communicat bagar

8/2/2019 COMMUNICAT BAGAR

1/31

COMMUNICATION SKILLS

CONTENT:

1. Developing writing skills

1.0 Goals for effective writing

1.1 Paragraph writing

1.2 Essay/Composition writing

* Parts of an essay

1.3. Letter writing: Informal/formal writing/memos writing/Letter of

complaint/ Apology letter/Sympathy and Condolence letter

1.4. CV writing

1.5. Report writing

1.6. Writing a summary1.7. Notes taking-Hints for notes taking

1.8. Punctuation

2. Developing speaking skills

2.1. Basic rules for public speaking

2.2. Basic rules for an oral presentation/How to deliver an effective

presentation

2.3. Presenting a report

3. Developing listening skills

3.1. Guidelines for effective listening

3.2. Types of listening

4. Developing reading skills

4.1. A critical reading strategy/Some guidelines/Reading techniques

5. Referencing

5.1. Plagiarism

5.2. Making use of quotations5.3. Bibliography, library search and information retrieval

,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,

LISTENING SKILLS


2/31

Importance of listening

About half of the time spent by managers and employees communicating in the work placeinvolves listening. The art of listening is one of the business persons most important

communication skills and is crucial for successful and effective business communication.

Unfortunately, many managers and employees merely hear instructions, queries andcomplaints and much valuable information, many good ideas and opportunities to avoid

mistakes are missed. To listen properly to a client, colleague and employee means paying

careful attention to what the other person is paying, absorbing the information, judging itand acting on it. The art of listening is not a natural skill it must be learned and this

requires effort and practice.

Think about your own listening habits:

Do I let the speaker express his/her thoughts fully without interrupting?

Do I listen (and read) between the lines?

Do I try to remember important facts? Do I write down the most important details of a message?

When writing down a message, Do I concentrate on the main facts?

Do I feed the main facts back to the speaker before the conversation ends to ensure

correct understanding?

Do I manage to listener to the speaker even if the message is dull or boring or if I

do not know or like the speaker?

Do I become hostile or excited when a speakers views differ from my own?

Do I ignore distractions when listening?

Do I show genuine interest in the conversation?

In the business environment, where good interpersonal relationships, time, energy andmoney and money are important for job satisfaction and productivity, an investment in

acquiring this skill will be extremely valuable.

The advantages of effective listening include the following:

Achieving better interpersonal relationships

Saving time, money and energy

Avoid mistakes and misunderstandings

Identifying problems and grievances before it is too late

Creating a working climate of openness and sensitivity

Improving motivational and persuasive abilities

GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVE LISTENING

Use empathy when communicating


3/31

Empathy is the ability to see an idea or concept from another persons point of view. This

does not mean that you necessarily agree with the other person but that you at least

understand their viewpoint.if you have confidence in your own beliefs and opinions, youshould not feel threatened when confronted with new information.

Listen for interesting ideas

It is much easier to listen effectively if you are interested in what is being said. Do notdecide beforehand that you will be bored by what the speaker has to say. ask yourself the

question; Is there anything of interest that I can take from what is said?

Avoid distraction

A good listener instinctively resists distractions, whether they are physical (e.g loud music)

or psychological (e.g fear). (See barriers to communications,Unit1)

Listening objectively

Keep an open mind and do not decide beforehand that the speaker will have nothing

worthwhile to say.

Learn to concentrate

Effective listening requires effort. Adopt a what is in it for me? Attitude to everything youhear. If you do, you will not miss something worthwhile listening to.

Be a critical listener

Take careful note of the speakers argument and the conclusions she or he is drawing. Youmay not want to accept everything that is said, but you have to weigh the arguments for and

against a point before you can offer your opinion.

Check your understanding

Ask questions in order to have points clarified or explained. An intelligent question

indicates interest, but avoid hostile questions. If you are at all unsure, briefly restate whatyou think was said and then ask Is that what you mean?

Summarise main points

This can be done either in writing or mentally. You can then also practice reading (or

listening) between the lines by giving attention to nonverbal factors such as tone, volume,facial expressions, posture, gestures and movements.


4/31

Taken from Writing, C. & Davids, G. (2003). Communication for public management.

South Africa: Oxford University Press, p. 22.

READING SKILLS

Before----------------While ----------------After

A. Questions to ask before actually Reading the text

1. What does the title tell me?

2. Can I learn anything from the diagrams or pictures?

3. How long is the text?4. Do I have a dictionary handy?

5. What am I actually looking for in the text?6. What do I learn when I skim-read?

7. Will reading only the introduction and conclusion help me?

8. What do I already know?9. Is the text relevant, i.e. does it contain what I need?

B. Things to do while Reading

1. Ask questions, e.g. is this text useful for my assignment?

2. Make notes next to, or on the text, like NB., I agree/disagree, ?, !, etc.3. Underline difficult words.

4. Highlight interesting sentences.

5. Try to discover the main points in the text, by looking at the topic sentence ineach paragraph

6. Try to uncover what is hidden, i.e. what which is suggested-reading between the

lines.

C. After Reading the text

1. Try to summarise the text.

2. Re-read parts not understood, or those parts found to be very interesting.

3. Ask more questions.4. Link the text to the assignment, or the purpose for which I am reading the text.

5. Ask other people what they think about the text.

6. Try to discover the authors aims with the text.

7. Criticize the text, i.e. say why you agree with the authors point of view.


5/31

A CRITICAL READING STRATEGY: SOME GUIDELINES

Writing a summary is an important skill which you will need to demonstrate. The

following guidelines will help you integrate the reading and writing processes.

STAGE 1. BRAINSTORM BEFORE YOU DO THE READING

What do you already know about the topic?

What do you think about it?

What questions do you have about it?

You can brainstorm in discussion or by making notes on your own or try free

writing or creating a mindmap.

You can also combine discussion and individual work-a few minutes each way.

STAGE 2: WHILE YOU ARE READING ASK YOURSELF: WHAT IS THE MAIN

ISSUE HERE?

What line/s are particularly interesting or puzzling?

What do you think the writing is about? What is the argument? What is the

debate? What is the writer doing?

What can you tell about the writer, audience, purposes?

Try to identify the main issue or issues.

Are there different positions/perspectives on those issues in that specific

reading? Who is in favour of what? Who is against what? Why?

If its your own copy, make a few notes on the reading: insert a few headings

or key words in the margin, or use a highlighter.

If its not your copy, make a few notes in your notebook: headings, key words,

questions you have.

At this stage you must be able to SUM UP CONCISELY WITHOUT

BRINGING IN YOUR VIEW the information you have gained from your

readings. Ideally you should be able to look back at the reading and without re-reading,

see from your notes what the issue is and any different positions on that issue,

so that you can sum up and if necessary quote your resources.

STAGE 3: GIVE YOUR OWN COMMENTS AND VIEWS ON THE ISSUE


6/31

What is your reaction to the issue/s raised in the reading? Does any point/s

remind you of something you heard, read or watched on television?

Are there points you agree or disagree with? Why?

Any comments on the way it is written.

Find a way of keeping your own views separate from those in the reading. e.g

You could reserve one side of you note paper for or your own views,

comments, questions, etc and do the summing up of the article on the other

side.

You must be able to justify your views: to give your evidence.

Keeping your views separate and holding back on your own views when you

write a summary is very artificial but it can be useful exercise for a while. The

main thing is to be clear whose view is whose and what is your own view-and

why.

STAGE 4: FURTHER READING ON THE SAME RELATED ISSUE

Follow stages 2 and 3 for each reading: IDENTIFY ISSUE/S AND

POSITIONS, SUM UP KEEP YOUR OWN COMMENTS SEPARATE.

In the process COMPARE and CONTRAST what different writers are saying

on the same issue: WHO HOLDS WHAT POSITION/PERSPECTIVE AND

WHY?

STAGE 5: DRAFTING A WRITTEN PIECE

Who will be the audience? What is your purpose?

[ Include with permission from the author, Carohn Cornell]

READING TECHNIQUES

Skimming and scanning

You understanding of the text can be improved if you can get a picture of the

whole text before you start detailed reading. In other words you can start using

your knowledge of the subject and start predicting what you are going to readabout.

Skimming

One way to get a general picture of a text is to skim it. Skimming is a style

of reading which enable you to get a quick impression of a passage. It is

also a style of reading which improves your general reading speed because


7/31

it gives your eyes practice in moving quickly, and in taking in large wholes

rather than small parts.

Skimming a passage is like skimming cream off the top of a bucket of milk.

When you skim, you pick up what is important and cover the whole

surface.

To pick up what is important, you need to read headings, sub-headings and

words in bold print or italics, and look at illustrations and their captions.

this should tell you quite a lot about the passage.

If you still do not have a general of its content, you can read the first

sentence of each paragraph, which often states the topic or theme of the

paragraph, and the first paragraph of the passage, which usually

introduces the authors general idea. If the first sentence of a paragraph

does not seem to present its topic, read the last sentence, which may sum

up the paragraph. The last paragraph of a book or passage will often give asummary or conclusion, so you can read that too.

It is helpful to skim a passage in order to get a general picture of what you are

going to read about. Skimming is also useful if you want to find out whether

the passage contains the kind of information you need; if it does not you do not

need to read it in detail. If you do not have enough time to read a book, you

can pick up quite a lot of the information in it by skimming it.

Scanning

Scanning is another style of quick reading. it is used if you want to find a particular

piece of information without reading the entire book. It is the style that you use

when consulting a dictionary or a telephone directory.

When you scan, you move your eyes (and possibly your fingers or pen) down or

across the page, looking out for a particular word or number or letter. if the book

you are reading is arranged alphabetically, your scanning will be easier.

Imagine you wanted to find out how fast students at the University of Hawaii were

reading before training. You would move your eyes across the first passage in thisunit until you found a capital H. Then you would stop and read that sentence to see

whether you had found the right place.


8/31

WRITING PROCESS

A paragraph is a series of sentences about one main idea, or point. A paragraph

typically starts with a point, and the rest of the paragraph provides specific details to

support and develop that point.

What are the goals of effective writing

Goal 1: Make a point

It is often best to state your point in the fist sentence of your paper, just as Gary does in his

paragraph about returning to school. The sentence that expresses the main idea, or point, of

a paragraph is called the topic sentence. Your paper will be unified if you make sure thatall the details support the point in your topic sentence. Activities on pages 44-48 in Chapter

3 will help you learn how to write a topic sentence.

Goal 2: Support the point

To support the point, you need to provide specific reasons, examples, and other details

that explain and develop it. The more precise and particular your supporting details

are, the better your readers can see, hear, and feel them.

Goals 3: Organize the support

You will find it helpful to learn two common ways of organizing support in a

paragraphlisting order and time order. You should also learn the signal words,

known as transitions, that increase the effectiveness of each method.

Listing Order: The writer can organize supporting evidence in a paper by providing a

list of two or more reasons, examples, or details. Often the most important or

interesting items is saved for last because the reader is most likely to remember the

last thing read.

Transition words that indicate listing order include the following:


9/31

One second also next last of all for one thing third

another morevover finally first of all next

in addition furthermore

Time Order: When a writer uses time order, supporting details are presented in the

order in which they occurred. Firstthis happened; nextthis; afterthat, this: and so

on. Many paragraphs, especially paragraphs that tell a story or give a series of

directions, are organized in a time order.

Transitions words that show time relationships include the following:

First before after when then next during now while until

As soon later often finally

Read the paragraph below, which is organised in time order. See if you can underline thethe six transition words that show the time relationships.

Della had a sad experience while driving home last night. She traveled along the dark,winding road that led toward her home. She was only two miles from her house when she

noticed a glimmer of light in the road. The next thing she knew, she heard a sickening thudand realized she had struck an animal. The light, she realized, had been its eyes reflected in

her cars head lights. Della stopped the car and ran back to see what she had hit. It was a

handsome cocker spaniel, with blond fur and long ears. As she bent over the still form, she

realized there was nothing to be done. The dog was dead. Della


10/31

Goal 4: Write Error-Free sentences

If you use correct spelling and follow the rules of grammar, punctuation, and usage, yoursentences will be clear and well written. But by no means must you have all that

information in your head. Even the best of the writer need to use reference materials to be

sure their writing is correct. So when you write your papers, keep a good dictionary andgrammar handbook nearby.

HOW DO YOU REACH THE GOALS OF EFFECTIVE WRITING?

Even professional writers do not sit down and write a paper automatically, in one

draft. Instead, they have to work on it a step at a time. Writing a paper is a process

that can be divided into the following steps:

Step 1: Getting started through prewriting

Step 2: Preparing a scratch outline

Step 3: Writing the first draft Step 4: Revising

Step 5: Editing and proofreading

These steps are described on the following pages:

Step 1: Getting started through prewriting

What you need to learn first are strategies for working on a paper. These strategies

will help you do the thinking needed to figure out both the point you want to make

and the support you have for that point.

There are several prewriting strategies--strategies you use before writing the first

draft of your paper:

Freewriting: It is just sitting down and writing whatever comes into your mind

about a topic. Do this for ten minutes or so. Write without stopping and

without worrying at all about spelling, grammar, or the like. Simply get down

on paper all the information about the topic that occurs to you.

Example of Freewriting

One thing I want to write about is going back to school. At age twenty-nine. A lot to

deal with. I sometimes wonder if Im nuts to try to do this or just stupid. I had to deal

with my folks when I decided. My dad hated school. He knew when to quit, Ill say

that for him. But he doesnt understand Im different. I have a right to my own life.

And I want to better myself. He teases me a lot. Says things like didnt you get dumped

on enough in high school, why go back for more. My mom doesnt understand either.

Just keeps worring about where the money was coming from. Then my friends. They


11/31

make fun of me. Also my wife has to do more of the heavy house stuff because Im out

so much. Getting back to my friends, they say dumb things to get my goat. Like

calling me the college man or saying ooh, wed better watch our grammer. Sometimes

I think my dads right, school was no fun for me. Spent years just sitting in class

waiting for final bell so I could escape. Teachers didnt help me or take an interest,

some of them made me feel like a real loser. Now things are different and like most ofmy teachers. I can talk to the teacher after class or to ask questions if Im confused.

But I really need more time to spend with family, I hardly see them any more. What I

am doing is hard all round for them and me.

Notice that there problems with spelling, grammar, and punctuation in this

freewriting. The writer is not worrying about such matters, nor should he/she be.

He/she is just concentrating on getting ideas and details down on paper. He knows

that it is best to focus on one thing at a time. At this stage, he/she just wants to write

out thoughts as they come to him/her, to do some thinking on paper.

You should take the same approach when freewriting: explore your topic withoutworrying at all about being correct. Figuring out what you want to say should have

all your attention in this early stage of the writing process.

Questioning: Questioning means that you think about your topic by writing

down a series questions and answers about it. Your questions can start with

words like what, when, where, why, and how.

Here are some questions that the writer might have asked while

developing his/her paper, as well as some answers to those questions.

Example of Questioning

Why do I have a problem with returning to school? My parents and friends dont

support me.

How do they not support me? Dad asks why I want to be dumped on more. Mom is

upset because college costs lots of money. Friends tease me about being a college

man.

When do they not support me? When I go to my parents home for Friday night

visits, when my friends see walking toward them.

Why do I have this problem?Why else do I have this problem?

Clustering: Clustering is another prewriting strategy that can be used to

generate material for a paper. It is helpful for people who like to do their

thinking in a visual way.


12/31

In clustering, you begin by starting your subject in a few words in the center of

a blank sheet of paper. Then as ideas come to you, put them in ovals, boxes, or

circles around the subject, and draw lines to connect them to the subject. Put

minor ideas or details in smaller boxes or circles, and also use connecting lines

to show how they relate.

Example of Clustering:

Making a list: In making a list-a prewriting strategy also known as listing, list

making, and brainstorm-you make a list of ideas and details that could go into

your paper. Simply pile these items up, one after another, without worrying

about putting them in any special order. Try to accumulate as many details as

you can think of.

Example of listing:

parents give hard time when they see me

Dad hated school

Dad quit school after eighth grade

Dad says I was dumped on enough in high school

Dad asks why I want to go back for more

Mom also doesnt understand

keeps asking how Ill pay for it

friends give me a hard time too

friends call me college man

say they have to watch their grammar

etc

Step 2: Preparing a Scratch Outline

A scratch outline is a brief plan for a paragraph. It shows at a glance the point of the

paragraph and the main support for that point. It is the logical backbone on which

the paper is built.

This rough outline often follows freewriting, questioning, clustering, or listing-or

all four. Or it may gradually emerge in the midst of these strategies. In fact, trying to

outline is a good way to see if you need to do more prewriting. If a solid outline does

not emerge, then you know you need to do more prewriting to clarify your main pointor its support. Once you have a workable outline, you may realize, for instance, that

you want to do more listing to develop one of the supporting details in the outline.

Step 3: Writing the first draft

Step 4: Revising


13/31

Revising is as much a stage in the writing process as prewriting, outlining, and writing

a first draft.Revisingmeans rewriting a paper, building on what has been done, to

make it stronger. One writer has said about revision, Its like cleaning house-getting

rid of all the junk and putting things in the right order. It is not just straightening

up; instead, you must be ready to roll up your sleeves and do whatever is needed tocreate an effective paper. Too many students think that the first draft is the paper.

They start to become writers when they realize that revising a rough draft three or

four times is often at the heart of the writing process.

Here are some quick hints that can help make revision easier:

Ideally, set your first draft aside for a while. A few hours if fine, but a day or

two is best. You can then come back with a fresh, more objective point of view.

Work from typed or printed text. Youll be able to see the paper more

impartially in this way than if you were just looking at your own familiar

handwriting.

Read your draft aloud. Hearing how your writing sounds will help you pick upproblems with meaning as well as style.

As you do all these things, add your thoughts and changes above or in the

margins of your paper. Your written comments can serve as a guide when you

work on the next draft.

Step 5: Editing and Proofreading

The next-to-last major stage in the writing process is editingcheckinga paper for

mistakes in grammar, punctuation, usage and spelling. Students often find it hard to edit a

paper carefully. They have put so much work into their writing, or so little, that its almostpainful for them to look at the paper one more time. You may simply have to willyourself

to carry out this important closing step in the writing process. Remember that eliminating

sentence-skills mistakes will improve an average paper and help ensure a strong grade on agood paper. Further, as you get into the habit of checking your papers, you will also get

into the habit of using sentence skills consistently. they are an integral part of clear,

effective writing.

The checklist of sentence on the inside back cover o the book will serve as

a guide while you are editing your paper.

Here are hints that can help you edit the next-to-final draft of a paper for

sentence-skills mistakes:

Editing hints

1. Have at hand two essentials tools: a good dictionary and a grammar handbook


14/31

2. Use a sheet of paper to cover your essay so that you can expose only one sentence

at a time. Look for errors in grammar, spelling and typing. It may help to read each

sentence out loud. If the sentence does not read clearly and smoothly, chances aresomething is wrong.

3. Pay special attention to the kinds of errors you tend to make. For example, if you

tend to write run-ons or fragments, be especially on the lookout for these errors.4. Try to work on a typewritten or word-processed draft, where youll be able to see

your writing more objectively than you can on a handwritten page; use a pen with

colored ink so that your corrections will stand out.

Proofreading, the final stage in the write process, means checking a paper carefully for

spelling, grammar, punctuation, and other errors. You are ready for this stage when you are

satisfied with your choice of supporting details, the order in which they are presented, andthe way they and your topic sentence are worded.

Proofreading hints

1. One helpful trick at this stage is to read your paper out loud. You will probably hear

awkward wordings and become aware of spots where the punctuation needs to beimproved. Make the changes needed for your sentences to read smoothly and

clearly.

2. Another helpful techniques is to take a sheet of paper and cover your paragraph sothat you can expose just one line at a time and check it carefully.

3. A third strategy is to read your paper backward, from the last sentence to the first.

This helps you keep from getting caught up in the flow of the paper and missing

small mistakeswhich is easy to do, since youre so familiar with what you meanto say.

WRITING A SUMMARY

At some point in a course, your instructor may ask you to write a summary of a kook, an

article, a TV show, or the like. In a summary, (also referred as aprcis or an abstract), you

reduce material in an original work to its main points and key supporting details. Thus asummary is something like an outline. Unlike an outline, however, a summary does not use

symbols such as I, A, 1, 2, and so on to indicate the relationships among parts of the

original material.

A summary may consist of a single word, a phrase, several sentences, or one or more

paragraphs. The length of the summary you prepare will depend on your instructors

expectations and the length of the original work. Most often, you will be asked to write asummary of one or more paragraphs.

Writing a summary brings together a number of important reading, study, and writingskills. To condense the original matter, you must preview, read, evaluate, organize, and


15/31

perhaps outline the material. Summarizing, then, can be a real aid to understanding; you

must get inside the material and realize fully what is being said before you can reduce its

meaning to a few words.

How to summarize an article

To write a summary of an article, follow the steps described below. If the assigned material

is a TV show or film, adapt the suggestions accordingly.

Take a few minutes to preview the work. You can preview an article in a magazine

by taking a quick look at the following:

a. Title: The title often summarizes what the article is about. Think about the title

for a minute, and about how it may condense the meaning of the article.

b. Subtitle: A subtitle , if given, is short summary appearing under or next to the

title. For example, in aNewsweekarticle titled Splitting Up the Family, thefollowing caption appeared: The courts are changing rules of divorce and childcustodyand often making things worse. The subtitle, the caption, or any other

words in large print under or next to the title often provide a quick insight into the

meaning of an article.

c. First and last several paragraphs: In the opening paragraphs, the author may

introduce you to the subject and state the purpose of the article. In the closing

paragraphs, the writer may present conclusions or a summary. In either case, youget a quick overview of what the entire article is about.

d. Other items: note any headingsor subheadings that appear in the article. Theyoften provide clues to the main points and give an immediate sense of what each

section is about. Look carefully at any pictures, charts, or diagrams, that accompany

the article. Page space in any magazine or journal is limited, and such visual aids

are generally used only when they help illustrate important points in the article.Note any words or phrases set off in italic type or boldface type; such words have

probably been emphasized because they deal with important points.

Read the article quickly for general understanding the first time through. Do not

slow down or turn back. Mark off what seem to be main points and key supporting

points. Pay special attention to all the items noted in the preview. Look fordefinitions, examples, and enumerations (lists), since these often indicate key ideas.

Also try to identify important information by turning any headings and subheadings

into questions and by reading to find answers to those questions.

Go back and reread more carefully the areas you have identified as most important.Also, focus on other key points you may have missed in your first reading.


16/31

Keep the following in mind when working on the rough drafts of your summary.

Express the authors ideas in your own words. Do no imitate the originalwork or stay too close to its style.

Do not write an overly detailed summary. Remember that the purpose of a

summary is to reduce the original work to its main points and essentialsupporting points. A paragraph summary should be between 150 and 200

words in length.

Do not use expressions like the author says. Equally important, do notintroduce your own opinions into the summary; that is, dont make

comments like another good point made by the author. Instead,

concentrate on presenting the authors main ideas directly and briefly.

Preserve the balance and proportion of the original work. If the original

devoted 70 percent of its space to one idea and only 30 percent to another,

your summary should reflect that emphasis.

As you work on the summary, pay attention to the principles of effective

writing (unity, support, coherence, and clear, error-free sentences)explainedin Part One.

Write the final draft of the summary.

Here is a model of summary for a magazine article.

In Dyslexia and the New Science of Reading (Newsweek, November 22, 1999),

Barbara Kantrowitz and Anne Underwood report on advances made in

understanding and treating dyslexia in children. Dyslexia is marked by difficulty inprocessing written language and particularly in breaking words down into their

separate sounds. Even though many people, including some famous intellectuals,

have suffered from dyslexia, it has been misunderstood. misdiagnosed, andmistreated until recently. Now it is being studied by scientists in much more

sophisticated ways, the most effective of which is brain imaging.Using this

procedure, scientists measure the brain activity of patients performing language related activities. Recent scientific findings about the complexity of dyslexia show

the need for creative and informed classroom strategies for teaching children to

read. Educators and researchers are focusing on early detection of the problem, and

new screening tests are being used in select school systems across the country. Atthe same time, parents must raise their own awareness about how to identify and

overcome this disorder. Parents can reduce the negative affects of dyslexia by

playing word games with their very young children and by closely following their

childrens progress in school. Most important, parents need to provide strong moralsupport to dyslexic children, helping them overcome frustration and creating

positive feeling about learning.

HOW TO SUMMARISE A BOOK

To write a summary of a book, first preview the book by briefly looking at the following:


17/31

a. Title: The title is often the shortest possible summary of what a book is about.

Think about the title for a minute, and how it may summarise the meaning of thework.

b. Table of contents. The contents will tell you the number of chapters in the book

and the subject of each chapter. Use the contents to get a general sense of how thebook is organized. You should also note the number of pages in each chapter. If

thirty pages are devoted to one episode or idea in the book and an average of fifteen

pages to other episodes or ideas, you should probably give more space in yoursummary to the contents of the longer chapter.

c. Preface. Here you will probably find out why the author wrote the book. Also, the

preface may summarise the main ideas developed in the book and may describe

briefly how the book is organized.d. First and last chapters. In these chapters, the author may preview and review

important ideas and themes developed in the book.

e. Other items. Note how the author has used headings and subheadings to organize

information. Check the opening and closing paragraphs of each chapter to see ifthey contain introductions and summaries. Look quickly at charts, diagrams, and

pictures, since they are probably there to illustrate key points. Note any specialfeatures (index, glossary, appendixes) that may appear at the end of the book.

CHECKLIST FOR SUMMARY WRITING

Answer the following questions:

What is the purpose for reading the assigned text? What do you want to find out?

Write down two or three points.

Who is the author (or author)? Write down his or her name(s).

(a) Read the title, subtitle and examine any illustrations.

(b) Write down the words that you find interesting? Do they mind you of something

you read, a television show or film you watched, or radio broadcast or lectures you

heard? Write down or four points drawing on your own knowledge.

Read the introduction and conclusion. Skim the article. What additional

information about the article have you discovered? Close the article and

write down a few points in your own words.

Skim the article again. Identify what you consider the central issue to be. Inyour own words, write down what you think it is.

Identify the main points that support this central issue.


18/31

Decide whether the article is relevant for your purpose. If not, examine

another article.

Start constructing a mindmap that illustrates the main and supporting

points.

Reread the text and supplement your mindmap.

Close the text and summarise the article in your own words. Use yourmindmap only to write the first draft of your summary. Check the article

for any points you are not clear about.

In your summary include:

1. What the article is all about?

2. What are the main points that support this central issue?3. What the authors point of view is?

Supplement information:

(a) The citation, and(b) In two or three sentences explain how the article relates to your

assignment.

ACADEMIC ESSAY WRITING

What is an Essay?

An essay does the same thing a paragraph does: it starts with a point, and the rest of it

provides specific details to support and develop that point. However, a paragraph is a series

of sentences about one main idea or point, while an essay is a series of paragraphs about

one main idea or point called the central idea. Since an essay is much longer than oneparagraph, it allows a writer to develop a topic in more detail. Despite the greater length of

an essay, the process of writing it is the same as that for writing a paragraph: prewriting,

preparing a scratch outline, writing and revising drafts, editing, and proofreading.Here are the major differences between a paragraph and an essay:

Paragraph Essay

Made up of sentences

Starts with a sentence containing the main

point (topic sentence)

Body of paragraph contains specific details

Made up of paragraphs

Starts with an introductory paragraph

containing the central idea, expressed in a

sentence called the thesis statement (or

thesis sentence).

Body of essay contains paragraphs that


19/31

that support and develop the topic sentence.

Paragraph often ends with a closingsentence that rounds it off.

support and develop the central idea. Each

of these paragraphs has its own mainsupport points, stated in a topic a topic

sentence.

Essay ends with a concluding paragraph thatrounds it off.

Example of an essay (from Gary)

For a typical college freshman, entering college is fun, and an exciting time of life. It is a

time not just to explore new ideas in classes but to lounge on the grass chatting with newfriends, to sit having soda and pizza in the cafeteria, or to listen to music and play cards in

the student lounge. I see the crowds of eighteen-year-olds enjoying all that college has to

offer, and I sometimes envy them their freedom. Instead of being a typical freshman, I amtwenty-nine years old, and beginning college has been a difficult experience for me. I have

had to deal with lack of support, bad memories of past school experiences, and too little

time for my family.

Few people in my life support my decision to enter college. My father is essentially

bewildered by the choice I have made. He himself quit school after finishing eighth grade,

and he assumes that I should hate school as much as he did. Didnt you get dumped onenough in high school? he asks me.

Why go back for more? My mother is a little more understanding of my desire for an

education, but the cost of college terrifies her. She has always believed that college was a

privilege only the rich could afford. Where in the world will all that money come from?she says. And my friends seem threatened by my decision. They make fun of me,

suggesting that Im going to think Im too good to hang around with the likes of them.Ooooh, here comes the college man, they say when they see me approach. Wed better

watch our grammar.

I have had to deal not only with family and friends but with unhappy memories of myearlier school career, I attended an enormous high school where I was just one more

faceless kid in the crowd. My classes seemed meaningless to me. I can remember almost

none of them in any detail. What I do remember about high school was just sitting, bored,until I felt nearly brain-dead, watching the clock hands move ever so slowly toward

dismissal time. Such periods of boredom were occasionally interrupted by moments of

acute embarrassment. Once an algebra teacher called on me and then said, Oh, forget it,Callahan, in disgusted tones when he realized I didnt know the answer. My response, of

course, was to shrink down in my chair and try to become invisible for the rest of the

semester.

Furthermore, my decision to enter college has meant I have much less time to spend with

my family. I work eight hours a day. Then I rush home and have all of an hour and ten


20/31

minutes to eat dinner and spend time with my wife and daughter before I rush off again,

this time to class. When I return from class, I am dead tired. My little girl is already asleep.

My wife and I have only a little time to talk together before I collapse into bed. Weekendsare a little better, but not much. Thats when I try to get my papers written and catch up on

a few chores around the house. My wife tries to be understanding, but its hard on her to

have so little support from me these days. And Im missing out on a lot of special times inmy daughters life. For instance, I didnt realize she had begun to walk until three days

after it happened.

So why do I put myself and my family through all these difficulties? Sometimes Im not

sure myself. But when I look at my little girl sleeping, and I think about the kind of life I

am going to be able to give her. My college degree may make it possible for me to get a

job that is more rewarding, both financially and emotionally. I believe I will be a betterprovider for my family, as well as more well-rounded human being I hope that the rewards

of a college degree will eventually outweigh the problems I am experiencing now.

What are the parts of an Essay

When Gary decided to expand his paragraph into an essay, he knew he would need to write

an introductory paragraph, several supporting paragraphs, and a concluding paragraph.

Each of these parts of the essay is explained below.

I. Introductory paragraph (Introduction)

A well-written introductory paragraph will often do the following:

1. Gain the readers interest. On pages 29-31 are several time-tested methods used to drawthe reader into an essay.

2. Present the thesis statement. The thesis statement expresses the central idea of an essay,

just as a topic sentence states the main idea of a paragraph. Heres an example of a thesisstatement.

A vacation at home can be wonderful.

An essay with this thesis statement would go on to explain some positive things about

vacationing at home.

What is the thesis statement in Garys essay?

beginning college has been a difficult experience for me.

You should have written down the next-to-the-last sentence in theintroductory paragraph of Garys paragraph.


21/31

3. Lay out a plan of development. Aplan of developmentis a brief statement of the main

supporting details for the central idea. These supporting details should be presented in theorder in which they will be discussed in the essay. The plan of development can be blended

into the thesis statement or presented separately.

Blended into a thesis statement: A vacation at home can be wonderful because you can

avoid the hassles of travel, make use of your knowledge of the area, and indulge in special

activities.

Presented separately: A vacation at home can be wonderful. At home you can avoid the

hassles of travel, make use of knowledge of the area, and indulge in special activities.

Note that some essays lend themselves better to a plan of development than others do. At

the least, your introductory paragraph should gain the readers interest and present the

thesis statement.

What is the plan of development in Garys essay?I have had to deal with lack of support, bad memoriesand too little time for my family.

You should have written down the last sentence in the introductory paragraph of Garys

essay.

Four common methods of introduction

a. Begin with a broad statement and narrow it down to your thesis statement. A broad

statement can capture your readers interest while introducing your general topic. It mayprovide useful background material as well. The writer of the introductory paragraph below

begins with a broad statement about her possessions. She then narrows the focus down to

the three possessions that are the specific topic of the paper.

I have many possessions that I would be sad to lose. Because I love to

cook, I would miss several kitchen appliances that provide me with somany happy cooking adventures. I would also miss the wonderful

electronic equipment that entertains me every day, including my large-

screen television set and my VCR. I would miss the two telephones onwhich I have spent many interesting hours chatting in every part of my

apartment, including the bathtub. But if my apartment were burning

down, I would most want to rescue three things that are irreplaceable and

hold great meaning for me-the silverware set that belonged to mygrandmother, my mothers wedding gown, and my giant photo album.

b. Present an idea or situation that is the opposite of what you will be writing about.

One way to gain the readers interest is to show the difference between your opening idea

or situation and the one to be discussed in the essay.


22/31

The role of computers in schools is constantly growing. Such growth is

based on a widespread faith that computers can answer many of the

learning needs of our students. Many people believe that it is just a matterof time before computers do all but take the place of human teachers.

However, educators should be cautious about introducing computers into

curricula. Computers may interfere with the learning of critical languageskills, they may move too fast for students to digest new concepts, and

they are poor substitutes for certain real-world experiences.

c. Tell a brief story. An interesting incident or anecdote is hard for a reader to

resist. In an introduction, a story should be no more than a few sentences, and it

should relate meaningfully to and so lead the reader toward- your central idea.

The story you tell can be an experience of your own, of someone you know, or ofsomeone you have read about. For instance, in the following introduction, the

author tells a simple personal story that serves as background for his central idea.

I remember the September morning that I first laid eyes on Jill. Idbeen calling clients at my desk at work when I heard a warm,

musical laugh. There was something so attractive about the soundthat I got up to get a cup of coffee and to find the source of that

laugh. I discovered the voice to be that of a young, auburn-haired

woman we had just hired from a temporary agency. Soon afterthat, Jill and I began going out, and we spent the next two years

together. Only recently have we decided to break up because of

disagreement about finances, about children, and about our

relationship with her family.

d. Ask one or more questions. The questions may be those you intend to answer

in your essay, or they may show that your topic relates directly to readers. In thefollowing example, the questions are designed to gain readers interest and

convince them that the essay applies to them.

Does your will to study collapse when someone suggests getting a

pizza? Does your social life compete with your class attendance? Is

there a huge gap between your intentions and your actions? If theanswers to these questions are yes, yes, and yes, read on. You can

benefit from some powerful ways to motivate yourself: setting goals

and consciously working to reach them, using rational thinking, and

developing a positive personality.

Which of these four methods of introduction does Gary use in his essay?

Method 2

Gary begins with an idea that is the opposite of what he is writing about.

His essay is about his difficulties with college life, but he begins with idea

that college is fun, and an exciting time for some students.


23/31

II. Supporting paragraphs (body/development)

The traditional college essay has three supporting paragraphs. But some

essays will have two supporting paragraphs, and others will have four or

more. Each supporting paragraph should have its own topic sentence,getting the point to be developed in that paragraph.

Notice that each of the supporting paragraphs in Garys essay has its owntopic sentence. For example, the topic sentence of his first supporting

paragraph is Few people in my life support my decision to enter college.

What is the topic sentence of Garys second supporting paragraph?I have had to dealwith unhappy memories of my earlier school carrier.

What is the topic sentence of Garys third supporting paragraph?

Furthermore I have much less time to spend with my family.

In each case, Garys topic sentence is the first sentence of the paragraph.

III. Concluding paragraph (Conclusion)

An essay that ended with its final supporting paragraph would probably

leave the reader wondering if the author was really done. A concluding

paragraph is needed for a sense of completion. Here are two commonmethods of conclusion.

Two common methods of conclusion

1. Provide a summary and a final thought. Using wording different from

your introduction, restate your thesis and main supporting points. This

review gives readers an overview of your essay and helps them remember

what theyve read. A final thought signals the end of the paper, as in thefollowing concluding paragraph from an essay about personal possessions.

If my home ever really did burn down, I would hope to be able torescue some of the physical things that so meaningfully represent my

past. My grandmothers silver set is a reminder of the grandparents

who enriched my childhood, my mothers wedding gown is aglamorous souvenir of two important weddings, and my photo album

is a rich storage bin of family and comfort in the fact that the most

important storage place for family and personal memories is my ownmind.

2. Focus on the future. Focusing on the future often involves making a prediction or a

recommendation. This method of conclusion may refer in a general way to the central idea,


24/31

or it may include a summary. The following conclusion from an essay about self-

motivation combines a summary with a prediction. The prediction adds further support for

the central idea.

So get your willpower in gear, and use the three keys to self-motivation _set goals and

work to reach them, think rationally, and develop a positive personality. You will findthat a firm commitment to this approach becomes easier and easier. Progress will

come more often and more readily strengthening your resolve even further.

What kind of conclusion does Gary use in his essay?

Method 2

In his conclusion, Gary refers to his central idea in the context of the future. He makeshopeful points about what his and his familys life be will be like after he gets a college

degree.

Taken from: Langan, J. (2001). English Skills. New York: McGraw-Hill

Companies, Inc.

Checklist for writing academic essays

ORGANISATION YES NO

Title

Divide into paragraphs?

The essay is of the required length?

INTRODUCTION

Is the point of view of the writer clear?Is there a theme?

DEVELOPMENT

Topic sentence included?

Quotes used as evidence?

Points illustrated using examples, stories?

References correctly written?

Concluding sentences used?

No unnecessary repetitions?

ARGUMENTATION

Points in favour argued in more than one paragraph?Opposing points presented in more than one paragraph?

Points of disagreement rejected: not true/not make sense?

Points of disagreement conceded: admit they are true, but do not sway us

from our point of view?

Points are adequately developed?

CONCLUSION

Argument is summed up?


25/31

Theme is restated?

Reader is left with a thought/insight?

REPORT WRITING

Introduction

A report is an objective, well-structured written document based on accurate facts dimed atproviding useful information which should enable the reader to make responsible decisions.

Reports are used in almost every area of administration and business. The purpose of areport can be to:

-announce, explain or recommend a policy

-initiate a sequence of events to start new schemes-introduce fresh approaches to existing issues

-develop new methods of operation

-report on the results of an investigation or evaluation

-inform about the progress on a particular project-report on the proceedings of a meeting/seminar/workshop/conference

-report on the financial position and activities of an organization at an annual general

meeting-report on accident in the workplace

-recommend disciplinary action.

Characteristics of reports

1. objectivity

2. clarity

3. conciseness

4. format

5. factual

6.

7.

A definition

By now you will have seen that a report is a factual account (description) of something that

the writer/speaker has investigated, seen, heard or experienced. Usually certain conclusionsare drawn about the matter, and if a problem exists, recommendations maybe made. The

word report tells you that this is a document (or oral presentation) that provides

information to another person or to a group of people. It is your responsibility, therefore, tomake your reports as clear and easy to read (or listen to) as possible. Be considerate

towards your audience in every part or feature of the report. Most of these features will be

dealt with in this section.


26/31

Classification of reports

There are many in which one can classify reports. For example, if viewed in terms of their

origin or destination, they can be classified as either internal or external reports. Or, looked

at functionally, reports can be grouped into routine or special-purpose/investigation

categories. A structural view of reports sees them as being classified as either free form orschematic, etc.

*Internal and external reportsReports can come from external agencies for the purpose of reviewing problems pertaining

to management, or the organization, or credit investigations. Reports can also come from

internal sources, for example the head of security may wish to investigate and report onsecurity arrangements at a business. The length of the report depends on the complexity of

the subject.

*Routine versus special-purpose reports

In this section we will concern ourselves with written reports, which we will group into twokinds, namely:

1. those reports that have to be written on a regular or fairly regular basis as part of theroutine of a business, and can therefore, be termed routine reports, e.g. monthly budget,

weekly attendance/absenteeism, daily performance equipment.

2. special purpose or so-called investigation reports that are written when the need arisesuch as in a particular problematic situation. E.g. a recent spate of power fallers problems

with water quality in a particular neighborhood, shrinkage of stock.

1. Routine reports

Routine reports can be divided into two kinds namely those that are needed on a regular

basis and those for which there is a need in most businesses from time to time.

Daily or weekly reports

Daily or weekly sales reports are the routine reports that sales people will have to write

most regularly. Other regular reports will be those on their expenses, equipment,customers, etc. Managers will write staff appraisals, quarterly progress or sales summaries,

annual reports, departmental monthly financial reports, etc.

Progress reports

A special class of routine report is the progress report. Employees or members of an

organization who are assigned to certain projects or assignments have to make regular

progress reports to the person (s) who assigned them the projects.

Basic plan for progress reports

Background: Information regarding the nature of the project/assignmentPurpose of the report: To indicate pace of the project/assignment and state how close to completion the

project isTasks completed: An indication of the work completed to date as well as the actual date of completion


27/31

Tasks currently being attended to: - An indication of work currently being done with an expected date of

completion

-Specify any problems being encountered with each

task

Incomplete tasks: -An indication of tasks that have not yet been attended to-Names of persons responsible (if more than one person is involved)

-Expected date of completion for each task-Specify any problems being encountered with each task

Conclusion: A general evaluation of the progress that has been made.

Occasional reports

Occasional reports do not have set times and are not needed on an absolutely regular basis.

However in the course of running a business, things happen that require such a report.Reports on accidents in the workplace, disciplinary reports, reports on exhibitions or

conferences attended, etc. will be occasional reports.

Superior may request a special (investigation) report on any relevant issue, usually

something that is causing concern. It may be on the reasons for poor sales figures during a

certain period, or on the high turnover of staff in a certain area, or on customer preferencesafter the introduction of a new product. Problems such as shrinkage (i.e. theft of goods bystaff) at the firm, a sudden great increase in the use of stationery, staff members lack of

punctuality non adherence to deadlines could also require an investigation and a report.

Accident report

A special type of investigation report is the accident report. It will usually report on any

accidents that occurred during working hours. Such a report is usually commissioned bythe personnel officer, who will deal with any problems arising from an accident at the

workplace. Accidents which might happen in the workplace are:

# a secretary slips on the stairs

#an employee is involved in a motor vehicle accident while on business#an electrician gets an electric shock

The approach used in accident report is to integrate oral and written reports of eyewitnesses

into a coherent whole. Accident reports are usually written on a standardized form. It isimportant that the report be factual and objective.

Basic plan for accident reports

+Full name of the injured person

+Date and time of the accident

+Where the accident occurred+The sequence of events (what happened)

+cause of the accident (why)+Full names of witnesses

+Diagnosis of injured person (nature of injuries)+Prognosis of injured person (chances of recovery)

+Assistance lent by the company to the injured person and his or her next of kin

Activity: Identifying reports


28/31

Identify the following types of report which were discusses above. Mark regular reports R. occasional

reports O, and special reports S.

A report on a financial management workshop

A report on the high incidence of personal telephone calls at work

The finance managers weekly budget summaryA report from the administrative assistant on the best fax machine to buy for the office

The annual report on the finance department budget

The report on the use of the office car during the past weekA report on restaurants for the finance departments end of-year party

A report on the reasons for the high expenditure in the June-July period

2. Investigation reports

Investigation reports are usually required when a problematical or research situation needs to be analys

and described so that possible solutions can be considered to remedy the situation. For example, staffdissatisfaction, a lack of parking for employees the need for better security arrangements, the level of

employee productivity, a decrease in company profits, or researching the potential market for a newproduct.

Basic plan for investigation or research reports

Terms of reference:-The brief and scope of the report

- Aims and objects, reasons, who requested the report

Procedure:-Describe the methods used to gather the required information

-Books consulted, interviews, personal inspections, services of experts, laboratorytests, field experiments or surveys, questionnaires, meetings should be described

Findings: -This makes up the main body of the report

-Present the information objectively-Facts that may be verified or checked should be given

-Sift the information carefully and select only what is relevant

-Arrange the information logically

Conclusion: -This is the opinion section where the writer states his or her views based on the

findings

-It is a subjective evaluation of the facts

-This is often valuable and relevant since the writer has spent hours searching,collating, and considering (expert)

Recommendations: -The writer will provide some ideas about what could be done in the light of

the information gathered-These are aimed at future action

LANGUAGE AND STYLE OF REPORT WRITING

When writing a report, choose a style that is objective, concise, clear and formal. We are going to look

each of these characteristics in more detail.


29/31

1. Objectivity

The writer of a report should detach him or herself from the report and withhold his or her own opinionand feelings. Do not use word such as T/we or other personal pronouns and expressions. The effect mu

be to make the writer anonymous. Remember to be factual-the purpose is to inform rather than to

persuade. Use the passive voice rather than the active voice. For example, write Five employees wereinterviewed (passive voice) rather than I interviewed five employees (active voice). This will help yo

to make the report objective and unemotional.

Should someones opinion be necessary, enclose it in quotation marks and acknowledge the person byname.

2. Conciseness

Being concise does not necessarily mean short. It means to use words economically, for example, usingas few words as possible to say what you mean. A single word, for example, is often better than a phras

or group of words, a short sentence more reliable than a long one.

3. ClarityExpress your facts clearly and logically. This involves planning. Write a rough copy first, then edit and

write the final copy. Use plain English so that the receiver of your report will understand what you arereporting on.

4. Formality

To achieve a formal style you need to do the following:

Use the passive voice

Write in complete sentences throughout

Write in a formal style and avoid emotional, familiar, informal, slang and colloquial

language

Use the past tense for terms of reference, procedures, and findings (An investigation inthe causes of shrinkage was required.)

Use the present tense for conclusions. Use present or future tense for recommendations

(The conclusion was reached that the major causes of shrinkage are.: it is further recommended that

with immediate effect, all staff be searched on arrival and when leaving the premises)

Be accurate, impartial and straight forward

Use heading and numbering to make the report readable

Planning and compiling reports

Here are the steps that you will need to follow when writing a report: analyse the topic, select a suitableformat; identify your reader (s); brainstorm; gather information; evaluate your information; plan an

outline/structure; write a first draft; revise and edit as often as necessary; make the final presentation.

Each of these is described below.

Step 1 Analyse the topic

Read and analyse the topic or terms of reference until you fully understand the purpose of the report. Foyour report to be a success and relevant, you have to interpret the topic and terms of reference accuratel

Ask yourself the following questions: Who asked me to investigate the problem? When? Why? Make


30/31

sure that you fully understand the instruction words, subject words, restriction words and topic

components. Define the nature and scope of the report.

Step 2 Select a format

Select the most suitable format for the type of report that is required, for example, free form or

schematic. Determine whether you need to illustrate your report with pictures, graphics or sketch plansAscertain how many copies of the report are required and for whom.

Step 3 Know the reader

Find out what you can about the principle reader. Is the reader acquainted with the subject? If he or she

is, you may use technical terminology or jargon. Your readers requirements will also determine the sty

and format of your report.

Step 4 Brainstorm

Explore your own thoughts and knowledge on the subject using the brainstorm method. Then organize

your thoughts logically.

Step 5 Gather information

Next gather your information systematically and with enthusiasm, dedication and concentration.Information may be obtained by:

-Doing research in the library by applying the following reading techniques: previewing, skimming,scanning and intensive reading. Go through files, previous reports, books, magazine and newspaper

articles. If possible or necessary, visit the archives or one of the major national deposit libraries in Sout

Africa. Conduct personal interviews with relevant persons in and outside the situation or who are

actually experiencing the problem. Conduct telephone conversations and discussions. Talk to expertspeople who know much about the subject or problem.

-Design questionnaires, then distributing, collecting and interpreting the responses to them. Obtain direinformation by means of laboratory experiments. Listen to audio recordings and view video tapes.

Conduct field surveys. Visit the places or organizations involved and make personal observations of the

situation.

Remember always to acknowledge your sources. You can do this by stating in the report where you

received the information, and by including a list of references, a bibliography or, if people were

consulted, a list acknowledging their contributions. Failure to acknowledge your sources could lead toyour being accused of committing plagiarism.

Step 6 Evaluate your information

The next step is to evaluate your information. Be selective. What you include in your report must be

relevant to the subject and terms of reference (keep referring back to these). After irrelevant informatio

has been discarded, arrange what remains in logical order. Identify main discussion areas and supportindetail.

Step 7 Plan an outline

If it is an investigation or research report, follow the proposed outline:


31/31

-Terms of reference

-Procedure

-Findings-Conclusion (s)

-Recommendation(s)

Step 8 Write a first draft

Ensure readability by using an effective, neat and attractive format and layout. Use headings and

subheadings. Write in readable, simple and correct language. Verify and back up all assertions andquotations. And come to a logical conclusion from which recommendations may follow. Remember tha

the style is essentially objective, unbiased, unambiguous, clear, logical, and concise.

Step 9 Revise and edit

Edit your report to ensure that it is complete, informative, relevant, that it forms a coherent unit, that it

will be understood by your reader (s) and that it is error free. Check and re-check the facts and the

language.

Step 10 The final presentation

On a separate page, type your bibliography of books and the other publications that you consulted. Aftea page with the heading Appendices, attach all relevant photographs, graphs, illustrations, pictures,

drawings, sketch plans, etc.

communicat bagar

Documents