Communication Studies© 2013

By Miss Nikisha Smith

ContentsLesson 1: Communication............................................................................................................................3

Communication, the process, broken down into STAGES........................................................................4

References...............................................................................................................................................5

Lesson 2: Models of Communication...........................................................................................................6

Lesson 3: Forms of Communication: Verbal and non-verbal.......................................................................7

Types of Non-Verbal................................................................................................................................7

Differences between Verbal and non-verbal...........................................................................................8

Functions of nonverbal language.............................................................................................................9

Lesson 4: Contexts of Communication......................................................................................................11

Lesson 5: Language....................................................................................................................................13

Characteristics of language....................................................................................................................13

Lesson 6: Language Variation....................................................................................................................16

Lesson 7: Rules of Language......................................................................................................................18

Lesson 8: Differences between Creole and Standard................................................................................22

Examples of Creole Structures...............................................................................................................23

Lesson 9: Language in Society...................................................................................................................24

Lesson 10: Language Situation in the Caribbean.......................................................................................26

Lesson 11: Attitudes to Language..............................................................................................................27

Lesson 12: Speech/Speaking......................................................................................................................29

Lesson 13: Technology, Culture, and Communication...............................................................................31

Lesson 14: Research..................................................................................................................................33

Lesson 15: Paragraphs and Paragraphing..................................................................................................33

What is a paragraph?.........................................................................................................................33

The Basic Rule: Keep One Idea to One Paragraph.............................................................................33

Elements of a Paragraph....................................................................................................................33

How do I know when to start a new paragraph?...............................................................................35

Transitions and Signposts..................................................................................................................35

Lesson 16: Prose Writing...........................................................................................................................38

Exposition..............................................................................................................................................38

Lesson 17: Summarising............................................................................................................................42

Lesson 18: Listening and Comprehending.................................................................................................44

Lesson 1: Communication

Communication is not just about writing. That is just its latest incarnation. It is ever changing and ubiquitous. “Basic communication is an interchange of meaning (Dunn, 1995: 23). Communication is a cyclical process of coding and decoding data between the listener and the speaker (Dunn, 1995). When the information or message that is coded by the speaker is decoded by the listener, communication has successfully occurred.

Definition – Communication is any process in which people share information, ideas and feelings. This process involves not only the spoken and written word but also body language, personal mannerisms, style, the surrounding or environment; in fact, anything that adds meaning to a message.

Communication is a continuous and ongoing process that involves many elements. The sender encodes the message, sends it along a channel to the receiver, who, if capable, decodes the information. The loop of communication is completed when the receiver sends feedback to the sender that indicates that they understood the message. The response could be either verbal or non-verbal.

1. Sender-receivers – The people who are involved in communication, except in the case of mass communication (television, radio) are simultaneously sending and receiving messages. Also known as communicators.

2. The message is made up of the ideas and feelings that a sender-receiver shares. Ideas and feelings are communicated by verbal and non-verbal symbols.

3. Feedback is the response of the response of the receiver-sender to each other. It is both verbal and non-verbal.

4. The channel is the means that a communicator uses to convey his message: speech, writing and so on.

5. The setting is where the communication occurs. The physical location of the communication

6. The Environment goes beyond the setting to include the fields of experience that help communicators understand each other. It refers to the personal experiences and cultural background of the participants.

Humans begin communicating from in the womb, when the baby responds to different stimuli, and after birth we learn that crying gains attention. Acquiring language skills or signing skills allow us to communicate in more complex ways. It is commonplace. It occurs in the family, in the workplace, in church and in social settings.

Humans spend 70 per cent of their time awake engaged in communication, 40 per cent of which is spent listening, 30 per cent speaking and 15 per cent reading and 10 per cent writing.

Communication, the process, broken down into STAGES 1. Conceptualisation- Communication begins with an idea that someone wants to convey and it

must be put into a form that can be understood by someone else. Therefore it must be encoded, that is given a format in words, pictures or actions that can be understood by the receiver. It must be done appropriately (to fit the message) and must be tailored for whom it is intended. E.g describing a shirt colour.

2. Selecting a channel- This would be the means by which you send your message. It would depend on the type of message (verbal/nonverbal, public/private,) the number of receivers, and the immediacy of the response. Eg. The MET Office received word that a hurricane is on the way.

3. Decoding and interpretation – The receiver decodes the message sent by the sender and interprets meaning. The interpretation will depend on a long series of experience stretching back in time. The receiver will use language, perceptions, opinions and any other clues to decipher the message sent and interpret the meaning. Communication, therefore, does not occur in isolation. To aid the transfer of meaning, the message must be clear and the channel well chosen. However, what can be misinterpreted will be misinterpreted. (Class activity: Chinese telephone).

4. Barriers and facilitators – Noise is anything or force that detracts from or interferes with the message sent and prevents effective communication. It can occur at any stage of the communication process, relating to the elements. There are three types: external (physical), physiological, and psychological. External noise includes those factors that make it difficult to hear, as well as other kinds of distractions. It can be static on the radio, or cigarette in a crowded room. Physiological noise involves biological factors in the receiver or sender that interfere with accurate reception, example illness and fatigue. Psychological noise refers to those forces that interfere with the ability to express or understand a message accurately. So, the sender’s attitudes, prejudices, frame of reference and language used can be noise. Whatever affects the understanding of the message is known as a barrier to communication. Barriers can also be created by the type of language use, the medium used to convey the information or ambiguities in the message. The same barriers can become facilitators if they are chosen carefully and managed. In effective communication, the sender and receiver boths understand the message in the same way. It’s the opposite in ineffective communication, otherwise known as a communication breakdown.

5. Feedback – Communication is not linear, it is a continuous loop. So feedback or the response to the message is just as important. It can be spoken or written, and sometimes physical reactions can be appropriate e.g yawning to a lecturer. No response is feedback as well. It can indicate lack of interest in the message, that it was not understood, or that you just don’t like it. Feedback determines if there will be further communication.

6. Media, Channels and technologies – Technology plays a big part in modern communication. Innovation, the creation of new technology and ways of looking at the world, fuels change. In ancient Egypt and China, human messenger on foot or horseback were a common means of communication. Books used to be handwritten by monks until the printing press came along and allowed for newspapers and mass book printing. Then in 1835 Samuel Morse invented Morse code which was followed by the first telegraph line in 1843. The computer is one of preferred means of communication, with access to social media such as Facebook. Who knows what might be next?

ACTIVITY* List all modern technologies that you know.

One thing to note is that Communication is Symbolic. Symbols are used to represent things, processes, ideas or events in ways that make communication possible. Symbols are also arbitrary, that is fickle. Symbols make up verbal language. There is nothing about actual dogs that determines that the sound ‘dog’ is used to refer to them. That is why the animal in question is called ‘Hund’ in German and ‘chien’ in French. Small children may at some point ask why ‘hill’ is not called ‘butter’ but the answer is: it’s just the way it is. It is something that speakers of English decided upon (convention) a long time ago. Another word would work just as well, as long as we all agreed on it. Effective communication depends on agreement among people about these rules. We overcome the arbitrary nature of symbols by linguistic rules and customs. More will come later in the section called Language, which comes in Week 5. The lesson to be learnt is that nothing should be taken for granted. (signs, symbols and customs and convention),

References

Adler, Ronald B. and George Rodman. 2000. Understanding Human Communication. Orlando: Harcourt College Publishers.

Dunn, Hopeton S. 1995. “Policy Issues in Communications Use: Challenges and Options.” Globalization, Communications and Caribbean Identity. Edited by Hopeton Dunn. Kingston: Ian Randle Publishers.

Simon, Veronica and Sandra Osborne. 2009. Communication Studies for CAPE Examinations. Oxford: Macmillan Publishers Limited.

Zeuscher, R. 1997. Communicating Today. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Lesson 2: Models of Communication.

Models help to describe what happens when two or more people interact. The linear model was the first and most basic and can be seen as an ‘injection’. The sender encodes the message, sends it along the channel and the receiver decodes it. It shows the influence of noise as barrier to communication. It also shows that the process takes place in an environment or context. There is no communication vacuum. There is always a setting or context in which the communication takes place, and derives much of its meaning. The place, surrounding events, physical and psychological climates, what has come before, and likely to follow are all included in the context as well as the participants’ personal experiences and cultural background. The setting is the physical location and the environment includes the non-physical elements.

The more the communicators have in common, the easier communication will be. The overlap represents shared backgrounds. The smaller it is the more difficult it will be. E.g rich and poor, parents who forgot childhood and kids, dominant cultural indifference to how it feels to be different and non-dominant culture’s feelings of oppression.

The transactional model is similar to the linear except that it shows interaction, the back and forth nature of communication, which is called transaction. It calls attention to the fact that all parties in the process influence and are influenced by the communication event. The response may not be what you intended, but it is a necessary part of the process.

Noun- the subject of the sentence, verb – show action of the noun, adverb – describes the verb, adjective - describes the noun, preposition – shows position, gerund – a verb that is turned into a noun e.g running.

(refer to other file)

Lesson 3: Forms of Communication: Verbal and non-verbalVerbal Communication – What is it?

It is the type of communications that is spoken (speech) and / or written. E.g debating, announcements, emails, lecturing, reading, Non-verbal would be none of those things. It refers to information sent not using words. Physical gestures, art forms and special forms of communication fall into this category. E.g. Dance, police directing traffic, flying a flag, interpreting traffic signals.

Types of Non-VerbalThere are seven types: Body language, proxemics, kinesics, chronemics, dress, graphics and symbols and paralanguage.

i. Body Language otherwise known as movement is communication by use of the body. We often communicate our inner responses to situations through body language, therefore it is important not only to listen to what is being said by a person but to the note the body language that goes along with it. This includes your posture, gestures (throwing hands up in air, waving), eye contact, and facial expressions.

ii. Proxemics means using space to communicate. Theorized by research E.T. Hall in 1963, it points to the fact that differences in the use of space can lead to anxiety or relaxation. For example, you may feel uncomfortable if someone sits right next to you in the library when the whole table is empty. Proxemics plays an important part in schools, the world of work and even in our social gatherings. There are measurements for what is considered appropriate for intimate, personal, social and public distance.

iii. Kinesics is the interpretation of body language such as facial expressions and gestures, or more formally, non-verbal behaviour related to movement. Coined by Ray Birdwhistell in 1952, he studied how people communicate through posture, gesture, stance and movement. He concluded that only 30 to 35 per cent of the social meaning of conversation or an interaction is carried by words. The movement of the body, or separate parts, conveys many specific meaning and they carry the risk of being misinterpreted. Kinesics is generally believed to be culturally bound.

iv. Chronemics refers to the use of time, waiting or pausing. When you listen to politicians speak, there are often instances where they pause for greater effect. This is a way of getting the attention of the listener and is often used to signal some important piece of information that a politician want to have. Used in telling jokes or pieces of gossip. It can also communicate attitudes or status. Are you showing respect by arriving early to an appointment for a job interview and a lack of respect by coming a half-hour late you your study group meeting?

v. Dress is one of those objects that relay a message about you. In all cultures we are concerned with how we look and we make judgements based on looks and dress. Artifacts such as clothing,

jewellery or even an automobile can communicate, culture or religion, social standing, or job. In Ghana, kente cloth is worn only by certain members of society, signalling their social position and wealth. Colour is used symbolically (red is associated with power, blue for boy, pink for girl, black for funerals or ‘Goths’.) Hair may also communicate belonging to a group such as dreadlocks for Rastafarianism or a cleanly shaved head for ‘skinheads’ a European racist group. School uniforms also indicate what school, and the way it is worn indicates attitudes of neatness or attitude to the school. Any other examples you can think of?

vi. Graphics and symbols: Subjects like chemistry (periodic table), geography , mathematics (pie charts and stats)have its own symbolic forms for interpretation. Braille is another symbolic way of communicating ideas graphically as the dots and position of dots represent words. Semaphore is a way of passing information through the use of flags.

vii. Paralanguage is the nonverbal elements of communication used to modify meaning and convey emotion. The primary instrument is the voice. Vocalics is the use of the volume, tone, rate, pitch, and quality of your voice to give dimension and meaning to your words. For example, you raise your pitch at the end of a sentence to indicate a question. Laughs, cries and moans all have meaning and communicate some feeling or emotion; these are called vocal characterisers and often have different meanings across cultures. Vocal segregates like ooh, eh, mmmh and hmmmm may appear incomprehensible but each has some special meaning whether it is acceptance, agreement or uncertainty. Interestingly, paralanguage is also revealed in text communication and internet language. Emoticons allow the writer to express emotions in an exciting way, the use of capitals indicate shouting, the colour chosen for the background or the actual text can express emotion.

Differences between Verbal and non-verbal. 1. Single Vs. Multiple Channels: Most verbal messages (words, sentences, and paragraphs) reach

us one at a time, like pearls on a string. You cannot speak more than one word at a time. However, non-verbal messages don’t arrive in such an orderly fashion. They bombard us simultaneously from a multitude of channels. E.g Meeting a stranger. Verbally, there is little information being exchanged, however, the non-verbal messages are staggering. You can be interpreting the other person’s facial expressions, postures, gestures, the clothing he or she wears, the distance he or she stands from you and so on.

2. Discrete vs. Continuous: Verbal messages form messages with clear beginnings and endings. It’s possible to say that someone is or is not communicating verbally by seeing whether or not he or she is speaking or writing. Nonverbal communication is continuous and never ending. They provide a constant flow of messages.

3. Conscious vs. Unconscious: Whereas we usually think about what we want to say before speaking or writing, most nonverbal messages aren’t deliberate. Sometimes it is conscious, such as smiling to convince others we are happy or making sure our handshakes are firm to show that we’re straightforward, decisive people. But there are so many that cannot be controlled. Thus, slumping shoulders might contradict the smile and sweating palms might cancel the firm handshake. The unconscious nature of most nonverbal behaviour explains why it offers so many useful clues about how others are feeling.

Functions of nonverbal language

1. Repeating: If someone asked you for directions o the nearest drugstore, you could say, “North of here about two blocks, “ and then repeat your instructions by pointing north. Pointing is an example of what social scientists call emblems – deliberate nonverbal behaviours that have precise meaning known to everyone within a cultural group. For example, a nod means ‘yes’ and a hand to the ear means ‘I can’t hear you.’

2. Substituting: Waving or nodding illustrates this function. It means that a word has been replaced by an action. The signals that ground personnel use to direct pilots at the airport and sign language is another example of a more complex version of this function.

3. Regulating: In class, you raise your hand to get the instructor’s attention. Such movements regulate the flow of interaction. Parties in a conversation often unconsciously send and receive turn-taking clues such as taking an audible breath, avoiding any pauses in your speech or simply stop speaking.

4. Complementing: You communicate nonverbally to reinforce or complement your verbal sounds. Nodding your head while saying, ‘yes, of course’ and pound the table with a fist while shouting in anger reinforces your message. Using the definition of reinforcing. Sometimes nonverbal behaviours match the content of a verbal message. E.g when someone is apologizing. If they are sincere it would be accompanied by the right tone of voice, facial expression and so on. We often recognize the significance of complementary nonverbal behaviour when it is missing. Much of complementing behaviour consists of illustrators – nonverbal behaviours that accompany and support spoken words. Scratching the head when searching for an idea and snapping your fingers when it occurs are examples. Other examples, when we are horrified, distressed or excited.

5. Accenting: Just as we use italics to highlight an idea in print, we use nonverbal devices to emphasize oral messages. Pointing an accusing finger adds emphasis to criticism as well as stressing certain words with the voice adds emphasis.

6. Contradicting- When the verbal message and the nonverbal one do not match and express different or contradictory messages. This is known as a mixed message. Example, a person with a red face and bulging veins yelling, “Angry? No, I’m not angry!” Research suggests that when a receiver perceives an inconsistency between the verbal and nonverbal messages, the unspoken one carries more weight. As we grow older we become better at interpreting those messages. Children are very literal. Sarcasm is a way to contradict. “Thanks for being early” when clearly the person is late. Deceiving another person with your nonverbal messages is another form of contradiction. For example, you’re bored on a date but to indicate interest you keep eye contact, nod and sometimes smile, all of which are not truthful messages about your feelings. There are indications of lying e.g. lie detector checks heart rate, the size of the pupil reveal heightened anxiety or interest or arousal, eye ticks.

7. Managing Impressions- creating and controlling the way other people perceive you. Arranging your hair in a certain way, speaking a certain way, having a certain car, wristwatch, shoe or even boyfriend/girlfriend, represent who you are to the rest of the world. Cutting off people

midsentence, talking too loud, standing too close all create impressions and are in some ways violating social norms. Either unconsciously or consciously.

8. Establishing relationships –Nonverbal messages can be used to establish or reveal a relationship. A gold band on the third finger on the left hand is one way to indicate marriage. Standing at the head of the table while others are seated indicates some sort of authority, doctors wearing white jackets and stethoscopes communicate a relationship to medicine. Also, whether you touch someone else, how you touch that person, and when and where you touch communicate information about the relationship.

Lesson 4: Contexts of Communication Since much of communication is shaped by the circumstances and the environment in which it occurs, explaining the Contexts of Communication will help to shed light on how the process is influenced. There are seven contexts.

1. Intrapersonal communication: This means communicating with yourself. Intrapersonal refers to what happens in the mind and relates to the internal aspects of a person, especially emotions. In this case, the individual becomes his or her own sender and receiver providing feedback to him or herself in an ongoing internal process. So, talking to yourself is not a sign you are crazy, it is healthy because it is the processing of external or internal stimuli. Some forms are: Daydreaming, solving problems, nocturnal dreams, speaking aloud to oneself, writing one’s thoughts or observations or writing notes to aid in memorization, making gestures while thinking, making sense of maps, texts, signs or symbols, interpreting non-verbal communication and communication between body parts such as the sensations of hunger, pain, and pleasure.

2. Interpersonal Communication: The interactions of two or more people, with the most significant being one-on-one or dyad setting. Social scientists call two persons interacting a dyad. Examples include interviews, a conversation, and intimate communications. Some aspects are speech, nonverbal communication, summarising, paraphrasing, listening, questioning and turn taking. There are four principles:

a. It is inescapable: Even ignoring is communicating, so humans are always communicating. b. Irreversible: One cannot rewind and delete spoken words. It’s like trying to get

toothpaste back into the tube. Impossible. c. Complicated: With two or more personalities, there will be misunderstanding and

misinterpretation. (Go to Wiio’s maxims, Simon, 2005,p. 26)d. and contextual: it is influenced by the location and environment, plus the

communicators themselves e.g shyness, arrogance, mental incapacity, or stuttering.

Technically, all communication involving other people and oneself is interpersonal, but it is usually associated with oneself in direct contact with one other person or a few other people.

3. Small Group Context: refers to the style of communication that occurs in groups of between three and twelve individuals. They can occur in different contexts, work or play e.g. group discussion in the classroom, students sitting together at lunch break, a chat room online, audio or video conferencing, discussion boards and list servers. In a small group every person can participate actively with the other members.

4. Organisational communication focuses on interpersonal, small-group, public and mass communication as they interact in a complex, multigroup setting. Types of organisations are school, universities, government, the bank, electric company. Organizational communication analyzes what happens to messages as they travel up, down, and around a large collection of

individuals and groups bound together in some formal way. It also contributes to the effectiveness of an organisation. It is central ( of grave importance to the running of the company), pervasive (there is a lot of it) and complex (several patterns)

a. Downwards – director or other information coming from management to employeesb. Upward – information passing up the management chain c. Horizontal – sharing information across the levels of the organisation/institutiond. Grapevine- informal passage of information e.g in the kitchen or around the water

cooler. Sometimes it is deliberately used to pass information around.

There are formal and informal types of communication. Informal would be verbal, although the channels of briefings, staff meetings and project meetings would make it formal. Formal would be through email (internet and intranet), memos, newsletters, policy documents, and job description, basically anything written.

5. Public communication – when one person talks to several others and is the dominant focus of the communication. A good example is that of a speaker and an audience. A single person would be talking to three or four or to three of four thousand others.

6. Mass communication happens when messages are transmitted to large, widespread audiences via electronic and print media.

7. Inter-cultural – It looks at how people from differing cultural backgrounds try to communicate. To do this, you have to be aware of the different cultural patterns of the world. One must be capable of accepting that there are different ways of communicating both verbally and non-verbally and different things are communicated by certain behaviours.

8. Academic – note taking, teaching lecturing, group work, writing tests.

Lesson 5: LanguageEven though you spend most of your communication time listening and thinking, your most frequent interaction with others will probably focus on verbal messages. To be complete, those interactions and messages will be carried on both nonverbal and verbal channels.

The way we use words – that is, verbal communication – is one of the distinguishing characteristics of our species. We acknowledged that other animals do communicate but not like humans. We are able to turn our reactions to the world around us into symbols, that is, not the things themselves, but symbols that stand for the physical aspects of the world and our responses to them.

Therefore the most basic meaning of language is that it is a collection of symbols governed by rules, and used to convey messages between individuals.

There are other accepted definitions such as: a system of communication between humans, through written and vocal symbols; speech peculiar to an ethnic, national or cultural group; words, especially employed in any art, branch of knowledge or profession; a person’s characteristic mode of speech; by extension, the articulate or inarticulate expression of thought and feeling by living creatures.

We recognise some truth to each definition, being that another aspect of language that was captured. But what it does show is that it combines a wide variety of features and is the most precise and complex means of communication that exists.

Studies have been done and they believe that humans speak over 10,000 dialects. A linguist, someone who studies language and communication, once quipped, “A language is a dialect with an army and navy." It is a description of the distinction between dialect and language. It points out the influence that political conditions can have over a community's perception of the status of a language or dialect.

The description was popularized by the Yiddish linguist Max Weinreich, who heard it from a member of the audience at one of his lectures.

Characteristics of language1. Uniquely human – The possession of language as a communication tool has been the main

catalyst in our development as the most creative species on earth. Parrots and parakeets can be taught to reproduce sound sequences but they cannot be taught to respond sensibly to a verbal message. Where is the cut-off, however? Gorillas and chimpanzees can be taught sign language and can communicate. Are they human then? Discuss Planet of the Apes.

2. Systematic – Each language has its accepted sound patterns that are easily recognisable to its speakers. There are certain combinations of letter sounds that appear in other languages that are not acceptable in English even though these languages use the same writing system. E.g J sounds like Hé in Spanish. Sounds take on meaning in a language only when they are combined in certain ways that are recognisable to its speakers. Language also uses grammar. The grammar of a language is the set of rules that govern how the words are put together to make meaning. Word order is critical to meaning. E.g the difference between: You are there, there you are! And

are you there? There are rules relating to which type of word can be used in a given sentence to convey meaning. Activity 4.2

3. It is symbolic- a symbol is something that stands for something else. The letters that spell dog have nothing in common with the shaggy canine. The word is merely a symbol for that animal. The very letters that we use to write in English are arbitrary. Anyone who studies Russian, Japanese, Hebrew or Greek realizes that the sounds we make when we see our symbols, other people make when they see other symbols. Even though there may be some common agreement among speakers of the same language regarding the meaning attached to symbols, we all may make different connections in responding to a certain symbol. This is the difference between denotation – the literal definition – and connotation – the specific association and reactions you may have with a word. For example Rose: the literal meaning is a flower sometimes with different colours. The connotation can be romance, a gift, even war. Differences in background and experience create differences in the reactions people have to words.

4. Evolutionary – Although there are dictionaries which ensure that the symbolism of words remain consistent, there is always development and change in aspects of all languages. It is evolutionary or changes over time. One way is through the invention of new words. As humans invent or discover new things and new ideas enter the world, new symbols have to be created to represent them. There will be many new words in the next century that do not exist now. Example, hiragana and katakana in Japanese. Or the skate board vernacular “Sketchy”, stoked, dude, poser etc.

Purposes of language

1. Expressive – used to express one’s feelings, ideas or attitudes without taking a reader or listener into consideration. In this use the speaker/writer is not trying to effect change or get a response. He/she is venting. Diaries and journals are examples of this.

2. Informative – language is employed with the intention of conveying information to others. E.g. a news broadcast, a bulletin board, a text book are all example of this purpose.

3. Cognitive – Used to affect the audience in some way in order to evoke some type of response. Therefore, when it is used to persuade, entertain, stir to anger or arouse sympathy one is using it for cognitive purposes. E.g catharsis, push you to laugh and cry.

4. Poetic – language used in literary, stylistic or imaginative ways is poetic. The user focuses on the structure and pattern of the language and places emphasis on the manner in which the language is manipulated. Language used for poetic purposes is not necessarily done in verse. It is the way in which the language is used, and not its form that indicate its poetic purpose.

5. Phatic – used just to establish or maintain contact among people and not necessarily to generate a meaningful response. Greetings such as hello or good morning help to maintain social customs. E.g I struggled for a while with ‘how you doing?’. People do not expect a litany of all the things that are going wrong in your life. You expect a ‘fine’ in response.

6. Metalinguistic – simply put, this is the use of the language to comment on, refer to or discuss language itself. A critique of your friend’s essay or speech is metalinguistic, so is the blurb on the back of the novel. When language become conscious of itself is also this. Metafiction is

when the novel undercuts and queries its own realism. For example if characters start to question the author, taking issue with her version of their motives or his handling of the plots in which they figure.

Assignment - At the front of most major dictionaries is an introduction that may discuss the history of English, language in general, and the processes used to compile that particular edition. Select two dictionaries (including online dictionaries), and read the introductions. Take notes and be prepared to present a short report or to participate in a group discussion about the material.

Lesson 6: Language Variation

There are many varieties or types of language, as we discussed earlier. To review, there are over 10,000 dialects spoken worldwide but only a few are considered MAJOR languages. It you look up a list of the major languages in the world, you will realise that different languages are spoken in different geographical locations. Some are far from each other. Example, people in Spain, Cuba and Mexico all speak Spanish. However, the Spanish in each country differ from each other. No language is spoken in exactly the same way wherever it is used. E.g people in England, Canada, Antigua and Australia, all speak English but it’s not the same and can even be identified by the WAY they speak. It can be said that these persons are speaking a particular dialect of English. Dialect refers to any variety of a language spoken by a group of people or speech community. A particular variety of a language spoken by one group of persons, that differs noticeably from the variety or varieties of the same language spoken by another group or other groups of people. A group of people who speak the same dialect is known as a speech community.

Sometimes, as a language evolves, one particular dialect becomes dominant. This is usually due to the fact that it is the dialect spoken by the people with the economic power or greatest social influence in that society. In this case, their dialect becomes accepted as the Standard variety of that language, used for writing and other formal purposes (such as education, speaking) and is given prestige over the other varieties.

You may choose to use an entirely different variety or dialect of a language from one situation to the next. The variety of language that you use at any given time or the kinds of English appropriate to a particular purpose or situation is your language Register. It refers to the levels of formality/informality and tone that are correct for a specific context. A register can refer to either written or spoken language.

Register is decided on the communicator’s audience ( and his relationship to them), the nature of the subject matter being spoken about, the medium, which may/may not include non-verbal elements and the writer’s attitude towards the content he writes about. E.g in formal occasion, the formal is used.

The types there are include: formal, casual, intimate, consultative, and frozen.

The ability to change your register in this way is an important life skill, as few people speak or write their dialect in the same way no matter what the context.

There is a wide range of varieties that are considered standard. Look in Word sometime and try to reset the language, and you will see the varieties. There is British Standard English, American Standard English and even Caribbean Standard English. All these forms share the same structures and are considered to be internationally acceptable, that is understood by other speakers of English around the world. They differ mostly in Pronunciation and vocabulary. Pg. 48. Flat, apartment, tyre-tire, autumn-fall, forehead-forehead, biscuit-cookie, pudding-dessert, number plate-license plate.

It is important to understand that no one variety of a language is superior to another and that every language is really a collection of dialects. Accents may make it difficult for two persons speaking the same language to understand each other. (ever heard Bajan?) An accent is simply a variation in pronunciation. There is no person without an accent. But because it is so much a part of who you are, it is often difficult for you to identify your own. (talk about Jamaica)

There are differences with a speech community. Pg 48.

Code switching. Varying the way you express yourself, depending on whom you are speaking or writing to.

Depending on whom you are speaking or writing to, you instinctively vary the way in which you express yourself. This type of language variation is called code switching. Although you may be using the same variety.

There is a wide range of varieties that are considered standard. Look in Word sometime and try to reset the language, and you will see the varieties. There is British Standard English, American Standard English and even Caribbean Standard English. All these forms share the same structures and are considered to be internationally acceptable, that is understood by other speakers of English around the world. They differ mostly in Pronunciation and vocabulary. Pg. 48. Flat, apartment, tyre-tire, autumn-fall, forehead-forehead, biscuit-cookie, pudding-dessert, number plate-license plate.

It is important to understand that no one variety of a language is superior to another and that every language is really a collection of dialects. Accents may make it difficult for two persons speaking the same language to understand each other. (ever heard Bajan?) An accent is simply a variation in pronunciation. There is no person without an accent. But because it is so much a part of who you are, it is often difficult for you to identify your own. (talk about Jamaica)

There are differences with a speech community. Pg 48.

Code switching. Varying the way you express yourself, depending on whom you are speaking or writing to.

Depending on whom you are speaking or writing to, you instinctively vary the way in which you express yourself. This type of language variation is called code switching. Although you may be using the same variety.

Lesson 7: Rules of Language

As the context of communication changes, this variation of code or speech style involves changes in syntax and vocabulary, which are rules of language. Languages contain several types of rules.

Syntax – This governs the structure or order of language. For example English syntax requires every word to contain at least one vowel. You can probably guess the meaning of this sentence: “Dog, a large one there down the road coming is.” You know also know exactly how to change it to make it fit the rules for English sentence structure. Yet speakers of Japanese or Hungarian would prefer a word order close to the one illustrated. Although most of us aren’t able to describe the syntactic rules that govern our language, it’s easy to recognise their existence by noting the odd appearance of a statement that violates them.

Syntactic rules help us decipher a message, even when we don’t understand the meaning of some words it contains. Audiences expect you to follow the rules because a barrier may arise if you do not meet their expectations.

When we want to change register the structure changes. In casual or informal speech, we use many contractions, and drop word endings. You are likely to say to your partner, “don’t you love me?’ rather than ‘do you not love me’.

Activity 4.8.page 49

Vocabulary- A person's vocabulary is the set of words within a language that is familiar to that person. A vocabulary usually develops with age, and serves as a useful and fundamental tool for communication and acquiring knowledge. Word choice is a major determinant of your register, which enables code switching. There are words (e.g obscene words) that are not acceptable in most contexts. Then there are words that we use if we are trying to impress. Think about the difference in impact of ‘ There has been substantial investment in this venture’ as opposed to, “There has been much investment in this venture.”

Vocabulary can be specific to a particular group. For professional and technical purposes it is known as jargon. For example, lawyers, Rastafarians, skate boarders. Slang is the use of informal words and expressions that are not considered standard in the speaker's dialect or language but are considered more acceptable when used socially. Slang is often invented by groups of young people, and used in a way that is unique to them and sometimes baffling to the mainstream adult population. Most slang terms have a short life span but some stay around long enough to be accepted by the general population. For example, cool. "cool" was used by jazz musicians in the 1940s. Musicians used it to mean something was "hip."It crept into album titles in the 1950s. But kids used it for anything they considered special or out of the ordinary or simply, good.

Notice that while some slang terms do remain in general usage, they are normally restricted to informal language and not used in formal expression, otherwise known as colloquial language. Colloquial means ‘relating to conversation.’ If used in formal writing, they would be placed in inverted commas to indicate they are colloquial.

Semantics – the way we attach meanings to words and the rules that govern how to put meaning into those words. Semantic rules are what make it possible for us to agree that ‘bikes’ are for riding and ‘books’ are for reading, they also help us to know who we will and won’t encounter when we open doors marked ‘men’ and ‘women’. Without semantic rules, communication would be impossible, because each of us would use symbols in unique ways, unintelligible to each other. The meanings of words are given to those words by the users of those words. Labelling, making common. An old dictionary functions like a history book and records how educated speakers used words in the past. However, a dictionary cannot tell what a particular speaker may have meant when that speaker departed from past usage.

The way that we use the word ‘semantics’ is from the study of the use and misuse of language, made popular by Alfred Korzybski (1933) and S.I. Hayakawa (1990). For example, what’s the difference between garbage man and sanitary engineer? Same thing. Korzybski and Hayakawa felt that our misuse of symbols is partly responsible for many social ills. They stressed that “the symbol is not the thing.” By this statement, they mean that symbols are representational and artificial and not worth fighting over. Our words, as Hayakawa point out, are like maps to a territory, but they are not the territory itself. For example, rather than block a bill in the legislature because it contains a socially impolite term –venereal disease – it was much sounder to attack the disease. They believed that if we could change the way we react to symbols, especially those of language, we could improve our orientation to reality and get to work solving real problems instead of arguing about what to call the problem.

Phonologics – Phonological rules govern how sounds are combined to form words. For example, the words ‘champagne,’ ‘double’, and ‘occasion’ have the same meaning in French and English, but are all pronounced differently. The way a word sounds gives it meaning when we hear it. There are combinations and rules of language that clarify meaning and others that create only nonsense. You recognize train from its sounds as being different from drain, even though the sound /t/ and /d/ are nearly identical. The phonemes, or sounds, change slightly, and the meaning changes completely. Through sound, we provide not only differences in meanings, but also information about ourselves. Are you from Brooklyn, Atlanta, Edinburgh or Calcutta? E.g coffee in different part of the states. We all can say the same words, but slight variation in pronunciation give listeners quite a bit of information about us. It is really sounds that govern meanings since written language represents the results of our ancestors having recorded the sounds they made. Sometimes the original spelling remains when over the years the sounds change e.g subtle. You won’t hear the ‘b’ pronounced.

Next week: Creole

The term Creole comes from the Portugese word ‘creoulo’, meaning a person of European parents who had been born and raised in a colonial territory. Later, it was used to refer to anyone native to these countries and then it became the name of the language spoken by these people.

Creole is a language born of contact. It is developed from a less stable form of communication between the speakers of different cultures, such as West Africans and Europeans. This is known as Pidgin. Pidgin develops when people who speak different languages find themselves in a situation where they have to communicate with each other for purpose of trade, business or survival. Pidgins are not ordinary languages, but it can begin to be used as the first language of people in the same community (usually children). It then acquires the more complex grammar of a full language and is referred to as a Creole. Therefore, all Creole languages start as Pidgins. Sometimes Creole languages are referred to as patois or patwa. However, the word patois can be used as a synonym for any non-standard variety or local dialect, including pidgins.

Caribbean Creole is highly varied. Although a creole has influences from several languages in its sounds, structure and vocabulary, it is usually classified according to what is perceived as the dominant language. So, some territories speak a Creole whose vocabulary is based on English, while others are based on French, Spanish or Dutch.

Creole structures differ from standard English in: Number, Possession, Gender, person, pronoun, comparison, negation, tense, voice, and emphasis among other things.

Lesson 8: Differences between Creole and Standard

As before when we learnt about Standard English through its characteristics, the same will be applied to Creole. It will be broken down into four areas: sound units, vocabulary, grammar and semantics (word meaning).

1. Sound units. In the case of English-based creole, the most distinctive differences in sound combinations are observed in sounds that occur in Standard English but not in creole. The ‘th’ sound, which is produced in English by placing the tip of the tongue between the front teeth, does not exist in Creole. It is replaced by either ‘d’, ‘t’ or ‘f’ depending on its position in the word and the presence or absence of non-English influences on the creole. E.g. Brother –brodder/bredda, This-dis, there-dere/deh, thing-ting/fing, thief-tief, mouth/mout. Creole also dispenses with the final consonant in the words that end in ‘ing’ and ‘d.’ Dancing-dancin, going-goin/gwine, send-sen, sending-sennin, find-fine. In some cases, an English sound combination is not dropped but reversed. E.g ask become aks and film becomes flim.

2. Vocabulary- the vocabulary/lexicon of Caribbean Creole English is derived mainly from Standard English. However, a number of words used in Creole speech are related to cultural influences from other European, Amerindian, African, East Indian and Chinese language. The scope of usage depends on the composition of the population of the specific territory and its history of cultural influences. East Indian – Dhal, sari. Amerindian- cassava, manatee, barbecue, iguana. Chinese- bok choy, wok, chop suey, chow mein. African – dutty, bakra, nyam, yam, shango. Like any other language, the creole vocabulary is dynamic and reflects changes that arise out of social movements such as Rastafarianism (e.g ital, irie) or the incorporation of slang (e.g. bashment, matie, vibes).

3. Grammar – Much of the syntax and grammar of Caribbean Creoles actually comes from West African languages. So while the Creoles draw their lexical or word base from the European languages, the structures of the Creoles are often those of African languages. You have the paper for all of those grammatical differences.

4. Semantics – All Creoles share a large part of their vocabulary with the language that forms their lexical base. However, in many instances the same words have very different meanings in the Creole. For example, ‘dis chile so miserable!’ does not mean that the child is sad or listless but quite the opposite, that he or she is troublesome and overactive. Also, in Creole, an ‘ignorant’ individual is not necessarily lacking in knowledge, but is quick to anger and acts without thinking.

Howe are the following words/ phrases used in your creole? Do their creole meanings differ from the standard? Hot, feisty, wine, soaps, malicious, ‘you lie!’, fast

Another semantic feature is the use of calques, which are compound words borrowed from another language as literal translations. Example, nose-hole, house-bottom, eye-water, cut-eye, door-mouth, force-ripe. How would you translate them into SE? Can you think of any others?

An understanding of the distinctions between the language varieties will help you to be consistent in your use of either and to make fewer of the errors that result from a mixing of Creole and Standard.

Examples of Creole Structures

1. Number: To indicate plurality creole uses the third person pronoun dem: egs.

a. Di boy dem, di boy an dem, dem boy

b. Otherwise, creole may use some word like four or plenty

c. Plenty people pass here aready.

2. Possession: Creole shows possession by juxtaposition, which is by following one noun immediately after the other, the first being the possessor and the second the possessed. E.g the student book.

3. Gender, person and pronouns: In English nouns are classified as masculine, feminine and neuter. English pronouns generally distinguish sex exactly. In some Caribbean countries, the creole does not distinguish gender in its pronoun references. Egs.De Driver wait but I no come. The pronoun ‘I’ may be equivalent to English he, she or it

4. Comparison: In Creole, comparatives and superlative are doubled for emphasis. E.g. The most kindest thing he ever do is come fu me.

5. Verbs versus Adjectives: In Creole, adjectives may function as verbs and predicates. Eg. De driver dead.

6. Negation: No auxiliary (helper word) is needed in Creole to negate the action of the verb. E.g De driver din crash, De driver nah crash. In Creole, negatives are also doubled for emphasis. Eg. Nobody better not walk here.

7. Tense: Creole does not add suffixes to show the past, though it may insert some other word. From de boy an dem come dey mek noise all day. In Creole there is no subject-verb agreement in the present tense. E.g It drop; she walk

8. Mood: Creole uses ‘would’ for future tense. Eg. Come for me tomorrow and I would go

9. Voice: Passive structures differ from Standard English. E.g De school pat, De school get paints

10. Emphasis: Creole doubles negatives and comparatives mainly for emphasis. (see Comparison above). Duplication is another common method of showing emphasis in Creole. Eg. What a way the man fool-fool; he like she bad bad.

Lesson 9: Language in Society

Language facilitates communication between human beings. It is also, however, influences our culture and out through processes. Societies tend to be characterised by their most dominant languages and language is often a primary vehicle of culture.

Each society is distinct in terms of the language or languages used. A society where only one language is used is said to be monolingual, however there are few societies today that can say that no other languages are spoken, even us. Most societies use more than one language and may be bilingual (using two languages) or even multilingual (using multiple languages).

Although there may be an official language, that is the language that is given unique legal status as the language used in the country’s legislative bodies, where there are immigrants there are bilingual or multilingual communities.

England is traditionally monolingual, but studies estimate that about 300 languages are spoken in London today. This is largely a result of the arrival of migrants and refugees, especially in the second half o f the 20th century. P.59

English is the language of commerce and one of two major languages in the western hemisphere. Approximately 90 percent of all internet traffic, 75 per cent of the world’s mail and 60 per cent of its radio programmes are in English. Debate: Should all immigrants speak English? Interestingly the U.S is one of two countries that have no official language. Obviously, English is the main language.

The linguistic characteristics of a society come about as a result of four factors.

1. Historical – this factor is related most often to migration or colonisation. For example, English and French are spoken in Canada today because it was the scene of several conflicts between France and England in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The spread of the British empire since the 1500’s has allowed English to be spoken in a large faction of the world. It is still only the third most popular language following behind Mandarin and Hindi.

2. Social – The social dominance of a group ensures that its dialect becomes the one that assumes the place of importance in the society and is considered to be the standard language. The elements of social and economic class always affect attitudes to and choice of language. E.g individuals seeking to be recognised as part of a certain social group may deliberately cultivate the language or dialect of that group although they do not normally speak that dialect. Chinese is considered a good second language because of the rise of that economy. More apparent after the 2008 Olympics.

3. Cultural- Global movement of people has been major influence on language. Many migrants and refugees are eager to assimilate quickly as much of the new culture as they can, to facilitate their ability to fit in with their society. As generations are born into the new culture, much of their original language is lost. While acculturation or assimilating, of the new culture affects the

language of immigrants, sometimes the language of the host country also undergoes change as a result of the new cultural influences. For example several Spanish words have become part of everyday English language (taco, flan, piñata, machismo). Inevitably, the coexistence of different languages from different cultures in a society results in linguistic changes in all the languages. However, the nature of the cultural changes determines which language is more widely influential and what types of change take place. Linguistic determinism P.100 UHC. Etymology – the root or origins of words.

4. Political – The official language of a country is normally indicated in the national constitution or other official sources. Recognition given to other languages is also a political or government decision. Most countries maintain the status of their languages regardless of political change. However, in some countries the language is significantly influenced by political events. Language policies typically define a government’s plan regarding the approach to the treatment of language in the specific country. For example, the language policy usually determines which languages will be taught in schools, or used for particular official purposes. The Policy may either promote or discourage the use of a particular language or languages and in some cases it is designed to protect an ethnic language that may be in danger of disappearing.

Lesson 10: Language Situation in the Caribbean

The Caribbean is often described as a complex linguistic region, largely because its complicated history has resulted in an array of languages, dialects and vernacular forms that provide rich material for study by linguists from far and wide. The original inhabitants of the region had their own wide range of languages, some of which are still spoken by small groups in places such as Guyana and Suriname. Many Caribbean people are not aware that there are significant Amerindian influences on their way of life and language today.

The arrival of the Europeans colonists in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries meant that non-indigenous languages began to take root in the society. It is important to note that many of these Europeans were themselves speakers of non-standard dialects and no one variety of English, French, Portuguese, Dutch or Spanish was spoken.

When the need arose for cheap labour to work on the plantations, Africans were captured, enslaved an imported primarily from countries along the West Coast of Africa. Many of them were also speakers of various non-standard dialects of their own languages. However, in order to minimise communication among the slaves as a security measure, plantation owners mixed the slaves whom they bought so that few Africans speaking the same language could be found on any one plantation.

After the emancipation of the enslaved Africans in 1838, estate owners began recruiting indentured labourers from India, China and some Portuguese territories. These people introduced an even greater potpourri of dialects. The last major goup of non-indigenous people came to the Caribbean in the twentieth century from Syria and Lebanon. They came primarily to Trinidad and, to a lesser extent, Jamaica and the southern island chain.

It is easy to see how these major movements would spawn a number of pidgins and subsequently Creoles in the Region. Remember that a lot of internal movement was also taking place among the territories, and cultural practices were continuously being exchanged. Despite the fact that the Europeans languages were the socially dominant and official ones, the Creoles were, and still are today, the most widely used.

Notice that Dominica and St Lucia, which were colonised for long periods by both the French and the British, have both French and English Creoles in addition to their official language. Whenever either power ruled, the official language was changed and matters of state were carried out in the language of the ruling power. In St Lucia, there 13 changes of ownership of the island, which moved back and forth from English to French.

Lesson 11: Attitudes to Language

Your speech immediately conveys specific impressions to an audience. People form impressions of your personality, emotional state, geographic origin, age or socio-economic status from the language you use and the way you use it. Some impressions may be formed largely because of societal and personal attitudes to certain types of language. Therefore, people often adopt certain linguistic behaviours that they believe would create more favourable impressions of themselves or enable them to fit in with the crowd.

In Caribbean society, there are varying attitudes to language. Because of our history, people of the region tend to place a high premium on the standard languages, A.K.A, the languages of power and economic might. Many people believe that upward mobility is largely dependent on one’s ability to fit in with the predominant socioeconomic class, and language is the main signifier of this fit. Proficiency in Standard English is associated with a higher status, career advancement, higher intelligence, maturity, and respect. Therefore, there are those who look down upon Creole and its speakers. E.g people who travel and emphasise their new foreign accent or twang. E.g. Oliver on the plane. On the other hand, there are those who take pride in their Creole language and think it is ludicrous to aspire to get rid of their original accent and work, rather, to hold on to it.

The functions of Creole -

1. Phatic – As Creole is a language, it is also used just to establish or maintain contact among people. E.g “Wha a gwan?” It sets the tone, which is usually casual, and precedes a relaxed conversational mode.

2. Establishing identity- Our sense of self and community are tightly tied in with the language we speak. In foreign countries, the moment individuals encounter someone from ‘home’ they immediately revert to their original dialect or way of speech. Language is a means to create and recognise identity.

3. Solidarity - Language creates a sense of ethnic community or of belonging to a group and immediately assuages the feeling of being an outsider in a foreign land.

4. Strategy to exclude – Speakers of a specific language and dialect can use that language to exclude non-speakers from the group. E.g Spanish speakers in a English land. It can be used to camouflage information or just simply to keep the community intact as a way of protecting the culture.

5. Status- In certain arenas, speakers of foreign languages or dialects are revered. E.g Due to the popularity of Bob Marley’s music, the Jamaican dialect is well-known around the world and there are those who try to mimic because it is associated with ‘cool’. Another example is ‘Hip-Hop speak’. Every white teenager wants to believe he is from the hood now. Those who are proud of their language will speak it as much as possible to show their allegiance and their belief in the higher status of the language. E.g Jamaican dialect. ‘Baby love’.

6. Affective/expressive function – Sometimes certain things cannot be expressed as well in Standard English as in Creole, especially when it is the first language one is exposed to. Certain \phrases as well do not take well to translation. So it is used to express one’s feelings, ideas or attitudes without taking a reader or listener into consideration. E.g “wat is dis ya tall, tall, tall?”

Attitudes to language may vary from one sector of the society to another and some people demonstrate self-conscious behaviour when speaking the standard language. This is largely a result of the language that one speaks. This is even more prevalent in societies with a colonial legacy, like the Caribbean, where certain dialects are associated with the institution of slavery or conquest.

Increasingly, educators are becoming aware that a person’s native language is an integral part of who that person is and marginalising that language can have severe damaging effects on of that person’s psyche. Many linguists consistently make a case for teaching native languages alongside the target language so that children can clearly differentiate among the codes and hence be less likely to mix the two. This approach has been adopted in Haiti, where schools teach both Standard French and French Creole (Haitian) and children are expected to be fluent in both.

When a creole develops, it is usually at the expense of other languages in the area. It also comes into conflict with the standard language of the region. There is strong pressure on the creole speakers to move to the standard language which is considered to be more prestigious. This process is known as ‘decreolisation’.

A ‘post-creole’ continuu, the develops. At one end is the acrolect – a dialect that is closest to the standard European language, spoken by the groups in close contact with the most power sector of the society. At the other end is the basilect – a basic form of the dialect spoken by the group at the bottom of the social ladder. The mesolect sits at the midway point. The creole continuum is also evident in the degree to which creole maintain their relationship with the European and African languages from which they evolve.

Lesson 12: Speech/Speaking

The effectiveness of our communication depends heavily on how well we can convey thoughts and messages through speech. Therefore it is important to understand how to ensure that, whatever the communicative context or purpose, we are able to speak clearly, choose our words carefully and use the appropriate intonation in order to be good communicators.

There are five Basic speech skills to the effective delivery of spoken communication. Only through consistent practice and self-evaluation can they be mastered.

1. Articulation – This is the careful pronunciation of words and syllables, with specific regard to consonant sounds. The articulators are the tongue, lips, teeth and palate (the roof of the mouth). These are the points of contact that enable us to produce the particular consonant sounds.

2. Enunciation – This is the careful pronunciation of the vowel sounds in words and syllables. The articulators do not have to touch each other for us to produce these sounds. Try making the sounds of ‘e’, ‘o’, ‘u’, ‘i’ and ‘a’. Notice how you produce these sounds. Notice also that each vowel sound has more than one possible sound. Proper enunciation requires clear differentiation between separate vowels as well as between the two sound s of each vowel. Your listener should be clear to whether you are saying, paper or pepper, pin or pen, potent or portent.

3. Voice Control- This is the ability to regulate and modulate your voice so that your words are audible and your tone conveys the intended message. There are three factors to control your voice:

a. Tempo – the speed of your speech. It has to be regulated to aid the understanding of your listener. Speaking too quickly can interfere with articulation and fenunciation, while speaking too slowly may bore your listeners.

b. Volume – The loudness of your speech. This needs to be adjusted to suit the specific occasion (inside, outside, large or small audience). Your setting or environment normally dictates how loudly or softly you speak.

c. Pitch/tone- the sound quality of your voice. Your tone conveys emotional and social information to your listener. It can indicate whether you are angry, sad or excited and your listener can get the impression that you are superior, submissive or unsure from your tone. Try recording and listening to your own voice and hear how other hear you.

4. Usage- this refers to using the correct grammatical structure when speaking, as well as using structures that are appropriate to your audience and the purpose of your speech. If you were giving a talk to a kindergarten class on the importance of keeping their surroundings clean, you would need to use simple rather than complex sentence structures.

5. Word Choice – The words you use when speaking should be appropriate to the audience as well as to the occasion or you may end up alienating your audience. For example, unless you were addressing a group of computer savvy people, you would not throw in words like core processors, teraflop, macros or search engine optimisation if there was no way of clearly explaining them. You should also ensure that you do not use words that are socially inappropriate or vulgar.

6. Speaker/audience rapport – effective communicators work on developing a relationship with their audience. This does not mean that you have to know your audience personally but that, whatever you do, you need to have your audience in mind.

Lesson 13: Technology, Culture, and Communication

Communication, technology, and culture are inextricably connected. Culture influences the ways in which people communicate and the technology they select as part of that communication; the ways in which we communicate evolve out of the nature of our culture and the type of communication technology available to us; technology alters and shapes our culture while it influences the decision and choices people make regarding communication. It is impossible to deal with these three elements in isolation.

Culture refers to common practices and beliefs held by a specific group. Culture is expressed through our language; proverbs and folk tales; legends and myths; art and music; and food and drink.

Culture unifies one group but separates it from other groups with dissimilar practices and beliefs. The Caribbean has many different cultures, though a shared and similar history. Each island is different than the others. The Creoles are different due to different colonisation (English, French, Dutch, Spanish), the celebration of Carnival or the ending of slavery is different, the folk stories are different, the names of food and plants also differ because of the application of the different influences (African, English, etc.).

The influence of culture on Caribbean language:

American culture through exposure to television – slang, dress and moral standards Travel – Same exposure to American culture The spelling of words – the printing of books is in North America so BSE is mixed up with ASE Music – influences body language, clothes (Hip Hop, dance hall), association with aggressive

behaviour.

Technology is the technical means (material objects, systems or techniques) that people use to improve their surroundings. The earliest technology was the stone axe, fire, etc. The latest incarnation is communication technology such as the internet and computer, with the inclusion of the television, radio, and telephone.

Technology has (advantages):

Offered us multiple options for mode of communication, making it easier and faster Offered a virtual world where we can talk and relay messages to anyone/s, near and far, even in

another language e.g chat rooms, Face Book, BBMs, whatsapp The accessibility of information make books available online and virtual classroom enable us to

gain certification without actually going to school

Entertainment and news media have been revolutionised with interactive platforms such as social networks, fantasy games, You tube and e-mail.

New tools, knowledge and areas of expertise (jobs) – IT, social network managers New words into the vocabulary and secondary meanings for existing words. E.g mouse, diskette,

internet Abbreviations have become the norm for communicating in internet chat rooms known as

Netlingo English has become the language of business and the internet because most of the software is

created in English. Living in a paperless society Access to music and listening behaviours have changed from records to iTunes, there is no need

to purchase a hard copy of anything or to watch programs at the time of airing.

Negatives of technology:

Spam Cyber bullying Identity theft and fraud No privacy – sharing of information with virtual strangers normally taboo is now considered de

rigueur Lots of information that needs to be sorted, processed, filed, responded to or utilised Loss of etiquette and traditional protocol such as letter writing. Misspellings, popularity of abbreviations, lack of grammar rules, no observance of sentence

structures, No acknowledgement of features of languages other than English, such as French or Spanish Need to respond to communication faster and to transfer larger amounts of information. The death of the traditional postal system as mail is constantly decreasing Mistakes stay on the internet forever The cultural practice of going to the library or exchanging books with friends no longer has their

traditional place in our lives. Books as gifts are less popular Lead to isolation and non-physical interaction option leading to lack of interpersonal

development. Internet portrays the culture of economically/socially dominant societies, i.e can lead to cultural

degradation People defining themselves through their technology e.g new phones, Xbox, etc. Online shopping and e-Bay leads to no need to leave your house so communities suffer as well

as families. Interaction on the net is self-conscious and contrived and lead to difficulties to develop real

relationships in person.

Lesson 14: ResearchRefer to the separate file on research that was attached to e-mail.

Lesson 15: Paragraphs and Paragraphing

What is a paragraph?

A paragraph is a collection of related sentences dealing with a single topic. Learning to write good paragraphs will help you as a writer stay on track during your drafting and revision stages. Good paragraphing also greatly assists your readers in following a piece of writing. You can have fantastic ideas, but if those ideas aren't presented in an organized fashion, you will lose your readers (and fail to achieve your goals in writing).

The Basic Rule: Keep One Idea to One Paragraph

The basic rule of thumb with paragraphing is to keep one idea to one paragraph. If you begin to transition into a new idea, it belongs in a new paragraph. There are some simple ways to tell if you are on the same topic or a new one. You can have one idea and several bits of supporting evidence within a single paragraph. You can also have several points in a single paragraph as long as they relate to the overall topic of the paragraph. If the single points start to get long, then perhaps elaborating on each of them and placing them in their own paragraphs is the route to go.

Elements of a Paragraph

To be as effective as possible, a paragraph should contain each of the following: Unity, Coherence, A Topic Sentence, and Adequate Development. As you will see, all of these traits overlap. Using and adapting them to your individual purposes will help you construct effective paragraphs.

Unity

The entire paragraph should concern itself with a single focus. If it begins with a one focus or major point of discussion, it should not end with another or wander within different ideas.

Coherence

Coherence is the trait that makes the paragraph easily understandable to a reader. You can help create coherence in your paragraphs by creating logical bridges and verbal bridges.

Logical bridges The same idea of a topic is carried over from sentence to sentence Successive sentences can be constructed in parallel form

Verbal bridges Key words can be repeated in several sentences Synonymous words can be repeated in several sentences

Pronouns can refer to nouns in previous sentences

Transition words can be used to link ideas from different sentences

A topic sentence

A topic sentence is a sentence that indicates in a general way what idea or thesis the paragraph is going to deal with. Although not all paragraphs have clear-cut topic sentences, and despite the fact that topic sentences can occur anywhere in the paragraph (as the first sentence, the last sentence, or somewhere in the middle), an easy way to make sure your reader understands the topic of the paragraph is to put your topic sentence near the beginning of the paragraph. (This is a good general rule for less experienced writers, although it is not the only way to do it). Regardless of whether you include an explicit topic sentence or not, you should be able to easily summarize what the paragraph is about.

Adequate development

The topic (which is introduced by the topic sentence) should be discussed fully and adequately. Again, this varies from paragraph to paragraph, depending on the author's purpose, but writers should beware of paragraphs that only have two or three sentences. It's a pretty good bet that the paragraph is not fully developed if it is that short.

Some methods to make sure your paragraph is well-developed:

Use examples and illustrations Cite data (facts, statistics, evidence, details, and others)

Examine testimony (what other people say such as quotes and paraphrases)

Use an anecdote or story

Define terms in the paragraph

Compare and contrast

Evaluate causes and reasons

Examine effects and consequences

Analyze the topic

Describe the topic

Offer a chronology of an event (time segments)

How do I know when to start a new paragraph?

You should start a new paragraph when: When you begin a new idea or point. New ideas should always start in new paragraphs. If

you have an extended idea that spans multiple paragraphs, each new point within that idea should have its own paragraph.

To contrast information or ideas. Separate paragraphs can serve to contrast sides in a debate, different points in an argument, or any other difference.

When your readers need a pause. Breaks in paragraphs function as a short "break" for your readers—adding these in will help your writing more readable. You would create a break if the paragraph becomes too long or the material is complex.

When you are ending your introduction or starting your conclusion. Your introductory and concluding material should always be in a new paragraph. Many introductions and conclusions have multiple paragraphs depending on their content, length, and the writer's purpose.

Transitions and Signposts

Two very important elements of paragraphing are signposts and transitions. Signposts are internal aids to assist readers; they usually consist of several sentences or a paragraph outlining what the article has covered and where the article will be going.

Transitions are usually one or several sentences that "transition" from one idea to the next. Transitions can be used at the end of most paragraphs to help the paragraphs flow one into the next. Good transitions can connect paragraphs and turn disconnected writing into a unified whole. Instead of treating paragraphs as separate ideas, transitions can help readers understand how paragraphs work together, reference one another, and build to a larger point. The key to producing good transitions is highlighting connections between corresponding paragraphs. By referencing in one paragraph the relevant material from previous ones, writers can develop important points for their readers.

Transitional devices are like bridges between parts of your paper. They are cues that help the reader to interpret ideas a paper develops. Transitional devices are words or phrases that help carry a thought from one sentence to another, from one idea to another, or from one paragraph to another. And finally, transitional devices link sentences and paragraphs together smoothly so that there are no abrupt jumps or breaks between ideas.

There are several types of transitional devices, and each category leads readers to make certain connections or assumptions. Some lead readers

forward and imply the building of an idea or thought, while others make readers compare ideas or draw conclusions from the preceding thoughts.

Here is a list of some common transitional devices that can be used to cue readers in a given way.

To Add:

and, again, and then, besides, equally important, finally, further, furthermore, nor, too, next, lastly, what's more, moreover, in addition, first (second, etc.)

To Compare:

whereas, but, yet, on the other hand, however, nevertheless, on the contrary, by comparison, where, compared to, up against, balanced against, vis a vis, but, although, conversely, meanwhile, after all, in contrast, although this may be true

To Prove:

because, for, since, for the same reason, obviously, evidently, furthermore, moreover, besides, indeed, in fact, in addition, in any case, that is

To Show Exception:

yet, still, however, nevertheless, in spite of, despite, of course, once in a while, sometimes

To Show Time:

immediately, thereafter, soon, after a few hours, finally, then, later, previously, formerly, first (second, etc.), next, and then

To Repeat:

in brief, as I have said, as I have noted, as has been noted

To Emphasize:

definitely, extremely, obviously, in fact, indeed, in any case, absolutely, positively, naturally, surprisingly, always, forever, perennially, eternally, never, emphatically, unquestionably, without a doubt, certainly, undeniably, without reservation

To Show Sequence:

first, second, third, and so forth. A, B, C, and so forth. next, then, following this, at this time, now, at this point, after, afterward, subsequently, finally, consequently, previously, before this, simultaneously, concurrently, thus, therefore, hence, next, and then, soon

To Give an Example:

for example, for instance, in this case, in another case, on this occasion, in this situation, take the case of, to demonstrate, to illustrate, as an illustration, to illustrate

To Summarize or Conclude:

in brief, on the whole, summing up, to conclude, in conclusion, as I have shown, as I have said, hence, therefore, accordingly, thus, as a result, consequently

Lesson 16: Prose Writing

Prose writing

Prose writing is a literary medium which has a close identification with the patterns and rhythms of everyday speech. It is easily differentiated from poetry, which has its own characteristic pattern

For argument the devices characteristic of the format are evidence, facts, personal experience, authoritative opinion, refutation of the counter argument. The devices characteristic of persuasion are repetition, rhetorical question and emotional appeals.

Exposition.

The word exposition comes from the word ‘expose’, which means to make known, to disclose, to bring to light or lay open to view. Expository writing, therefore, aims to inform or explain. The reader is expected to have a clearer understanding of the topic after reading an expository piece. In this we are using language in an objective way, which is characteristic of expository discourse. The methods of organising exposition are based on logic and deals with ideas.

There are 6 devices of expository writing:

Analysis

Analysis helps one to understand a subject better; it involves dividing the subject into its component parts and looking at each part to determine how it relates to the whole. Most of the rhetorical methods require some form of analysis.

There are two types:Subject analysis involves explanations of what things are, how they are put together, how they work.

Process Analysis can be directional or informational. It can provide a step by step explanation of how to do something. Directional e.g a recipe. Informational e.g how volcanoes come into being. The object is to present a procedure in such a way that a reader can understand and follow the directions in the case of the former or to reconstruct the event so as to be able to provide a clear explanation in the case of the latter. For both types the tone is usually impersonal and the language is means to be objective. E.g National Geographic. Practice yourself by writing on any of the topics. .

a) How a road is built in your territoryb) How the sun rises and setsc) How blood flows through the bodyd) How to bake a cakee) How to prepare a speechf) The life cycle of the butterflyg) How a hurricane is formedh) How to repair a broken cell phone

Classification

These are useful methods of organizing and explaining information by means of separating a subject into parts. It makes information clearer and more easily understood. Division separates a single subject to subunits without any specific principle of organisation. E.g the human body can be divided into its parts: arms, head, legs, kidneys, arteries etc. Classification separates a subject on the basis of specific principles or common characteristics. So, in classification, you are not only dividing but grouping. E.g the human body categorised by systems – respiratory, reproductive, digestive, circulatory.

Guidelines1. The categories have to be mutually exclusive. (no overlapping) Do the diagram.2. It has to be logical and based on a common principle. Eg. P 1883. The categories have to be meaningful and not superficial. P. 189. 4. Categories can be further divided into sub-categories.

Definition

One way of clarifying or exposing something is by defining it ( explaining its meaning). A definition essay is a personal, in-depth explanation and commentary on what a word, term or concept means. Generally definition essays deal with abstract concepts that lend themselves to personal interpretation rather than with physical objects that a have a universal, agreed definition. Pointless to define a tree or chair but definition of love or the perfect vacation would vary widely since perspectives of these topics are based on opinion and personal experience.

Types or ways:

Definition by synonym is providing an explanatory statement which includes a synonym, an alternative term with which the reader may be more familiar.

An extended definition provides a fuller, more detailed explanation of the meaning of a term that does a synonym or a parenthetical statement. Expository essays that relay on this method provide a core definition in the introduction and extend it through the body of the essay. P 225 Greenhouse effect.

One of the easiest is the use of examples that give concrete detail and help your reader to understand the subject, also known as illustrative definition.

Analogy, which is a lengthy comparison between two subjects, allows you to use a subject familiar to the reader to explain your topic.

You can also extend your definition as well, by showing what something is not. Contrasting what you are defining with something else enable your reader to understand what it is. This is called definition by negation.

Other expository methods such as division and causal analysis can be incorporated into the definition essay. You may also use description and short narration. A definition essay can draw on a number of methods and use a combination of them to ensure that the reader understands the definition being giving. P. 227.

Keep in mind that your definition essay should always have a formal definition or defining statement as part of the introduction. This is to indicate what something is by (1) [putting is it a class and (2) differentiating it from other members of its class. P.193.

Also, do not use circular definitions, which is using the term you are defining in its definition. It is not informative and just reveals you do not know what you are talking about. P. 227. Global warming. Or p. 193

Cause and effect

This is the approach you use when discussing the relationships or links between one thing and another. If you are discussing the results of an event or circumstance, you are considering the effects or consequences. If you trying to identify what made something happen, you are examining its cause. It is an easier task to indicate effects than to determine causes. Tracing a cause requires you to make logical inferences that must be justifiable to the reader. In some instances it may not be possible to state categorically that on particular thing caused a specific effect. In reality, there are likely to be several related causes, some more significant than others, some closer and some more distant.

Guidelines:1. Determine the difference between causes and effects that are important and those that are

not. 2. Distinguish causes and effects and don’t get confused. Page 191, little diagram.

3. In organising, try to make the links obvious either by working forward from cause to effect or to present effects and trace backwards to the related causes.

Page 222. Examples.

Comparison and contrast

This is an expository method used to analyse two topics that have enough in common to allow them to be considered together. Comparing is finding similarities and contrasting is finding the differences or dissimilarities. Therefore, while you can easily compare credit unions and banks, or public and private schools, you would not compare and contrast horses and space shuttle. There must be a common aspect linking the things being compared.

Two approaches:

1. Alternating or point by point – each point of similarity or difference is discussed considering both entities in turn. This is like holding two items side by side and looking from one to the other, focusing on one aspect at a time.

2. Block – all the points of similarity between the two entities are dealt with before moving on the present all the differences between them. This is more taxing on the reader, who may find it difficult to remember previous points and keep the first part of the essay in perspective.

Keep in mind that you can be asked in an essay to ONLY compare or ONLY contrast. Be aware of the differences.

Do activity on p. 196

Lesson 17: SummarisingA summary is an overview of the most important information from something you have read or listened to. Summarizing involves putting the main ideas into your own words, including only the main points. Summaries are significantly shorter than the original and take a broad overview of the source material.

The main idea is a passage is the central message or thought that the writer wants to get across. The topic is the subject of the piece. The topic sentence is a statement that expresses the main idea in the author’s words. You must also include what the author’s purpose or intent in writing the piece. Eg. In an essay with the topic of global warming, the intent may be to inform others about the dangers of polluting or to encourage others to use less gas and hairspray or meat.

The first step in summarising is reading or listening to all the material at least once.

Note-Making

An alternative to continuous prose summaries and a way to prepare a summary. It is just jotting down the pertinent information rather than in continuous prose. You have to select an outline form or a numbering system that allows you to distinguish major from minor points. Put everything in your own words except for specific facts, formulae or definitions. Write down only the most important points.

There are two types of ways to take notes.

1. Linear outlines- Notes are commonly put in outline or linear format, which must be structured so that the most important points can be clearly identified. You can organise the points by main idea then sub-headings, then the supporting elements used to explain or back up the claims. Arrange your information in a logical order, for example, most to least important or chronological. Your order need not be the same as that in the original, but keep related suppo rting points together. The way you organize the outline may serve as a model for how you divide and write the essay.

2. Graphic organisers- This is an effective method of organising your notes by putting them in a format that leaves a picture in your head when you try to recall them. They are also known as knowledge/concept/story maps, cognitive organisers or concept diagrams. A cycle map would be used to illustrate an interactive process, a flow chart or series chain would be used to map a step by step process, and a Venn diagram would be used for comparison and contrast (showing overlaps) or to show relationships.

First, try to find the main idea in the reading; it’s usually in the first paragraph. Next, skim through the article, glancing at any headings and graphics. Then, read the conclusion. The intent here is both to give yourself a review of the work and t o effectively engage yourself with it.

Now go back and read the original text carefully, jotting down notes on or highlighting the important points. Write the central idea and the author’s reasons (purpose and intent) for holding this viewpoint. Note the supporting elements the author uses to explain or back up her/his main information or claim.

Make an outline that includes the main idea and the supporting details. Arrange your information in a logical order, for example, most to least important or chronological. Your order need not be the same as that in the original, but keep related supporting points together. The way you organize the outline may serve as a model for how you divide and write the essay.

Lesson 18: Listening and Comprehending

Comprehension is the capacity for understanding fully. It means to understand the thoughts and ideas of a writer or speaker and to be able to apply these ideas in various contexts. Awareness and control of comprehension is called metacognition, which means ‘knowing about knowing.’ Comprehension should be triggered when you listen to or read information. The stages of comprehension are pre-reading/listening where you make educated guesses about the material, during reading/listening where you form images, relate to your experiences and ask questions, and post-reading/listening where you think about the information, discuss it and apply it in new ways.

Levels of comprehension

Literal- Comprehending what was actually stated and requires surface understanding of facts and details. Questions that often elicit this level of thinking are who, what, when and where.

Interpretive – Understanding what is implied or meant, rather than what is actually stated. Therefore, you would need to be able to make inferences and logical deductions, as in reading between the lines. Generally, open ended questions like why, how, what and if are required at this level.

Applied – All the information gathered at the first two levels is used to extend the concepts or ideas beyond the immediate situation in the text. You are analysing and synthesising information and applying it to other information or contexts.

Listening

Listening and hearing are not the same thing. Hearing is the process in which sound waves strike the eardrum and cause vibrations that are transmitted to the brain. Listening occurs when the brain reconstructs these electrochemical impulses into a representation of the original sound and then gives them meaning. Barring illness, injury or earplugs, hearing can’t be stopped. Listening, however, isn’t automatic. Many times we hear but do not listen. (remember the stages of communication. Where would listening be important?)

There are four different reasons we listen:

Appreciation: for recreation, which means that your enjoyment of the event is your primary purpose. E.g music

Empathy- Empathy means to ‘feel within’ someone else’s emotional state. Empathic listening means trying to both understand the content of the message and relate to the feelings of that message. E.g a friend sharing his troubles with you and you respond by giving him time and attention.

Comprehension – Your classroom listening is a clear example of listening for comprehension and is directly related to academic success. You take notes, listen to the lectures or discussions in order to understand the material.

Criticism – Critical listening means taking information and looking at it carefully. It means being able to analyze he content and form of the message so that you making informed decision about the value of the information for you. For example, listening to commercials you do not blindly believe the spokesperson, you realise this is a sale pitch designed to get you to spend money.

o Listen for information before making judgements. Paraphrasing or summarizing helps in this because it forces you to be objective when translating the speaker’s ideas into your own words.

o Evaluate the speaker’s credibility: Are they competent, meaning do they have authority to speak on the topic? Is the speaker impartial or biased?

o Is the evidence reliable and from a reliable source? Is it true? Is it enough? Is it up to date? Can it be interpreted in more way than one?

Improve your listening by becoming a skilled note taker. Focus on key ideas, and jot down information in a format that keeps ideas and relationship connected and in order.