colonial i!a"ination@ anNabsenceO that rein;orces at eery turn the coniction that :atie *eo*les arein%ee% anishin" an% that the con>uest o; :atie lan%s is ustiBe%. ,lla Shoat an% 5obert

Sta! %escribe this absence as Nan a!bialently re*ressie !echanis! that %is*elsthe anxiety in the ;ace o; the n%ian@ hose ery *resence is a re!in%er o; theinitially *recarious " roun%in" o; the !erican nationstate itsel; . . . n a te!*oral*ara%ox@ liin" n%ians ere in%uce% to R*lay %ea% @P as it ere@ in or%er to *er;or! anarratie o; !ani;est %estiny in hich their role@ ulti!ately@ as to %isa**earO #1994@ 118–

19&. -his NabsenceO is e?ecte% throu"h the !eta*horical trans;or!ation o; :atiebo%ies into a *ollution o; hich the colonial bo%y !ust *uri;y itsel;. s hiteCali;ornians %escribe% in the 18'0s@ :atie *eo*le ere Nthe %irtiest lot o; hu!anbein"s on earth.O -hey ear Blthy ra"s@ ith their *ersons unashe%@ hairunco!be% an% sar!in" ith er!inO #5als 1984@ 197&. -he ;olloin" 1887 <roctor (a!ble a%;or ory Soa* also illustrates this e>uation beteen n%ian bo%ies an% %irt6 Fe ere once ;actious@ Berce an% il%@n *eace;ul arts unreconcile% ur blankets s!eare% ith "rease an% stains ro! bu?alo !eat an% settlersP eins.

-hrou"h su!!erPs %ust an% heat content ro! !oon to !oon unashe% e ent@ $ut V5^ S< ca!e like a ray; li"ht across our %arkene% ay n% no ePre ciil@ kin% an% "oo% n% kee* the las as *eo*le shoul%@ Fe earour linen@ lan an% lace s ell as ;olks ith *aler ;ace n% no take@ hereer e "o -his cake o; V5^ S< to

sho Fhat ciilize% !y s>ua an% !e n% !a%e us clean an% ;air to see. #Lo*ez n.%@ 119& n the coloniali!a"ination@ :atie bo%ies are also i!!anently *ollute% ith sexual sin. lexan%er

Fhitaker@ a !inister in Vir"inia@ rote in 1'1/6 N-hey lie nake% in bo%ies@ as i; their sha!eo; their sinne %esere% no coerin"6 -heir na!es are as nake% as their bo%ies6 -heyestee! it a irtue to lie@ %eceie an% steale as their !aster the %iell teacheththe!O #$erkho;er 1938@ 19&. urther!ore@ accor%in" to $ernar%ino %e Minaya6 N-heir the n%iansP !arria"es are

not a sacra!ent but a sacrile"e. -hey are i%olatrous@ libi%inous@ an% co!!it so%o!y. -heir chie; %esire is to eat@

%rink@ orshi* heathen i%ols@ an% co!!it bestial obscenitiesO #cite% in Stannar% 1992@ 211&. StolerPs analysiso; racis! in hich :atie *eo*les are likene% to a *ollution that threatens =. S.security is in%icate% in the co!!ents o; one %octor in his atte!*t to rationalize the!ass sterilization o; :atie o!en in the 1930s6 N<eo*le *ollute@ an% too !any*eo*le cro%e% too close to"ether cause !any o; our social an% econo!ic



7'

*roble!s. -hese in turn are a""raate% by inoluntary an% irres*onsible *arenthoo%. . . Fe also hae obli"ations to the society o; hich e are *art. -he el;are !ess@

as it has been calle%@ cries out ;or solutions@ one o; hich is ;ertility controlO #klaho!a 1989@

11&. )erbert *theker %escribes the lo"ical conse>uences o; this sterilization !oe!ent6 N -he ulti!ate lo"ico; this is cre!atoriaA *eo*le are the!seles constitutin" the *ollution an% in;erior*eo*le in *articular@ then cre!atoria beco!e really ast seera"e *roects. nly so

!ay one un%erstan% those ho atten% the oens an% concocte% an% con%ucte% theentire enter*riseA those Naste%OGto use =. S. ar!y ar"on resere% ;or colonialhostilitiesGare not really@ not ;ully *eo*leO #1983@ 144&. $ecause n%ian bo%ies areN%irty@O they are consi%ere% sexually iolable an% Nra*able.O -hat is@ in *atriarchalthinkin"@ only a bo%y that is N*ureO can be iolate%. -he ra*e o; bo%ies that areconsi%ere% inherently i!*ure or %irty si!*ly %oes not count. or instance@ *rostituteshae al!ost an i!*ossible ti!e bein" beliee% i; they are ra*e% because the%o!inant society consi%ers the *rostitutePs bo%y un%eserin" o; inte"rity an%iolable at all ti!es. Si!ilarly@ the history o; !utilation o; n%ian bo%ies@ both liin"an% %ea%@ !akes it clear to n%ian *eo*le that they are not entitle% to bo%ilyinte"rity@ as these exa!*les su""est6 sa the bo%y o; Fhite ntelo*e ith the *riates cut o?@ an%

hear% a sol%ier say he as "oin" to !ake a tobacco*ouch out o; the!. #cite% in Frone an% :elson 1982@ 11/& ,ach

o; the braes as shot %on an% scal*e% by the il% olunteers@ ho out ith their knies an% cuttin" to *arallel"ashes %on their backs@ oul% stri* the skin ;ro! the >uierin" esh to !ake razor stra*s o;. #cite% in Frone an%:elson 1982@ 90& ne !ore %exterous than the rest@ *rocee%e% to ay the chie;Ps -ecu!sehPs bo%yA then@ cuttin"the skin in narro stri*s . . . at once@ a su**ly o; razorstra*s ;or the !ore N;erociousO o; his brethren. #cite% inFrone an% :elson 1982@ 82& n%re Hackson . . . su*erise% the !utilation o; 800 or so Creek n%ian cor*sesGthebo%ies o; !en@ o!en an% chil%ren that he an% his !en !assacre%Gcuttin" o? their noses to count an% *resere arecor% o; the %ea%@ slicin" lon" stri*s o; esh ;ro! their bo%ies to tan an% turn into bri%le reins. #Stannar% 1992@121& ,choin" this !entality as (oernor -ho!*son@ ho state% in 1990 that he oul% not close %on an o*enn%ian burial !oun% in ickson@ llinois@ because o; his ar"u!ent that he as as !uch n%ian as are current n%ians@an% conse>uently@ he ha% as !uch ri"ht as they to %eter!ine the ;ate o; n%ian re!ains.1 )e ;elt ;ree toa**ro*riate the i%entity o; N:atie@O an% thus ;elt ustiBe% in clai!in" onershi* oer both :atie i%entity an%:atie bo%ies. -he Chica"o *ress si!ilarly atte!*te% to challen"e the i%entity o; the n%ian *eo*le ho *roteste%

-ho!*sonPs %ecision by statin" that these *rotestors ere either only N*artO n%ian or ere only clai!in" to ben%ian #)er!ann 1990&.2 -he !essa"e coneye% by the llinois state "oern!ent is that to be n%ian in this society

is to be on constant %is*lay ;or hite consu!ers@ in li;e or in %eath. n% in ;act@ n%ian i%entity itsel; isun%er the control o; the colonizer@ subect to era%ication at any ti!e. s i!e Cesaire

*uts it@ Ncolonization Rthin"id cationPO #1932@ 21&. s Stoler ex*lains this *rocess o; racialize%colonization6 N-he !ore R%e"eneratesP an% Rabnor!alsP in this case :atie*eo*les are eli!inate%@ the lies o; those ho s*eak ill be stron"er@ !orei"orous@ an% i!*roe%. -he ene!ies are not *olitical a%ersaries@ but thosei%entiBe% as external an% internal threats to the *o*ulation. 5acis! is the con%itionthat !akes it acce*table to *ut certain *eo*le to %eath in a society o;nor!alizationO #1993@ 87&. -a%iarPs %escri*tion o; colonial relationshi*s as an enact!ento; the N*reailin" !o%e o; heterosexual relationsO is use;ul because it un%erscoresthe extent to hich =. S. colonizers ie the subu"ation o; o!en o; the :atienations as critical to the success o; the econo!ic@ cultural@ an% *olitical colonization

#199/@ 18'&. Stoler notes that the i!*erial %iscourses on sexuality Ncast hite o!enas the bearers o; !ore racist i!*erial or%erO #1993@ /7&. $y extension@ :atie o!enas bearers o; a counteri!*erial or%er *ose a su*re!e threat to the i!*erial or%er.Sy!bolic an% literal control oer their bo%ies is i!*ortant in the ar a"ainst :atie*eo*le@ as these exa!*les attest6 Fhen as in the boat ca*ture% a beauti;ulCarib o!en . . . conceie% %esire to take *leasure . . . took a ro*e an% thrashe%her ell@ ;or hich she raise% such unhear% screa!s that you oul% not haebeliee% your ears. inally e ca!e to an a"ree!ent in such a !anner that can tell you that she see!e% tohae been brou"ht u* in a school o; harlots. #Sale 1990@ 140& -o o; the best lookin" o; the s>uas ere lyin" insuch a *osition@ an% ;ro! the a**earance o; the "enital or"ans an% o; their oun%s@ there can be no %oubt thatthey ere Brst raishe% an% then shot %ea%. :early all o; the %ea% ere !utilate%. #Frone an% :elson 1982@ 12/&



73

ne o!an@ bi" ith chil%@ rushe% into the church@ clas*in" the alter an% cryin" ;or !ercy ;or hersel; an% unbornbabe. She as ;olloe%@ an% ;ell *ierce% ith a %ozen lances . . . the chil% as torn alie ;ro! the yet *al*itatin"bo%y o; its !other@ Brst *lun"e% into the holy ater to be ba*tize%@ an% i!!e%iately its brains ere %ashe% outa"ainst a all. #Frone an% :elson 1982@ 93& -he Christians attacke% the! ith bu?ets an% beatin"s . . . -hen theybehae% ith such te!erity an% sha!elessness that the !ost *oer;ul ruler o; the islan% ha% to see his on i;era*e% by a Christian oQcer. #Las Casas 1992@ //& hear% one !an say that he ha% cut a o!anPs *riate *arts out@an% ha% the! ;or exhibition on a stick. hear% another !an say that he ha% cut the Bn"ers o? o; an n%ian@ to "etthe rin"s o? his han%. also hear% o; nu!erous instances in hich !en ha% cut out the *riate *arts o; ;e!ales@

an% stretche% the! oer their sa%%lebos an% so!e o; the! oer their hats. #San% Creek 193/@ 129–/0& !erican)orse sai% o; the !assacre at Foun%e% Knee6 -he ;act o; the killin" o; the o!en@ an% !ore es*ecially the killin" o; the youn" boys an% "irls ho are to "o to !ake u* the ;uture stren"th o; the n%ian *eo*le is the sa%%est *art o;the hole a?air an% e ;eel it ery sorely. #Stannar% 1992@ 123&



78

9mpact D 3n)ironment9gnoring the basis of colonialism in the climate crisis dooms

managerial solutions to serial policy failure D epistemicengagement is crucial to sol)e en)ironmental crisisanuela)arrete 1" $&a)id' esearch Sta' King5s College'London. 7A' 3n)ironmental Sciences' ecological economics'and geography. ?(o+er' realism' and the ideal of humanemancipation in a climate of change@ %93s Climate ChangeQol. 1' o)ember<&ecember !"1"2Climate change is often portrayed as a management and policyproblem .1" This positioning outside the e)olution of sociopoliticalstructures has the ad)antage of discussing mitigation and adaptation asunproblematically carried out from' and by' these structures' +ithoutchallenging them in any signicant fashion. T his implies an abstraction ofclimate change as an e>ternal threat to social stability' and an obHect ofstudy that can then be elegantly compartmentali*ed into dierent types of risk. n a%%ition@ mitigation and adaptation can be neatly dened as strategiesto reduce o)erall threat and cope +ith risks so that humanity5sde)elopment can continue unaected . Leain" the !essiness o; *olitics outsi%e the e>uation

allos ;or the e!*hasis on technolo"ies@ tar"ets@ in%exes@ accountin" sche!es@ an% strate"ies that can betranslate% into ex*licit *olicies or actions. -he Rhu!an %i!ensionP o; cli!ate chan"e can then be stu%ie% bysin"lin"out the *arts o; the social ;abric that nee% to be Ra%a*te%P or R*roo;e%P@ so that the syste! as a hole@ !ore

or less in its current state@ can eather cli!ate challen"es. =n;ortunately@ this simplistic )ie+ fails toackno+ledge the increasing penetration of climate change into all thedimensions of human life.11 n ;act@ a gro+ing body of empirical +ork re)eals

a more complicated picture than that portrayed by apolitical policyapproaches.12 FLL <L-CL 5,LSM -), H$I A realist agenda to study climatechange politics is consolidating around the notions of globalen)ironmental go)ernance and regimes .1/ (oernance re;ers to the iel%in" o; *oer an%authority by both "oern!ent institutions@ an% other social actors in or%er to inUuence an% enact *ublic %ecisions

an% actions. n%ee%@ the notion of go)ernance stretches Montes>uieuPs Rchecksan%balancesP

thesis beyond the three *oers o; democratic go)ernment #executie@ le"islatie@ an% u%iciary&

to include the role of pri)ate actors or markets' and ci)il society. TheseFne+5 political actors are then reied as Fstakeholders5 +ho ha)eparticular interests' resources' )alues' and cultures. ccor%in"ly@ *olitics can beconeniently re*resente% as stakehol%ersP ne"otiation an% acco!!o%ation toar% solin" s*eciBc *roble!s suchas e!ission re%uctions or shiel%in" %eelo*!ent ;ro! %isasters. -his a**roach to accountin" ;or *olitics !aya%ocate a%ust!ents o; "oernance structures an% the e!er"ence o; ne re"i!es@ but these a%ust!ents are

ustiBe% in ter!s o; *roble!solin" *er;or!ance. -hus@ the ethical dimension of po+erdistribution is brought to the background' so that attention can bedirected to+ard goal setting' problem sol)ing' and policy outcomes . s note%

aboe@ *olitical realis! assu!es a *essi!istic stance o; hu!an nature. Authority is needed tocontrol people5s egoistic nature and pre)ent the harming of others andthe en)ironment. As a conse;uence' coercion' and<or legitimation throughconsent are preconditions for order and security. -he success o; *olitical syste!s is!easure% in ter!s o; stability an% consensus beteen rulers an% rule%@ rather than i%eals o; ;airness@ ustice@ or;ree%o!. Corru*tion an% o**ression ;ro! rulers can be aoi%e% throu"h a**ro*riate Rchecks an% balancesP@ or "oo%"oernance. -his realist *osition is *articularly conenient in ali%atin" the liberal state@ la@ an% the institution o;



79

*ro*erty as "rantors o; or%er. n ;act@ in the present historical moment' this realiststance often leads to neoliberal economic rationalities' +hich arecommonly assumed to pro)ide the basis for coordinating conictinginterests in modern capitalist societies. t the core o; realis! is the assu!*tion that society is

*olitically in a Rclose to e>uilibriu!P state@ orbitin" aroun% a liberal %e!ocratic attractor. -he notion o; an attractoreokes a sense o; Bnal %estination@ the en% o; *olitical history toar% hich Festern societies *erceie the!selesto hae been ten%in" %urin" the last centuries. -his se!ie>uilibriu! *olitics allos ;or the conce*tualization o;*oer as an intrinsic >uality o; *rototy*ical actors an% institutions@ rather than an outco!e o; unstable historical

*rocesses an% social stru""les. s a result climate politics can be represented as thenegotiation bet+een a gi)en set of social actors +ho' in the light of ne+scientic ndings and technological breakthroughs' rearrange markets'norms' institutions' regulations' or decisionmaking procedures. Hustice an%;airness belon" to the *olicy *rocess@ rather than bein" intrinsic to social structures. -hus@ RunrealisticP i%ealistas*irations ;or uniersal ustice or e!anci*ation can be reoriente% toar% *ra"!atic tar"ets such as thei!*le!entation o; trans*arent@ inclusie@ an% accountable *olicies@ een i; carrie% out in a context o; ine>uality an%!ere re*resentatie %e!ocracy. -he sta"in" o; international cli!ate ne"otiations is a case in *oint.

&e)eloped countries' de)eloping countries' corporations' scientists' andnongo)ernmental organi*ations are to follo+ preassigned roles andbargain our +ay out ' +ithout e)en discussing the possibility of alteringpo+er or pursuing any form of social transformation. nstea%@ the %ebate is centere%

on national e!ission tar"ets@ technolo"ical incenties@ settin" a *rice ;or carbon@ an% the trans;er o; econo!icresources to co!*ensate those ho ill bear the hi"hest costs.



'0

9mpact D So)ereigntyThe alternati)e is critical to fashioning ne+ models of

so)ereigntyTaylor !"10 $Lucy' &epartment of 9nternational (olitics'Aberyst+yth Uni)ersity' %ales' UK' !"10' Southsideup8imagining 9 through Latin America'http8<<millenniumHournal.les.+ordpress.com<!"1"<"E<taylorlucysouthsideupimaginingirthroughlatinamerica.doc.2There are many implications for 9 from this position' most of +hich 9 ha)eyet to thinkthrough@ but *erha*s the !ost i!*ortant is the >uestion o; soerei"nty. The colonialencounter bet+een indigenous people and the con;uistadores did nottake place bet+een states D the indigenous polities +ere comple> systemsbut they +eren5t states in the %estphalian sense@ an% Cristobal Coln as an a%enturer

backe% by a royal ;a!ily an% the Catholic Church@ hile the slae tra%e as a co!!ercial enter*rise in the !ain@a!on" both ;ricans an% ,uro*eans. t *resent@ these en"a"e!ents are inisible to 5. êt i; e are to accor% theseencounters ith the *ortent an% i!*act that they %esere@ e nee% to Bn% a ay to think o; these as encounters

beteen social a"ents actin" in coherent "rou*s – as bein" *olities. This in)ol)es separatingFso)ereignty5 from the idea of the state. ,ere' some 9 scholars ha)epa)ed my +ay by e>ploring the particular origins of state so)ereignty an% in

reealin" the cultural *articularity o; the Rhe"e!onolo"ueP@ to >uote Marshall $eier3. ati)e Americanistsin particular re)eal its use as a po+ertool of oppression and pro)ideinsight into alternati)e cosmologies of so)ereignty. -hus <eter %P,rricoPs ork%e!onstrates ho the le"alistic %eice o; soerei"ntyas;enceable*ro*erty in the =S %is*ossesse% natie*eo*les o; lan% hich as theirs an% conBne% the! to statea**ointe% *laces8. Soren Larsen@ on the other han%@reeals an alternatie notion o; soerei"nty ithin the akelh *eo*le o; $ritish Colu!bia ho un%erstan% RourterritoryP #or 'eyah& as Rthe area in hich one alksP@ linkin" it to a *hysical an% e!otional belon"in" to the

lan%sca*e associate% ith the tasks o; !aintainin" trails@ tra*lines an% shelters9. Contesting theboundaries of the so)ereign state' as +ell as the empisteme +hich is+o)en into its )ery identity and institutional fabric' is also a central goalfor many indigenous mo)ements in the southern Americas. -he stru""le ;orautono!y@ the ascen%ance o; non,uro*ean lan"ua"es@ le"al syste!s an% reli"ions@ an% the %enunciation o;o**ressie an% racist *ractices at the heart o; Latin !ericaPs nation states challen"es their existence as territorialan% institutional entities hich clai! the le"iti!acy o; soerei"nty. -his clearly has si"niBcant i!*lications ;or thetheory an% *ractice o; international relations.

3 H. Marshall $eier International Relations in 8ncommon *laces! Indigeneity,"osmology and the Limits of International Theory #:e ôrk6 <al"rae+Mac!illan@2007&A Karena Sha Indigeneity and *olitical Theory! #overeignty and the Limits of

the *olitical #Lon%on6 5outle%"e@ 2008&.8 <eter %P,rrico N:atie !ericans in !erica6 -heoretical an% )istoricalerieO in re%erick ,. )oxie@ <eter C. Mancall an% Ha!es ). Merrell #e%s&

American nations! +ncounters in Indian "ountry, 0526 to the *resent #:e ôrk65outle%"e@ 2001&.

9 Soren C. Larsen N-he uturePs *ast6 <olitics o; -i!e an% -erritory a!on" akelhirst :ations in $ritish Colu!biaO #(eo"raBska nnaler6 Series $@ 88@ :o./6 /11/21&.







'1



'2

Alt



'/

Alt D egati)ity sol)encyThe plan replicates the conser)ati)e utopia of neoliberalism D

the alternati)e generates a utopia out of negati)ity and refusalof the status ;uo neoliberal utopiaSantos !""6 $7oa)entura de Sousa' professor of sociology'scho of economics' uni)ersity of Coimbra' distinguished legalscholar la+ school' uni)ersity of %isconsinmadison' ?the+orld social forum8 a user5s manual'http8<<+++.ces.uc.pt<bss<documentos<fsmXeng.pdf2

-he uto*ian %i!ension o; the FS consists in clai!in" the existence o; alternaties to neoliberal "lobalization. s

ranz )inkela!!ert says@ +e li)e in a time of conser)ati)e utopias +hose utopiancharacter resides in its radical denial of alternati)es to presentday reality.

The possibility of alternati)es is discredited precisely for being utopian'idealistic' unrealistic. All conser)ati)e utopias are sustained by a politicallogic based on one sole e4ciency criterion that rapidly becomes asupreme ethical criterion. ccor%in" to this criterion@ only +hat is e4cient has )alue.Any other ethical criterion is de)alued as ine4cient. eoliberalism is onesuch conser)ati)e utopia for +hich the sole criterion of e4ciency is themarket or the la+s of the market. ts uto*ian character resi%es in the *ro!ise that its total;ulBll!ent or a**lication cancels out all uto*ias. s )inkela!!ert says@ Nthis i%eolo"y %eries ;ro! its ;rantic antiuto*ianis!@ the uto*ian *ro!ise o; a ne orl%. -he basic thesis is6 hoeer %estroys uto*ia@ ;ulBlls itO #20026 238&.

%hat distinguishes conser)ati)e utopias from critical utopias is the factthat they identify E themsel)es +ith the presentday reality and disco)ertheir utopian dimension in the radicali*ation or complete fulllment of the

present. Moreoer

the problems or di4culties of presentday reality are notthe conse;uence of the deciencies or limits of the e4ciency criteria@ but

result rather ;ro! the ;act that the a**lication o; the eQciency criteria has not been thorou"h enou"h. 9f thereis unemployment and social e>clusion' if there is star)ation and death inthe periphery of the +orld system' that is not the conse;uence of thedeciencies or limits of the la+s of the marketJ it results rather from thefact that such la+s ha)e not yet been fully applied. The hori*on ofconser)ati)e utopias is thus a closed hori*on' an end to history. -his is thecontext in hich the uto*ian %i!ension o; the FS !ust be un%erstoo%. -he FS si"niBes the ree!er"ence o; a

critical uto*ia@ that is to say@ the radical criti;ue of presentday reality an% the as*iration to a

better society. -his occurs' ho+e)er' +hen the antiutopian utopia ofneoliberalism is dominant. -he s*eciBcity o; the uto*ian content o; this ne critical uto*ia@ henco!*are% ith that o; the critical uto*ias *reailin" at the en% o; the nineteenth an% be"innin" o; the tentieth

century@ thus beco!es clear. The antiutopian utopia of neoliberalism is grounded ont+o presuppositions8 the illusion of total control o)er presentday realityby means of e>tremely e4cient po+ers and kno+ledgesJ and the radicalreHection of alternati)es to the status ;uo. -he FS *uts in >uestion the totality o; control#hether as knole%"e or *oer& only to aQr! cre%ibly the *ossibility o; alternaties. )ence the o*en nature@

a"ue i; you ill@ o; alternaties. 9n a conte>t in +hich the conser)ati)e utopia pre)ailsabsolutely' it is more important to a4rm the possibility of alternati)esthan to dene them. -he uto*ian %i!ension o; the FS consists in aQr!in" the *ossibility o; a counter

he"e!onic "lobalization. n other or%s@ the utopia o; the FS asserts itself more as



'4

negati)ity the denition of +hat it criti;ues/ than as positi)ity thedenition of that to +hich it aspires&.

This utopia creates practical and ethical politics D it is not a

)ague opening' but a method to create consolidation of agentsagainst neoliberalismSantos !""6 $7oa)entura de Sousa' professor of sociology'scho of economics' uni)ersity of Coimbra' distinguished legalscholar la+ school' uni)ersity of %isconsinmadison' ?the+orld social forum8 a user5s manual'http8<<+++.ces.uc.pt<bss<documentos<fsmXeng.pdf

The utopia of the %SB is a radically democratic utopia. 9t is the onlyrealistic utopia after a century of conser)ati)e utopias@ so!e o; the! the result o;

*ererte% critical uto*ias. This utopian design' grounded on the denial of the

present rather than the denition of the future' focused on the processesof intercourse among the mo)ements rather than an assessment of themo)ements5 political content' is the maHor factor of cohesion of the %SB. 9thelps to ma>imi*e +hat unites and minimi*e +hat di)ides' celebrateintercourse rather than dispute po+er' be a strong presence rather thanan agenda. This utopian design' +hich is also an ethical design' pri)ilegesthe ethical discourse' >uite ei%ent in the FSPs Charter o; <rinci*les@ ai!e% at "atherin" consensusesbeyon% the i%eolo"ical an% *olitical cleaa"es a!on" the !oe!ents an% or"anizations that co!*ose it. -he!oe!ents an% or"anizations *ut beteen brackets the cleaa"es that %ii%e the!@ as !uch as is necessary toaQr! the *ossibility o; a counterhe"e!onic "lobalization. -he nature o; this uto*ia has been the !ost a%e>uate

;or the initial obectie o; the FS6 to aQr! the existence o; a counterhe"e!onic "lobalization. This is no)ague utopia. 9t is rather a utopia that contains in itself the concreti*ationthat is ade;uate for this phase of the construction of counterhegemonicglobali*ation. t re!ains to be seen i; the nature o; this uto*ia is the !ost a%e>uate one to "ui%e the next

ste*s@ shoul% there be any next ste*s. nce the counterhe"e!onic "lobalization is consoli%ate%@ an% hence thei%ea that another orl% is *ossible is !a%e cre%ible@ ill it be *ossible to ;ulBll this i%ea ith the sa!e leel o;ra%ical %e!ocracy that hel*e% ;or!ulate itI shall co!e back to this.

The alternati)e5s )ie+point is critical to a recognition ofagency for latin americaTaylor !"10 $Lucy' &epartment of 9nternational (olitics'Aberyst+yth Uni)ersity' %ales' UK' !"10' Southsideup8imagining 9 through Latin America'http8<<millenniumHournal.les.+ordpress.com<!"1"<"E<taylor

lucysouthsideupimaginingirthroughlatinamerica.doc2t is this unsettlin" o; this su**ose%ly settle% settler society – the raising of ;uestions about itscolonialist relationships and the ackno+ledgement of its contingency D+hich is Latin America5s most po+erful criti;ue of its dominant neighbour.Latin America e>poses the frailty of the USA not through an attack on itsimperialist pretentions' then' but by re)ealing its coloniality +ithin. -he*ro;oun% criti>ue o; soerei"nty hich e!er"es ;ro! en"a"e!ent ith :atie !erican history an% *hiloso*hy@strikes at one o; the ;oun%ations o; Ractually existin"P 5 in !any o; its ;or!ats@ as the incisie ork o; $eier an%

nayatullah an% $laney so ably %e!onstrates. Ipening up the USA as a place of curiosity







'7

and contingency' as a place that is une)en and highly contested' ser)es tochallenge many of the normati)e assumptions found on the pages of 9te>tbooks and the policy documents of international politics. ; !i"ht take ;or"rante% – here at the Millenniu! con;erence – that *uncturin" the %iscursie ar!our o; o**ressie uniersalist

thinkin" is an i!*ortant *olitical *roect@ then Latin America is not a peripheral actor inthis struggle' but rather occupies a )ital strategic location from +hich to

criti;ue 9 precisely because of its close relationship to 95s heartland – the=S. t the ery least' looking past the da**ling po+er of the US helps us to catcha glimpse of the other global stories of this mighty' colonial place.



''

Alt D efuse eoliberal 3>pansionIur alternati)e is to refuse the logic of neoliberal e>pansion.

This is a fracturing of the logic of economic singularity ofneoliberal e>pansion by recogni*ing the possibility for otherforms of noncapitalist economy D this refusal is competiti)e asit substantiates a material reHection of US economicine)itability onto the rest of the +orldSantos !""6 $7oa)entura de Sousa' professor of sociology'scho of economics' uni)ersity of Coimbra' distinguished legalscholar la+ school' uni)ersity of %isconsinmadison' ?the+orld social forum8 a user5s manual'http8<<+++.ces.uc.pt<bss<documentos<fsmXeng.pdf

t he ecolo"y o; *ro%uctiities. inally@ in the domain of the fth logic' the monocultureof capitalist producti)ity' the sociology of absences consists inrecuperating and )alori*ing alternati)e systems of production' populareconomic organi*ations' +orkers5 cooperati)es' selfmanaged enterprises'solidarity economy' etc.' +hich ha)e been hidden or discredited by thecapitalist orthodo>y of producti)ity. -his is *erha*s the !ost controersial %o!ain o; thesociolo"y o; absences@ ;or it con;ronts %irectly both the *ara%i"! o; %eelo*!ent an% inBnite econo!ic "roth an%the lo"ic o; the *ri!acy o; the obecties o; accu!ulation oer the obecties o; %istribution that sustain "lobal

ca*italis!. (easant mo)ements for access to land' land tenure' agrarianreform or against megade)elopment proHects' urban mo)ements forhousing rights' informal economy and popular economy mo)ements@in%i"enous !oe!ents to %e;en% or to re"ain their historical territories an% the natural resources ;oun% in the!@

lo caste !oe!ents in n%ia to *rotect their lan% an% local ;orests@ all these mo)ements basetheir claims and their struggles on the ecology of producti)ities. n each o; theBe %o!ains@ the obectie o; the sociolo"y o; absences is to %isclose an% to "ie cre%it to the %iersity an%!ulti*licity o; social *ractices an% con;er cre%it to the! in o**osition to the exclusie cre%ibility o; he"e!onic

*ractices. The idea of multiplicity and nondestructi)e relations is suggestedby the concept of ecology8 ecology of kno+ledges' ecology oftemporalities' ecology of recognitions' ecology of transcales' and ecologyof producti)ities. Co!!on to all these ecolo"ies is the i%ea that reality cannot be reducedto +hat e>ists. 9t amounts to an ample )ersion of realism that includes therealities rendered absent by silence' suppression' and marginali*ation. n aor%@ realities that are actiely *ro%uce% as nonexistent. n conclusion@ the exercise o; the sociolo"y o; absences is

counter;actual an% takes *lace by con;rontin" conentional scientiBc co!!onsense. To be carried out itdemands' both epistemological imagination and democratic imagination.3pistemological imagination allo+s for the recognition of dierentkno+ledges' perspecti)es and scales of identication' analysis ande)aluation of practices. &emocratic imagination allo+s for the recognitionof dierent practices and social agents. 7oth the epistemological and thedemocratic imagination ha)e a deconstructi)e and a reconstructi)edimension. econstruction assu!es Be ;or!s@ corres*on%in" to the criti>ue o; the Be lo"ics o; he"e!onicrationality@ na!ely unthinkin"@ %eresi%ualizin"@ %e racializin"@ %elocalizin"@ an% %e*ro%ucin". 5econstruction isco!*rise% o; the Be ecolo"ies !entione% aboe.



'3

Alt D 3pistemological (ra>isIur alternati)e opens an epistemological pra>is for the

creation and moti)ation of alternati)e ethicalcoutnermo)ements against neoliberalismSantos !""6 $7oa)entura de Sousa' professor of sociology'scho of economics' uni)ersity of Coimbra' distinguished legalscholar la+ school' uni)ersity of %isconsinmadison' ?the+orld social forum8 a user5s manual'http8<<+++.ces.uc.pt<bss<documentos<fsmXeng.pdf2

Con;ronte% ith this situation@ the epistemological alternati)e proposed by the %SBis that there is no global social Hustice +ithout global cogniti)e Hustice.This alternati)e is grounded on t+o basic ideas. Birst' if the obHecti)ity ofscience does not imply neutrality' science and technology may as +ell beput at the ser)ice of counterhegemonic practices. -he extent to hich science is use% is

in "eneral ar"uable insi%e the !oe!ents@ an% it !ay ary accor%in" to circu!stances an% *ractices. Second'+hate)er the e>tent to +hich science is resorted to' counterhegemonicpractices are mainly practices of nonscientic kno+ledges' practical' oftentacit kno+ledges that must be made credible to render such practicescredible in turn. -his secon% *oint is !ore *ole!ical because it con;ronts the he"e!onic conce*ts o; truth

an% eQciency %irectly. The epistemological denunciation that the %SB engages inconsists in sho+ing that the concepts of rationality and e4ciencypresiding o)er hegemonic technicalscientic kno+ledge are toorestricti)e to capture the richness and di)ersity of the social e>perience of the +orld' and specially that they discriminate against practices ofresistance and production of counterhegemonic alternati)es. ,egemonicrationality and e4ciency thus bring about a contraction of the +orld byconcealing or discrediting all the practices' agents' and kno+ledges thatare not accounted for by their criteria. -he conceal!ent an% %iscre%itin" o; these *racticesconstitute a aste o; social ex*erience@ both social ex*erience that is alrea%y aailable but not yet isible@ an%

social ex*erience not yet aailable but realistically *ossible. The epistemological operationcarried out by the %SB consists of t+o processes that 9 designate associology of absences and sociology of emergences #Santos@ 2002a&. !ean sociolo"iesbuilt a"ainst he"e!onic social sciences an% u*on alternatie e*iste!olo"ical *resu**ositions. s*eak o; sociolo"iesbecause !y ai! is critically to i%enti;y the con%itions that %estroy nonhe"e!onic an% *otentially counter

he"e!onic social ex*erience. -hrou"h the sociology of absences and the sociology ofemergences' social e>perience that resists destruction is unconcealed'

and the spacetime capable of identifying and rendering credible ne+counterhegemonic social e>periences is opened up.



'8

Alt D Uni;uenessThe alternati)e is an ethical imperati)e D the crisis of

modernity is becoming bankrupt and decoloniality is emergingall around us. The ;uestion of this debate is +hether youought to ethically epistemologically align yourself +ithdecoloniality or try to uphold the failures of the neoliberalmarket of modernity.ingolo and ,e 1! $%alter ignolo' (rofessor of &ecolonialStudies at &uke Uni)ersity' %eihua ,e' (h.&. from TsinghuaUni)ersity in 7eiHing. ,e is currently teaching in Shanghai andspent a year at &uke Uni)ersity +hile nishing his dissertation.The (rospect of ,armony and the &ecolonial Qie+ of the %orld'

published in &ecolonial Thoughts' 9nter)ie+s. September !"1!2 -o thin"s.eoliberalism is no+ in bankruptcy. Nou can see it all o)er theplaces' in the nancial crisis' the endroad to nd solutions' theproliferations of unhappy people e>pressing it all o)er' organi*edcommunities in South America stopping the corporations from destroyingthe en)ironment and poisoning the lands and the +ater +ith transgenicand cyanide in open pit mining. n% secon%ly@ e shall not con;use neoliberalis! ith !arketecono!y an% the ;etishization o; co!!o%ities. Certainly@ neoliberalis! contribute% to that@ but neoliberalis!ants a eak state an% a ;ree inisible han%. China@ Sin"a*ore@ Ha*an are on the contrary@ stron" states re"ulatin"

the econo!y. -hat is not neoliberalis! an% that chias! is one as*ect o; %eesternization. The ;uestionsof delinking shall not' on the other hand' be limited to the State andcontinue to hope that States +ill do +hat people +ant States to do. %hat+e are seeing at in the sphere of the States is de+esterni*ation. And thatis a form of delinking' delinking from %estern scripts and fromtransnational institutions' like 9B and the %orld 7ank' still controlled bythe %est but already under hea)y scrutiny from the rest of the +orld . 4 7

%hat is surprising in this respect is that the politi*ation of the ci)il society#you kno the ciil society as not *oliticize%@ as ciil&. hae been in the 5ho%es <ublic oru! in ctober o;

2011. bout #"" scholars' religious gures' o4cers of the states' Hournalists'mainly from ussia' 9ndia and the iddle 3ast agreed in the failure of theneoliberal doctrine and the %ashington Consensus. My *anel on N<ostSecularis!O asone %ay but the con;erence occu*ie% three an% a hal; %ays. So atten%e% the o*enin" an% closin" *anels@ an%

seeral other *anels. Among the opening panelist speakers +as Rohan :altung.9nterestingly enough the consensus +as that the neoliberal doctrine and

the %ashington Consensus ha)e failed. -he next eek as in Santo o!in"o@ in the7iarrit* Borum@ lea% rench institutions ith the su**ort an% collaboration o; Latin !erican an% Caribbean

countries. More or less the sa!e kin% o; *eo*le an% the same amount and about 1! e>(residents attended the Borum. There +as a consensus that the neoliberal doctrine and the %ashington Consensus failed. So' then' neoliberalism is no longer the dominant ?structure of feeling.@ The ?structureof feeling@ is a gro+ing rage from the politi*ation of the ci)il society. or hatyou hae in those ora is nothin" else that the ciil society at its best@ not the *olitical society. 5a"e an%%isenchant!ent as the consensus. -hey are o; course@ %eesternizer@ nor %ecolonial or een Marxists. So@ hat



'9

connect the orl% is ca*italis!@ but not neoliberalis!. -he *oliticize% ciil society is not %enyin" ca*italis!@ it is

%enyin" neoliberali!. &elinking is rst of all an epistemic ;uestion8 +ithoutthinking other+ise is di4cult to imagine global futures beyond %esternstructure of thoughts and structure of feelings that is' epistemology'ontology and aiesthesisVsensing/. o+' in the same +ay that +e cannot confuseeconomy +ith capitalism' +e cannot confuse capitalism +ith neoliberalism. China is ca*italist@ but illnot say ;or a secon% that is neoliberal. -hat is hy in China Con;ucianis! is bein" rearticulate%. ; you %o not rearticulate Con;ucianis!@ or so!ethin" that is in your history@ you run the risk o; into neoliberalis! or bein"

conince% that you hae to start ith Machiaelli@ Locke@ 5ousseau etc. Chinese leaders andintellectuals need Confucius rather than ilton Briedman' +hich +as theeconomist behind eaganThatcher duo promoting neoliberalideals.&e+esterni*ation is already a +ay of delinking' not from capitalismbut from neoliberal global design. n% %eesternization is the *olitics o; China@ o; Sin"a*ore@ o;

5ussia@ o; $razil an% not sure yet but in *art at least n%ia. -his *oliticoecono!ic %elinkin" is one as*ect o;%eesternization.



30

Alt sol)es a

The alternati)e is not some ine>ible refusal of all change butis an acceptance of the positi)ity of status ;uocountermo)ements to neoliberal e>pansion D plan shuts thesedo+n in fa)or of economic e4ciency D only the alternati)e canresol)e the a5s concern +ith the area%erner!"1! $arion' &epartment of :eography Uni)ersity at7ualo' SUN Contesting po+er<kno+ledge in economicgeography8 Learning from Latin America and the Caribbean'e+ Companion to 3conomic :eography 7arnes' T.' (eck' R.'Sheppard' 3.' eds./' published Huly !"1!2

urin" the lon" %eca%es o; neoliberal counterre;or!s in the re"ion@ these theoretical tra%itions ere in retreatinstitutionally@ an% ;ace% stron" criticis! ;ro! a trans;or!in" Le;t. Social !oe!ents an% actiist scholarschallen"e% not only neoliberalis!@ but also the %eelo*!entalis! that *era%e% structuralist an% %e*en%ency

thinkin" #Chaez et al. 2008A ,scobar an% larez 1992A Slater 2004&. Social mo)ements emergingin the +ake of market reforms reected the une)en territoriality of statesand capital accumulation' and the historical legacies of racism andcolonialism that structured this une)enness #\uiano 2000&. Moe!ents create% s*aces o;counter he"e!onic theory!akin"@ renein" criti>ues o; Latin !erican an% Caribbean *ositionality ;ro! ;e!inist@in%i"enous@ ;rican%escent@ urban !i"rant@ an% *easant subect *ositions@ an% their co!binations. ro! thesehybri% subect *ositions@ they o**ose% %ee*enin" ;or!s o; neoliberal ca*italis!@ as ei%ent@ ;or exa!*le@ in ;reetra%e a"ree!ents that *riile"e% !arket a"en%as o; the :orth an% the sectors o; ca*ital that coul% ca*ture returns

;ro! these re;or!s in the South. The apatistas in southern e>ico' for e>ample'created and defended autonomous nonmarket spaces' notions of radical

democracy' and indigenous subHecti)ity in the face of the orth AmericanBree Trade Agreement #:-&@ an% its e!bol%ene% assault on alrea%y i!*erile% ;or!s o; collectie

lan% tenure an% *ublic "oo%s. n %ierse ays' mo)ements against the pri)ati*ation of+ater in 7oli)ia' mobili*ations by the unemployed' or pi;ueteros'pauperi*ed by currency crises in Argentina@ an% the lan%less *eo*lePs !oe!ent in $razil@

si"nale% the "roth o; resistance to %is*ossession rou"ht by neoliberalis!. Since the late 1990s@ e>tensi)eorgani*ing and resistance to neoliberalism in Latin America and theCaribbean ha)e brought political parties and leaders +ith strong reformistagendas to po+er through democratic elections across the region. 9n7ra*il' Qene*uela' 7oli)ia' Argentina' (araguay' Uruguay' and 3cuador' thelocus of enunciation of counterhegemonic thought and practice is no+' inpart' being assumed by the state . any go)ernments are seeking +ays to

either re)erse or re+ork the neoliberal paradigm' and' especially inQene*uela' 7oli)ia' and 3cuador #at the ti!e o; ritin"&@ to a%%ress the le"acies o; racis! an%colonialis! that hae structure% the national state throu"h the !ar"inalization an% exclusion o; in%i"enous an%

;rican%escent *eo*les. Turning the tide of dispossession and reconstructingurban and rural li)elihood possibilities are all on the agenda of a politicalopening some ha)e called ?postneoliberalism@ #Sa%er 2008&. States and socialmo)ements face the task of remaking economic and political geographiesthrough ne+ and rene+ed paradigms of so)ereignty' autonomousde)elopment' solidarity' and radical democracy. <ro"ra!s o; social an% econo!ic chan"e



31

un%er ne banners such as neostructuralis!@ !azonicn%ean ca*italis! an% 21st century socialis! %ra theirlinea"es in *art ;ro! the re"ionPs tra%ition o; counter he"e!onic thou"ht #$ielschosky 200'A 5o!o 2003A Leia

2008A errer 2010&. The contradictions and comple>ities of these proHects are allthe more reason to engage +ith these transformations and ask +hat canbe learned about decentering economic geography from thesee>periences.



32

Link %alls



3/

Cuba



34

Cuba K

1. :lobali*ing Cuba8 inclusion of Cuba into the +orld economycomes at the price of gi)ing them up to the tenants of

neoliberalism. Their attempts to lift the embargo damageCastros credibility and cause internal strife that allo+s for theUS to ll the po+er )acuum. This ine)itably leads to aderegulation of businesses and increased oil production. Theymerely coloni*e Cuba on an economic le)el' turns the a andcauses

!. Sal)ation link8 the a4rmati)e posits itself as the sa)ior toCuba5s )iolent fascism. This does t+o thing' rst it shieldsthem from criticism because +e are +orking on their behalfand it creates moral absolutes +hereby e are allo+ed to doanything to topple the Castro regime in the name of humanrights. This Husties not only military inter)ention and)iolence' but also Husties pro>y +ars +here +e fund militantgroups in foreign countries D this recreates conditions by +hich+e ha)e to in)ade D turns the a



37

Cuba Iil

1. :lobali*ing Cuba8 The plan is an attempt to open up Cuba tointernational trade' and stop the re)olutionary potential

already in Cuba. They +ant to normali*e Cuba' and make it asafe and e4cient country' for the American 3mpire. That5s7liss "M. 9t means that they create po)erty in Cuba andsuering to continue Hust so that they can ha)e cheap fuel.That means it turns the economy D Qene*uela empiricallypro)es.

!. Sal)ation link8 The a allo+s the US to enter Cuba and gi)ethose poor' underde)eloped Cubans the ability to maintaintheir o+n oil D it paints the US as a sa)ior to+ards the entire

+orld through initiating trade D that5s ignolo. 9t means that+e see Cuba as lesser and a)ailable to control D and makesconict ine)itable in that region as per our 3scobar e)idence.

0. :reen tech 8 C<a Rames from case' the idea of ?green tech@ is+rong' it is Hust an attempt to take a+ay the guilt from theen)ironmental destruction that +e do' +hile allo+ingdestruction to continue. The fact that they don5t produceenough emissions to sol)e for the entire +orld' and Hust the

US' pro)es that they cannot sol)e +arming' all they sol)e for isguilt.

6. 3n)ironment Colonialism8 C<a onlyneu> and Stienberg EMfrom case D their truth claims about the en)ironment paint itas something +e can kno+ and control D they say that they cancontrol the issues of +arming through gro+ing plants' yet indoing that they allo+ further coloni*ation of the en)ironment'making e>ploitation ine)itable.



3'

M. Terrorism link8 The a attempts to rid the +orld of terrorismD claiming that these horrible monsters are Hust +aiting todestroy our American +ay of life. Iur Shi)a "# e)idence makes! claims8 1st' the characteri*ation is incorrect and is Hust anattempt to get rid of constructed terrorists and Hustify

capitalism' and !nd D this leads to more terrorism D because ite>cludes certain people from our globali*ed +orld' and thosepeople +ant to ght against the society they +ere reHectedfrom. The a makes terrorism ine)itable +hile the alt sol)es it.

#. 3n)ironment Catastrophe8 Iur 3agles 1! e)idence indicatesthat +hen +e form these disasters for nature' they are createdin order to appeal to the indi)iduals desires D it generates adesire to help the en)ironment' then proposes capitalism asthe solution to allo+ the system to spread and continue

indenitely. 9n the end' the en)ironment +as in fact destroyed'but +e don5t notice until it +as too late because +e +ere stuck in a simulated en)ironment.



33

Cuba 3thanol

1. 7lame shift8 The United States started the climate changeissue D +e created policies during the industrial re)olution that

allo+ed for rapid e>pansion of factories and released massi)eamounts of CI! into the atmosphere' but the a +ants toforce CU7A to > an A39CA issue' +hile claiming thatAmerica is the great hero in this debate D +e force Cubans tolabor o)er our o+n issues. This means that the US ne)eractually takes action to sol)e the issue' and +arming becomesine)itable D +e Hust push the responsibility onto someone else.That5s ignolo "#.

!. :lobali*ing Cuba8 The plan is an attempt to open up Cuba tointernational trade' and stop the re)olutionary potentialalready in Cuba. They +ant to normali*e Cuba' and make it asafe and e4cient country' for the American 3mpire. That5s7liss "M. 9t means that they create po)erty in Cuba and allo+suering to continue Hust so that they can ha)e some cheapfuel.

0. Sal)ation link8 The a allo+s the US to enter Cuba and gi)ethose poor' underde)eloped Cubans the ability to gro+ sugar Dit paints the US as a sa)ior to+ards the entire +orld throughinitiating the trade D that5s our ignolo "# card. 9t means that

+e see Cuba as a lesser country to control strategically D andmakes conict ine)itable in that region as per our 3scobar "6e)idence.

6. ,istorical oppression8 7efore the Castro regime' +e enteredCuba +ith the mission of changing their economy to one moretting for US interests' like they are no+. %e forced them togro+ sugar and allo+ed a puppet dictatorship to ourish tosecure our prices. Then' +hen Castro5s regime took o)er tostop the oppressi)e dictator' +e tried to take back our cheapaccess to resources. The plan is Hust a repeat of that history Dattempting to control Cuba for the benet of Americans.



38

M. :reen tech 8 C<a Rames 1! from case' the idea of ?greentech@ is +rong' it is Hust an attempt to take a+ay the guilt fromthe en)ironmental destruction that +e do' +hile allo+ingdestruction to continue. The fact that they don5t produceenough emissions to sol)e for the entire +orld' and Hust the

US' pro)es that they cannot sol)e +arming' all they sol)e for isguilt.

#. 3n)ironment Colonialism8 C<a onlyneu> and Stienberg EMfrom case D their truth claims about the en)ironment paint itas something +e can kno+ and control D they say that they cancontrol the issues of +arming through gro+ing plants' yet indoing that they allo+ further coloni*ation of the en)ironmentand the female body' making e>ploitation ine)itable.

. 3n)ironment Catastrophe8 Iur 3agles 1! e)idence indicatesthat +hen +e form these disasters for nature' they are createdin order to appeal to the indi)iduals desires D it generates adesire to help the en)ironment' then proposes capitalism asthe solution to allo+ the system to spread and continueindenitely. 9n the end' the en)ironment +as in fact destroyed'but +e don5t notice until it +as too late because +e +ere stuck in a simulated en)ironment.



39

Ans+ers to a Ans+ers



80

!nc Brame+ork block



81

B<+

1. %e meet

!. Counter9nterpretation. Iur interpretation is that the neggets all K5s that link to 1AC and the a has to Hustify theirepistemic starting point before concerns of the plan can be+eighed.

A. The K is a ;uestion of their internal links D +e doubt thetruth claims of the 1AC' it5s silly to allo+ them to +eigh theirimpacts before they pro)e they are true. That5s the rstignolo card from the 1C' epistemology shapes our political

structure. And' 7valuatin! the epistemolo!y of the affirmative plan is a prereuisiteto un&erstan&in! its outcomes an& ethics#

rosfo!uel 200; B+amon, associate professor in the department of ethnic studies at theuniversity of California at !er&eley, Critical 4lobali$ation Studies, edited by +ichard

(ppelbaum and 7illiam +obinson 8==/=9 So far, the history of the modern # colonial capitalist patriarchal "orld /system has privileged the culture, &no"ledge, and

epistemology produced by the 7est ?Spiva&, 19==D ignolo, 8666@. %o culture in the "orld remained untouched by uropean

modernity. There is no absolute outside to this system. The monologism and mono/topic global design of the 7est relates to

other cultures and peoples from a position of superiority and is deaf to"ard the cosmologies and

epistemologies of the non/7estern "orld. The imposition of Christianity in order to convert the so/called

savages E and barbarians in the siteenth century, follo"ed by the imposition of A"hite manFs burdenA and Acivili$ing

missionA in the eighteenth and nineteenth century, the imposition of the Adevelopmentalist pro<ectA in the t"entieth century

and, more recently, the imperial pro<ect of military interventions under the rhetoric of democracy and human rights in the

t"enty/first century, have all been imposed by militarism and violence. T"o responses to the urocentric

colonial imposition are Third 7orld nationalisms and fundamentalisms. %ationalism provides urocentric

solutions to a urocentric global problem. t reproduces an internal coloniality of po"er "ithin each nation/state and reifies the

nation/state as the privileged location of social change ?4rosfoguel, 199@. Struggles above and belo" the nation/state are not

considered in nationalist political strategies. oreover , nationalist responses to global capitalism reinforce

the nation/state as the political institutional form per ecellence of the modern#colonial capitalist patriarchal "orld/

system. n this sense, nationalism is complicit "ith urocentric thin&ing and political structures. -n the other

hand, Third 7orld fundamentalisms of different &inds respond "ith an essentialist Apure outside spaceA or

Aabsolute eteriorityA to modernity. They are antimodern forces that reproduce the binary oppositions of urocentric thin&ing. They respond

to the imposition of urocentric modernity "ith an antimodernity that is as hierarchical, authoritarian, and antidemocratic as the former. ( plausible solution to the urocentric vs. fundamentalist dilemma is "hat 7alter ignolo, follo"ing Chicana thin&ers

such as 4loria (n$aldua ?19=G@, calls Acritical border thin&ingA ?ignolo, 8666@. Critical border thin&ing is the epistemicresponse of the subaltern to the urocentric pro<ect of modernity. nstead of re<ecting the institutions of

modernity and retreat into a fundamentalist absolutism, border epistemologies redefines modernity from

the cosmologies and epistemologies of the subaltern, located in the oppressed and eploited side of the

colonial difference. 7hat border thin&ing produces is a redefinition of citi$enship, democracy, human

rights, and humanity, beyond the narro" definitions imposed by uropean modernity . !order thin&ing is

not antimodernD it is the modern response of the subaltern to urocentric modernity



82

7. 3ducation8 efuse the a4rmati)e5s frame+ork D creatingne+ notions of acceptability of kno+ledge are critical tochallenging the basis of +estern hegemony in thinking D anyeducation they grant is a+ed.7aker !""E $ichael' Uni)ersity of ochester' %arner :raduate

School of 3ducation and ,uman &e)elopment' :raduateStudent' Situating odern %estern 3ducation +ithin theodern<colonial %orld System' Unpublished (aper 'Rune !""E 'academia.edu2The modern <colonial +orld system perspecti)e is part of an alternati)emacronarrati)e of the contemporary +orld that reframes the +ays themodern +orld is interpreted and li)ed. -his essay ar"ues that +esternconsciousness and +estern education are largely contained +ithin auni)ersalistic ' hierarchical' raciali*ed narrati)e of ci)ili*ation and thatthese uni)ersalistic assumptions are obstacles to the recognition of theontological and epistemic e;uality of other +ays of being human . s a central

institution ithin this on"oin" estern ciilizational *roect@ Nmodern@ education possesses anatural' tacit' or taken for granted relationship +ith the proHect of3urocentric modernity. !ore critically conscious historicaltheoretical inter*retation o; N!o%ernOe%ucation re>uires a *lanetary an% relational un%erstan%in" o; !o%ernity@ beyon% the estern ciilizational*roection. -he e!er"ence an% ex*ansion o; estern ciilization ;ro! the sixteenth century to the *resent %ayinoles the ;or!ation an% successie trans;or!ations o; a *e%a"o"ical *roect ai!e% at ciilizin" hu!anitythrou"h lan"ua"e in%octrination@ instructional %isci*line@ an% the i!*osition o; ays o; knoin" an% bein"@ all

containe% ithin uniersalize% *resu!*tions o; N!an.O The conceptuali*ation and practice of+estern education has been and continues to be one of the primaryinstitutions in the ?building of %estern ci)ili*ation @ #$utts@ 19'3@ 193/&. s!o%ern+colonial institutions@ state e%ucation syste!s are *art o; a lon" history o; re%e!*tieciilizin" !issionsithin the ex*ansion o; ,urocentric !o%ernity #Mi"nolo@ 2000a&. -he histories@ i%eolo"ies@ or"anization@ *ractices@contents@ an% conse>uences o; !o%ern schoolin" aroun% the orl% are *ro;oun%ly interrelate% #Saan@ 1988&. -he!o%ern+colonial orl%syste! *ers*ectie *roi%es a "eohistorically "roun%e% criti>ue o; the ay estern

knole%"e an% e%ucation syste!s continue to sere the *rocesses o; cultural colonization in both !etro*olitan an%*ostcolonial nationstates. See!in"ly uniersal an% neutral *rocesses o; teachin" an% learnin" are *ro;oun%lye!be%%e% ithin estern colonial %iscourses that acculturate an% strati;y in%ii%uals accor%in" to a uniersalize%

syste! o; %i?erence constructe% ;ro! a ho!o"enous an% %is"uise% cultural center. -his essay ar"ues that themodern<colonial +orld system perspecti)e pro)ides a more ade;uateframe+ork for interpreting and teaching about modern education thandoes the frame+ork of 3urocentric modernity. As an intellectual andsocial mo)ement to think and li)e beyond 3urocentric modernity' themodern<colonial +orld system perspecti)e is not presented as a ne+paradigm for social science in the linear and progressi)e ?history@ ofmodernity. -he !o%ern+colonial orl% syste! *ers*ectie is an alternatie #%ecolonial& *ara%i"! ;or

inter*retin" an% un%erstan%in" the orl% in o**osition to the %o!inant Ni!*erial *ara%i"!.O X the i!*erial*ara%i"! i!*oses an% !aintains the %o!inant ie #hich all stu%ents learn ;ro! ele!entary to hi"h school an%hich is %isse!inate% in *o*ular culture an% the !e%ia&. -he %ecolonial *ara%i"! stru""les to brin" into

interenin" existence another inter*retation that brin"s ;orar%@ on the one han%@ a silence% ie o; the eentan%@ on the other@ shos the li!its o; i!*erial i%eolo"y %is"uise% as the true #an% total& inter*retation o; eents.

#Mi"nolo@ 2007@ *. //& The ?imperial paradigm@ is a regime of truth thatconstructed the +ays in +hich the +orld and societies are kno+n andunderstood through the categories of kno+ledge e!be%%e% in !o%ern+i!*erial

,uro*ean lan"ua"es rooted in :reek an% Latin #Mi"nolo@ 2007@ *. xiii&. -he !o%ern+colonial orl% syste!*ers*ectie inter*rets estern !o%ernity as a ciilizational co!*lex establishe% in *art throu"h a ,urocentric

!o%el o; *oer+knole%"e relations that e!er"e% in the sixteenth century. 3urocentric modernity isinterpreted as a uni)ersali*ed ci)ili*ational proHect that centrally in)ol)es









8/

+estern educational institutions and the imposition of 3urocentric formsof kno+ing and being. =ntil !o%ernity is inter*rete% ;ro! the *ers*ectie o; coloniality@ estern

e%ucation #conseratie an% liberal& ill re!ain e!be%%e% ithin the tacit *resu**ositions o; ,urocentric!o%ernity. -he !o%ern+colonial orl% syste! *ers*ectie o?ers a criti>ue o; ,urocentric e%ucation an% *ointstoar% an e%ucational theory an% *ractice that is no lon"er containe% ithin the rhetoric o; !o%ernity an% the lo"ic

o; coloniality. Alternati)es to 3urocentric modernity are necessary today in theface of the interrelated neoliberal and neoconser)ati)e proHects toreassert the colonial po+er<kno+ledge relations of 3urocentric modernitythrough the formation of a global market ci)ili*ation #$ron@ 200/@ 200'A (ill@ 200/&.

Creating alternati)es to 3urocentric modernity in)ol)es breaking out ofand resituating the hegemony of 3urocentric kno+ledge production andlearning' through the recognition and re)aluation of the epistemologicaldi)ersity of the +orld.

C. 3)aluate education rst D at the end of this round the plan+on5t pass' and their impacts +on5t happen. All +e lea)e thisround +ith is kno+ledge and our framing of the +orld. 9f +e

pro)e that their framing of the +orld and kno+ledgeproduction are bad' you should )ote neg.

&. And +e indict their ?rules@ claims. The ?rules@ of debate arethe obHecti)e and e>clusionary policies created by +hite3urocentric males to e>cludes other cultures that our rstignolo card refers to.

3. o impact to your frame+ork argument D this is a

predictable literature base situated around the ;uestion ofmarket economics +hich is better education than planfocuseducation because the concepts of go)ernance and kno+ledgeproduction undergird the rest of the debates.



84

Brame+ork D &ebate Key

9t is important to analy*e colonialism at the uni)ersity le)eldue to the outputs of kno+ledge produced by the uni)ersity as

an output of imperialism in the name of e>cellence ande4ciency ignolo !""0 $%alter &. ignolo' :lobali*ation and the:eopolitics of Kno+ledge8 The ole of the ,umanities in theCorporate Uni)ersity epantla8 Qie+s from South 6.1 !""0/E11E 2$e;ore "oin" into !ore %etail about the =niersi%a% ntercultural@ letEs look at the internal colonial trans;or!ation o; the colonial 5enaissance uniersity into the colonial ,nli"hten!ent one@ that is@ at the Brst te!*oral e*iste!ic;racture in the history o; the uniersity ithin Festern ciilization. -oar% the en% o; the ei"hteenth century@secularization an% the rench reolution@ to"ether ith a re%istribution an% reconce*tualization o; knole%"e@ le% tothe e!er"ence o; hat is knon in the history o; learnin" as the Kantian)u!bol%tian uniersityA that is@ theuniersity at the serice o; the e!er"in" nationstates. -he nineteenth century itnesse% the birth o; the socialsciencesGre>uire% by the nee% to or"anize "oern!ent an% ciil societyGan% also the consoli%ation o; *olitical

econo!y. Filhel! ilthey@ at the en% o; the nineteenth century@ conce*tualize% the %istinction beteen the naturalan% the hu!an sciences@ beteen the no!othetic an% the i%eo"ra*hic ;or!s o; knole%"e@ beteen ex*lanation

an% un%erstan%in". Knole%"e o; nature beca!e %etache% ;ro! knole%"e o; societyan% o; hu!an bein"s. Such a conce*tion o; knole%"e is alien to the in%i"enoushistories in the !ericas@ as ell as to conce*ts o; knole%"e an% un%erstan%in"beyon% ,uro*ean !o%ernity. -he transition@ across the !ericas@ ;ro! the colonial to the national *erio%

i!*lie% the trans;or!ation o; both the colonial 5enaissance uniersity into the colonial Kantian)u!bol%tian

uniersity an% the colonial *roinces into nationstates. -he colonial elites that controlle% theecono!y@ the church@ an% the "oern!ent ere not bour"eois elites as in ,uro*e.

-here ere si"niBcant %i?erences beteen the n"lo an% the S*anish!erican reolutionary elitesA in both cases@hoeer@ coloniality as a *hysically inisible but alays *resent ;orce a!on" the Creoles in both n"lo an%

S*anish !erica. $3nd (age 1"#2 Fhile this trans;or!ation as un%er ay in the !ericas@ the $ritish inn%ia ere be"innin" their ersion o; a *rocess that the S*anish an% <ortu"uese ha% starte% in the N:e Forl%Oal!ost three centuries earlier@ an% the n"lo!ericans a century a;ter that ith the ;oun%ation o; )arar% an%

other early uniersities in hat oul% beco!e the =nite% States #see Visanathan 1989@ <rakash 2000@ (ortari1939@ an% Har%ine 1999&. si!ilar *rocess oul% un;ol% in the nineteenth century in other *laces in sia@ ;rica@ an%the Caribbean here the $ritish an% rench e!*ires exten%e% their colonial a%!inistration. -hese *rocesses ere*art o; the secon% !o%ernity@ the ,nli"hten!ent. n the excolonies@ the story eole% so!ehat %i?erently%e*en%in" on hether the !etro*ole as S*ain@ <ortu"al@ rance@ or ,n"lan%. $eteen 133' an% 18/1@a**roxi!ately@ these colonies beca!e in%e*en%ent ;ro! their ;or!er !asters an% be"an the *rocess o; buil%in"the!seles into nations. -he colonial5enaissance uniersity ;oun%e% in the sixteenth an% the seenteenthcenturies ha% to trans;or! itsel; un%er ne social %e!an%s an% a :e Forl% or%er. :e uniersities ere create%.

-he =niersity o; :orth Carolina@ the Brst state uniersity in the =nite% States@ as chartere% in 1389 an% o*ene%

its %oors in 1397. The point here is that +hile the model of the Kantian,umboldtian uni)ersity +as that of higher education under ne+ forms ofcolonialism' in the emerging nationstates of the Americas the same typeof uni)ersity began to replace the model established during theenaissance. 7ut' of course' the process in the Americas' particularly in

South or Latin America' +as not the same as the process in 3urope . ,uro*ean% the !ericas ere se*arate% by the colonial %i?erence #Nthe colonial %i?erenceO !eanin" not only that *eo*lein the colonies are N%i?erentO but that they are Nin;eriorO an% nee% to be Nciilize%@O N!o%ernize%@O or N%eelo*e%O&@

a %i?erence that is in *lace to%ay@ althou"h their histories hae ;olloe% %ier"ent *aths. -he uniersity@ inother or%s@ *laye% a ;un%a!ental role in nation buil%in". )oeer@ hile ;or ,n"lan% an%

rance@ an% o; course ;or (er!any@ nation buil%in" as *art o; Festern ex*ansion an% theciilizin" !ission in the !ericas@ it as linke% to nation buil%in" an% thearticulation o; a ne ;or! o; colonialis!@ Ninternal colonialis!.O n n%ia@ as ell as other

*laces in sia an% ;rica@ the uniersity as instea% *art o; the colonial re"i!e. -his as also the *erio% in hich*hilolo"y@ in the ,uro*ean uniersities@ contribute% to the creation o; the i%ea an% the i!a"es o; the Nrient@O as

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87

ell as the i%ea o; the NSouthO o; ,uro*e #see@ e.".@ ainotto 2000&. -he Kantian)u!bol%tian uniersity as@ in

other or%s@ the uniersity in hat )e"el labele% as Nthe heart o; ,uro*eO $3nd (age 1"2 #(er!any@,n"lan%@ an% rance&@ hile the 5enaissance uniersity as@ !ainly@ the uniersity in hat beca!e the NSouthO#taly@ S*ain@ <ortu"al&. n% no@ at the intersection o; the to histories #the colonial an% the !o%ern&@ e co!e tothe *erio% a;ter Forl% Far . -he =nite% States starte% to assu!e the role *laye% until then by ,n"lan%@ rance@an% (er!any. -his as the era o; the Col% Far an% the Col% Far uniersity #Fallerstein 1993&@ the era in hich thesocial sciences@ in the =nite% States@ "aine% *ree!inence oer the hu!anities. t as also the era o; %ecolonizationin sia an% in ;rica@ an% the era o; the Cuban reolution an% o; %ictatorshi* in arious Latin !erican countries.

-he social sciences in the =nite% States ere associate% ith the !aterialization o; Narea stu%ies.O ,en i; thereere conUicts beteen those ho %e;en%e% the *urity an% ri"or o; the %isci*lines an% those ho beca!e ex*erts inthe NcontentO o; certain areas@ the ;act re!ains that Narea stu%iesO as an a?air o; the social sciences as !uch asNrientalis!O as an a?air o; the hu!anities. t as also the hey%ay o; the social sciences in the sense that theyere *art o; the *roect o; the N%eelo*!ent an% !o%ernizationO o; the thir% orl%. n Latin !erica the socialsciences are a recent a%%ition. lthou"h there ere c>tedras o; sociolo"y be;ore 1970@ the social sciences as abranch o; knole%"e ere intro%uce% in or a;ter the late B;ties. nterestin"ly enou"h@ the re*ort o; the (ulbenkianoun%ation@ ?pen the #ocial #ciences #Fallerstein et al. 199'&@ e!*hasize% the crisis o; these %isci*lines not only inthe Ncentral countriesO here they ere born an% *ros*ere%@ but also in the thir% orl%. -he N(ulbenkian re*ortOas ;olloe% by thirteen s!all olu!es in hich the ;uture o; the social sciences in arious re"ions o; the ;or!erthir% orl% as %iscusse%. $ut this as also the *erio% hen the cor*orate uniersity be"an to %is*lace theKantian)u!bol%tian !o%el. -he !ore technolo"ically oriente% social sciences #econo!ics@ *olitical science@ an%sociolo"y& re!aine% the exe!*lars o; ri"orous an% use;ul knole%"e@ hile the hu!anities an% the inter*retiesocial sciences #history@ cultural anthro*olo"y@ an% inter*retie sociolo"y& lost their *reious stan%in" in the

hierarchy o; eQcient knole%"e re>uire% by cor*orate alues associate% ith knole%"e. -he conse>uences

o; the cor*orate uniersityEs e!er"ence beca!e a**arent a;ter the en% o; the Col%Far. n the ;or!er thir% orl%@ inclu%in" Latin !erica@ the *rinci*les o;NexcellenceO an% NeQciencyO beca!e "ui%in" tenets o; knole%"e *ro%uction. <arallelto these *rocesses@ the lar"e state uniersities in arious Latin !erican countries starte% a *rocess o;

%isinte"ration #see Cho!sky et al. 1993 an% :CL 2000&. -he fuga de cerebros@ $3nd (age 1"-2 or

Nbrain %rain@O accelerate% in arious countries@ as ellre"ar%e% intellectuals@scholars@ an% scientists !i"rate% to ,uro*e an% the =nite% States. Scientists in ;or!er thir%

orl% nations also oice% their %isco!;ort ith the %e*rie% an% !ea"er con%itions un%er hich they ha% to %o

their obs. -he Nnetork societyO #i.e.@ the orl% society connecte% throu"h the nternet !ore than by

!eans o; trans*ortation&@ as Catalan sociolo"ist Manuel Castells calls it@ %oesnEt hae the sa!eintensity in the South as in the :orth. =ntil 199' or so@ ;rica an% Latin !erica ere not yet on the!a* o; this society. N,xcellenceO an% NeQciencyO turne% a"ainst the scientiBc an% scholarly *ro%uction o; the thir%orl%. n%@ once a"ain@ the *ossibilities ;or technolo"ical ex*ansion hae been restricte% by the %e!an%s an%ex*ectations o; econo!ic %esi"ns.

&ebater5s position in the uni)ersity has to be accounted for aspart of the maintenance of the status ;uo. The role of theballot is to academically align our positions to refuse thehegemonic 3urocentric basis of economic engagement.Students are trained to belie)e and enact certainunderstandings of the +orld D pedagogy is a foundationalaspect of race.Irti* !"1! $ichaelJ Taking ,enry :irou>s 7orderless(edagogy to Iur 9nstitutions of ,igher LearningJ Aug 6J truth

out.org<opinion<item<1"M6Econtinuingto+ardgirou>sborderlesspedagogyJ2%%itionally@ colleges and uni)ersities #both *ublic an% *riate& also e>ist as sites that aremeant to primarily de)elop and train minds and bodies to maintain thedominant and structural status ;uo. Ine of the gro+ing contradictions inAmerican higher education today is the fact that institutions continue toadopt corporate models for themsel)es@ +hile simultaneously claiming tobe centers for e;uitable multiculturalism and student empo+erment.



8'

Since uni)ersities e>ist as institutions like any other !erican institution they follo+ theneoliberal trend of employing deception by sei*ing a strippeddo+nlanguage of choice' freedom' $empo+erment and e;uality2.s (iroux *uts it@

DSince the educational force of the culture has beco!e a po+erful ideologicaltool for legitimating marketdri)en )alues and social relations' based onomissions' deceptions' lies' misrepresentations and falsehoods'then e !ust

assu!e that the "oal o; these institutions is not to *ro%uce critically thinkin" stu%ents ho can ex*ect structurale>uality ithin their schools. 5ather@ +e can assume that institutions of highereducation ha)e a primary interest in increasing enrollment and retentionrates for the purpose of de)eloping a larger constituency of trainedpeople +ho +ill uphold current po+er systems through market dri)en)alues' social relations and a >ed kno+ledge that is limited to therationali*ation of the dominant structure that it ser)es.So@ ho %o e con;ront thisrealityIFe !ust !oe aay ;ro! acce*tin" the structural an% i%eolo"ical constraints that !aintain current syste!so; %o!ination. Fe !ust co!e to un%erstan% exactly ho the "ate% *e%a"o"ical *rocess orks to li!it ourknole%"e about ourseles an% the orl%. Fe !ust !ake a transition toar% a critical *e%a"o"y that ai!s toalays exa!ine the eniron!ent in hich e are bein" e%ucate%. s (iroux %escribes@D-here is a nee% to %eelo*hat call a *roect o; %e!ocratization an% bor%erless *e%a"o"y that !oes across %i?erent sites ;ro! schools tothe alternatie !e%ia as *art o; a broa%er atte!*t to construct a critical ;or!atie culture in the =nite% Statesthat enables !ericans to reclai! their oices@ s*eak out@ exhibit !oral outra"e an% create the social !oe!ents@

tactics an% *ublic s*heres that ill reerse the "roin" ti%e o; authoritarianis! in the =nite% States.Dn *articular@institutions o; hi"her e%ucation can better sere their stu%ents i; they ere to *hiloso*hically an% institutionallya%o*t the i%ea o; bor%erless *e%a"o"y. nstea% o; %eelo*in" colle"e stu%ents as Dhi"hly traine%D a"e laborers in%i?erent s*eciBc Bel%s #an% by !akin" billions o; %ollars o; *roBt in the *rocess&@ hy %onEt colle"es take the sa!ea!ount o; ti!e an% ener"y to %eelo* colle"e stu%ents ho are hi"hly e%ucate% in critical thinkin" an% bor%erlessthou"htI t all to* a%!inistratie leels@ colle"es an% uniersities nee% to actually !ake a co!!it!ent to stu%entellbein" #ith Dellbein"D bein" %eBne% by ellin;or!e%@ conscious an% analytic stu%ent thinkers the!seles&an% set the *rece%ent ;or all sta? an% ;aculty !e!bers as ell. aculty !e!bers shoul% be tau"ht an% shon ust

ho race@ class an% "en%er are in%ee% *layin" out in their classroo!s een i; they %onEt kno it. :ated

uni)ersities and gated intellectuals may need to take a step back and

reali*e that a large period of time might need to be dedicated to

deconstructing the pedagogy of their eld #since !any o; their %isci*lines ere create%

an% %eelo*e% throu"h the inUuence o; all sorts o; social con%itions&. aculty !e!bers the!seles !ay ant to

criti>ue %o!inant structures an% i%eolo"ies in their classroo!s@ thus settin" an exa!*le ;or their stu%ents. n%lastly@ if college administrations and faculty members are not +illing toackno+ledge their blatant failure in helping their students become selfthinking' conscious agents of action +ho ha)e the capacity to reali*e theiro+n borderless potential' then they must continue to be challenged on allfronts #throu"h scholarly criti>ue by *ro;essors@ throu"h ocal %is*leasure by all co!!unity !e!bers an% bythe continue% atte!*t to raise the consciousness o; eeryone inole% een ithout a%!inistratie su**ort&.



83

Brame+ork D 3pistemology Birst

3)aluating the epistemology of the a4rmati)e plan is aprere;uisite to understanding its outcomes and ethics

:rosfoguel in !""M $amon' associate professor in thedepartment of ethnic studies at the uni)ersity of California at7erkeley' Critical :lobali*ation Studies' edited by ichardAppelbaum and %illiam obinson !---E 2So ;ar@ the history o; the !o%ernGcolonial ca*italist *atriarchal orl%syste! has *riile"e%the culture@ knole%"e@ an% e*iste!olo"y *ro%uce% by the Fest #S*iak@ 1988A Mi"nolo@ 2000&. :o

culture in the orl% re!aine% untouche% by ,uro*ean !o%ernity. -here is no absolute outsi%e to this syste!. -he!onolo"is! an% !onoto*ic "lobal %esi"n o; the Fest relates to other cultures an%*eo*les ;ro! a *osition o; su*eriority an% is %ea; toar% the cos!olo"ies an%

e*iste!olo"ies o; the nonFestern orl%. -he i!*osition o; Christianity in or%er toconert the socalle% saa"es an% barbarians in the sixteenth century@ ;olloe% by the i!*osition o;

Dhite !anEs bur%enD an% Dciilizin" !issionD in the ei"hteenth an% nineteenth century@ thei!*osition o; the D%eelo*!entalist *roectD in the tentieth century an%@ !ore recently@ thei!*erial *roect o; !ilitary interentions un%er the rhetoric o; %e!ocracy an% hu!an ri"hts in the

tentyBrst century@ hae all been i!*ose% by !ilitaris! an% iolence. -o res*onses tothe ,urocentric colonial i!*osition are -hir% Forl% nationalis!s an%;un%a!entalis!s. :ationalis! *roi%es ,urocentric solutions to a ,urocentric "lobal*roble!. t re*ro%uces an internal coloniality o; *oer ithin each nationstate an% reiBes the nationstate as

the *riile"e% location o; social chan"e #(ros;o"uel@ 199'&. Stru""les aboe an% belo the nationstate are not consi%ere% in nationalist *olitical strate"ies. Moreoer@ nationalistres*onses to "lobal ca*italis! rein;orce the nationstate as the *olitical institutional;or! *er excellence o; the !o%ernGcolonial ca*italist *atriarchal orl%syste!. n this sense@nationalis! is co!*licit ith ,urocentric thinkin" an% *olitical structures. n the other

han%@ -hir% Forl% ;un%a!entalis!s o; %i?erent kin%s res*on% ith an essentialistD*ure outsi%e s*aceD or Dabsolute exteriorityD to !o%ernity. -hey are anti!o%ern ;orces that re*ro%ucethe binary o**ositions o; ,urocentric thinkin". -hey res*on% to the i!*osition o; ,urocentric !o%ernity ith an

anti!o%ernity that is as hierarchical@ authoritarian@ an% anti%e!ocratic as the ;or!er. *lausible solutionto the ,urocentric s. ;un%a!entalist %ile!!a is hat Falter Mi"nolo@ ;olloin" Chicana thinkers

such as (loria nzal%ua #1983&@ calls Dcritical bor%er thinkin"D #Mi"nolo@ 2000&. Critical bor%erthinkin" is the e*iste!ic res*onse o; the subaltern to the ,urocentric *roect o;!o%ernity. nstea% o; reectin" the institutions o; !o%ernity an% retreat into a;un%a!entalist absolutis!@ bor%er e*iste!olo"ies re%eBnes !o%ernity ;ro! thecos!olo"ies an% e*iste!olo"ies o; the subaltern@ locate% in the o**resse% an%ex*loite% si%e o; the colonial %i?erence. Fhat bor%er thinkin" *ro%uces is are%eBnition o; citizenshi*@ %e!ocracy@ hu!an ri"hts@ an% hu!anity@ beyon% thenarro %eBnitions i!*ose% by ,uro*ean !o%ernity. $or%er thinkin" is not

anti!o%ernA it is the !o%ern res*onse o; the subaltern to ,urocentric !o%ernity



88

A!8 (erm



89

(erm &o 7oth

1. The a and alt are mutually e>clusi)e because the a andthe alt begin from dierent places the a presumes that the

United States should control Latin America' because LatinAmerica' and the +orld in general' is a back+ards' dangerousand unstable place that is a security threat. Iur alternati)ereHects this idea of e>pansion' in fa)or of breaking apartneoliberalist thought and allo+ing for ne+ systems and ideas.

!. (erm +ould lead to cooption of the alt' our Santos !""6e)idence says that a complete reHection of neoliberalism is keyto break apart the hegemonic +estern thought. The perm+ould allo+ neoliberalism to continue under the guise of

?legitimate security threats@' like the a.

0. Iur links are a disad to the perm8

9nsert Link %all/

6. The permutation fails because it does not call into ;uestion+ho is in control of kno+ledge.ignolo !""E %alter &' %illiam ,. %annamaker (rofessor of

omance Studies and Literature at &uke Uni)ersity and&irector of the Center for :lobal Studies and the ,umanities'?3pistemic &isobedience' 9ndependent Thought and &eColonial Breedom' +altermignolo.com' !""E'http8<<+altermignolo.com<+pcontent<uploads<!"10<"1<epistemicdisobedience.pdf / Y

-he intro%uction o; "eohistorical an% bio"ra*hical conB"urations in *rocesses o; knoin" an% un%erstan%in"allos ;or a ra%ical re;ra!in" #e.". %ecolonization& o; the ori"inal ;or!al a**aratus o; enunciation. 2 hae been

su**ortin" in the *ast those ho !aintain that it is not enou"h to chan"e the content o; theconersation @ that it is o; the essence to chan"e the ter!s o; the conersation.Chan"in" the ter!s o; the conersation i!*lies "oin" beyon% %isci*linary orinter%isci*linary controersies an% the conUict o; inter*retations. s ;ar as

controersies an% inter*retations re!ain ithin the sa!e rules o; the "a!e #ter!so; the conersation&@ the control o; knole%"e is not calle% into >uestion. n% inor%er to call into >uestion the !o%ern+colonial ;oun%ation o; the control o;knole%"e@ it is necessary to ;ocus on the knoer rather than on the knon. t !eansto "o to the ery assu!*tions that sustain locus enunciations.

http://waltermignolo.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/epistemicdisobedience.pdf






90

(erm plan then alt

1. Timeframe perm is a )oter8

A. Kills fairness D can5t run any cps because the plan can Hustadd an element of time to get out of et benet links

7. Kills education D +e ne)er learn about alternate formsof thought because all +e get are disads

!. Can5t sol)e D dierent starting points mean that the alt andplan +ill ne)er be compatible D c<a from perm do both

0. This round is about kno+ledge production not enacting theplan and alt in the real +orld' their forms of kno+ledge

production are still bad' so you still )ote neg.

6. Alt alone is still netbetter' each chance of a link is a disadto the perm.



91

(erm Ither 9nstances

1. 9ntrinsic8 Adds other instances not in plan or C(

A. Bairness D akes it impossible to run disads becausethey add conditions that get them out of our oense

7. 3ducation D lose key education on alternate forms ofthought

!. (lan subsumes alternati)e D their kno+ledge productionnaturally co)ers and corrupts other forms' need a completereHection of hegemonic thought.

0. Crack head logic D one more time' means that +e allo+ it tocontinue. 3specially on ?legitimate security threats@' like theyclaim the plan is.



92

A!8 (redictions(redictions good is not responsi)e to our argument D

predicting the future is possible' but assuming that3urocentric predictions are obHecti)e and neutral is )iolent.They base their ad)antages o of incomplete kno+ledge frombiased institutions. All of our links are reasons to disregardtheir predictions in fa)or of embracing the possibility of otherkno+ledge e>isting.:rosfoguel !"" $amon' UC 7erkeley' BIT,CI9: 9A :ISBI:U3L' RIS &AQ9& SAL&QA A& 3LSIAL&IA&I TI3S 3&S./ US3TTL9: (ISTCILI9AL9TN8CILI9AL9TN' TASI&39TN A& 7I&3 T,9K9:

&UK3 U9Q3S9TN (3SSJ !""/. &3CILI99: (IL9T9CAL3CIIN A& (ISTCILI9AL STU&93S8 TASI&39TN'7I&3 T,9K9:' A& :LI7AL CILI9AL9TN'http8<<+++.afyl.org<descoloni*ingeconomy.pdf 2

-he Brst *oint to %iscuss is the contribution o; racial+ethnic an% ;e!inist subaltern *ers*ecties to e*iste!olo"ical

>uestions. -he he"e!onic ,urocentric *ara%i"!s that hae in;or!e% estern*hiloso*hy an% sciences in the N!o%ern+colonial ca*italist+*atriarchal orl%syste!O

#(ros;o"uel 2007A 200'b& ;or the last 700 hun%re% years assu!e a uniersalistic@ neutral @obectie *oint o; ie. Chicana an% black ;e!inist scholars #Mora"a an% nzal%ua 198/A Collins 1990& as

ell as thir%orl% scholars insi%e an% outsi%e the =nite% States #ussel 1933A Mi"nolo 2000& re!in%e% us that ealays s*eak ;ro! a *articular location in the *oer structures. :obo%y esca*es theclass@ sexual@ "en%er@ s*iritual@ lin"uistic@ "eo"ra*hical@ an% racial hierarchies o; the N!o%ern+colonialca*italist+*atriarchal orl%syste!O. s ;e!inist scholar onna )araays #1988& states@ our

knole%"es are alays situate%. $lack ;e!inist scholars calle% this *ers*ectie Na;rocentric e*iste!olo"yO #Collins1990& #hich is not e>uialent to the a;rocentrist *ers*ectie& hile Latin !erican <hiloso*her o; Liberation,nri>ue ussel calle% it N"eo*olitics o; knole%"eO #ussel 1933& an% ;olloin" anon #19'3& an% nzal%ua #1983&

ill use the ter! Nbo%y*olitics o; knole%"e.O -his is not only a >uestion about social alues inknole%"e *ro%uction or the ;act that our knole%"e is alays *artial. -he !ain*oint here is the locus o; enunciation@ that is@ the "eo*olitical an% bo%y*olitical location o;the subect that s*eaks. n Festern *hiloso*hy an% sciences the subect that s*eaksis alays hi%%en@ conceale%@ erase% ;ro! the analysis. -he Ne"o*olitics o; knole%"eO o;

Festern *hiloso*hy has alays *riile"e the !yth o; a nonsituate% N,"oO. ,thnic+racial+"en%er+sexuale*iste!ic location an% the subect that s*eaks are alays %ecou*le%. $y %elinkin"ethnic+racial+"en%er+sexual e*iste!ic location ;ro! the subect that s*eaks@ Festern

*hiloso*hy an% sciences are able to *ro%uce a !yth about a -ruth;ul uniersalknole%"e that coers u*@ that is@ conceals ho is s*eakin" as ell as the "eo*oliticalan% bo%y*olitical e*iste!ic location in the structures o; colonial *oer+knole%"e;ro! hich the subect s*eaks. t is i!*ortant here to %istin"uish the Ne*iste!iclocationO ;ro! the Nsocial location.O -he ;act that one is socially locate% in theo**resse% si%e o; *oer relations@ %oes not auto!atically !ean that he+she ise*iste!ically thinkin" ;ro! a subaltern e*iste!ic location. <recisely@ the success o; the!o%ern+colonial orl%syste! consist in !akin" subects that are socially locate% inthe o**resse% si%e o; the colonial %i?erence@ to think e*iste!ically like the ones on

http://www.afyl.org/descolonizingeconomy.pdf

http://www.afyl.org/descolonizingeconomy.pdf



9/

the %o!inant *ositions. Subaltern e*iste!ic *ers*ecties are knole%"e co!in";ro! belo that *ro%uces a critical *ers*ectie o; he"e!onic knole%"e in the*oer relations inole%. a! not clai!in" an e*iste!ic *o*ulis! here knole%"e *ro%uce% ;ro! belois auto!atically an e*iste!ic subaltern knole%"e. Fhat a! clai!in" is that all knole%"es are e*iste!icallylocate% in the %o!inant or the subaltern si%e o; the *oer relations an% that this is relate% to the "eo an% bo%y

*olitics o; knole%"e. -he %ise!bo%ie% an% unlocate% neutrality an% obectiity o; the

e"o*olitics o; knole%"e is a Festern !yth .



94

AT8 Cede the (oliticalThe focus on politics proper ignores the ability of the

alternati)e to ha)e eects across the political spectrum andmisunderstands the need for ne+ types of politicalorgani*ationisoc*ky and Blores !"1! $Ceci isoc*ky (rofessora AdHuntano (rograma de (s:raduao em Administrao daUni)ersidade Bederal do io :rande do Sul and afael KruterBlores' &outorando em Administrao no (rograma de (s:raduao em Administrao da Uni)ersidade Bederal do io:rande do Sul' Contributions of Latin American re)olutionaryintellectuals for the study of the organi*ation of liberating

struggles 373LA' ). !' n. 1' Hun. !"1!n a %i?erent %irection@ e are conince% that the focus on the organi*ation of social anticapitalist struggles is a rele)ant academic pra>is' because it opposes thehegemonic denition of organi*ation #as a synony! o; enter*rise& in a context o; orl%i%e

%o!inance o; the !ana"erial %iscourse. The aim is to produce counterhegemonickno+ledge in the )ery space +here the hegemonic managerial discourse isproduced and reproduced@ an% to contribute ;or the e!anci*ation o; S #or at least o;e the *arts o;

S hich inten% to be critical& ;ro! the he"e!ony o; !ana"e!ent. Fe beliee@ ith :euhaus an% Calello #200'@ *.

2&@ that researches may ?be critical inter)entions' both in the spaces +herethey are done +here potential forces of resistance to the hegemonicpo+er are concentratedJ and in the researchers themsel)esO. The rst step

to +iden the +ays in +hich +e study re;uires the abandonment ofrestricti)e understandings of organi*ation as a unit of analysis #Cooke@ 2004 an%2010A ar@ 2008&. Coo*er an% $urell #1988@ *. 10'& an% $fh! #2007& ha% alrea%y in%icate% the %irection o; anex*an%e% conce*tion o; or"anization as an on"oin" *rocess Nthat occurs ithin the i%er Rbo%yP o; societyO. n ourresearch "rou*@ e hae been ex*lorin" alternatie ays o; %eBnin" or"anization in or%er to %eal ith our ;ocus o;

interest the or"anization o; social stru""les. Irgani*ations ha)e been concei)ed as thecollecti)e intersubHecti)e act +hich is' simultaneously' a means for thepra>is of liberation and a learning space for the e>perimentation oforgani*ational practices compatible +ith liberating struggles #MSCJK^@ 2010&.s *art o; this research *roect e ;elt the nee% to en"a"e ith the thou"ht o; Latin !erican intellectuals. -he ;actthat the %eelo*!ent o; S in Latina !erica can be un%erstoo% as a %istorte% ersion o; the ;unctionalist or thecritical thou"ht o; the Centre has alrea%y been reco"nize%. es*ite such %o!inance scholars o;ten ex*ress theunco!;ortable sense that such a**roaches %o not really ex*lain hat ha**ens in their countries@ hileacknole%"in" that these ;ra!eorks "ie the! reco"nition in the international arena@ hich is another ay to saythat to be alloe% in you !ust %eny your on i%entity #$55 CL@ 200'&. Fe can say@ usin" the ex*ressiono; Scharz #1992&@ that the he"e!onic ersion o; Latin !erican an% $razilian S is !a%e o; texts hich %o notex*ress !arks o; location@ hich %o not o?er reUections about the *eculiarities o; our s*ace o; enunciation or aboutho social an% institutional contexts li!it an% con%ition the *ro%uction o; i%eas. $ut this is not truth concernin" thei%er critical #o;ten reolutionary& intellectual Latin !erican *ro%uction@ !arke% by a ast an% rich cultural

tra%ition. %hen +e mention the Latin American cultural tradition or socialthought +e are opposing the construction of Latin America as an obHect ofrepresentation. -his last ex*ression !eans@ ;or Moraga #1998&@ an i!a"e that %eBnes its existence throu"hthe atchin" eyes@ as the *lace o; the other – an exotic *retheoretical !ar"inal *lace hen con;ronte% ith

!etro*olitan %iscourses. nstea%@ +e are stating the e>istence of a creati)e' original



97

and autonomous tradition' resulting from processes of transculturation.



9'

AT8 Util :ood1. %e operate under a utilitarian framing8 (eople +ho say no

to US e>pansion are fought against. %hen Cuba refused toha)e the US puppet go)ernment' +e in)aded their country inthe 7ay of (igs. %e staged a coup in !""! against Cha)e*.9nter)ention creates cycles of )iolence that make +arine)itable D and makes their impacts ine)itable.

!. The role of the ballot is to challenge ,ispaniphobia D ourignolo "E e)idence says that the ;uestions of education is tochallenge colonial institutions D +e need to delink oursel)es

from imperial kno+ledge before +e can e)en consider thea4rmati)e.

0. 7e skeptical of their impacts and util framing is bad8

A. The binaries bet+een the +est and other cultures mean thatthe other cultures are e>cluded from their impact calc' XXXXXXX+ould ne)er kill the people in XXXXXX' this is an epistemology &Ato their impact claims.

7. Their emphasis on spectacles of )iolence enables them toaccept the rules of current po+er structures as part of arituali*ed ac;uiescence to +hite supremacy. This makese)eryday forms of )iolence unrecogni*able. Utilitarianism isthe tyranny of the maHority.artinot [ Se>ton !""0 $Ste)e [ Rared' Ste)e is a lecturer atSan Brancisco State Uni)ersity in the Center for9nterdisciplinary (rograms Rared is Associate (rofessor AfricanAmerican Studies School of ,umanities Associate (rofessor'Bilm [ edia Studies School of ,umanities at UC 9r)ine (h.&.'Uni)ersity of California' 7erkeley' Comparati)e 3thnic Studies'

?The A)ant:arde of %hite Supremacy' Social 9dentities'Qolume E' umber !' !""0 p.111!2

Most theories o; hite su*re!acy seek to *lu!b the %e*ths o; its excessieness@ beyon% the or%inaryA they !iss the ;act that

racis! is a !un%ane a?air . -he ;un%a!ental excess o; the *ara%i"! o; *olicin" hich in;uses this culture isholly banal. -hose theories oerlook that ;act in ;aor o; extant extraa"ance@s*ectacle @ or the R%ee* *sycholo"yP o; ro"ue ele!ents an% beco!e co!*licit in *er*etuatin" hitesu*re!acy. -he reality is an ini%ious ethos o; excess that@ instea%@ constitutes the sur;ace o; eerythin" in this society. or



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so!e ti!e no@ the intellectual >uest ;or racis!Ps su**ose%ly hi%%en !eanin" hasa?or%e% a re;u"e ;ro! con;rontations ith this banality @ een its *ossible acknole%"e!ent. -he!ost e"re"ious as*ect o; this banality is our tacit ac>uiescence to the rules o; racean% *oer @ to the le"iti!acy hite su*re!acy says it has@ re"ar%less o; their totaliolation o; reason an% co!*rehensibility. ur Dtacit ac>uiescenceD is the real silentsource o; hite su*re!acist tenacity an% *oer. s Fillia! C. )arris@ rote in the a;ter!ath o; -yisha

MillerPs !ur%er by the *olice6 t is heartbreakin" to be an !erican citizen an% hae to say this@ but %o hae to say this. Fehae al!ost@ an% stress al!ost@ beco!e accusto!e% to *olice shootin" innocent@ unar!e%@ youn"@

black !ales. -hat in itsel; is ba% enou"h@ an% one as at one ti!e incline% to think it coul%nEt "et any orse@ but it "ets

orseX. :o e hae *olice killin" our youn" black ;e!ales. t canEt "et any orse than that. )arris is ri"htA yet he also sellshi!sel; out because he ac>uiesces in the *rocess o; %ecryin" ac>uiescence. )e %oes not %ra the line beteen res*ect ;or *ersonsan% i!*unity. )e continues6 D,en i; she "rabbe% a "un@ as it necessary to shoot at her tentyseen ti!esI kno itPs less than41@ but that@s still too many times to shoot at a slee*in" ;e!aleGblack@ bron@ yello or hiteD #e!*hasis a%%e%&. Fhy isnPt one

bullet too !any ti!es to shoot anybo%yI t is the ob o; the s*ectacular #an% sensational re*orts about the subtle&

to %ra attention aay ;ro! the banality o; *olice !ur%er as stan%ar% o*eratin" *roce%ure. S*ectacleis a ;or! o; ca!ouUa"e. t %oes not conceal anythin"A it si!*ly ren%ers itunreco"nizable. ne looks at it an% %oes not see it. t a**ears in %is"uise. )arris@ ;or exa!*le@ looks at ac>uiescence an%

cannot see it. Ca!ouUa"e is a relationshi* beteen the one %issi!ulatin" their a**earance an% the one ho is ;oole%@ ho looksan% cannot see. Like racialization as a syste! o; !eanin"s assi"ne% to the bo%y@ *olice s*ectacle is i tsel; the ;or! o; a**earance o;this banality. -heir en%less assault reUects the i%ea that race is a social enelo*e@ a syste! o; social cate"orization %ro**e% oer thehea%s o; *eo*le like clothes. <olice i!*unity seres to %istin"uish beteen the racial uni;or! itsel; an% the elsehere that !an%ates

it. -hey constitute the %istinction beteen those hose hu!an bein" is *ut *er!anently in >uestion an% those ;or ho! it "oesithout sayin". <olice s*ectacle is not the e?ect o; the racial uni;or!A rather@ it is the *olice uni;or! that is *ro%ucin" reracialization. :othin" better exe!*liBes this %istinction than the structure o; %ero"atory lan"ua"e. ero"atory ter!s %o not !eanAthey assault. -heir intention is not to co!!unicate but to har!. -hus they are not %iscursie si"ns or lin"uistic state!ents but!o%es o; a""ression. -hey ex*ress a structure o; *oer an% %o!ination@ a hierarchy that contextualizes the! an% "ies the! their;orce. s "estures o; assault they reUect their users status as a !e!ber o; the %o!inant "rou*. -he %ero"atory ter! %oes !ore

than s*eakA it silences. -hat ability to silence %eries ;ro! the ;act that@ in turnin" itshe"e!onic *osition to account@ it turns the racialize% other into a lan"ua"e ;orhiteness itsel;. -hose situate% loer on the hierarchy hae no iable !eans o;%e;en%in" the!seles. -his@ in e?ect@ ren%ers the %ero"ation unanserable in its on ter!s. -he %ero"atoryter! obtru%es ith a s!all %aily iolence hose ;or! is "ratuitous @ ithout!otiation in the situation in hich it is use%@ an% hose content is to ren%er thatsituation %o!inate% by hite su*re!acy. ; it sits at the heart o; the lan"ua"e o; racis! it is because it is

banal an% eery%ay een hile sy!bolizin" racis!Ps ut!ost iolence@ the erbal ;or! o; its "enoci%al traectory. -hose ho use%ero"atory ter!s re*eate%ly are *uttin" the!seles in a continual state o; a""ressionA turnin" their obectie co!*licity ith astructure% relation o; hite su*re!acist %o!inance into an actie inest!ent or aQr!ation. Such !o%es o; assault %e!onstrate as*eciBc obsession ith those %eni"rate% that characterizes the socius o; hite su*re!acy@ its %e!an%s ;or alle"iance@ its con%itionso; !e!bershi*@ its resi%ence in iciousness. $ecause it is "ratuitous an% unanserable@ the %ero"atory ter! "rants itsel; i!*unity@reiterates o; the excess at the core o; each racist eent ithout callin" its ethics into >uestion. -he *realence o; %ero"atory ter!sin =S conersation "oes unnotice%@ seen si!*ly on the !ar"in o; co!!on sense@ as o**ose% to an in%ex o; hite su*re!acy. t is as!all !atter@ hen set a"ainst such thin"s as@ ;or instance@ the le"al co%es o; Hi! Cro or the "oern!entPs assassination o; re%)a!*ton. et %ero"ation co!es in !any %i?erent ;or!sGas stories@ a*horis!s@ %iscourses@ le"al statutes@ *olitical *ractices@ etc.

-he re*etition o; %ero"ation beco!es the *er;or!ance o; hite su*re!acisti%entity@ oer an% oer a"ain. -he %ero"atory ter! occu*ies the ery center o; thestructure o; hite su*re!acy. -he "ratuitousness o; its re*etition bestos u*onhite su*re!acy an inherent %iscontinuity. t sto*s an% starts sel;re;erentially@ athi!. -o theorize so!e *olitical@ econo!ic@ or *sycholo"ical necessity ;or itsre*etition@ its unen%in" return to iolence@ its nee% to kill is to lose a "ras* on that "ratuitousness bythinkin" its *er;or!ance is re*resentable. n% therein it hi%es. ; the he"e!ony o; hite

su*re!acy is alrea%y #an% only& excessie@ its acts o; re*etition are its access tounre*resentabilityA they %issole its excessieness into inisibility as si!*ly %ailyoccurrence. Fe can@ ;or exa!*le@ na!e the ;act o; lbert Foo%;oxPs nearly /0year solitary conBne!ent in n"ola <rison@ but

it excee%s the ca*acity o; re*resentation. #-he i%eolo"ical an% cultural structure that conceies o; an% enables %oin" that to a*erson in the Brst *lace is inarticulable.& -he inner %yna!ic o; our atte!*ts to un%erstan% its su**ose%ly un%erlyin" !eanin" or*ur*ose !asks its ethic o; i!*unity ;ro! us. Fhite su*re!acy is nothin" !ore than hat e *erceie o; itA there is nothin" beyon%

it to "ie it le"iti!acy@ nothin" beneath it nor outsi%e o; it to "ie it ustiBcation. -he structure o; its banality isthe sur;ace on hich it o*erates. Fhateer !ythic content it *reten%s to clai! is a*riori e!*ty. ts secret is that it has no %e*th. -here is no %ark corner that@ once brou"ht to the li"ht o; reason@ ill unrael its

syste!. n each instance o; re*etition@ Dhat is re*eate% is the e!*tiness o; re*etition@D an articulation



98

that D%oes not s*eak an% yet has alays been sai%D #oucault 74&. n other or%s@ its truth lies in the rituals thatsustain its circuitous contentless lo"icA it is@ in ;act@ nothin" but its ery *ractices.

C. The alternati)e is an ethical imperati)e D the crisis ofmodernity is becoming bankrupt and decoloniality is emergingall around us. The ;uestion of this debate is +hether youought to ethically epistemologically align yourself +ithdecoloniality or try to uphold the failures of the neoliberalmarket of modernity.ingolo and ,e 1! $%alter ignolo' (rofessor of &ecolonialStudies at &uke Uni)ersity' %eihua ,e' (h.&. from TsinghuaUni)ersity in 7eiHing. ,e is currently teaching in Shanghai andspent a year at &uke Uni)ersity +hile nishing his dissertation.The (rospect of ,armony and the &ecolonial Qie+ of the %orld'

published in &ecolonial Thoughts' 9nter)ie+s. September !"1!2 -o thin"s.eoliberalism is no+ in bankruptcy. Nou can see it all o)er theplaces' in the nancial crisis' the endroad to nd solutions' theproliferations of unhappy people e>pressing it all o)er ' organi*edcommunities in South America stopping the corporations from destroyingthe en)ironment and poisoning the lands and the +ater +ith transgenicand cyanide in open pit mining. n% secon%ly@ e shall not con;use neoliberalis! ith !arketecono!y an% the ;etishization o; co!!o%ities. Certainly@ neoliberalis! contribute% to that@ but neoliberalis!ants a eak state an% a ;ree inisible han%. China@ Sin"a*ore@ Ha*an are on the contrary@ stron" states re"ulatin"

the econo!y. -hat is not neoliberalis! an% that chias! is one as*ect o; %eesternization. The ;uestionsof delinking shall not' on the other hand' be limited to the State and

continue to hope that States +ill do +hat people +ant States to do. %hat+e are seeing at in the sphere of the States is de+esterni*ation. And thatis a form of delinking' delinking from %estern scripts and fromtransnational institutions' like 9B and the %orld 7ank' still controlled bythe %est but already under hea)y scrutiny from the rest of the +orld . 4 7

%hat is surprising in this respect is that the politi*ation of the ci)il society#you kno the ciil society as not *oliticize%@ as ciil&. hae been in the 5ho%es <ublic oru! in ctober o;

2011. bout #"" scholars' religious gures' o4cers of the states' Hournalists'mainly from ussia' 9ndia and the iddle 3ast agreed in the failure of theneoliberal doctrine and the %ashington Consensus. My *anel on N<ostSecularis!O asone %ay but the con;erence occu*ie% three an% a hal; %ays. So atten%e% the o*enin" an% closin" *anels@ an%

seeral other *anels. Among the opening panelist speakers +as Rohan :altung.9nterestingly enough the consensus +as that the neoliberal doctrine and

the %ashington Consensus ha)e failed. -he next eek as in Santo o!in"o@ in the7iarrit* Borum@ lea% rench institutions ith the su**ort an% collaboration o; Latin !erican an% Caribbean

countries. More or less the sa!e kin% o; *eo*le an% the same amount and about 1! e>(residents attended the Borum. There +as a consensus that the neoliberal doctrine and the %ashington Consensus failed. So' then' neoliberalism is no longer the dominant ?structure of feeling.@ The ?structureof feeling@ is a gro+ing rage from the politi*ation of the ci)il society. or hatyou hae in those ora is nothin" else that the ciil society at its best@ not the *olitical society. 5a"e an%%isenchant!ent as the consensus. -hey are o; course@ %eesternizer@ nor %ecolonial or een Marxists. So@ hat



99

connect the orl% is ca*italis!@ but not neoliberalis!. -he *oliticize% ciil society is not %enyin" ca*italis!@ it is

%enyin" neoliberali!. &elinking is rst of all an epistemic ;uestion8 +ithoutthinking other+ise is di4cult to imagine global futures beyond %esternstructure of thoughts and structure of feelings that is' epistemology'ontology and aiesthesisVsensing/. o+' in the same +ay that +e cannot confuseeconomy +ith capitalism' +e cannot confuse capitalism +ith neoliberalism. China is ca*italist@ but illnot say ;or a secon% that is neoliberal. -hat is hy in China Con;ucianis! is bein" rearticulate%. ; you %o not rearticulate Con;ucianis!@ or so!ethin" that is in your history@ you run the risk o; into neoliberalis! or bein"

conince% that you hae to start ith Machiaelli@ Locke@ 5ousseau etc. Chinese leaders andintellectuals need Confucius rather than ilton Briedman' +hich +as theeconomist behind eaganThatcher duo promoting neoliberalideals.&e+esterni*ation is already a +ay of delinking' not from capitalismbut from neoliberal global design. n% %eesternization is the *olitics o; China@ o; Sin"a*ore@ o;

5ussia@ o; $razil an% not sure yet but in *art at least n%ia. -his *oliticoecono!ic %elinkin" is one as*ect o;%eesternization.



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AT8 ealismThayer5s interpretation of ho+ e)olution aects decision

making is a+ed. (eople5s rational choices are o)erridden bytheir emotional ones and morality.Anhart "E $(residential esearch (rofessor of (olitical Scienceat orthern 9llinois Uni)ersity in &eKalb' 9llinois. ?&ar+in'Thucydides' and 9nternational elations@http8<<dar+inianconser)atism.blogspot.com<!""E<1"<dar+inthucydidesandinternational.html2ny "eneral theory o; *olitics assu!es a theory o; hu!an nature. s!all but"roin" nu!ber o; *olitical scientists hae been a**lyin" a arinian theory o;hu!an biolo"ical nature to arious to*ics in *olitical science. -he Bnal ai! o; such ork

oul% be to turn *olitical science into a bio*olitical science. So@ ;or exa!*le@ research in hu!an biolo"y an%

arinian theory can illu!inate the stu%y o; international relations. ne can see this in to books6 $ra%ley -hayerEsarin an% nternational 5elations6 n the ,olutionary ri"ins o; Far an% ,thnic ConUict #2004& an% Ste*hen

5osenEs Far an% )u!an :ature #2007&. lthou"h they a"ree on !any *oints@ 5osen an% -hayer %isa"reeon the i!*lications o; a biolo"ical a**roach to international relations ;or assessin"rational choice theory. 5ational choice theorists assu!e that hu!an bein"s are bynature rational e"oists ho rationally !axi!ize their interests. **lyin" rationalchoice theory to international relations !eans that %ecisions o; ar an% *eace areex*laine% as rational calculations o; interests by states co!*etin" ith one another.

-hayer beliees that a arinian ie o; international relations conBr!s rationalchoice theory by ex*lainin" the hu!an nature o; rational e"ois! as ulti!atelycause% by natural selection in the eolutionary co!*etition o; hu!an bein"s ;orscarce resources. 5osen beliees@ hoeer@ that a biolo"ical un%erstan%in" o;

hu!an nature shos that rational choice theory is only *artially true@ because instressin" rational calculations o; interest@ it i"nores the e!otional %is*ositions o;;ear an% honor as ;actors sha*in" hu!an %ecisions in international relations. n hishistory o; the <elo*onnesian ar@ -hucy%i%es has so!e thenian enoys in S*arta say that the i!*erial *olicies o;thens are !otiate% by ;ear@ interest@ an% honor. 5osen says that the ai! o; his book is to sho Dthat there is abiolo"ical ar"u!ent that -hucy%i%es as ri"ht@ that ;ear an% honor *lay a role in hu!an *olitics alon" ithcalculations o; interest@ but also that the other issues he analyze%@ such as the nature o; the *olitical syste!s*resent in the ancient (reek orl%@ !atter as ellD #2&. )u!an bein"s are incline% by their biolo"ical nature to be

rational e"oists@ an% so the rational choice theorists are ri"ht about this. $ut that sa!e biolo"ical naturealso inclines hu!an bein"s to ;eel social e!otions that !ake the! care aboutothers an% about their status in relation to others. So@ ;or exa!*le@ their e!otional %esire;or honor an% ;ear o; bein" %ishonore% !i"ht !oe the! to act contrary to their!aterial interests. Moreoer@ 5osen ar"ues@ these co!*lex !otiations o; hu!an biolo"icalnature are !ani;este% in the !ilitary an% *olitical behaior o; states in internationalrelations. 5osen a**lies research in neuroscience on the co!*lex inter*lay o; reason an% e!otion in the brain

an% en%ocrine syste! to ex*lain the %ecision!akin" o; lea%ers in ti!es o; international crises. -hrou"h casestu%ies@ he ar"ues that !erican *resi%ents hae ha% to !ake >uick %ecisions inco!*lex international circu!stances throu"h e!otional *attern reco"nition sha*e%by !e!ories o; e!otionally char"e% ex*eriences ;ro! the *ast. -hey thuse!*loye% neural *athays o; in;or!ation "atherin" an% %ecision!akin" sha*e% bynatural selection in hu!an eolutionary history. 5osen ar"ues that hile theter!ination o; ar can result ;ro! calculate% %ecisions about !aterial interests@ this

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Illinois_University

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DeKalb,_Illinois

http://darwinianconservatism.blogspot.com/2009/10/darwin-thucydides-and-international.html


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Illinois_University

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DeKalb,_Illinois





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can also result ;ro! a colla*se o; the ill to B"ht a!on" the losers@ hich arises;ro! e!otional %istress ith a neuro*hysiolo"ical basis. "ain@ 5osenEs "eneral *oint is that

%ecisions about ar an% *eace arise ;ro! the co!*lex interaction o; reason an% e!otion as sha*e% by the eole%

nature o; the hu!an brain. ne *ro!inent !ani;estation o; eole% hu!an nature ininternational relations is the natural %esire ;or status an% %o!inance. -hose ho Bllthe hi"hest oQces ;or %eci%in" issues o; ar an% *eace ten% to be a!bitious *eo*le

ho %esire %o!inance oer others. 5osen i%entiBes such *eo*le as !ostly hi"h testosterone !en ho!ani;est a %esire ;or %o!inance sha*e% in eolutionary history here !en co!*ete% ith one another ;or

*ree!inence. <eo*le like braha! Lincoln@ ranklin 5ooseelt@ an% Finston Churchillare !oe% by a %esire ;or %istinction;or honor an% "lorythat "oes beyon% anyselBsh calculation o; !aterial interests. -yrants sho a si!ilar %esire ;or %o!inance.$ut 5osen ar"ues that a!bitious lea%ers like Lincoln@ 5@ an% Churchill %o not hae the tyrannical souls o; *eo*lelike )itler@ Stalin@ an% Mao. )e clai!s that tyrannical behaior e!er"es ;ro! Dthe *ersonal character o; tyrantsco!bine% ith the institutional character o; tyranniesD #138&. 5osenEs *oint here is unclear. $ut the i%ea see!s to

be that those o; tyrannical te!*era!ents ill rise to the to* in turbulentcircu!stances here there are ;e institutional checks or li!its on the ruthless an%o**ortunistic *ursuit o; *oer. ne ;un%a!ental lesson that e!er"es ;ro! 5osenEsbio*olitical analysis is the nee% to channel the rialry o; *olitically a!bitious *eo*lethrou"h an institutional structure o; checks an% balances so that a!bition

counteracts a!bition. )ere@ a"ain@ 5osen a"rees ith -hucy%i%es@ ho su""este% that ;actional conUict inthe ancient (reek cities coul% hae been ta!e% by !ixe% re"i!es in hich oli"archic an% %e!ocratic ele!entsbalance% one another. lthou"h -hayer a"rees ith 5osen in usin" biolo"ical science to ex*lain internationalrelations@ -hayer sees biolo"ical ex*lanations as a**ly only to the leel o; ulti!ate causes in the "enes@ as%istin"uishe% ;ro! social an% cultural ex*lanations as a**lyin" to the leel o; *roxi!ate causes in the eniron!ent.)u!an behaior arises ;ro! a co!*lex interaction o; ulti!ate an% *roxi!ate causes.

ealism ignores +ar and conict5s eect on society. Thiseliminates the possibilities of identifying other causes of +arand possible reductions or solutions to its e>istence.oberts "- Adrian 7ua' ?Contesting eoealism and Liberal9dealismJ %here do ,opes for a F(erpetual (eace5 LieG@ e

9nternational elations. http8<<+++.eir.info<GpOM"/+ealism may not be 2losing itself3 in presently hegemonic ideas@ a synchronic un%erstan%in" o; history

enables its core ar"u!ent to surie throu"hout historical *erio%s. Ho"ever by extra*olatin" transhistoric

conclusions@it loses itself in the 2bigger picture3, failing to consider ho" different circumstances#beyon%

*oer balances&affect "ar and ignoring the possibility to prescribe changes for its elimination. 5ealis! %oesnot see the i%eas *realent in the existin" or"anization o; society as sel;ei%ent natural las or Nhi"her truthsO@ itsees a *attern hich has surie% chan"es in societal or"anization an% *ro%uces its on Nhi"her truthsO ;ro! it@

i"norin" the ;act that chan"es in societal or"anization a?ect ar.This condemns realism to the conclusion that

"ar is an inevitable and immutable part of international relations, burdening discourse "ith pessimism

and perpetuating complacency. Scholars should aim to prescribe changes to the eisting order "ith a vie"

to improving it.The internal nature of states, the nature of relations amongst them and different

international 2ordering principles3 account for variations in "ar and peace. (nalysis of these differences

;ar ;ro! *ro%ucin" uto*ian *rescri*tions coul% provide humanity "ith very real possibilities for eliminating@

si"niBcantly re%ucin"@ or at least *reentin" the tra"e%y that is "ar .ccusations o; ;utile uto*ianis! ill surely be!a%e a"ainst such a clai!. )oeer@ oul% su""est that it is the realist ho en"a"es in a lar"ely ;utile en%eaour.or i; realis! beliees its on conclusions the necessarily *oer !axi!isin"behaiour o; states@ the anarchicalinternational or%er an% the ineitability o; conUict – it eli!inates the *ossibility ;or any *ositie contributions

transcen%in" these ;actors@ li!itin" analysis o; the international syste! to !ere %escri*tieness.Ultimately,

realism suffocates nternational +elations li&e Creationist dogma suffocates volutionary Science .



102

A!8 They +ant it1. Nour e)idence is from a +estern perspecti)e' and cannot

possibly speak for e)eryone. 3)en if a fe+ people +ant theplan' the maHority of the population does not +ant theirculture destroyed' only the rich elites.

!. Comes from a 3urocentric background D they keptresearching until they found a say D yes card' it5s not trulyrepresentati)e of popular opinion.

0. The research is Hust created to secure +estern interests D its

an e>ample of our ignolo "E e)idence' about the US beingthe sal)ation of Latin American countries.

6. 3)en if they +in they +ant the plan' that doesn5t mean thatthe eects of economic engagement +ouldn5t be negati)e' +estill get our impacts.



10/

A!8 Cap is 3thical1. ot responsi)e D +e don5t say that capitalism itself is

unethical' but the e>portation of it to other cultures as a formof domination is.

!. 3>porting capitalism is not ethical D our 3scobar "6 e)idenceindicates that it Husties +ars in the in)aded countries in orderto keep our po+er structures' and our ignolo "E e)idencesays that +estern culture' +hen e>ported' marginali*es nati)epopulations and destroys their cultures.

0. Capital e>pansion has led to po)erty D Qene*uela pro)es.



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A!8 9mpacts omantici*ed1. %e don5t ele)ate the past D +e point out empirical issues

that they ignore' such as colonial )iolence.

!. This e)idence has no Hustication for liberalism' or any+arrant for +hy our impacts aren5t true. 9t Hust says don5t goback in time.

0. 3)en if the card did apply' our impacts pro)e it false D +ar is Hust in)isible' but e)er occurring.



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Liberalism (re)ents %ar1. 3scobar "6 says that liberalism causes +ars D it Husties

e>pansion into other countries and +hen they resist +e ghtthem o' +e Hust don5t call them +ars.

!. 3pistemologically a+ed8 The Qietnam +ar' 9ra; %ar'&essert Storm' 7ay of (igs' and Cha)e* coup of !""! all pro)ethat +ars still happen D +e Hust ignore them because theyspread American inuence.

0. Their e)idence is only in the part of the great po+er +ar D it

ignores the e)eryday +ars that +e allo+ to continue such asracism and police )iolence.



10'

A!8 Nou are totali*ing1. Iur ignolo e)idence doesn5t say that all +estern ideals are

bad8 it simply says that +hene)er anything is ele)ated to aTruth statement and e>ported to other cultures' then that is+hen it becomes bad.

!. o 9mpact to this argument D our alternati)e reHectstotali*ing thought and opens up the space for other cultures'no reason +hy that isn5t ade;uate to sol)e.



103

A!8 %e ,elp Them1. This is Hust another link8 Iur ignolo e)idence indicates that

the idea of being the sa)iors of Latin America is the issue.odernity is rooted in sal)ation' +e Hustify e>pansion intoother countries by claiming it is to their benet' +hile +e areactually Hust e>panding our institutions.

!. 3)en if they +in some chance of helping them' +e +ill +inthat the negati)e implications of this e>pansions out+eigh thepositi)e aspects of their engagement.



108

! 3>tensions



109

B<+



110

:rosland

3pistimology of the +est has empirically been used to Hustifycolonialist logic D +e try and Hustify the e>pansion into other

countries such as Cuba cheap because of cheap labor



111

7aker

7aker "E8 &omiant macronarriti)e is a +estern one D the +estdetermines +hat knol+edge is acceptable and +hat knol+ege

isn5t through things such as science and reasoning. 7ecause of this' +e ha)e reHected the culture of countries' it is outside ofscience and reasoning. They didn5t study Cuba5s culure' theira4rmamti)e didn5t make mention of Cuba5s pastimes orholidays' all it does +as sho+ Cuba as something to use tostop +arming.



112

Util



11/

artinot and Se>ton

Their util calculus is +hite supremacist D they focus onspectacles of )iolence ignoring structural )iolence. Bocus on

e>tinction precludes focus on the inHustice of a black mangetting shot for +alking home +ith a candy bar. Qoting ameans you must look in South Americans and e>plain theirsuering under 9B and %orld 7ank5s austerity policies is Hustied in order to a)oid a minimal risk of e>tinction. 3>tendAbu Ramal more deaths from po)erty each day than there+ould be from a nuclear +arThe a e>pansionist policies areinherently a+ed focused only on ashpoint )iolence insteadof systemic )iolence. There is al+ays something to focus onrst' it5s ne)er the right time D that makes systemic )iolence

ine)itable. Qote neg to reHect the logic of inaction thatreplicates structural )iolence.



114

Uni;ueness



117

ignolo and ,e

3>tend ignolo and ,e8 eolib is collapsing no+' multiple+arrants8

1. Binancial crisis and failure to nd solutions to commonproblems such as the en)ironment

!. The proliferation of unhappy people

0. Scrutiny of the 9B and %orld 7ank

6. Consensus that %ashington eoliberal doctrine has failed

M. &elinking as an epistemic ;uestion has started.

eans that e)en if +e lose the alt' status ;uo sol)es and theydon5t get impact turns because collapse is ine)itable.



11'

A Ans+ers



113

:eneral Thoughts=se n%yPs <S-L !o%el ;or your 2ac.Ca*italis! "oo% is res*onsie to all o; the neoliberalis! *ortions o; this Kritik@ so

you can look there ;or i!*act turns i; you nee% the!. -he best ay to beat this Kritik is to suQciently %e;en% the e*iste!olo"y o; your a?an% then ust in your case a%anta"es@ it %oesnPt take a lot o; ;ancy tricks. Fin util@in e*iste!olo"y not Brst@ an% case outei"hs.



118

(erm9t is important +e consider the plan and alternati)e as a bridge

for multiple )antage points of kno+ledge7ortoluci and Ransen !"10 $Rose ,. 7ortoluci and obert S. Ransen 9nstructor at Uni)ersity of ichigan and Assistant(rofessor' &epartment of Sociology' Uni)ersity of ichiganTI%A& A (ISTCILI9AL SIC9ILI:N8 T,3 Q93% BI LAT9A39CA' (ostcolonial Sociology(olitical (o+er and SocialTheory' Qolume !6' 1EED!!E Copyright r !"10or better or orse@ many scholars o; colonial an% *ostcolonial Latin !erica – es*ecially social scientists –

are put o by postcolonial studies an% oul% hesitate to hae their ork consi%ere% un%er thehea%in". -he on"oin" ten%ency o; !uch o; the inter%isci*linary Bel% o; *ostcolonial stu%ies to i%enti;y ith a stron"*oststructuralist *ro"ra! #e.".@ Mi"nolo@ 2002A oun"@ 1990& has *ro!*te% !any social scientists to criticize its

lack o; sociolo"ical %e*th – or si!*ly to aoi% it alto"ether. t the sa!e ti!e@ many in postcolonialstudies ha)e remained suspicious of the social sciences' +hich theyfre;uently accuse of FFpositi)ism55 and complicity +ith other FFcolonialist55modes of kno+ledge production #e.".@ Mi"nolo@ 2002A S*iak@ 1988&. ^et %es*ite such !utual

%istrust@ e ar"ue that there are resonances bet+een many of the points ad)ancedby postcolonial theorists #at least by those ho hae not e!brace% ra%ical %econstructionis!& andthose suggested by sociologists de)oted to the study of postcolonialsocieties. %e propose that it is useful for sociologists to take seriously thecritical ;uestions raised by postcolonial studiesJ but also that postcolonialstudies stands to benet by considering recent social scienticscholarship on *ost colonial societies. ur e?ort to ;oster conersation beteen Latin !erica an% other

orl% re"ions – as ell as@ ineitably@ beteen the social sciences an% the hu!anities – is co!*licate% by the lacko; a co!!on conce*tual ocabulary. Fhile not e!*loyin" an ex*licit lan"ua"e o; RR*ostcolonialis!@PP !any scholars

o; Latin !erica hae %eelo*e% analyses an% *ers*ecties that are in !any ays co!*atible ith those a%ance%

by *ostcolonial theorists. -hus@ in order to foster dialogue' it is necessary to lookbeyond use of the term FFpostcolonial55 and to focus instead on the ideasand phenomena under consideration. -his re>uires s*eci;yin" hat e !ean by a sociolo"ically

in;or!e% *ostcolonial *ers*ectie.8

Fe ar"ue that such an intellectual *roect can be %istille% into ;our !ain *oints

o; analytical e!*hasis.9

The permutation is best D it creates the possibility ofcombinging +ith other mo)ements and practicesSantos !""6 $7oa)entura de Sousa' professor of sociology'scho of economics' uni)ersity of Coimbra' distinguished legal

scholar la+ school' uni)ersity of %isconsinmadison' ?the+orld social forum8 a user5s manual'http8<<+++.ces.uc.pt<bss<documentos<fsmXeng.pdf

eform or re)olution. -his cleaa"e carries the ei"ht o; the tra%ition o; the estern le;t een thou"h it

can be ;oun% elsehere@ !ost notably in n%ia. t is the cleaa"e beteen those ho think that another orl% is*ossible@ by the "ra%ual trans;or!ation o; the unust orl% in hich e lie@ throu"h le"al re;or! an% !echanis!so; re*resentatie %e!ocracyA an% those ho think that the orl% e lie in is a ca*italist orl% hich ill neertolerate re;or!s that ill >uestion or %isturb its lo"ic o; o*eration an% that it !ust there;ore be oerthron an%



119

re*lace% by a socialist orl%. -his is also re"ar%e% as a cleaa"e beteen !o%erates an% ra%icals. ,ither Bel%

co!*rises a i%e ariety o; *ositions. or instance@ a!on" reolutionaries@ there is a clear clea)agebet+een the old left' that aspires to a kind of state socialism' theanarchists' that are radically antiStatist' and some ne+er left ratherambi)alent about the role of the State in a socialist society. lthou"h they a!ountto a ery !inor *ro*ortion o; the FS@ the anarchists are a!on" the Bercest critics o; re;or!is!@ hich they clai!controls the FSPs lea%ershi*. -his cleaa"e reerberates@ albeit not linearly@ in strate"ic o*tions an% o*tions ;or

*olitical action. !on" the most salient ones should be counted the strategicoption bet+een reforming<democrati*ing the institutions of neoliberalglobali*ation #F- an% nternational inancial nstitutions& or ghting to eliminate andreplace themJ and the option for political action bet+een' on the onehand' constructi)e dialogue and engagement +ith those institutions' and'on the other' confrontation +ith them. This clea)age translates itself intoopposite positions' either as regards the diagnosis of contemporarysocieties' or as re"ar%s the ealuation o; the FS itsel;. s to the %ia"nosis@ accor%in" to one stance@conte!*orary societies are iee% as societies here there are !ulti*le %iscri!inations an% inustices@ not all o;

the! attributable to ca*italis!. Capitalism' in turn' is not homogeneous' and thestruggle must focus on its most e>clusionary form D neoliberalis!. ccor%in" toanother stance@ conte!*orary societies are iee% as intrinsically unust an% %iscri!inatory because they are

ca*italist. Ca*italis! is an enelo*in" syste! in hich class %iscri!ination ;ee%s on sexual@ racial an% other kin%so; %iscri!ination. )ence@ the stru""le !ust ;ocus on ca*italis! as hole an% not a"ainst any sin"le one o; its!ani;estations. s to the ealuation o; the FS@ the FS is iee% no as the e!bryo o; an eQcaciouscontestation to neoliberal "lobalization@ ;or con;rontin" neoliberal "lobalization at the "lobal scale here !oresocial inustice has been *ro%uce%@ no as a !oe!ent hich@ because it is not "roun%e% on the *rinci*le o; theclass stru""le@ ill acco!*lish little beyon% a ;e rhetorical chan"es in %o!inant ca*italist %iscourse. Fhat is neabout the FS as a *olitical entity is that the !aority o; the !oe!ents an% or"anizations that *artici*ate in it %o

not reco"nize the!seles in these cleaa"es an% re;use to take *art in %ebates about the!. There is greatresistance to assuming rigidly a gi)en position and e)en greater tolabeling it. The maHority of mo)ements and organi*ations ha)e politicale>periences in +hich moments of confrontation alternate or combine +ithmoments of dialogue and engagement' in +hich long range )isions ofsocial change coe>ist +ith the tactical possibilities of the political andsocial conHuncture in +hich the struggles take place' in +hich radical

denunciations of capitalism do not paraly*e the energy for small changes+hen the big changes are not possible. boe all@ ;or !any !oe!ents an% or"anizations'this clea)age is +estcentric or northcentric' and is more useful tounderstand the past of the left than its future. n%ee%@ !any !oe!ents an%or"anizations %o not reco"nize the!seles@ ;or the sa!e reasons@ in the %ichoto!y le;t an% ri"ht.



120

Cede the (olitical D State Key%e cannot abandon institutional change D the alternati)e is

ine>ible to diering conditions of the a4rmati)e D apermutation allo+s e>ibility in pra>isSantos !""6 $7oa)entura de Sousa' professor of sociology'scho of economics' uni)ersity of Coimbra' distinguished legalscholar la+ school' uni)ersity of %isconsinmadison' ?the+orld social forum8 a user5s manual'http8<<+++.ces.uc.pt<bss<documentos<fsmXeng.pdf

n the contrary@ the supporters of institutional struggles assume that the?system@ is contradictory@ a *olitical an% social relation here it is *ossible to B"ht an% here ;ailure

is not the only *ossible outco!e. n !o%ernity the State as the center o; this syste!. n the course o; the

tentieth century the *o*ular classes con>uere% i!*ortant institutional s*aces@ o; hich the el;are syste! in the"lobal :orth is a "oo% !ani;estation. -he ;act that the el;are syste! is no in crisis an% the No*enin"O that ito?ere% the *o*ular classes is no bein" close% u*@ %oes not !ean that the *rocess is irreersible. n%ee%@ it onPtbe so i; the !oe!ents an% or"anizations continue to stru""le insi%e the institutions an% the le"al syste!. -his

cleaa"e is not s*rea% out at ran%o! a!on" the !oe!ents that co!*rise the FS. n "eneral the strongermo)ements and organi*ations are those that more fre;uently pri)ilegeinstitutional struggles' +hereas the less strong are those that morefre;uently pri)ilege direct action. -his cleaa"e is !uch lielier a!on" !oe!ents an%or"anizations o; the :orth than o; the South. -he lar"e !aority o; the !oe!ents@ hoeer@ re;use to take si%es in

this cleaa"e. ccor%in" to the!@ the concrete legal and political conditions mustdictate the kind of struggle to be pri)ileged. Conditions may actuallyrecommend the se;uential or simultaneous use of the t+o kinds ofstruggle. )istorically@ direct action +as at the genesis of progressi)e Huridico

institutional changes' and it +as al+ays necessary to combat thecooptation or e)en sub)ersion of such changes through direct action.



121

9mpact Braming D Util :ood9nherent e;uality of all beings re;uires utilitiarianism

Cummiskey 1EE# $&a)id' Associate (rofessor of (hilosophy at7ates College and (h.&. from U' ?Kantian Conse;uentialism@'p. 16M16#2n the next section@ ill %e;en% this inter*retation o; the %uty o; beneBcence. or the sake o; ar"u!ent@ hoeer@let us Brst si!*ly assu!e that beneBcence %oes not re>uire si"niBcant sel;sacriBce an% see hat ;ollos. lthou"hKant is unclear on this *oint@ e ill assu!e that si"niBcant sel;sacriBces are su*erero"atory. 11 -hus@ i; !ust har!one in or%er to sae !any@ the in%ii%ual ho! ill har! by !y action is not !orally re>uire% to aQr! the action.n the other han%@ hae a %uty to %o all that can ;or those in nee%. s a conse>uence a! ;ace% ith a %ile!!a6; act@ har! a *erson in a ay that a rational bein" nee% not consent toA i; ;ail to act@ then %o not %o !y %uty tothose in nee% an% thereby ;ail to *ro!ote an obectie en%. ace% ith such a choice@ hich horn o; the %ile!!a is!ore consistent ith the ;or!ula o; the en%initsel;I Fe !ust not obscure the issue by characterizin" this ty*e o;

case as the sacriBce o; in%ii%uals ;or so!e abstract Dsocial entity.D t is not a >uestion o; so!e*ersons hain" to bear the cost ;or so!e elusie Doerall social "oo%.D nstea%' the>uestion is hether so!e *ersons !ust bear the inesca*able cost ;or the sake o;other *ersons. 5obert :ozick@ ;or exa!*le@ ar"ues that Dto use a *erson in this ay %oes not suQciently

res*ect an% take account o; the ;act that he is a se*arate *erson@ that his is the only li;e he has.D12 $ut hy is this

not e>ually true o; all those ho! e %o not sae throu"h our ;ailure to actI $y e!*hasizin" solely theone ho !ust bear the cost i; e act@ e ;ail to suQciently res*ect an% take account o; the!any other se*arate *ersons@ each ith only one li;e@ ho ill bear the cost o; our inaction. nsuch a situation@ hat oul% a conscientious Kantian a"ent@ an a"ent !otiate% by the uncon%itional alue o;rational bein"s@ chooseI !orally "oo% a"ent reco"nizes that the basis o; all *articular %uties is the *rinci*le thatDrational nature exists as an en% in itsel;D #(MM 429&. 5ational nature as such is the su*re!e obectie en% o; all

con%uct. ; one truly beliees that all rational bein"s hae an e>ual alue@ then the rationalsolution to such a %ile!!a inoles !axi!ally *ro!otin" the lies an% liberties o; as!any rational bein"s as *ossible #cha*ter 7&. n or%er to aoi% this conclusion' the nonconse>uentialist Kantian nee%s to usti;y a"entcentere% constraints. s e sa in cha*ter 1@hoeer@ een !ost Kantian %eontolo"ists reco"nize that a"entcentere% constraints re>uire a nonaluebase%

rationale. $ut e hae seen that KantEs nor!atie theory is base% on an uncon%itionally aluable en%. )o can aconcern ;or the alue o; rational bein"s lea% to a re;usal to sacriBce rational bein"s een hen this oul% *reentother !ore extensie losses o; rational bein"sI ; the !oral la is base% on the alue o; rational bein"s an% theiren%s@ then hat is the rationale ;or *rohibitin" a !oral a"ent ;ro! !axi!ally *ro!otin" these to tiers o; alueI ;

sacriBce so!e ;or the sake o; others@ 9 %o not use the! arbitrarily@ an% 9 %o not %enythe uncon%itional alue o; rational bein"s. <ersons !ay hae D%i"nity@ that is@ an uncon%itional an%

inco!*arable orthD that transcen%s any !arket alue #(MM 4/'&@ but *ersons also hae a;un%a!ental e>uality that %ictates that so!e !ust so!eti!es "ie ay ;or the sakeo; others #cha*ters 7 an% 3&. -he conce*t o; the en%initsel; %oes not su**ort the iethat e !ay neer ;orce another to bear so!e cost in or%er to beneBt others. ; one

;ocuses on the e>ual alue o; all rational bein"s@ then e>ual consi%eration su""ests that one !ay hae tosacriBce so!e to sae !any.

http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/oso/private/content/philosophy/0195094530/p046.html?en=acprof-0195094530-note-183#acprof-0195094530-note-183


http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/oso/private/content/philosophy/0195094530/p033.html#acprof-0195094530-chapter-5













122

9mpact Braming D Conse;uentialismBirst

(ri)ileging ethics o)er political conse;uences dooms the alt9saac' "! $Rerey' (rofessor of (olitical Science and directorof the Center for the Study of &emocracy and (ublic Life at9ndiana Uni)ersity' &issent' ?3nds' eans' and (olitics@'Spring' ebsco2<oer is not a %irty or% or an un;ortunate ;eature o; the orl%. t is the core o;*olitics. <oer is the ability to e?ect outco!es in the orl%. <olitics@ in lar"e *art@ inoles contests oer the

%istribution an% use o; *oer. -o ac co!*lish anythin" in the *olitical orl%@ one !ustatten% to the !eans that are necessary to brin" it about. n% to %eelo* such !eans is to%eelo*@ an% to exercise@ *oer. -o say this is not to say that *oer is beyon% !oral ity. t is to say that *oer isnot re%ucible to !orality. s riters such as :iccolo Machiaelli@ Max Feber@ 5einhol% :iebuhr@ an% )annah

ren%t hae tau"ht@ an unyiel%in" concern ith !oral "oo%ness un%ercuts *oliticalres*onsibility. -he concern !ay be !orally lau%able@ re Uectin" a kin% o; *ersonal inte"rity@ but it su;;ers ;ro! three ;atal Uas6 #1& t ;ails to see that the *urity o; onePs intention %oesnot ensure the achiee!ent o; hat one inten%s. b urin" iolence or re;usin" to!ake co!!on cause ith !orally co!*ro!ise% *arties !ay see! like the ri"htthin"A but i; such tactics entail i!*otence@ then it is har% to ie the! as serin"any !oral "oo% beyon% the clean con science o; their su**ortersA #2& it ;ails to seethat in a orl% o; real iolence an% inustice@ !oral *urity is not si!*ly a ;or! o;*oerlessnessA it is o;ten a ;or! o; complicity in inHustice. -his is hy@ ;ro! the stan%*ointo; *oli ticsGas o**ose% to reli"ionG*aciBs! is alays a *otentially i!!oral stan%. n cate"orically re *u%iatin"

iolence@ it re;uses in *rinci*le to o**ose certain iolent inustices ith any e; ;ectA an% #/& it ;ails to seethat *olitics is as !uch about uninten%e% conse>uences as it is about intentionsA it

is the e?ects o; action@ rather than the !oties o; action@ that is !ost si"niBcant.

Hust as the ali"n!ent ith N"oo%O !ay en"en%er i!*otence@ it is o;ten the *ur suito; N"oo%O that "enerates eil. -his is the lesson o; co!!unis! in the tentieth century6 it is notenou"h that onePs "oals be sincere or i%ealisticA it is e>ually i!*ortant@ alays@ toask about the e?ects o; *ursuin" these "oals an% to u%"e these e?ects in*ra"!atic an% histori cally contextualize% ays. Moral absolutis! in hibits this

u%"!ent. t alienates those +ho are not true belie)ers. t *ro!otesarro"ance. n% it un%er!ines *olitical e?ectieness.



12/

9mpact Braming D 3conomicCalculations good

3conomic calculations are ethical +e re;uires choicesbet+een competing demands D economics creates a system forstabili*ing the demands of the Ither as preferences' allo+ingfor ethical dialogue through market competition andnegotiationAasland !""E $&ag' (rof. of 3conomics Z U of Agder' or+ay'3thics and 3conomy8 After Le)inas' pgs. #M##2

7hat is original in 'evinas co!*are% to other authors ho also hae %eBne% bein" a hu!an as bein"relate% to another hu!an@ such as@ ;or instance@ $uber an% L"stru* #!entione% in the *reious cha*ter&@ an%

those re*resentin" the ethics o; care #also *resente% in the *reious cha*ter&@ is that 'evinasac&no"ledges that not only meet the -ther, but also the third@ as the ther. !y meeting the

third am again confronted "ith an appeal for mercy. 0rom this – as a result o; an intention o; bein"

res*onsible – am forced to evaluate, compare, reason an% to seek "hat is <ust. ustice eerts

violence but is still better than in<ustice. n my efforts to"ards more <ustice !ust co!*are@ an% in

this co!*arin" may have to count@ also !oneyA it may even be necessary to set a price for a

human life@ so!ethin" that@ ;ro! the *oint o; ie o; !ercy@ is a scan%al@ but still necessary@ because thethird is also there. t is necessary to countD the :uestion is "hy count. s it out o; !y conatus@

hich@ i; it is alloe% to un;ol% ;reely ithout bein" >uestione% #or@ alternatiely@ i; i"nore the >uestionin"&@ ill

lea% to iolenceI r is it out of mercy, "hich comes to me as an imperative in the encounter "ith

the -ther, and "hich, in the encounter "ith the third – as the ther – drives me to see& al"ays

more <usticeI -his is not only about countin"@ it is about bein" in "eneral – hy an% ho a!. Leinas illinsist that N-o be or not to be@ that is not the >uestionO #Cohen in Leinas@ 19876 10&. nstea%@ it is a :uestion

of ho" am a being together "ith others in the "orld. thics comes before ontology. nobection to :o%%in"sP ethics o; care is that the !otherin;ant situation is not a co!!on one. t is instea% a

s*ecial situation here s*ecial >ualities are calle% ;orth@ that are not ;oun% elsehere in society. To believe

that the good is natural can be naeA it can een be dangerous. Lookin" aroun% in the orl% to%ay the

opposite "ould be more natural to claim; "e have a natural inclination to"ards controllingand reducing the -ther @ ith iolence@ *hysical or *sycholo"ical. $ut throu"h the encounter ith the there are tol% that this is ron". t is this s!all Rsource o; the "oo%P hich %o!inates a !other hen she is alone

ith her in;ant. (t the moment "e have to relate to more than one other "e understand that "e

need to ma&e some efforts to understand the situation of the other individuals, their special

situations and needs, so that "e can &no" "hat is <ust in our %ealin" ith others. t is his %iscussion o;

the !eetin" ith the thir% that !akes LeinasP *hiloso*hy so releant to econo!y@ althou"h !ost *resentationso; his *hiloso*hy concentrate on the encounter ith the ther@ an% !ay thus cause the !isun%erstan%in" thatthis is his ethics@ an% conse>uently a >uite i!*ossible one. )oeer@ as !entione% earlier@ LeinasP %escri*tiono; the encounter ith the ther is his anser to the >uestion o; hat is the !eanin" o; ethics@ or@ hy e at all

#at least so!eti!es& ant ustice. n short@ to Leinas@ the tas& of the economy is to contribute to

<ustice. The cause of the striving for <ustice is the imperative of mercy in the encounter "iththe -ther. (nd as there is al"ays more than one other my eperience of the encounter "ith the

-ther cannot be directly transferred to social reality. must perform a brutal transformation

from mercy to <ustice #but hich neertheless is less brutal than !e not carin" about ustice&@ an% in



124

doing so need as !uch as can *ossibly ac>uire o; hat is aailable o; detailed &no"ledge of each

particular situation@ as ell as !y ability to reason lo"ically. t is not only a fact that ethics is

necessary for the economy. conomy is also necessary for ethics. ust as a house may be aconcrete security for a loan, the economy is a concrete security for ethics. 7ithout economic

goods an% nee%s and the accompanying &no"ledge for myself, there "ould have been no need

for ethics. (n ethics for the other can only be epressed as long as the other has specific needscompeting "ith mine. -nly then can act for the other instead of acting for myself @ an% thus setthe nee%s o; the other be;ore those o; !e. r@ *ut in another ay6 an"els %o not nee% ethics@ because they haeno nee%s an% thus no nee% to hel* each other



127

9mpact Turn D Liberalism :ood9nternational liberalism is true and pre)ents +arD cooperation

and interdependence +ill determine state beha)ior.Bett+eis !""# $Christopher' (rofess at the ational Security&ecision aking &epartment at US a)al %ar College' Ae)olution in 9nternational elation Theory8 Ir' %hat 9f ueller9s ightG' 9nternational Studies e)ie+2Most 5 scholarshi* carries on as i; such an ano!aly si!*ly %oes not exist. -his is es*ecially true o; realists@

hose theories typically leave little room for fundamental systemic change #Lebo 1994&. D-he

"a!e o; *olitics %oes not chan"e ;ro! a"e to a"e@D ar"ue% a ske*tical Colin (ray #199961'/&@ Dlet alone ;ro!%eca%e to %eca%e.D n%ee%@ the !ost *oer;ul counterar"u!ent to MuellerGan% one that is ulti!atelyunanserableGis that this *erio% o; *eace ill be te!*orary an% that so!e%ay these tren%s ill be reerse%.

%eorealists traditionally contend that the anarchic structure of the system stac&s the dec&

against long/term stability, "hich accounts for A"arFs dismal recurrence throughout themillennia@D in the or%s o; Kenneth Faltz #1989644&. ther scholars are ske*tical about the ex*lanatory *oero; i%eas@ at least as in%e*en%ent ariables in !o%els o; state behaior #Mearshei!er 1994+1997A $rooks an%

Fohl;orth 2000+2001A Co*elan% 200/&. )oeer@ one need not be convinced about the potential for

ideas to transform international politics to believe that ma<or "ar is etremely unli&ely to

recur . Mueller@ Man%elbau!@ 5ay@ an% others !ay "ie *ri!ary cre%it ;or the en% o; !aor ar to i%eationaleolution akin to that hich !a%e slaery an% %uelin" obsolete@ but others hae inter*rete% the causal chain

>uite %i?erently. eoliberal institutionalists ha)e long argued that compleeconomic interdependence can have a pacifying effect upon state behavior #Keohane an% :ye

1933@ 1983&. 5ichar% 5osecrance #198'@ 1999& has conten%e% that evolution in socio/economic

organi$ation has altered the shortest, most rational route to state prosperity in "ays that ma&e"ar unli&ely. inally@ !any others hae ar"ue% that credit for great po"er peace can be given to the

eistence of nuclear "eapons, "hich ma&e aggression irrational #Heris 1989A Ka"an et al. 1999&.7ith so many overlapping and mutually reinforcing eplanations, at times the end of ma<or

"ar may seem to be overdetermined #Heris 200268–9&. or *ur*oses o; the *resent %iscussion@successful identification of the eact cause of this fundamental change in state behavior is

probably not as important as belief in its eistence. n other "ords, the outcome is far more

important than the mechanism. -he i!*ortance o; MuellerEs ar"u!ent ;or the Bel% o; 5 is ulti!ately not%e*en%ent u*on hy !aor ar has beco!e obsolete@ only that it has. l!ost as si"niBcant@ all these *ro*ose%

ex*lanations hae one i!*ortant *oint in co!!on6 they all imply that change "ill be permanent.

%ormativeideational evolution is typically unidirectional#fe" "ould argue that it is li&ely@

;or instance@ for slavery or %uelin" to return in this century. The compleity of economic

interdependence is deepening as time goes on and going at a :uic&er pace. (nd, obviously,

nuclear "eapons cannot be uninvented and #at least at this *oint& no foolproof defense againsttheir use seems to be on the hori$on. The combination of forces that may have brought ma<or

"ar to an end seems to be unli&ely to allo" its return. -he tentieth century itnesse% an

un*rece%ente% *ace o; eolution in all areas o; hu!an en%eaor@ ;ro! science an% !e%icine to *hiloso*hy an%

reli"ion. n such an at!os*here@ it is not %iQcult to i!a"ine that attitudes to"ard the venerable

institution of "ar may also have eperienced rapid evolution and that its obsolescence could become plausible@ *erha*s een *robable@ in spite of thousands of years of violent precedent. -hebur%en o; *roo; oul% see! to be on those ho !aintain that the Drules o; the "a!eD o; international *olitics@inclu%in" the rules o; ar@ are the lone area o; hu!an interaction i!!une to ;un%a!ental eolution an% that@



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9mpact D o impact<Liberalism sol)es9nstitutional liberalism is distinct D doesn5t link to your

inter)ention KsCerny !""M $Susanne Soederberg' (rofessor in 9nternational&e)elopment Studies Z Yueens Uni)ersity' :eorg en*' (h.&.in (olitical Science from the Uni)ersity of (ittsburgh' 7A in9nternational elations' and (hilip :. Cerny' (rof of :lobal(olitical 3conomy' pg !1' C,18 ? &ierent oads to:lobali*ation8 eoliberalism' the Competition State' and(olitics in a ore Ipen %orld'@ 9nternali*ing :lobali*ation8 Theise of eoliberalism and the &ecline of ational Qarieties ofCapitalism' (AL:AQ3 AC9LLA8 ,oundmills' 7asingstoke'

,ampshire2n international relations an% international *olitical econo!y liberalis! – an%@ to%ay@ neoliberalis! – can also be seen ashain" to %istinct !eanin"s. -he Brst o; these ori"inally %eries ;ro! the >uasii%ealist tra%ition o; Rliberal

internationalis!P that as associate% ith the le"acy o; Foo%ro Filson an% the Lea"ue o; :ations. Liberal internationalis! inole% theconstruction o; international – inter"oern!ental – institutions !a%e u* o;soerei"n states@ the *roision o; Rcollectie securityP@ an% the ex*ansion o;international la alon" relatiely liberal lines. -he =nite% :ationsP =niersal eclaration o; )u!an 5i"hts is seen as

a key %ocu!ent in this tra%ition@ alon" ith =: s*onsorshi* o; %eelo*!ent@ health@ ;oo% an% housin" *ro"ra!s@ an% the like.

-he establish!ent o; the $retton Foo%s syste! o; international econo!ic institutions at the en% o; theSecon% Forl% Far is also seen to re*resent international econo!ic liberalis! – hat Hohn

(erar% 5u""ie calle% the *ostar syste! o; Re!be%%e% liberalis!P. )oeer@ 5u""iePs analysis ent !uch ;urther@linkin" international econo!ic liberalis! ith !ericanstyle %o!estic liberalis! #or ,uro*eanstyle

social %e!ocracy& throu"h Keynesian !acroecono!ic *olicies@ the el;are state@ (er!anstyle

neocor*oratis!@ renchstyle in%icatie *lannin"@ the $retton Foo%s syste!@ an%ele!ents o; the *ostar consensus #5u""ie@ 1982&. t is this latter sort o; %o!estic@interentionist liberalis! that to%ayPs neoliberalis! o**oses.



128

Alt Sol)ency Liberalism 9ne)itableThe liberal international order +ill persist indenitely D

multiple reasons the alt can5t sol)e9kenberry !"1" $:. Rohn' Albert :. ilbank (rofessor of (oliticsand 9nternational Aairs at (rinceton Uni)ersity and a :lobal3minence Scholar at Kyung ,ee Uni)ersity' Korea?The Liberal9nternational Irder and its &iscontents'@ illennium D Rournalof 9nternational Studies !"1"J 0-J M"E2There are also reasons to think that this liberal order +ill persist@ e)en if itcontinues to e)ol)e. Birstly' the )iolent forces that ha)e o)erthro+ninternational orders in the past do not seem to operate today. %e li)e inthe longest period of Fgreat po+er peace5 in modern history. -he "reat *oers

hae not ;oun% the!seles at ar ith each other since the "uns ;ell silent in 1947. This non+ar

outcome is certainly inuenced by t+o realities8 nuclear deterrence' +hichraises the costs of +ar' and the dominance of democracies' +ho ha)efound their o+n path+ay to peace. n the *ast@ the "reat !o!ents o; or%erbuil%in" ca!e in thea;ter!ath o; ar hen the ol% or%er as %estroye%. Far itsel; as a ratiBcation o; the ie that the ol% or%er asno lon"er sustainable. Far broke the ol% or%er a*art@ *ro*elle% shi;ts in orl% *oer an% o*ene% u* theinternational lan%sca*e ;or ne ne"otiations oer the rules an% *rinci*les o; orl% *olitics. n the absence o; "reat

*oer ar it is har%er to clear the "roun% ;or ne RconstitutionalP arran"e!ents. Secondly' this order isalso distincti)e in its integrati)e and e>pansi)e character. 9n essence' it isFeasy to Hoin and hard to o)erturn5. This follo+s most fundamentally fromthe fact that it is a liberal international order D in eect' it is an order thatis relati)ely open and loosely rulebased. The order generates participantsand stakeholders. $eyon% this@ there are three reasons hy the architectural ;eatures o; this *ostarliberal or%er rein;orce %onar% an% outar% inte"ration. ne is that the !ultilateral character o; the rules an%

institutions create o**ortunities ;or access an% *artici*ation. Countries that ant to oin in can %o soA Ha*an ;oun%itsel; inte"ratin" throu"h *artici*ation in the tra%e syste! an% alliance *artnershi*. More recently@ China has takenste*s to oin@ at least throu"h the orl% tra%in" syste!. Hoinin" is not costless. Me!bershi* in institutional bo%iessuch as the F- !ust be ote% u*on by existin" !e!bers an% states !ust !eet s*eciBc re>uire!ents. $ut thesebo%ies are not exclusie or i!*erial. Secon%ly@ the liberal or%er is or"anise% aroun% share% lea%ershi* an% not ustthe =nite% States. -he (3+8 is an exa!*le o; a "oernance or"anisation that is base% on a collectie lea%ershi*@an% the ne (20 "rou*in" has e!er"e% to *roi%e ex*an%e% lea%ershi*. inally@ the or%er also *roi%eso**ortunities ;or a i%e array o; states to "ain access to the Rs*oils o; !o%ernityP. "ain@ this is not an i!*erialsyste! in hich the riches accrue %is*ro*ortionately to the centre. States across the syste! hae ;oun% ays to

inte"rate into this or%er an% ex*erience econo!ic "ains an% ra*i% "roth alon" the ay. Thirdly' risingstates do not constitute a bloc that seeks to o)erturn or reorganise thee>isting international order. China' 9ndia' ussia' 7ra*il' South Africa andothers all are seeking ne+ roles and more inuence +ithin the globalsystem. 7ut they do not constitute a ne+ coalition of states seeking global

transformation. All of these states are capitalist and as such are deeplyembedded in the +orld economy. Most o; the! are %e!ocratic an% e!brace the *olitical

*rinci*les o; the ol%er Festern liberal %e!ocracies. t the sa!e ti!e@ they all hae %i?erent "eo*olitical interests. -hey are as %ierse in their orientations as the rest o; the orl% in re"ar% to ener"y@ reli"ion an% i%eolo"ies o;

%eelo*!ent. -hey are not unite% by a co!!on *rinci*le% belie; in a *ostliberal orl% or%er. They are all)ery much inside the e>isting order and integrated in )arious +ays intoe>isting go)ernance institutions. Bourthly' the maHor states in the system –

the ol% "reat *oers an% risin" states – all ha)e comple> alignments of interests. Theyall are secure in the sense that they are not threatened by other maHor



129

states. ll orry about ra%icalis! an% ;aile% states. 3)en in the case of the most fraughtrelationships – such as the e!er"in" one beteen the =nite% States an% China – there are sharedor common interests in global issues related to energy and theen)ironment. -hese interests are co!*lex. -here are lots o; ays in hich these countries ill co!*ete ith

each other an% seek to *ush Ra%ust!entP to *roble!s onto the other states. $ut it is *recisely the co!*lexity o;these share% interests that creates o**ortunities an% incenties to ne"otiate an% coo*erate – an%@ ulti!ately@ to

su**ort the o*en an% rulebase% ;ra!eorks that allo ;or bar"ains an% a"ree!ents to be reache%. I)erall'these considerations suggest that the leading states of the +orld systemare tra)elling along a common path+ay to modernity. -hey are not %ii%e% by "reat

i%eolo"ical clashes or e!bol%ene% by the *otential "ains ;ro! "reat *oer ar. -hese logics of earlierorders are not salient today. Bascism' communism and theocraticdictatorships cannot propel you along the modernising path+ay. n e?ect@ i; you

ant to be a !o%ern "reat *oer you nee% to oin the F-. The capitalist +orld economy andthe liberal rules and institutions that it supports D and that support it D arefoundational to modernisation and progress. The United States and other%estern states may rise or fall +ithin the e>isting global system but theliberal character of that system still pro)ides attractions and benets tomost states +ithin it and on its edges.



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Brame+ork ealism3)olutionary biology pro)es realism is ine)itable

Thayer !""6 $7radley' Associate (rofessor for the &epartmentof &efense [ Strategic Studies and a former Bello+ Z the7elfer Center for Science and 9nternational Aairs at theKennedy School of :o)ernment at ,ar)ard Uni)ersity' &ar+inand 9nternational elations8 In the 3)olutionary Irigins of %arand 3thnic Conict2,olutionary theory allos realists to a%ance o?ensie realist ar"u!ents ithoutseekin" an ulti!ate cause in either the anarchic international state syste! or in theolo"ical or !eta*hysical i%eas.5ealis! base% on eolutionary theory reaches the sa!e conclusions@ but the ulti!ate causal !echanis! is%i?erent6 hu!an eolution in the anarchic an% *erilous con%itions o; the late<liocene@ <leistocene@ an% !ost o; the

)olocene e*ochs. S*ecially@ eolutionary theory ex*lains hy hu!ans are e"oistic@ strie to%o!inate others@ an% !ake in"rou*+out"rou* %istinctions. -hese a%a*tations in turn

sere as a ;oun%ation ;or o?ensie realis!. -he central issue here is hat causes states to behaeas o?ensie realists *re%ict. Mearshei!er a%ances a *oer;ul ar"u!ent that anarchy is the ;un%a!ental cause o;such behaior. -he ;act that there is no orl% "oern!ent co!*els the lea%ers o; states to take ste*s to ensuretheir security@ such as striin" to hae a *oer;ul !ilitary@ a""ressin" hen ;orce% to %o so@ an% ;or"in" an%!aintainin" alliances. -his is hat neorealists call a sel;hel* syste!6 lea%ers o; states are ;orce% to take theseste*s because nothin" else can "uarantee their security in the anarchic orl% o; international relations. ar"ue thateolutionary theory also o?ers a ;un%a!ental cause ;or o?ensie realist behaior. ,olutionary theory ex*lains hyin%ii%uals are !otiate% to act as o?ensie realis! ex*ects@ hether an in%ii%ual is a ca*tain o; in%ustry or acon>uista%or. My ar"u!ent is that anarchy is een !ore i!*ortant than !ost scholars o; international relations

reco"nize. -he hu!an eniron!ent o; eolutionary a%a*tation as anarchicA ourancestors lie% in a state o; nature in hich resources ere *oor an% %an"ers ;ro!other hu!ans an% the eniron!ent ere "reatso "reat that it is truly re!arkable that a !a!!al stan%in"three ;eet hi"hithout clas or stron" teeth@ not *articularly stron" or si;tsurie% an% eole% to beco!e hate consi%er hu!an. )u!ans en%ure% because natural selection "ae the! the ri"ht behaiors to last in those

con%itions. -he eniron!ent *ro%uce% the behaiors exa!ine% here6 e"ois!@ %o!ination@ an% the in"rou*+out"rou* %istinction. -hese s*eciBc traits are suQcient to ex*lain hy lea%ers illbehae@ in the *ro*er circu!stances@ as o?ensie realists ex*ect the! to behae. -hat is@ een i;they !ust hurt other hu!ans or risk inury to the!seles@ they ill strie to !axi!ize their *oer@ %eBne% as eithercontrol oer others #;or exa!*le@ throu"h ealth or lea%ershi*& or control oer ecolo"ical circu!stances #such as!eetin" their on an% their ;a!ilyPs or tribePs nee% ;or ;oo%@ shelter@ or other resources&. ,olutionary theoryex*lains hy *eo*le seek control oer eniron!ental circu!stanceshu!ans are e"oistic an% concerne% about;oo%an% hy so!e@ *articularly !ales@ ill seek to %o!inate others by !aintainin" a *riile"e% *osition in a

%o!inance hierarchy. Clearly@ as the lea%ers o; states are hu!an@ they too ill be inUuence%by eolutionary theory as they res*on% to the actions o; other states an% as they!ake their on %ecisions.

And no other theory e>plains the +orld accurately

earsheimer !""1 $Rohn R.' (rofessor of (olitical Science Z theUni)ersity of Chicago' The Tragedy of :reat (o+er (olitics' (g.102

-he o*ti!istsP clai! that security co!*etition an% ar a!on" the "reat *oers has been burne% out o; the syste!is ron". n ;act@ all o; the !aor states aroun% the "lobe still care %ee*ly about the balance o; *oer an% are

%estine% to co!*ete ;or *oer a!on" the!seles ;or the ;oreseeable ;uture. Conse>uently@ realis! ill o?erthe !ost *oer;ul ex*lanations o; international *olitics oer the next century@ an%this ill be true een i; the %ebates a!on" aca%e!ic an% *olicy elites are%o!inate% by nonrealist theories. n short@ the real orl% re!ains a realist orl%.



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States still ;ear each other an% seek to "ain *oer at each otherPs ex*ense@ becauseinternational anarchythe %riin" ;orce behin% "reat*oer behaior%i% not chan"e ith the en% o; the Col%

Far@ an% there are ;e si"ns that such chan"e is likely any ti!e soon. States re!ain the *rinci*al actors in orl%*olitics an% there is still no ni"ht atch!an stan%in" aboe the!. or sure@ the colla*se o; the Soiet =nion cause%a !aor shi;t in the "lobal %istribution o; *oer. $ut it %i% not "ie rise to a chan"e in the anarchic structure o; thesyste!@ an% ithout that kin% o; *ro;oun% chan"e@ there is no reason to ex*ect the "reat *oers to behae !uch

%i?erently in the ne century than they %i% in *reious centuries. n%ee%@ consi%erable ei%ence ;ro! the

1990s in%icates that *oer *olitics has not %isa**eare% ;ro! ,uro*e an% :ortheast sia@ the re"ionsin hich there are to or !ore "reat *oers@ as ell as *ossible "reat *oers such as (er!any an% Ha*an. -here isno >uestion@ hoeer@ that the co!*etition ;or *oer oer the *ast %eca%e has been lokey. Still@ there is *otential;or intense security co!*etition a!on" the "reat *oers that !i"ht lea% to a !aor ar. <robably the best ei%enceo; that *ossibility is the ;act that the =nite% States !aintains about one hun%re% thousan% troo*s each in ,uro*ean% in :ortheast sia ;or the ex*licit *ur*ose o; kee*in" the !aor states in each re"ion at *eace.



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Brame+ork D 3pistemology not Birst3pistemic focus bad our specic truth claims out+eigh.

I+en !""! $&a)id' eader in (olitical Theory at the Uni)ersityof Southampton' eorienting 9nternational elations8 In(ragmatism' (luralism and (ractical easoning@' illennium8 Rournal of 9nternational Studies' Qol. 01' o.0' http8<<mil.sagepub.com<cgi<reprint<01<0<#M0

-he Brst %an"er ith the *hiloso*hical turn is that it has an inbuilt tendency to prioritise issues ofontology and epistemology over eplanatory andor interpretive po"er as i; the latter to ere

!erely a si!*le ;unction o; the ;or!er. $ut "hile the eplanatory an%+or inter*retie po"er o; a theoretical

account is not "holly independent of its ontological andor epistemological commitments

#otherise criticis! o; these ;eatures oul% not be a criticis! that ha% any alue&@ it is by no means clear

that it is@ in contrast@ "holly dependent on these philosophical commitments. -hus@ fore>ample' one need not be sympathetic to rational choice theory to recognise that it can

provide po"erful accounts of certain &inds of problems@ such as the tra"e%y o; the co!!ons inhich %ile!!as o; collectie action are ;ore"roun%e%. t !ay@ o; course@ be the case that the a%ocates o;rational choice theory cannot "ie a "oo% account o; hy this ty*e o; theory is *oer;ul in accountin" ;or thisclass o; *roble!s #i.e.@ ho it is that the releant actors co!e to exhibit ;eatures in these circu!stances thata**roxi!ate the assu!*tions o; rational choice theory& an%@ i; this is the case@ it is a *hiloso*hical eaknessGbut this %oes not un%er!ine the *oint that@ ;or a certain class o; *roble!s@ rational choice theory !ay *roi%e

the best account aailable to us. n other or%s@ "hile the critical <udgement of theoretical accounts

in terms of their ontological andor epistemological sophistication is one &ind of critical <udgement, it is not the only or een necessarily the most important &ind. The secon% %an"er run by

the *hiloso*hical turn is that because prioritisation of ontology and epistemology promotes theory/

construction from philosophical first principles, it cultivates a theory/driven rather than problem/driven approach to +. <ara*hrasin" an Sha*iro@ the *oint can be *ut like this6 since it is thecase that there is alays a *lurality o; *ossible true %escri*tions o; a "ien action@ eent or *heno!enon@ thechallen"e is to %eci%e hich is the !ost a*t in ter!s o; "ettin" a *ers*icuous "ri* on the action@ eent or*heno!enon in >uestion "ien the *ur*oses o; the in>uiryA yet@ ;ro! this stan%*oint@ Rtheory%rien ork is *arto; a re%uctionist *ro"ra!P in that it R%ictates alays o*tin" ;or the %escri*tion that calls ;or the ex*lanation thatUos ;ro! the *re;erre% !o%el or theoryP.7 -he ustiBcation o?ere% ;or this strate"y rests on the !istaken belie; that it is necessary ;or social science because "eneral ex*lanations are re>uire% to characterise the classes o;*heno!ena stu%ie% in si!ilar ter!s. )oeer@ as Sha*iro *oints out@ this is to !isun%erstan% the enter*rise o;science since Rhether there are "eneral ex*lanations ;or classes o; *heno!ena is a >uestion ;or social

scientiBc in>uiry@ not to be *reu%"e% be;ore con%uctin" that in>uiryP.' Moreoer@ this strategy easily slips

into the promotion of the pursuit of generality over that of empirical validity. The third danger

is that the preceding t"o combine to encourage the formation of a particular image ofdisciplinary debate in + Ghat !i"ht be calle% #only sli"htly ton"ue in cheek& Rthe )i"hlan%er iePG

namely, an image of "arring theoretical approaches "ith each, despite occasional temporarytactical alliances, dedicated to the strategic achievement of sovereignty over the disciplinaryfield. t encourages this vie" because the turn to, and prioritisation of, ontology and

epistemology stimulates the idea that there can only be one theoretical approach "hich gets

things right@ na!ely@ the theoretical a**roach that "ets its ontolo"y an% e*iste!olo"y ri"ht. -his i!a"e ;ee%s

back into 5 exacerbatin" the Brst an% secon% %an"ers@ an% so a *otentially icious circle arises.

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1//

Brame+ork focus on politics good%e must not abandon focused political studies of latin

America' their link arguments don5t pro)e +hy disregardingthe e>amination of the a4rmati)e is good D +e must still focuson the study of the a7ortoluci and Ransen !"10 $Rose ,. 7ortoluci and obert S. Ransen 9nstructor at Uni)ersity of ichigan and Assistant(rofessor' &epartment of Sociology' Uni)ersity of ichiganTI%A& A (ISTCILI9AL SIC9ILI:N8 T,3 Q93% BI LAT9A39CA' (ostcolonial Sociology(olitical (o+er and SocialTheory' Qolume !6' 1EED!!E Copyright r !"102

-his article *ro*oses a tentatie ;ra!e ;or a creatie inte"ration beteen the social sciences an% *ostcolonialstu%ies@ ith a *articular ;ocus on Latin !erican societies. $uil%in" on earlier strains o; Latin !erican criticalthou"ht@ the *ostcolonial scholarshi* on Latin !erica has atten%e% to the s*eciBcities o; the colonial an% *ostcolonial histories o; Latin !erican societies in its en"a"e!ent ith *ostcolonial theory. t has ar"ue% that theanalysis an% criti>ue o; a colonial@ ,urocentric i!a"ination shoul% be *ushe% ;urther back in ti!e@ ;ro! the 18th tothe 1'th century – to hen berian colonial oQcials Brst ca!e into contact ith the in%i"enous *eo*les o; Latin

!erica an% intro%uce% !o%ern ;or!s o; slaery. t has also ar"ue% that Latin America is animportant site for e>amining the representational and discursi)e practices that ere %eelo*e% ;or an% throu"h the o*eration o; early ,uro*ean colonialis!. olloin" this obseration@ it hasshon that – !uch !ore than si!*ly ;uelin" the *ri!itie accu!ulation o; ca*ital ;or ,uro*ean in%ustrialization –berian colonialis! acte% as a *roin" "roun% ;or the %eelo*!ent o; the !o%ern techni>ues o; control that

acco!*anie% ca*italist %eelo*!ent. urther@ Latin !erican *ostcolonial scholarshi* has illustrate% ho thedistinct Latin American colonial e>perience shaped particular identities onthe parts of both 9berian coloni*ers and colonial subHects in the region . n%Bnally@ it has been at the ;ore;ront o; ne atte!*ts to RR%ecolonize thinkin"@PP throu"h the consi%eration o; the

%istinct historical traectories o; Latin !erican states an% societies. -hese contributions are the!seles incre%iblysi"niBcant an% %esere to be taken seriously by *ostcolonial stu%ies@ as ell as by other scholars intereste% in%eelo*in" a ne sociolo"y o; colonialis! an% *ost colonialis!. $ut in a%%ition to these a%ances !a%e by oertly*ostcolonial stran%s o; Latin !ericanist thou"ht@ the sociolo"y o; Latin !erica has *roi%e% exa!*les o; ho

co!*aratie critical insi"hts !i"ht be better incor*orate% into the social sciences. or !ore than '0 years@ thereha)e been important traditions in sociology #albeit o;ten at the !ar"ins o; the %isci*line&

that ha)e criti;ued moderni*ation theory' +orked through the challengesof regional comparison' transnationalism' and historici*ation' and takenculture ;uite seriously. -hese tra%itions hae in;or!e% !uch o; the sociolo"ical ork on Latin !erica@by Southern an% :orthern scholars alike. Such ork stan%s to contribute a "reat %eal to a ne *ro"ra! o;*ostcolonial sociolo"y – a *ro"ra! that e hae !a%e *reli!inary e?orts to sketch here. inally@ this article also

su""ests a ;e ays in hich a postcolonial sociology might inform ne+ scholarshipon Latin America. Substantiely@ it encourages scholars of cultural politics at themicrole)el to attend to the broader social relations and institutions in+hich these are embedded D both at the national and international le)els.)istorically@ it echoes recent su""estions by Latin !ericanist historians an% historical sociolo"ists thatun%erstan%in" 19th century structures an% eents is critical i; e ant to co!*rehen% a%e>uately the re"ionPs

*ostcolonial historical traectories. n% !etho%olo"ically@ it highlights the usefulness ofadopting a compara ti)e perspecti)e. This means continuing to compareLatin American countries +ith those of 3urope and orth AmericaJ bute;ually important is to compare Latin American +ith other postcolonialcases' and to pursue inno)ati)e comparisons +ithin the region. erall@ the

stron"est Latin !ericanist scholarshi* has been !oin" in these %irections ;or so!e ti!e no. $ut a



1/4

rein)igoration and broadening of this eort +ould go a long +ay to+ardthe e)entual de)elopment of a mature program of postcolonial sociology.



1/7

Link Turn D CubaCuba is historically situated to combine elements of capitalist

and anticapitalist struggles through their social policy. Littlerisk of an impact for the k' net benet is the a a**ei !"1! ' Rulie a**ei &epartment of (olitical Science'Kent State Uni)ersity' USA' egotiating domestic socialism+ith global capitalism8 Socalled tourist apartheid in Cuba'Communist and (ostCommunist Studies' Qolume 6M' 9ssues 1D!' archDRune !"1!' (ages E1D1"0' 9n Search of Legitimacy8(ostSo)iet &e Bacto States 7et+een 9nstitutional Stabili*ationand (olitical Transformation The policies constructing the dual economy in Cuba +ere an attempt at a

barrier bet+een socialism and capitalism' akin functionally to a digital?re+all.@ :lobal capitalism +as granted regulated entre inside thecountrys borders' yet the go)ernment intended to keep the capitalistelements outside of its domestic sociopolitical reality. -hus as ith any Breall the*olicies sere% as a Blter@ alloin" s*eciBc@ re"ulate% transactions hile *rohibitin" others. -he "oern!ent*er!itte% interactions in hich har% currency as ;unnele% to the state@ an% re"ulate% or *rohibite% transactions in

hich Cuban in%ii%uals coul% ca*italistically earn or s*en%@ alle"e%ly li!itin" ca*italist ine>uities. The?gatekeeper@ state erected a re+all. Subse;uent reforms' +hich mayseem to introduce elements of capitalism' ha)e been made nonetheless+ith an eye to+ards maintaining state control o)er the economy @ a *oint

hi"hli"hte% by 5ajl Castro ho@ hile a%ocatin" econo!ic re;or!s@ insists that the econo!y ill continue to be

one %rien by N*lannin"@ an% not ;ree !arketO #Castro@ 2010&. s early as 2008@ 5ajl Castro as o*enlya%ocatin" eQciency in labor *ractices@ insistin" that econo!ic re;or! nee%e% to inclu%e N*ressure@O hich oul%%rie *eo*le Nto ork in or%er to coer their necessitiesO rather than rely u*on the state N"iin" thin"s ;or ;ree

here an% thereO #Castro@ 2008&. s !uch as so!e ant to see such re;or!s as ca*italist in nature@ in a 2010s*eech Castro note% that N!o%iBcations that nee% to be intro%uce% to the u*%atin" o; the econo!ic !o%el are

ai!e% at the *reseration o; socialis! by stren"thenin" it an% !akin" it truly irreocableO #Castro@ 2010&.

Some of these reforms ha)e included a gradual end to food rationsQerma' !"11/J this +as part of Castros mo)e to eliminate ine4ciencies inthe economy. )e ar"ue% in 2011 that the ration book Nha% beco!e in the course o; the years an intolerable

bur%en to the econo!y an% %iscoura"e% orkO #Castro@ 2011b&. Si!ilarly@ the ne econo!ic N(ui%elines o; the

,cono!ic an% Social <olicy o; the <arty an% the 5eolutionO a%o*te% in 2011 # Castro@ 2011a& Ninclu%e the

ex*ansion an% easin" o; labor in the non*ublic sectorO an% a %isci*line% tax structure@ in or%er to i!*roe the

NeQciency o; the basic !eans o; *ro%uction@O as Castro *ut it # Castro@ 2011b&. )oeer@ those ho !i"ht!istake these ;or an econo!ic o*enin" are a%!onishe% by 5ajl Castro@ ho insists that these re;or!s are inten%e%

to N;acilitate the construction o; socialis!O #Castro@ 2011b&@ not o*en the syste! to ;ree !arket ;orces. t is acontinuation o; the re;or! *rocess inten%e% to !aintain state control hile also "roin" the econo!y. n%ee%@ 5ajlCastroEs closin" s*eech at the 'th <arty Con"ress le;t no %oubt about the co!!it!ent to socialis!@ nor about the

continuin" role o; the 5 in that *roect #Castro@ 2011a&. n the *ostCol% Far era o; neoliberal econo!ics an%

"lobalization' the delicate negotiation bet+een domestic and internationaleconomic principles is nearly re;uired of noncapitalist states. The Cubanregime has been able to successfully use the international system@ an% tourists@

to sustain some domestic obHecti)es@ but the e?orts to %o so ca!e at a cost. -he ;act that

CubaEs *olicies %esi"ne% to !iti"ate ca*italis!in%uce% ine>uality see! to hae instea% ;acilitate% state %esi"ne%ine>uity in%icates that this ne"otiation is not an easy one. :onetheless@ i; the *erio% since the Cuban 5eolution is























1/'

in%icatie o; anythin"@ it is that the re"i!e ill continue to !o%i;y in %e"rees@ re;or!in" *olicies in an atte!*t tosurie an% een thrie ithin the international syste! hile re!ainin" co!!itte% to %o!estic socialis!.



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Link Turn CubaThe Cuban embargo is counterproducti)e and +astes hundreds

of millions of dollars. eoliberalism oers a better model thanstatus ;uo blockade,anson 7atten [ 3aley !"10 $&aniel ,anson is an economicsresearcher at the American 3nterprise 9nstitute. &ayne 7attenis a4liated +ith the Uni)ersity of orth Carolina &epartmentof (ublic (olicy. ,arrison 3aley is a nancial analyst2j 9tsTime Bor The U.S. To 3nd 9ts Senseless 3mbargo If Cubaj1<1#<!"10 jhttp8<<+++.forbes.com<sites<realspin<!"10<"1<1#<itstimefortheustoenditssenselessembargoofcuba<2or the Brst ti!e in !ore than B;ty years@ Cuban citizens can trael abroa% ithout *er!ission ;ro! their"oern!ent. -he !oe@ *art o; a broa%er re;or! *acka"e bein" *hase% in by 5aul Castro@ un%erscores theirrationality o; !ericaPs continuation o; a Be%eca%e ol% e!bar"o. Fhile the e!bar"o has been throu"h seeral

le"al iterations in the interenin" years@ the general tenor of the U.S. position to+ardCuba is a hardline notinmybackyard approach to communism a latheonroe &octrine. The o4cial position is outdated' hypocritical' andcounterproducti)e. j -he Cuban e!bar"o as inau"urate% by a Kenne%y a%!inistration executie or%er

in 19'0 as a res*onse to the conBscation o; !erican *ro*erty in Cuba un%er the nely installe% Castro re"i!e. -he current incarnation o; the e!bar"o – co%iBe% *ri!arily in the )el!s$urton ct – ai!s at *ro%ucin" ;ree!arkets an% re*resentatie %e!ocracy in Cuba throu"h econo!ic sanctions@ trael restrictions@ an% internationalle"al *enalties. Since i%el Castro ab%icate% *oer to his brother 5aul in 2008@ the "oern!ent has un%ertaken!ore than /00 econo!ic re;or!s %esi"ne% to encoura"e enter*rise@ an% restrictions hae been li;te% on *ro*erty

use@ trael@ ;ar!in"@ !unici*al "oernance@ electronics access@ an% !ore. Cuba is still a *lace o; o**ression an%"ross hu!an ri"hts abuse@ but recent eents oul% in%icate the 11 !illion *erson nation is !oin" in the ri"ht

%irection.

&espite this progress' the U.S. spends massi)e amounts of moneytrying to keep illicit Cuban goods out of the United States. At least 1"dierent agencies are responsible for enforcing dierent pro)isions of theembargo' an% accor%in" to the (oern!ent ccountability Qce@ the U.S. go)ernmentde)otes hundreds of millions of dollars and tens of thousands of manhours to administering the embargo each year . t the Mia!i nternational ir*ort@isitors arriin" ;ro! a Cuban air*ort are seen ti!es !ore likely to be sto**e% an% subecte% to ;urther custo!sins*ections than are isitors ;ro! other countries. More than 30 *ercent o; the -reasuryPs Qce o; orei"n ssetsControl ins*ections each year are centere% on rootin" out s!u""le% Cuban "oo%s een thou"h the a"ency

a%!inisters !ore than 20 other tra%e bans. :o)ernment resources could be better spenton the enforcement of other sanctions@ such as illicit %ru" tra%e ;ro! Colu!bia@ rather than

the search ;or contraban% ci"ars an% ru!. t *resent@ the U.S. is largely alone in restrictingaccess to Cuba. -he e!bar"o has lon" been a *oint o; ;riction beteen the =nite% States an% allies in

,uro*e@ South !erica@ an% Cana%a. ,ery year since 1992@ the =.S. has been *ublically con%e!ne% in the =nite%:ations ;or !aintainin" counter*ro%uctie an% orn out tra%e an% !i"ration restrictions a"ainst Cuba %es*ite the;act that nearly all 7@911 =.S. co!*anies nationalize% %urin" the Castro takeoer hae %ro**e% their clai!s. Moreoer@ since ,uro*eans@ Ha*anese@ an% Cana%ians can trael an% con%uct business in Cuba uni!*e%e%@ thesanctions are rather toothless. -he State e*art!ent has ar"ue% that the cost o; con%uctin" business in Cuba isonly ne"li"ibly hi"her because o; the e!bar"o. or !erican !ultinational cor*orations ishin" to un%ertake

co!!erce in Cuba@ ;orei"n branches Bn% it easy to con%uct exchan"es. ^et@ esti!ates o; the sanctions5annual cost to the U.S. economy ran"e ;ro! ]1.2 to 0.# billion@ accor%in" to the =.S.

Cha!ber o; Co!!erce. estrictions on trade disproportionately aect U.S. smallbusinesses +ho lack the transportation and nancial infrastructure to

http://www.forbes.com/sites/realspin/2013/01/16/its-time-for-the-u-s-to-end-its-senseless-embargo-of-cuba/


http://www.forbes.com/places/mi/monroe/

http://www.forbes.com/places/united-states/

http://www.forbes.com/places/fl/miami/



http://www.forbes.com/international/

http://www.forbes.com/places/sc/columbia/





http://www.forbes.com/places/mi/monroe/

http://www.forbes.com/places/united-states/


http://www.forbes.com/international/




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skirt the embargo. These restrictions translate into real reductions inincome and employment for Americans in states like lori%a@ here the une!*loy!ent rate

currently stan%s at 8.1 *ercent.



1/9

Link Turn Qene*uelaThe a is a re)ersal of a focus on military strategy D net better

than the s;uo or the alt(etras !"1" $Rames (etras' :lobal (olicy Borum author' USQene*uela8 The 3mpire Strikes 7ack and Loses/' publishedAugust !"1" http8<<+++.globalpolicy.org<usmilitarye>pansionandinter)ention<)ene*uela<6E6"".html2Fashin"tonEs !ultitrack *olicy %irecte% at %estabilizin" the Venezuelan "oern!ent has by an% lar"e beencounter*ro%uctie@ su?erin" !aor ;ailures an% ;e successes. -he har%line toar% Venezuela has ;aile% to Dlineu*D any su**ort in the !aor countries o; Latin !erica@ ith the exce*tion o; Colo!bia. t has isolate% Fashin"tonnot Caracas. -he !ilitary threats !ay hae ra%icalize% the socioecono!ic !easures a%o*te% by Chaez not!o%erate% the!. -he threats an% accusations e!anatin" ;ro! Colo!bia hae stren"thene% internal cohesion inVenezuela@ exce*t a!on" the har%core o**osition "rou*s. -hey hae also le% to VenezuelaEs u*"ra%in" itsintelli"ence@ *olice an% !ilitary o*erations. -he Colo!bian *roocations hae le% to a break in relations an% an 80Y%ecline in the !ultibillion %ollar cross bor%er tra%e@ bankru*tin" nu!erous Colo!bian Br!s@ as Venezuela

substitutes $razilian an% r"entine in%ustrial an% a"rarian i!*orts. -he e?ects o; the *olicies o;tension an% the Dar o; attritionD are har% to !easure@ es*ecially in ter!s o; theiri!*act on the ;orthco!in" crucial le"islatie elections on Se*te!ber 2'@ 2010. :o%oubt@ VenezuelaEs ;ailure to re"ulate an% control the !ulti!illion Uo o; =S ;un%sto its Venezuelan collaborators has !a%e a si"niBcant i!*act on their or"anizationalca*ability. :o %oubt the econo!ic %onturn has ha% so!e e?ect in li!itin" *ublics*en%in" on ne social *ro"ra!s. Likeise@ the inco!*etence an% corru*tion o; seeral to* Chaista

oQcials@ es*ecially in *ublic ;oo% %istribution@ housin" an% *ublic sa;ety ill hae an electoral i!*act. t is likely thatthese DinternalD ;actors are !uch !ore inUuential in sha*in" the ali"n!ent o; VenezuelaEs electoral outco!e@ thanthe a""ressie con;rontational *olitics a%o*te% by Fashin"ton. :eertheless@ i; the *ro=S o**osition substantiallyincreases its le"islatie *resence in the Se*te!ber 2' elections beyon% onethir% o; the Con"ress *eo*le they

ill atte!*t to block social chan"es an% econo!ic sti!ulus *olicies. -he =S ill intensi;y its e?orts to*ressure Venezuela to %iert resources to security issues in or%er to un%er!ine

socialecono!ic ex*en%itures hich sustain the su**ort o; the loer '0Y o; the Venezuelan *o*ulation.

Up to no+' %hite ,ouse policy based on greater militari*ation and

)irtually no ne+ economic initiati)es has been a failure. 9t hasencouraged the larger Latin American countries to increase regionalintegration' as itnesse% by ne custo! an% tari? a"ree!ents taken at the M,5CS=5 !eetin" in early

u"ust o; this year. t has not le% to any %i!inuation o; hostilities beteen the =S an% the L$ countries. 9t hasnot increased US inuence. nstea% Latin !erica has !oe% toar% a ne re"ional *olitical

or"anization =:S=5 #hich exclu%es the =S&@ %on"ra%in" the r"anization o; !erican States hich the =S uses

to *ush its a"en%a. ronically@ the only bri"ht li"hts@ ;aorin" =S inUuence@ co!es ;ro! internal@electoral *rocesses. 5i"htist can%i%ate Hose Serra is runnin" a stron" race in the u*co!in" $razilian<resi%ential elections. n r"entina@ <ara"uay an% $oliia the *ro=S ri"ht is re"rou*in" an% ho*in" to return to*oer. Fhat Fashin"ton ;ails to un%erstan% is that across the *olitical s*ectru! ;ro! the le;t to the centerri"ht@

*olitical lea%ers are a**alle% an% o**ose% to the =S *ush an% *ro!otion o; the !ilitary o*tion as the center*iece o; *olicy. <ractically all *olitical lea%ers hae un*leasant !e!ories o; exile an%*ersecution ;ro! the *reious cycle o; =S backe% !ilitary re"i!es. -he sel;*roclai!e% extraterritorial reach o; the =S !ilitary@ o*eratin" out o; its seen basesin Colo!bia@ has i%ene% the breach beteen the centrist an% centerle;t%e!ocratic re"i!es an% the ba!a Fhite )ouse. n other or%s@ Latin !erica*erceies =S !ilitary a""ression toar% Venezuela as a DBrst ste*D southar%toar% their countries. -hat@ an% the %rie ;or "reater *olitical in%e*en%ence an%!ore %iersiBe% !arkets@ hae eakene% Fashin"tonEs %i*lo!atic an% *olitical

http://www.globalpolicy.org/us-military-expansion-and-intervention/venezuela/49400.html






140

atte!*ts to isolate Venezuela. Colo!biaEs ne <resi%ent Santos@ !a%e out o; the sa!e ri"htist !ol% as

his *re%ecessor laro =ribe@ ;aces a %iQcult choice continuin" as an instru!ent o; =S !ilitary con;rontation an%%estabilization o; Venezuela at the cost o; seeral billion %ollars in tra%e losses an% isolation ;ro! the rest o; Latin!erica or lessenin" bor%er tensions an% incursions@ %ro**in" the *roocatie rhetoric an% nor!alizin" relationsith Venezuela. ; the latter takes *lace@ the =S ill lose its last best instru!ent ;or its external strate"y o;DtensionsD an% *sych ar;are. Fashin"ton ill be le;t ith to o*tions6 a unilateral %irect !ilitary interention or

;un%in" o; *olitical ar;are throu"h its %o!estic collaborators. n the !eanti!e <resi%ent Chaez an%

his su**orters oul% %o ell to concentrate on *ullin" the econo!y out o;recession@ tacklin" state corru*tion an% !onu!ental ineQciency an% e!*oerin"the co!!unity an% ;actorybase% councils to *lay a "reater role in eerythin" ;ro!increasin" *ro%uctiity to *ublic sa;ety. =lti!ately VenezuelaEs lon" ter! security;ro! the lon" an% *erasie reach o; the =S ,!*ire %e*en%s on the stren"th o; theor"anize% !ass or"anizations sustainin" the Chaez "oern!ent.

coloniality kritik

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