Commack High School

HL Biology

Topic One:

Cells

Seven Quest

Student Notes

1.1 U. 1 A ccording to the cell th e or y , li v ing organis m s are co m posed of cells.

1. When do the first cells appear in the fossil record of Earth (Slide 2)

2. the three core ideas of cell theory (Slide 3)I. All living things are made up of cells

II.III. .

1.1 A. 1 Q uestioning the cell th e ory using at y pical e x amples, in c lud i ng striated m uscle, gi a nt algae and aseptate fu n gal h y phae.

3. For each atypical example outline how it challenges conventional cell theory (Slides 7-11)

a. Striated muscleChallenges the idea that a cell has one nucleus. Muscle cells have more than one nucleus per cell Muscle Cells called fibers can be very long (300mm). They are surrounded by a single plasma membrane but they are multi-nucleated (many nuclei).This does not conform to the standard view of a small single nuclei within a cell

b. Giant algae:

c. Fungal hyphae:

d. Blood Cells:

e. Bone Cells:

1.1 U. 2 O rganis m s consis t ing of only one cell carry out a ll functi o ns o f life in that cell.

4. State the functions of life, as demonstrated by all living organisms. (Slide 12)Metabolism - Response - Living things can respond to and interact with the environmentHomeostasis - The maintenance and regulation of internal cell conditions, e.g. water and pHGrowth - Reproduction - Living things produce offspring, either sexually or asexuallyExcretion – Nutrition –

1.1. A 2 In v estigati o n of functio n s of life in P ara m ecium and one na m ed photos y nthetic uni c ellular orga n is m . 5. Below is an image of a paramecium. Label and annotate the image to indicate how it performs each of the

functions of life. (Slide 14)

1.1 U. 3 S urface area to v olu m e ratio is i m portant in the li m it a tion of ce l l s i ze.

6. Explain why small cells are more efficient than big cells. (Slides 17-19)

1.1 U.5 specialized tissues can develop by cell differentiation in multicellular organisms.7. In humans, how many different types of cells are there? (Slide 20)

1.1 U. 4 M ulticellular organis m s ha v e properties that e m erge from the interaction of their cell u l a r co m ponents.

8. a. Unicellular organisms carry out all the functions of life, multi-cellular organisms differentiate and show emergent properties. Describe what is meant by the term emergent properties. (Slide 21)

b. Outline the toaster project and how it relates to the idea of cells having emergent properties. (Slide 22)

c. The Hierarchy of Life Video Questions (Slide 23)

I. Using termites, explain emergent properties. (0:49)

II. Describe how is biology organized? (1:44)

1.1 U. 6 D ifferentiat i on in v ol v es the e x press i on of so m e genes and n ot others in a cell ’ s gen om e.

9. All cells in an organism share the same, identical, genome (i.e. they all possess the same

genetic information). Describe how newly formed cells become specialized. (Slide 24)

1.1 U. 7 The capaci t y of stem cells to di v ide and differen t iate along d i fferent pat hw a y s is necessary in e m br y onic d e v elop m ent and also m akes stem ce l ls suita b le f o r therapeutic uses.

10. Describe what is meant by the term stem cell. (Slide 25)

11. Define the following types of stem cells. Giving an example of each: (Slide 25)

a. Totipotent

b. Pluripotent

c. Multipotent

d. Unipotent

13. Stem Cell Story (video) (Slide 26)

a. What are the two types of cells stem cells can make when they divide? (4:02)

b. How many skin cells can skin one stem cell make 4:32

c. How many blood stem cells are needed to repair the entire blood system, when fighting leukemia? (6:38)

d. Where do embryonic stem cells come from? (7:16)

e. How many cell types exist in the brain? (10:53)

f. How many people in Belgium currently have diabetes? (12:20)

1.1 A. 4 E thics of the therapeutic use of stem cells from s pecially cre a ted e m br y o s , from the u m bilical cord blood of a n ew-born baby and from a n adult’s o w n tissu e s.

32. Complete the table to compare the different sources of stem cells available: (Slide 27)

Comparison of stem cell sources

Embryo Cord blood Adult

Differentiation Can differentiate into

any cell type

Limited capacity to differentiate (without inducement only naturally divide into blood cells)

Limited capacity to differentiate (dependent on the source tissue)

Geneticdamage

Due to accumulation of mutations through the life of the adult genetic damage can occur

Compatibility

33. Complete the table to compare the different sources of stem cells available: (Slide 28)

Comparison of stem cell sources

Embryo Cord blood Adult

Ease of extraction Can be obtained

from excess

embryo’s by IVF

programs

Limited capacity to

differentiate (without

inducement only

naturally divide into

blood cells)

Difficult to obtain as there are very few and are buried deep in

tissues

Ethics of the extraction

Can only be obtained by destruction of an embryo

Growth potential Almost unlimited Reduced potential

Tumor risk Low risk of Development

Cord blood saving lives Video (Slide 29)34. What makes up cord blood? (22secs) 35. How long can cord blood last? (30 secs) 36. What are some diseases that can be treated with cord blood? (48secs) 37. What is Hurler syndrome? (1:26)

1.1 A. 3 U se of stem cells to tre a t S targardt’s disease a n d one other na m ed condition.

38. Complete the table to detail the use of stem cells in the treatment of specific conditions. (Slides 30-35)

Condition Stargardt's macular dystrophy Leukemia

Outline the condition andthe problems it causes

Affects around one in 10,000 Recessive genetic (inherited) condition.The mutation causes an active transport protein on photoreceptor cells to malfunction. That causes progressive, and eventually total, loss of central vision

•

Describe treatment ofthe conditionusing stem cells

Hematopoetic Stem Cells (HSCs) are harvested from bone marrow, peripheral blood or umbilical cord bloodChemotherapy and radiotherapy used to destroy the diseased white blood cellsNew white blood cells need to be replaced with healthy cells.HSCs are transplanted back into the bone marrowHSCs differentiate to form new healthy white blood cells

The benefit of using stemCells

Stem cells are currently the only

viable treatment for this

condition.

39. Therapeutic cloning remains a controversial area of medicine.a. Outline the main arguments for therapeutic cloning (Slide 36)

•Stem cell research may pave the way for future discoveries and beneficial technologies that would not have occurred if their use had been banned

•May be used to cure serious diseases or disabilities with cell therapy (replacing bad cells with good ones)

•

Cells are taken at a stage when the embryo has no nervous system and can arguably feel no pain

40. Outline the four main arguments against therapeutic cloning (Slide 36)

•Involves the creation and destruction of human embryos (at what point do we afford the right to life?)

•Embryonic stem cells are capable of continued division and may develop into cancerous cells and cause tumors

1.2 U. 3 E lectron m icroscopes h av e a m uch h igher resolu t ion than lig h t m icrosco p es.

41. State the definition of resolution: (Slide 38) shortest distance between two points that can be distinguished

42. State Outline the scale of objected studied in Biology (Slide 39)

43. Complete the table below comparing the resolution of the eye with light and electron microscopes: (Slide 40)

Resolution Millimeters (mm) Micrometers (μm) Nanometers (nm)

Human eye 100 100,000

Light microscopes 0.0002

Electron microscopes

0.001 1

44. Explain why electron microscopes have a better resolution that light microscopes. (Slide 40)

45. State what is meant by the term Ultrastructure and how it relates to an electron microscope. (Slide 41)

1.1. S 1 U se of a lig h t m icrosco p e to in v esti g ate the stru c ture of cel l s and tissu e s, w ith dra w ing of cel l s. C alculation of the m agnification of d r a w ings and the actual si ze of struct u res and ultr a structures s ho w n in dra w ings or m icrographs.

46. Write out the formula for calculating an image at the bottom of Slide 42

47. Calculate the magnification of these scale bars using a rule and formula I/AM:

48. Calculate the actual size of the structures delineated in yellow.

Diatom x 1,000

1-'

The diagram below shows the characteristic rod shaped structure of E. coli bacteria.

31. Calculate the magnification of the image.

State the method (shown here) by which bacteria reproduce

1.2 U. 1 P rokar y otes ha v e a si m ple cell stru c ture w ithout co m part m e n talizatio n . AND 1.2 S. 1 D ra w ing of the ultrastructu r e of prokar y otic ce l ls b a sed on elec t ron m icrographs.

32. Prokaryotes have a simple cell structure Define the term prokaryote. (Slide 46)

33. Draw and label (including function of each part) prokaryote. Include cell wall, plasma membrane, pili, flagella, nucleoid (naked DNA), ribosomes and a scale bar. (Slides 48-49)

1.2 A. 2 P rokar y otes di v ide by binary fission.

33. Outline the process of binary fission (Slide 50)

1.2 U. 2 E ukar y otes ha v e a compart m entalized cell s tru c ture.

34. Plant and animal cells are eukaryotic.a. Define the term eukaryote. (Slide 51)

b. Outline the benefits compartmentalization provides to eukaryote cells compared when with prokaryotes. (Slide 52)

1.2 A. 1 S tructure and function of organelles w ithin e x ocrine gland ce l ls of the pa n creas and w ithin pal i sa d e m esoph y ll cells of the l e af.

35. Complete the table to summary the organelles commonly found in eukaryotes.(Slides 52-65)

Organelle Function Diagram How to identify it on anelectron micrograph

Nucleus Contains genetic information in the form of chromosomes

Mitochondrion Has a double membrane. A smooth outer membrane (2) and a folded inner membrane (1). The folds are referred to as cristae (3). The space inthe middle is called the matrix(4). The shape varies.

Freeribosomes (80S)

Synthesizes proteins to function in the cytoplasm, for use within the cell, e.g. enzymes

RoughEndoplasmic Reticulum (rER)

rER synthesizes proteins which are transported, by vesicles, to the golgi apparatus for modification before secretion outside the cell

Organelle Function Diagram (labelled wherenecessary)

How to identify it on anelectron micrograph

GolgiApparatus

flattened membrane sacs called cisternae, like rER

Vesicles Used to transport materials inside of a cell

Lysosomes spherical with a single membranedigestive enzymes

Vacuoles • In Plant cells, large and permanent, often occupying the majority of the cell volume

• In animals, smaller and temporary and used for various reasons, e.g. to absorb food and digest it

Flagellum Used to move the cell

Cilia Used to move the cell

Chloroplast contain chloroplastsStacks of thylakoidsThe site of photosynthesis

36. Cell walls are not true organelles. (Slide 65)a. What is the function of the cell wall and where can it be found?

b. In plant cells what is the cell wall mainly composed of?

1.2 S.2 Drawing of the ultrastructure of eukaryotic cells based on electron micrographs.

37. The ultrastructure of plant and animal cells is very different.a. Distinguish between the structure of plant and animal cells (Slide 66)

b. Draw and label the ultrastructure of a generalized eukaryote animal cell. Include all the relevant organelles from the two questions above (Slides 67-68)

c. Draw and label the ultrastructure of a generalized eukaryote Plant cell. Include all the relevant organelles from the two questions above. (Slides 69-70)

1.2 U. 1 P hospholip i ds form bila y ers in w ater due to the a m phipathic properties o f phospholi p id m olecule s .

38. Explain how hydrophobic and hydrophilic properties of the phospholipid bilayer allow a membrane to maintain its structure. (Slides 77-78) The polar-nonpolar nature of the molecule (remember organic chem) make it possible to self-assemble.

39. Draw a diagram of a single phospholipid molecule. Label the hydrophobic and hydrophilic sections. (Slide 79

1.3 S. 1 D ra w ing of the fluid m o s aic m odel.

40. Draw and label a simplified (2D) diagram of the plasma membrane. (Slide 81)Include: phospholipid bilayer, integral and peripheral proteins, glycoproteins and cholesterol.

41. The Singer-Nicholson fluid mosaic modern model, identify some it key features. (Slide 81)

1.3. A 1 C holesterol i n m am m alian m e m bra n es reduces m e m brane f l uidity and per m eability to so m e sol u tes.

42. The presence of cholesterol in the membrane restricts the movement of phosolipids and other molecules. How does this affect the physical properties of the membrane? (Slide 83)

43. The presence of cholesterol disrupts the regular packing of the of the hydrocarbon tails of phospholipid molecules. What impact does this have on the physical properties of the membrane? (Slide 82)

1.3. U 3 C holesterol i s a co m ponent of ani m al cell m e m branes.

44. Cholesterol is a type of lipid, but it is not a fat or oil. What group does it belong to? (Slide 83)

45. Cholesterol makes up around about 20% of the mass of cell membranes. This percentage varies greatly and some membranes, e.g. bacteria, do not contain it at all.

a. Where in the plasma membrane can cholesterol be found? (Slide 83)

b. What properties cause it to be located in this position? (Slide 83)

1.2. U. 2 M e m brane proteins are di v erse in t e r m s of struc t ure, position in the m embrane and function.

45 Where are the three major types of proteins found in the membrane? (Slides 84-85)

a. Intergral b. Peripheral c. Glycoprotein

46. List the six main functions of the membrane proteins. (Slides 86-87)

1.3 S. 2 A nal y sis of e v idence from electron m icroscopy that led to t h e proposal o f the D a v son- D anielli m odel.

47. Outline the structure of the Davson-Danielli model of the cell membrane. (Slides 88-89)

48. Why was the new model proposed, what did it help explain? (Slide 90)

1.4 U. 1 P articles m o v e across m e m branes by si m ple diffusion, fa c ili t ated diffusi o n, os m osis and acti v e transport.

49. Outline the head and the tails of the plasma membrane. (Slide 92)

50. Describe the five ways in which the membrane controls movement. (Slide 93)

51. Compare simple diffusion to osmosis. (Slides 94-96)

52. Distinguish between solute, solvent and solution. (Slide 96)

53. Compare cells to the solution there are in as isotonic, hyper or hypotonic: (Slide 96)

a. Isotonic b. Hypertonic

c. Hypotonic

54. In the space below, draw a diagram of a plant cell undergoing plasmolyed and then turgid. Explain how osmosis causes plasmolysis. (Slide 97)

55. In the space below, draw a diagram of a plant cell before and after plasmolysis. Explain how osmosis causes plasmolysis. (Slides 98)

1.4 A.2 Tissues or organs to be used in medical procedures must be bathed in a solution with the same osmolarity as the cytoplasm to prevent osmosis.

56. Explain osmolarity regulation in cell: (Slide 99)

57. Describe somethings that my determine the solute concentration of a Ringer lactate IV drip? (Slide 99) s

58. List the common medical procedures in which an isotonic saline solution is useful. (Slide 99)

59. Explain what is happening in this diagram:

60. Watch the hype-link: How Facilitated Diffusion Works and then outline how it does (Slide 100

1.4. A 1 S tructure and function of sodium–potassium pu m ps for acti v e transport a nd potassi u m channels for facilitat e d di f fusion in a x ons.

61. Draw the example of Facilitated Diffusion from last year’s curriculum. (Slides 101-103)

62. ATP is the source of energy for active transport. Explain how ATP releases energy, using a simple diagram.(Slide 102)

1.4 U. 2 The fluidity of m e m bra n es allo w s m aterials to b e taken into cells by en d oc y tosis or r eleased by e x oc y tosis.1.4. U. 3 V esicles mov e m aterials w ithin cel l s.

63. Large food particles (macromolecule) are taken in using endocytosis? Give one example of a macromolecule produced in the cell. (pervious knowledge)

64. What is a vesicle? (Slide 104)

65. Outline the uses of vesicles within cells after watching the hyperlink on slide 104.

66. Differentiate between exocytosis and endocytosis. after watching the hyperlink on slide 104.

67. Exocytosis is often characterized as being either pinocytosis or phagocytosis. Distinguish between two terms. (Slide 105)

1.4. A. 1 Ev idence from P asteur’s e x peri m ents that spont a neous gene r ation of ce l ls and organi sm s does not now occur o n E arth.

68. Outline the idea of the theory of Spontaneous Generation ((Slide 107)

69. According to Spontaneous Generation, where do mice come from? (Slide 108)

1.1 U.1 According to the cell theory, living organisms are composed of cells.

70. State the three core ideas of cell theory (Slide 109)

71. How does the idea of spontaneous generation stand in the way of the advancement of our understanding of the cell? (Slides 109-114)

1.5 A.1 Evidence from Pasteur’s experiments that spontaneous generation of cells and organisms does not now occur on Earth.

Louis Pasteur designed an experiment to test whether sterile nutrient broth could spontaneously generate microbial life

Watch the Hyperlink on 115 before answering questions 68-71

68. In which flask(s) would you expect microbes grow? (Slide 116)

69. Explain the reasons for your answer in question 68 using slides 115-116

70. How does the evidence derived from this experiment refute the idea of spontaneous generation P

1.5 U. 2 The first c e l l s m ust ha v e arisen from non-li v ing m aterial.

71. There are two theories of where the first cells come from on Earth. Panspermia and Organic Evolution.

a. Explain Panspermia (Slide 117)

b. List the four things needed of Organic Evolution to have occurred below (Slides 118)

c. The non-living synthesis of simple organic molecules what were the conditions on early Earth? (Slide 119)

Little to no free O2/ Very hot (Volcanism)/Different chemicals/Lots of time

d. The non-living synthesis of simple organic molecules what were the conditions on early Earth? (Slide 119)

Little to no free O2/ Very hot (Volcanism)/Different chemicals/Lots of time

e. Provide a list below some of the molecules contained in the early atmosphere and ocean of Earth (Slide 120)

H2O/NH3/N2/H2S/CH4

f. Where is it thought that Organic Evolution might have occurred on Earth? (Slides 121-123)

Close to the ocean surface of deep in the ocean around hydrothermal vent.

72. Complete and annotate the diagram below to show the process of vesicle transport of a protein molecule through a eukaryote cell. Begin with protein synthesis in the Rough ER and finish with exocytosis though the plasma membrane. Label all organelles shown. (Slide 128)

1.5. U 3 The origin of eukar y otic cells can be e x plained by the endos ym biotic theor y .

73. State the definition of endosymbiotic theory: (Slide 129)

74. As shown by the diagram below there are several key stages in the theory. (Slide 130-131)

75. Describe the evidence supporting the theory for mitochondria and chloroplasts: (Slide 133)