communication application final
TRANSCRIPT
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IntroductionExperiences with Organizational Communication
The most important lesson that I have learned in communication is that eachaspect is a building block for another. In my opinion, studying communication isessentially studying life.
Rhetorical theory teaches about the groundwork of communication.Interpersonal communication taught me why people act the way they do and I sawinsights to who I was as a person as well. Revealingly, I saw why I reacted to peoplethe way that I do. It was only when I began to study organizational communicationthat I saw how these aspects of communication play out in a grand scale in thebusiness world.
Communication specialists have to know all the beginning levels of communication to fully be able to run a successful communication department.
They have to be able recognize which messages should be sent and must adjust theirown frame of reference to do so. They have to work with multiple departments andbe able to maintain quality relationships with them.
Communication specialists also have to hold certain skills that are constantlyevolving. Among these skills are writing, listening, reading, presenting, and adaptingto technology. Increasing my knowledge of these skills was my primarymotivationin applying to graduate school. I felt as though if I mastered the skills of acommunication specialist I could apply them to field that I might enter aftergraduation.
This book is a collection of information, skills, articles, and research that Ihave conducted while in this course that I feel would benefit me in the future.
Laura Gardner
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Communication TheoriesThis section is a description of five popular communication theories. There is
a brief description and also a model. I have also included a theory that I developed
based around the shape of a roller coaster. Included in the theories are Aristotle,
Lasswell, Shramm, Shannon and Weaver, as well as Dance.
Aristiotle
Aristotle s view of communication is primarily based on the act of public
speaking or rhetoric. His study was focused on message content and structure, use
of language and delivery, and the character of the speaker and listeners (Heath &
Bryant 1992). His model was meantto be used when preparing a speech.
Aristotle s model starts with the speaker (the orator). The speaker s speech
uses organization in such a way that it would be most persuasive. According to the
model the words of the speech should be clear and compelling meaning the
language should be adapted to what would best fit the audience. Finally, the delivery
should be given in such a way that the audience would experience the desired effect.
Memory is listed as a key concept in the delivery of the speech.
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Lasswell
Harold Lasswell s theory of communication is among the broadest and most
basic of the communication theories. His theory states who says what to whom in
what channel with what effect . This theory can be applied to interpersonal
communication between two people or a leader delivering a speech to a large group.
Laswell s theory seemed ideal for comprehending the dynamics of mass
communication, particularly under the umbrella of propaganda (Heath & Bryant
1992).
This model is also one of the easiest communication theories or models to
explain and understand. It is sender-oriented so we analyze control, content,
channel, audience and effects (Heath & Bryant 1992). An example of this theory can
easily be seen in the presidential election of 2008. Barack Obama and John McCain
were constantly campaigning and delivering speeches. What they said was their
message. Their message can be delivered through the medium of television, a town
meeting, or radio. The intended audience is those who are deliberately listening.
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Their messages may not only be heard by their intended audience, but also those
who view it on CNN.
Shramm
Wilber Shramm s theorytakes more into account than that basics of
communication. Shramm s theory reconsiders the speaker and audience as encoder
and decoder. As a speaker we are encoding messages and applying meaning to them
to express ourselves to the decoder. The decoder is actively deciphering the
message and deciding what it means.
Shramm also names the encoders and decoders as interpreters. According to
his model, the process of communication is cyclical instead of linear. The encoder
becomes the decoder and vise-versa. In simplistic terms, Schramm s model explains
that while one person is peaking, the other is listening (Heath & Bryant 1992).
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Shannon & Weaver
The theory conceived by Shannon and Weaver is aimed more towards the
technology side than human interpersonal communication. Shannon was more
interested in explaining how to achieve accurate and efficient signal transmission,
particularly to improve telephone communication, than he was proposing a theory
of communication (Heath & Bryant 1992).
It begins with a speaker encoding the message, then flows through a channel
and is decoded by the receiver. The message can be affected by noise.The following are examples:
Information source: If I m having a conversation with a friend about a family issue
this would be me.
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Encoder: This is the way that I am forming the message. Maybe I am feeling uptight
about the issue and this causes my face to tighten and I am speaking with a high-
pitched voice.
Message: According to Weaver and Shannon this is uncomplicated. These are the
literal words that I am speaking to my friend.
Channel: This is the means through which the message is delivered. I could be
talking over the phone or in person.
Noise: If I was talking to my friend over cell phone there could be many different
kinds of noise. Our all may get dropped or we may experience poor reception. If we
were talking in a crowded caf other conversations may interfere with our
conversation.
Decoder: Differing from other theories, the decoder is not actually the person
receiving the message. The receiver uses decoding to interpret the message sent. In
this case my friend may use what they already know about me or my vocal cues as a
way to interpret my message.
Receiver: This is my friend who I am communication with.
Feedback: In this situation, this is the way my friend reacts to my news. If she acts
indifferent I am going to react differently than if she exhibits sympathetic smiles.
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Dance
Dance s Helical Theory does not focus on the specfic parts of communication
theory, but on the nature of it. Dance s theory describes communication as dynamic
and the eliciting of a response (Heath & Bryant 1992).
As for his model, the symbol of the helix is flexible and connected. This
translates to communication theory because it says that the communication process
is dependent upon messages that have already been sent and received.
Communication is not rigid. It is constantly changing. The helix is similar to the
infinity symbol, although it is not closed, being that communication is constantly
moving forward. The infinity symbol on the end indicates the understanding that it
is never-ending.
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Laura Gardners Roller Coaster Theory
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Communication is the infinite process of thoughts and actions meant to
produce an effect. This process is dynamic, flexible, and cyclical. It can be compared
to a roller coaster. Roller coasters can e described as fast, dizzying, and often contain
curvy turns in which the car navigates. Sometimes this is smooth, but more often the
process is bumpy. Most importantly, the track in this model is connected. The train,
if not stopped would continue forever.
The Five Points
The letter A represents the sender. The sender can be the caller on a cell phone who
is trying to reach a friend to talk, a newscaster on television delivering the weather,
or a CEO speaking at a stakeholders meeting. The sender is where the interaction
begins. What the sender must decide is who needs to receive the message. A
question that needs to be asked is if there are certain groups who should or should
not intercept the message. In the example of the newscaster, the vast majority of the
region may tune in. In an interpersonal conversation, the audience will not be as
large. A mother discussing family issues with a friend may decide to talk in private.
B represents the message being sent. The car is moving now and the
message is actively being delivered by the sender. This takes place with several
different factors coming into play. The first are tone and speed of delivery, which are
often intermixed. If the tone is high and fast, then the message may be interpreted as
urgent. If it is delivered slowly and in a low, soothing tone then the message is
probably not going to immediately interpret as pressing. The second factor is the
medium is which the message is delivered. Speaking in person in the most
interpersonal and could elicit a different reaction than if it was given over the
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phone. The receiver is unable to use facial cues to accurately interpret the message.
Within some close relationships this is not an issue, but many messages can be
mistaken due to this. E-mail and text messaging remove even more certainity. This
brings us to the last factor, non-verbal communication. Included are facial
expressions, eye contact, use of space, communication with the hands, and other
non-verbal actions such as yawning to indicate boredom.
C represents the actual message being sent from sender to receiver. The
message can be formed with literal words as in an e-mail. A message becomes more
complicated as more emotion is involved. During a fight with a significant other the
sender could say the same sentence thirty different ways and produce a different
reaction each way. If humans worked like robots than person A could ask a favor of
person B in a monotone voice and hypothetically person B would react simply to
what person A asked. In human communication person A may inject a rude attitude
into their tone when speaking to person B, therefore not receiving what they ant
without a reaction.
The previous example plays into what D represents. This is how the
receiver judges the message has been sent. The news is typically given in the same
way each night on television so their message is not usually going to change,
Different news personalities may be more charming than others, but they are not
going to generally change how one feels about a rainy day. In interpersonal
communication a receiver may be able to accurately interpret the message, or not. A
typical example is text messaging. Without tone or facial expression it is impossible
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to understand any underlying messages. Sometimes the sender may a :) symbol to
convey happiness or a pleasant tone of voice.
Point E represents the feedback that the sender receives from whom they
sent the original message to. Feedback can come in the form of facial expression,
tone of voice, or the message (words) that the sender returns. Feedback completes
the cycle of the interaction, but also allows for the communication to be continuous.
If the message stopped at the receiver, then the communication would not be
infinite in nature. At this point person A can become the receiver and person B can
be the sender, The cycle loops around and feedback is given once again after the
process has been completed.
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Learning Module for Listening Skills
This learning module has been put together by Laura Gardner for use by
Hewitt-Packard. The goal of this learning plan is to improve customer service by
way of increased knowledge of listening skills. This goal will be obtained by each
participant recognizing their own shortcomings on listening, identifying how they
can improve their listening skills and putting their new skills into practice. Each
segment is meant to force the participant to look at past behaviors and brainstorm
ways in which to fix them and produce better results. Sharing with a small group
instead of the entire class is meant to produce more confidence within the
participants and allow for more freedom of creativity. The entire program will take
roughly two and a half hours. Supplies needed include multiple flip charts, tables set
up in rounds of eight, two markers for each table, and recording devices.
This module has been specifically built for those working in customer service
lines, whose operators are notoriously bas listeners. The company seeking a
learning module for one main reason, they hope that through changing from a
scripted method to a conversational method that customers will feel more satisfied
with their experience. This will be measured through the survey that customers can
complete after their call. At the present time there is a sixty-five percent rate of
dissatisfaction.
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A packet of information will be set out for all participants. The packet
includes tips for better listening, worksheets to be used for exercises, and listening
quiz that participants take at the beginning of class. The instructor will encourage
the class to take notes in the packet and use it as a cheat sheet to refer back to.
The participants will be first asked to take the listening assessment. Ten
minutes will be given for this. This is meant to show the participants how well they
listen in the beginning of the program. After everyone has completed the
questionnaire, they will move onto small group work.
Each group is to break into partners of two or three and is given a tape
recorder. They are asked to find a quiet corner of the room or go outside. They are
each given different scenarios that they would typically deal with in a workday. One
person will play the role of the customer first and then switch to be the customer
service agent for their partner. Everyone is given twenty-five minutes to complete
the assignment. After everyone has finished their scenarios they are to return to
their chairs and play their tape recorders only for their group. An example of the
scenarios is A customer calls in and is obviously irritated. She has been put on hold
numerous times, has been dropped during a transfer twice and now simply wants to
return the product . The object of this scenario is to show the participants how
scripted their responses sound and, if their partner acts accordingly, how frustrated
the customer becomes.
The follow-up to the first segment will require flip chart and markers. After
all the tapes have been played each group will be asked to brainstorm ways in which
listening could have been inhibited in the exercise. Twenty minutes will be allowed
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for this. After all the groups have finished, they will be asked to read their lists and
explain why each point could prevent them from listening effectively. Conversation
will be allowed and encouraged during this point in the class. The main objective is
to allow the participants to learn from each other s mistakes.
The next segment is a forty-five minute lecture about how to improve
listening to regard to customers over the phone. This segment can be followed along
by a section of the handout. The 5 Stages of Customer Service Listening are laid
out. These are also listed in the packet. The main points that will be elaborated on
are on focusing attention of the customer, repeating to the customer what they have
said to their satisfaction, and allowing the customer speak without interruption.
Participants are then encouraged to take five to seven minutes to write down which
steps they have the most problems with.
Each group repeats the tape recorder exercise using the methods that have
been discussed. Each group records a hypothetical conversation with their partner
and returns in twenty minutes to share with their group. This segment should show
the difference between before the class and after it. Groups are allowed thirty
minutes to complete their sharing and are encouraged to talk about the differences
between their first recording and the second.
Lastly, the instructor will take fifteen minutes to discuss the differences that
should have been seen between the two recordings. There should be more open
dialogue, more understanding and less frustration on the customer s side. The
instructor will then ask for any questions and will be available up to an hour after
the class ends for any questions or comments. This concludes the end of the class.
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Quick Reference Chart
Segment Time Allowed
Learning Assessment 10 Minutes
Break into partners with taperecorder
25 minutes
Play tape for group 10 minutes
Brainstorming 20 minutes
Lecture 45 minutes
Repeat tape recorder exercise 25 minutes
Discussion 30 minutes
Conclusion discussion 20 minutes
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Question and answer 1 hour
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Why We Listen Most of what has gone wrong in history has to do with a communication
breakdown
45% of communication is listening
Best listening efficiency is 25%
Listening is 3D hearing, understanding, and remembering
Hierarchy of Listening
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Listening Cont.
Causes of inefficient listening J umping to conclusions F iltering emotionally Cant deal with concepts Message Overload P reconceived notions
Negative Habits of Listening R ejecting speaker because of appearance
Listening just for facts A voiding difficult subjects
G iving into distraction
How can I improve listening? A void checking time Make eye contact F ace the speaker A void daydreaming P araphrase notes E valuations Listen to media
Working Line -70%
Managers - 80%
CEO's - 90%
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Consciously expand attention span Improve study techniques B e aware of pitfalls E valuate skills S low down! Listen purposively
R epeat in own words P repare yourself E xcept role as listener B uild structure Control emotions Overlook mannerisms
Exploring Techniques: Surveys,Questionnaires,Interviews, Observation and ComparisonAccording to USA Today there are 140 million cell phones in the United
States today. Seventeen percent of cell phone users give out their cellular phone as
their primary number. Our TV s are bombarded with ads for cell phone companies
with news deals and even more technologically advanced phone. Since cell phone
sales and usage has boomed so explosively in the past twenty years that is why it is
an excellent subject for us when working with surveys, questionnaires, and
interviews.
I conducted my research on October 1, 2008. My roommates served as my
sample group. They are all female and their ages range between twenty-two and
twenty-five. I found them to be an appropriate sample group because I am aware
that they all own cell phones and I have been able to observe some of their behavior
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in the past. According to the Colorado State writing lab website this would be called
purposive sampling , since I have chosen the individuals strategically.
The survey that I gave was very vague. The questions themselves were short
and direct. Surveys are meant to be a starting point for research. I first asked the
subject if they had a cell phone. If they answered yes I would be able to move on
with the net question, but if they answered no I would have a difficult time finding
out more about their cell phone habits considering they would not have one. The
next question I asked concerned how much they pay for their cell phone, specifically
if it is pre-paid or a contract. This is a fairly open question that can be delved in
deeper in a questionnaire or interview. The third question I posed in the survey was
about overall cell phone usage. I asked the subjects if they use their cell phones
everyday. This question also gives insight to whether or not there is a chance to ask
more about daily cell phone usage.
The questionnaire asked more specific questions about the cell phones of the
subjects. The first question asked who they use as a service provider. I listed Verizon
Wireless, AT&T, Nextel and T-Mobile as options. Also the subject could choose
other . The second question got a bit more detailed, asking what kind of cell phone
of subject owned. I left this question open-ended since there are several different
types of cell phones on the market. This question allows for more in-depth
questions about the different phones. The last question I asked was if the subject
owned any cell phone accessories, using bluetooth as an example. I asked this
question because it can lead to other questions about cellular habits, depending on
the answer.
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The next step was the interview. I sat down with the subject had more
specific questions to ask them about they cell phone usage. I first began by asking
about how many minutes they had in their plan. As they answered I found myself
finding out much more because we ended up having a conversation. During two of
the interviews I did not actually ask the questions, but they were naturally
answered during our dialogue. The second question I was going to ask concerned
use of cell phones for business or personal use. My conversation with the first
subject began because I asked about minutes but she answered I have one
thousand minutes a month, but unlimited minutes on nights or weekends. I also
have unlimited text messaging, which is good since I text more than I talk. Verizon is
a little expensive, since I pay sixty-nine dollars a month, but they have the best
network . This not only answered my next two questions but also gave me more
specifics than I was going for.
The task of observing and recording someone s phone habits is difficult since
more conversations, with the exceptions of those who enjoy having private
conversations in public, are meant to be private. To observe and gather quantitative
data I asked all subjects to my three statistics at the end of the day: how many call
did you make or receive, how many texts did you send or receive, and how many
minutes were you on the phone total. The quantitative data can be found following
this report.
To find a comparison I used a similar sample group. The group was
comprised of one male and two females. Their ages ranged from twenty-three to
twenty-six. I used the same survey and questionnaire. It is worth noting that I did
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not get as much information during the interview and had to ask more direct
questions. This is most likely due to the fact that I was not as familiar with the
second group as I was with the first.
Model Representation of the Communication Audit
Survey Introduce to study; first data inputs
QuestionnaireWhat people think, know or feel
Interview Direct face-to-face; build repore
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Discussing the Communication Audit
Communication audits are a package of instruments used in the assessment
of employees perceptions of the communication processes in their organization
(Dewine & James 144). The process involves the communication auditor
researching the climate of the organization by means of multiple research methods
and various techniques. The methods used to conduct this research begin vague and
become more comprehensive throughout the process. Methods used by
communication auditors include survey, questionnaire, interview, observation,
comparison, and measurement. One way to imagine the process is to picture a
strainer. An auditor gathers information, ideas or subjects that may be of interest or
need more clarification, and pours it into the questionnaire strainer. This process
continues until the auditor has detailed quantitative and qualitative results that can
be analyzed and used in the audit process. It is important to add that observing and
talking to employees is not the only information that an auditor should use. Other
O bservationGather data in natural
enviroment
ComparisonsFind something similar
MeasurementQualitative and
quantitative
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resources include newsletters, annual reports, mission statements, and the company
websites (public and intranet). These sources allow the auditor to determine what
messages are being sent to the internal and external public and can also showthe
role of employees in communication. For example, a newsletter with submissions
from several employees from multiple departments points to a high level of
employee involvement. After observations have been completed, the job of the
auditor is to interpret the information that has been gathered. If the auditor has data
from a similar organization he can compare the two, allowing the auditor to make
similar recommendations. The following paragraphs explore the methods of a
communication audit; the use of different techniques, and the steps that are taken
after the data has been collected. This includes the role of an auditor, evaluation of
the audit, and follow-up options.
ole of The Auditor
Before pursuing the methodology of communication audits, it is important to
discuss the role of an auditor, the challenges, and the benefits that can be gained.
The role of an auditor is to provide the organization with an unbiased, research-
driven view of their organization. According Clair Badaracco, the auditor must first
of all be accepted, must have credibility in order to function. That credibility comes
from objectivity, the ability to be perceived as making a clear statement (28). Julie
Coffman 1 says that one role of an auditor is to identify possible levels of practice. In
order to improve strategic communication the organization and audit team should
1 Information taken from Strategic Communication Audit , a paper prepared by Julia Coffman for theCommunications Consortium Media Center in October 2004.
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know the current climate in regards to communication. According to Coffman there
are five levels that an organization may fit in:
y Ad Hoc- unassigned, uncoordinated, and has no resources
y Planned- deliberated/managed, resources allocated, responsibility
assigned
y Institutionalized- regularly performed, best practices, coordinated
y Evaluated- performance measured, progress tracked, practice
predictable
y Optimized- regular reflection, continued improvement
Furthermore, it is imperative that the auditor understands the audience to whom
organization delivers their messages. This affects how the auditor judges the
messages that are currently being sent, the techniques that should be used to
change these messages, and what objectives the organization will benefit from.
(Strenski).
Benefits
The benefits of a communication audit are wide-spreading and usually show
in the long-term. Specific benefits include:
y building support for a change initiative
y demonstrating a commitment to improving communication, receiving
practical recommendations for improving communication
y enabling programs to be scrutinized in order to eliminate wasteful
spending
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y saving cost and effort by minimizing or eliminating programs that do
not add value or strength (Basili)
The ambiguity of organizational communications makes it difficult for non-
communication professionals to evaluate their own programs and create the
necessary plans to deliver change.
Challenges
There are several challenges that must be addressed before any benefits can
be gained. The first hurdle is to have the full cooperation and support of senior
management (Strenski 1). Without this a communication audit will be less inclusive,
take longer to complete and employees are less likely to take it seriously. Many
employees may be afraid of the change that a communication audit could bring. The
term audit has a negative connotation to it and employees may need to be
reassured of its purpose. Assessment is a word that could be used as a replacement
(Hollingworth).
Surveys
The survey is the most vague method in the audit. Surveys are meant to
introduce the subject (Hollingworth) and gather a wide variety of information,
allowing the auditor to determine which subjects and issues he should seek more
information on. The first step in conducting surveys is to choose the sample. This
can be difficult since the sample probably will not be completely indicative of the
group. Several methods can be used to improve the validity of the sample. In the
case of a communication audit the best method is random sampling. If the auditor
were to use the method of biased sample framing, there would be a greater risk for
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misinformation and picking a sample that is not truly representative (Frey et. al
186). The survey should also incorporate a cross-sectional design. This design
describes the current characteristics of a sample that represents a population at
one point in time (Frey et. al 188). A communication audit aims to capture a
snapshot of the current communication situation within an organization, not the
past or the future. When constructing a survey both the types of questions asked
and they way they are worded have to be taken into consideration. The method of
using double-barreled questions, asking several questions at once, should be
avoided because of the vague nature of surveys. The survey questions should be
worded in a neutral manner to avoid unintentionally swaying the opinion of the
participant. This helps to maintain the validity of the survey.
Questionnaires
After the surveys have been completed and analyzed the auditor can then
create a questionnaire. There are two strategic ways that questions can be written.
Open-ended questions allow respondents to be more open with their answers. This
way of non-directive questioning may allow the respondent to express themselves
and their ideas freely. Close-ended questions are more directive in their nature and
are typically yes or no questions or multiple choice. The way to decide between
these two types of questions depends on the situation. Close-ended questions are
quick and easy, potentially cutting down non-responses. Open-ended questions
have a couple advantages. They reduce the likelihood of words being put into the
respondent s mouth and researchers may learn something that they had not
anticipated (Ruane 132). Putting together the questionnaire should be strategic. One
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of the most important aspects of a questionnaire is the flow. Questions can be
grouped in several ways including time order and topic. It is also important that the
auditor be aware that the order of questions, as to avoid influencing how they are
answered (Ruane 136). One way of answering close-ended questions is to use
scales. The Likert scale identifies the extent of a person s feelings or attitudes
toward another person, event, or phenomenon (Frey et al. 103). This is a five point
scale raging from strongly disagree to strongly agree. Some critics oppose the use of
this scale. According to Sue Dewine and Anita C. James, it reduces the usefulness of
the information for the client. (Scholars have argued that) the ordinal scale restricts
the opportunity to measure the finer changes in an organization s communication
pattern (DeWine & James 147). Another example is the semantic differential scale
that uses a word or phrase as the referent and asks that the respondent indicate
their feelings by checking a space, either to the far left, far right, or anywhere in
between.
Interviews
The next step in the communication audit process is the interview. In this
part of the audit the questions begin to become more focused but are also more
likely to be open-ended. The interviewer is typically interested in finding out
specific information by seeking to have an in-depth interview. An in-depth interview
is primarily initiating a conversation, as to elicit more information from the
interviewee (Marshall & Rossman 81). Maintaining neutrality in an interview is
impossible, says Denzin and Lincoln. The conversation aspect of the interview
creates the reality of the interview situation (48). One problem with interviewing
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face-to-face is that certain respondents may feel uncomfortable and respond with
normative responses and answer questions in a socially desirable way (Ruane 155).
To avoid this there are rules that the interviewer must follow including being honest
and open, conducting the interview in a comfortable environment, and most
importantly guaranteeing anonymity (Miyomoto). Active listening is one of the most
important skills that an interviewer can have. By utilizing active listening the
interviewer can strategically probe throughout the interview. For example, the
interviewer may stay silent after the interviewee answers in order to prompt them
to say more or ask directive follow-up questions. Also it is the interviewers
responsibility to be clear with instructions and to moderate. One example of this is
to provide the interviewee with feedback on how completely they are answering the
questions (Hirsh et al. 132).
Group interviews are an option to save time and money. During a group
interview the questioner can choose to keep the interview structured or
unstructured (Denzin & Lincoln 71). The interviewer would probably want to
employ both strategies. An option that uses both of these would be to use a guide,
unstructured tools that list the general topics or issue to be covered in an interview
(Ruane 149). This would enable the interviewer to maintain focus within the group,
but also allow the group to speak freely and perhaps divulge more information.
According to Ruane, the focus group (group interview) produces social interaction
that is both dynamic and insightful (157).
In interviewing , the auditor is looking for qualitative data instead of
statistical information. Data analysis is the process of moving from raw interviews
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to evidence-based interpretations that are the foundation for published reports
(Rubin & Rubin 203). Ideas, expressions, and opinions are the types of data that are
going to make the interview useful. There are several methods for analyzing this
kind of data , which include sorting and ranking, sorting and comparing, weighting
and combining, as well as checking and modifying (Rubin & Rubin 229). After
organizing the data , the results of the interview can work towards what is called
middle-level theory by asking how far the principles and processes (you have)
discovered in (your) research might extend (Rubin & Rubin 230).
Ob servations
Observation typically follows the interviewing process. Observing is
extremely useful to auditors, making it unfortunate that it is one of the most difficult
ways to obtain research. A situation where the organizational climate is complicated
may entail more time and be more difficult to code. Complicated social dynamics
within an organization may challenge the validity of the data gained. Maintaining a
high level of validity is difficult in observation. Another possible problem is the
Hawthorne effect. This can occur if participants are sensitive to being watched and
may cause of them to act differently than they normally would (Frey et al. 127). This
is partially caused by the need for privacy as noted in my previous paper on
research techniques. 2 To avoid these problems the observer can concentrate on text,
also know n as indirect observation. Researchers examine newsletters, company
training videos, speeches, or meeting minutes (Frey et al. 114). This eliminates the
chance of affecting the actions of those observed with the researchers presence.
2 Exploring Research Techniques: Surveys, Questionnaires, Interviews, Observation and Comparison, October 6,2008.
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Videotaping and audiotaping are also ways to reduce the Hawthorne effect, if the
participants can forget they are being taped.
Before beginning observation, the auditor will need to decide on the focus of
their observation. What types of interactions are they looking for? This is the best
way to develop a coding scheme. A coding scheme is a classification system that is
used to decipher observations. An example of this would be if the auditor wanted to
observe a meeting. The auditor could be looking for codes like verbal cues and
nonverbal indicators (smiling, frowning, etc.). This would allow the observer to
count the number of cues and produce quantitative data (Frey et al. 116).
Comparison
Comparing organizations is a useful way to determine which methods are the
most valuable for specific situations. Financial institutions are probably not going to
have same problems that hospitals or universities have. By comparing like
organizations the auditor is able to find like solutions. One example of this is the
audits of two school districts, the Chesterfield County Public School District 3 and the
Lewis-Palmer School District 4. Though the formats of the audits are very different, it
is easy to see that both school districts have similar problems. Briefly, here is a list
of weaknesses that the audit exposes for both districts:
y trouble keeping up with rapid growth of the community
y lack of strategic communication
y general negative view of the school board from parents
3 http://www.chesterfield.k12.va.us/CCPS/news/files/Communication%20Audit.pdf 4 http://lewispalmer.org/media/EDocs/LPSD_Communications_Audit_Report_052307.pdf
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y poor reviews of the district websites
y poor media relationships
The auditors for both school districts use similar methods. These include
focus groups, interviews, analyzing supplements, and commenting on meeting
protocol. Both audits concentrate on parents and as well as others in the
community. Another similarity is the recommendations that are given. Key
recommendations include rebuilding trust, listening to feedback from external
sources, provide more training for employees in regard to communication, multiple
improvements to text sources, and to clarify and define roles.
While the two audits have similarities, they also have differences that each
could learn from. The Lewis-Palmer School District is provided with a strong list of
public perceptions. The auditors also provide an extensive explanation of data that
the focus group participants provided and how those views can affect the school
district. The audit also includes a section labeled Now What . This section provides
the school district with detailed and realistic implementation methods for their
recommendations. The plan is listed in phases and includes an ideal timeline. The
Chesterfield Public School District audit also contains strong aspects. The auditors in
this situation explain in detail how the communication goals of the district are
directly linked with the overall goals and objectives. This explanation is vital in
explaining to those who are not communication professionals why certain
recommendations are made. The audit also provides a detailed explanation of how
the district can re-brand itself. They suggest designing a name logo, adopting a new
slogan, and developing a stylebook for all publications to maintain consistency. The
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two audits provide in-depth insights to both school districts and provide useful
recommendations. By comparing the two side-by-side it is clear that each have their
strengths that the other could learn from.
Qualitative Measurement
Qualitative research is an integral part of the communication audit. Denzin
and Lincoln define qualitative research as a situated activity that locates the
observer in the world (4). This definition is generic and lacks the visual that it takes
to grasp the idea of qualitative research. The best way to describe this type of
research is to consider what it measures. It measures thoughts, opinions, and
perceptions. There are three challenges that this types of research faces: (1)
developing a conceptual framework for the study that is thorough, concise, and
elegant; (2) to plan a design that is systematic and manageable yet flexible; and (3)
to integrate these into a coherent document that convinces the proposal reader a
funding agency or dissertation committee that they study should be done, can be
done, and will be done. (Marshall and Rossman 6). Creating guidelines is extremely
difficult in this type of research since the nature of it is based on communication,
and communication is constantly evolving. The most common perception of
research it has to always be uniform in how it is conducted. Qualitative research, on
the other hand, attempts to combine thoroughness and logic with fluidness and
flexibility. To understand how the different types of research are related, consider
that quantitative research provides the numerical evidence to support the
statements made by qualitative data (Holland & Gill). For example, a researcher
organizes a focus group of fifty employees and gathers from their statements that
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they are generally unhappy. To provide numerical support for this statement the
researcher gives the same employees a survey using the Likert scale. The average
outcome of the survey will probably be low, thus providing hard data that describes
the opinions of the survey.
Quantitative Measurement
The other type of measurement is known as quantitative research. This type
of measurement focuses on numerical value. One example of formatting this data is
through a frequency table. For example, an auditor may have observed a
conversation and counted how many times each participant interrupted someone.
Using status (supervisor, subordinate, etc.) the auditor could formulate a percentage
of who interrupts more and how often they do it compared to the other group. Using
this quantitative data the auditor may theorize that supervisors consistently
interrupt twice as much as their subordinates. Quantitative measurements cannot
be taken during certain phases of the audit because variables can be changed. An
example of this is interviewing. Poorly worded questions, inadequacy in judging
responses, and not knowing the proper time to probe further can lead to ambiguity.
For instance, depending on the skills of the interviewer, the answers may be
different (Hirsh et al. 129). It is important to note that errors should be expected in
this type of research. Every measurement will contain two components, true score
and error score. The true score component is measured over time, while the error
score is the score from the one-time interview or survey. The average of multiple
error scores would be more accurate (Frey et al. 120).
Recommendations
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After all the research has been completed and the data has been analyzed
then recommendations can be made. To ensure that these recommendations can be
properly executed its important to provide the organization with implementation
methods. Before making suggestions to the client several questions have to be taken
into consideration. Sue DeWine and Anita C. James address these issues by working
through a process called POMRIE. This acronym stands for problem, objective,
method, reality, implementation, and evaluation. The first four steps are meant to
evaluate the audit before it reaches the organization.
First, the problem needs to be pinpointed and put into a statement that the
client can understand. For example, similar problems can be grouped together,
preventing the client from being overwhelmed with too much information. The
audit group should also use data to demonstrate how the problems are occurring in
the present, and not concentrate on their future impact (Coffman).
The objective should also be phrased specifically for the client. This
statement provides the organization with goals they should aim to meet. For
example, the audit for the Lewis-Palmer School District lead to many recommended
objectives. They include: simplify the homepage, make the website friendlier and
warmer, make navigation bar headings clear and succinct, and connect with non-
parents. These basic objectives directly relate to the problems within the
organization.
The implementation method is the action the organization can take to
achieve their objectives. Giving the client multiple methods is the best choice. One
objective that a communication audit team recommends to the Chesterfield Public
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School District is to consider publishing their newsletter every other week. The
audit explains that in the focus groups that they conducted they learned that
participants wanted fresh news and enjoyed seeing their colleges highlighted.
Another suggestion was to put the newsletter online. By making this change more
information could be linked, thus providing more material without crowding the
newsletter.
Reality also has to be considered. The communication audit team should be
in touch with the special needs and abilities of the organization. Providing the
organization with unrealistic goals and methods of implementation will prevent any
recommendations from being used. Using the example of Chesterfield Public Schools
again, auditors recommended that school administrators visit the schools more
often. This is a recommendation that is realistic and does not take any drastic steps
to accomplish.
Finally, lack of follow-up is a major criticism but it is vital to the continued
success of the audit. Providing the organization with tools to assess itself is
necessary for continued progress. The best way to evaluate the effect of the
communication plan is to repeat the audit after changes have been implemented.
One example is to examine employee satisfaction scores. One method of doing this is
to have the same sample size of employees complete an identical satisfaction survey.
The communication audit had the desired effect if the correlation is positive (Hargie
et al. 423). The time frame to repeat the audit depends on the opinion of the auditor.
Julie Coffman believes that they should be done within five years. James B. Strenski
on the other hand recommends an evaluation after eighteen months. While a follow-
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up audit is the most useful evaluation technique, it is important to leave the
organization with its own evaluation tools.
Increasing the Effectiveness of Communication Audits
The effectiveness of a communication audit is heavily reliant on the skill of
the auditor but organizations are also responsible for their own success. In addition
to cooperating with the process, there are several steps that an organization can
take to maximize the effectiveness of an audit. According to Holland and Gill, who
both specialize in communication strategies, the most common reasons that
organizations reject the idea of seek consultation on strategic communications is
lack of time, money, and know how (20). Communication audits should be
considered a way to save money in the long run. James B. Strenski estimates the cost
of an audit to be around $10,000 to $13,000. One way that an organization can test
its own communication climate is to add questions on to employee attitude surveys.
By adding on the right questions an organization can peak into the knowledge,
attitudes, and behaviors as they relate to business goals (Holland & Gill 21).
Another way of over coming cost is to plan ahead. If someone within the
organization already has a head start and can measure small aspects, then costs can
be cut back considerably due to the cut in time. Since communication audits are
considered consultants when they enter an organization it is important to have a
good idea what kind of expertise to look for. To save money on consultants it is
important to follow four pieces of advice: provide the consultant with as much
information on the company as possible, have a basic understanding of the
techniques that the consultants will use, have clear expectations of the consultant,
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and do not hide anything. The best way to ruin an audit is to give false information.
(Holland & Gill 22). Following this advice is a smarter way to approach a
communication audit, by saving money and time in combination with the right
research, communication audits are easier to afford and more useful.
How to Read Better and Faster: A Review
I have always found myself to be interested in reading and can recall in detail
at a young age having nightmare after nightmare after reading Cujo , by Steven
King. The task of becoming a better and faster reader has been difficult for me since
I have a habit of becoming distracted if the subject matter does excite my
imagination. Due to my recognized issues with reading I was very interested in what
Norman Lewis suggested in his book How to Read Better and Faster . I was mainly
interested in learning how someone could learn to read faster while improving
efficiency. I also was curious to learn specific exercises that would rewire my brain
into performing in different ways that it has been set in for twenty years.
In the first paragraph of the book, Lewis gives us a summary. He says the
book is a step-by-step, day-by-day training manual in the techniques of rapid and
skillful reading (Lewis, vii). This is precisely why the book is so helpful to the
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untrained reader. It is meant to be interactive. A reader could easily read through
the book, learn a couple tricks, and attempt to practice while reading through their
morning paper. The full potential of the intended effect of the book could not be
reached if this was the case. The book contains several modules that contain full
explanation of why they are useful, how to achieve the intended effect and allows
you to test yourself with a reading.
One of the modules that I found most interested and useful for myself was on
the subject of reading for main ideas. One of the most useful directions that Lewis
gives is to read faster than you are accustomed to and to push yourself to quickly
find the main idea. This is Norman s main philosophy in his work; to read faster and
force yourself to concentrate, causing a heightened efficiency. After reading the
selection and taking a comprehension test that accompanies it, Norman tells the
reader to do the most logical thing possible, to compare what your reactions and
comprehension to those who read better. If you want to continue improving,
continue with the steps until you are not making the same mistakes over again.
Another part of Norman s plan is training perception. This is the chapter that
concentrates on how to physically read better. We know that readers use their
brains to translate shapes into words and words into meaning. How our eyes move
across a line is a surprisingly good indicator of how proficient we are as readers.
Lewis breaks this down well by explaining that pauses are the real indicator in
reading ability. Since typically most people read everyday and in many different
contexts including the newspapers, labels and street signs, it is very unlikely that we
pay attention to how many times we pause and regress in a sentence. By paying
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attention to our pauses and regressions we can begin to retrain our eyes while we
read. Lewis describes the action of fixation, which is the technical term for the
fractional second in which the eyes focus on a portion of a line of print (Lewis, 52).
Lewis then dissects the anatomy of fixation for us to show readers where they go
wrong. In his diagrams we see that the further we can space out our eye movements
the better. By stopping after each individual word we are not only slowing ourselves
down, but also preventing ourselves from better comprehension. The sentences are
broken down into short lines to demonstrate how easy it is to read three or four
words without moving your eyes. Lewis also uses upside down print as a tool to
explain how topping at each word can make reading slower and more difficult. What
I found was that by stopping at each word I was more easily forgetting what the
beginning of the sentence said.
I found it very difficult to find criticisms with Lewis s book. The one aspect
that I do disagree with is that if you read with your mouth you are instantly a bad
reader. If I have a sentence that I need to remember and understand, I find that I
tend to read with my mouth. The argument of constantly reading your mouth
causing readers to slow down because of the actual word forming that has to occur, I
can agree with. My opinion is that I find on occasion using vocalization for
memorization to be useful.
Norman Lewis s book is overwhelmingly helpful and easy to follow. I found
myself imploring certain aspects of the training while I was reading and noticed an
immediate difference. The biggest difference that I found in my own reading was the
usefulness in being aware of my eye movements. By moving my eyes without as
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many stops (at first being very difficult) I noticed that I was making myself
concentrate harder. I was moving both faster and remember more of what I read,
the intended effect of the book!
My Program to Read Better and Faster
To improve reading based on problems that I am interested in I have devised
a step-by-step program for myself to follow. The program is devised of three
sections that focus on different aspects of reading. All three sections are based on
struggles that I have while reading including widening the variety of books I read,
my ability to concentrate and the rate that I read. My goal is to expand vocabulary,
concentrate on what I am reading, and the rate that I read at, thus making myself
better reader. The following is a program that I would follow, concentrating on my
three major weaknesses.
The first step to the advancement in reading is attacking the issue of what
you read and how often you do it. Although people may assume that they are avid
readers, the key is to read more. If you are reading a book every two weeks try
reading a book every week. If you are reading two books a week try to read four. In
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any case make a substantial jump in your book consumption. The second step is to
be adventurous and expand in the genres that you typically read. Some people can
become stuck in the murder-mystery rut. Explore biographies, cooking books, and
books about travel. This requires a commitment of time and the ability to turn off
the television. By reading more often and varying the types of books you are reading
you will be find yourself reading faster and learning new vocabulary. Learning new
vocabulary is always important, particularly in reading. One of the most common
ways that causes readers to stumble is the confusion of a new word. If you are
reading difficult genres of book you will naturally pick up new vocabulary, learned
by the context of the sentence in the book.
Another issue that slows down readers both in speed and comprehension is
the ability to concentrate. This is deeply seeded bad-habit for those who fall victim
to it. At their worst, those who lack the ability to concentrate will skim entire
sentences and paragraphs. This causes the reader to miss main ideas and
consequently the reader will have to back track eventually. The best way to combat
this problem is to use a gradual method. Starting with long sentences the reader will
quickly skim the sentence, without losing focus. Short paragraphs of three sentences
are next. You should commit to being focused on the paragraph. If wondering should
occur, you should start over until the paragraph has been read without mental
interruption. The goal for this is for it to become natural.
Lastly to read better is to read faster. This is tied to how many books one
reads on a regular basis and the ability to concentrate while reading those books.
The best way to improve this skill is to practice, over and over. One method to
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practice is to limit the number of words that you stop on per sentence. Stopping at
each word is not only slow but also makes it more difficult for the mind to tie the
sentence together. Take the following sentence:
Thinking about the meanings of words and phrases and sentences and about
the ways they can be combined gives the learner power over language.
Using a stopwatch time yourself reading the sentence as you normally would. Next
read the sentence concentrating on stopping on any word in particular but skipping
at least two words. Even though you aren t stopping to focus in on each word, your
eyes can still pick up the words in between where your eyes fall. After you are
comfortable with four or five stops, try to go to three to four. After you are
successful with this amount of stops use a stopwatch to time yourself again. The
more that you consciously practice this method, the easier it will become in time.
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Lessons on Reading
Basics Read More S earch for main ideas C hallenge yourself Budget your time P ace yourself CONCENT RA TE!
P ersonalC omments
- Make time forreading
- Focus on eyemovement
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5 things to look for in a reading program
It doesnd t cost very much S hould teach a variety of skills S hould take about 30 hours S hould have a good pre- and post take Follow-up doesnd t cost
Anything
Good Books on Reading How to Read Better and Faster by Norman Lewis
T he E velyn Wood S even Day S peed Reading and LearningP rogram by E velyn Wood
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THE ONLINE POLITICAL REVOLUTION:Will You Be My Friend?
In August of 2007 Neilson began tracking ratings of social networking sites.
The ratings showed that the average social networking site user spent an
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astounding two and half hours of their day surfing Facebook and one and half hours
a day on Myspace. These two social networking sites have not only revolutionized
the way we interact with their peers but the way the nation, especially students, are
getting their information about political candidates. Both Myspace.com and
Facebook.com are taking advantage of the political year by hosting debates, creating
special forums about the election and promoting politician s personal pages.
Mutually, politicians are taking advantage of social networking sites. They can list
their positions in a reader friendly manner using a blog and allowing their online
friends to leave them comments. So how did the politicization of Facebook and
Myspace come about and how could it possibly change the outcome of the election?
According to Neilsen-netrating.com, Facebook.com has more than sixty
million active users, has an average of three percent weekly growth since January
2007 and more than half of the users log on daily. It s clear to see why politicians
hopped on the Facebook bandwagon and surprising to see that it didn t happen
earlier. As of October 11,2008 Barack Obama had 2, 178, 768 supporters, or friends
of his page. These over two million supporters and others that visit Obama s page
can gain a variety of information in a format that avid Facebook users are
accustomed to. They can view personal pictures, sign up to receive updates to the
campaign in their Facebook inbox and connect with other Obama supporters. The
main page of Barack Obama lists several other side pages, such as Women for
Obama, Latinos for Obama, and Michelle Obama s personal page. One feature listed
on both McCain and Obama s pages is a link to register to vote. This could be an
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especially important function since young people are less likely to vote. A link on
Facebook could be the visual push that young voters need to register.
Myspace.com has more than 110 million monthly active users around the
globe. It is currently the country s most trafficked site on the Internet, which makes
it another goldmine for politicians. After logging onto Myspace the user has a
number of tabs to chose from. He or she can go to his or her profile, search for
friends, or search for musicians. Myspace s most recently added tab is labeled
Election 08. This tab takes you to a page that is dedicated to the presidential
election this November. John McCain and Barack Obama s personal pages are listed,
along with their running mates pages as well. This page provides a link to a page
called MyDebates. MyDebates is in partnership with the Commission on Presidential
Debates, giving it more validity in the question of fairness towards the candidates.
On a page titled MyDebates users can take an issue quiz to see which candidates
they match with on certain issues such as fair trade and gun control. Users can also
take polls on whom they plan to vote for and which issues are most important to
them. The administrators use this information for graphs. Since Myspace has so
many users it s a large sample of the country. It is important to remember that
Myspace users typically range between the ages of 16 to 25, who typically lean left.
Another important function on the site allows users to watch old debates and
categorizes certain clips by issue. The personal pages of the candidates are similar
to Facebook. They are in the typical Myspace format, allowing for easy navigating
among Myspace users. Each page has a section for pictures, blogs, comments, and
links to other sub-pages for more specific groups. Myspace also has a place on each
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people that we work with become our confidants, best friends, husbands, ex-wives,
and enemies. Simply put office politics is a game. Every game has its players. In the
office game there are gossip queens, ladder climbers, know-it-alls, and slackers to
name a few. Office politics is all about getting from point A to point B so there are
rules that everyone must follow to win. Properly maintaining workplace
relationships is one of the best ways to do this. So who are we working with and
how can we manage our relationships with them to benefit us not only day to day
but in the long-term as well?
Unfortunately office politics are a lot like real politics. Knowing the right
people can send you quickly up the career ladder and not knowing anyone will keep
you stuck in the same spot for years. In most offices it seems that everyone has a
distinct role. A role that always seems to be filled is the office gossip. This person
knows everything and I mean everything going on in the office. They know who
is fighting with who, who flirts with the boss in secret and, sometimes even know
who is getting fired before they know. According to about.com you should listen to
the office gossip but not become involved. The worst situation you can get yourself
into is becoming entangled in a web of gossip at work. Rumors of the personal
nature should be avoided because this can cause a rift between co-workers. For
example, if a co-worker at work is having a problem in their marriage and knows
you are talking about it, they probably will not go out on a limb for you in the future.
Business gossip should also be taken with a grain of salt. A merger may be in the
company s future at some point, but you will not win points with your boss by
announcing it too early.
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A more frustrating co-worker is the credit-grabber. This co-worker willingly
accepts all credit without acknowledging any help from his follow associates. While
the department gossip may be harmless, the credit-grabber may actually be
detrimental. This most commonly occurs when working on group projects. It is
important to not allow the credit-grabber to receive pats on the back for your work,
or else what reason will you have for asking for a raise or a promotion? Promoting
your accomplishments with tact is vital. If we do not make our accomplishments
known, no one will probably recognize them (Zupek, Co-workers Who Drive You
Crazy. par 2 ). The same can be said if you are a group leader. If you share the glory of
a job well done with the rest of your group they are going to respect your leadership
and develop a greater trust in you as a result.
Managing these relationships takes finesse and strategic communication.
According to Monster.com there are five ways that you can manage poor co-worker
relationships: Try not to take it personally, stay away from this person, keep your
conversations strictly business, confide in a trusted co-worker for their opinion, and
do not be afraid to involve management. The best method that I have used to
maintain my professional relationships is to simply be kind. Work is a place where
stress can be overwhelming and expressing anger towards co-workers is only going
to become ugly. People tend to remember when they are hurt or embarrassed. This
is a prime example of how work place relationships are different than our personal
relationships. A fight within a personal relationship can be mended in private,
where as a work place fight can cause a slue of rumors and make you appear to be
unsympathetic and harsh (7 Habits To Win in Office Politics , par 5).
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and communal satisfaction.
Article Review: What is Chat Doing in the Workplace?
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The article that I have chosen to review is titled What is Chat Doing in the
Workplace? 5 by Mark Handel and James D. Herbsleb. The essay primarily focuses
on the use of e-mail and instant messaging within an organization, including
advantages and disadvantages. The authors also attempt to give reasons why instant
messaging is different and more user friendly than e-mail.
The first point that the authors make is perhaps the most important in the
subject that we are studying, They say that it has become commonplace for teams
to work across distances so common, in fact, that new terminology such as virtual
teams and global work are becoming widely accepted (1). The globalization and
virtualization of organizations goes hand in hand. The landscape of business
changes with the invention of new technology and new technologies are often
adopted to fit new business schemes. This article discusses how e-mail is both useful
within an organization, along with some of its downfalls. The authors refer to e-mail
as the widest used form of computer-mediated communication (1), but also say that
e-mail experiences delay and typically is not read immediately. This concept is the
part of the article that I completely agree and identify with, as I have seen even in
my short time spent in the work force, technology has changed drastically.
The authors describe instant messaging as real time communication (1)
that is being brought into the workplace. This type of communication is typically
used for conversation, making it ideal in a fast-paced work environment. Besides the
positive aspects of it, there is also vagueness to instant messaging in the workplace.
It is not as commonplace or as accepted in the work place as e-mail. It is also
5 M. Handel and J.D. Herbsleb, What Is Chat Doing in the Workplace? Proc. ACM Conf. Computer Supported Cooperative Work, pp. 1-10, 2002.
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difficult to follow how often employees use instant messaging for work purposes ad
not to discuss non-work activities.
The authors cite several studies, but find that the issue is that none of the
studies look at the whole picture with instant messaging. One study looks at which
groups (age, sex, etc.) inside of organizations use instant messaging more often and
other studies look strictly at the messages that are being sent and received. They
believe that if a study can extensively study every aspect of instant messaging at
work, more will be gained from the research. I believe it would be difficult to obtain
such research. If a group of researchers are going to monitor messages being sent
and received in a organization they will probably have to receive permission and the
associates would probably be properly informed. This could drastically change the
nature of the messages.
One of the main points that the authors make is that with instant messaging
conversations can be picked up at a later date. They claim that with e-mail
conversations cannot be resumed. I disagree that this is a reason why e-mail is more
useful in organizations than instant messaging because e-mails can surely be
continued a day or even a week after the initial conversation has come to an end.
The authors use an instant message between to co-workers as an example. In the
conversation an associate has to leave because their son is in the hospital. The other
associate says goodbye and asks to be updated on the son s health. The next day the
man whose son was sick instant messages his co-worker to tell him that his son is
okay. This could also easily be done in e-mail. He could even send out a mass e-mail
telling everyone that his son is healthy.
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One disadvantage that the authors discuss is that users may abuse instant
messages by flaming or sending rude messages. I do not really see how this
distinguishes e-mails from instant messages. E-mails can also be used to defame or
hurt someone. I do not believe this would be a big concern because this kind of
abuse leaves a cyber trail, similar to e-mail.
I was attracted to this article because I am interested workplace
communication, especially new ways in which co-workers are communicating.
Although the article did make a few good points about the nature of instant
messages and how it can be useful with an organization, I believe it did not
successfully list reason how instant messaging is different from e-mail. It is clear
that it is instant and more conversational, but it leaves the reader questioning how
else instant messaging can be useful and what possible repercussions it could have
in the work place.
Oral Communication Within the Organization: An Annotated Bibliography
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V ideo Conferences : According to Wikipedia.org videoconferencing is a set of
interactive telecommunicationtechnologies which allow two or more locations to
interact via two-way video and audio transmissions simultaneously .
O Connail, B., Whittaker, S., & Wilbur, S. (1993). Conversations Over Video: An
Evaluation of the Spoken Aspects of Video-Mediated Communication.
Human-Computer Interaction, 8 (4). Retrieved November 4, 2008 from
Emerson Library Database.
I chose this article not only because it explains what video conferencing is,
but because it delves into the pros and cons of specific video conferencing programs.
Before discussing different types of programs, the article talks about how
videoconferences developed and how they are meant to improve the aspect of
interpersonal visuals to the conference. The systems that they are studying are the
IDSM systems and LIVE-NET. The article includes diagrams of how each system is
set up and also charts. The researchers also include comments and complaints that
typical users of the programs have made. Overall the article is easy to read, provides
solid opinions on where the program needs improvement and is a valuable resource
for videoconferencing.
Interviews : The type of interview that I am interested in finding a source for is the
time when have first contact for a possible position with an organization. This
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meeting is typically the time when a Human Resources director or direct supervisor
will question an applicant to decide if they will offer the applicant the position.
Einhorn, L. (2003). An Inner View of the Job Interview: An Investigation of
Successful Communicative Behaviors. Communication Education, 30 (3).
Retrieved November 4, 2008 from Emerson Library Database.
This article does not presume anything about the process of interviewing.
The author uses research involving the actual interview process to come to his
conclusions. He uses short questionnaires given to the interviewers both before the
interview (judging just the application) and after the interview (judging the
interview itself). This is very useful because it gives the researcher a look into what
the interviewee could have done in person to sway the interviewer one way or the
other. The researcher chose ninety-three behaviors to concentrate on during the
interviews, which were taped. By quantitatively relating the behaviors displayed by
interviewees to the success, or lack there of, the researcher was able to develop a
correlation between certain communication behaviors and the success of an
interview.
Performance Review : This meeting between a superior and their employee is
typically on a quarterly or yearly basis to discuss their job performance. The goal of
this meeting can be for promotions, salary adjustments or disciplinary action.
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Goodall L. H., Wilson, G. L., & Waagen, C. L. (1986). The Performance Appraisal
Interview: An Interpretive Reassessment. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 72 (1).
Retrieved November 4, 2008 from Emerson Library Database.
This article focuses on the issues with performance reviews and what can be
done in order to make them more productive and useful. The main argument for the
question why performance reviews are so detested is the notion of fear in the
receiver. Since there is not a typical script used in most reviews, those being
reviewed are unable to predict what they will hear. Lastly, the article talks about
how the temperature positivity or negativity of a performance review can t be read
by outsiders. The relationship between the reviewer and reviewed has to be taken
into consideration. I feel the article is a great advocate for performance reviews,
while providing a complete criticism.
Pu b lic Speaking: This method of communication in organizations is primarily
defined by the amount of people in the audience. Public speaking in regards to an
organization can also refer to seminars, stakeholders meetings, presentations,
debriefing, press conference, and guerilla type marketing. The intended effect of
public speaking is to entertainment, teach or inform.
T oastMasters. 2008. T oastMasters International. November 7[www.toastmasters.com].
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Toastmaster s is an organization whose goal is to improve communication
skills and self-confidence through public speaking. Toastmasters web-site is a great
resource for two reasons. First, it introduces the reader to the organization. The
organization in itself is a wealth of information on public speaking. Secondly, the
website provides the reader with a library of resources on public speaking for free.
It contains articles on the fear of public speaking and tips for business
presentations.
Training : Training is most commonly addressed on the job in the beginning stages,
but commonly is last throughout one s career, especially with the onslaught on new
technology. Examples of training can be verbal or by text. Examples of training
maybe role-playing, discussions, brainstorming and games depending on the task
that is supposed to be learned.
Source: Tannenbaum, S., Yukl, G. (1992). Training and Development in Work
Organizations. Annual Review of Psychology, 43 (1). Retrieved November 5, 2008
from Emerson Library Database.
This article on training is especially useful because it discusses in depth
different methods of training, including the pros and cons of each. Going beyond the
initial discussion of training methods and article also describes traits that are
pivotal in a trainer and trainee. The article also goes through the process of training
including the pre-training period and the post-training evaluation. One of the most
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developed ideas in the article is the method of team training and how useful it can
be in an organization.
N egotiations : Negotiations are typically a dialogue between two or more
individuals to accomplish an end. The two parties typically work towards a decision,
that is closer to the middle of their own position, instead of giving into the other
party. Negotiations in the work place typically occur over salary and job duties. At
work we are constantly negotiating with our co-workers, bosses and clients to
achieve the best result.
Murray, D. (1987). Requests at Work: Negotiating the Conditions for Conversation.
M anagement Communication Quarterly, 1 (1). Retrieved November 5, 2008
from Emerson Library Database.
This article is an excellent source on negotiation, specifically in the
organizational context. It describes the basic concept of negotiations and also lists a
detailed study that breaks down communication between co-workers so that we
may see how they negotiate to achieve their desired result. The author also makes a
point on behalf of interpersonal communication during negotiations stating that it s
difficult to negotiate over phone or online because of the lack of nonverbal
communication for clarity, i.e. eye contact.
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G rapevine : Grapevines are probably the least direct and most difficult mode of oral
communication throughout an organization. That being said, grapevines are one of
the most important modes of communication as well. Grapevines move information
quickly between co-workers and often grossly misconstrue information and damage
control may have to follow. Grapevine communication closely relates to gossiping.
Mills, C. (2002). In-house Perceptions of an Organisation's Grapevine Activity.
Refereed paper published in the ANZCA 2002 web journal by Australian and
New Zealand Communication Association Conference, Bond University,
Coolangatta, Australia.Retrieved November 5, 2008 from Google Scholar.
This source describes the difference between the two types of grapevines,
gossip and rumors. The positive and negative aspects of grapevines are also
discussed, specifically mentioning venting and forming close relationships with co-
workers. According to the other grapevines are also used to separate groups in
organizations. The author also provides a chart detailing the motive behind certain
subjects of grapevines and examples of each. Furthermore the author uses several
real conversations between workers to detail why the grapevine is occurring. A
common thread between the conversations was the lack of formal communication
channels in the organization, leading to uncertainty between the participants in the
grapevine.
Other Sources of Oral Communication
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Meetings, voicemail, gossip, phone, presentation, loudspeaker, intercom, debriefing,
sales pitch, conflict mediation, public statement, press conference, radio,
advertisements, brown bag meeting, seminars, question & answer, exit interview,
road shows, gorilla marketing, pod casts, and salary negotiations.
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Visual Communication Advantages/Disadvantages
V ugraph
Vugraphs. 2008. Wikipedia. .
Vugraphs are machines that project images onto screens. When used
properly the vugraph is an excellent tool for providing an audience with visual
representation. It is also very useful when teaching to a large