COMMUNITY RADIO HANDBOOKCOMMUNITY RADIO HANDBOOK

Community Radio Handbook

Colin Fraser and Sonia Restrepo Estrada

copy UNESCO 2001

Acknowledgements

We gratefully acknowledge the following people and organizations for their generous support and help Maria Victoria Polanco Sophie Ly and Elvira Truglia of the WorldAssociation of Community Broadcasters (AMARC) David Shanks of the World Association for Christian Communication (WACC) Martin Allard of Mallard Concepts LtdLawrie Hallet of the UK Community Media Association and the authors of the five case studies Louie N Tabing Ian Pringle Alex and Wilna Quarmyne Zane Ibrahimand Ms Adams and Bruce Girard Special thanks are due to Louie Tabing whose pioneering work in the concept and practice of true community radio and prolific writings on the subject have been aninspiration for much of the material in the handbook

Much research interest has been devoted to mass media In their findings communicationspecialists have always acknowledged that there are many sectors communities and minorities whose access to information and means of self-expression are not always guaranteed by mass channels They have recognized that more sharply focused customizedand essentially small and local media are crucial in filling this gap

During the last two decades UNESCO has commissioned a number of studies andpublished monographs on the theme of community media The first monograph published byUNESCO on the theme of community media was Access Some Western Models of CommunityMedia by Frances Berrigan which appeared in 1977 and in 1981 the enquiry was extendedto the developing countries in a study by the same author entitled CommunityCommunications ndash the Role of Community Media in Development (No 90 in the series ofReports and Papers on Mass Communication) A few years later Peter Lewis prepared theUNESCO study Media for People in Cities (1984) which brought together a number of case-studies and the conclusions of two research meetings on urban community media

During the ensuing years UNESCO began setting up community radio stations in Africa(Homa Bay 1982) and Asia (Mahaweli 1986 and Tambuli Community radios 1982) The growthof the community radio lsquomovementrsquo was covered in a section of the UNESCO WorldCommunication Report in 1997

UNESCO sees community radio as a medium that gives voice to the voiceless thatserves as the mouthpiece of the marginalized and is at the heart of communication anddemocratic processes within societies With community radio citizens have the means tomake their views known on decisions that concern them The notions of transparency andgood governance take on new dimensions and democracy is reinforced Community radiocatalyzes the development efforts of rural folk and the underprivileged segments of urbansocieties given its exceptional ability to share timely and relevant information on developmentissues opportunities experiences life skills and public interests Given the audiencersquos lowliteracy rate and radiorsquos ability to involve women and to treat them not only as objects ormerely as a target audience but as participating agents and as a valuable source communityradio becomes one of the most promising tools for community development This hasbeen demonstrated by the special UNESCO project Women Speaking to Women community radiostations for the empowerment of women

In the age of multimedia and online communication the potential of community radioto provide for effective outreach to discuss and create demand for the Internet has becomeeven greater The Kothmale Internet radio experiment in Sri Lanka has proven that radiostations can promote and use the Internet in rural communities overcoming language barriersand lack of infrastructure By using radio and browsing the Internet to respond to listenersrsquodirect queries by sharing information and knowledge derived from the Internet the wholecommunity is involved and empowered with new opportunities

Against this background of challenges I believe that this handbook can contributetowards helping different communication actors technicians operators and radio producersin community radio stations to make more efficient use of community media for communitydevelopment by getting people involved in clarifying issues and solving problems and intalking to each other

The handbook is based on the experience and innovative thinking of communicationexperts and practitioners whose contribution I would like especially to acknowledge thelate Jake Mills former Director of Engineering Ghana Broadcasting Corporation whodesigned the prototype sound mixer Martin Allard electronics engineer designer of theUNESCO prototype transmitter Alex Quarmyne former UNESCO RegionalCommunication Advisor in Africa and project manager for Homa Bay in Kenya the firstcommunity radio in Africa Carlos Arnaldo former Chief of Communication Policies andResearch Section at UNESCO as project manager of Mahaweli community radio GeorgesDupont-Henius engineer UNESCO Communication Development Division WijayanandaJayaweera UNESCO Regional Communication Advisor for Asia and creator of KothmaleInternet Radio project Kwame Boafo of UNESCO Communication and InformationSector Louie Tabing project manager of Tambuli community radios and creator of Village on the Air For the time they took in producing this book and for their valuablecomments I should also like to thank Sonia Restrepo Estrada and Colin Fraiser for compilingthese experiences and putting them together for publication

Claude OndoboDeputy Assistant Director-General

for Communication and Information and Director of Communication Development Division

PREFACE

iii

Preface helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip iii

Introduction helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 1Any Community Can Start its Own Radio Station helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 1

Chapter 1 Community Radio in the Broadcasting Scene helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 3

Community Radio in the Context of the Globalization of Media helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 5

The Evolution of Community Radio helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 6

An Important Initiative by UNESCO helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 8

Box 1 The Minersrsquo Radio in Bolivia helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 12

Box 2 Radio SutatenzaACPO in Colombia helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 13

Chapter 2 Features and Functions of Community Radio helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 15

Essential Features of Community Radio helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 15

Functions of Community Radio helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 18

Box 3 Involvement of Women helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 23

Chapter 3 Legal Aspects helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 25

Uneven and Haphazard Legislation helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 25

Most Progress in Africa helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 25

Asia and Indiarsquos Lengthy Debate on Community Radio helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 27

Legislation in Some Latin American Countries helliphelliphelliphelliphellip 28

Some Examples from Western Europe helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 30

Convergence and Divergence in Legislation helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 31

Applying for a Licence helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 32

Chapter 4 Technical Aspects helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 33

Technical Background helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 33

Broadcasting Equipment helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 35

Reliability and Maintenance helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 39

Studio Premises helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 40

Spatial Relationship Between the Components of the Radio Station helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 40

Future Possibilities helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 41

Specialist Advice helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 43

Box 4 Basic Equipment for a UNESCO-supported Community Radio Station helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 44

Chapter 5 Getting Started helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 45

Legal Context helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 45

Preparatory Work in the Community helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 46

Importance of a Mission Statement helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 48

Role of the Religious Establishment helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 49

Role of Local Educational Institutions helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 49

Involvement of Politicians helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 49

Choosing a Location in the Community helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 49

Box 5 Involvement of Politicians helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 50

Choosing a Model helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 50

Power of the Transmitter helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 51

Ownership and Management helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 51

Programminghelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 51

Staff helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip52

Sustainability helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip52

Looking for Outside Funding for Start-up Costs helliphelliphelliphellip54

Box 6 Main Factors to Consider When Planning a Community Radio helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip54

Chapter 6 Programme Policieshelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 57

Participatory Programmes helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 57

Community News helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 60

Balancing Views helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 60

Coverage of Religious and Cultural Events helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 61

Local Election Broadcasts helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 61

Educational Broadcasts helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 61

Audience Surveys helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 63

Chapter 7 The Community Broadcaster helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 65

Code of Conduct helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 65

A Prototype Code of Conduct helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 66

Selection of Community Broadcasters helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 71

Training of Community Broadcasters helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 71

Chapter 8 Case Studies helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 75

Radio Olutanga (Tambuli Project) Philippines helliphelliphelliphelliphellip 75

Radio Sagarmatha Nepal helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 80

Radio Ada Ghana helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 85

Bush Radio South Africa helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 90

Radio Chaguarurco Ecuador helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 95

Table of contents

Communities and Communication

ldquoPeople live in a community by virtue of the thingswhich they have in common and communication isthe way in which they come to possess things in commonrdquo 1

T here are more than 20000radio stations in the worldand more than 2 billion

radio receivers Any notion thatTV and other sophisticated communication technology willreplace radio is unfounded forradio is in constant expansion Itswaves reach almost every cornerof our planet It is the prime electronic medium of the poorbecause it leaps the barriers of isolation and illiteracy and it is themost affordable electronic mediumto broadcast and receive in

The last two decades have seen arapid expansion in the number andpopularity of community radiostations Among the reasons forthis are the democratization anddecentralization processes in manyparts of the world deregulation ofthe media and the relaxing ofbroadcasting monopolies by stateinstitutions and disaffection withcommercial radio channels

Furthermore awareness is growingof the social and economic benefitsthat can result when ordinarypeople have access to appropriateinformation And it is also evidentthat when people especially the

poor can participate incommunica-tion processesand consensusbuilding aboutissues thataffect theirlives it helpsthem to cast off their traditionalstate of apathy and stimulatesthem to mobilize and organize tohelp themselves

ANY COMMUNITY CANSTART ITS OWN RADIO STATION

To start a small radio station is notas complicated and expensive asmany people think There isenough experience in many countries to prove that it is withinthe reach of almost any community

Community Will is the Key

The primordial condition for acommunity to start its own radiostation is a sense of internal cohe-sion and community consciousnessThere must be willingness forcooperative work and to poolresources and enthusiastic consensus

that the people want their own radioin order to advance their community

As part of the consensus buildingthat leads to the decision to establisha community radio the communitymust analyze its communicationneeds and determine how radiocould help to resolve them Thetraditional approach to develop-ment is to provide support to agriculture health education andso on and a radio station may notnormally be seen as a priority Buta community that analyzes itsneeds in detail and thinks aboutthe causes of its problems andmarginalization will often cometo the conclusion that it needscommunication processes to helppeople share common understan-ding and common goals This is thefirst step towards a communitytaking action to establish its ownradio station

ldquoEveryone has the right to freedom of opinion andexpression this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek receiveand impart information and ideas through any mediaand regardless of frontiersrdquo

Right of information section Article 19 of theUniversal Declaration of Human Rights

ldquoCommunity radio is a social process or eventin which members of the community associatetogether to design programmes and produce andair them thus taking on the primary role of actorsin their own destiny whether this be for something as common as mending fences in theneighbourhood or a community-wide campaign on how to use clean water and keep it clean or agitation for theelection of new leaders The emphasis is on the ownership of democratic and development efforts by the members of the communitythemselves and the use of media in this case radio toachieve it In every sense this is participatory communication(not programmes made about them by somebody else) It is above all a process not a technology not merely ameans because the people are part of that means and sois the message and the audienceCommunity radio is most relevant to a group of peoplewho live and act as a community and this could be severalfamilies several neighbourhoods or even several villagesor communities but the important thing is that theyinteract That is why I think of community radio as the

community speaking to each other and acting together forcommon goalsrdquo

Carlos A Arnaldo

Introduction

A basic Community Radio Studio in Burkina Faso

1

Com

mun

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Rad

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O -

Intr

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Phot

o U

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CO

2

Producing Programmes does notneed Magical Skills

The professional tasks of managing astation and producing programmesare not beyond the reach of typicalcommunities Unfortunately expo-sure to commercial andor stateradio leaves many people with theimpression that such professionalstandards are the norm and theydo not realize that good and effec-tive radio broadcasting can bemuch less formalized Nor do theyrealize that the usefulness andimpact of any media productiondepends much more on its relevan-ce to the audience than on its for-mal quality

This is not to say that quality ofprogrammes in terms of theirstructure and their technical level isunimportant For example impro-per use of recording equipmentmay result in programmes of suchpoor sound quality that they aredifficult to understand Howeverexperience with community radioshows that when people are moti-vated and enthusiastic the mini-mum technical levels required forbroadcasting can be masteredduring only a few weeks of trainingAnd as they gain hands-on produc-tion experience their skills developmarkedly They quickly reach fullysatisfactory levels of performance

The Cost and Technologyare not Prohibitive

The equipment requiredfor community radio isrobust and easy to main-tain and it does not needsupport from broadcastingengineers beyond some ini-tial training Its cost isconstantly falling For atypical community radiostation the normal cost ofthe equipment is little morethan US$20000 For minimalbroadcasting there is even asuitcase available weighing 16 kgwhich contains a five-watt trans-mitter a six-channel audio mixertwo compact disc players two cas-sette taperecordersplayers and anantenna The total cost is aboutUS$3000

There are also FM radio receiverswith a solar strip that can eitherpower the radio or charge a batteryAt night the radio can be poweredby a dynamo winding up the radioby hand for two minutes provides30 minutes of listening time

The tendency among those produ-cing equipment for communityradio has been to focus on simplicityof installation use and maintenanceAnd local people often show extra-ordinary capacity to adapt andbuild for themselves For examplein Cape Verde UNESCO helpedlocal technicians to install a single

transmitter on one islandHowever the technicians were soeager and enterprising that after-wards they built two more trans-mitters so that they could have oneon each of the three main islandsThis was despite the fact that thecomponents originally made avai-lable were scarcely enough for onestation Furthermore they also linkedthe three stations over seeminglyimpossible distances to form a net-work that shares programmes in acomplicated schedule every day5

Media and Development

ldquoDeveloping communities are characterized by isolation from ideas and information as well as services At the simplest level before people canconsider a question they need to be fully aware of allthe facts the short-term effects and the long-termimplications ways in which decisions taken in onearea will affect future planning Communicationmedia could present this informationrdquo 2

Phot

o C

A A

rnal

do

The Judges are the Listeners

ldquoIt is unfortunate that the so-called radio professionals have set certain artistic productionstandards which could intimidate the regular villagepeople The irony is that the so-called professionalproductions cannot compete with programmes doneby the inexperienced village people The professionalsforget that the ultimate judge of a radio programmeis the listenerrdquo 4

Donrsquot be afraid of radio

ldquoNo one should be afraid to use radio I have been abroadcaster for almost a quarter of a century andI know nothing about the electronics side of radio

Even today I cannot explain how my voice in the studio is processed and passed on finally to the family radio maybe hundreds of kilometres awayrdquo 5

1 John Dewey (1916) cited by Elizabeth Blanks HindmanldquoCommunity Democracy and Neighbourhood NewsrdquoInternational Communication Association (1998)

2 Frances J Berrigan ldquoCommunity Communications - the role ofcommunity media in developmentrdquo Reports and Papers onMass Communication no 90 UNESCO (Paris 1981)

3 Louie Tabing Neighbourhood Radio ProductionUNESCODANIDA Tambuli Project Philippines

4 Martin AllardrdquoOn the AirhellipThe Development of CommunityRadiordquo UNESCO Sources no 21 (1990)

5 Louie Tabing Manager of the UNESCODANIDA TambuliProject Philippines

Mang Vicente of Ibahay on Aklan Island in Southern Philippines plays traditional melodies on a flute made from PVC plumbing pipe

Chapter 1Community Radio in the Broadcasting Scene

3

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1

T his chapter describes the place of community radio in the broadcastingscene and explains the essential

difference in its approach compared to conventional public service or commercialbroadcasting A rationale is put forward for itsimportance in the scenario of increasing mediaglobalization

The evolution of community radio from itsfirst experiences some 50 years ago is tracedand set in the context of broadcast mediaownership patterns technical developmentsand the recent trends towards democratization and decentralization

The reader will acquire

bull An understanding of the special nature ofcommunity radio compared to other types ofradio broadcasting

bull An understanding of its place and importan-ce in the trend towards media globalization

bull Knowledge about its background specificfield experiences and the factors that havedetermined its evolution

This theoretical framework provides the long-term foundation for practical knowledge andskills to be gained in later chapters

Broadcasting can be divided into three general categories

bull Public-service broadcasting is generally conductedby a statutory entity which is usually - though notnecessarily ndash a state-supported or a state-ownedcorporation Its broadcasting policies and programmingare often controlled by a public body such as a councilor a legally constituted authority This body ensuresthat broadcasting operates to provide informationeducation and entertainment to the citizens andsociety in general and independently of governmentparty politics or other interests Much of the fundingfor the operation comes from licence fees that the listenersviewers pay for the receivers they have intheir homes

bull Commercial or private broadcasting providesprogrammes designed primarily for profit fromadvertising revenue and is owned and controlled byprivate individuals or by commercial enterprises

bull Community broadcasting is a non-profit servicethat is owned and managed by a particular communityusually through a trust foundation or association Itsaim is to serve and benefit that community It is ineffect a form of public-service broadcasting but itserves a community rather than the whole nation asis the usual form of public broadcasting describedabove Moreover it relies and must rely mainly on the resources of the community A community is considered to be a group of people who share

A Declaration of Principle

ldquoCommunity radio responds to the needs of the community it serves contributing to its developmentwithin progressive perspectives in favour of socialchange Community radio strives to democratizecommunication through community participation indifferent forms in accordance with each specificsocial contextrdquo

World Association of Community Broadcasters(AMARC) 1988

4

common characteristics andorinterests The commonality ofinterests may be based on

- The sharing of a single geographicallocation that is to say those livingin a specific town village orneighbourhood

- The sharing of economic and sociallife through trade marketingexchange of goods and services

Unfortunately this tidy classificationinto three categories of broadcastingis less than tidy in practice forthere can be combinations andoverlapping situations For examplea local commercial radio stationmay also broadcast some communityservice programmes a station ownedand managed by an NGO such as areligious institution may fill most ofits air time with such programmesand state-owned public-servicebroadcasting has increasingly beendecentralizing to the local level andproviding programming for thecommunities around it

Not surprisingly there is still nosingle definition or description ofcommunity radio And to complicatematters further there have beenvarious terms applied to small-scaleradio broadcasting such as lsquolocalrsquolsquoalternativersquo lsquoindependentrsquo or lsquofreersquoradio All of these lack precision Forexample the term lsquolocal radiorsquo

could also cover the decentralizedoperation through a local stationof a state-controlled broadcastingsystem or even a small commercialstation Terms such as lsquoalternativersquoand lsquofreersquo are also imprecise even ifin the context of radio they arenormally taken to mean alternativeto the mainstream mass media andfree from government ownershipand control Logically thereforethey include community radio butthey do not necessarily include it

The various definitions of communityradio that have been formulatedshare many common elements Thesimple and catchy phrase lsquoRadio bythe people and for the peoplersquo isoften used as a good summary Thisphrase captures well the essentialprinciple that must be in place for abroadcasting service to be consideredtrue community radio It must firstlybe managed by the communitysecondly be to serve that community

Strict application of these two principles would mean that a radiostation owned by a non-profitNGO and also managed by thatNGO would not necessarily qualifyas a true community radio even ifmuch of its programming wereaimed at community developmentThis is the case for many broadcastingservices run by religious organiza-tions and in practice the term

lsquocommunity radiorsquo is often used tocover this type of operation as wellOne example is Radio Maria whichbeginning from a single parish inNorthern Italy in 1983 now coversall of Italy and also has stations in21 other countries It is essentiallyan evangelical operation but it alsodoes a great deal in social servicesand community developmentusing volunteers and supported byspontaneous contributions fromlisteners

The somewhat confusing situationregarding what constitutes truecommunity radio can perhaps bestbe understood by considering thefollowing quotation this sums up aphilosophical approach that makescommunity radio different fromcommercial or public-service radio

ldquoCommunity radio emphasizes thatit is not commercial and does notshare what it would call the prescriptive and paternalistic attitude of public-service broadcas-tinghellip The key difference is thatwhile the commercial and public-service models both treat listenersas objects to be captured foradvertisers or to be improved andinformed community radio aspiresto treat its listeners as subjects andparticipantsrdquo 4

One Definition

ldquoA community radio station is characterized by itsownership and programming and the community it isauthorized to serve It is owned and controlled by anon-profit organization whose structure provides formembership management operation and programming primarily by members of the community at large Its programming should bebased on community access and participation andshould reflect the special interests and needs of thelistenership it is licenced to serverdquo 1

On Radio Work for Ordinary People - a Practitionerrsquos View

ldquoRadio is simply people talking with people The Tambuli stations have merely expanded theopportunity for people to talk more to a wideraudience and to listen to a more expansive array ofideas on matters that directly concern themrdquo 2

On Community Ownership and Management

ldquoTo qualify as a community radio the ownership and control of the station must rest squarely and unquestionably with the community it claimsto serverdquo 3

Commercial Media Antagonism Towards Community Media

ldquoMainstream commercial media continue to harbournegative feelings about community media and areconvinced that they are adequately able to servecommunity needs They have not yet come around toaccepting that the special character of communitymedia is complementary rather than antagonisticand mutually exclusiverdquo 5

This placing of both public andcommercial broadcasting into aprescriptive category treating listeners as objects is significantfor even when they broadcasttheir so-called community serviceprogrammes they usually remainin the same prescriptive modeThis is contrary to the participatoryessence of community radio programming

COMMUNITY RADIO IN THE CONTEXT OF THEGLOBALIZATION OFMEDIA

Recent years have seen a strongtrend towards the globalization ofmedia Colossal media enterprisesof a commercial nature have beenformed and increasingly span theglobe with their programmesCertain countries have also becomecentres of highly successful mediaproduction mainly of an enter-tainment character and sell theiroutput to TV channels worldwideObvious examples are soap operasfrom the USA However audienceresearch has shown that peopleprefer to watch programmes withtheir own cultural orientationsrather than those imported fromothers For this reason media productions from developing

countries such as Brazil ChinaEgypt India and Indonesia arenow gaining wider distribution inlarge-scale commercial media

While some people argue that theglobalization of the media disruptslocal cultures others state thatglobal media intensifies theconsciousness of the world as awhole and is therefore beneficialThey see global media and community media as complemen-tary each forming important functions that the other cannotAnd this is certainly the case

By definition global media arecommercial and need to attractlarge audiences for their adverti-sing content Thus they broadcastprogrammes that attempt to satisfya common thread of sensitivitiesamong large numbers of peopleusing well-tried and rather standardif not banal entertainment formatsThe lack of variety in programmeorientation is therefore generallyattributed to the lsquoself-censorshiprsquoof the market which uses entertainment as the sole criterionfor selection However it is alsotrue that governments tend to bemore comfortable with privatebroadcasters limiting themselvesto entertainment rather thanbecoming involved in the moreproblematic area of news and

current affairs For these reasonsthemes reflecting socio-politicalinterests are often insufficientlycovered or deliberately ignoredby private broadcasters

Clearly given their characteristicsand orientation commercial andglobal media can hardly meetsocio-economic and developmentneeds of the countries they coverThe excessive entertainment provided by commercial televisionhas often provoked a call for areappraisal of the potential ofpublic broadcasting stressing theneed for quality programmes anddemanding more possibilities ofchoice and access for audiences A logical step in this direction is toexpand the democratization ofmedia to the community levelespecially through communityradio in which accessibility is thenorm

Furthermore community radioworks in the cultural context ofthe community it serves it dealswith local issues in the local language or languages it is relevantto local problems and concernsand its aim is to help the commu-nity to develop socially culturallyand economically This is not onlyin contrast with global media operations it is also in contrastwith centralized urban-based 5

Com

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ity

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io H

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1

Global Communication

ldquoGeorge Orwell in Nineteen Eighty-Four warned us ofa society controlled by Big Brother Is that what weare encountering today when we see so many peoplein poor communities tuning into western dominatedideals of the rich consumer society Orwell was veryconcerned about the socialist drives of the industrialage But perhaps he was also warning about the takeover of society by a democratic political power drivento degradation by these very industrial drives and bythe easy resort to globalization of mediardquo 6

The Power of the Local Approach

ldquoAn effective strategy for the community radiostation is to present what cannot be offered by any

other radio station that is local content with a localflavour The local radio station must dwell on itsstrongest reason for existence - local events issuesconcerns and personalities If a local station can doan exhaustive reportage of what goes on in its community on a regular basis there is no way aregional or national broadcast outfit could competefor listenership The element of proximity is the mostpotent quality that the community radio should capitalize on People will be enthusiastic to know ona daily or even hourly basis about the people andevents unfolding next to their place of aboderdquo 7

6

national media even of a publicservice nature for they are oftenremote from the realities of ruralcommunities and their needs

THE EVOLUTION OF COMMUNITY RADIO

The pioneering experiences fromwhich todayrsquos community radio hasevolved began some 50 years agoin Latin America Poverty and socialinjustice were the stimulus forthose first experiences one beginningin Bolivia in 1947 and known as theMinersrsquo radios and another inColombia in the same year knownas Radio SutatenzaAccioacutenCulturalPopular (See boxes 1 and 2 at the end of this Chapter for descriptions)

These experiences in Bolivia andColombia set a trend even iftodayrsquos concept of communityradio has evolved considerably Forexample the Minersrsquo radios inBolivia were working in thedecades of ideological clash between Marxism and capitalismThus their principal focus was tounite the community of miners tobattle for better and fairer workingconditions They were generallyconsidered to be trade unionradios even if the miners providedmuch of the finance for the purchase

of equipment and running costs

Radio SutatenzaACPO in Colombiaalthough inspired by the aim ofsupporting the community of peasants was not owned or directlymanaged by them There was muchfeedback from peasants - some50000 letters a year ndash and thesecertainly ensured the integration ofthe peasantsrsquo desires and needsinto the radiorsquos programming Butit was not truly lsquoradio by the peoplefor the peoplersquo which is todayrsquosaim

Even so this first systematic effortby Radio Sutatenza to educate byradio created a movement thatldquohellipspread and was later consolidatedthrough ALER the Latin AmericanEducational Radio BroadcastingAssociation This inter-linkage ofradio and education is basic to theidea of public service and markedthe birth of community media inLatin Americardquo 8

However even if the groundbreak-ing work was in Latin America itwas in Europe that communityradio first became a vital phenome-non an alternative to ndash or a critiqueof ndash mainstream broadcast mediaThe first challenges to state public-service broadcasting were in the1960s-70s when ldquoswashbucklingentrepreneurs boarded the airwavesillegally and seized as much of the

audience as they could carry awayfrom the treasure chest monopolycontrolled by the staterdquo 9 In theWest these pirate stations proved acatalyst in motivating governmentsand national broadcasting systemsto introduce legitimate local radio

In Africa the establishment ofcommunity radio became in abroad sense a social movementafter the demise of the apartheidregime in South Africa This wasfollowed by democratizationdecentralization and to someextent structural adjustmentelsewhere in that continent10

The pressure groups that have instigated community radio inmany parts of the world (egminers pirate radio operators missionaries and democracy movements) have been less presentin Asia In their place internationalagencies such as UNESCO andother external donors have oftentaken initiatives to help get community radio off the groundAnd in some cases it has been thenational broadcasting organizationthat has itself started communityradio services

Vision of Joaquiacuten Salcedo founder of RadioSutatenza and Accioacuten Cultural Popular

ldquoWithin weeks of arriving in Sutatenza Salcedo as ajunior priest had challenged the peasantry from thepulpit to take up arms against the poverty and backwardness that afflicted them and had offered hishand and vision in a partnership They respondedand so a pact was formed

Salcedo pioneered a concept known as lsquointegralfundamental educationrsquo similar to what today is

often called lsquolife educationrsquo The core of the conceptis that the educational process must be the development of the individual as a whole person and as a member of society

It became an ACPO slogan that lsquodevelopment is inthe mind of mankindrsquo And providing people witheducation in the broadest sense would enable themto make informed decisions and become proactivein taking control of their livesrdquo 11

The Influence of DifferentBroadcasting Ownership Systems

Latin America adopted the NorthAmerican system of mainly privateand commercial broadcastingwith multiple stations of variedpower and reach In this context itwas relatively easy for new stationsto start up And several thousandhave done so in Latin Americaoften initially as illegal or piratestations

In Western European countriesthe public-service state broadcastingmonopolies which had been setup when radio and later TV werefirst introduced usually had management mechanisms throughstatutory public bodies Thesecontrolling bodies ensured thatbroadcasting policies and programmes were as independentas possible of government partypolitical or other influences

European countries that adoptedthis public-service broadcastingapproach through state networksdid so because from the very firstdays of radio in the 1920s and TVsome 30 years later the electronicmedia were considered by leadingthinkers as marvellous instrumentsfor expanding culture educationand information and for improvingsocieties According to that thinkingthe mass media could not be

allowed to function principally ona commercial basis and as a vehicleto be taken over by the advertisingindustry to market products

Many countries in the developingworld especially in Africa and Asiawhere European countries hadheld influence as colonizers adoptedthe European model at least as faras the state monopoly on broad-casting was concerned Howeverthey did not always allow broad-casting policy to be controlled by astatutory and independent publicbody preferring complete controlby government of all aspects oftheir electronic media Thus manygovernments especially those ofcentrally planned economies usedtheir broadcasting networks tofurther their political aims and inparticular to consolidate theirpower base

In such circumstances and fullyrealizing that information ispower these governments withfully state-controlled broadcastingwere extremely reluctant to allowany electronic media to operateindependently This made it difficultfor community media initiatives toget started Only in the early 1980sdid some governments begin torelax their opposition to indepen-dent media but even today manygovernments still effectively oppose

the idea of relinquishing theirmonopolistic control of the broad-casting media

On the other hand it has becomeclear in the last decade or so thatattempts to control information ina society are doomed to fail The fax machine on a desk thecomputer connected to theInternet electronic mail andsatellite television are underminingall the efforts of repressiveregimes to control and conditionthe information that their peoplereceive This situation coupledwith the spread of democracy andfreedom of expression in mostparts of the world is opening thedoor to community media initiativesand particularly to communityradio And governments in countriesthat have already opened the doorare able to see for themselves thatcommunity radio has great potentialfor promoting and supportingd e ce n t ra l i ze d e n d o g e n o u sdevelopment

Technical Evolution

In addition to the political aspectsof decentralizing broadcastingthere are technical factors thathave played and continue to playa very important part in the evolu-tion of community radio 7

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1

Alternative Media as Antibodies

ldquoSome fifteen years ago I described alternative media as antibodies producedas a protection against the neglect insensitivity and insanity of the conventional mediardquo 12

8

Two important breakthroughs haveallowed major progress firstlycheap transistor receivers andsecondly low-powered and cheaptransmitters

Until the invention of the transistorin the mid-1950s radio receiversused valves and were expensive andcumbersome Until that time mostof the worldrsquos radio receivers weremanufactured in North Americaand Europe but the arrival of thetransistor paved the way to massiveradio ownership in developingco u n t r i e s Fo r e xa m p l e i n Sub-Saharan Africa India andChina the number of radio receiversexpanded from two million in 1956to 90 million in 1975 And the number of radios has continued toexpand dramatically worldwide tothe two billion or more of today

The availability of cheap receivershas played a key role in the evolu-tion of community radio with apush-pull effect in the sense thatonce a community station starts tobroadcast there is often a significantrise in radio ownership This is anindication that radio listening maybe as much a function of peoplersquosinterest in what is being broadcastas their ability to afford a radioreceiver For example in a poorrural area of Mali where a communityradio station began to function

radio ownership rapidly rose by 140 percent 13

The second technical breakthroughwas low-power transmitters using abroadcasting system known asFrequency Modulation (FM) Thesebecame increasingly available in the1970s and 1980s (See also Chapter4) Small companies in severalcountries began to produce equip-ment that was designed specificallyfor community radio operationsMuch of it was in kit form and sorobust and simple that it was idealfor use in the often harsh conditionsof developing countries

AN IMPORTANT INITIATIVE BY UNESCO

Among UNESCOrsquos missions areldquothe free exchange of ideas andknowledgerdquo and promoting ldquofreeflow of ideas by word and imagerdquoIn this context UNESCO launchedan initiative to support communityradio in 1980

The initiative began with discussionsin 1980 between UNESCO and theEconomic Commission for Africaon local radio broadcasting Thesehighlighted the fact that very fewAfrican countries had a commonlanguage that enabled nationalbroadcasting to effectively reachthe rural people who made up as

much as 80 percent of the popula-tion The best broadcasters coulddo was to select perhaps ten of themain local languages and broadcastdaily programmes in them on atime-sharing basis Thus no singlecommunity could listen to a languageit understood for more than a shortperiod each day

There were also problems of physi-cal and mental distance the centralbroadcasting facilities were oftentoo far away from their ruralaudiences for their broadcastsignals to be received intelligiblyand the urban-based programmeproducers were too far away mentally to know and understandtheir rural audiences properly

The discussions in those early daysand for many years afterwardsassumed that the state broadcastingsystems would be decentralized tolocal stations These would mainlyrelay the signal from the capital but would also originate some programmes locally This systemwould keep the local radio underthe control of the national broad-casters and as such it cannot beconsidered as an example of thecommunity broadcasting model oftoday

On the Potential of Community Broadcasting in Africa

ldquoCommunity-based radio broadcasting could be theleast costly mass medium for development in media-starved rural Africa It could promote positivecultural identity using local languages which areineffectively used on national broadcasting stationsand are usually accessible only to urban and eliteaudiencesrdquo 14

Big Boxes are More Impressive

ldquoIntegrated circuits and new componentsenable us to make smaller pieces of equipment but some manufacturers justlike to use big boxes open them up andthey are practically empty insiderdquo 15

Equipment Factor A first needwas for cheap and simple equip-ment quite different from the kindof equipment used by state orcommercial radio stations SoUNESCO organized a workshop atBrighton Polytechnic in 1980 thatbrought together British ChineseCuban French and Ghanaian engi-neers The purpose was to identifypriorities and outline designconcepts A first requirement wasa 10-watt FM transmitter thatcould run off a 12-volt car batteryor even solar panels and thesecond was for a simple and cheapaudio mixer similarly powered forbringing together sounds (voicesmusic and sound effects) into asingle programme for broadcast-ing The other necessary itemssuch as tape recorders and recordturntables could be purchased atreasonable prices in the market

The transmitter was designed andbuilt by Mallard Concepts inBritain and the six-channel audiomixer was designed and its pro-duction supervised by Jake Mills aGhanaian who was for many yearsthe technical director of GhanaBroadcasting Corporation

Based on integrated circuitry theMallard transmitter was onlyslightly larger than a home hi-fiamplifier It could be deliveredeither in kit form or fully assem-bled The largest component in theequipment was the transformer the

device for conver-ting power from110- or 220-voltalternating currentto 12-volt directcurrent

The cost of theMallard equipmentpackage was aroundUS$2000 comparedto about US$15000or more for com-mercial transmittersof similar power

Tests with theMallard transmittershowed that itssignal could beheard on a normalradio at a range ofup to 12-20 km Itwas so light androbust that it could easily be takenout into the countryside in a carPowered from the carrsquos batteryand with an antenna hoisted into atree an outside broadcast stationcould be set up

UNESCO also worked on solar-powered receivers and onproblems such as the cheapconversion of existing AM receiversso that they could also pick up FMbroadcasts Despite some promisingdesigns for solar-powered receiversit proved impossible to find amanufacturer that could mass-produce them on the scale necessaryto make them cheap enough for

Soldering circuits for 20-watt FM transmittersin Brixham UK

9

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1 An early model

of the FM community radiotransmitter designed byMallard ConceptsLtd UK forUNESCO

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awee

ra

10

even the very poor to buy Bothsolar and wind-up generator radiosets are manufactured today but atprices still prohibitive to most ruralfolk

Political Factors Solving thetechnical problems was often lessdifficult than overcoming the political ones in promoting thespread of community radioUNESCOrsquos push in the area of community radio was essentiallyradical based on concepts ofhuman rights and freedom ofexpression But the world of theearly 1980rsquos was still divided byideological conflict between Leftand Right and state monopolies onbroadcasting were the norm inmany developing countries

It is easy to think that governmentssimply wanted to repress all formsof self-expression that could pose athreat to their authority or to theirstable hold on power However closer consideration shows thatmany governments especially incountries with a multiplicity of ethnic groups and languages feltthat national identity and unitywould be strengthened throughhaving a single broadcasting voicefrom the centre and through promoting a national languageWhatever the reason for govern-ments to defend their broadcasting

monopolies UNESCO faced anoteworthy challenge in promotingcommunity radio

The First Community RadioStation in Africa

The government of Kenya was thefirst to open the door to UNESCOrsquosproposal for setting up a communityradio In May 1982 a Mallard 10-watt transmitter as well as anaudio mixer designed by Jake Millsand related broadcasting equipmentof a total value of less thanUS$25000 were supplied to thecommunity of Homa Bay on LakeVictoria This is a poor area withmany problems of underdevelop-ment Local people were givenbasic training in how to use theequipment and the station beganbroadcasting for two hours a day inLuo one of Kenyarsquos principle lan-guages but not that of the dominantethnic and political group

Homa Bay was successfully on airfor only two-and-a-half years beforethe government closed it down forit was said to be working contraryto the official policy of makingSwahili and English the nationallanguages Furthermore despite itsvery local coverage it was said tobe increasing tensions between different ethnic groups

Building on Homa Bay

Despite this political setback theHoma Bay experience proved that asmall community radio operationcould be effectively set up withequipment costs of less thanUS$25000 and that it could function in a low-technology environment without encounteringtechnical problems

UNESCOrsquos initiative in communityradio coincided with some worldtrends that favoured it The mostimportant of these was the growingawareness of the limitations of centrally planned economies leadingultimately to the collapse of theideology that had built them But innon-Marxist countries too demo-cratization decentralization andneo-liberal policies were on themarch and this was also leading toa greater willingness to decentralizenational broadcasting systems

In Sri Lanka the Sri LankaBroadcasting Corporation hadalready regionalized its services andthe notion of starting communityradio was a natural next step Thusin 1983 the second UNESCO community radio initiative wasbegun in the context of a largemulti-purpose irrigation schemethe Mahaweli DevelopmentProject About a million peoplewere being resettled on newly

Excerpt from 1988 Evaluation of MahaweliCommunity Radio

ldquoIt has animated settlers into participation in activities that not only encouraged self-actualizationbut also community identify and development Intandem with Mahaweli development workers it hasmotivated the settlers to try innovative practices inagriculture and health It has likewise motivatedlocal development workers to take the settlers andtheir problems more seriously ensuring a more palpable degree of service to the peoplerdquo

Some Achievements of Mahaweli Community Radio

ldquoIn one area we came across a group of teenagedelinquents who had no land and were desperately insearch of something to do Through our programmesand discussions we motivated them to clean up thevillage pond and set up an ornamental fish production enterprise In another village we arranged a mass wedding to solemnize the marriageof elderly couples who were living togetherTheir offspring had faced many hardships as theirparents were not legally married I produced manyprogrammes on gambling and alcoholism which helped the addicts to reflect upon themselves andgive up the vicerdquo 16

Bamako Declaration on Radio Pluralism(President Konareacute of Mali 1993)

ldquoRadio pluralism is an essential componentin the deepening of the democratic processnow under way it allows people greateraccess to a diversity of information andguarantees increased popular participation for sustainable human developmentAfrican statesmust speed up the ending of the monopoly over ofthe airwaves and give priority to national proponents of independent radio when allocatingbroadcasting frequenciesrdquo 20

irrigated land and these familiescame from various parts of thecountry Originally no media element was included among thevarious rural development inputsfor Mahaweli However it waslater realized that a communityradio service could help the sett-lers to integrate and to take initia-tives to improve their living stan-dards In effect they needed todevelop a sense of community aswell as learn more about improvedagricultural practices health andso on

Community radio offered greatpotential for this so with financialsupport from Danish InternationalDevelopment Assistance (DANIDA)and UNESCO the MahaweliCommunity Radio was set up Itsfirst station covered about 20000settlers in the major developmentregion surrounding the town ofGuirandurokotte but it was latercomplemented by several othersmall FM stations in the area

Although the Mahaweli CommunityStations were all under the controlof the Sri Lanka BroadcastingCorporation they used a truecommunity radio style This wasquite different from the style usedby the national broadcaster

One of the main thrusts ofMahaweli Radio in addition toproviding settlers with information

was to obtain feedback from themabout development activitiesthrough recordings made in thecommunities which were laterincluded in programmes orthrough having settlers come intothe studios to talk on air Withsuch participation in the radio programming and dealing as it didwith local problems and issues theradio became a vital andpersonalized link in the life of thecommunity

Community Radio Expanding ata Fast Pace

Riding on the flood tide of changethat has been sweeping the worldtowards democratization anddecentralization in the 1980rsquos and1990rsquos community radio has beenexpanding at a fast pace UNESCOfollowed its Kenyan and Sri Lankanexperience with support to otherstations in a wide variety of coun-tries among them Ghana TongaHaiti Cape Verde St LuciaTrinidad and Tobago SurinamJamaica Guyana the Philippinesand many others However UNESCO is now far from beingalone in promoting communityradio A wide range of internationaldevelopment agencies and nationaland international NGOs are involvedin many parts of the world

The rapidity of the spread of community radio is remarkableand Mali provides an interestingexample In 1991 after 23 years ofmilitary dictatorship severe socialdisturbances finally overthrew thegovernment and a multi-partydemocracy was formally establishedA transition government came topower pending democratic elections

Mali is a primarily rural society andthe transitional government orga-nized consultations with represen-tatives of the rural people It wasfound that after more than twodecades during which the nationalmedia had been the channel forissuing instructions and exhorta-tions and with government staffin rural areas equally distant thepeasantry was disaffected and alienated by the governmentrsquosimposed development programmesThey preferred to ignore them 17

The transitional government andthe elected one that took its placedecided to install with the help ofUNDP and the Food and AgriculuralOrganisation (FAO) a policy ofusing communication systemati-cally for Malirsquos development thefirst country in the world to do soMali also took a lead in media libe-ralization in Africa notablythrough organizing a crucial confe-rence in Bamako in September1993 called ldquoFreedom for AfricanRadiosrdquo 18 19 11

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12

Mali had itself just liberalized its state TV andradio which ever since they began had broadcastexclusively in French a language only understoodby the countryrsquos elite And with illiteracy levelsof about 70 percent the majority of the peoplehad had no access to media-based information

In the five years after Mali liberalized its mediamore than 60 independent radio stations beganto operate providing access in local languagesto people for the first time since the dawn ofradio broadcasting And many other countriesare becoming similarly involved with communityradio Much has happened to improve thesituation for community broadcasting since theHoma Bay community transmitter was closeddown by the government of Kenya some 15 yearsago And as an endnote Kenya today is also discussing legislation that would recognizecommunity radio as part of the countriesbroadcasting scene

The Bolivian experiencebegan with a radio servicecalled the lsquoVoice of the

Minerrsquo linked to the Siglo XXmine in the Department of PotosiacuteIn subsequent years 23 stationsin the various mining areas of thecountry were set up and came tobe known collectively as theMinersrsquo Radios

These radio stations were born asa trade union response to theappalling conditions of workersin the mines most of which wereowned and operated until 1952 bya few rapacious and fabulouslyrich families the lsquotin baronsrsquosuch as the Patintildeos who wereknown world-wide for their extra-vagant lifestyles Meanwhile theminers who were the source oftheir wealth and of the mainnational export were being inhu-manely exploited Living in primitive mining camps often inthe cold of very high altitudespoorly paid and suffering fromtypical minersrsquo afflictions such assilicosis they were already oldmen by the age of 40 Their lifeexpectancy was further reducedby the lack of safety precautionsin the mines and frequent accidents In 1952 the mineswere nationalized but little chan-ged for the miners becausegovernments lacked socialconscience

Unfortunately historical factsabout the Minersrsquo Radios remainsomewhat vague for the mainsource of information is the

memory of the people involvedHowever it is certain that theradios were a crucial element inhelping to lead the struggle ende-mic in Bolivia for many years - aconfrontation that saw massacresof miners and their families civilwar and revolution

The radios helped to unite theminers in the struggle and provided them with news andinformation that countered thenegative propaganda against theirinterests that was being put out bymost of the mainstream mediaThe importance of the MinersrsquoRadios is evident from the num-ber of times they were systemati-cally destroyed or their equip-ment confiscated by the militarysent in by one or other of the succession of governments thatruled the country

It was in fact the miners that initiated the massive strike in1981 that finally led to the end ofdictatorship in Bolivia As on allprevious occasions of seriousconfrontation with the authoritiesone of the principle demandsmade by the miners was thereturn of the equipment for theirradio stations or in cases wherethe equipment had been destroyed the right to start themup again with new equipmentThe miners usually contributedmost of the cost a further illustra-tion of the importance of theseradio stations in their lives

Although the main role of theMinersrsquo Radios was the defence

and promotion of minersrsquo rightsthey were also central to a widerange of cultural and educationalactivities They promoted andbroadcast festivals of minersrsquopoetry discussions about theaesthetic value of popular songsand other art forms and discus-sions about education issueseven including a discussion ofwhether minersrsquo children shouldlearn to play chess

The miners themselves contributedto the costs of establishing andrunning their radio stations but inmost cases the management andprogramming policy was in thehands of their unions And therewas little participation by minersin the kind of radio programmesthat would be promoted by com-munity radio today However theintegration of the radio stationsinto the mining community wasto a great extent ensured by theirphysical location close to themine they served and peoplecould generally visit the studioand say their piece if they wanted

Most Minersrsquo Radios were set upin the second half of the 1950sbut their most flourishing yearswere between 1963 and 1983After that world tin prices beganto drop and in 1985 a neo-liberalgovernment passed a decree tolsquorelocatersquo miners throwing about20000 of them out of miningwork forever This cut the groundfrom under the feet of their radiosSome were passed to peasantgroups but today less than tenare still operating

BOX 1 The Minersrsquo Radio in Bolivia

BOX 2 Radio SutatenzaAccioacuten Cultural Popular in Colombia

This initiative was launchedin 1947 by a priest JoaquiacutenSalcedo in an Andean

village called Sutatenza It beganusing a home-made transmitterwith a range of two to three kmbut from this Radio Sutatenzagrew into Colombiarsquos mostpowerful broadcasting network

Salcedo an atypical priest wasmore concerned about the socialand economic status of Colombiarsquospeasants than about conventionalChurch matters Driven by his mission to bring education to peasants to help them develop herealized that radio could reacheven into the most isolated parts ofmountainous Colombia Thus theidea of the Radio Schools ofSutatenza was born and from thatAccioacuten Cultural Popular (ACPO)

The educational broadcasts byRadio Sutatenza expanded untilthey covered a wide range oftopics including literacy numeracyhealth farm production housingimprovements family and personalrelationships sport and leisureand - crucially as it turned out - theresponsibilities of parenthood andpractising responsible procreation

People listened to these programmes in informal RadioSchools - in effect small groupswho came together each eveningThe groups were assisted by moni-tors people with more knowledge

and experience than the group Atany one time there was usually anenrolment of some 200000 peasants in about 20000 RadioSchools

To complement the radio programmes ACPO produced arange of textbooks and a PeasantrsquosLibrary of 100 books on topics forrural communities And a weeklymagazine with an estimated readership of 600000 people waspublished Furthermore trainingof peasant leaders and technicaltraining courses in communitieswere a part of the activities

The Roman Catholic Church supported the operation from thebeginning mainly with funds fromCatholic groups in Europe butACPO also attracted world-wideattention and many internationalagencies also became involved infinancing it

Ultimately Radio Sutatenza wasthe victim of its own successW h e n i t i n t r o d u c e d i t s programmes on lsquoresponsible procreationrsquo the Church begansystematically to undermine itSalcedo declared that the problemwas to convince the masses that itwas not sinful to discuss these matters and that it was difficult toeducate people for human dignityand for responsible maternity in acountry dominated by religiousrules ACPO held no position on

chemical or physical methods ofbirth control Its task was only tocreate the basis on which indivi-duals could take their own respon-sible decisions

This position infuriated the Churchhierarchy in Colombia which heldthat the only purpose of humansexual intercourse was procreationof the species So it convinced theEuropean Catholic groups to with-draw their support HoweverACPO continued to function withother international funding passedthrough the government

The operation struggled on usingmainly borrowed funds until 1985when its powerful and valuableradio infrastructure was sold to acommercial network In 1987 after40 years successfully dedicated tohelping peasants develop theirminds knowledge and life skills itfinally folded completely Itsassets which included a publi-shing house a plant for pressingmusical records a 14-storey officeblock in the capital as well as peasant training centres were soldto meet its debts

13

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1 Independent Radio and Television Commission of Ireland1988

2 Quote Louie Tabing Manager of the UNESCODANIDATambuli Project Philippines

3 Zane Ibrahim and Ms Adams Bush Radio 895 FM (See CaseStudy)

4 P M Lewis and J Booth The Invisible Medium PublicCommercial and Community Radio MacMillan (London 1989)

5 Jocelyn Josiah Presentation on Media for Community Buildingin the Caribbean during Roundtable on Communication forDevelopment Brazil (Bahia 1998)

6 Carlos A Arnaldo Localism and the Displacement of Politics Placebased Communication Development (Globalism and the Politicsof Place) Vol 41 No 2 1998 Sage Publications and SID (Rome June 1998)

7 Louie N Tabing Programming Tips for a Community Radio StationUNESCO-DANIDA Tambuli Project (Manila 1998)

8 Rafael Roncaglio lo Public Service Broadcasting ndash Cultural andEducational Dimensions UNESCO (Paris 1995)

9 T McCain and F Lowe Localism in Western EuropeanBroadcasting Journal of Communication Vol 40-1 (1990)

10 Moncef M Bouhafa Child Survival and Broadcasting ndashOpportunities and Challenges paper presented at internationalconference on Broadcasting for Child Survival Voice ofAmericaUSAID (Washington April 1998)

11 Colin Fraser and Sonia Restrepo-Estrada Communicating forDevelopment - Human Change for Survival IB Tauris (LondonNew York 1998)

12 Peter Lewis in Alternative Media Linking Global and LocalReports and Papers on Mass Communication No 107 UNESCO (Paris 1993)

13 Mary Myers The Promotion of Democracy at the Grass-roots The Example of Radio in Mali Frank Cass Journal Vol 5 No 2 (London 1998)

14 Jake Mills of Ghana the designer of the cheap 6-channelaudio mixer (1990)

15 Martin Allard designer of a simple and cheap FM transmitter

16 Interview Sunil Wijesinghe broadcaster of MahaweliCommunity Radio (1999)

17 Colin Fraser and Sonia Restrepo-Estrada op cit

18 Moncef M Bouhafa Grassroots Media and CommunityEmpowerment in West Africa paper presented to theInternational Conference on Media and Politics CatholicUniversity of Brussels Belgium 1997 (revised 1998)

19 Mary Myers op cit

20 Ibid

14

In Barbados after running the experimental UNESCO community radio for the 1995 World Environmental Conference students took over the radio station and continued programmes ever since from the Barbados Community College as Radio GED

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CO

Kin

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n

Chapter 2Features and Functions of Community Radio

15

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2

T his chapter describes the special featuresand programming approach of communityradio in terms of public access and partici-

pation ownership management funding editorial independence and credibility as wellas its representation of different groups andinterests in the community and its inclusion ofmarginalized and minority groups

The section on functions covers the role of community radio in reflecting local identity andculture in providing a diversity of voices opinionsprogrammes and content on air and in promotingdemocratic process social change developmentcivil society and good governance Its functionas a lsquopeoplersquos telephonersquo and its contribution tothe training of human resources for the broad-casting industry are also touched on

After absorbing the content the reader will

bull Have a clear picture of the many features andfunctions of community radio

bull Be able to act as a resource personleaderduring discussions in a community about the possibility of setting up a radio stationproviding the necessary background informa-tion for decisions on ownership manage-ment programming policies and the benefitsthat can be expected from a communityradio

ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF COMMUNITY RADIO

The Audience asProtagonists

While community radio is a form of public-servicebroadcasting it has anapproach that is differentfrom conventional broad-casting Its specific focus isto make its audience themain protagonists by theirinvolvement in all aspects of its management and programme productionand by providing them withprogramming that will helpthem in the developmentand social advancement oftheir community

A Special Slant on News Entertainment and Education

News on a community station unlike that on the mains-tream media is not an isolated story or event alone ratherit aims to be part of an ongoing and future process whichsupports change and development in the community

Special Sunday treat for Radio Ibahay - actress Chin ChinGutierrez visits the station during the childrenrsquos programme

and sings a song in Aklanon

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Entertainment is provided in aform that is a collective culturalexpression rather than a featuringof refined performers It is morelike singing Karaoke than listeningto a professional artist

Education is more the sharing ofexperiences and learning from othersin the community than listening toan expert or teacher talking

Principles of Public Access andParticipation

Citizens have a democratic right toreliable accurate and timely infor-mation Based on this right it is apublic interest of broadcasting thatit should incorporate the principlesof access and participation

Access implies the availability ofbroadcasting services to all citizensparticipation implies that the publicis actively involved in planning andmanagement and also providesproducers and performers

In concrete terms for communityradio these concepts mean that

bull A community radiorsquos broadcastpattern reaches all members ofthe community it aims to serve

bull The community participates informulating plans and policies forthe radio service and in definingits objectives its principles ofmanagement and its program-ming

bull The community participates indecisions concerning programmecontent duration and schedulesPeople se lect the types ofprogrammes they want ratherthan having them prescribed bythe producers

bull The community is free to commentand criticize

bull There is continuous interactionbetween producers and receiversof messages The radio itself actsas a principal channel for thisinteraction but there are alsomechanisms that allow easycontact between the communitythe programme producers and themanagement of the radio station

bull There are unrestricted opportu-nities for members of the com-munity as individuals or groupsto produce programmes and behelped by the radio station staffusing the technical productionfacilities available

bull The community participates inthe establishment managementadministration and financing ofthe radio station

Ownership

The facilities of community radioare almost invariably owned by thecommunity through a trust founda-tion cooperative or some similarvehicle However there could becases where formal ownership wasin the hands of a body external tothe community but which has passedthe facility to the community for itsindependent and exclusive use

Management

Irrespective of formal ownershipthe stationrsquos policies managementand programming must be the responsibility of the community inorder for it to be considered a truecommunity radio There will usual-ly be a representative communitycommittee or Board of Directors toset overall policies while day-to-day

Radio quickly and easily becomes he link in society between poor and rich between rural and urban groups between agricultural routine and city leisure At Radyo Ibahay one of the smallest Tambuli stations film and TV actress Chin Chin Gutierrez share her ideas on development in an interview for the Sunday programme

Phot

o C

A A

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administrative andoperational decisionsare left to a stationmanager selected by thecommunity

Funding

A community radio service is set up and run asa non-profit organization Itrelies on financial supportfrom a diversity of sourceswhich may include donationsgrants membersh ip fees sponsorsh ip or advert i s ing A combination of these is themost desirable in order to ensureindependence Many communityradios also organize fund-raisingevents among their audience Theoverall aim is always to reach astate of financial self-sufficiency

Editorial Independence andCredibility

Community radio is editoriallyindependent of central and localgovernment of political partiesand of commercial and religiousinstitutions in determining its policies and programming Overallpolicy is set by the aforementionedrepresentative community-levelcommittee but with day-to-day

operational decisionsabout programming taken by thestation manager hisher role as acredible and non-partisan personbecoming crucial

Representation of DifferentGroups and Interests in theCommunity

Communities are inevitably madeup of different groups and inter-ests Community radio broadcastsprogrammes that cater to theseand also encourages them toexpress themselves on air Clearlyhowever programme and timeallocation are approximately pro-portional to the size of any parti-cular group or interest in the com-munity taking into account anyspecial circumstances or needs

Inclusion ofMinority and MarginalizedGroups

Community radio includes minorityand marginalized groups on equalterms rather than giving them an

17

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Even the smallest children haveaccess to the radio on the

Radio Ibahay Sunday childrenrsquosprogramme

Carol Singing for a Tape Recorder

Community radio stations often organize communityevents such as community fairs cultural eveningsand other fund-raising activities One Tambuli community radio station in the Philippines organizeddoor-to-door carol singing at Christmas to raisefunds to buy a new tape recorder

18

occasional voice as in the case of many public broadcasters Its programming ensures a wide diversity of voices and views frommarginalized groups such aswomen and youth and it promotesand protects the interests cultureand linguistic diversity of ethnicminorities in the community

FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNITY RADIO

Community radio aims to fulfil thefollowing functions

Reflect and Promote LocalIdentity Character and Culture

Co m m u n i t y ra d i o p ro v i d e s programming that is particular toits communityrsquos identity and character Thus it relies principallyon local content It includes outsidenews and events that have a specialinterest or implications for itsaudience

It also focuses on local cultureCulture is what a community saysto itself and what it says to othersIt is how the people the individualmembers of a community expresstheir dreams and hopes and howthey talk about their past and theirfuture It is what they care aboutLike life itself culture is infinitelyvariable and constantly evolving Itis the result of a process not of

definitions And that is why indemocracies governments areexpected only to establish broadframeworks for cultural expressionby the people Governments mustnot get involved in content or style 1

Community culture is also of courseartistic expression through localmusic dance poetry theatre storytelling and so on and these arefeatured strongly by most commu-nity radios Local performers areencouraged to go on air uninhibitedby considerations of the lsquoprofessionalstandardsrsquo they may have acquiredfrom mainstream media The valueof content and lsquolocalnessrsquo usuallyoutweighs formal quality and lsquoprofessionalismrsquo though thisshould not be used as an excuse forsub-standard technical production

Culture is also Language Locallanguages and expressions are theraw material that feeds communityradios They are the cement of cultural diversity which is as important for the successful futureof humanity as biological diversityThere are some 6700 languages inthe world and 63 percent of theseare in Africa and Asia Nationalbroadcasting and media globaliza-tion combined with other factorssuch as urban migration threatenhalf of the worldrsquos languages with extinction during the nextgeneration And with them will go

their cultures Community radio is aprime defence against this gravetrend towards the impoverishmentof cultural diversity 2

Create a Diversity of Voices andOpinions on the Air

Community radio through itsopenness to participation to all sectors and people in a communitycreates a diversity of voices andopinions on the air

Some discord is present in all communities they are not the peaceful harmonious groupingsthat outsiders may idealisticallyimagine Discord may be caused bydiffering interests by differing ethnic linguistic or religious backgrounds or even by someancient feud The acknowledgementof conflict is necessary for democracyand for democratic communitiesThrough an understanding of whyconflict exists communities canunderstand themselves better andpave the way to resolve conflicts A function of community radio is totry objectively to air all sides of a dis-cussion without itself taking sides

Main Functions of Community Radio as Formulatedin South Africa

Community radio stations should

bull Promote and reflect local culture character andidentity

bull Assist in creating a diversity of voices and opinionsand encourage individual expression

bull Increase access to a diversity of voices on air

bull Assist in creating a diversity in broadcastingownership

bull Be responsive to the needs of their community

bull Contribute to human resources development forbroadcasting and where appropriate to job creation

bull Encourage members of the relevant community toparticipate in programming and production matters

bull Encourage innovation and experimentation in programming 3

Preserving Linguistic Diversity in IndustrializedCountries too

Community radio stations in New York broadcast inWolof on Sundays for people of the Senegalese community Two other stations broadcast in Koreanwhile in France the Arab population has demandedthe right to set up media channels that meet its specific needs 4

Provide a Diversity ofProgrammes and Content

Community radio provides a diversity of programmes in a varie-ty of formats and styles Forexample roundtable discussionsreportage interviews talks call-inprogrammes live broadcasts ofmeetings in the community etcAudience preferences are takeninto account in deciding what formats are most suitable

Content also covers a wide rangeof topics again in accordance withthe expressed desires and needs ofthe audience Content is mainlydetermined by the lifestyles andlivelihood of the community andby the problems it faces In ruralareas themes such as health farming fishing environmentcredit marketing of producesmall-scale enterprises etc usuallyfeature prominently but always setin the context of the communityrsquosactual situation

News broadcasts may also focuson different types of contentThey may cover only local eventsand issues or they may includenational items that have local relevance or they may evenbroadcast national and internatio-nal news per se in the case of aremote community with no accessto other media channels

Encourage Open Dialogue andDemocratic Process

The ancient Greeks who inventeddemocracy conducted their politi-cal debate in public All those whowished could be present at themeetings to listen and voice theirviews Sheer numbers of peoplemake this impossible today andfor this reason democratic processhas become distant from ordinarycitizens Typically once politiciansare elected their contact withtheir electorates is limited andthey go about their tasks withoutmuch further consultation ordebate with them

It is a function of community radioto provide an independent platformfor interactive discussion aboutmatters and decisions of importanceto its community This is in keepingwith the decentralization processesnow being implemented in manycountries a purpose of which is tobring democratic decision-makingcloser to the people concerned

However for social and economicprogress to take place democraticprocesses cannot start and finish inthe community They must reachinto the government and privateinstitutions operating in the community as well as to policymakers and authorities at thelocal regional and even nationallevel

The public debates aired by thecommunity radio will certainlybe heard by locally-basedstaff of government andprivate institutions and theradiorsquos content should berelayed by them to theirsuperiors This lays the foun-dation for development initia-tives that are responsive to thecommunityrsquos felt needs andpossibilities In additionrecordings by the communityradio service can be used inmeetings or even broadcast byother stations to make betterknown what is happening at thegrassroots level

In sum the core of democraticprocess is the ability of people tohear and make themselves heardCommunity radio provides theforum for that to happen

Promote Development andSocial Change

People in poor communities tendto be fatalistic about their situationThey will all have individual perceptions but developmentcannot take place on the basis ofthese What is needed is a collectiveperception of the local reality andof the options for improving itThis can only be achieved throughinternal discussions within the

Connections

ldquoLocal radio stations have the responsibility toconnect people with people people with peoplersquosorganizations and people with officials and govern-ment functionariesrdquo 5

19

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While group listening is not the norm among radio audience radioachieves a certain level of similarity among people living in rural areasProblem-solving becomes easier when there is ldquocommonnessrdquo in knowledge perceptions aspirations goals and processes

20

community about its situation thecauses and possible actions forimprovement

Community radio provides the perfect platform for these internaldiscussions and for reaching a collective perception of the situationSpecific problems can be analyzedremedies discussed and thosemost affected - or who can helpwith the solution - mobilized tocollective action

Anti-social behaviour by minoritiesin a community can also be modifiedby exerting pressure from themajority through community radioprogrammes

Promote Civil Society

Civil society is that multiplicity ofsocial institutions that allows asociety to live in harmoniouscoexistence It creates its own stan-dards and values for individual andgroup behaviour rather thanhaving them imposed from above

Especially in countries that haverecently adopted democratic systems after decades of single-party or authoritarian rule theyounger generations have littleidea about what democracy entailsor about the civil society thatmakes democracies function

Some community radios focus onexplaining the implications ofdemocracy and civil society raisingawareness about peoplersquos rightsbut also about their obligationsThey work to explain how a civicsense is needed if new-found freedoms are to result in harmonyand social progress

Promote Good Governance

In poor communit ies loca l authorities and politicians can easily take advantage of citizenseither individually or as a group inpart because the marginalized andoppressed have no way to complain Community radio helpspeople to obtain their just rights bygiving them a platform to air theirgrievances And through playing acommunity watchdog role it makeslocal authorities and politiciansmore conscious of their public responsibilities

Broadcasting of discussions orquestions and answers betweenmembers of the community andlocal authorities about some issuethat i s exerc i s ing them i s a technique that is often usedAnother technique is to broadcastlive the discussions of local government meetings

This function of community radiois not always easy to fulfil In veryremote communities and wherepower has been held by a few familiesfor generations the people may bereluctant to speak their mindbecause they all have a debt of onesort or another to those familiesAnd equally the powerful familiesmay be unwilling to take criticism

Encourage Participation Sharingof Information and Innovation

Participation is a key word in development circles but it is notalways appreciated that participationand communication are two sidesof the same coin for when peoplecommunicate about their situationand about options for improving itthey are in effect participating Andthey are also laying the foundationfor collective action in which theywill participate Community radioencourages participation by providing a platform for debateanalysis and the exchange of ideasand opinions

In addition community radioallows for the sharing of informationand innovation For example onefamily or group in a communitymay have solved some problemthat is common to many otherpeople such as obtaining farm

Some of the Social and Development Benefits ofTambuli Community Radio Stations in thePhilippines

bull There is a new vibrancy and will to change in thecommunities

bull Men gave up their passionate pastime of gamblingafter a series of discussions over the radio clearlyshowed its negative economic impact on their fami-lies and on the community

bull Butchers were prohibited from bringing live ani-mals to the market and slaughtering them there

bull A large poultry farm was cleaned up to reduce itssmell and pollution

bull Creeks were dredged to reduce risks of flooding

bull A footbridge and extra lighting were installed

bull A day care centre for children was created by thelocal authorities

bull Illegal logging and fishing were stopped as a resultof community pressure 6

A Statement by the Programme Director of the Independent Radio Bamakan in Mali

ldquoThere are a lot of aspects of democracy that peopledonrsquot know about and we are obliged to raise awa-reness to explain that democracy is not anarchythat democracy involves rights and obligations Wehave the right to demand but we also have obliga-tions to the Staterdquo 7

credit from a new bank in the

nearest city A broadcast account

by them explaining how they went

about it and the procedures required

would be the stimulus for other

families to do the same Another

example might be providing infor-

mation about a farmer in the area

who had multiplied seed of an

improved vegetable variety and

was willing to sell it

Give Voices to the Voiceless

In many traditional societies

women and youth and ethnic and

linguistic minorities are virtually

ignored in community affairs But

no community can change and

develop equitably and satisfactori-

ly without the active and informed

participation of its women youth

and minority groups (See Box 3 at

the end of this Chapter)

Therefore community radio gives

voice to the voiceless in the

community This of course is in

addition to giving the community

in general a voice after years of

having been inert recipients of

state or commercial broadcasts

Provide a Social Service asa Replacement for theTelephone

In poor rural areas where

telephones hardly exist

community radio replaces

them to an important extent

by broadcasting messages

For example a family living

in a remote part of the

community can be informed

that a relative living in the

main agglomeration has

been taken ill and would they

please come to visit Or a

farmer with an animal he

wants to sell can have the

fact announced over the radio

replacing the series of calls he

would make if telephones were

available Again a person looking

for temporary labour to help with

some farm task could alert those

people who were interested to

offer their services through a

broadcast announcement

The efficiency of government ser-

vices say in health is improved by

broadcasting the schedule for field

visits ahead of time so that people

will be waiting for these on arrival

Contribute to Diversity inBroadcasting Ownership

Community commercial andnational or state broadcasting allhave roles in society though com-munity broadcasting is the onethat has generally lagged behindthe others Community radio helpsto redress this and provides thebalance of broadcast informationsources needed by democraticsocieties for their advancement

In Benin children participate directly in literacy courses on the air

21

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In October 1992 Bhutan Broadcasting Corporation was transformed from a statebroadcaster to a public corporation with a much decreased subsidy Above at thenew Punaka market a broadcast trainee talks with the people about prices travelalong country roads quality of the harvest and news of the village This project was financed by DANIDA

Phot

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Difficulties in Achieving Transparency - a Case Studyfrom the Philippines

The more remote the community the more hesitantpeople are to speak out People rely on their leadersfor the smallest problems and they all owe a debt tothe few political families To criticise them wouldseem ungrateful

The local council told the community radio to acceptcalls from listeners with queries or comments duringlive broadcasts of the weekly council sessions Butwhen the calls began to come in the council toldthem to stop accepting them The council also beganto chose which portions of the sessions could bebroadcast and told the radio team to leave the roomwhen budget discussions were under way 8

22

Contribute to theDevelopment of HumanResources for theBroadcasting Industry

Community radio arguablydemystifies the broadcasterrsquosprofession by taking communitymembers as message producersIt is also a school for fledglingbroadcasters where they ofcourse acquire valuable technicalskills

But there is another factor that makes people trained in community radio particularlyvaluable They are broadcasterswho live among their listenersshare many of the same problemsand get constant feedback ndash positive and negative - on the formats of their programmes andon their interest and usefulnessThis gives them unique insightsinto the broadcaster audiencerelationship and into radio as a toolfor change and development It isnot uncommon therefore forcommunity broadcasters go on tojoin the staff of mainstream broadcasting

lsquoThe Peoplersquos Telephonersquo in Haiti

ldquoWhen the bandits sped off on their motorcycle leaving a cloud of dust a dead body and a distressedvillage in their wake they thought they were on theroad to freedom They hadnrsquot heard about the villagersquos radio station Radyo Flanbo In Haiti community radio stations such as Flanbo are knownas lsquothe peoplersquos telephonersquo and as the bandits prepared to terrorize the next village Flanborsquos newsreader broadcast a warning of their imminentarrival The bandits might as well have drivenstraight to the police stationrdquo 10

Phot

o U

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gsto

n

Radio Muye the first community radio run bywomen in the Caribbeanunder the UNESCO specialproject lsquoWomen Speaking toWomenrsquo

One of the youngest womenrecruits of the community

radio station in CuyoPalawan DYMC Radio

1 Adapted from Pierre Juneau GeneralIntroduction Public ServiceBroadcasting - the Challenge of the21st Century Reports and Papers on Mass Communication No 111 UNESCO (Paris 1997)

2 Sophie K Ly El Recuerdo delConocimiento Perdido InteRadio Vol 9 No 2 AMARC (Montreal 1997)

3 Triple Enquiry Report IndependentBroadcasting Authority Republic ofSouth Africa (1995)

4 Ibid

5 B S S Rao during the Consultationon Media Policy and Community RadioBangalore India (1996)

6 Colin FraserSonia Restrepo-Estrada Communicating forDevelopment - Human Change for Survival IB Tauris (LondonNew York) 1998

7 Mary Myers The Promotion ofDemocracy at the Grass-roots The Example of Radio in Mali FrankCass Journal Vol 5 No 2 (London Summer 1998)

8 Adapted from Cecile Balgos The Sounds of Silence UNESCOSources No 89 UNESCO(Paris 1997)

9 Felix Librero in Communication forPeople Power Ed Maslog NavarroTabing Teodoro UNESCOTambuliProject Institute of DevelopmentCommunication College of MassCommunication UNESCO NationalCommission Philippines (Manila 1997)

10 David Shanks Voices for the VoicelessA feature prepared by WorldAssociation for ChristianCommunication (WACC) (London March 1999)

Information as a Commodity for Decisions

ldquoThe appropriate use of community broadcasting isto satisfy community and social needs In the processof doing so people are able to access the very important commodity called information on whichthey base their day-to-day decisionsrdquo 9

Phot

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23

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Filipino women - particularly

those in the countryside

where socialization has been

limited by poverty and inadequate

educational attainment - are often

shy reserved and timid In addition

rural families are often resistant to

changing the traditional position of

women as housekeepers and

women would generally prefer that

their husbands participate in

community projects

It is very evident that the issue of

collectively pursuing womens rights

and empowerment has been relegated

to the lowest priority among rural

people So it often takes cajoling and

reassurances before women will

come out of their shells

However increased readiness to

participate in community projects

can be seen among those who have

been exposed to mass media culture

and our initial talks in communities

regarding special radio programmes

for about and by women were met

with much eagerness I attribute this

to the fact that some family and

social institutions that had been

trying to promote womenrsquos activities

in the community felt threatened and

welcomed the support that radio

could provide

Once involved women are highly

dependable They adhere to rules

Compared to men they are more

meticulous They are less subject

to anomalous behaviour and

malfeasance They are consistently

enthusiastic And where the women

are mixed with men the men also

become more enthusiastic if not to

say better performers

Meriam Aranas the president of

the Olutanga Islanders Media

Development Foundation was a

strong-willed leader of an active

womens group promoting livelihood

and conservation projects She

registered the association and led the

drive to erect a building for the radio

station

A schoolteacher Rosario Gozos was

appointed as station manager in

Partido Camarines Sur She is

single-handedly running a family

because her husband works abroad

She spearheaded the

successful drive against illegal

gambling in the district Among

other things she has initiated an

all-women Saturday programme

Her infectious dedication

has inspired all the other

volunteers in her radio

station In less than three

years the station became

an institutional power in

the community It has

contributed greatly to

the progress and well

being of Partido

Lyn Villasis a soft-

spoken beautician has

been running a story-

telling program for

children for years and has become

one of the most popular personalities

in the station in Banga Aklan

Malou Angolluan is a youthful

college graduate who has taken

voluntary activity as a vocation Her

exemplary work and dedication to

service have earned her profuse

admiration from her listeners She

has turned down several offers to

work in bigger commercial radio

stations

BOX 3 Involvement of Women

In Ibahay Aklan province PhilippinesAte Meds rushes from Sunday mass tothe Studio for her weekly childrenrsquosprogramme

Phot

o C

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rnal

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24

In Pastapur Hyderabad India women discuss local problems for airing on a regional radio station of All India Radio They are also advocating for new legislationto enable them to broadcast on their own antenna

Phot

o J

im B

entl

ey

25

Chapter 3Legal Aspects

T his chapter gives an overview of the legis-lation governing community radio in avariety of countries world-wide Special

attention is given to South Africa wherebroadcasting legislation is in many ways exem-plary and could be used as a model by othercountries The main common factors and themain differences that exist in national commu-nity radio legislation are described as are typi-cal requirements for obtaining a licence

The reader will gain

bull An awareness of the wide variations in legisla-tion and of the obstacles that communityradio may face in some parts of the world

bull An understanding of the need to examine clo-sely the existing legislation before embarkingon a community radio project

bull Knowledge of the likely information andconditions that the authorities will requirebefore issuing a community radio licence

UNEVEN AND HAPHAZARD LEGISLATION

The airwaves or the frequencies for broadcastingare a public asset It is therefore incumbent uponnational administrations in line with the decisionsof the administrative planning conferences organizedby the International Telecommunications Union(ITU) to regulate and allocate their use with thepublic interest in mind as well as with fairness andtransparency And general national media policiesshould meet the same criteria

Unfortunately this does not always happen andthe legislation governing community radio is veryuneven In several regions of the world communityradio suffers because current legislation is eithernon-existent inconsistent or basically hostile Thishandbook is not the place for an exhaustive description of the legislation country-by-countrybut a brief overview of the situation in a few countries world-wide will give a feel for the situation

MOST PROGRESS IN AFRICA

Many countries in Africa have made good progress inlegislating for community radio This is particularlyinteresting because at first sight it would appearto be a paradox on the one hand communityradio certainly has a natural role to play in cateringto the information needs and interests of the wide

ethnic cultural and linguistic diversity present inmost African countries but on the other handgovernments fear that freedom of ethnic and linguistic expression might undermine nationalunity It will be remembered that this was partlywhat brought the Homa Bay community radioexperience in Kenya to a premature end in 1984

However it seems that the lesson has now beenlearned about authoritarian suppression of diverselinguistic and cultural expression within a countryThis ultimately produces strong resentment andtensions in society Indeed even in industrializedcountries the last two decades have seen a changeof heart by governments that now try to preservethe traditional linguistic and cultural identity of theirminority groups They have realized that a pluralisticsociety can also achieve national identity and unity

This is the case in many parts of Africa too Sincethe early 1990s countries such as Mali BurkinaFaso Namibia and South Africa have all embarkedon a course of freeing their airwaves and promo-ting community radio as part of the nationalbroadcasting spectrum backing the policy withappropriate legislation in most cases

South Africarsquos progress towards new broadcastingpolicies and community radio legislation is consideredexemplary Some countries have already copied itand many others could also find it a useful modelIt is therefore outlined in the next section

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26

Broadcasting Legislation inSouth Africa ndash an ExemplaryCase

The government of post-apartheidSouth Africa realized that the countryrsquos media could help toresolve many socio-economicdevelopment needs and at thesame time help to build a democraticand pluralistic society But newbroadcasting policies and opera-tions would be needed

An Independent BroadcastingAuthority

The first step taken in 1993 wasthe creation of an IndependentBroadcasting Authority (IBA) ajuridical body to formulate broad-casting policy plan the use of thefrequency spectrum issue licencesadjudicate in the case of com-plaints and in general regulate thebroadcasting industry It functionsindependently of the State and ofgovernmental and political partyinfluences It is a non-profit entitythat is financed partly by the Stateand partly from fees that itreceives

The IBA is run by a Council madeup of seven people appointed bythe State President They arepeople with expertise in fields thatinclude broadcasting policy media

law marketing journalism enter-tainment and education They arealso selected on the basis of theircommitment to fairness freedomof expression the right of thepublic to be informed opennessand accountability

Overall Objectives of theBroadcasting Legislation

Among the main objectives ofSouth Africarsquos broadcasting legisla-tion are the following

bull Promote the provision of a diverserange of broadcasting services ona national regional and local levelwhich cater for all language andcultural groups and provideentertainment education andinformation

bull Promote the development ofpublic private and communitybroadcasting services which areresponsive to the needs of thepublic

bull Develop and protect a nationaland regional identity culture andcharacter

bull Encourage ownership andcontrol of broadcasting servicesby persons from historicallydisadvantaged groups

bull Ensure that private and commu-nity broadcasting licences are

Western Media Models a Disservice toDevelopment

ldquoBroadcasting media have developed into aone-way model in Third World countrieswith information news and massive dosesof entertainment flowing from large urbancentres The uniform prescription designed by theaffluent minority at decision-making level does notaddress the issues of development which require alocal perspective for each county and each community The concepts and use of the media as developed in industrialized societies have not proved conducive to the development needsof our countryrdquo 1

controlled by persons or groupsfrom a diverse range of commu-nities in the Republic

bull Ensure equitable treatment ofpolitical parties by all broadcas-ting licencees during any electionperiod

bull Ensure that broadcasting licenceesadhere to a code of conductacceptable to the IBA

Categories of Radio Broadcasting

The legislation foresees three categories of radio service

bull A public service ndash A serviceprovided by the South AfricanBroadcasting Corporation or byany other statutory body or person that receives revenuefrom licence fees paid by listenersfor their receivers

bull A private service - Operatedfor profit and controlled by aperson who is not a publicbroadcasting licencee

bull A community service - A broadcasting service which

Is fully controlled by a non-profit entity and carried onfor non- profitable purposes

Serves a particular commu-nity

Encourages members of thecommunity served by it orpersons associated with orpromoting the interest ofsuch community to partici-pate in the selection andprovision of programmes tobe broadcast

May be funded by dona-tions grants sponsorshipadvertising or membershipfees or by any combinationof these

The term lsquocommunityrsquo includes ageographically founded communityor any group of persons or sectorof the public having a specific andascertainable common interest

South African LicencingArrangements

In keeping with the general andcommunity radio policies outlinedabove the legislation providesdetailed requirements that mustbe met by applicants for commu-nity radio licences It also laysdown the procedures to be follo-wed These are complex anddemanding in terms of the detai-led information that is called forCommunity radio licences areawarded for four-year periodsalthough shorter temporarylicences can also be issued

Licences are not granted to anyparty movement organizationbody or alliance which is of a politi-cal nature

Readers may wish to browse theIBArsquos website (httpibaorgza)for more details on South Africancommunity radio policy legislationand licencing

ASIA AND INDIArsquoSLENGTHY DEBATE ON

COMMUNITY RADIO

The situation in Asia is far lessfavourable than in Africa andIndia provides a good illustration ofthe problems Nepal and Sri Lankashow ways of solving problems

All India Radio (AIR) was establishedas a state broadcasting monopolyin 1935 in line with the Britishmodel the BBC The debate aboutbreaking that monopoly beganmore than 30 years ago with theChanda Committee reportSubsequent committees have spe-cifically recommended decentrali-zing broadcasting to institutionalizethe process of participation and tomeet peoplersquos fundamental rightto information The SupremeCourt passed a landmark judge-ment in 1995 declaring that theairwaves were a lsquopublic goodrsquo andstressing the importance of main- 27

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3

Community Radio Handbook

Colin Fraser and Sonia Restrepo Estrada

copy UNESCO 2001

Acknowledgements

We gratefully acknowledge the following people and organizations for their generous support and help Maria Victoria Polanco Sophie Ly and Elvira Truglia of the WorldAssociation of Community Broadcasters (AMARC) David Shanks of the World Association for Christian Communication (WACC) Martin Allard of Mallard Concepts LtdLawrie Hallet of the UK Community Media Association and the authors of the five case studies Louie N Tabing Ian Pringle Alex and Wilna Quarmyne Zane Ibrahimand Ms Adams and Bruce Girard Special thanks are due to Louie Tabing whose pioneering work in the concept and practice of true community radio and prolific writings on the subject have been aninspiration for much of the material in the handbook

Much research interest has been devoted to mass media In their findings communicationspecialists have always acknowledged that there are many sectors communities and minorities whose access to information and means of self-expression are not always guaranteed by mass channels They have recognized that more sharply focused customizedand essentially small and local media are crucial in filling this gap

During the last two decades UNESCO has commissioned a number of studies andpublished monographs on the theme of community media The first monograph published byUNESCO on the theme of community media was Access Some Western Models of CommunityMedia by Frances Berrigan which appeared in 1977 and in 1981 the enquiry was extendedto the developing countries in a study by the same author entitled CommunityCommunications ndash the Role of Community Media in Development (No 90 in the series ofReports and Papers on Mass Communication) A few years later Peter Lewis prepared theUNESCO study Media for People in Cities (1984) which brought together a number of case-studies and the conclusions of two research meetings on urban community media

During the ensuing years UNESCO began setting up community radio stations in Africa(Homa Bay 1982) and Asia (Mahaweli 1986 and Tambuli Community radios 1982) The growthof the community radio lsquomovementrsquo was covered in a section of the UNESCO WorldCommunication Report in 1997

UNESCO sees community radio as a medium that gives voice to the voiceless thatserves as the mouthpiece of the marginalized and is at the heart of communication anddemocratic processes within societies With community radio citizens have the means tomake their views known on decisions that concern them The notions of transparency andgood governance take on new dimensions and democracy is reinforced Community radiocatalyzes the development efforts of rural folk and the underprivileged segments of urbansocieties given its exceptional ability to share timely and relevant information on developmentissues opportunities experiences life skills and public interests Given the audiencersquos lowliteracy rate and radiorsquos ability to involve women and to treat them not only as objects ormerely as a target audience but as participating agents and as a valuable source communityradio becomes one of the most promising tools for community development This hasbeen demonstrated by the special UNESCO project Women Speaking to Women community radiostations for the empowerment of women

In the age of multimedia and online communication the potential of community radioto provide for effective outreach to discuss and create demand for the Internet has becomeeven greater The Kothmale Internet radio experiment in Sri Lanka has proven that radiostations can promote and use the Internet in rural communities overcoming language barriersand lack of infrastructure By using radio and browsing the Internet to respond to listenersrsquodirect queries by sharing information and knowledge derived from the Internet the wholecommunity is involved and empowered with new opportunities

Against this background of challenges I believe that this handbook can contributetowards helping different communication actors technicians operators and radio producersin community radio stations to make more efficient use of community media for communitydevelopment by getting people involved in clarifying issues and solving problems and intalking to each other

The handbook is based on the experience and innovative thinking of communicationexperts and practitioners whose contribution I would like especially to acknowledge thelate Jake Mills former Director of Engineering Ghana Broadcasting Corporation whodesigned the prototype sound mixer Martin Allard electronics engineer designer of theUNESCO prototype transmitter Alex Quarmyne former UNESCO RegionalCommunication Advisor in Africa and project manager for Homa Bay in Kenya the firstcommunity radio in Africa Carlos Arnaldo former Chief of Communication Policies andResearch Section at UNESCO as project manager of Mahaweli community radio GeorgesDupont-Henius engineer UNESCO Communication Development Division WijayanandaJayaweera UNESCO Regional Communication Advisor for Asia and creator of KothmaleInternet Radio project Kwame Boafo of UNESCO Communication and InformationSector Louie Tabing project manager of Tambuli community radios and creator of Village on the Air For the time they took in producing this book and for their valuablecomments I should also like to thank Sonia Restrepo Estrada and Colin Fraiser for compilingthese experiences and putting them together for publication

Claude OndoboDeputy Assistant Director-General

for Communication and Information and Director of Communication Development Division

PREFACE

iii

Preface helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip iii

Introduction helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 1Any Community Can Start its Own Radio Station helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 1

Chapter 1 Community Radio in the Broadcasting Scene helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 3

Community Radio in the Context of the Globalization of Media helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 5

The Evolution of Community Radio helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 6

An Important Initiative by UNESCO helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 8

Box 1 The Minersrsquo Radio in Bolivia helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 12

Box 2 Radio SutatenzaACPO in Colombia helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 13

Chapter 2 Features and Functions of Community Radio helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 15

Essential Features of Community Radio helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 15

Functions of Community Radio helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 18

Box 3 Involvement of Women helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 23

Chapter 3 Legal Aspects helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 25

Uneven and Haphazard Legislation helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 25

Most Progress in Africa helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 25

Asia and Indiarsquos Lengthy Debate on Community Radio helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 27

Legislation in Some Latin American Countries helliphelliphelliphelliphellip 28

Some Examples from Western Europe helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 30

Convergence and Divergence in Legislation helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 31

Applying for a Licence helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 32

Chapter 4 Technical Aspects helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 33

Technical Background helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 33

Broadcasting Equipment helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 35

Reliability and Maintenance helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 39

Studio Premises helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 40

Spatial Relationship Between the Components of the Radio Station helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 40

Future Possibilities helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 41

Specialist Advice helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 43

Box 4 Basic Equipment for a UNESCO-supported Community Radio Station helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 44

Chapter 5 Getting Started helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 45

Legal Context helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 45

Preparatory Work in the Community helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 46

Importance of a Mission Statement helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 48

Role of the Religious Establishment helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 49

Role of Local Educational Institutions helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 49

Involvement of Politicians helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 49

Choosing a Location in the Community helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 49

Box 5 Involvement of Politicians helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 50

Choosing a Model helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 50

Power of the Transmitter helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 51

Ownership and Management helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 51

Programminghelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 51

Staff helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip52

Sustainability helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip52

Looking for Outside Funding for Start-up Costs helliphelliphelliphellip54

Box 6 Main Factors to Consider When Planning a Community Radio helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip54

Chapter 6 Programme Policieshelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 57

Participatory Programmes helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 57

Community News helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 60

Balancing Views helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 60

Coverage of Religious and Cultural Events helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 61

Local Election Broadcasts helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 61

Educational Broadcasts helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 61

Audience Surveys helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 63

Chapter 7 The Community Broadcaster helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 65

Code of Conduct helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 65

A Prototype Code of Conduct helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 66

Selection of Community Broadcasters helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 71

Training of Community Broadcasters helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 71

Chapter 8 Case Studies helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 75

Radio Olutanga (Tambuli Project) Philippines helliphelliphelliphelliphellip 75

Radio Sagarmatha Nepal helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 80

Radio Ada Ghana helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 85

Bush Radio South Africa helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 90

Radio Chaguarurco Ecuador helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 95

Table of contents

Communities and Communication

ldquoPeople live in a community by virtue of the thingswhich they have in common and communication isthe way in which they come to possess things in commonrdquo 1

T here are more than 20000radio stations in the worldand more than 2 billion

radio receivers Any notion thatTV and other sophisticated communication technology willreplace radio is unfounded forradio is in constant expansion Itswaves reach almost every cornerof our planet It is the prime electronic medium of the poorbecause it leaps the barriers of isolation and illiteracy and it is themost affordable electronic mediumto broadcast and receive in

The last two decades have seen arapid expansion in the number andpopularity of community radiostations Among the reasons forthis are the democratization anddecentralization processes in manyparts of the world deregulation ofthe media and the relaxing ofbroadcasting monopolies by stateinstitutions and disaffection withcommercial radio channels

Furthermore awareness is growingof the social and economic benefitsthat can result when ordinarypeople have access to appropriateinformation And it is also evidentthat when people especially the

poor can participate incommunica-tion processesand consensusbuilding aboutissues thataffect theirlives it helpsthem to cast off their traditionalstate of apathy and stimulatesthem to mobilize and organize tohelp themselves

ANY COMMUNITY CANSTART ITS OWN RADIO STATION

To start a small radio station is notas complicated and expensive asmany people think There isenough experience in many countries to prove that it is withinthe reach of almost any community

Community Will is the Key

The primordial condition for acommunity to start its own radiostation is a sense of internal cohe-sion and community consciousnessThere must be willingness forcooperative work and to poolresources and enthusiastic consensus

that the people want their own radioin order to advance their community

As part of the consensus buildingthat leads to the decision to establisha community radio the communitymust analyze its communicationneeds and determine how radiocould help to resolve them Thetraditional approach to develop-ment is to provide support to agriculture health education andso on and a radio station may notnormally be seen as a priority Buta community that analyzes itsneeds in detail and thinks aboutthe causes of its problems andmarginalization will often cometo the conclusion that it needscommunication processes to helppeople share common understan-ding and common goals This is thefirst step towards a communitytaking action to establish its ownradio station

ldquoEveryone has the right to freedom of opinion andexpression this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek receiveand impart information and ideas through any mediaand regardless of frontiersrdquo

Right of information section Article 19 of theUniversal Declaration of Human Rights

ldquoCommunity radio is a social process or eventin which members of the community associatetogether to design programmes and produce andair them thus taking on the primary role of actorsin their own destiny whether this be for something as common as mending fences in theneighbourhood or a community-wide campaign on how to use clean water and keep it clean or agitation for theelection of new leaders The emphasis is on the ownership of democratic and development efforts by the members of the communitythemselves and the use of media in this case radio toachieve it In every sense this is participatory communication(not programmes made about them by somebody else) It is above all a process not a technology not merely ameans because the people are part of that means and sois the message and the audienceCommunity radio is most relevant to a group of peoplewho live and act as a community and this could be severalfamilies several neighbourhoods or even several villagesor communities but the important thing is that theyinteract That is why I think of community radio as the

community speaking to each other and acting together forcommon goalsrdquo

Carlos A Arnaldo

Introduction

A basic Community Radio Studio in Burkina Faso

1

Com

mun

ity

Rad

io H

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O -

Intr

oduc

tion

Phot

o U

NES

CO

2

Producing Programmes does notneed Magical Skills

The professional tasks of managing astation and producing programmesare not beyond the reach of typicalcommunities Unfortunately expo-sure to commercial andor stateradio leaves many people with theimpression that such professionalstandards are the norm and theydo not realize that good and effec-tive radio broadcasting can bemuch less formalized Nor do theyrealize that the usefulness andimpact of any media productiondepends much more on its relevan-ce to the audience than on its for-mal quality

This is not to say that quality ofprogrammes in terms of theirstructure and their technical level isunimportant For example impro-per use of recording equipmentmay result in programmes of suchpoor sound quality that they aredifficult to understand Howeverexperience with community radioshows that when people are moti-vated and enthusiastic the mini-mum technical levels required forbroadcasting can be masteredduring only a few weeks of trainingAnd as they gain hands-on produc-tion experience their skills developmarkedly They quickly reach fullysatisfactory levels of performance

The Cost and Technologyare not Prohibitive

The equipment requiredfor community radio isrobust and easy to main-tain and it does not needsupport from broadcastingengineers beyond some ini-tial training Its cost isconstantly falling For atypical community radiostation the normal cost ofthe equipment is little morethan US$20000 For minimalbroadcasting there is even asuitcase available weighing 16 kgwhich contains a five-watt trans-mitter a six-channel audio mixertwo compact disc players two cas-sette taperecordersplayers and anantenna The total cost is aboutUS$3000

There are also FM radio receiverswith a solar strip that can eitherpower the radio or charge a batteryAt night the radio can be poweredby a dynamo winding up the radioby hand for two minutes provides30 minutes of listening time

The tendency among those produ-cing equipment for communityradio has been to focus on simplicityof installation use and maintenanceAnd local people often show extra-ordinary capacity to adapt andbuild for themselves For examplein Cape Verde UNESCO helpedlocal technicians to install a single

transmitter on one islandHowever the technicians were soeager and enterprising that after-wards they built two more trans-mitters so that they could have oneon each of the three main islandsThis was despite the fact that thecomponents originally made avai-lable were scarcely enough for onestation Furthermore they also linkedthe three stations over seeminglyimpossible distances to form a net-work that shares programmes in acomplicated schedule every day5

Media and Development

ldquoDeveloping communities are characterized by isolation from ideas and information as well as services At the simplest level before people canconsider a question they need to be fully aware of allthe facts the short-term effects and the long-termimplications ways in which decisions taken in onearea will affect future planning Communicationmedia could present this informationrdquo 2

Phot

o C

A A

rnal

do

The Judges are the Listeners

ldquoIt is unfortunate that the so-called radio professionals have set certain artistic productionstandards which could intimidate the regular villagepeople The irony is that the so-called professionalproductions cannot compete with programmes doneby the inexperienced village people The professionalsforget that the ultimate judge of a radio programmeis the listenerrdquo 4

Donrsquot be afraid of radio

ldquoNo one should be afraid to use radio I have been abroadcaster for almost a quarter of a century andI know nothing about the electronics side of radio

Even today I cannot explain how my voice in the studio is processed and passed on finally to the family radio maybe hundreds of kilometres awayrdquo 5

1 John Dewey (1916) cited by Elizabeth Blanks HindmanldquoCommunity Democracy and Neighbourhood NewsrdquoInternational Communication Association (1998)

2 Frances J Berrigan ldquoCommunity Communications - the role ofcommunity media in developmentrdquo Reports and Papers onMass Communication no 90 UNESCO (Paris 1981)

3 Louie Tabing Neighbourhood Radio ProductionUNESCODANIDA Tambuli Project Philippines

4 Martin AllardrdquoOn the AirhellipThe Development of CommunityRadiordquo UNESCO Sources no 21 (1990)

5 Louie Tabing Manager of the UNESCODANIDA TambuliProject Philippines

Mang Vicente of Ibahay on Aklan Island in Southern Philippines plays traditional melodies on a flute made from PVC plumbing pipe

Chapter 1Community Radio in the Broadcasting Scene

3

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1

T his chapter describes the place of community radio in the broadcastingscene and explains the essential

difference in its approach compared to conventional public service or commercialbroadcasting A rationale is put forward for itsimportance in the scenario of increasing mediaglobalization

The evolution of community radio from itsfirst experiences some 50 years ago is tracedand set in the context of broadcast mediaownership patterns technical developmentsand the recent trends towards democratization and decentralization

The reader will acquire

bull An understanding of the special nature ofcommunity radio compared to other types ofradio broadcasting

bull An understanding of its place and importan-ce in the trend towards media globalization

bull Knowledge about its background specificfield experiences and the factors that havedetermined its evolution

This theoretical framework provides the long-term foundation for practical knowledge andskills to be gained in later chapters

Broadcasting can be divided into three general categories

bull Public-service broadcasting is generally conductedby a statutory entity which is usually - though notnecessarily ndash a state-supported or a state-ownedcorporation Its broadcasting policies and programmingare often controlled by a public body such as a councilor a legally constituted authority This body ensuresthat broadcasting operates to provide informationeducation and entertainment to the citizens andsociety in general and independently of governmentparty politics or other interests Much of the fundingfor the operation comes from licence fees that the listenersviewers pay for the receivers they have intheir homes

bull Commercial or private broadcasting providesprogrammes designed primarily for profit fromadvertising revenue and is owned and controlled byprivate individuals or by commercial enterprises

bull Community broadcasting is a non-profit servicethat is owned and managed by a particular communityusually through a trust foundation or association Itsaim is to serve and benefit that community It is ineffect a form of public-service broadcasting but itserves a community rather than the whole nation asis the usual form of public broadcasting describedabove Moreover it relies and must rely mainly on the resources of the community A community is considered to be a group of people who share

A Declaration of Principle

ldquoCommunity radio responds to the needs of the community it serves contributing to its developmentwithin progressive perspectives in favour of socialchange Community radio strives to democratizecommunication through community participation indifferent forms in accordance with each specificsocial contextrdquo

World Association of Community Broadcasters(AMARC) 1988

4

common characteristics andorinterests The commonality ofinterests may be based on

- The sharing of a single geographicallocation that is to say those livingin a specific town village orneighbourhood

- The sharing of economic and sociallife through trade marketingexchange of goods and services

Unfortunately this tidy classificationinto three categories of broadcastingis less than tidy in practice forthere can be combinations andoverlapping situations For examplea local commercial radio stationmay also broadcast some communityservice programmes a station ownedand managed by an NGO such as areligious institution may fill most ofits air time with such programmesand state-owned public-servicebroadcasting has increasingly beendecentralizing to the local level andproviding programming for thecommunities around it

Not surprisingly there is still nosingle definition or description ofcommunity radio And to complicatematters further there have beenvarious terms applied to small-scaleradio broadcasting such as lsquolocalrsquolsquoalternativersquo lsquoindependentrsquo or lsquofreersquoradio All of these lack precision Forexample the term lsquolocal radiorsquo

could also cover the decentralizedoperation through a local stationof a state-controlled broadcastingsystem or even a small commercialstation Terms such as lsquoalternativersquoand lsquofreersquo are also imprecise even ifin the context of radio they arenormally taken to mean alternativeto the mainstream mass media andfree from government ownershipand control Logically thereforethey include community radio butthey do not necessarily include it

The various definitions of communityradio that have been formulatedshare many common elements Thesimple and catchy phrase lsquoRadio bythe people and for the peoplersquo isoften used as a good summary Thisphrase captures well the essentialprinciple that must be in place for abroadcasting service to be consideredtrue community radio It must firstlybe managed by the communitysecondly be to serve that community

Strict application of these two principles would mean that a radiostation owned by a non-profitNGO and also managed by thatNGO would not necessarily qualifyas a true community radio even ifmuch of its programming wereaimed at community developmentThis is the case for many broadcastingservices run by religious organiza-tions and in practice the term

lsquocommunity radiorsquo is often used tocover this type of operation as wellOne example is Radio Maria whichbeginning from a single parish inNorthern Italy in 1983 now coversall of Italy and also has stations in21 other countries It is essentiallyan evangelical operation but it alsodoes a great deal in social servicesand community developmentusing volunteers and supported byspontaneous contributions fromlisteners

The somewhat confusing situationregarding what constitutes truecommunity radio can perhaps bestbe understood by considering thefollowing quotation this sums up aphilosophical approach that makescommunity radio different fromcommercial or public-service radio

ldquoCommunity radio emphasizes thatit is not commercial and does notshare what it would call the prescriptive and paternalistic attitude of public-service broadcas-tinghellip The key difference is thatwhile the commercial and public-service models both treat listenersas objects to be captured foradvertisers or to be improved andinformed community radio aspiresto treat its listeners as subjects andparticipantsrdquo 4

One Definition

ldquoA community radio station is characterized by itsownership and programming and the community it isauthorized to serve It is owned and controlled by anon-profit organization whose structure provides formembership management operation and programming primarily by members of the community at large Its programming should bebased on community access and participation andshould reflect the special interests and needs of thelistenership it is licenced to serverdquo 1

On Radio Work for Ordinary People - a Practitionerrsquos View

ldquoRadio is simply people talking with people The Tambuli stations have merely expanded theopportunity for people to talk more to a wideraudience and to listen to a more expansive array ofideas on matters that directly concern themrdquo 2

On Community Ownership and Management

ldquoTo qualify as a community radio the ownership and control of the station must rest squarely and unquestionably with the community it claimsto serverdquo 3

Commercial Media Antagonism Towards Community Media

ldquoMainstream commercial media continue to harbournegative feelings about community media and areconvinced that they are adequately able to servecommunity needs They have not yet come around toaccepting that the special character of communitymedia is complementary rather than antagonisticand mutually exclusiverdquo 5

This placing of both public andcommercial broadcasting into aprescriptive category treating listeners as objects is significantfor even when they broadcasttheir so-called community serviceprogrammes they usually remainin the same prescriptive modeThis is contrary to the participatoryessence of community radio programming

COMMUNITY RADIO IN THE CONTEXT OF THEGLOBALIZATION OFMEDIA

Recent years have seen a strongtrend towards the globalization ofmedia Colossal media enterprisesof a commercial nature have beenformed and increasingly span theglobe with their programmesCertain countries have also becomecentres of highly successful mediaproduction mainly of an enter-tainment character and sell theiroutput to TV channels worldwideObvious examples are soap operasfrom the USA However audienceresearch has shown that peopleprefer to watch programmes withtheir own cultural orientationsrather than those imported fromothers For this reason media productions from developing

countries such as Brazil ChinaEgypt India and Indonesia arenow gaining wider distribution inlarge-scale commercial media

While some people argue that theglobalization of the media disruptslocal cultures others state thatglobal media intensifies theconsciousness of the world as awhole and is therefore beneficialThey see global media and community media as complemen-tary each forming important functions that the other cannotAnd this is certainly the case

By definition global media arecommercial and need to attractlarge audiences for their adverti-sing content Thus they broadcastprogrammes that attempt to satisfya common thread of sensitivitiesamong large numbers of peopleusing well-tried and rather standardif not banal entertainment formatsThe lack of variety in programmeorientation is therefore generallyattributed to the lsquoself-censorshiprsquoof the market which uses entertainment as the sole criterionfor selection However it is alsotrue that governments tend to bemore comfortable with privatebroadcasters limiting themselvesto entertainment rather thanbecoming involved in the moreproblematic area of news and

current affairs For these reasonsthemes reflecting socio-politicalinterests are often insufficientlycovered or deliberately ignoredby private broadcasters

Clearly given their characteristicsand orientation commercial andglobal media can hardly meetsocio-economic and developmentneeds of the countries they coverThe excessive entertainment provided by commercial televisionhas often provoked a call for areappraisal of the potential ofpublic broadcasting stressing theneed for quality programmes anddemanding more possibilities ofchoice and access for audiences A logical step in this direction is toexpand the democratization ofmedia to the community levelespecially through communityradio in which accessibility is thenorm

Furthermore community radioworks in the cultural context ofthe community it serves it dealswith local issues in the local language or languages it is relevantto local problems and concernsand its aim is to help the commu-nity to develop socially culturallyand economically This is not onlyin contrast with global media operations it is also in contrastwith centralized urban-based 5

Com

mun

ity

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1

Global Communication

ldquoGeorge Orwell in Nineteen Eighty-Four warned us ofa society controlled by Big Brother Is that what weare encountering today when we see so many peoplein poor communities tuning into western dominatedideals of the rich consumer society Orwell was veryconcerned about the socialist drives of the industrialage But perhaps he was also warning about the takeover of society by a democratic political power drivento degradation by these very industrial drives and bythe easy resort to globalization of mediardquo 6

The Power of the Local Approach

ldquoAn effective strategy for the community radiostation is to present what cannot be offered by any

other radio station that is local content with a localflavour The local radio station must dwell on itsstrongest reason for existence - local events issuesconcerns and personalities If a local station can doan exhaustive reportage of what goes on in its community on a regular basis there is no way aregional or national broadcast outfit could competefor listenership The element of proximity is the mostpotent quality that the community radio should capitalize on People will be enthusiastic to know ona daily or even hourly basis about the people andevents unfolding next to their place of aboderdquo 7

6

national media even of a publicservice nature for they are oftenremote from the realities of ruralcommunities and their needs

THE EVOLUTION OF COMMUNITY RADIO

The pioneering experiences fromwhich todayrsquos community radio hasevolved began some 50 years agoin Latin America Poverty and socialinjustice were the stimulus forthose first experiences one beginningin Bolivia in 1947 and known as theMinersrsquo radios and another inColombia in the same year knownas Radio SutatenzaAccioacutenCulturalPopular (See boxes 1 and 2 at the end of this Chapter for descriptions)

These experiences in Bolivia andColombia set a trend even iftodayrsquos concept of communityradio has evolved considerably Forexample the Minersrsquo radios inBolivia were working in thedecades of ideological clash between Marxism and capitalismThus their principal focus was tounite the community of miners tobattle for better and fairer workingconditions They were generallyconsidered to be trade unionradios even if the miners providedmuch of the finance for the purchase

of equipment and running costs

Radio SutatenzaACPO in Colombiaalthough inspired by the aim ofsupporting the community of peasants was not owned or directlymanaged by them There was muchfeedback from peasants - some50000 letters a year ndash and thesecertainly ensured the integration ofthe peasantsrsquo desires and needsinto the radiorsquos programming Butit was not truly lsquoradio by the peoplefor the peoplersquo which is todayrsquosaim

Even so this first systematic effortby Radio Sutatenza to educate byradio created a movement thatldquohellipspread and was later consolidatedthrough ALER the Latin AmericanEducational Radio BroadcastingAssociation This inter-linkage ofradio and education is basic to theidea of public service and markedthe birth of community media inLatin Americardquo 8

However even if the groundbreak-ing work was in Latin America itwas in Europe that communityradio first became a vital phenome-non an alternative to ndash or a critiqueof ndash mainstream broadcast mediaThe first challenges to state public-service broadcasting were in the1960s-70s when ldquoswashbucklingentrepreneurs boarded the airwavesillegally and seized as much of the

audience as they could carry awayfrom the treasure chest monopolycontrolled by the staterdquo 9 In theWest these pirate stations proved acatalyst in motivating governmentsand national broadcasting systemsto introduce legitimate local radio

In Africa the establishment ofcommunity radio became in abroad sense a social movementafter the demise of the apartheidregime in South Africa This wasfollowed by democratizationdecentralization and to someextent structural adjustmentelsewhere in that continent10

The pressure groups that have instigated community radio inmany parts of the world (egminers pirate radio operators missionaries and democracy movements) have been less presentin Asia In their place internationalagencies such as UNESCO andother external donors have oftentaken initiatives to help get community radio off the groundAnd in some cases it has been thenational broadcasting organizationthat has itself started communityradio services

Vision of Joaquiacuten Salcedo founder of RadioSutatenza and Accioacuten Cultural Popular

ldquoWithin weeks of arriving in Sutatenza Salcedo as ajunior priest had challenged the peasantry from thepulpit to take up arms against the poverty and backwardness that afflicted them and had offered hishand and vision in a partnership They respondedand so a pact was formed

Salcedo pioneered a concept known as lsquointegralfundamental educationrsquo similar to what today is

often called lsquolife educationrsquo The core of the conceptis that the educational process must be the development of the individual as a whole person and as a member of society

It became an ACPO slogan that lsquodevelopment is inthe mind of mankindrsquo And providing people witheducation in the broadest sense would enable themto make informed decisions and become proactivein taking control of their livesrdquo 11

The Influence of DifferentBroadcasting Ownership Systems

Latin America adopted the NorthAmerican system of mainly privateand commercial broadcastingwith multiple stations of variedpower and reach In this context itwas relatively easy for new stationsto start up And several thousandhave done so in Latin Americaoften initially as illegal or piratestations

In Western European countriesthe public-service state broadcastingmonopolies which had been setup when radio and later TV werefirst introduced usually had management mechanisms throughstatutory public bodies Thesecontrolling bodies ensured thatbroadcasting policies and programmes were as independentas possible of government partypolitical or other influences

European countries that adoptedthis public-service broadcastingapproach through state networksdid so because from the very firstdays of radio in the 1920s and TVsome 30 years later the electronicmedia were considered by leadingthinkers as marvellous instrumentsfor expanding culture educationand information and for improvingsocieties According to that thinkingthe mass media could not be

allowed to function principally ona commercial basis and as a vehicleto be taken over by the advertisingindustry to market products

Many countries in the developingworld especially in Africa and Asiawhere European countries hadheld influence as colonizers adoptedthe European model at least as faras the state monopoly on broad-casting was concerned Howeverthey did not always allow broad-casting policy to be controlled by astatutory and independent publicbody preferring complete controlby government of all aspects oftheir electronic media Thus manygovernments especially those ofcentrally planned economies usedtheir broadcasting networks tofurther their political aims and inparticular to consolidate theirpower base

In such circumstances and fullyrealizing that information ispower these governments withfully state-controlled broadcastingwere extremely reluctant to allowany electronic media to operateindependently This made it difficultfor community media initiatives toget started Only in the early 1980sdid some governments begin torelax their opposition to indepen-dent media but even today manygovernments still effectively oppose

the idea of relinquishing theirmonopolistic control of the broad-casting media

On the other hand it has becomeclear in the last decade or so thatattempts to control information ina society are doomed to fail The fax machine on a desk thecomputer connected to theInternet electronic mail andsatellite television are underminingall the efforts of repressiveregimes to control and conditionthe information that their peoplereceive This situation coupledwith the spread of democracy andfreedom of expression in mostparts of the world is opening thedoor to community media initiativesand particularly to communityradio And governments in countriesthat have already opened the doorare able to see for themselves thatcommunity radio has great potentialfor promoting and supportingd e ce n t ra l i ze d e n d o g e n o u sdevelopment

Technical Evolution

In addition to the political aspectsof decentralizing broadcastingthere are technical factors thathave played and continue to playa very important part in the evolu-tion of community radio 7

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1

Alternative Media as Antibodies

ldquoSome fifteen years ago I described alternative media as antibodies producedas a protection against the neglect insensitivity and insanity of the conventional mediardquo 12

8

Two important breakthroughs haveallowed major progress firstlycheap transistor receivers andsecondly low-powered and cheaptransmitters

Until the invention of the transistorin the mid-1950s radio receiversused valves and were expensive andcumbersome Until that time mostof the worldrsquos radio receivers weremanufactured in North Americaand Europe but the arrival of thetransistor paved the way to massiveradio ownership in developingco u n t r i e s Fo r e xa m p l e i n Sub-Saharan Africa India andChina the number of radio receiversexpanded from two million in 1956to 90 million in 1975 And the number of radios has continued toexpand dramatically worldwide tothe two billion or more of today

The availability of cheap receivershas played a key role in the evolu-tion of community radio with apush-pull effect in the sense thatonce a community station starts tobroadcast there is often a significantrise in radio ownership This is anindication that radio listening maybe as much a function of peoplersquosinterest in what is being broadcastas their ability to afford a radioreceiver For example in a poorrural area of Mali where a communityradio station began to function

radio ownership rapidly rose by 140 percent 13

The second technical breakthroughwas low-power transmitters using abroadcasting system known asFrequency Modulation (FM) Thesebecame increasingly available in the1970s and 1980s (See also Chapter4) Small companies in severalcountries began to produce equip-ment that was designed specificallyfor community radio operationsMuch of it was in kit form and sorobust and simple that it was idealfor use in the often harsh conditionsof developing countries

AN IMPORTANT INITIATIVE BY UNESCO

Among UNESCOrsquos missions areldquothe free exchange of ideas andknowledgerdquo and promoting ldquofreeflow of ideas by word and imagerdquoIn this context UNESCO launchedan initiative to support communityradio in 1980

The initiative began with discussionsin 1980 between UNESCO and theEconomic Commission for Africaon local radio broadcasting Thesehighlighted the fact that very fewAfrican countries had a commonlanguage that enabled nationalbroadcasting to effectively reachthe rural people who made up as

much as 80 percent of the popula-tion The best broadcasters coulddo was to select perhaps ten of themain local languages and broadcastdaily programmes in them on atime-sharing basis Thus no singlecommunity could listen to a languageit understood for more than a shortperiod each day

There were also problems of physi-cal and mental distance the centralbroadcasting facilities were oftentoo far away from their ruralaudiences for their broadcastsignals to be received intelligiblyand the urban-based programmeproducers were too far away mentally to know and understandtheir rural audiences properly

The discussions in those early daysand for many years afterwardsassumed that the state broadcastingsystems would be decentralized tolocal stations These would mainlyrelay the signal from the capital but would also originate some programmes locally This systemwould keep the local radio underthe control of the national broad-casters and as such it cannot beconsidered as an example of thecommunity broadcasting model oftoday

On the Potential of Community Broadcasting in Africa

ldquoCommunity-based radio broadcasting could be theleast costly mass medium for development in media-starved rural Africa It could promote positivecultural identity using local languages which areineffectively used on national broadcasting stationsand are usually accessible only to urban and eliteaudiencesrdquo 14

Big Boxes are More Impressive

ldquoIntegrated circuits and new componentsenable us to make smaller pieces of equipment but some manufacturers justlike to use big boxes open them up andthey are practically empty insiderdquo 15

Equipment Factor A first needwas for cheap and simple equip-ment quite different from the kindof equipment used by state orcommercial radio stations SoUNESCO organized a workshop atBrighton Polytechnic in 1980 thatbrought together British ChineseCuban French and Ghanaian engi-neers The purpose was to identifypriorities and outline designconcepts A first requirement wasa 10-watt FM transmitter thatcould run off a 12-volt car batteryor even solar panels and thesecond was for a simple and cheapaudio mixer similarly powered forbringing together sounds (voicesmusic and sound effects) into asingle programme for broadcast-ing The other necessary itemssuch as tape recorders and recordturntables could be purchased atreasonable prices in the market

The transmitter was designed andbuilt by Mallard Concepts inBritain and the six-channel audiomixer was designed and its pro-duction supervised by Jake Mills aGhanaian who was for many yearsthe technical director of GhanaBroadcasting Corporation

Based on integrated circuitry theMallard transmitter was onlyslightly larger than a home hi-fiamplifier It could be deliveredeither in kit form or fully assem-bled The largest component in theequipment was the transformer the

device for conver-ting power from110- or 220-voltalternating currentto 12-volt directcurrent

The cost of theMallard equipmentpackage was aroundUS$2000 comparedto about US$15000or more for com-mercial transmittersof similar power

Tests with theMallard transmittershowed that itssignal could beheard on a normalradio at a range ofup to 12-20 km Itwas so light androbust that it could easily be takenout into the countryside in a carPowered from the carrsquos batteryand with an antenna hoisted into atree an outside broadcast stationcould be set up

UNESCO also worked on solar-powered receivers and onproblems such as the cheapconversion of existing AM receiversso that they could also pick up FMbroadcasts Despite some promisingdesigns for solar-powered receiversit proved impossible to find amanufacturer that could mass-produce them on the scale necessaryto make them cheap enough for

Soldering circuits for 20-watt FM transmittersin Brixham UK

9

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1 An early model

of the FM community radiotransmitter designed byMallard ConceptsLtd UK forUNESCO

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10

even the very poor to buy Bothsolar and wind-up generator radiosets are manufactured today but atprices still prohibitive to most ruralfolk

Political Factors Solving thetechnical problems was often lessdifficult than overcoming the political ones in promoting thespread of community radioUNESCOrsquos push in the area of community radio was essentiallyradical based on concepts ofhuman rights and freedom ofexpression But the world of theearly 1980rsquos was still divided byideological conflict between Leftand Right and state monopolies onbroadcasting were the norm inmany developing countries

It is easy to think that governmentssimply wanted to repress all formsof self-expression that could pose athreat to their authority or to theirstable hold on power However closer consideration shows thatmany governments especially incountries with a multiplicity of ethnic groups and languages feltthat national identity and unitywould be strengthened throughhaving a single broadcasting voicefrom the centre and through promoting a national languageWhatever the reason for govern-ments to defend their broadcasting

monopolies UNESCO faced anoteworthy challenge in promotingcommunity radio

The First Community RadioStation in Africa

The government of Kenya was thefirst to open the door to UNESCOrsquosproposal for setting up a communityradio In May 1982 a Mallard 10-watt transmitter as well as anaudio mixer designed by Jake Millsand related broadcasting equipmentof a total value of less thanUS$25000 were supplied to thecommunity of Homa Bay on LakeVictoria This is a poor area withmany problems of underdevelop-ment Local people were givenbasic training in how to use theequipment and the station beganbroadcasting for two hours a day inLuo one of Kenyarsquos principle lan-guages but not that of the dominantethnic and political group

Homa Bay was successfully on airfor only two-and-a-half years beforethe government closed it down forit was said to be working contraryto the official policy of makingSwahili and English the nationallanguages Furthermore despite itsvery local coverage it was said tobe increasing tensions between different ethnic groups

Building on Homa Bay

Despite this political setback theHoma Bay experience proved that asmall community radio operationcould be effectively set up withequipment costs of less thanUS$25000 and that it could function in a low-technology environment without encounteringtechnical problems

UNESCOrsquos initiative in communityradio coincided with some worldtrends that favoured it The mostimportant of these was the growingawareness of the limitations of centrally planned economies leadingultimately to the collapse of theideology that had built them But innon-Marxist countries too demo-cratization decentralization andneo-liberal policies were on themarch and this was also leading toa greater willingness to decentralizenational broadcasting systems

In Sri Lanka the Sri LankaBroadcasting Corporation hadalready regionalized its services andthe notion of starting communityradio was a natural next step Thusin 1983 the second UNESCO community radio initiative wasbegun in the context of a largemulti-purpose irrigation schemethe Mahaweli DevelopmentProject About a million peoplewere being resettled on newly

Excerpt from 1988 Evaluation of MahaweliCommunity Radio

ldquoIt has animated settlers into participation in activities that not only encouraged self-actualizationbut also community identify and development Intandem with Mahaweli development workers it hasmotivated the settlers to try innovative practices inagriculture and health It has likewise motivatedlocal development workers to take the settlers andtheir problems more seriously ensuring a more palpable degree of service to the peoplerdquo

Some Achievements of Mahaweli Community Radio

ldquoIn one area we came across a group of teenagedelinquents who had no land and were desperately insearch of something to do Through our programmesand discussions we motivated them to clean up thevillage pond and set up an ornamental fish production enterprise In another village we arranged a mass wedding to solemnize the marriageof elderly couples who were living togetherTheir offspring had faced many hardships as theirparents were not legally married I produced manyprogrammes on gambling and alcoholism which helped the addicts to reflect upon themselves andgive up the vicerdquo 16

Bamako Declaration on Radio Pluralism(President Konareacute of Mali 1993)

ldquoRadio pluralism is an essential componentin the deepening of the democratic processnow under way it allows people greateraccess to a diversity of information andguarantees increased popular participation for sustainable human developmentAfrican statesmust speed up the ending of the monopoly over ofthe airwaves and give priority to national proponents of independent radio when allocatingbroadcasting frequenciesrdquo 20

irrigated land and these familiescame from various parts of thecountry Originally no media element was included among thevarious rural development inputsfor Mahaweli However it waslater realized that a communityradio service could help the sett-lers to integrate and to take initia-tives to improve their living stan-dards In effect they needed todevelop a sense of community aswell as learn more about improvedagricultural practices health andso on

Community radio offered greatpotential for this so with financialsupport from Danish InternationalDevelopment Assistance (DANIDA)and UNESCO the MahaweliCommunity Radio was set up Itsfirst station covered about 20000settlers in the major developmentregion surrounding the town ofGuirandurokotte but it was latercomplemented by several othersmall FM stations in the area

Although the Mahaweli CommunityStations were all under the controlof the Sri Lanka BroadcastingCorporation they used a truecommunity radio style This wasquite different from the style usedby the national broadcaster

One of the main thrusts ofMahaweli Radio in addition toproviding settlers with information

was to obtain feedback from themabout development activitiesthrough recordings made in thecommunities which were laterincluded in programmes orthrough having settlers come intothe studios to talk on air Withsuch participation in the radio programming and dealing as it didwith local problems and issues theradio became a vital andpersonalized link in the life of thecommunity

Community Radio Expanding ata Fast Pace

Riding on the flood tide of changethat has been sweeping the worldtowards democratization anddecentralization in the 1980rsquos and1990rsquos community radio has beenexpanding at a fast pace UNESCOfollowed its Kenyan and Sri Lankanexperience with support to otherstations in a wide variety of coun-tries among them Ghana TongaHaiti Cape Verde St LuciaTrinidad and Tobago SurinamJamaica Guyana the Philippinesand many others However UNESCO is now far from beingalone in promoting communityradio A wide range of internationaldevelopment agencies and nationaland international NGOs are involvedin many parts of the world

The rapidity of the spread of community radio is remarkableand Mali provides an interestingexample In 1991 after 23 years ofmilitary dictatorship severe socialdisturbances finally overthrew thegovernment and a multi-partydemocracy was formally establishedA transition government came topower pending democratic elections

Mali is a primarily rural society andthe transitional government orga-nized consultations with represen-tatives of the rural people It wasfound that after more than twodecades during which the nationalmedia had been the channel forissuing instructions and exhorta-tions and with government staffin rural areas equally distant thepeasantry was disaffected and alienated by the governmentrsquosimposed development programmesThey preferred to ignore them 17

The transitional government andthe elected one that took its placedecided to install with the help ofUNDP and the Food and AgriculuralOrganisation (FAO) a policy ofusing communication systemati-cally for Malirsquos development thefirst country in the world to do soMali also took a lead in media libe-ralization in Africa notablythrough organizing a crucial confe-rence in Bamako in September1993 called ldquoFreedom for AfricanRadiosrdquo 18 19 11

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12

Mali had itself just liberalized its state TV andradio which ever since they began had broadcastexclusively in French a language only understoodby the countryrsquos elite And with illiteracy levelsof about 70 percent the majority of the peoplehad had no access to media-based information

In the five years after Mali liberalized its mediamore than 60 independent radio stations beganto operate providing access in local languagesto people for the first time since the dawn ofradio broadcasting And many other countriesare becoming similarly involved with communityradio Much has happened to improve thesituation for community broadcasting since theHoma Bay community transmitter was closeddown by the government of Kenya some 15 yearsago And as an endnote Kenya today is also discussing legislation that would recognizecommunity radio as part of the countriesbroadcasting scene

The Bolivian experiencebegan with a radio servicecalled the lsquoVoice of the

Minerrsquo linked to the Siglo XXmine in the Department of PotosiacuteIn subsequent years 23 stationsin the various mining areas of thecountry were set up and came tobe known collectively as theMinersrsquo Radios

These radio stations were born asa trade union response to theappalling conditions of workersin the mines most of which wereowned and operated until 1952 bya few rapacious and fabulouslyrich families the lsquotin baronsrsquosuch as the Patintildeos who wereknown world-wide for their extra-vagant lifestyles Meanwhile theminers who were the source oftheir wealth and of the mainnational export were being inhu-manely exploited Living in primitive mining camps often inthe cold of very high altitudespoorly paid and suffering fromtypical minersrsquo afflictions such assilicosis they were already oldmen by the age of 40 Their lifeexpectancy was further reducedby the lack of safety precautionsin the mines and frequent accidents In 1952 the mineswere nationalized but little chan-ged for the miners becausegovernments lacked socialconscience

Unfortunately historical factsabout the Minersrsquo Radios remainsomewhat vague for the mainsource of information is the

memory of the people involvedHowever it is certain that theradios were a crucial element inhelping to lead the struggle ende-mic in Bolivia for many years - aconfrontation that saw massacresof miners and their families civilwar and revolution

The radios helped to unite theminers in the struggle and provided them with news andinformation that countered thenegative propaganda against theirinterests that was being put out bymost of the mainstream mediaThe importance of the MinersrsquoRadios is evident from the num-ber of times they were systemati-cally destroyed or their equip-ment confiscated by the militarysent in by one or other of the succession of governments thatruled the country

It was in fact the miners that initiated the massive strike in1981 that finally led to the end ofdictatorship in Bolivia As on allprevious occasions of seriousconfrontation with the authoritiesone of the principle demandsmade by the miners was thereturn of the equipment for theirradio stations or in cases wherethe equipment had been destroyed the right to start themup again with new equipmentThe miners usually contributedmost of the cost a further illustra-tion of the importance of theseradio stations in their lives

Although the main role of theMinersrsquo Radios was the defence

and promotion of minersrsquo rightsthey were also central to a widerange of cultural and educationalactivities They promoted andbroadcast festivals of minersrsquopoetry discussions about theaesthetic value of popular songsand other art forms and discus-sions about education issueseven including a discussion ofwhether minersrsquo children shouldlearn to play chess

The miners themselves contributedto the costs of establishing andrunning their radio stations but inmost cases the management andprogramming policy was in thehands of their unions And therewas little participation by minersin the kind of radio programmesthat would be promoted by com-munity radio today However theintegration of the radio stationsinto the mining community wasto a great extent ensured by theirphysical location close to themine they served and peoplecould generally visit the studioand say their piece if they wanted

Most Minersrsquo Radios were set upin the second half of the 1950sbut their most flourishing yearswere between 1963 and 1983After that world tin prices beganto drop and in 1985 a neo-liberalgovernment passed a decree tolsquorelocatersquo miners throwing about20000 of them out of miningwork forever This cut the groundfrom under the feet of their radiosSome were passed to peasantgroups but today less than tenare still operating

BOX 1 The Minersrsquo Radio in Bolivia

BOX 2 Radio SutatenzaAccioacuten Cultural Popular in Colombia

This initiative was launchedin 1947 by a priest JoaquiacutenSalcedo in an Andean

village called Sutatenza It beganusing a home-made transmitterwith a range of two to three kmbut from this Radio Sutatenzagrew into Colombiarsquos mostpowerful broadcasting network

Salcedo an atypical priest wasmore concerned about the socialand economic status of Colombiarsquospeasants than about conventionalChurch matters Driven by his mission to bring education to peasants to help them develop herealized that radio could reacheven into the most isolated parts ofmountainous Colombia Thus theidea of the Radio Schools ofSutatenza was born and from thatAccioacuten Cultural Popular (ACPO)

The educational broadcasts byRadio Sutatenza expanded untilthey covered a wide range oftopics including literacy numeracyhealth farm production housingimprovements family and personalrelationships sport and leisureand - crucially as it turned out - theresponsibilities of parenthood andpractising responsible procreation

People listened to these programmes in informal RadioSchools - in effect small groupswho came together each eveningThe groups were assisted by moni-tors people with more knowledge

and experience than the group Atany one time there was usually anenrolment of some 200000 peasants in about 20000 RadioSchools

To complement the radio programmes ACPO produced arange of textbooks and a PeasantrsquosLibrary of 100 books on topics forrural communities And a weeklymagazine with an estimated readership of 600000 people waspublished Furthermore trainingof peasant leaders and technicaltraining courses in communitieswere a part of the activities

The Roman Catholic Church supported the operation from thebeginning mainly with funds fromCatholic groups in Europe butACPO also attracted world-wideattention and many internationalagencies also became involved infinancing it

Ultimately Radio Sutatenza wasthe victim of its own successW h e n i t i n t r o d u c e d i t s programmes on lsquoresponsible procreationrsquo the Church begansystematically to undermine itSalcedo declared that the problemwas to convince the masses that itwas not sinful to discuss these matters and that it was difficult toeducate people for human dignityand for responsible maternity in acountry dominated by religiousrules ACPO held no position on

chemical or physical methods ofbirth control Its task was only tocreate the basis on which indivi-duals could take their own respon-sible decisions

This position infuriated the Churchhierarchy in Colombia which heldthat the only purpose of humansexual intercourse was procreationof the species So it convinced theEuropean Catholic groups to with-draw their support HoweverACPO continued to function withother international funding passedthrough the government

The operation struggled on usingmainly borrowed funds until 1985when its powerful and valuableradio infrastructure was sold to acommercial network In 1987 after40 years successfully dedicated tohelping peasants develop theirminds knowledge and life skills itfinally folded completely Itsassets which included a publi-shing house a plant for pressingmusical records a 14-storey officeblock in the capital as well as peasant training centres were soldto meet its debts

13

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1 Independent Radio and Television Commission of Ireland1988

2 Quote Louie Tabing Manager of the UNESCODANIDATambuli Project Philippines

3 Zane Ibrahim and Ms Adams Bush Radio 895 FM (See CaseStudy)

4 P M Lewis and J Booth The Invisible Medium PublicCommercial and Community Radio MacMillan (London 1989)

5 Jocelyn Josiah Presentation on Media for Community Buildingin the Caribbean during Roundtable on Communication forDevelopment Brazil (Bahia 1998)

6 Carlos A Arnaldo Localism and the Displacement of Politics Placebased Communication Development (Globalism and the Politicsof Place) Vol 41 No 2 1998 Sage Publications and SID (Rome June 1998)

7 Louie N Tabing Programming Tips for a Community Radio StationUNESCO-DANIDA Tambuli Project (Manila 1998)

8 Rafael Roncaglio lo Public Service Broadcasting ndash Cultural andEducational Dimensions UNESCO (Paris 1995)

9 T McCain and F Lowe Localism in Western EuropeanBroadcasting Journal of Communication Vol 40-1 (1990)

10 Moncef M Bouhafa Child Survival and Broadcasting ndashOpportunities and Challenges paper presented at internationalconference on Broadcasting for Child Survival Voice ofAmericaUSAID (Washington April 1998)

11 Colin Fraser and Sonia Restrepo-Estrada Communicating forDevelopment - Human Change for Survival IB Tauris (LondonNew York 1998)

12 Peter Lewis in Alternative Media Linking Global and LocalReports and Papers on Mass Communication No 107 UNESCO (Paris 1993)

13 Mary Myers The Promotion of Democracy at the Grass-roots The Example of Radio in Mali Frank Cass Journal Vol 5 No 2 (London 1998)

14 Jake Mills of Ghana the designer of the cheap 6-channelaudio mixer (1990)

15 Martin Allard designer of a simple and cheap FM transmitter

16 Interview Sunil Wijesinghe broadcaster of MahaweliCommunity Radio (1999)

17 Colin Fraser and Sonia Restrepo-Estrada op cit

18 Moncef M Bouhafa Grassroots Media and CommunityEmpowerment in West Africa paper presented to theInternational Conference on Media and Politics CatholicUniversity of Brussels Belgium 1997 (revised 1998)

19 Mary Myers op cit

20 Ibid

14

In Barbados after running the experimental UNESCO community radio for the 1995 World Environmental Conference students took over the radio station and continued programmes ever since from the Barbados Community College as Radio GED

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Chapter 2Features and Functions of Community Radio

15

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T his chapter describes the special featuresand programming approach of communityradio in terms of public access and partici-

pation ownership management funding editorial independence and credibility as wellas its representation of different groups andinterests in the community and its inclusion ofmarginalized and minority groups

The section on functions covers the role of community radio in reflecting local identity andculture in providing a diversity of voices opinionsprogrammes and content on air and in promotingdemocratic process social change developmentcivil society and good governance Its functionas a lsquopeoplersquos telephonersquo and its contribution tothe training of human resources for the broad-casting industry are also touched on

After absorbing the content the reader will

bull Have a clear picture of the many features andfunctions of community radio

bull Be able to act as a resource personleaderduring discussions in a community about the possibility of setting up a radio stationproviding the necessary background informa-tion for decisions on ownership manage-ment programming policies and the benefitsthat can be expected from a communityradio

ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF COMMUNITY RADIO

The Audience asProtagonists

While community radio is a form of public-servicebroadcasting it has anapproach that is differentfrom conventional broad-casting Its specific focus isto make its audience themain protagonists by theirinvolvement in all aspects of its management and programme productionand by providing them withprogramming that will helpthem in the developmentand social advancement oftheir community

A Special Slant on News Entertainment and Education

News on a community station unlike that on the mains-tream media is not an isolated story or event alone ratherit aims to be part of an ongoing and future process whichsupports change and development in the community

Special Sunday treat for Radio Ibahay - actress Chin ChinGutierrez visits the station during the childrenrsquos programme

and sings a song in Aklanon

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Entertainment is provided in aform that is a collective culturalexpression rather than a featuringof refined performers It is morelike singing Karaoke than listeningto a professional artist

Education is more the sharing ofexperiences and learning from othersin the community than listening toan expert or teacher talking

Principles of Public Access andParticipation

Citizens have a democratic right toreliable accurate and timely infor-mation Based on this right it is apublic interest of broadcasting thatit should incorporate the principlesof access and participation

Access implies the availability ofbroadcasting services to all citizensparticipation implies that the publicis actively involved in planning andmanagement and also providesproducers and performers

In concrete terms for communityradio these concepts mean that

bull A community radiorsquos broadcastpattern reaches all members ofthe community it aims to serve

bull The community participates informulating plans and policies forthe radio service and in definingits objectives its principles ofmanagement and its program-ming

bull The community participates indecisions concerning programmecontent duration and schedulesPeople se lect the types ofprogrammes they want ratherthan having them prescribed bythe producers

bull The community is free to commentand criticize

bull There is continuous interactionbetween producers and receiversof messages The radio itself actsas a principal channel for thisinteraction but there are alsomechanisms that allow easycontact between the communitythe programme producers and themanagement of the radio station

bull There are unrestricted opportu-nities for members of the com-munity as individuals or groupsto produce programmes and behelped by the radio station staffusing the technical productionfacilities available

bull The community participates inthe establishment managementadministration and financing ofthe radio station

Ownership

The facilities of community radioare almost invariably owned by thecommunity through a trust founda-tion cooperative or some similarvehicle However there could becases where formal ownership wasin the hands of a body external tothe community but which has passedthe facility to the community for itsindependent and exclusive use

Management

Irrespective of formal ownershipthe stationrsquos policies managementand programming must be the responsibility of the community inorder for it to be considered a truecommunity radio There will usual-ly be a representative communitycommittee or Board of Directors toset overall policies while day-to-day

Radio quickly and easily becomes he link in society between poor and rich between rural and urban groups between agricultural routine and city leisure At Radyo Ibahay one of the smallest Tambuli stations film and TV actress Chin Chin Gutierrez share her ideas on development in an interview for the Sunday programme

Phot

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administrative andoperational decisionsare left to a stationmanager selected by thecommunity

Funding

A community radio service is set up and run asa non-profit organization Itrelies on financial supportfrom a diversity of sourceswhich may include donationsgrants membersh ip fees sponsorsh ip or advert i s ing A combination of these is themost desirable in order to ensureindependence Many communityradios also organize fund-raisingevents among their audience Theoverall aim is always to reach astate of financial self-sufficiency

Editorial Independence andCredibility

Community radio is editoriallyindependent of central and localgovernment of political partiesand of commercial and religiousinstitutions in determining its policies and programming Overallpolicy is set by the aforementionedrepresentative community-levelcommittee but with day-to-day

operational decisionsabout programming taken by thestation manager hisher role as acredible and non-partisan personbecoming crucial

Representation of DifferentGroups and Interests in theCommunity

Communities are inevitably madeup of different groups and inter-ests Community radio broadcastsprogrammes that cater to theseand also encourages them toexpress themselves on air Clearlyhowever programme and timeallocation are approximately pro-portional to the size of any parti-cular group or interest in the com-munity taking into account anyspecial circumstances or needs

Inclusion ofMinority and MarginalizedGroups

Community radio includes minorityand marginalized groups on equalterms rather than giving them an

17

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2

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Even the smallest children haveaccess to the radio on the

Radio Ibahay Sunday childrenrsquosprogramme

Carol Singing for a Tape Recorder

Community radio stations often organize communityevents such as community fairs cultural eveningsand other fund-raising activities One Tambuli community radio station in the Philippines organizeddoor-to-door carol singing at Christmas to raisefunds to buy a new tape recorder

18

occasional voice as in the case of many public broadcasters Its programming ensures a wide diversity of voices and views frommarginalized groups such aswomen and youth and it promotesand protects the interests cultureand linguistic diversity of ethnicminorities in the community

FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNITY RADIO

Community radio aims to fulfil thefollowing functions

Reflect and Promote LocalIdentity Character and Culture

Co m m u n i t y ra d i o p ro v i d e s programming that is particular toits communityrsquos identity and character Thus it relies principallyon local content It includes outsidenews and events that have a specialinterest or implications for itsaudience

It also focuses on local cultureCulture is what a community saysto itself and what it says to othersIt is how the people the individualmembers of a community expresstheir dreams and hopes and howthey talk about their past and theirfuture It is what they care aboutLike life itself culture is infinitelyvariable and constantly evolving Itis the result of a process not of

definitions And that is why indemocracies governments areexpected only to establish broadframeworks for cultural expressionby the people Governments mustnot get involved in content or style 1

Community culture is also of courseartistic expression through localmusic dance poetry theatre storytelling and so on and these arefeatured strongly by most commu-nity radios Local performers areencouraged to go on air uninhibitedby considerations of the lsquoprofessionalstandardsrsquo they may have acquiredfrom mainstream media The valueof content and lsquolocalnessrsquo usuallyoutweighs formal quality and lsquoprofessionalismrsquo though thisshould not be used as an excuse forsub-standard technical production

Culture is also Language Locallanguages and expressions are theraw material that feeds communityradios They are the cement of cultural diversity which is as important for the successful futureof humanity as biological diversityThere are some 6700 languages inthe world and 63 percent of theseare in Africa and Asia Nationalbroadcasting and media globaliza-tion combined with other factorssuch as urban migration threatenhalf of the worldrsquos languages with extinction during the nextgeneration And with them will go

their cultures Community radio is aprime defence against this gravetrend towards the impoverishmentof cultural diversity 2

Create a Diversity of Voices andOpinions on the Air

Community radio through itsopenness to participation to all sectors and people in a communitycreates a diversity of voices andopinions on the air

Some discord is present in all communities they are not the peaceful harmonious groupingsthat outsiders may idealisticallyimagine Discord may be caused bydiffering interests by differing ethnic linguistic or religious backgrounds or even by someancient feud The acknowledgementof conflict is necessary for democracyand for democratic communitiesThrough an understanding of whyconflict exists communities canunderstand themselves better andpave the way to resolve conflicts A function of community radio is totry objectively to air all sides of a dis-cussion without itself taking sides

Main Functions of Community Radio as Formulatedin South Africa

Community radio stations should

bull Promote and reflect local culture character andidentity

bull Assist in creating a diversity of voices and opinionsand encourage individual expression

bull Increase access to a diversity of voices on air

bull Assist in creating a diversity in broadcastingownership

bull Be responsive to the needs of their community

bull Contribute to human resources development forbroadcasting and where appropriate to job creation

bull Encourage members of the relevant community toparticipate in programming and production matters

bull Encourage innovation and experimentation in programming 3

Preserving Linguistic Diversity in IndustrializedCountries too

Community radio stations in New York broadcast inWolof on Sundays for people of the Senegalese community Two other stations broadcast in Koreanwhile in France the Arab population has demandedthe right to set up media channels that meet its specific needs 4

Provide a Diversity ofProgrammes and Content

Community radio provides a diversity of programmes in a varie-ty of formats and styles Forexample roundtable discussionsreportage interviews talks call-inprogrammes live broadcasts ofmeetings in the community etcAudience preferences are takeninto account in deciding what formats are most suitable

Content also covers a wide rangeof topics again in accordance withthe expressed desires and needs ofthe audience Content is mainlydetermined by the lifestyles andlivelihood of the community andby the problems it faces In ruralareas themes such as health farming fishing environmentcredit marketing of producesmall-scale enterprises etc usuallyfeature prominently but always setin the context of the communityrsquosactual situation

News broadcasts may also focuson different types of contentThey may cover only local eventsand issues or they may includenational items that have local relevance or they may evenbroadcast national and internatio-nal news per se in the case of aremote community with no accessto other media channels

Encourage Open Dialogue andDemocratic Process

The ancient Greeks who inventeddemocracy conducted their politi-cal debate in public All those whowished could be present at themeetings to listen and voice theirviews Sheer numbers of peoplemake this impossible today andfor this reason democratic processhas become distant from ordinarycitizens Typically once politiciansare elected their contact withtheir electorates is limited andthey go about their tasks withoutmuch further consultation ordebate with them

It is a function of community radioto provide an independent platformfor interactive discussion aboutmatters and decisions of importanceto its community This is in keepingwith the decentralization processesnow being implemented in manycountries a purpose of which is tobring democratic decision-makingcloser to the people concerned

However for social and economicprogress to take place democraticprocesses cannot start and finish inthe community They must reachinto the government and privateinstitutions operating in the community as well as to policymakers and authorities at thelocal regional and even nationallevel

The public debates aired by thecommunity radio will certainlybe heard by locally-basedstaff of government andprivate institutions and theradiorsquos content should berelayed by them to theirsuperiors This lays the foun-dation for development initia-tives that are responsive to thecommunityrsquos felt needs andpossibilities In additionrecordings by the communityradio service can be used inmeetings or even broadcast byother stations to make betterknown what is happening at thegrassroots level

In sum the core of democraticprocess is the ability of people tohear and make themselves heardCommunity radio provides theforum for that to happen

Promote Development andSocial Change

People in poor communities tendto be fatalistic about their situationThey will all have individual perceptions but developmentcannot take place on the basis ofthese What is needed is a collectiveperception of the local reality andof the options for improving itThis can only be achieved throughinternal discussions within the

Connections

ldquoLocal radio stations have the responsibility toconnect people with people people with peoplersquosorganizations and people with officials and govern-ment functionariesrdquo 5

19

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While group listening is not the norm among radio audience radioachieves a certain level of similarity among people living in rural areasProblem-solving becomes easier when there is ldquocommonnessrdquo in knowledge perceptions aspirations goals and processes

20

community about its situation thecauses and possible actions forimprovement

Community radio provides the perfect platform for these internaldiscussions and for reaching a collective perception of the situationSpecific problems can be analyzedremedies discussed and thosemost affected - or who can helpwith the solution - mobilized tocollective action

Anti-social behaviour by minoritiesin a community can also be modifiedby exerting pressure from themajority through community radioprogrammes

Promote Civil Society

Civil society is that multiplicity ofsocial institutions that allows asociety to live in harmoniouscoexistence It creates its own stan-dards and values for individual andgroup behaviour rather thanhaving them imposed from above

Especially in countries that haverecently adopted democratic systems after decades of single-party or authoritarian rule theyounger generations have littleidea about what democracy entailsor about the civil society thatmakes democracies function

Some community radios focus onexplaining the implications ofdemocracy and civil society raisingawareness about peoplersquos rightsbut also about their obligationsThey work to explain how a civicsense is needed if new-found freedoms are to result in harmonyand social progress

Promote Good Governance

In poor communit ies loca l authorities and politicians can easily take advantage of citizenseither individually or as a group inpart because the marginalized andoppressed have no way to complain Community radio helpspeople to obtain their just rights bygiving them a platform to air theirgrievances And through playing acommunity watchdog role it makeslocal authorities and politiciansmore conscious of their public responsibilities

Broadcasting of discussions orquestions and answers betweenmembers of the community andlocal authorities about some issuethat i s exerc i s ing them i s a technique that is often usedAnother technique is to broadcastlive the discussions of local government meetings

This function of community radiois not always easy to fulfil In veryremote communities and wherepower has been held by a few familiesfor generations the people may bereluctant to speak their mindbecause they all have a debt of onesort or another to those familiesAnd equally the powerful familiesmay be unwilling to take criticism

Encourage Participation Sharingof Information and Innovation

Participation is a key word in development circles but it is notalways appreciated that participationand communication are two sidesof the same coin for when peoplecommunicate about their situationand about options for improving itthey are in effect participating Andthey are also laying the foundationfor collective action in which theywill participate Community radioencourages participation by providing a platform for debateanalysis and the exchange of ideasand opinions

In addition community radioallows for the sharing of informationand innovation For example onefamily or group in a communitymay have solved some problemthat is common to many otherpeople such as obtaining farm

Some of the Social and Development Benefits ofTambuli Community Radio Stations in thePhilippines

bull There is a new vibrancy and will to change in thecommunities

bull Men gave up their passionate pastime of gamblingafter a series of discussions over the radio clearlyshowed its negative economic impact on their fami-lies and on the community

bull Butchers were prohibited from bringing live ani-mals to the market and slaughtering them there

bull A large poultry farm was cleaned up to reduce itssmell and pollution

bull Creeks were dredged to reduce risks of flooding

bull A footbridge and extra lighting were installed

bull A day care centre for children was created by thelocal authorities

bull Illegal logging and fishing were stopped as a resultof community pressure 6

A Statement by the Programme Director of the Independent Radio Bamakan in Mali

ldquoThere are a lot of aspects of democracy that peopledonrsquot know about and we are obliged to raise awa-reness to explain that democracy is not anarchythat democracy involves rights and obligations Wehave the right to demand but we also have obliga-tions to the Staterdquo 7

credit from a new bank in the

nearest city A broadcast account

by them explaining how they went

about it and the procedures required

would be the stimulus for other

families to do the same Another

example might be providing infor-

mation about a farmer in the area

who had multiplied seed of an

improved vegetable variety and

was willing to sell it

Give Voices to the Voiceless

In many traditional societies

women and youth and ethnic and

linguistic minorities are virtually

ignored in community affairs But

no community can change and

develop equitably and satisfactori-

ly without the active and informed

participation of its women youth

and minority groups (See Box 3 at

the end of this Chapter)

Therefore community radio gives

voice to the voiceless in the

community This of course is in

addition to giving the community

in general a voice after years of

having been inert recipients of

state or commercial broadcasts

Provide a Social Service asa Replacement for theTelephone

In poor rural areas where

telephones hardly exist

community radio replaces

them to an important extent

by broadcasting messages

For example a family living

in a remote part of the

community can be informed

that a relative living in the

main agglomeration has

been taken ill and would they

please come to visit Or a

farmer with an animal he

wants to sell can have the

fact announced over the radio

replacing the series of calls he

would make if telephones were

available Again a person looking

for temporary labour to help with

some farm task could alert those

people who were interested to

offer their services through a

broadcast announcement

The efficiency of government ser-

vices say in health is improved by

broadcasting the schedule for field

visits ahead of time so that people

will be waiting for these on arrival

Contribute to Diversity inBroadcasting Ownership

Community commercial andnational or state broadcasting allhave roles in society though com-munity broadcasting is the onethat has generally lagged behindthe others Community radio helpsto redress this and provides thebalance of broadcast informationsources needed by democraticsocieties for their advancement

In Benin children participate directly in literacy courses on the air

21

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In October 1992 Bhutan Broadcasting Corporation was transformed from a statebroadcaster to a public corporation with a much decreased subsidy Above at thenew Punaka market a broadcast trainee talks with the people about prices travelalong country roads quality of the harvest and news of the village This project was financed by DANIDA

Phot

o U

NES

CO

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A A

rnal

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Difficulties in Achieving Transparency - a Case Studyfrom the Philippines

The more remote the community the more hesitantpeople are to speak out People rely on their leadersfor the smallest problems and they all owe a debt tothe few political families To criticise them wouldseem ungrateful

The local council told the community radio to acceptcalls from listeners with queries or comments duringlive broadcasts of the weekly council sessions Butwhen the calls began to come in the council toldthem to stop accepting them The council also beganto chose which portions of the sessions could bebroadcast and told the radio team to leave the roomwhen budget discussions were under way 8

22

Contribute to theDevelopment of HumanResources for theBroadcasting Industry

Community radio arguablydemystifies the broadcasterrsquosprofession by taking communitymembers as message producersIt is also a school for fledglingbroadcasters where they ofcourse acquire valuable technicalskills

But there is another factor that makes people trained in community radio particularlyvaluable They are broadcasterswho live among their listenersshare many of the same problemsand get constant feedback ndash positive and negative - on the formats of their programmes andon their interest and usefulnessThis gives them unique insightsinto the broadcaster audiencerelationship and into radio as a toolfor change and development It isnot uncommon therefore forcommunity broadcasters go on tojoin the staff of mainstream broadcasting

lsquoThe Peoplersquos Telephonersquo in Haiti

ldquoWhen the bandits sped off on their motorcycle leaving a cloud of dust a dead body and a distressedvillage in their wake they thought they were on theroad to freedom They hadnrsquot heard about the villagersquos radio station Radyo Flanbo In Haiti community radio stations such as Flanbo are knownas lsquothe peoplersquos telephonersquo and as the bandits prepared to terrorize the next village Flanborsquos newsreader broadcast a warning of their imminentarrival The bandits might as well have drivenstraight to the police stationrdquo 10

Phot

o U

NES

CO

Kin

gsto

n

Radio Muye the first community radio run bywomen in the Caribbeanunder the UNESCO specialproject lsquoWomen Speaking toWomenrsquo

One of the youngest womenrecruits of the community

radio station in CuyoPalawan DYMC Radio

1 Adapted from Pierre Juneau GeneralIntroduction Public ServiceBroadcasting - the Challenge of the21st Century Reports and Papers on Mass Communication No 111 UNESCO (Paris 1997)

2 Sophie K Ly El Recuerdo delConocimiento Perdido InteRadio Vol 9 No 2 AMARC (Montreal 1997)

3 Triple Enquiry Report IndependentBroadcasting Authority Republic ofSouth Africa (1995)

4 Ibid

5 B S S Rao during the Consultationon Media Policy and Community RadioBangalore India (1996)

6 Colin FraserSonia Restrepo-Estrada Communicating forDevelopment - Human Change for Survival IB Tauris (LondonNew York) 1998

7 Mary Myers The Promotion ofDemocracy at the Grass-roots The Example of Radio in Mali FrankCass Journal Vol 5 No 2 (London Summer 1998)

8 Adapted from Cecile Balgos The Sounds of Silence UNESCOSources No 89 UNESCO(Paris 1997)

9 Felix Librero in Communication forPeople Power Ed Maslog NavarroTabing Teodoro UNESCOTambuliProject Institute of DevelopmentCommunication College of MassCommunication UNESCO NationalCommission Philippines (Manila 1997)

10 David Shanks Voices for the VoicelessA feature prepared by WorldAssociation for ChristianCommunication (WACC) (London March 1999)

Information as a Commodity for Decisions

ldquoThe appropriate use of community broadcasting isto satisfy community and social needs In the processof doing so people are able to access the very important commodity called information on whichthey base their day-to-day decisionsrdquo 9

Phot

o L

Tab

ing

23

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Filipino women - particularly

those in the countryside

where socialization has been

limited by poverty and inadequate

educational attainment - are often

shy reserved and timid In addition

rural families are often resistant to

changing the traditional position of

women as housekeepers and

women would generally prefer that

their husbands participate in

community projects

It is very evident that the issue of

collectively pursuing womens rights

and empowerment has been relegated

to the lowest priority among rural

people So it often takes cajoling and

reassurances before women will

come out of their shells

However increased readiness to

participate in community projects

can be seen among those who have

been exposed to mass media culture

and our initial talks in communities

regarding special radio programmes

for about and by women were met

with much eagerness I attribute this

to the fact that some family and

social institutions that had been

trying to promote womenrsquos activities

in the community felt threatened and

welcomed the support that radio

could provide

Once involved women are highly

dependable They adhere to rules

Compared to men they are more

meticulous They are less subject

to anomalous behaviour and

malfeasance They are consistently

enthusiastic And where the women

are mixed with men the men also

become more enthusiastic if not to

say better performers

Meriam Aranas the president of

the Olutanga Islanders Media

Development Foundation was a

strong-willed leader of an active

womens group promoting livelihood

and conservation projects She

registered the association and led the

drive to erect a building for the radio

station

A schoolteacher Rosario Gozos was

appointed as station manager in

Partido Camarines Sur She is

single-handedly running a family

because her husband works abroad

She spearheaded the

successful drive against illegal

gambling in the district Among

other things she has initiated an

all-women Saturday programme

Her infectious dedication

has inspired all the other

volunteers in her radio

station In less than three

years the station became

an institutional power in

the community It has

contributed greatly to

the progress and well

being of Partido

Lyn Villasis a soft-

spoken beautician has

been running a story-

telling program for

children for years and has become

one of the most popular personalities

in the station in Banga Aklan

Malou Angolluan is a youthful

college graduate who has taken

voluntary activity as a vocation Her

exemplary work and dedication to

service have earned her profuse

admiration from her listeners She

has turned down several offers to

work in bigger commercial radio

stations

BOX 3 Involvement of Women

In Ibahay Aklan province PhilippinesAte Meds rushes from Sunday mass tothe Studio for her weekly childrenrsquosprogramme

Phot

o C

A A

rnal

do

24

In Pastapur Hyderabad India women discuss local problems for airing on a regional radio station of All India Radio They are also advocating for new legislationto enable them to broadcast on their own antenna

Phot

o J

im B

entl

ey

25

Chapter 3Legal Aspects

T his chapter gives an overview of the legis-lation governing community radio in avariety of countries world-wide Special

attention is given to South Africa wherebroadcasting legislation is in many ways exem-plary and could be used as a model by othercountries The main common factors and themain differences that exist in national commu-nity radio legislation are described as are typi-cal requirements for obtaining a licence

The reader will gain

bull An awareness of the wide variations in legisla-tion and of the obstacles that communityradio may face in some parts of the world

bull An understanding of the need to examine clo-sely the existing legislation before embarkingon a community radio project

bull Knowledge of the likely information andconditions that the authorities will requirebefore issuing a community radio licence

UNEVEN AND HAPHAZARD LEGISLATION

The airwaves or the frequencies for broadcastingare a public asset It is therefore incumbent uponnational administrations in line with the decisionsof the administrative planning conferences organizedby the International Telecommunications Union(ITU) to regulate and allocate their use with thepublic interest in mind as well as with fairness andtransparency And general national media policiesshould meet the same criteria

Unfortunately this does not always happen andthe legislation governing community radio is veryuneven In several regions of the world communityradio suffers because current legislation is eithernon-existent inconsistent or basically hostile Thishandbook is not the place for an exhaustive description of the legislation country-by-countrybut a brief overview of the situation in a few countries world-wide will give a feel for the situation

MOST PROGRESS IN AFRICA

Many countries in Africa have made good progress inlegislating for community radio This is particularlyinteresting because at first sight it would appearto be a paradox on the one hand communityradio certainly has a natural role to play in cateringto the information needs and interests of the wide

ethnic cultural and linguistic diversity present inmost African countries but on the other handgovernments fear that freedom of ethnic and linguistic expression might undermine nationalunity It will be remembered that this was partlywhat brought the Homa Bay community radioexperience in Kenya to a premature end in 1984

However it seems that the lesson has now beenlearned about authoritarian suppression of diverselinguistic and cultural expression within a countryThis ultimately produces strong resentment andtensions in society Indeed even in industrializedcountries the last two decades have seen a changeof heart by governments that now try to preservethe traditional linguistic and cultural identity of theirminority groups They have realized that a pluralisticsociety can also achieve national identity and unity

This is the case in many parts of Africa too Sincethe early 1990s countries such as Mali BurkinaFaso Namibia and South Africa have all embarkedon a course of freeing their airwaves and promo-ting community radio as part of the nationalbroadcasting spectrum backing the policy withappropriate legislation in most cases

South Africarsquos progress towards new broadcastingpolicies and community radio legislation is consideredexemplary Some countries have already copied itand many others could also find it a useful modelIt is therefore outlined in the next section

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26

Broadcasting Legislation inSouth Africa ndash an ExemplaryCase

The government of post-apartheidSouth Africa realized that the countryrsquos media could help toresolve many socio-economicdevelopment needs and at thesame time help to build a democraticand pluralistic society But newbroadcasting policies and opera-tions would be needed

An Independent BroadcastingAuthority

The first step taken in 1993 wasthe creation of an IndependentBroadcasting Authority (IBA) ajuridical body to formulate broad-casting policy plan the use of thefrequency spectrum issue licencesadjudicate in the case of com-plaints and in general regulate thebroadcasting industry It functionsindependently of the State and ofgovernmental and political partyinfluences It is a non-profit entitythat is financed partly by the Stateand partly from fees that itreceives

The IBA is run by a Council madeup of seven people appointed bythe State President They arepeople with expertise in fields thatinclude broadcasting policy media

law marketing journalism enter-tainment and education They arealso selected on the basis of theircommitment to fairness freedomof expression the right of thepublic to be informed opennessand accountability

Overall Objectives of theBroadcasting Legislation

Among the main objectives ofSouth Africarsquos broadcasting legisla-tion are the following

bull Promote the provision of a diverserange of broadcasting services ona national regional and local levelwhich cater for all language andcultural groups and provideentertainment education andinformation

bull Promote the development ofpublic private and communitybroadcasting services which areresponsive to the needs of thepublic

bull Develop and protect a nationaland regional identity culture andcharacter

bull Encourage ownership andcontrol of broadcasting servicesby persons from historicallydisadvantaged groups

bull Ensure that private and commu-nity broadcasting licences are

Western Media Models a Disservice toDevelopment

ldquoBroadcasting media have developed into aone-way model in Third World countrieswith information news and massive dosesof entertainment flowing from large urbancentres The uniform prescription designed by theaffluent minority at decision-making level does notaddress the issues of development which require alocal perspective for each county and each community The concepts and use of the media as developed in industrialized societies have not proved conducive to the development needsof our countryrdquo 1

controlled by persons or groupsfrom a diverse range of commu-nities in the Republic

bull Ensure equitable treatment ofpolitical parties by all broadcas-ting licencees during any electionperiod

bull Ensure that broadcasting licenceesadhere to a code of conductacceptable to the IBA

Categories of Radio Broadcasting

The legislation foresees three categories of radio service

bull A public service ndash A serviceprovided by the South AfricanBroadcasting Corporation or byany other statutory body or person that receives revenuefrom licence fees paid by listenersfor their receivers

bull A private service - Operatedfor profit and controlled by aperson who is not a publicbroadcasting licencee

bull A community service - A broadcasting service which

Is fully controlled by a non-profit entity and carried onfor non- profitable purposes

Serves a particular commu-nity

Encourages members of thecommunity served by it orpersons associated with orpromoting the interest ofsuch community to partici-pate in the selection andprovision of programmes tobe broadcast

May be funded by dona-tions grants sponsorshipadvertising or membershipfees or by any combinationof these

The term lsquocommunityrsquo includes ageographically founded communityor any group of persons or sectorof the public having a specific andascertainable common interest

South African LicencingArrangements

In keeping with the general andcommunity radio policies outlinedabove the legislation providesdetailed requirements that mustbe met by applicants for commu-nity radio licences It also laysdown the procedures to be follo-wed These are complex anddemanding in terms of the detai-led information that is called forCommunity radio licences areawarded for four-year periodsalthough shorter temporarylicences can also be issued

Licences are not granted to anyparty movement organizationbody or alliance which is of a politi-cal nature

Readers may wish to browse theIBArsquos website (httpibaorgza)for more details on South Africancommunity radio policy legislationand licencing

ASIA AND INDIArsquoSLENGTHY DEBATE ON

COMMUNITY RADIO

The situation in Asia is far lessfavourable than in Africa andIndia provides a good illustration ofthe problems Nepal and Sri Lankashow ways of solving problems

All India Radio (AIR) was establishedas a state broadcasting monopolyin 1935 in line with the Britishmodel the BBC The debate aboutbreaking that monopoly beganmore than 30 years ago with theChanda Committee reportSubsequent committees have spe-cifically recommended decentrali-zing broadcasting to institutionalizethe process of participation and tomeet peoplersquos fundamental rightto information The SupremeCourt passed a landmark judge-ment in 1995 declaring that theairwaves were a lsquopublic goodrsquo andstressing the importance of main- 27

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Acknowledgements

We gratefully acknowledge the following people and organizations for their generous support and help Maria Victoria Polanco Sophie Ly and Elvira Truglia of the WorldAssociation of Community Broadcasters (AMARC) David Shanks of the World Association for Christian Communication (WACC) Martin Allard of Mallard Concepts LtdLawrie Hallet of the UK Community Media Association and the authors of the five case studies Louie N Tabing Ian Pringle Alex and Wilna Quarmyne Zane Ibrahimand Ms Adams and Bruce Girard Special thanks are due to Louie Tabing whose pioneering work in the concept and practice of true community radio and prolific writings on the subject have been aninspiration for much of the material in the handbook

Much research interest has been devoted to mass media In their findings communicationspecialists have always acknowledged that there are many sectors communities and minorities whose access to information and means of self-expression are not always guaranteed by mass channels They have recognized that more sharply focused customizedand essentially small and local media are crucial in filling this gap

During the last two decades UNESCO has commissioned a number of studies andpublished monographs on the theme of community media The first monograph published byUNESCO on the theme of community media was Access Some Western Models of CommunityMedia by Frances Berrigan which appeared in 1977 and in 1981 the enquiry was extendedto the developing countries in a study by the same author entitled CommunityCommunications ndash the Role of Community Media in Development (No 90 in the series ofReports and Papers on Mass Communication) A few years later Peter Lewis prepared theUNESCO study Media for People in Cities (1984) which brought together a number of case-studies and the conclusions of two research meetings on urban community media

During the ensuing years UNESCO began setting up community radio stations in Africa(Homa Bay 1982) and Asia (Mahaweli 1986 and Tambuli Community radios 1982) The growthof the community radio lsquomovementrsquo was covered in a section of the UNESCO WorldCommunication Report in 1997

UNESCO sees community radio as a medium that gives voice to the voiceless thatserves as the mouthpiece of the marginalized and is at the heart of communication anddemocratic processes within societies With community radio citizens have the means tomake their views known on decisions that concern them The notions of transparency andgood governance take on new dimensions and democracy is reinforced Community radiocatalyzes the development efforts of rural folk and the underprivileged segments of urbansocieties given its exceptional ability to share timely and relevant information on developmentissues opportunities experiences life skills and public interests Given the audiencersquos lowliteracy rate and radiorsquos ability to involve women and to treat them not only as objects ormerely as a target audience but as participating agents and as a valuable source communityradio becomes one of the most promising tools for community development This hasbeen demonstrated by the special UNESCO project Women Speaking to Women community radiostations for the empowerment of women

In the age of multimedia and online communication the potential of community radioto provide for effective outreach to discuss and create demand for the Internet has becomeeven greater The Kothmale Internet radio experiment in Sri Lanka has proven that radiostations can promote and use the Internet in rural communities overcoming language barriersand lack of infrastructure By using radio and browsing the Internet to respond to listenersrsquodirect queries by sharing information and knowledge derived from the Internet the wholecommunity is involved and empowered with new opportunities

Against this background of challenges I believe that this handbook can contributetowards helping different communication actors technicians operators and radio producersin community radio stations to make more efficient use of community media for communitydevelopment by getting people involved in clarifying issues and solving problems and intalking to each other

The handbook is based on the experience and innovative thinking of communicationexperts and practitioners whose contribution I would like especially to acknowledge thelate Jake Mills former Director of Engineering Ghana Broadcasting Corporation whodesigned the prototype sound mixer Martin Allard electronics engineer designer of theUNESCO prototype transmitter Alex Quarmyne former UNESCO RegionalCommunication Advisor in Africa and project manager for Homa Bay in Kenya the firstcommunity radio in Africa Carlos Arnaldo former Chief of Communication Policies andResearch Section at UNESCO as project manager of Mahaweli community radio GeorgesDupont-Henius engineer UNESCO Communication Development Division WijayanandaJayaweera UNESCO Regional Communication Advisor for Asia and creator of KothmaleInternet Radio project Kwame Boafo of UNESCO Communication and InformationSector Louie Tabing project manager of Tambuli community radios and creator of Village on the Air For the time they took in producing this book and for their valuablecomments I should also like to thank Sonia Restrepo Estrada and Colin Fraiser for compilingthese experiences and putting them together for publication

Claude OndoboDeputy Assistant Director-General

for Communication and Information and Director of Communication Development Division

PREFACE

iii

Preface helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip iii

Introduction helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 1Any Community Can Start its Own Radio Station helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 1

Chapter 1 Community Radio in the Broadcasting Scene helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 3

Community Radio in the Context of the Globalization of Media helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 5

The Evolution of Community Radio helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 6

An Important Initiative by UNESCO helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 8

Box 1 The Minersrsquo Radio in Bolivia helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 12

Box 2 Radio SutatenzaACPO in Colombia helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 13

Chapter 2 Features and Functions of Community Radio helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 15

Essential Features of Community Radio helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 15

Functions of Community Radio helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 18

Box 3 Involvement of Women helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 23

Chapter 3 Legal Aspects helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 25

Uneven and Haphazard Legislation helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 25

Most Progress in Africa helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 25

Asia and Indiarsquos Lengthy Debate on Community Radio helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 27

Legislation in Some Latin American Countries helliphelliphelliphelliphellip 28

Some Examples from Western Europe helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 30

Convergence and Divergence in Legislation helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 31

Applying for a Licence helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 32

Chapter 4 Technical Aspects helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 33

Technical Background helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 33

Broadcasting Equipment helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 35

Reliability and Maintenance helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 39

Studio Premises helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 40

Spatial Relationship Between the Components of the Radio Station helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 40

Future Possibilities helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 41

Specialist Advice helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 43

Box 4 Basic Equipment for a UNESCO-supported Community Radio Station helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 44

Chapter 5 Getting Started helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 45

Legal Context helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 45

Preparatory Work in the Community helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 46

Importance of a Mission Statement helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 48

Role of the Religious Establishment helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 49

Role of Local Educational Institutions helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 49

Involvement of Politicians helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 49

Choosing a Location in the Community helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 49

Box 5 Involvement of Politicians helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 50

Choosing a Model helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 50

Power of the Transmitter helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 51

Ownership and Management helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 51

Programminghelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 51

Staff helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip52

Sustainability helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip52

Looking for Outside Funding for Start-up Costs helliphelliphelliphellip54

Box 6 Main Factors to Consider When Planning a Community Radio helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip54

Chapter 6 Programme Policieshelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 57

Participatory Programmes helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 57

Community News helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 60

Balancing Views helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 60

Coverage of Religious and Cultural Events helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 61

Local Election Broadcasts helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 61

Educational Broadcasts helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 61

Audience Surveys helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 63

Chapter 7 The Community Broadcaster helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 65

Code of Conduct helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 65

A Prototype Code of Conduct helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 66

Selection of Community Broadcasters helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 71

Training of Community Broadcasters helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 71

Chapter 8 Case Studies helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 75

Radio Olutanga (Tambuli Project) Philippines helliphelliphelliphelliphellip 75

Radio Sagarmatha Nepal helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 80

Radio Ada Ghana helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 85

Bush Radio South Africa helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 90

Radio Chaguarurco Ecuador helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 95

Table of contents

Communities and Communication

ldquoPeople live in a community by virtue of the thingswhich they have in common and communication isthe way in which they come to possess things in commonrdquo 1

T here are more than 20000radio stations in the worldand more than 2 billion

radio receivers Any notion thatTV and other sophisticated communication technology willreplace radio is unfounded forradio is in constant expansion Itswaves reach almost every cornerof our planet It is the prime electronic medium of the poorbecause it leaps the barriers of isolation and illiteracy and it is themost affordable electronic mediumto broadcast and receive in

The last two decades have seen arapid expansion in the number andpopularity of community radiostations Among the reasons forthis are the democratization anddecentralization processes in manyparts of the world deregulation ofthe media and the relaxing ofbroadcasting monopolies by stateinstitutions and disaffection withcommercial radio channels

Furthermore awareness is growingof the social and economic benefitsthat can result when ordinarypeople have access to appropriateinformation And it is also evidentthat when people especially the

poor can participate incommunica-tion processesand consensusbuilding aboutissues thataffect theirlives it helpsthem to cast off their traditionalstate of apathy and stimulatesthem to mobilize and organize tohelp themselves

ANY COMMUNITY CANSTART ITS OWN RADIO STATION

To start a small radio station is notas complicated and expensive asmany people think There isenough experience in many countries to prove that it is withinthe reach of almost any community

Community Will is the Key

The primordial condition for acommunity to start its own radiostation is a sense of internal cohe-sion and community consciousnessThere must be willingness forcooperative work and to poolresources and enthusiastic consensus

that the people want their own radioin order to advance their community

As part of the consensus buildingthat leads to the decision to establisha community radio the communitymust analyze its communicationneeds and determine how radiocould help to resolve them Thetraditional approach to develop-ment is to provide support to agriculture health education andso on and a radio station may notnormally be seen as a priority Buta community that analyzes itsneeds in detail and thinks aboutthe causes of its problems andmarginalization will often cometo the conclusion that it needscommunication processes to helppeople share common understan-ding and common goals This is thefirst step towards a communitytaking action to establish its ownradio station

ldquoEveryone has the right to freedom of opinion andexpression this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek receiveand impart information and ideas through any mediaand regardless of frontiersrdquo

Right of information section Article 19 of theUniversal Declaration of Human Rights

ldquoCommunity radio is a social process or eventin which members of the community associatetogether to design programmes and produce andair them thus taking on the primary role of actorsin their own destiny whether this be for something as common as mending fences in theneighbourhood or a community-wide campaign on how to use clean water and keep it clean or agitation for theelection of new leaders The emphasis is on the ownership of democratic and development efforts by the members of the communitythemselves and the use of media in this case radio toachieve it In every sense this is participatory communication(not programmes made about them by somebody else) It is above all a process not a technology not merely ameans because the people are part of that means and sois the message and the audienceCommunity radio is most relevant to a group of peoplewho live and act as a community and this could be severalfamilies several neighbourhoods or even several villagesor communities but the important thing is that theyinteract That is why I think of community radio as the

community speaking to each other and acting together forcommon goalsrdquo

Carlos A Arnaldo

Introduction

A basic Community Radio Studio in Burkina Faso

1

Com

mun

ity

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oduc

tion

Phot

o U

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CO

2

Producing Programmes does notneed Magical Skills

The professional tasks of managing astation and producing programmesare not beyond the reach of typicalcommunities Unfortunately expo-sure to commercial andor stateradio leaves many people with theimpression that such professionalstandards are the norm and theydo not realize that good and effec-tive radio broadcasting can bemuch less formalized Nor do theyrealize that the usefulness andimpact of any media productiondepends much more on its relevan-ce to the audience than on its for-mal quality

This is not to say that quality ofprogrammes in terms of theirstructure and their technical level isunimportant For example impro-per use of recording equipmentmay result in programmes of suchpoor sound quality that they aredifficult to understand Howeverexperience with community radioshows that when people are moti-vated and enthusiastic the mini-mum technical levels required forbroadcasting can be masteredduring only a few weeks of trainingAnd as they gain hands-on produc-tion experience their skills developmarkedly They quickly reach fullysatisfactory levels of performance

The Cost and Technologyare not Prohibitive

The equipment requiredfor community radio isrobust and easy to main-tain and it does not needsupport from broadcastingengineers beyond some ini-tial training Its cost isconstantly falling For atypical community radiostation the normal cost ofthe equipment is little morethan US$20000 For minimalbroadcasting there is even asuitcase available weighing 16 kgwhich contains a five-watt trans-mitter a six-channel audio mixertwo compact disc players two cas-sette taperecordersplayers and anantenna The total cost is aboutUS$3000

There are also FM radio receiverswith a solar strip that can eitherpower the radio or charge a batteryAt night the radio can be poweredby a dynamo winding up the radioby hand for two minutes provides30 minutes of listening time

The tendency among those produ-cing equipment for communityradio has been to focus on simplicityof installation use and maintenanceAnd local people often show extra-ordinary capacity to adapt andbuild for themselves For examplein Cape Verde UNESCO helpedlocal technicians to install a single

transmitter on one islandHowever the technicians were soeager and enterprising that after-wards they built two more trans-mitters so that they could have oneon each of the three main islandsThis was despite the fact that thecomponents originally made avai-lable were scarcely enough for onestation Furthermore they also linkedthe three stations over seeminglyimpossible distances to form a net-work that shares programmes in acomplicated schedule every day5

Media and Development

ldquoDeveloping communities are characterized by isolation from ideas and information as well as services At the simplest level before people canconsider a question they need to be fully aware of allthe facts the short-term effects and the long-termimplications ways in which decisions taken in onearea will affect future planning Communicationmedia could present this informationrdquo 2

Phot

o C

A A

rnal

do

The Judges are the Listeners

ldquoIt is unfortunate that the so-called radio professionals have set certain artistic productionstandards which could intimidate the regular villagepeople The irony is that the so-called professionalproductions cannot compete with programmes doneby the inexperienced village people The professionalsforget that the ultimate judge of a radio programmeis the listenerrdquo 4

Donrsquot be afraid of radio

ldquoNo one should be afraid to use radio I have been abroadcaster for almost a quarter of a century andI know nothing about the electronics side of radio

Even today I cannot explain how my voice in the studio is processed and passed on finally to the family radio maybe hundreds of kilometres awayrdquo 5

1 John Dewey (1916) cited by Elizabeth Blanks HindmanldquoCommunity Democracy and Neighbourhood NewsrdquoInternational Communication Association (1998)

2 Frances J Berrigan ldquoCommunity Communications - the role ofcommunity media in developmentrdquo Reports and Papers onMass Communication no 90 UNESCO (Paris 1981)

3 Louie Tabing Neighbourhood Radio ProductionUNESCODANIDA Tambuli Project Philippines

4 Martin AllardrdquoOn the AirhellipThe Development of CommunityRadiordquo UNESCO Sources no 21 (1990)

5 Louie Tabing Manager of the UNESCODANIDA TambuliProject Philippines

Mang Vicente of Ibahay on Aklan Island in Southern Philippines plays traditional melodies on a flute made from PVC plumbing pipe

Chapter 1Community Radio in the Broadcasting Scene

3

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1

T his chapter describes the place of community radio in the broadcastingscene and explains the essential

difference in its approach compared to conventional public service or commercialbroadcasting A rationale is put forward for itsimportance in the scenario of increasing mediaglobalization

The evolution of community radio from itsfirst experiences some 50 years ago is tracedand set in the context of broadcast mediaownership patterns technical developmentsand the recent trends towards democratization and decentralization

The reader will acquire

bull An understanding of the special nature ofcommunity radio compared to other types ofradio broadcasting

bull An understanding of its place and importan-ce in the trend towards media globalization

bull Knowledge about its background specificfield experiences and the factors that havedetermined its evolution

This theoretical framework provides the long-term foundation for practical knowledge andskills to be gained in later chapters

Broadcasting can be divided into three general categories

bull Public-service broadcasting is generally conductedby a statutory entity which is usually - though notnecessarily ndash a state-supported or a state-ownedcorporation Its broadcasting policies and programmingare often controlled by a public body such as a councilor a legally constituted authority This body ensuresthat broadcasting operates to provide informationeducation and entertainment to the citizens andsociety in general and independently of governmentparty politics or other interests Much of the fundingfor the operation comes from licence fees that the listenersviewers pay for the receivers they have intheir homes

bull Commercial or private broadcasting providesprogrammes designed primarily for profit fromadvertising revenue and is owned and controlled byprivate individuals or by commercial enterprises

bull Community broadcasting is a non-profit servicethat is owned and managed by a particular communityusually through a trust foundation or association Itsaim is to serve and benefit that community It is ineffect a form of public-service broadcasting but itserves a community rather than the whole nation asis the usual form of public broadcasting describedabove Moreover it relies and must rely mainly on the resources of the community A community is considered to be a group of people who share

A Declaration of Principle

ldquoCommunity radio responds to the needs of the community it serves contributing to its developmentwithin progressive perspectives in favour of socialchange Community radio strives to democratizecommunication through community participation indifferent forms in accordance with each specificsocial contextrdquo

World Association of Community Broadcasters(AMARC) 1988

4

common characteristics andorinterests The commonality ofinterests may be based on

- The sharing of a single geographicallocation that is to say those livingin a specific town village orneighbourhood

- The sharing of economic and sociallife through trade marketingexchange of goods and services

Unfortunately this tidy classificationinto three categories of broadcastingis less than tidy in practice forthere can be combinations andoverlapping situations For examplea local commercial radio stationmay also broadcast some communityservice programmes a station ownedand managed by an NGO such as areligious institution may fill most ofits air time with such programmesand state-owned public-servicebroadcasting has increasingly beendecentralizing to the local level andproviding programming for thecommunities around it

Not surprisingly there is still nosingle definition or description ofcommunity radio And to complicatematters further there have beenvarious terms applied to small-scaleradio broadcasting such as lsquolocalrsquolsquoalternativersquo lsquoindependentrsquo or lsquofreersquoradio All of these lack precision Forexample the term lsquolocal radiorsquo

could also cover the decentralizedoperation through a local stationof a state-controlled broadcastingsystem or even a small commercialstation Terms such as lsquoalternativersquoand lsquofreersquo are also imprecise even ifin the context of radio they arenormally taken to mean alternativeto the mainstream mass media andfree from government ownershipand control Logically thereforethey include community radio butthey do not necessarily include it

The various definitions of communityradio that have been formulatedshare many common elements Thesimple and catchy phrase lsquoRadio bythe people and for the peoplersquo isoften used as a good summary Thisphrase captures well the essentialprinciple that must be in place for abroadcasting service to be consideredtrue community radio It must firstlybe managed by the communitysecondly be to serve that community

Strict application of these two principles would mean that a radiostation owned by a non-profitNGO and also managed by thatNGO would not necessarily qualifyas a true community radio even ifmuch of its programming wereaimed at community developmentThis is the case for many broadcastingservices run by religious organiza-tions and in practice the term

lsquocommunity radiorsquo is often used tocover this type of operation as wellOne example is Radio Maria whichbeginning from a single parish inNorthern Italy in 1983 now coversall of Italy and also has stations in21 other countries It is essentiallyan evangelical operation but it alsodoes a great deal in social servicesand community developmentusing volunteers and supported byspontaneous contributions fromlisteners

The somewhat confusing situationregarding what constitutes truecommunity radio can perhaps bestbe understood by considering thefollowing quotation this sums up aphilosophical approach that makescommunity radio different fromcommercial or public-service radio

ldquoCommunity radio emphasizes thatit is not commercial and does notshare what it would call the prescriptive and paternalistic attitude of public-service broadcas-tinghellip The key difference is thatwhile the commercial and public-service models both treat listenersas objects to be captured foradvertisers or to be improved andinformed community radio aspiresto treat its listeners as subjects andparticipantsrdquo 4

One Definition

ldquoA community radio station is characterized by itsownership and programming and the community it isauthorized to serve It is owned and controlled by anon-profit organization whose structure provides formembership management operation and programming primarily by members of the community at large Its programming should bebased on community access and participation andshould reflect the special interests and needs of thelistenership it is licenced to serverdquo 1

On Radio Work for Ordinary People - a Practitionerrsquos View

ldquoRadio is simply people talking with people The Tambuli stations have merely expanded theopportunity for people to talk more to a wideraudience and to listen to a more expansive array ofideas on matters that directly concern themrdquo 2

On Community Ownership and Management

ldquoTo qualify as a community radio the ownership and control of the station must rest squarely and unquestionably with the community it claimsto serverdquo 3

Commercial Media Antagonism Towards Community Media

ldquoMainstream commercial media continue to harbournegative feelings about community media and areconvinced that they are adequately able to servecommunity needs They have not yet come around toaccepting that the special character of communitymedia is complementary rather than antagonisticand mutually exclusiverdquo 5

This placing of both public andcommercial broadcasting into aprescriptive category treating listeners as objects is significantfor even when they broadcasttheir so-called community serviceprogrammes they usually remainin the same prescriptive modeThis is contrary to the participatoryessence of community radio programming

COMMUNITY RADIO IN THE CONTEXT OF THEGLOBALIZATION OFMEDIA

Recent years have seen a strongtrend towards the globalization ofmedia Colossal media enterprisesof a commercial nature have beenformed and increasingly span theglobe with their programmesCertain countries have also becomecentres of highly successful mediaproduction mainly of an enter-tainment character and sell theiroutput to TV channels worldwideObvious examples are soap operasfrom the USA However audienceresearch has shown that peopleprefer to watch programmes withtheir own cultural orientationsrather than those imported fromothers For this reason media productions from developing

countries such as Brazil ChinaEgypt India and Indonesia arenow gaining wider distribution inlarge-scale commercial media

While some people argue that theglobalization of the media disruptslocal cultures others state thatglobal media intensifies theconsciousness of the world as awhole and is therefore beneficialThey see global media and community media as complemen-tary each forming important functions that the other cannotAnd this is certainly the case

By definition global media arecommercial and need to attractlarge audiences for their adverti-sing content Thus they broadcastprogrammes that attempt to satisfya common thread of sensitivitiesamong large numbers of peopleusing well-tried and rather standardif not banal entertainment formatsThe lack of variety in programmeorientation is therefore generallyattributed to the lsquoself-censorshiprsquoof the market which uses entertainment as the sole criterionfor selection However it is alsotrue that governments tend to bemore comfortable with privatebroadcasters limiting themselvesto entertainment rather thanbecoming involved in the moreproblematic area of news and

current affairs For these reasonsthemes reflecting socio-politicalinterests are often insufficientlycovered or deliberately ignoredby private broadcasters

Clearly given their characteristicsand orientation commercial andglobal media can hardly meetsocio-economic and developmentneeds of the countries they coverThe excessive entertainment provided by commercial televisionhas often provoked a call for areappraisal of the potential ofpublic broadcasting stressing theneed for quality programmes anddemanding more possibilities ofchoice and access for audiences A logical step in this direction is toexpand the democratization ofmedia to the community levelespecially through communityradio in which accessibility is thenorm

Furthermore community radioworks in the cultural context ofthe community it serves it dealswith local issues in the local language or languages it is relevantto local problems and concernsand its aim is to help the commu-nity to develop socially culturallyand economically This is not onlyin contrast with global media operations it is also in contrastwith centralized urban-based 5

Com

mun

ity

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1

Global Communication

ldquoGeorge Orwell in Nineteen Eighty-Four warned us ofa society controlled by Big Brother Is that what weare encountering today when we see so many peoplein poor communities tuning into western dominatedideals of the rich consumer society Orwell was veryconcerned about the socialist drives of the industrialage But perhaps he was also warning about the takeover of society by a democratic political power drivento degradation by these very industrial drives and bythe easy resort to globalization of mediardquo 6

The Power of the Local Approach

ldquoAn effective strategy for the community radiostation is to present what cannot be offered by any

other radio station that is local content with a localflavour The local radio station must dwell on itsstrongest reason for existence - local events issuesconcerns and personalities If a local station can doan exhaustive reportage of what goes on in its community on a regular basis there is no way aregional or national broadcast outfit could competefor listenership The element of proximity is the mostpotent quality that the community radio should capitalize on People will be enthusiastic to know ona daily or even hourly basis about the people andevents unfolding next to their place of aboderdquo 7

6

national media even of a publicservice nature for they are oftenremote from the realities of ruralcommunities and their needs

THE EVOLUTION OF COMMUNITY RADIO

The pioneering experiences fromwhich todayrsquos community radio hasevolved began some 50 years agoin Latin America Poverty and socialinjustice were the stimulus forthose first experiences one beginningin Bolivia in 1947 and known as theMinersrsquo radios and another inColombia in the same year knownas Radio SutatenzaAccioacutenCulturalPopular (See boxes 1 and 2 at the end of this Chapter for descriptions)

These experiences in Bolivia andColombia set a trend even iftodayrsquos concept of communityradio has evolved considerably Forexample the Minersrsquo radios inBolivia were working in thedecades of ideological clash between Marxism and capitalismThus their principal focus was tounite the community of miners tobattle for better and fairer workingconditions They were generallyconsidered to be trade unionradios even if the miners providedmuch of the finance for the purchase

of equipment and running costs

Radio SutatenzaACPO in Colombiaalthough inspired by the aim ofsupporting the community of peasants was not owned or directlymanaged by them There was muchfeedback from peasants - some50000 letters a year ndash and thesecertainly ensured the integration ofthe peasantsrsquo desires and needsinto the radiorsquos programming Butit was not truly lsquoradio by the peoplefor the peoplersquo which is todayrsquosaim

Even so this first systematic effortby Radio Sutatenza to educate byradio created a movement thatldquohellipspread and was later consolidatedthrough ALER the Latin AmericanEducational Radio BroadcastingAssociation This inter-linkage ofradio and education is basic to theidea of public service and markedthe birth of community media inLatin Americardquo 8

However even if the groundbreak-ing work was in Latin America itwas in Europe that communityradio first became a vital phenome-non an alternative to ndash or a critiqueof ndash mainstream broadcast mediaThe first challenges to state public-service broadcasting were in the1960s-70s when ldquoswashbucklingentrepreneurs boarded the airwavesillegally and seized as much of the

audience as they could carry awayfrom the treasure chest monopolycontrolled by the staterdquo 9 In theWest these pirate stations proved acatalyst in motivating governmentsand national broadcasting systemsto introduce legitimate local radio

In Africa the establishment ofcommunity radio became in abroad sense a social movementafter the demise of the apartheidregime in South Africa This wasfollowed by democratizationdecentralization and to someextent structural adjustmentelsewhere in that continent10

The pressure groups that have instigated community radio inmany parts of the world (egminers pirate radio operators missionaries and democracy movements) have been less presentin Asia In their place internationalagencies such as UNESCO andother external donors have oftentaken initiatives to help get community radio off the groundAnd in some cases it has been thenational broadcasting organizationthat has itself started communityradio services

Vision of Joaquiacuten Salcedo founder of RadioSutatenza and Accioacuten Cultural Popular

ldquoWithin weeks of arriving in Sutatenza Salcedo as ajunior priest had challenged the peasantry from thepulpit to take up arms against the poverty and backwardness that afflicted them and had offered hishand and vision in a partnership They respondedand so a pact was formed

Salcedo pioneered a concept known as lsquointegralfundamental educationrsquo similar to what today is

often called lsquolife educationrsquo The core of the conceptis that the educational process must be the development of the individual as a whole person and as a member of society

It became an ACPO slogan that lsquodevelopment is inthe mind of mankindrsquo And providing people witheducation in the broadest sense would enable themto make informed decisions and become proactivein taking control of their livesrdquo 11

The Influence of DifferentBroadcasting Ownership Systems

Latin America adopted the NorthAmerican system of mainly privateand commercial broadcastingwith multiple stations of variedpower and reach In this context itwas relatively easy for new stationsto start up And several thousandhave done so in Latin Americaoften initially as illegal or piratestations

In Western European countriesthe public-service state broadcastingmonopolies which had been setup when radio and later TV werefirst introduced usually had management mechanisms throughstatutory public bodies Thesecontrolling bodies ensured thatbroadcasting policies and programmes were as independentas possible of government partypolitical or other influences

European countries that adoptedthis public-service broadcastingapproach through state networksdid so because from the very firstdays of radio in the 1920s and TVsome 30 years later the electronicmedia were considered by leadingthinkers as marvellous instrumentsfor expanding culture educationand information and for improvingsocieties According to that thinkingthe mass media could not be

allowed to function principally ona commercial basis and as a vehicleto be taken over by the advertisingindustry to market products

Many countries in the developingworld especially in Africa and Asiawhere European countries hadheld influence as colonizers adoptedthe European model at least as faras the state monopoly on broad-casting was concerned Howeverthey did not always allow broad-casting policy to be controlled by astatutory and independent publicbody preferring complete controlby government of all aspects oftheir electronic media Thus manygovernments especially those ofcentrally planned economies usedtheir broadcasting networks tofurther their political aims and inparticular to consolidate theirpower base

In such circumstances and fullyrealizing that information ispower these governments withfully state-controlled broadcastingwere extremely reluctant to allowany electronic media to operateindependently This made it difficultfor community media initiatives toget started Only in the early 1980sdid some governments begin torelax their opposition to indepen-dent media but even today manygovernments still effectively oppose

the idea of relinquishing theirmonopolistic control of the broad-casting media

On the other hand it has becomeclear in the last decade or so thatattempts to control information ina society are doomed to fail The fax machine on a desk thecomputer connected to theInternet electronic mail andsatellite television are underminingall the efforts of repressiveregimes to control and conditionthe information that their peoplereceive This situation coupledwith the spread of democracy andfreedom of expression in mostparts of the world is opening thedoor to community media initiativesand particularly to communityradio And governments in countriesthat have already opened the doorare able to see for themselves thatcommunity radio has great potentialfor promoting and supportingd e ce n t ra l i ze d e n d o g e n o u sdevelopment

Technical Evolution

In addition to the political aspectsof decentralizing broadcastingthere are technical factors thathave played and continue to playa very important part in the evolu-tion of community radio 7

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1

Alternative Media as Antibodies

ldquoSome fifteen years ago I described alternative media as antibodies producedas a protection against the neglect insensitivity and insanity of the conventional mediardquo 12

8

Two important breakthroughs haveallowed major progress firstlycheap transistor receivers andsecondly low-powered and cheaptransmitters

Until the invention of the transistorin the mid-1950s radio receiversused valves and were expensive andcumbersome Until that time mostof the worldrsquos radio receivers weremanufactured in North Americaand Europe but the arrival of thetransistor paved the way to massiveradio ownership in developingco u n t r i e s Fo r e xa m p l e i n Sub-Saharan Africa India andChina the number of radio receiversexpanded from two million in 1956to 90 million in 1975 And the number of radios has continued toexpand dramatically worldwide tothe two billion or more of today

The availability of cheap receivershas played a key role in the evolu-tion of community radio with apush-pull effect in the sense thatonce a community station starts tobroadcast there is often a significantrise in radio ownership This is anindication that radio listening maybe as much a function of peoplersquosinterest in what is being broadcastas their ability to afford a radioreceiver For example in a poorrural area of Mali where a communityradio station began to function

radio ownership rapidly rose by 140 percent 13

The second technical breakthroughwas low-power transmitters using abroadcasting system known asFrequency Modulation (FM) Thesebecame increasingly available in the1970s and 1980s (See also Chapter4) Small companies in severalcountries began to produce equip-ment that was designed specificallyfor community radio operationsMuch of it was in kit form and sorobust and simple that it was idealfor use in the often harsh conditionsof developing countries

AN IMPORTANT INITIATIVE BY UNESCO

Among UNESCOrsquos missions areldquothe free exchange of ideas andknowledgerdquo and promoting ldquofreeflow of ideas by word and imagerdquoIn this context UNESCO launchedan initiative to support communityradio in 1980

The initiative began with discussionsin 1980 between UNESCO and theEconomic Commission for Africaon local radio broadcasting Thesehighlighted the fact that very fewAfrican countries had a commonlanguage that enabled nationalbroadcasting to effectively reachthe rural people who made up as

much as 80 percent of the popula-tion The best broadcasters coulddo was to select perhaps ten of themain local languages and broadcastdaily programmes in them on atime-sharing basis Thus no singlecommunity could listen to a languageit understood for more than a shortperiod each day

There were also problems of physi-cal and mental distance the centralbroadcasting facilities were oftentoo far away from their ruralaudiences for their broadcastsignals to be received intelligiblyand the urban-based programmeproducers were too far away mentally to know and understandtheir rural audiences properly

The discussions in those early daysand for many years afterwardsassumed that the state broadcastingsystems would be decentralized tolocal stations These would mainlyrelay the signal from the capital but would also originate some programmes locally This systemwould keep the local radio underthe control of the national broad-casters and as such it cannot beconsidered as an example of thecommunity broadcasting model oftoday

On the Potential of Community Broadcasting in Africa

ldquoCommunity-based radio broadcasting could be theleast costly mass medium for development in media-starved rural Africa It could promote positivecultural identity using local languages which areineffectively used on national broadcasting stationsand are usually accessible only to urban and eliteaudiencesrdquo 14

Big Boxes are More Impressive

ldquoIntegrated circuits and new componentsenable us to make smaller pieces of equipment but some manufacturers justlike to use big boxes open them up andthey are practically empty insiderdquo 15

Equipment Factor A first needwas for cheap and simple equip-ment quite different from the kindof equipment used by state orcommercial radio stations SoUNESCO organized a workshop atBrighton Polytechnic in 1980 thatbrought together British ChineseCuban French and Ghanaian engi-neers The purpose was to identifypriorities and outline designconcepts A first requirement wasa 10-watt FM transmitter thatcould run off a 12-volt car batteryor even solar panels and thesecond was for a simple and cheapaudio mixer similarly powered forbringing together sounds (voicesmusic and sound effects) into asingle programme for broadcast-ing The other necessary itemssuch as tape recorders and recordturntables could be purchased atreasonable prices in the market

The transmitter was designed andbuilt by Mallard Concepts inBritain and the six-channel audiomixer was designed and its pro-duction supervised by Jake Mills aGhanaian who was for many yearsthe technical director of GhanaBroadcasting Corporation

Based on integrated circuitry theMallard transmitter was onlyslightly larger than a home hi-fiamplifier It could be deliveredeither in kit form or fully assem-bled The largest component in theequipment was the transformer the

device for conver-ting power from110- or 220-voltalternating currentto 12-volt directcurrent

The cost of theMallard equipmentpackage was aroundUS$2000 comparedto about US$15000or more for com-mercial transmittersof similar power

Tests with theMallard transmittershowed that itssignal could beheard on a normalradio at a range ofup to 12-20 km Itwas so light androbust that it could easily be takenout into the countryside in a carPowered from the carrsquos batteryand with an antenna hoisted into atree an outside broadcast stationcould be set up

UNESCO also worked on solar-powered receivers and onproblems such as the cheapconversion of existing AM receiversso that they could also pick up FMbroadcasts Despite some promisingdesigns for solar-powered receiversit proved impossible to find amanufacturer that could mass-produce them on the scale necessaryto make them cheap enough for

Soldering circuits for 20-watt FM transmittersin Brixham UK

9

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1 An early model

of the FM community radiotransmitter designed byMallard ConceptsLtd UK forUNESCO

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10

even the very poor to buy Bothsolar and wind-up generator radiosets are manufactured today but atprices still prohibitive to most ruralfolk

Political Factors Solving thetechnical problems was often lessdifficult than overcoming the political ones in promoting thespread of community radioUNESCOrsquos push in the area of community radio was essentiallyradical based on concepts ofhuman rights and freedom ofexpression But the world of theearly 1980rsquos was still divided byideological conflict between Leftand Right and state monopolies onbroadcasting were the norm inmany developing countries

It is easy to think that governmentssimply wanted to repress all formsof self-expression that could pose athreat to their authority or to theirstable hold on power However closer consideration shows thatmany governments especially incountries with a multiplicity of ethnic groups and languages feltthat national identity and unitywould be strengthened throughhaving a single broadcasting voicefrom the centre and through promoting a national languageWhatever the reason for govern-ments to defend their broadcasting

monopolies UNESCO faced anoteworthy challenge in promotingcommunity radio

The First Community RadioStation in Africa

The government of Kenya was thefirst to open the door to UNESCOrsquosproposal for setting up a communityradio In May 1982 a Mallard 10-watt transmitter as well as anaudio mixer designed by Jake Millsand related broadcasting equipmentof a total value of less thanUS$25000 were supplied to thecommunity of Homa Bay on LakeVictoria This is a poor area withmany problems of underdevelop-ment Local people were givenbasic training in how to use theequipment and the station beganbroadcasting for two hours a day inLuo one of Kenyarsquos principle lan-guages but not that of the dominantethnic and political group

Homa Bay was successfully on airfor only two-and-a-half years beforethe government closed it down forit was said to be working contraryto the official policy of makingSwahili and English the nationallanguages Furthermore despite itsvery local coverage it was said tobe increasing tensions between different ethnic groups

Building on Homa Bay

Despite this political setback theHoma Bay experience proved that asmall community radio operationcould be effectively set up withequipment costs of less thanUS$25000 and that it could function in a low-technology environment without encounteringtechnical problems

UNESCOrsquos initiative in communityradio coincided with some worldtrends that favoured it The mostimportant of these was the growingawareness of the limitations of centrally planned economies leadingultimately to the collapse of theideology that had built them But innon-Marxist countries too demo-cratization decentralization andneo-liberal policies were on themarch and this was also leading toa greater willingness to decentralizenational broadcasting systems

In Sri Lanka the Sri LankaBroadcasting Corporation hadalready regionalized its services andthe notion of starting communityradio was a natural next step Thusin 1983 the second UNESCO community radio initiative wasbegun in the context of a largemulti-purpose irrigation schemethe Mahaweli DevelopmentProject About a million peoplewere being resettled on newly

Excerpt from 1988 Evaluation of MahaweliCommunity Radio

ldquoIt has animated settlers into participation in activities that not only encouraged self-actualizationbut also community identify and development Intandem with Mahaweli development workers it hasmotivated the settlers to try innovative practices inagriculture and health It has likewise motivatedlocal development workers to take the settlers andtheir problems more seriously ensuring a more palpable degree of service to the peoplerdquo

Some Achievements of Mahaweli Community Radio

ldquoIn one area we came across a group of teenagedelinquents who had no land and were desperately insearch of something to do Through our programmesand discussions we motivated them to clean up thevillage pond and set up an ornamental fish production enterprise In another village we arranged a mass wedding to solemnize the marriageof elderly couples who were living togetherTheir offspring had faced many hardships as theirparents were not legally married I produced manyprogrammes on gambling and alcoholism which helped the addicts to reflect upon themselves andgive up the vicerdquo 16

Bamako Declaration on Radio Pluralism(President Konareacute of Mali 1993)

ldquoRadio pluralism is an essential componentin the deepening of the democratic processnow under way it allows people greateraccess to a diversity of information andguarantees increased popular participation for sustainable human developmentAfrican statesmust speed up the ending of the monopoly over ofthe airwaves and give priority to national proponents of independent radio when allocatingbroadcasting frequenciesrdquo 20

irrigated land and these familiescame from various parts of thecountry Originally no media element was included among thevarious rural development inputsfor Mahaweli However it waslater realized that a communityradio service could help the sett-lers to integrate and to take initia-tives to improve their living stan-dards In effect they needed todevelop a sense of community aswell as learn more about improvedagricultural practices health andso on

Community radio offered greatpotential for this so with financialsupport from Danish InternationalDevelopment Assistance (DANIDA)and UNESCO the MahaweliCommunity Radio was set up Itsfirst station covered about 20000settlers in the major developmentregion surrounding the town ofGuirandurokotte but it was latercomplemented by several othersmall FM stations in the area

Although the Mahaweli CommunityStations were all under the controlof the Sri Lanka BroadcastingCorporation they used a truecommunity radio style This wasquite different from the style usedby the national broadcaster

One of the main thrusts ofMahaweli Radio in addition toproviding settlers with information

was to obtain feedback from themabout development activitiesthrough recordings made in thecommunities which were laterincluded in programmes orthrough having settlers come intothe studios to talk on air Withsuch participation in the radio programming and dealing as it didwith local problems and issues theradio became a vital andpersonalized link in the life of thecommunity

Community Radio Expanding ata Fast Pace

Riding on the flood tide of changethat has been sweeping the worldtowards democratization anddecentralization in the 1980rsquos and1990rsquos community radio has beenexpanding at a fast pace UNESCOfollowed its Kenyan and Sri Lankanexperience with support to otherstations in a wide variety of coun-tries among them Ghana TongaHaiti Cape Verde St LuciaTrinidad and Tobago SurinamJamaica Guyana the Philippinesand many others However UNESCO is now far from beingalone in promoting communityradio A wide range of internationaldevelopment agencies and nationaland international NGOs are involvedin many parts of the world

The rapidity of the spread of community radio is remarkableand Mali provides an interestingexample In 1991 after 23 years ofmilitary dictatorship severe socialdisturbances finally overthrew thegovernment and a multi-partydemocracy was formally establishedA transition government came topower pending democratic elections

Mali is a primarily rural society andthe transitional government orga-nized consultations with represen-tatives of the rural people It wasfound that after more than twodecades during which the nationalmedia had been the channel forissuing instructions and exhorta-tions and with government staffin rural areas equally distant thepeasantry was disaffected and alienated by the governmentrsquosimposed development programmesThey preferred to ignore them 17

The transitional government andthe elected one that took its placedecided to install with the help ofUNDP and the Food and AgriculuralOrganisation (FAO) a policy ofusing communication systemati-cally for Malirsquos development thefirst country in the world to do soMali also took a lead in media libe-ralization in Africa notablythrough organizing a crucial confe-rence in Bamako in September1993 called ldquoFreedom for AfricanRadiosrdquo 18 19 11

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12

Mali had itself just liberalized its state TV andradio which ever since they began had broadcastexclusively in French a language only understoodby the countryrsquos elite And with illiteracy levelsof about 70 percent the majority of the peoplehad had no access to media-based information

In the five years after Mali liberalized its mediamore than 60 independent radio stations beganto operate providing access in local languagesto people for the first time since the dawn ofradio broadcasting And many other countriesare becoming similarly involved with communityradio Much has happened to improve thesituation for community broadcasting since theHoma Bay community transmitter was closeddown by the government of Kenya some 15 yearsago And as an endnote Kenya today is also discussing legislation that would recognizecommunity radio as part of the countriesbroadcasting scene

The Bolivian experiencebegan with a radio servicecalled the lsquoVoice of the

Minerrsquo linked to the Siglo XXmine in the Department of PotosiacuteIn subsequent years 23 stationsin the various mining areas of thecountry were set up and came tobe known collectively as theMinersrsquo Radios

These radio stations were born asa trade union response to theappalling conditions of workersin the mines most of which wereowned and operated until 1952 bya few rapacious and fabulouslyrich families the lsquotin baronsrsquosuch as the Patintildeos who wereknown world-wide for their extra-vagant lifestyles Meanwhile theminers who were the source oftheir wealth and of the mainnational export were being inhu-manely exploited Living in primitive mining camps often inthe cold of very high altitudespoorly paid and suffering fromtypical minersrsquo afflictions such assilicosis they were already oldmen by the age of 40 Their lifeexpectancy was further reducedby the lack of safety precautionsin the mines and frequent accidents In 1952 the mineswere nationalized but little chan-ged for the miners becausegovernments lacked socialconscience

Unfortunately historical factsabout the Minersrsquo Radios remainsomewhat vague for the mainsource of information is the

memory of the people involvedHowever it is certain that theradios were a crucial element inhelping to lead the struggle ende-mic in Bolivia for many years - aconfrontation that saw massacresof miners and their families civilwar and revolution

The radios helped to unite theminers in the struggle and provided them with news andinformation that countered thenegative propaganda against theirinterests that was being put out bymost of the mainstream mediaThe importance of the MinersrsquoRadios is evident from the num-ber of times they were systemati-cally destroyed or their equip-ment confiscated by the militarysent in by one or other of the succession of governments thatruled the country

It was in fact the miners that initiated the massive strike in1981 that finally led to the end ofdictatorship in Bolivia As on allprevious occasions of seriousconfrontation with the authoritiesone of the principle demandsmade by the miners was thereturn of the equipment for theirradio stations or in cases wherethe equipment had been destroyed the right to start themup again with new equipmentThe miners usually contributedmost of the cost a further illustra-tion of the importance of theseradio stations in their lives

Although the main role of theMinersrsquo Radios was the defence

and promotion of minersrsquo rightsthey were also central to a widerange of cultural and educationalactivities They promoted andbroadcast festivals of minersrsquopoetry discussions about theaesthetic value of popular songsand other art forms and discus-sions about education issueseven including a discussion ofwhether minersrsquo children shouldlearn to play chess

The miners themselves contributedto the costs of establishing andrunning their radio stations but inmost cases the management andprogramming policy was in thehands of their unions And therewas little participation by minersin the kind of radio programmesthat would be promoted by com-munity radio today However theintegration of the radio stationsinto the mining community wasto a great extent ensured by theirphysical location close to themine they served and peoplecould generally visit the studioand say their piece if they wanted

Most Minersrsquo Radios were set upin the second half of the 1950sbut their most flourishing yearswere between 1963 and 1983After that world tin prices beganto drop and in 1985 a neo-liberalgovernment passed a decree tolsquorelocatersquo miners throwing about20000 of them out of miningwork forever This cut the groundfrom under the feet of their radiosSome were passed to peasantgroups but today less than tenare still operating

BOX 1 The Minersrsquo Radio in Bolivia

BOX 2 Radio SutatenzaAccioacuten Cultural Popular in Colombia

This initiative was launchedin 1947 by a priest JoaquiacutenSalcedo in an Andean

village called Sutatenza It beganusing a home-made transmitterwith a range of two to three kmbut from this Radio Sutatenzagrew into Colombiarsquos mostpowerful broadcasting network

Salcedo an atypical priest wasmore concerned about the socialand economic status of Colombiarsquospeasants than about conventionalChurch matters Driven by his mission to bring education to peasants to help them develop herealized that radio could reacheven into the most isolated parts ofmountainous Colombia Thus theidea of the Radio Schools ofSutatenza was born and from thatAccioacuten Cultural Popular (ACPO)

The educational broadcasts byRadio Sutatenza expanded untilthey covered a wide range oftopics including literacy numeracyhealth farm production housingimprovements family and personalrelationships sport and leisureand - crucially as it turned out - theresponsibilities of parenthood andpractising responsible procreation

People listened to these programmes in informal RadioSchools - in effect small groupswho came together each eveningThe groups were assisted by moni-tors people with more knowledge

and experience than the group Atany one time there was usually anenrolment of some 200000 peasants in about 20000 RadioSchools

To complement the radio programmes ACPO produced arange of textbooks and a PeasantrsquosLibrary of 100 books on topics forrural communities And a weeklymagazine with an estimated readership of 600000 people waspublished Furthermore trainingof peasant leaders and technicaltraining courses in communitieswere a part of the activities

The Roman Catholic Church supported the operation from thebeginning mainly with funds fromCatholic groups in Europe butACPO also attracted world-wideattention and many internationalagencies also became involved infinancing it

Ultimately Radio Sutatenza wasthe victim of its own successW h e n i t i n t r o d u c e d i t s programmes on lsquoresponsible procreationrsquo the Church begansystematically to undermine itSalcedo declared that the problemwas to convince the masses that itwas not sinful to discuss these matters and that it was difficult toeducate people for human dignityand for responsible maternity in acountry dominated by religiousrules ACPO held no position on

chemical or physical methods ofbirth control Its task was only tocreate the basis on which indivi-duals could take their own respon-sible decisions

This position infuriated the Churchhierarchy in Colombia which heldthat the only purpose of humansexual intercourse was procreationof the species So it convinced theEuropean Catholic groups to with-draw their support HoweverACPO continued to function withother international funding passedthrough the government

The operation struggled on usingmainly borrowed funds until 1985when its powerful and valuableradio infrastructure was sold to acommercial network In 1987 after40 years successfully dedicated tohelping peasants develop theirminds knowledge and life skills itfinally folded completely Itsassets which included a publi-shing house a plant for pressingmusical records a 14-storey officeblock in the capital as well as peasant training centres were soldto meet its debts

13

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1 Independent Radio and Television Commission of Ireland1988

2 Quote Louie Tabing Manager of the UNESCODANIDATambuli Project Philippines

3 Zane Ibrahim and Ms Adams Bush Radio 895 FM (See CaseStudy)

4 P M Lewis and J Booth The Invisible Medium PublicCommercial and Community Radio MacMillan (London 1989)

5 Jocelyn Josiah Presentation on Media for Community Buildingin the Caribbean during Roundtable on Communication forDevelopment Brazil (Bahia 1998)

6 Carlos A Arnaldo Localism and the Displacement of Politics Placebased Communication Development (Globalism and the Politicsof Place) Vol 41 No 2 1998 Sage Publications and SID (Rome June 1998)

7 Louie N Tabing Programming Tips for a Community Radio StationUNESCO-DANIDA Tambuli Project (Manila 1998)

8 Rafael Roncaglio lo Public Service Broadcasting ndash Cultural andEducational Dimensions UNESCO (Paris 1995)

9 T McCain and F Lowe Localism in Western EuropeanBroadcasting Journal of Communication Vol 40-1 (1990)

10 Moncef M Bouhafa Child Survival and Broadcasting ndashOpportunities and Challenges paper presented at internationalconference on Broadcasting for Child Survival Voice ofAmericaUSAID (Washington April 1998)

11 Colin Fraser and Sonia Restrepo-Estrada Communicating forDevelopment - Human Change for Survival IB Tauris (LondonNew York 1998)

12 Peter Lewis in Alternative Media Linking Global and LocalReports and Papers on Mass Communication No 107 UNESCO (Paris 1993)

13 Mary Myers The Promotion of Democracy at the Grass-roots The Example of Radio in Mali Frank Cass Journal Vol 5 No 2 (London 1998)

14 Jake Mills of Ghana the designer of the cheap 6-channelaudio mixer (1990)

15 Martin Allard designer of a simple and cheap FM transmitter

16 Interview Sunil Wijesinghe broadcaster of MahaweliCommunity Radio (1999)

17 Colin Fraser and Sonia Restrepo-Estrada op cit

18 Moncef M Bouhafa Grassroots Media and CommunityEmpowerment in West Africa paper presented to theInternational Conference on Media and Politics CatholicUniversity of Brussels Belgium 1997 (revised 1998)

19 Mary Myers op cit

20 Ibid

14

In Barbados after running the experimental UNESCO community radio for the 1995 World Environmental Conference students took over the radio station and continued programmes ever since from the Barbados Community College as Radio GED

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Chapter 2Features and Functions of Community Radio

15

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T his chapter describes the special featuresand programming approach of communityradio in terms of public access and partici-

pation ownership management funding editorial independence and credibility as wellas its representation of different groups andinterests in the community and its inclusion ofmarginalized and minority groups

The section on functions covers the role of community radio in reflecting local identity andculture in providing a diversity of voices opinionsprogrammes and content on air and in promotingdemocratic process social change developmentcivil society and good governance Its functionas a lsquopeoplersquos telephonersquo and its contribution tothe training of human resources for the broad-casting industry are also touched on

After absorbing the content the reader will

bull Have a clear picture of the many features andfunctions of community radio

bull Be able to act as a resource personleaderduring discussions in a community about the possibility of setting up a radio stationproviding the necessary background informa-tion for decisions on ownership manage-ment programming policies and the benefitsthat can be expected from a communityradio

ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF COMMUNITY RADIO

The Audience asProtagonists

While community radio is a form of public-servicebroadcasting it has anapproach that is differentfrom conventional broad-casting Its specific focus isto make its audience themain protagonists by theirinvolvement in all aspects of its management and programme productionand by providing them withprogramming that will helpthem in the developmentand social advancement oftheir community

A Special Slant on News Entertainment and Education

News on a community station unlike that on the mains-tream media is not an isolated story or event alone ratherit aims to be part of an ongoing and future process whichsupports change and development in the community

Special Sunday treat for Radio Ibahay - actress Chin ChinGutierrez visits the station during the childrenrsquos programme

and sings a song in Aklanon

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Entertainment is provided in aform that is a collective culturalexpression rather than a featuringof refined performers It is morelike singing Karaoke than listeningto a professional artist

Education is more the sharing ofexperiences and learning from othersin the community than listening toan expert or teacher talking

Principles of Public Access andParticipation

Citizens have a democratic right toreliable accurate and timely infor-mation Based on this right it is apublic interest of broadcasting thatit should incorporate the principlesof access and participation

Access implies the availability ofbroadcasting services to all citizensparticipation implies that the publicis actively involved in planning andmanagement and also providesproducers and performers

In concrete terms for communityradio these concepts mean that

bull A community radiorsquos broadcastpattern reaches all members ofthe community it aims to serve

bull The community participates informulating plans and policies forthe radio service and in definingits objectives its principles ofmanagement and its program-ming

bull The community participates indecisions concerning programmecontent duration and schedulesPeople se lect the types ofprogrammes they want ratherthan having them prescribed bythe producers

bull The community is free to commentand criticize

bull There is continuous interactionbetween producers and receiversof messages The radio itself actsas a principal channel for thisinteraction but there are alsomechanisms that allow easycontact between the communitythe programme producers and themanagement of the radio station

bull There are unrestricted opportu-nities for members of the com-munity as individuals or groupsto produce programmes and behelped by the radio station staffusing the technical productionfacilities available

bull The community participates inthe establishment managementadministration and financing ofthe radio station

Ownership

The facilities of community radioare almost invariably owned by thecommunity through a trust founda-tion cooperative or some similarvehicle However there could becases where formal ownership wasin the hands of a body external tothe community but which has passedthe facility to the community for itsindependent and exclusive use

Management

Irrespective of formal ownershipthe stationrsquos policies managementand programming must be the responsibility of the community inorder for it to be considered a truecommunity radio There will usual-ly be a representative communitycommittee or Board of Directors toset overall policies while day-to-day

Radio quickly and easily becomes he link in society between poor and rich between rural and urban groups between agricultural routine and city leisure At Radyo Ibahay one of the smallest Tambuli stations film and TV actress Chin Chin Gutierrez share her ideas on development in an interview for the Sunday programme

Phot

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administrative andoperational decisionsare left to a stationmanager selected by thecommunity

Funding

A community radio service is set up and run asa non-profit organization Itrelies on financial supportfrom a diversity of sourceswhich may include donationsgrants membersh ip fees sponsorsh ip or advert i s ing A combination of these is themost desirable in order to ensureindependence Many communityradios also organize fund-raisingevents among their audience Theoverall aim is always to reach astate of financial self-sufficiency

Editorial Independence andCredibility

Community radio is editoriallyindependent of central and localgovernment of political partiesand of commercial and religiousinstitutions in determining its policies and programming Overallpolicy is set by the aforementionedrepresentative community-levelcommittee but with day-to-day

operational decisionsabout programming taken by thestation manager hisher role as acredible and non-partisan personbecoming crucial

Representation of DifferentGroups and Interests in theCommunity

Communities are inevitably madeup of different groups and inter-ests Community radio broadcastsprogrammes that cater to theseand also encourages them toexpress themselves on air Clearlyhowever programme and timeallocation are approximately pro-portional to the size of any parti-cular group or interest in the com-munity taking into account anyspecial circumstances or needs

Inclusion ofMinority and MarginalizedGroups

Community radio includes minorityand marginalized groups on equalterms rather than giving them an

17

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2

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Even the smallest children haveaccess to the radio on the

Radio Ibahay Sunday childrenrsquosprogramme

Carol Singing for a Tape Recorder

Community radio stations often organize communityevents such as community fairs cultural eveningsand other fund-raising activities One Tambuli community radio station in the Philippines organizeddoor-to-door carol singing at Christmas to raisefunds to buy a new tape recorder

18

occasional voice as in the case of many public broadcasters Its programming ensures a wide diversity of voices and views frommarginalized groups such aswomen and youth and it promotesand protects the interests cultureand linguistic diversity of ethnicminorities in the community

FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNITY RADIO

Community radio aims to fulfil thefollowing functions

Reflect and Promote LocalIdentity Character and Culture

Co m m u n i t y ra d i o p ro v i d e s programming that is particular toits communityrsquos identity and character Thus it relies principallyon local content It includes outsidenews and events that have a specialinterest or implications for itsaudience

It also focuses on local cultureCulture is what a community saysto itself and what it says to othersIt is how the people the individualmembers of a community expresstheir dreams and hopes and howthey talk about their past and theirfuture It is what they care aboutLike life itself culture is infinitelyvariable and constantly evolving Itis the result of a process not of

definitions And that is why indemocracies governments areexpected only to establish broadframeworks for cultural expressionby the people Governments mustnot get involved in content or style 1

Community culture is also of courseartistic expression through localmusic dance poetry theatre storytelling and so on and these arefeatured strongly by most commu-nity radios Local performers areencouraged to go on air uninhibitedby considerations of the lsquoprofessionalstandardsrsquo they may have acquiredfrom mainstream media The valueof content and lsquolocalnessrsquo usuallyoutweighs formal quality and lsquoprofessionalismrsquo though thisshould not be used as an excuse forsub-standard technical production

Culture is also Language Locallanguages and expressions are theraw material that feeds communityradios They are the cement of cultural diversity which is as important for the successful futureof humanity as biological diversityThere are some 6700 languages inthe world and 63 percent of theseare in Africa and Asia Nationalbroadcasting and media globaliza-tion combined with other factorssuch as urban migration threatenhalf of the worldrsquos languages with extinction during the nextgeneration And with them will go

their cultures Community radio is aprime defence against this gravetrend towards the impoverishmentof cultural diversity 2

Create a Diversity of Voices andOpinions on the Air

Community radio through itsopenness to participation to all sectors and people in a communitycreates a diversity of voices andopinions on the air

Some discord is present in all communities they are not the peaceful harmonious groupingsthat outsiders may idealisticallyimagine Discord may be caused bydiffering interests by differing ethnic linguistic or religious backgrounds or even by someancient feud The acknowledgementof conflict is necessary for democracyand for democratic communitiesThrough an understanding of whyconflict exists communities canunderstand themselves better andpave the way to resolve conflicts A function of community radio is totry objectively to air all sides of a dis-cussion without itself taking sides

Main Functions of Community Radio as Formulatedin South Africa

Community radio stations should

bull Promote and reflect local culture character andidentity

bull Assist in creating a diversity of voices and opinionsand encourage individual expression

bull Increase access to a diversity of voices on air

bull Assist in creating a diversity in broadcastingownership

bull Be responsive to the needs of their community

bull Contribute to human resources development forbroadcasting and where appropriate to job creation

bull Encourage members of the relevant community toparticipate in programming and production matters

bull Encourage innovation and experimentation in programming 3

Preserving Linguistic Diversity in IndustrializedCountries too

Community radio stations in New York broadcast inWolof on Sundays for people of the Senegalese community Two other stations broadcast in Koreanwhile in France the Arab population has demandedthe right to set up media channels that meet its specific needs 4

Provide a Diversity ofProgrammes and Content

Community radio provides a diversity of programmes in a varie-ty of formats and styles Forexample roundtable discussionsreportage interviews talks call-inprogrammes live broadcasts ofmeetings in the community etcAudience preferences are takeninto account in deciding what formats are most suitable

Content also covers a wide rangeof topics again in accordance withthe expressed desires and needs ofthe audience Content is mainlydetermined by the lifestyles andlivelihood of the community andby the problems it faces In ruralareas themes such as health farming fishing environmentcredit marketing of producesmall-scale enterprises etc usuallyfeature prominently but always setin the context of the communityrsquosactual situation

News broadcasts may also focuson different types of contentThey may cover only local eventsand issues or they may includenational items that have local relevance or they may evenbroadcast national and internatio-nal news per se in the case of aremote community with no accessto other media channels

Encourage Open Dialogue andDemocratic Process

The ancient Greeks who inventeddemocracy conducted their politi-cal debate in public All those whowished could be present at themeetings to listen and voice theirviews Sheer numbers of peoplemake this impossible today andfor this reason democratic processhas become distant from ordinarycitizens Typically once politiciansare elected their contact withtheir electorates is limited andthey go about their tasks withoutmuch further consultation ordebate with them

It is a function of community radioto provide an independent platformfor interactive discussion aboutmatters and decisions of importanceto its community This is in keepingwith the decentralization processesnow being implemented in manycountries a purpose of which is tobring democratic decision-makingcloser to the people concerned

However for social and economicprogress to take place democraticprocesses cannot start and finish inthe community They must reachinto the government and privateinstitutions operating in the community as well as to policymakers and authorities at thelocal regional and even nationallevel

The public debates aired by thecommunity radio will certainlybe heard by locally-basedstaff of government andprivate institutions and theradiorsquos content should berelayed by them to theirsuperiors This lays the foun-dation for development initia-tives that are responsive to thecommunityrsquos felt needs andpossibilities In additionrecordings by the communityradio service can be used inmeetings or even broadcast byother stations to make betterknown what is happening at thegrassroots level

In sum the core of democraticprocess is the ability of people tohear and make themselves heardCommunity radio provides theforum for that to happen

Promote Development andSocial Change

People in poor communities tendto be fatalistic about their situationThey will all have individual perceptions but developmentcannot take place on the basis ofthese What is needed is a collectiveperception of the local reality andof the options for improving itThis can only be achieved throughinternal discussions within the

Connections

ldquoLocal radio stations have the responsibility toconnect people with people people with peoplersquosorganizations and people with officials and govern-ment functionariesrdquo 5

19

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While group listening is not the norm among radio audience radioachieves a certain level of similarity among people living in rural areasProblem-solving becomes easier when there is ldquocommonnessrdquo in knowledge perceptions aspirations goals and processes

20

community about its situation thecauses and possible actions forimprovement

Community radio provides the perfect platform for these internaldiscussions and for reaching a collective perception of the situationSpecific problems can be analyzedremedies discussed and thosemost affected - or who can helpwith the solution - mobilized tocollective action

Anti-social behaviour by minoritiesin a community can also be modifiedby exerting pressure from themajority through community radioprogrammes

Promote Civil Society

Civil society is that multiplicity ofsocial institutions that allows asociety to live in harmoniouscoexistence It creates its own stan-dards and values for individual andgroup behaviour rather thanhaving them imposed from above

Especially in countries that haverecently adopted democratic systems after decades of single-party or authoritarian rule theyounger generations have littleidea about what democracy entailsor about the civil society thatmakes democracies function

Some community radios focus onexplaining the implications ofdemocracy and civil society raisingawareness about peoplersquos rightsbut also about their obligationsThey work to explain how a civicsense is needed if new-found freedoms are to result in harmonyand social progress

Promote Good Governance

In poor communit ies loca l authorities and politicians can easily take advantage of citizenseither individually or as a group inpart because the marginalized andoppressed have no way to complain Community radio helpspeople to obtain their just rights bygiving them a platform to air theirgrievances And through playing acommunity watchdog role it makeslocal authorities and politiciansmore conscious of their public responsibilities

Broadcasting of discussions orquestions and answers betweenmembers of the community andlocal authorities about some issuethat i s exerc i s ing them i s a technique that is often usedAnother technique is to broadcastlive the discussions of local government meetings

This function of community radiois not always easy to fulfil In veryremote communities and wherepower has been held by a few familiesfor generations the people may bereluctant to speak their mindbecause they all have a debt of onesort or another to those familiesAnd equally the powerful familiesmay be unwilling to take criticism

Encourage Participation Sharingof Information and Innovation

Participation is a key word in development circles but it is notalways appreciated that participationand communication are two sidesof the same coin for when peoplecommunicate about their situationand about options for improving itthey are in effect participating Andthey are also laying the foundationfor collective action in which theywill participate Community radioencourages participation by providing a platform for debateanalysis and the exchange of ideasand opinions

In addition community radioallows for the sharing of informationand innovation For example onefamily or group in a communitymay have solved some problemthat is common to many otherpeople such as obtaining farm

Some of the Social and Development Benefits ofTambuli Community Radio Stations in thePhilippines

bull There is a new vibrancy and will to change in thecommunities

bull Men gave up their passionate pastime of gamblingafter a series of discussions over the radio clearlyshowed its negative economic impact on their fami-lies and on the community

bull Butchers were prohibited from bringing live ani-mals to the market and slaughtering them there

bull A large poultry farm was cleaned up to reduce itssmell and pollution

bull Creeks were dredged to reduce risks of flooding

bull A footbridge and extra lighting were installed

bull A day care centre for children was created by thelocal authorities

bull Illegal logging and fishing were stopped as a resultof community pressure 6

A Statement by the Programme Director of the Independent Radio Bamakan in Mali

ldquoThere are a lot of aspects of democracy that peopledonrsquot know about and we are obliged to raise awa-reness to explain that democracy is not anarchythat democracy involves rights and obligations Wehave the right to demand but we also have obliga-tions to the Staterdquo 7

credit from a new bank in the

nearest city A broadcast account

by them explaining how they went

about it and the procedures required

would be the stimulus for other

families to do the same Another

example might be providing infor-

mation about a farmer in the area

who had multiplied seed of an

improved vegetable variety and

was willing to sell it

Give Voices to the Voiceless

In many traditional societies

women and youth and ethnic and

linguistic minorities are virtually

ignored in community affairs But

no community can change and

develop equitably and satisfactori-

ly without the active and informed

participation of its women youth

and minority groups (See Box 3 at

the end of this Chapter)

Therefore community radio gives

voice to the voiceless in the

community This of course is in

addition to giving the community

in general a voice after years of

having been inert recipients of

state or commercial broadcasts

Provide a Social Service asa Replacement for theTelephone

In poor rural areas where

telephones hardly exist

community radio replaces

them to an important extent

by broadcasting messages

For example a family living

in a remote part of the

community can be informed

that a relative living in the

main agglomeration has

been taken ill and would they

please come to visit Or a

farmer with an animal he

wants to sell can have the

fact announced over the radio

replacing the series of calls he

would make if telephones were

available Again a person looking

for temporary labour to help with

some farm task could alert those

people who were interested to

offer their services through a

broadcast announcement

The efficiency of government ser-

vices say in health is improved by

broadcasting the schedule for field

visits ahead of time so that people

will be waiting for these on arrival

Contribute to Diversity inBroadcasting Ownership

Community commercial andnational or state broadcasting allhave roles in society though com-munity broadcasting is the onethat has generally lagged behindthe others Community radio helpsto redress this and provides thebalance of broadcast informationsources needed by democraticsocieties for their advancement

In Benin children participate directly in literacy courses on the air

21

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In October 1992 Bhutan Broadcasting Corporation was transformed from a statebroadcaster to a public corporation with a much decreased subsidy Above at thenew Punaka market a broadcast trainee talks with the people about prices travelalong country roads quality of the harvest and news of the village This project was financed by DANIDA

Phot

o U

NES

CO

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A A

rnal

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Difficulties in Achieving Transparency - a Case Studyfrom the Philippines

The more remote the community the more hesitantpeople are to speak out People rely on their leadersfor the smallest problems and they all owe a debt tothe few political families To criticise them wouldseem ungrateful

The local council told the community radio to acceptcalls from listeners with queries or comments duringlive broadcasts of the weekly council sessions Butwhen the calls began to come in the council toldthem to stop accepting them The council also beganto chose which portions of the sessions could bebroadcast and told the radio team to leave the roomwhen budget discussions were under way 8

22

Contribute to theDevelopment of HumanResources for theBroadcasting Industry

Community radio arguablydemystifies the broadcasterrsquosprofession by taking communitymembers as message producersIt is also a school for fledglingbroadcasters where they ofcourse acquire valuable technicalskills

But there is another factor that makes people trained in community radio particularlyvaluable They are broadcasterswho live among their listenersshare many of the same problemsand get constant feedback ndash positive and negative - on the formats of their programmes andon their interest and usefulnessThis gives them unique insightsinto the broadcaster audiencerelationship and into radio as a toolfor change and development It isnot uncommon therefore forcommunity broadcasters go on tojoin the staff of mainstream broadcasting

lsquoThe Peoplersquos Telephonersquo in Haiti

ldquoWhen the bandits sped off on their motorcycle leaving a cloud of dust a dead body and a distressedvillage in their wake they thought they were on theroad to freedom They hadnrsquot heard about the villagersquos radio station Radyo Flanbo In Haiti community radio stations such as Flanbo are knownas lsquothe peoplersquos telephonersquo and as the bandits prepared to terrorize the next village Flanborsquos newsreader broadcast a warning of their imminentarrival The bandits might as well have drivenstraight to the police stationrdquo 10

Phot

o U

NES

CO

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gsto

n

Radio Muye the first community radio run bywomen in the Caribbeanunder the UNESCO specialproject lsquoWomen Speaking toWomenrsquo

One of the youngest womenrecruits of the community

radio station in CuyoPalawan DYMC Radio

1 Adapted from Pierre Juneau GeneralIntroduction Public ServiceBroadcasting - the Challenge of the21st Century Reports and Papers on Mass Communication No 111 UNESCO (Paris 1997)

2 Sophie K Ly El Recuerdo delConocimiento Perdido InteRadio Vol 9 No 2 AMARC (Montreal 1997)

3 Triple Enquiry Report IndependentBroadcasting Authority Republic ofSouth Africa (1995)

4 Ibid

5 B S S Rao during the Consultationon Media Policy and Community RadioBangalore India (1996)

6 Colin FraserSonia Restrepo-Estrada Communicating forDevelopment - Human Change for Survival IB Tauris (LondonNew York) 1998

7 Mary Myers The Promotion ofDemocracy at the Grass-roots The Example of Radio in Mali FrankCass Journal Vol 5 No 2 (London Summer 1998)

8 Adapted from Cecile Balgos The Sounds of Silence UNESCOSources No 89 UNESCO(Paris 1997)

9 Felix Librero in Communication forPeople Power Ed Maslog NavarroTabing Teodoro UNESCOTambuliProject Institute of DevelopmentCommunication College of MassCommunication UNESCO NationalCommission Philippines (Manila 1997)

10 David Shanks Voices for the VoicelessA feature prepared by WorldAssociation for ChristianCommunication (WACC) (London March 1999)

Information as a Commodity for Decisions

ldquoThe appropriate use of community broadcasting isto satisfy community and social needs In the processof doing so people are able to access the very important commodity called information on whichthey base their day-to-day decisionsrdquo 9

Phot

o L

Tab

ing

23

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Filipino women - particularly

those in the countryside

where socialization has been

limited by poverty and inadequate

educational attainment - are often

shy reserved and timid In addition

rural families are often resistant to

changing the traditional position of

women as housekeepers and

women would generally prefer that

their husbands participate in

community projects

It is very evident that the issue of

collectively pursuing womens rights

and empowerment has been relegated

to the lowest priority among rural

people So it often takes cajoling and

reassurances before women will

come out of their shells

However increased readiness to

participate in community projects

can be seen among those who have

been exposed to mass media culture

and our initial talks in communities

regarding special radio programmes

for about and by women were met

with much eagerness I attribute this

to the fact that some family and

social institutions that had been

trying to promote womenrsquos activities

in the community felt threatened and

welcomed the support that radio

could provide

Once involved women are highly

dependable They adhere to rules

Compared to men they are more

meticulous They are less subject

to anomalous behaviour and

malfeasance They are consistently

enthusiastic And where the women

are mixed with men the men also

become more enthusiastic if not to

say better performers

Meriam Aranas the president of

the Olutanga Islanders Media

Development Foundation was a

strong-willed leader of an active

womens group promoting livelihood

and conservation projects She

registered the association and led the

drive to erect a building for the radio

station

A schoolteacher Rosario Gozos was

appointed as station manager in

Partido Camarines Sur She is

single-handedly running a family

because her husband works abroad

She spearheaded the

successful drive against illegal

gambling in the district Among

other things she has initiated an

all-women Saturday programme

Her infectious dedication

has inspired all the other

volunteers in her radio

station In less than three

years the station became

an institutional power in

the community It has

contributed greatly to

the progress and well

being of Partido

Lyn Villasis a soft-

spoken beautician has

been running a story-

telling program for

children for years and has become

one of the most popular personalities

in the station in Banga Aklan

Malou Angolluan is a youthful

college graduate who has taken

voluntary activity as a vocation Her

exemplary work and dedication to

service have earned her profuse

admiration from her listeners She

has turned down several offers to

work in bigger commercial radio

stations

BOX 3 Involvement of Women

In Ibahay Aklan province PhilippinesAte Meds rushes from Sunday mass tothe Studio for her weekly childrenrsquosprogramme

Phot

o C

A A

rnal

do

24

In Pastapur Hyderabad India women discuss local problems for airing on a regional radio station of All India Radio They are also advocating for new legislationto enable them to broadcast on their own antenna

Phot

o J

im B

entl

ey

25

Chapter 3Legal Aspects

T his chapter gives an overview of the legis-lation governing community radio in avariety of countries world-wide Special

attention is given to South Africa wherebroadcasting legislation is in many ways exem-plary and could be used as a model by othercountries The main common factors and themain differences that exist in national commu-nity radio legislation are described as are typi-cal requirements for obtaining a licence

The reader will gain

bull An awareness of the wide variations in legisla-tion and of the obstacles that communityradio may face in some parts of the world

bull An understanding of the need to examine clo-sely the existing legislation before embarkingon a community radio project

bull Knowledge of the likely information andconditions that the authorities will requirebefore issuing a community radio licence

UNEVEN AND HAPHAZARD LEGISLATION

The airwaves or the frequencies for broadcastingare a public asset It is therefore incumbent uponnational administrations in line with the decisionsof the administrative planning conferences organizedby the International Telecommunications Union(ITU) to regulate and allocate their use with thepublic interest in mind as well as with fairness andtransparency And general national media policiesshould meet the same criteria

Unfortunately this does not always happen andthe legislation governing community radio is veryuneven In several regions of the world communityradio suffers because current legislation is eithernon-existent inconsistent or basically hostile Thishandbook is not the place for an exhaustive description of the legislation country-by-countrybut a brief overview of the situation in a few countries world-wide will give a feel for the situation

MOST PROGRESS IN AFRICA

Many countries in Africa have made good progress inlegislating for community radio This is particularlyinteresting because at first sight it would appearto be a paradox on the one hand communityradio certainly has a natural role to play in cateringto the information needs and interests of the wide

ethnic cultural and linguistic diversity present inmost African countries but on the other handgovernments fear that freedom of ethnic and linguistic expression might undermine nationalunity It will be remembered that this was partlywhat brought the Homa Bay community radioexperience in Kenya to a premature end in 1984

However it seems that the lesson has now beenlearned about authoritarian suppression of diverselinguistic and cultural expression within a countryThis ultimately produces strong resentment andtensions in society Indeed even in industrializedcountries the last two decades have seen a changeof heart by governments that now try to preservethe traditional linguistic and cultural identity of theirminority groups They have realized that a pluralisticsociety can also achieve national identity and unity

This is the case in many parts of Africa too Sincethe early 1990s countries such as Mali BurkinaFaso Namibia and South Africa have all embarkedon a course of freeing their airwaves and promo-ting community radio as part of the nationalbroadcasting spectrum backing the policy withappropriate legislation in most cases

South Africarsquos progress towards new broadcastingpolicies and community radio legislation is consideredexemplary Some countries have already copied itand many others could also find it a useful modelIt is therefore outlined in the next section

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26

Broadcasting Legislation inSouth Africa ndash an ExemplaryCase

The government of post-apartheidSouth Africa realized that the countryrsquos media could help toresolve many socio-economicdevelopment needs and at thesame time help to build a democraticand pluralistic society But newbroadcasting policies and opera-tions would be needed

An Independent BroadcastingAuthority

The first step taken in 1993 wasthe creation of an IndependentBroadcasting Authority (IBA) ajuridical body to formulate broad-casting policy plan the use of thefrequency spectrum issue licencesadjudicate in the case of com-plaints and in general regulate thebroadcasting industry It functionsindependently of the State and ofgovernmental and political partyinfluences It is a non-profit entitythat is financed partly by the Stateand partly from fees that itreceives

The IBA is run by a Council madeup of seven people appointed bythe State President They arepeople with expertise in fields thatinclude broadcasting policy media

law marketing journalism enter-tainment and education They arealso selected on the basis of theircommitment to fairness freedomof expression the right of thepublic to be informed opennessand accountability

Overall Objectives of theBroadcasting Legislation

Among the main objectives ofSouth Africarsquos broadcasting legisla-tion are the following

bull Promote the provision of a diverserange of broadcasting services ona national regional and local levelwhich cater for all language andcultural groups and provideentertainment education andinformation

bull Promote the development ofpublic private and communitybroadcasting services which areresponsive to the needs of thepublic

bull Develop and protect a nationaland regional identity culture andcharacter

bull Encourage ownership andcontrol of broadcasting servicesby persons from historicallydisadvantaged groups

bull Ensure that private and commu-nity broadcasting licences are

Western Media Models a Disservice toDevelopment

ldquoBroadcasting media have developed into aone-way model in Third World countrieswith information news and massive dosesof entertainment flowing from large urbancentres The uniform prescription designed by theaffluent minority at decision-making level does notaddress the issues of development which require alocal perspective for each county and each community The concepts and use of the media as developed in industrialized societies have not proved conducive to the development needsof our countryrdquo 1

controlled by persons or groupsfrom a diverse range of commu-nities in the Republic

bull Ensure equitable treatment ofpolitical parties by all broadcas-ting licencees during any electionperiod

bull Ensure that broadcasting licenceesadhere to a code of conductacceptable to the IBA

Categories of Radio Broadcasting

The legislation foresees three categories of radio service

bull A public service ndash A serviceprovided by the South AfricanBroadcasting Corporation or byany other statutory body or person that receives revenuefrom licence fees paid by listenersfor their receivers

bull A private service - Operatedfor profit and controlled by aperson who is not a publicbroadcasting licencee

bull A community service - A broadcasting service which

Is fully controlled by a non-profit entity and carried onfor non- profitable purposes

Serves a particular commu-nity

Encourages members of thecommunity served by it orpersons associated with orpromoting the interest ofsuch community to partici-pate in the selection andprovision of programmes tobe broadcast

May be funded by dona-tions grants sponsorshipadvertising or membershipfees or by any combinationof these

The term lsquocommunityrsquo includes ageographically founded communityor any group of persons or sectorof the public having a specific andascertainable common interest

South African LicencingArrangements

In keeping with the general andcommunity radio policies outlinedabove the legislation providesdetailed requirements that mustbe met by applicants for commu-nity radio licences It also laysdown the procedures to be follo-wed These are complex anddemanding in terms of the detai-led information that is called forCommunity radio licences areawarded for four-year periodsalthough shorter temporarylicences can also be issued

Licences are not granted to anyparty movement organizationbody or alliance which is of a politi-cal nature

Readers may wish to browse theIBArsquos website (httpibaorgza)for more details on South Africancommunity radio policy legislationand licencing

ASIA AND INDIArsquoSLENGTHY DEBATE ON

COMMUNITY RADIO

The situation in Asia is far lessfavourable than in Africa andIndia provides a good illustration ofthe problems Nepal and Sri Lankashow ways of solving problems

All India Radio (AIR) was establishedas a state broadcasting monopolyin 1935 in line with the Britishmodel the BBC The debate aboutbreaking that monopoly beganmore than 30 years ago with theChanda Committee reportSubsequent committees have spe-cifically recommended decentrali-zing broadcasting to institutionalizethe process of participation and tomeet peoplersquos fundamental rightto information The SupremeCourt passed a landmark judge-ment in 1995 declaring that theairwaves were a lsquopublic goodrsquo andstressing the importance of main- 27

Com

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3

Much research interest has been devoted to mass media In their findings communicationspecialists have always acknowledged that there are many sectors communities and minorities whose access to information and means of self-expression are not always guaranteed by mass channels They have recognized that more sharply focused customizedand essentially small and local media are crucial in filling this gap

During the last two decades UNESCO has commissioned a number of studies andpublished monographs on the theme of community media The first monograph published byUNESCO on the theme of community media was Access Some Western Models of CommunityMedia by Frances Berrigan which appeared in 1977 and in 1981 the enquiry was extendedto the developing countries in a study by the same author entitled CommunityCommunications ndash the Role of Community Media in Development (No 90 in the series ofReports and Papers on Mass Communication) A few years later Peter Lewis prepared theUNESCO study Media for People in Cities (1984) which brought together a number of case-studies and the conclusions of two research meetings on urban community media

During the ensuing years UNESCO began setting up community radio stations in Africa(Homa Bay 1982) and Asia (Mahaweli 1986 and Tambuli Community radios 1982) The growthof the community radio lsquomovementrsquo was covered in a section of the UNESCO WorldCommunication Report in 1997

UNESCO sees community radio as a medium that gives voice to the voiceless thatserves as the mouthpiece of the marginalized and is at the heart of communication anddemocratic processes within societies With community radio citizens have the means tomake their views known on decisions that concern them The notions of transparency andgood governance take on new dimensions and democracy is reinforced Community radiocatalyzes the development efforts of rural folk and the underprivileged segments of urbansocieties given its exceptional ability to share timely and relevant information on developmentissues opportunities experiences life skills and public interests Given the audiencersquos lowliteracy rate and radiorsquos ability to involve women and to treat them not only as objects ormerely as a target audience but as participating agents and as a valuable source communityradio becomes one of the most promising tools for community development This hasbeen demonstrated by the special UNESCO project Women Speaking to Women community radiostations for the empowerment of women

In the age of multimedia and online communication the potential of community radioto provide for effective outreach to discuss and create demand for the Internet has becomeeven greater The Kothmale Internet radio experiment in Sri Lanka has proven that radiostations can promote and use the Internet in rural communities overcoming language barriersand lack of infrastructure By using radio and browsing the Internet to respond to listenersrsquodirect queries by sharing information and knowledge derived from the Internet the wholecommunity is involved and empowered with new opportunities

Against this background of challenges I believe that this handbook can contributetowards helping different communication actors technicians operators and radio producersin community radio stations to make more efficient use of community media for communitydevelopment by getting people involved in clarifying issues and solving problems and intalking to each other

The handbook is based on the experience and innovative thinking of communicationexperts and practitioners whose contribution I would like especially to acknowledge thelate Jake Mills former Director of Engineering Ghana Broadcasting Corporation whodesigned the prototype sound mixer Martin Allard electronics engineer designer of theUNESCO prototype transmitter Alex Quarmyne former UNESCO RegionalCommunication Advisor in Africa and project manager for Homa Bay in Kenya the firstcommunity radio in Africa Carlos Arnaldo former Chief of Communication Policies andResearch Section at UNESCO as project manager of Mahaweli community radio GeorgesDupont-Henius engineer UNESCO Communication Development Division WijayanandaJayaweera UNESCO Regional Communication Advisor for Asia and creator of KothmaleInternet Radio project Kwame Boafo of UNESCO Communication and InformationSector Louie Tabing project manager of Tambuli community radios and creator of Village on the Air For the time they took in producing this book and for their valuablecomments I should also like to thank Sonia Restrepo Estrada and Colin Fraiser for compilingthese experiences and putting them together for publication

Claude OndoboDeputy Assistant Director-General

for Communication and Information and Director of Communication Development Division

PREFACE

iii

Preface helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip iii

Introduction helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 1Any Community Can Start its Own Radio Station helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 1

Chapter 1 Community Radio in the Broadcasting Scene helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 3

Community Radio in the Context of the Globalization of Media helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 5

The Evolution of Community Radio helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 6

An Important Initiative by UNESCO helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 8

Box 1 The Minersrsquo Radio in Bolivia helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 12

Box 2 Radio SutatenzaACPO in Colombia helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 13

Chapter 2 Features and Functions of Community Radio helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 15

Essential Features of Community Radio helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 15

Functions of Community Radio helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 18

Box 3 Involvement of Women helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 23

Chapter 3 Legal Aspects helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 25

Uneven and Haphazard Legislation helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 25

Most Progress in Africa helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 25

Asia and Indiarsquos Lengthy Debate on Community Radio helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 27

Legislation in Some Latin American Countries helliphelliphelliphelliphellip 28

Some Examples from Western Europe helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 30

Convergence and Divergence in Legislation helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 31

Applying for a Licence helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 32

Chapter 4 Technical Aspects helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 33

Technical Background helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 33

Broadcasting Equipment helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 35

Reliability and Maintenance helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 39

Studio Premises helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 40

Spatial Relationship Between the Components of the Radio Station helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 40

Future Possibilities helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 41

Specialist Advice helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 43

Box 4 Basic Equipment for a UNESCO-supported Community Radio Station helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 44

Chapter 5 Getting Started helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 45

Legal Context helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 45

Preparatory Work in the Community helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 46

Importance of a Mission Statement helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 48

Role of the Religious Establishment helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 49

Role of Local Educational Institutions helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 49

Involvement of Politicians helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 49

Choosing a Location in the Community helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 49

Box 5 Involvement of Politicians helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 50

Choosing a Model helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 50

Power of the Transmitter helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 51

Ownership and Management helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 51

Programminghelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 51

Staff helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip52

Sustainability helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip52

Looking for Outside Funding for Start-up Costs helliphelliphelliphellip54

Box 6 Main Factors to Consider When Planning a Community Radio helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip54

Chapter 6 Programme Policieshelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 57

Participatory Programmes helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 57

Community News helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 60

Balancing Views helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 60

Coverage of Religious and Cultural Events helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 61

Local Election Broadcasts helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 61

Educational Broadcasts helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 61

Audience Surveys helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 63

Chapter 7 The Community Broadcaster helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 65

Code of Conduct helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 65

A Prototype Code of Conduct helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 66

Selection of Community Broadcasters helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 71

Training of Community Broadcasters helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 71

Chapter 8 Case Studies helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 75

Radio Olutanga (Tambuli Project) Philippines helliphelliphelliphelliphellip 75

Radio Sagarmatha Nepal helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 80

Radio Ada Ghana helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 85

Bush Radio South Africa helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 90

Radio Chaguarurco Ecuador helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 95

Table of contents

Communities and Communication

ldquoPeople live in a community by virtue of the thingswhich they have in common and communication isthe way in which they come to possess things in commonrdquo 1

T here are more than 20000radio stations in the worldand more than 2 billion

radio receivers Any notion thatTV and other sophisticated communication technology willreplace radio is unfounded forradio is in constant expansion Itswaves reach almost every cornerof our planet It is the prime electronic medium of the poorbecause it leaps the barriers of isolation and illiteracy and it is themost affordable electronic mediumto broadcast and receive in

The last two decades have seen arapid expansion in the number andpopularity of community radiostations Among the reasons forthis are the democratization anddecentralization processes in manyparts of the world deregulation ofthe media and the relaxing ofbroadcasting monopolies by stateinstitutions and disaffection withcommercial radio channels

Furthermore awareness is growingof the social and economic benefitsthat can result when ordinarypeople have access to appropriateinformation And it is also evidentthat when people especially the

poor can participate incommunica-tion processesand consensusbuilding aboutissues thataffect theirlives it helpsthem to cast off their traditionalstate of apathy and stimulatesthem to mobilize and organize tohelp themselves

ANY COMMUNITY CANSTART ITS OWN RADIO STATION

To start a small radio station is notas complicated and expensive asmany people think There isenough experience in many countries to prove that it is withinthe reach of almost any community

Community Will is the Key

The primordial condition for acommunity to start its own radiostation is a sense of internal cohe-sion and community consciousnessThere must be willingness forcooperative work and to poolresources and enthusiastic consensus

that the people want their own radioin order to advance their community

As part of the consensus buildingthat leads to the decision to establisha community radio the communitymust analyze its communicationneeds and determine how radiocould help to resolve them Thetraditional approach to develop-ment is to provide support to agriculture health education andso on and a radio station may notnormally be seen as a priority Buta community that analyzes itsneeds in detail and thinks aboutthe causes of its problems andmarginalization will often cometo the conclusion that it needscommunication processes to helppeople share common understan-ding and common goals This is thefirst step towards a communitytaking action to establish its ownradio station

ldquoEveryone has the right to freedom of opinion andexpression this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek receiveand impart information and ideas through any mediaand regardless of frontiersrdquo

Right of information section Article 19 of theUniversal Declaration of Human Rights

ldquoCommunity radio is a social process or eventin which members of the community associatetogether to design programmes and produce andair them thus taking on the primary role of actorsin their own destiny whether this be for something as common as mending fences in theneighbourhood or a community-wide campaign on how to use clean water and keep it clean or agitation for theelection of new leaders The emphasis is on the ownership of democratic and development efforts by the members of the communitythemselves and the use of media in this case radio toachieve it In every sense this is participatory communication(not programmes made about them by somebody else) It is above all a process not a technology not merely ameans because the people are part of that means and sois the message and the audienceCommunity radio is most relevant to a group of peoplewho live and act as a community and this could be severalfamilies several neighbourhoods or even several villagesor communities but the important thing is that theyinteract That is why I think of community radio as the

community speaking to each other and acting together forcommon goalsrdquo

Carlos A Arnaldo

Introduction

A basic Community Radio Studio in Burkina Faso

1

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mun

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Phot

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2

Producing Programmes does notneed Magical Skills

The professional tasks of managing astation and producing programmesare not beyond the reach of typicalcommunities Unfortunately expo-sure to commercial andor stateradio leaves many people with theimpression that such professionalstandards are the norm and theydo not realize that good and effec-tive radio broadcasting can bemuch less formalized Nor do theyrealize that the usefulness andimpact of any media productiondepends much more on its relevan-ce to the audience than on its for-mal quality

This is not to say that quality ofprogrammes in terms of theirstructure and their technical level isunimportant For example impro-per use of recording equipmentmay result in programmes of suchpoor sound quality that they aredifficult to understand Howeverexperience with community radioshows that when people are moti-vated and enthusiastic the mini-mum technical levels required forbroadcasting can be masteredduring only a few weeks of trainingAnd as they gain hands-on produc-tion experience their skills developmarkedly They quickly reach fullysatisfactory levels of performance

The Cost and Technologyare not Prohibitive

The equipment requiredfor community radio isrobust and easy to main-tain and it does not needsupport from broadcastingengineers beyond some ini-tial training Its cost isconstantly falling For atypical community radiostation the normal cost ofthe equipment is little morethan US$20000 For minimalbroadcasting there is even asuitcase available weighing 16 kgwhich contains a five-watt trans-mitter a six-channel audio mixertwo compact disc players two cas-sette taperecordersplayers and anantenna The total cost is aboutUS$3000

There are also FM radio receiverswith a solar strip that can eitherpower the radio or charge a batteryAt night the radio can be poweredby a dynamo winding up the radioby hand for two minutes provides30 minutes of listening time

The tendency among those produ-cing equipment for communityradio has been to focus on simplicityof installation use and maintenanceAnd local people often show extra-ordinary capacity to adapt andbuild for themselves For examplein Cape Verde UNESCO helpedlocal technicians to install a single

transmitter on one islandHowever the technicians were soeager and enterprising that after-wards they built two more trans-mitters so that they could have oneon each of the three main islandsThis was despite the fact that thecomponents originally made avai-lable were scarcely enough for onestation Furthermore they also linkedthe three stations over seeminglyimpossible distances to form a net-work that shares programmes in acomplicated schedule every day5

Media and Development

ldquoDeveloping communities are characterized by isolation from ideas and information as well as services At the simplest level before people canconsider a question they need to be fully aware of allthe facts the short-term effects and the long-termimplications ways in which decisions taken in onearea will affect future planning Communicationmedia could present this informationrdquo 2

Phot

o C

A A

rnal

do

The Judges are the Listeners

ldquoIt is unfortunate that the so-called radio professionals have set certain artistic productionstandards which could intimidate the regular villagepeople The irony is that the so-called professionalproductions cannot compete with programmes doneby the inexperienced village people The professionalsforget that the ultimate judge of a radio programmeis the listenerrdquo 4

Donrsquot be afraid of radio

ldquoNo one should be afraid to use radio I have been abroadcaster for almost a quarter of a century andI know nothing about the electronics side of radio

Even today I cannot explain how my voice in the studio is processed and passed on finally to the family radio maybe hundreds of kilometres awayrdquo 5

1 John Dewey (1916) cited by Elizabeth Blanks HindmanldquoCommunity Democracy and Neighbourhood NewsrdquoInternational Communication Association (1998)

2 Frances J Berrigan ldquoCommunity Communications - the role ofcommunity media in developmentrdquo Reports and Papers onMass Communication no 90 UNESCO (Paris 1981)

3 Louie Tabing Neighbourhood Radio ProductionUNESCODANIDA Tambuli Project Philippines

4 Martin AllardrdquoOn the AirhellipThe Development of CommunityRadiordquo UNESCO Sources no 21 (1990)

5 Louie Tabing Manager of the UNESCODANIDA TambuliProject Philippines

Mang Vicente of Ibahay on Aklan Island in Southern Philippines plays traditional melodies on a flute made from PVC plumbing pipe

Chapter 1Community Radio in the Broadcasting Scene

3

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T his chapter describes the place of community radio in the broadcastingscene and explains the essential

difference in its approach compared to conventional public service or commercialbroadcasting A rationale is put forward for itsimportance in the scenario of increasing mediaglobalization

The evolution of community radio from itsfirst experiences some 50 years ago is tracedand set in the context of broadcast mediaownership patterns technical developmentsand the recent trends towards democratization and decentralization

The reader will acquire

bull An understanding of the special nature ofcommunity radio compared to other types ofradio broadcasting

bull An understanding of its place and importan-ce in the trend towards media globalization

bull Knowledge about its background specificfield experiences and the factors that havedetermined its evolution

This theoretical framework provides the long-term foundation for practical knowledge andskills to be gained in later chapters

Broadcasting can be divided into three general categories

bull Public-service broadcasting is generally conductedby a statutory entity which is usually - though notnecessarily ndash a state-supported or a state-ownedcorporation Its broadcasting policies and programmingare often controlled by a public body such as a councilor a legally constituted authority This body ensuresthat broadcasting operates to provide informationeducation and entertainment to the citizens andsociety in general and independently of governmentparty politics or other interests Much of the fundingfor the operation comes from licence fees that the listenersviewers pay for the receivers they have intheir homes

bull Commercial or private broadcasting providesprogrammes designed primarily for profit fromadvertising revenue and is owned and controlled byprivate individuals or by commercial enterprises

bull Community broadcasting is a non-profit servicethat is owned and managed by a particular communityusually through a trust foundation or association Itsaim is to serve and benefit that community It is ineffect a form of public-service broadcasting but itserves a community rather than the whole nation asis the usual form of public broadcasting describedabove Moreover it relies and must rely mainly on the resources of the community A community is considered to be a group of people who share

A Declaration of Principle

ldquoCommunity radio responds to the needs of the community it serves contributing to its developmentwithin progressive perspectives in favour of socialchange Community radio strives to democratizecommunication through community participation indifferent forms in accordance with each specificsocial contextrdquo

World Association of Community Broadcasters(AMARC) 1988

4

common characteristics andorinterests The commonality ofinterests may be based on

- The sharing of a single geographicallocation that is to say those livingin a specific town village orneighbourhood

- The sharing of economic and sociallife through trade marketingexchange of goods and services

Unfortunately this tidy classificationinto three categories of broadcastingis less than tidy in practice forthere can be combinations andoverlapping situations For examplea local commercial radio stationmay also broadcast some communityservice programmes a station ownedand managed by an NGO such as areligious institution may fill most ofits air time with such programmesand state-owned public-servicebroadcasting has increasingly beendecentralizing to the local level andproviding programming for thecommunities around it

Not surprisingly there is still nosingle definition or description ofcommunity radio And to complicatematters further there have beenvarious terms applied to small-scaleradio broadcasting such as lsquolocalrsquolsquoalternativersquo lsquoindependentrsquo or lsquofreersquoradio All of these lack precision Forexample the term lsquolocal radiorsquo

could also cover the decentralizedoperation through a local stationof a state-controlled broadcastingsystem or even a small commercialstation Terms such as lsquoalternativersquoand lsquofreersquo are also imprecise even ifin the context of radio they arenormally taken to mean alternativeto the mainstream mass media andfree from government ownershipand control Logically thereforethey include community radio butthey do not necessarily include it

The various definitions of communityradio that have been formulatedshare many common elements Thesimple and catchy phrase lsquoRadio bythe people and for the peoplersquo isoften used as a good summary Thisphrase captures well the essentialprinciple that must be in place for abroadcasting service to be consideredtrue community radio It must firstlybe managed by the communitysecondly be to serve that community

Strict application of these two principles would mean that a radiostation owned by a non-profitNGO and also managed by thatNGO would not necessarily qualifyas a true community radio even ifmuch of its programming wereaimed at community developmentThis is the case for many broadcastingservices run by religious organiza-tions and in practice the term

lsquocommunity radiorsquo is often used tocover this type of operation as wellOne example is Radio Maria whichbeginning from a single parish inNorthern Italy in 1983 now coversall of Italy and also has stations in21 other countries It is essentiallyan evangelical operation but it alsodoes a great deal in social servicesand community developmentusing volunteers and supported byspontaneous contributions fromlisteners

The somewhat confusing situationregarding what constitutes truecommunity radio can perhaps bestbe understood by considering thefollowing quotation this sums up aphilosophical approach that makescommunity radio different fromcommercial or public-service radio

ldquoCommunity radio emphasizes thatit is not commercial and does notshare what it would call the prescriptive and paternalistic attitude of public-service broadcas-tinghellip The key difference is thatwhile the commercial and public-service models both treat listenersas objects to be captured foradvertisers or to be improved andinformed community radio aspiresto treat its listeners as subjects andparticipantsrdquo 4

One Definition

ldquoA community radio station is characterized by itsownership and programming and the community it isauthorized to serve It is owned and controlled by anon-profit organization whose structure provides formembership management operation and programming primarily by members of the community at large Its programming should bebased on community access and participation andshould reflect the special interests and needs of thelistenership it is licenced to serverdquo 1

On Radio Work for Ordinary People - a Practitionerrsquos View

ldquoRadio is simply people talking with people The Tambuli stations have merely expanded theopportunity for people to talk more to a wideraudience and to listen to a more expansive array ofideas on matters that directly concern themrdquo 2

On Community Ownership and Management

ldquoTo qualify as a community radio the ownership and control of the station must rest squarely and unquestionably with the community it claimsto serverdquo 3

Commercial Media Antagonism Towards Community Media

ldquoMainstream commercial media continue to harbournegative feelings about community media and areconvinced that they are adequately able to servecommunity needs They have not yet come around toaccepting that the special character of communitymedia is complementary rather than antagonisticand mutually exclusiverdquo 5

This placing of both public andcommercial broadcasting into aprescriptive category treating listeners as objects is significantfor even when they broadcasttheir so-called community serviceprogrammes they usually remainin the same prescriptive modeThis is contrary to the participatoryessence of community radio programming

COMMUNITY RADIO IN THE CONTEXT OF THEGLOBALIZATION OFMEDIA

Recent years have seen a strongtrend towards the globalization ofmedia Colossal media enterprisesof a commercial nature have beenformed and increasingly span theglobe with their programmesCertain countries have also becomecentres of highly successful mediaproduction mainly of an enter-tainment character and sell theiroutput to TV channels worldwideObvious examples are soap operasfrom the USA However audienceresearch has shown that peopleprefer to watch programmes withtheir own cultural orientationsrather than those imported fromothers For this reason media productions from developing

countries such as Brazil ChinaEgypt India and Indonesia arenow gaining wider distribution inlarge-scale commercial media

While some people argue that theglobalization of the media disruptslocal cultures others state thatglobal media intensifies theconsciousness of the world as awhole and is therefore beneficialThey see global media and community media as complemen-tary each forming important functions that the other cannotAnd this is certainly the case

By definition global media arecommercial and need to attractlarge audiences for their adverti-sing content Thus they broadcastprogrammes that attempt to satisfya common thread of sensitivitiesamong large numbers of peopleusing well-tried and rather standardif not banal entertainment formatsThe lack of variety in programmeorientation is therefore generallyattributed to the lsquoself-censorshiprsquoof the market which uses entertainment as the sole criterionfor selection However it is alsotrue that governments tend to bemore comfortable with privatebroadcasters limiting themselvesto entertainment rather thanbecoming involved in the moreproblematic area of news and

current affairs For these reasonsthemes reflecting socio-politicalinterests are often insufficientlycovered or deliberately ignoredby private broadcasters

Clearly given their characteristicsand orientation commercial andglobal media can hardly meetsocio-economic and developmentneeds of the countries they coverThe excessive entertainment provided by commercial televisionhas often provoked a call for areappraisal of the potential ofpublic broadcasting stressing theneed for quality programmes anddemanding more possibilities ofchoice and access for audiences A logical step in this direction is toexpand the democratization ofmedia to the community levelespecially through communityradio in which accessibility is thenorm

Furthermore community radioworks in the cultural context ofthe community it serves it dealswith local issues in the local language or languages it is relevantto local problems and concernsand its aim is to help the commu-nity to develop socially culturallyand economically This is not onlyin contrast with global media operations it is also in contrastwith centralized urban-based 5

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Global Communication

ldquoGeorge Orwell in Nineteen Eighty-Four warned us ofa society controlled by Big Brother Is that what weare encountering today when we see so many peoplein poor communities tuning into western dominatedideals of the rich consumer society Orwell was veryconcerned about the socialist drives of the industrialage But perhaps he was also warning about the takeover of society by a democratic political power drivento degradation by these very industrial drives and bythe easy resort to globalization of mediardquo 6

The Power of the Local Approach

ldquoAn effective strategy for the community radiostation is to present what cannot be offered by any

other radio station that is local content with a localflavour The local radio station must dwell on itsstrongest reason for existence - local events issuesconcerns and personalities If a local station can doan exhaustive reportage of what goes on in its community on a regular basis there is no way aregional or national broadcast outfit could competefor listenership The element of proximity is the mostpotent quality that the community radio should capitalize on People will be enthusiastic to know ona daily or even hourly basis about the people andevents unfolding next to their place of aboderdquo 7

6

national media even of a publicservice nature for they are oftenremote from the realities of ruralcommunities and their needs

THE EVOLUTION OF COMMUNITY RADIO

The pioneering experiences fromwhich todayrsquos community radio hasevolved began some 50 years agoin Latin America Poverty and socialinjustice were the stimulus forthose first experiences one beginningin Bolivia in 1947 and known as theMinersrsquo radios and another inColombia in the same year knownas Radio SutatenzaAccioacutenCulturalPopular (See boxes 1 and 2 at the end of this Chapter for descriptions)

These experiences in Bolivia andColombia set a trend even iftodayrsquos concept of communityradio has evolved considerably Forexample the Minersrsquo radios inBolivia were working in thedecades of ideological clash between Marxism and capitalismThus their principal focus was tounite the community of miners tobattle for better and fairer workingconditions They were generallyconsidered to be trade unionradios even if the miners providedmuch of the finance for the purchase

of equipment and running costs

Radio SutatenzaACPO in Colombiaalthough inspired by the aim ofsupporting the community of peasants was not owned or directlymanaged by them There was muchfeedback from peasants - some50000 letters a year ndash and thesecertainly ensured the integration ofthe peasantsrsquo desires and needsinto the radiorsquos programming Butit was not truly lsquoradio by the peoplefor the peoplersquo which is todayrsquosaim

Even so this first systematic effortby Radio Sutatenza to educate byradio created a movement thatldquohellipspread and was later consolidatedthrough ALER the Latin AmericanEducational Radio BroadcastingAssociation This inter-linkage ofradio and education is basic to theidea of public service and markedthe birth of community media inLatin Americardquo 8

However even if the groundbreak-ing work was in Latin America itwas in Europe that communityradio first became a vital phenome-non an alternative to ndash or a critiqueof ndash mainstream broadcast mediaThe first challenges to state public-service broadcasting were in the1960s-70s when ldquoswashbucklingentrepreneurs boarded the airwavesillegally and seized as much of the

audience as they could carry awayfrom the treasure chest monopolycontrolled by the staterdquo 9 In theWest these pirate stations proved acatalyst in motivating governmentsand national broadcasting systemsto introduce legitimate local radio

In Africa the establishment ofcommunity radio became in abroad sense a social movementafter the demise of the apartheidregime in South Africa This wasfollowed by democratizationdecentralization and to someextent structural adjustmentelsewhere in that continent10

The pressure groups that have instigated community radio inmany parts of the world (egminers pirate radio operators missionaries and democracy movements) have been less presentin Asia In their place internationalagencies such as UNESCO andother external donors have oftentaken initiatives to help get community radio off the groundAnd in some cases it has been thenational broadcasting organizationthat has itself started communityradio services

Vision of Joaquiacuten Salcedo founder of RadioSutatenza and Accioacuten Cultural Popular

ldquoWithin weeks of arriving in Sutatenza Salcedo as ajunior priest had challenged the peasantry from thepulpit to take up arms against the poverty and backwardness that afflicted them and had offered hishand and vision in a partnership They respondedand so a pact was formed

Salcedo pioneered a concept known as lsquointegralfundamental educationrsquo similar to what today is

often called lsquolife educationrsquo The core of the conceptis that the educational process must be the development of the individual as a whole person and as a member of society

It became an ACPO slogan that lsquodevelopment is inthe mind of mankindrsquo And providing people witheducation in the broadest sense would enable themto make informed decisions and become proactivein taking control of their livesrdquo 11

The Influence of DifferentBroadcasting Ownership Systems

Latin America adopted the NorthAmerican system of mainly privateand commercial broadcastingwith multiple stations of variedpower and reach In this context itwas relatively easy for new stationsto start up And several thousandhave done so in Latin Americaoften initially as illegal or piratestations

In Western European countriesthe public-service state broadcastingmonopolies which had been setup when radio and later TV werefirst introduced usually had management mechanisms throughstatutory public bodies Thesecontrolling bodies ensured thatbroadcasting policies and programmes were as independentas possible of government partypolitical or other influences

European countries that adoptedthis public-service broadcastingapproach through state networksdid so because from the very firstdays of radio in the 1920s and TVsome 30 years later the electronicmedia were considered by leadingthinkers as marvellous instrumentsfor expanding culture educationand information and for improvingsocieties According to that thinkingthe mass media could not be

allowed to function principally ona commercial basis and as a vehicleto be taken over by the advertisingindustry to market products

Many countries in the developingworld especially in Africa and Asiawhere European countries hadheld influence as colonizers adoptedthe European model at least as faras the state monopoly on broad-casting was concerned Howeverthey did not always allow broad-casting policy to be controlled by astatutory and independent publicbody preferring complete controlby government of all aspects oftheir electronic media Thus manygovernments especially those ofcentrally planned economies usedtheir broadcasting networks tofurther their political aims and inparticular to consolidate theirpower base

In such circumstances and fullyrealizing that information ispower these governments withfully state-controlled broadcastingwere extremely reluctant to allowany electronic media to operateindependently This made it difficultfor community media initiatives toget started Only in the early 1980sdid some governments begin torelax their opposition to indepen-dent media but even today manygovernments still effectively oppose

the idea of relinquishing theirmonopolistic control of the broad-casting media

On the other hand it has becomeclear in the last decade or so thatattempts to control information ina society are doomed to fail The fax machine on a desk thecomputer connected to theInternet electronic mail andsatellite television are underminingall the efforts of repressiveregimes to control and conditionthe information that their peoplereceive This situation coupledwith the spread of democracy andfreedom of expression in mostparts of the world is opening thedoor to community media initiativesand particularly to communityradio And governments in countriesthat have already opened the doorare able to see for themselves thatcommunity radio has great potentialfor promoting and supportingd e ce n t ra l i ze d e n d o g e n o u sdevelopment

Technical Evolution

In addition to the political aspectsof decentralizing broadcastingthere are technical factors thathave played and continue to playa very important part in the evolu-tion of community radio 7

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ity

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Alternative Media as Antibodies

ldquoSome fifteen years ago I described alternative media as antibodies producedas a protection against the neglect insensitivity and insanity of the conventional mediardquo 12

8

Two important breakthroughs haveallowed major progress firstlycheap transistor receivers andsecondly low-powered and cheaptransmitters

Until the invention of the transistorin the mid-1950s radio receiversused valves and were expensive andcumbersome Until that time mostof the worldrsquos radio receivers weremanufactured in North Americaand Europe but the arrival of thetransistor paved the way to massiveradio ownership in developingco u n t r i e s Fo r e xa m p l e i n Sub-Saharan Africa India andChina the number of radio receiversexpanded from two million in 1956to 90 million in 1975 And the number of radios has continued toexpand dramatically worldwide tothe two billion or more of today

The availability of cheap receivershas played a key role in the evolu-tion of community radio with apush-pull effect in the sense thatonce a community station starts tobroadcast there is often a significantrise in radio ownership This is anindication that radio listening maybe as much a function of peoplersquosinterest in what is being broadcastas their ability to afford a radioreceiver For example in a poorrural area of Mali where a communityradio station began to function

radio ownership rapidly rose by 140 percent 13

The second technical breakthroughwas low-power transmitters using abroadcasting system known asFrequency Modulation (FM) Thesebecame increasingly available in the1970s and 1980s (See also Chapter4) Small companies in severalcountries began to produce equip-ment that was designed specificallyfor community radio operationsMuch of it was in kit form and sorobust and simple that it was idealfor use in the often harsh conditionsof developing countries

AN IMPORTANT INITIATIVE BY UNESCO

Among UNESCOrsquos missions areldquothe free exchange of ideas andknowledgerdquo and promoting ldquofreeflow of ideas by word and imagerdquoIn this context UNESCO launchedan initiative to support communityradio in 1980

The initiative began with discussionsin 1980 between UNESCO and theEconomic Commission for Africaon local radio broadcasting Thesehighlighted the fact that very fewAfrican countries had a commonlanguage that enabled nationalbroadcasting to effectively reachthe rural people who made up as

much as 80 percent of the popula-tion The best broadcasters coulddo was to select perhaps ten of themain local languages and broadcastdaily programmes in them on atime-sharing basis Thus no singlecommunity could listen to a languageit understood for more than a shortperiod each day

There were also problems of physi-cal and mental distance the centralbroadcasting facilities were oftentoo far away from their ruralaudiences for their broadcastsignals to be received intelligiblyand the urban-based programmeproducers were too far away mentally to know and understandtheir rural audiences properly

The discussions in those early daysand for many years afterwardsassumed that the state broadcastingsystems would be decentralized tolocal stations These would mainlyrelay the signal from the capital but would also originate some programmes locally This systemwould keep the local radio underthe control of the national broad-casters and as such it cannot beconsidered as an example of thecommunity broadcasting model oftoday

On the Potential of Community Broadcasting in Africa

ldquoCommunity-based radio broadcasting could be theleast costly mass medium for development in media-starved rural Africa It could promote positivecultural identity using local languages which areineffectively used on national broadcasting stationsand are usually accessible only to urban and eliteaudiencesrdquo 14

Big Boxes are More Impressive

ldquoIntegrated circuits and new componentsenable us to make smaller pieces of equipment but some manufacturers justlike to use big boxes open them up andthey are practically empty insiderdquo 15

Equipment Factor A first needwas for cheap and simple equip-ment quite different from the kindof equipment used by state orcommercial radio stations SoUNESCO organized a workshop atBrighton Polytechnic in 1980 thatbrought together British ChineseCuban French and Ghanaian engi-neers The purpose was to identifypriorities and outline designconcepts A first requirement wasa 10-watt FM transmitter thatcould run off a 12-volt car batteryor even solar panels and thesecond was for a simple and cheapaudio mixer similarly powered forbringing together sounds (voicesmusic and sound effects) into asingle programme for broadcast-ing The other necessary itemssuch as tape recorders and recordturntables could be purchased atreasonable prices in the market

The transmitter was designed andbuilt by Mallard Concepts inBritain and the six-channel audiomixer was designed and its pro-duction supervised by Jake Mills aGhanaian who was for many yearsthe technical director of GhanaBroadcasting Corporation

Based on integrated circuitry theMallard transmitter was onlyslightly larger than a home hi-fiamplifier It could be deliveredeither in kit form or fully assem-bled The largest component in theequipment was the transformer the

device for conver-ting power from110- or 220-voltalternating currentto 12-volt directcurrent

The cost of theMallard equipmentpackage was aroundUS$2000 comparedto about US$15000or more for com-mercial transmittersof similar power

Tests with theMallard transmittershowed that itssignal could beheard on a normalradio at a range ofup to 12-20 km Itwas so light androbust that it could easily be takenout into the countryside in a carPowered from the carrsquos batteryand with an antenna hoisted into atree an outside broadcast stationcould be set up

UNESCO also worked on solar-powered receivers and onproblems such as the cheapconversion of existing AM receiversso that they could also pick up FMbroadcasts Despite some promisingdesigns for solar-powered receiversit proved impossible to find amanufacturer that could mass-produce them on the scale necessaryto make them cheap enough for

Soldering circuits for 20-watt FM transmittersin Brixham UK

9

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1 An early model

of the FM community radiotransmitter designed byMallard ConceptsLtd UK forUNESCO

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10

even the very poor to buy Bothsolar and wind-up generator radiosets are manufactured today but atprices still prohibitive to most ruralfolk

Political Factors Solving thetechnical problems was often lessdifficult than overcoming the political ones in promoting thespread of community radioUNESCOrsquos push in the area of community radio was essentiallyradical based on concepts ofhuman rights and freedom ofexpression But the world of theearly 1980rsquos was still divided byideological conflict between Leftand Right and state monopolies onbroadcasting were the norm inmany developing countries

It is easy to think that governmentssimply wanted to repress all formsof self-expression that could pose athreat to their authority or to theirstable hold on power However closer consideration shows thatmany governments especially incountries with a multiplicity of ethnic groups and languages feltthat national identity and unitywould be strengthened throughhaving a single broadcasting voicefrom the centre and through promoting a national languageWhatever the reason for govern-ments to defend their broadcasting

monopolies UNESCO faced anoteworthy challenge in promotingcommunity radio

The First Community RadioStation in Africa

The government of Kenya was thefirst to open the door to UNESCOrsquosproposal for setting up a communityradio In May 1982 a Mallard 10-watt transmitter as well as anaudio mixer designed by Jake Millsand related broadcasting equipmentof a total value of less thanUS$25000 were supplied to thecommunity of Homa Bay on LakeVictoria This is a poor area withmany problems of underdevelop-ment Local people were givenbasic training in how to use theequipment and the station beganbroadcasting for two hours a day inLuo one of Kenyarsquos principle lan-guages but not that of the dominantethnic and political group

Homa Bay was successfully on airfor only two-and-a-half years beforethe government closed it down forit was said to be working contraryto the official policy of makingSwahili and English the nationallanguages Furthermore despite itsvery local coverage it was said tobe increasing tensions between different ethnic groups

Building on Homa Bay

Despite this political setback theHoma Bay experience proved that asmall community radio operationcould be effectively set up withequipment costs of less thanUS$25000 and that it could function in a low-technology environment without encounteringtechnical problems

UNESCOrsquos initiative in communityradio coincided with some worldtrends that favoured it The mostimportant of these was the growingawareness of the limitations of centrally planned economies leadingultimately to the collapse of theideology that had built them But innon-Marxist countries too demo-cratization decentralization andneo-liberal policies were on themarch and this was also leading toa greater willingness to decentralizenational broadcasting systems

In Sri Lanka the Sri LankaBroadcasting Corporation hadalready regionalized its services andthe notion of starting communityradio was a natural next step Thusin 1983 the second UNESCO community radio initiative wasbegun in the context of a largemulti-purpose irrigation schemethe Mahaweli DevelopmentProject About a million peoplewere being resettled on newly

Excerpt from 1988 Evaluation of MahaweliCommunity Radio

ldquoIt has animated settlers into participation in activities that not only encouraged self-actualizationbut also community identify and development Intandem with Mahaweli development workers it hasmotivated the settlers to try innovative practices inagriculture and health It has likewise motivatedlocal development workers to take the settlers andtheir problems more seriously ensuring a more palpable degree of service to the peoplerdquo

Some Achievements of Mahaweli Community Radio

ldquoIn one area we came across a group of teenagedelinquents who had no land and were desperately insearch of something to do Through our programmesand discussions we motivated them to clean up thevillage pond and set up an ornamental fish production enterprise In another village we arranged a mass wedding to solemnize the marriageof elderly couples who were living togetherTheir offspring had faced many hardships as theirparents were not legally married I produced manyprogrammes on gambling and alcoholism which helped the addicts to reflect upon themselves andgive up the vicerdquo 16

Bamako Declaration on Radio Pluralism(President Konareacute of Mali 1993)

ldquoRadio pluralism is an essential componentin the deepening of the democratic processnow under way it allows people greateraccess to a diversity of information andguarantees increased popular participation for sustainable human developmentAfrican statesmust speed up the ending of the monopoly over ofthe airwaves and give priority to national proponents of independent radio when allocatingbroadcasting frequenciesrdquo 20

irrigated land and these familiescame from various parts of thecountry Originally no media element was included among thevarious rural development inputsfor Mahaweli However it waslater realized that a communityradio service could help the sett-lers to integrate and to take initia-tives to improve their living stan-dards In effect they needed todevelop a sense of community aswell as learn more about improvedagricultural practices health andso on

Community radio offered greatpotential for this so with financialsupport from Danish InternationalDevelopment Assistance (DANIDA)and UNESCO the MahaweliCommunity Radio was set up Itsfirst station covered about 20000settlers in the major developmentregion surrounding the town ofGuirandurokotte but it was latercomplemented by several othersmall FM stations in the area

Although the Mahaweli CommunityStations were all under the controlof the Sri Lanka BroadcastingCorporation they used a truecommunity radio style This wasquite different from the style usedby the national broadcaster

One of the main thrusts ofMahaweli Radio in addition toproviding settlers with information

was to obtain feedback from themabout development activitiesthrough recordings made in thecommunities which were laterincluded in programmes orthrough having settlers come intothe studios to talk on air Withsuch participation in the radio programming and dealing as it didwith local problems and issues theradio became a vital andpersonalized link in the life of thecommunity

Community Radio Expanding ata Fast Pace

Riding on the flood tide of changethat has been sweeping the worldtowards democratization anddecentralization in the 1980rsquos and1990rsquos community radio has beenexpanding at a fast pace UNESCOfollowed its Kenyan and Sri Lankanexperience with support to otherstations in a wide variety of coun-tries among them Ghana TongaHaiti Cape Verde St LuciaTrinidad and Tobago SurinamJamaica Guyana the Philippinesand many others However UNESCO is now far from beingalone in promoting communityradio A wide range of internationaldevelopment agencies and nationaland international NGOs are involvedin many parts of the world

The rapidity of the spread of community radio is remarkableand Mali provides an interestingexample In 1991 after 23 years ofmilitary dictatorship severe socialdisturbances finally overthrew thegovernment and a multi-partydemocracy was formally establishedA transition government came topower pending democratic elections

Mali is a primarily rural society andthe transitional government orga-nized consultations with represen-tatives of the rural people It wasfound that after more than twodecades during which the nationalmedia had been the channel forissuing instructions and exhorta-tions and with government staffin rural areas equally distant thepeasantry was disaffected and alienated by the governmentrsquosimposed development programmesThey preferred to ignore them 17

The transitional government andthe elected one that took its placedecided to install with the help ofUNDP and the Food and AgriculuralOrganisation (FAO) a policy ofusing communication systemati-cally for Malirsquos development thefirst country in the world to do soMali also took a lead in media libe-ralization in Africa notablythrough organizing a crucial confe-rence in Bamako in September1993 called ldquoFreedom for AfricanRadiosrdquo 18 19 11

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12

Mali had itself just liberalized its state TV andradio which ever since they began had broadcastexclusively in French a language only understoodby the countryrsquos elite And with illiteracy levelsof about 70 percent the majority of the peoplehad had no access to media-based information

In the five years after Mali liberalized its mediamore than 60 independent radio stations beganto operate providing access in local languagesto people for the first time since the dawn ofradio broadcasting And many other countriesare becoming similarly involved with communityradio Much has happened to improve thesituation for community broadcasting since theHoma Bay community transmitter was closeddown by the government of Kenya some 15 yearsago And as an endnote Kenya today is also discussing legislation that would recognizecommunity radio as part of the countriesbroadcasting scene

The Bolivian experiencebegan with a radio servicecalled the lsquoVoice of the

Minerrsquo linked to the Siglo XXmine in the Department of PotosiacuteIn subsequent years 23 stationsin the various mining areas of thecountry were set up and came tobe known collectively as theMinersrsquo Radios

These radio stations were born asa trade union response to theappalling conditions of workersin the mines most of which wereowned and operated until 1952 bya few rapacious and fabulouslyrich families the lsquotin baronsrsquosuch as the Patintildeos who wereknown world-wide for their extra-vagant lifestyles Meanwhile theminers who were the source oftheir wealth and of the mainnational export were being inhu-manely exploited Living in primitive mining camps often inthe cold of very high altitudespoorly paid and suffering fromtypical minersrsquo afflictions such assilicosis they were already oldmen by the age of 40 Their lifeexpectancy was further reducedby the lack of safety precautionsin the mines and frequent accidents In 1952 the mineswere nationalized but little chan-ged for the miners becausegovernments lacked socialconscience

Unfortunately historical factsabout the Minersrsquo Radios remainsomewhat vague for the mainsource of information is the

memory of the people involvedHowever it is certain that theradios were a crucial element inhelping to lead the struggle ende-mic in Bolivia for many years - aconfrontation that saw massacresof miners and their families civilwar and revolution

The radios helped to unite theminers in the struggle and provided them with news andinformation that countered thenegative propaganda against theirinterests that was being put out bymost of the mainstream mediaThe importance of the MinersrsquoRadios is evident from the num-ber of times they were systemati-cally destroyed or their equip-ment confiscated by the militarysent in by one or other of the succession of governments thatruled the country

It was in fact the miners that initiated the massive strike in1981 that finally led to the end ofdictatorship in Bolivia As on allprevious occasions of seriousconfrontation with the authoritiesone of the principle demandsmade by the miners was thereturn of the equipment for theirradio stations or in cases wherethe equipment had been destroyed the right to start themup again with new equipmentThe miners usually contributedmost of the cost a further illustra-tion of the importance of theseradio stations in their lives

Although the main role of theMinersrsquo Radios was the defence

and promotion of minersrsquo rightsthey were also central to a widerange of cultural and educationalactivities They promoted andbroadcast festivals of minersrsquopoetry discussions about theaesthetic value of popular songsand other art forms and discus-sions about education issueseven including a discussion ofwhether minersrsquo children shouldlearn to play chess

The miners themselves contributedto the costs of establishing andrunning their radio stations but inmost cases the management andprogramming policy was in thehands of their unions And therewas little participation by minersin the kind of radio programmesthat would be promoted by com-munity radio today However theintegration of the radio stationsinto the mining community wasto a great extent ensured by theirphysical location close to themine they served and peoplecould generally visit the studioand say their piece if they wanted

Most Minersrsquo Radios were set upin the second half of the 1950sbut their most flourishing yearswere between 1963 and 1983After that world tin prices beganto drop and in 1985 a neo-liberalgovernment passed a decree tolsquorelocatersquo miners throwing about20000 of them out of miningwork forever This cut the groundfrom under the feet of their radiosSome were passed to peasantgroups but today less than tenare still operating

BOX 1 The Minersrsquo Radio in Bolivia

BOX 2 Radio SutatenzaAccioacuten Cultural Popular in Colombia

This initiative was launchedin 1947 by a priest JoaquiacutenSalcedo in an Andean

village called Sutatenza It beganusing a home-made transmitterwith a range of two to three kmbut from this Radio Sutatenzagrew into Colombiarsquos mostpowerful broadcasting network

Salcedo an atypical priest wasmore concerned about the socialand economic status of Colombiarsquospeasants than about conventionalChurch matters Driven by his mission to bring education to peasants to help them develop herealized that radio could reacheven into the most isolated parts ofmountainous Colombia Thus theidea of the Radio Schools ofSutatenza was born and from thatAccioacuten Cultural Popular (ACPO)

The educational broadcasts byRadio Sutatenza expanded untilthey covered a wide range oftopics including literacy numeracyhealth farm production housingimprovements family and personalrelationships sport and leisureand - crucially as it turned out - theresponsibilities of parenthood andpractising responsible procreation

People listened to these programmes in informal RadioSchools - in effect small groupswho came together each eveningThe groups were assisted by moni-tors people with more knowledge

and experience than the group Atany one time there was usually anenrolment of some 200000 peasants in about 20000 RadioSchools

To complement the radio programmes ACPO produced arange of textbooks and a PeasantrsquosLibrary of 100 books on topics forrural communities And a weeklymagazine with an estimated readership of 600000 people waspublished Furthermore trainingof peasant leaders and technicaltraining courses in communitieswere a part of the activities

The Roman Catholic Church supported the operation from thebeginning mainly with funds fromCatholic groups in Europe butACPO also attracted world-wideattention and many internationalagencies also became involved infinancing it

Ultimately Radio Sutatenza wasthe victim of its own successW h e n i t i n t r o d u c e d i t s programmes on lsquoresponsible procreationrsquo the Church begansystematically to undermine itSalcedo declared that the problemwas to convince the masses that itwas not sinful to discuss these matters and that it was difficult toeducate people for human dignityand for responsible maternity in acountry dominated by religiousrules ACPO held no position on

chemical or physical methods ofbirth control Its task was only tocreate the basis on which indivi-duals could take their own respon-sible decisions

This position infuriated the Churchhierarchy in Colombia which heldthat the only purpose of humansexual intercourse was procreationof the species So it convinced theEuropean Catholic groups to with-draw their support HoweverACPO continued to function withother international funding passedthrough the government

The operation struggled on usingmainly borrowed funds until 1985when its powerful and valuableradio infrastructure was sold to acommercial network In 1987 after40 years successfully dedicated tohelping peasants develop theirminds knowledge and life skills itfinally folded completely Itsassets which included a publi-shing house a plant for pressingmusical records a 14-storey officeblock in the capital as well as peasant training centres were soldto meet its debts

13

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1

1 Independent Radio and Television Commission of Ireland1988

2 Quote Louie Tabing Manager of the UNESCODANIDATambuli Project Philippines

3 Zane Ibrahim and Ms Adams Bush Radio 895 FM (See CaseStudy)

4 P M Lewis and J Booth The Invisible Medium PublicCommercial and Community Radio MacMillan (London 1989)

5 Jocelyn Josiah Presentation on Media for Community Buildingin the Caribbean during Roundtable on Communication forDevelopment Brazil (Bahia 1998)

6 Carlos A Arnaldo Localism and the Displacement of Politics Placebased Communication Development (Globalism and the Politicsof Place) Vol 41 No 2 1998 Sage Publications and SID (Rome June 1998)

7 Louie N Tabing Programming Tips for a Community Radio StationUNESCO-DANIDA Tambuli Project (Manila 1998)

8 Rafael Roncaglio lo Public Service Broadcasting ndash Cultural andEducational Dimensions UNESCO (Paris 1995)

9 T McCain and F Lowe Localism in Western EuropeanBroadcasting Journal of Communication Vol 40-1 (1990)

10 Moncef M Bouhafa Child Survival and Broadcasting ndashOpportunities and Challenges paper presented at internationalconference on Broadcasting for Child Survival Voice ofAmericaUSAID (Washington April 1998)

11 Colin Fraser and Sonia Restrepo-Estrada Communicating forDevelopment - Human Change for Survival IB Tauris (LondonNew York 1998)

12 Peter Lewis in Alternative Media Linking Global and LocalReports and Papers on Mass Communication No 107 UNESCO (Paris 1993)

13 Mary Myers The Promotion of Democracy at the Grass-roots The Example of Radio in Mali Frank Cass Journal Vol 5 No 2 (London 1998)

14 Jake Mills of Ghana the designer of the cheap 6-channelaudio mixer (1990)

15 Martin Allard designer of a simple and cheap FM transmitter

16 Interview Sunil Wijesinghe broadcaster of MahaweliCommunity Radio (1999)

17 Colin Fraser and Sonia Restrepo-Estrada op cit

18 Moncef M Bouhafa Grassroots Media and CommunityEmpowerment in West Africa paper presented to theInternational Conference on Media and Politics CatholicUniversity of Brussels Belgium 1997 (revised 1998)

19 Mary Myers op cit

20 Ibid

14

In Barbados after running the experimental UNESCO community radio for the 1995 World Environmental Conference students took over the radio station and continued programmes ever since from the Barbados Community College as Radio GED

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CO

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n

Chapter 2Features and Functions of Community Radio

15

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2

T his chapter describes the special featuresand programming approach of communityradio in terms of public access and partici-

pation ownership management funding editorial independence and credibility as wellas its representation of different groups andinterests in the community and its inclusion ofmarginalized and minority groups

The section on functions covers the role of community radio in reflecting local identity andculture in providing a diversity of voices opinionsprogrammes and content on air and in promotingdemocratic process social change developmentcivil society and good governance Its functionas a lsquopeoplersquos telephonersquo and its contribution tothe training of human resources for the broad-casting industry are also touched on

After absorbing the content the reader will

bull Have a clear picture of the many features andfunctions of community radio

bull Be able to act as a resource personleaderduring discussions in a community about the possibility of setting up a radio stationproviding the necessary background informa-tion for decisions on ownership manage-ment programming policies and the benefitsthat can be expected from a communityradio

ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF COMMUNITY RADIO

The Audience asProtagonists

While community radio is a form of public-servicebroadcasting it has anapproach that is differentfrom conventional broad-casting Its specific focus isto make its audience themain protagonists by theirinvolvement in all aspects of its management and programme productionand by providing them withprogramming that will helpthem in the developmentand social advancement oftheir community

A Special Slant on News Entertainment and Education

News on a community station unlike that on the mains-tream media is not an isolated story or event alone ratherit aims to be part of an ongoing and future process whichsupports change and development in the community

Special Sunday treat for Radio Ibahay - actress Chin ChinGutierrez visits the station during the childrenrsquos programme

and sings a song in Aklanon

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16

Entertainment is provided in aform that is a collective culturalexpression rather than a featuringof refined performers It is morelike singing Karaoke than listeningto a professional artist

Education is more the sharing ofexperiences and learning from othersin the community than listening toan expert or teacher talking

Principles of Public Access andParticipation

Citizens have a democratic right toreliable accurate and timely infor-mation Based on this right it is apublic interest of broadcasting thatit should incorporate the principlesof access and participation

Access implies the availability ofbroadcasting services to all citizensparticipation implies that the publicis actively involved in planning andmanagement and also providesproducers and performers

In concrete terms for communityradio these concepts mean that

bull A community radiorsquos broadcastpattern reaches all members ofthe community it aims to serve

bull The community participates informulating plans and policies forthe radio service and in definingits objectives its principles ofmanagement and its program-ming

bull The community participates indecisions concerning programmecontent duration and schedulesPeople se lect the types ofprogrammes they want ratherthan having them prescribed bythe producers

bull The community is free to commentand criticize

bull There is continuous interactionbetween producers and receiversof messages The radio itself actsas a principal channel for thisinteraction but there are alsomechanisms that allow easycontact between the communitythe programme producers and themanagement of the radio station

bull There are unrestricted opportu-nities for members of the com-munity as individuals or groupsto produce programmes and behelped by the radio station staffusing the technical productionfacilities available

bull The community participates inthe establishment managementadministration and financing ofthe radio station

Ownership

The facilities of community radioare almost invariably owned by thecommunity through a trust founda-tion cooperative or some similarvehicle However there could becases where formal ownership wasin the hands of a body external tothe community but which has passedthe facility to the community for itsindependent and exclusive use

Management

Irrespective of formal ownershipthe stationrsquos policies managementand programming must be the responsibility of the community inorder for it to be considered a truecommunity radio There will usual-ly be a representative communitycommittee or Board of Directors toset overall policies while day-to-day

Radio quickly and easily becomes he link in society between poor and rich between rural and urban groups between agricultural routine and city leisure At Radyo Ibahay one of the smallest Tambuli stations film and TV actress Chin Chin Gutierrez share her ideas on development in an interview for the Sunday programme

Phot

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administrative andoperational decisionsare left to a stationmanager selected by thecommunity

Funding

A community radio service is set up and run asa non-profit organization Itrelies on financial supportfrom a diversity of sourceswhich may include donationsgrants membersh ip fees sponsorsh ip or advert i s ing A combination of these is themost desirable in order to ensureindependence Many communityradios also organize fund-raisingevents among their audience Theoverall aim is always to reach astate of financial self-sufficiency

Editorial Independence andCredibility

Community radio is editoriallyindependent of central and localgovernment of political partiesand of commercial and religiousinstitutions in determining its policies and programming Overallpolicy is set by the aforementionedrepresentative community-levelcommittee but with day-to-day

operational decisionsabout programming taken by thestation manager hisher role as acredible and non-partisan personbecoming crucial

Representation of DifferentGroups and Interests in theCommunity

Communities are inevitably madeup of different groups and inter-ests Community radio broadcastsprogrammes that cater to theseand also encourages them toexpress themselves on air Clearlyhowever programme and timeallocation are approximately pro-portional to the size of any parti-cular group or interest in the com-munity taking into account anyspecial circumstances or needs

Inclusion ofMinority and MarginalizedGroups

Community radio includes minorityand marginalized groups on equalterms rather than giving them an

17

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2

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Even the smallest children haveaccess to the radio on the

Radio Ibahay Sunday childrenrsquosprogramme

Carol Singing for a Tape Recorder

Community radio stations often organize communityevents such as community fairs cultural eveningsand other fund-raising activities One Tambuli community radio station in the Philippines organizeddoor-to-door carol singing at Christmas to raisefunds to buy a new tape recorder

18

occasional voice as in the case of many public broadcasters Its programming ensures a wide diversity of voices and views frommarginalized groups such aswomen and youth and it promotesand protects the interests cultureand linguistic diversity of ethnicminorities in the community

FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNITY RADIO

Community radio aims to fulfil thefollowing functions

Reflect and Promote LocalIdentity Character and Culture

Co m m u n i t y ra d i o p ro v i d e s programming that is particular toits communityrsquos identity and character Thus it relies principallyon local content It includes outsidenews and events that have a specialinterest or implications for itsaudience

It also focuses on local cultureCulture is what a community saysto itself and what it says to othersIt is how the people the individualmembers of a community expresstheir dreams and hopes and howthey talk about their past and theirfuture It is what they care aboutLike life itself culture is infinitelyvariable and constantly evolving Itis the result of a process not of

definitions And that is why indemocracies governments areexpected only to establish broadframeworks for cultural expressionby the people Governments mustnot get involved in content or style 1

Community culture is also of courseartistic expression through localmusic dance poetry theatre storytelling and so on and these arefeatured strongly by most commu-nity radios Local performers areencouraged to go on air uninhibitedby considerations of the lsquoprofessionalstandardsrsquo they may have acquiredfrom mainstream media The valueof content and lsquolocalnessrsquo usuallyoutweighs formal quality and lsquoprofessionalismrsquo though thisshould not be used as an excuse forsub-standard technical production

Culture is also Language Locallanguages and expressions are theraw material that feeds communityradios They are the cement of cultural diversity which is as important for the successful futureof humanity as biological diversityThere are some 6700 languages inthe world and 63 percent of theseare in Africa and Asia Nationalbroadcasting and media globaliza-tion combined with other factorssuch as urban migration threatenhalf of the worldrsquos languages with extinction during the nextgeneration And with them will go

their cultures Community radio is aprime defence against this gravetrend towards the impoverishmentof cultural diversity 2

Create a Diversity of Voices andOpinions on the Air

Community radio through itsopenness to participation to all sectors and people in a communitycreates a diversity of voices andopinions on the air

Some discord is present in all communities they are not the peaceful harmonious groupingsthat outsiders may idealisticallyimagine Discord may be caused bydiffering interests by differing ethnic linguistic or religious backgrounds or even by someancient feud The acknowledgementof conflict is necessary for democracyand for democratic communitiesThrough an understanding of whyconflict exists communities canunderstand themselves better andpave the way to resolve conflicts A function of community radio is totry objectively to air all sides of a dis-cussion without itself taking sides

Main Functions of Community Radio as Formulatedin South Africa

Community radio stations should

bull Promote and reflect local culture character andidentity

bull Assist in creating a diversity of voices and opinionsand encourage individual expression

bull Increase access to a diversity of voices on air

bull Assist in creating a diversity in broadcastingownership

bull Be responsive to the needs of their community

bull Contribute to human resources development forbroadcasting and where appropriate to job creation

bull Encourage members of the relevant community toparticipate in programming and production matters

bull Encourage innovation and experimentation in programming 3

Preserving Linguistic Diversity in IndustrializedCountries too

Community radio stations in New York broadcast inWolof on Sundays for people of the Senegalese community Two other stations broadcast in Koreanwhile in France the Arab population has demandedthe right to set up media channels that meet its specific needs 4

Provide a Diversity ofProgrammes and Content

Community radio provides a diversity of programmes in a varie-ty of formats and styles Forexample roundtable discussionsreportage interviews talks call-inprogrammes live broadcasts ofmeetings in the community etcAudience preferences are takeninto account in deciding what formats are most suitable

Content also covers a wide rangeof topics again in accordance withthe expressed desires and needs ofthe audience Content is mainlydetermined by the lifestyles andlivelihood of the community andby the problems it faces In ruralareas themes such as health farming fishing environmentcredit marketing of producesmall-scale enterprises etc usuallyfeature prominently but always setin the context of the communityrsquosactual situation

News broadcasts may also focuson different types of contentThey may cover only local eventsand issues or they may includenational items that have local relevance or they may evenbroadcast national and internatio-nal news per se in the case of aremote community with no accessto other media channels

Encourage Open Dialogue andDemocratic Process

The ancient Greeks who inventeddemocracy conducted their politi-cal debate in public All those whowished could be present at themeetings to listen and voice theirviews Sheer numbers of peoplemake this impossible today andfor this reason democratic processhas become distant from ordinarycitizens Typically once politiciansare elected their contact withtheir electorates is limited andthey go about their tasks withoutmuch further consultation ordebate with them

It is a function of community radioto provide an independent platformfor interactive discussion aboutmatters and decisions of importanceto its community This is in keepingwith the decentralization processesnow being implemented in manycountries a purpose of which is tobring democratic decision-makingcloser to the people concerned

However for social and economicprogress to take place democraticprocesses cannot start and finish inthe community They must reachinto the government and privateinstitutions operating in the community as well as to policymakers and authorities at thelocal regional and even nationallevel

The public debates aired by thecommunity radio will certainlybe heard by locally-basedstaff of government andprivate institutions and theradiorsquos content should berelayed by them to theirsuperiors This lays the foun-dation for development initia-tives that are responsive to thecommunityrsquos felt needs andpossibilities In additionrecordings by the communityradio service can be used inmeetings or even broadcast byother stations to make betterknown what is happening at thegrassroots level

In sum the core of democraticprocess is the ability of people tohear and make themselves heardCommunity radio provides theforum for that to happen

Promote Development andSocial Change

People in poor communities tendto be fatalistic about their situationThey will all have individual perceptions but developmentcannot take place on the basis ofthese What is needed is a collectiveperception of the local reality andof the options for improving itThis can only be achieved throughinternal discussions within the

Connections

ldquoLocal radio stations have the responsibility toconnect people with people people with peoplersquosorganizations and people with officials and govern-ment functionariesrdquo 5

19

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2

While group listening is not the norm among radio audience radioachieves a certain level of similarity among people living in rural areasProblem-solving becomes easier when there is ldquocommonnessrdquo in knowledge perceptions aspirations goals and processes

20

community about its situation thecauses and possible actions forimprovement

Community radio provides the perfect platform for these internaldiscussions and for reaching a collective perception of the situationSpecific problems can be analyzedremedies discussed and thosemost affected - or who can helpwith the solution - mobilized tocollective action

Anti-social behaviour by minoritiesin a community can also be modifiedby exerting pressure from themajority through community radioprogrammes

Promote Civil Society

Civil society is that multiplicity ofsocial institutions that allows asociety to live in harmoniouscoexistence It creates its own stan-dards and values for individual andgroup behaviour rather thanhaving them imposed from above

Especially in countries that haverecently adopted democratic systems after decades of single-party or authoritarian rule theyounger generations have littleidea about what democracy entailsor about the civil society thatmakes democracies function

Some community radios focus onexplaining the implications ofdemocracy and civil society raisingawareness about peoplersquos rightsbut also about their obligationsThey work to explain how a civicsense is needed if new-found freedoms are to result in harmonyand social progress

Promote Good Governance

In poor communit ies loca l authorities and politicians can easily take advantage of citizenseither individually or as a group inpart because the marginalized andoppressed have no way to complain Community radio helpspeople to obtain their just rights bygiving them a platform to air theirgrievances And through playing acommunity watchdog role it makeslocal authorities and politiciansmore conscious of their public responsibilities

Broadcasting of discussions orquestions and answers betweenmembers of the community andlocal authorities about some issuethat i s exerc i s ing them i s a technique that is often usedAnother technique is to broadcastlive the discussions of local government meetings

This function of community radiois not always easy to fulfil In veryremote communities and wherepower has been held by a few familiesfor generations the people may bereluctant to speak their mindbecause they all have a debt of onesort or another to those familiesAnd equally the powerful familiesmay be unwilling to take criticism

Encourage Participation Sharingof Information and Innovation

Participation is a key word in development circles but it is notalways appreciated that participationand communication are two sidesof the same coin for when peoplecommunicate about their situationand about options for improving itthey are in effect participating Andthey are also laying the foundationfor collective action in which theywill participate Community radioencourages participation by providing a platform for debateanalysis and the exchange of ideasand opinions

In addition community radioallows for the sharing of informationand innovation For example onefamily or group in a communitymay have solved some problemthat is common to many otherpeople such as obtaining farm

Some of the Social and Development Benefits ofTambuli Community Radio Stations in thePhilippines

bull There is a new vibrancy and will to change in thecommunities

bull Men gave up their passionate pastime of gamblingafter a series of discussions over the radio clearlyshowed its negative economic impact on their fami-lies and on the community

bull Butchers were prohibited from bringing live ani-mals to the market and slaughtering them there

bull A large poultry farm was cleaned up to reduce itssmell and pollution

bull Creeks were dredged to reduce risks of flooding

bull A footbridge and extra lighting were installed

bull A day care centre for children was created by thelocal authorities

bull Illegal logging and fishing were stopped as a resultof community pressure 6

A Statement by the Programme Director of the Independent Radio Bamakan in Mali

ldquoThere are a lot of aspects of democracy that peopledonrsquot know about and we are obliged to raise awa-reness to explain that democracy is not anarchythat democracy involves rights and obligations Wehave the right to demand but we also have obliga-tions to the Staterdquo 7

credit from a new bank in the

nearest city A broadcast account

by them explaining how they went

about it and the procedures required

would be the stimulus for other

families to do the same Another

example might be providing infor-

mation about a farmer in the area

who had multiplied seed of an

improved vegetable variety and

was willing to sell it

Give Voices to the Voiceless

In many traditional societies

women and youth and ethnic and

linguistic minorities are virtually

ignored in community affairs But

no community can change and

develop equitably and satisfactori-

ly without the active and informed

participation of its women youth

and minority groups (See Box 3 at

the end of this Chapter)

Therefore community radio gives

voice to the voiceless in the

community This of course is in

addition to giving the community

in general a voice after years of

having been inert recipients of

state or commercial broadcasts

Provide a Social Service asa Replacement for theTelephone

In poor rural areas where

telephones hardly exist

community radio replaces

them to an important extent

by broadcasting messages

For example a family living

in a remote part of the

community can be informed

that a relative living in the

main agglomeration has

been taken ill and would they

please come to visit Or a

farmer with an animal he

wants to sell can have the

fact announced over the radio

replacing the series of calls he

would make if telephones were

available Again a person looking

for temporary labour to help with

some farm task could alert those

people who were interested to

offer their services through a

broadcast announcement

The efficiency of government ser-

vices say in health is improved by

broadcasting the schedule for field

visits ahead of time so that people

will be waiting for these on arrival

Contribute to Diversity inBroadcasting Ownership

Community commercial andnational or state broadcasting allhave roles in society though com-munity broadcasting is the onethat has generally lagged behindthe others Community radio helpsto redress this and provides thebalance of broadcast informationsources needed by democraticsocieties for their advancement

In Benin children participate directly in literacy courses on the air

21

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In October 1992 Bhutan Broadcasting Corporation was transformed from a statebroadcaster to a public corporation with a much decreased subsidy Above at thenew Punaka market a broadcast trainee talks with the people about prices travelalong country roads quality of the harvest and news of the village This project was financed by DANIDA

Phot

o U

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CO

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A A

rnal

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Difficulties in Achieving Transparency - a Case Studyfrom the Philippines

The more remote the community the more hesitantpeople are to speak out People rely on their leadersfor the smallest problems and they all owe a debt tothe few political families To criticise them wouldseem ungrateful

The local council told the community radio to acceptcalls from listeners with queries or comments duringlive broadcasts of the weekly council sessions Butwhen the calls began to come in the council toldthem to stop accepting them The council also beganto chose which portions of the sessions could bebroadcast and told the radio team to leave the roomwhen budget discussions were under way 8

22

Contribute to theDevelopment of HumanResources for theBroadcasting Industry

Community radio arguablydemystifies the broadcasterrsquosprofession by taking communitymembers as message producersIt is also a school for fledglingbroadcasters where they ofcourse acquire valuable technicalskills

But there is another factor that makes people trained in community radio particularlyvaluable They are broadcasterswho live among their listenersshare many of the same problemsand get constant feedback ndash positive and negative - on the formats of their programmes andon their interest and usefulnessThis gives them unique insightsinto the broadcaster audiencerelationship and into radio as a toolfor change and development It isnot uncommon therefore forcommunity broadcasters go on tojoin the staff of mainstream broadcasting

lsquoThe Peoplersquos Telephonersquo in Haiti

ldquoWhen the bandits sped off on their motorcycle leaving a cloud of dust a dead body and a distressedvillage in their wake they thought they were on theroad to freedom They hadnrsquot heard about the villagersquos radio station Radyo Flanbo In Haiti community radio stations such as Flanbo are knownas lsquothe peoplersquos telephonersquo and as the bandits prepared to terrorize the next village Flanborsquos newsreader broadcast a warning of their imminentarrival The bandits might as well have drivenstraight to the police stationrdquo 10

Phot

o U

NES

CO

Kin

gsto

n

Radio Muye the first community radio run bywomen in the Caribbeanunder the UNESCO specialproject lsquoWomen Speaking toWomenrsquo

One of the youngest womenrecruits of the community

radio station in CuyoPalawan DYMC Radio

1 Adapted from Pierre Juneau GeneralIntroduction Public ServiceBroadcasting - the Challenge of the21st Century Reports and Papers on Mass Communication No 111 UNESCO (Paris 1997)

2 Sophie K Ly El Recuerdo delConocimiento Perdido InteRadio Vol 9 No 2 AMARC (Montreal 1997)

3 Triple Enquiry Report IndependentBroadcasting Authority Republic ofSouth Africa (1995)

4 Ibid

5 B S S Rao during the Consultationon Media Policy and Community RadioBangalore India (1996)

6 Colin FraserSonia Restrepo-Estrada Communicating forDevelopment - Human Change for Survival IB Tauris (LondonNew York) 1998

7 Mary Myers The Promotion ofDemocracy at the Grass-roots The Example of Radio in Mali FrankCass Journal Vol 5 No 2 (London Summer 1998)

8 Adapted from Cecile Balgos The Sounds of Silence UNESCOSources No 89 UNESCO(Paris 1997)

9 Felix Librero in Communication forPeople Power Ed Maslog NavarroTabing Teodoro UNESCOTambuliProject Institute of DevelopmentCommunication College of MassCommunication UNESCO NationalCommission Philippines (Manila 1997)

10 David Shanks Voices for the VoicelessA feature prepared by WorldAssociation for ChristianCommunication (WACC) (London March 1999)

Information as a Commodity for Decisions

ldquoThe appropriate use of community broadcasting isto satisfy community and social needs In the processof doing so people are able to access the very important commodity called information on whichthey base their day-to-day decisionsrdquo 9

Phot

o L

Tab

ing

23

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Filipino women - particularly

those in the countryside

where socialization has been

limited by poverty and inadequate

educational attainment - are often

shy reserved and timid In addition

rural families are often resistant to

changing the traditional position of

women as housekeepers and

women would generally prefer that

their husbands participate in

community projects

It is very evident that the issue of

collectively pursuing womens rights

and empowerment has been relegated

to the lowest priority among rural

people So it often takes cajoling and

reassurances before women will

come out of their shells

However increased readiness to

participate in community projects

can be seen among those who have

been exposed to mass media culture

and our initial talks in communities

regarding special radio programmes

for about and by women were met

with much eagerness I attribute this

to the fact that some family and

social institutions that had been

trying to promote womenrsquos activities

in the community felt threatened and

welcomed the support that radio

could provide

Once involved women are highly

dependable They adhere to rules

Compared to men they are more

meticulous They are less subject

to anomalous behaviour and

malfeasance They are consistently

enthusiastic And where the women

are mixed with men the men also

become more enthusiastic if not to

say better performers

Meriam Aranas the president of

the Olutanga Islanders Media

Development Foundation was a

strong-willed leader of an active

womens group promoting livelihood

and conservation projects She

registered the association and led the

drive to erect a building for the radio

station

A schoolteacher Rosario Gozos was

appointed as station manager in

Partido Camarines Sur She is

single-handedly running a family

because her husband works abroad

She spearheaded the

successful drive against illegal

gambling in the district Among

other things she has initiated an

all-women Saturday programme

Her infectious dedication

has inspired all the other

volunteers in her radio

station In less than three

years the station became

an institutional power in

the community It has

contributed greatly to

the progress and well

being of Partido

Lyn Villasis a soft-

spoken beautician has

been running a story-

telling program for

children for years and has become

one of the most popular personalities

in the station in Banga Aklan

Malou Angolluan is a youthful

college graduate who has taken

voluntary activity as a vocation Her

exemplary work and dedication to

service have earned her profuse

admiration from her listeners She

has turned down several offers to

work in bigger commercial radio

stations

BOX 3 Involvement of Women

In Ibahay Aklan province PhilippinesAte Meds rushes from Sunday mass tothe Studio for her weekly childrenrsquosprogramme

Phot

o C

A A

rnal

do

24

In Pastapur Hyderabad India women discuss local problems for airing on a regional radio station of All India Radio They are also advocating for new legislationto enable them to broadcast on their own antenna

Phot

o J

im B

entl

ey

25

Chapter 3Legal Aspects

T his chapter gives an overview of the legis-lation governing community radio in avariety of countries world-wide Special

attention is given to South Africa wherebroadcasting legislation is in many ways exem-plary and could be used as a model by othercountries The main common factors and themain differences that exist in national commu-nity radio legislation are described as are typi-cal requirements for obtaining a licence

The reader will gain

bull An awareness of the wide variations in legisla-tion and of the obstacles that communityradio may face in some parts of the world

bull An understanding of the need to examine clo-sely the existing legislation before embarkingon a community radio project

bull Knowledge of the likely information andconditions that the authorities will requirebefore issuing a community radio licence

UNEVEN AND HAPHAZARD LEGISLATION

The airwaves or the frequencies for broadcastingare a public asset It is therefore incumbent uponnational administrations in line with the decisionsof the administrative planning conferences organizedby the International Telecommunications Union(ITU) to regulate and allocate their use with thepublic interest in mind as well as with fairness andtransparency And general national media policiesshould meet the same criteria

Unfortunately this does not always happen andthe legislation governing community radio is veryuneven In several regions of the world communityradio suffers because current legislation is eithernon-existent inconsistent or basically hostile Thishandbook is not the place for an exhaustive description of the legislation country-by-countrybut a brief overview of the situation in a few countries world-wide will give a feel for the situation

MOST PROGRESS IN AFRICA

Many countries in Africa have made good progress inlegislating for community radio This is particularlyinteresting because at first sight it would appearto be a paradox on the one hand communityradio certainly has a natural role to play in cateringto the information needs and interests of the wide

ethnic cultural and linguistic diversity present inmost African countries but on the other handgovernments fear that freedom of ethnic and linguistic expression might undermine nationalunity It will be remembered that this was partlywhat brought the Homa Bay community radioexperience in Kenya to a premature end in 1984

However it seems that the lesson has now beenlearned about authoritarian suppression of diverselinguistic and cultural expression within a countryThis ultimately produces strong resentment andtensions in society Indeed even in industrializedcountries the last two decades have seen a changeof heart by governments that now try to preservethe traditional linguistic and cultural identity of theirminority groups They have realized that a pluralisticsociety can also achieve national identity and unity

This is the case in many parts of Africa too Sincethe early 1990s countries such as Mali BurkinaFaso Namibia and South Africa have all embarkedon a course of freeing their airwaves and promo-ting community radio as part of the nationalbroadcasting spectrum backing the policy withappropriate legislation in most cases

South Africarsquos progress towards new broadcastingpolicies and community radio legislation is consideredexemplary Some countries have already copied itand many others could also find it a useful modelIt is therefore outlined in the next section

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26

Broadcasting Legislation inSouth Africa ndash an ExemplaryCase

The government of post-apartheidSouth Africa realized that the countryrsquos media could help toresolve many socio-economicdevelopment needs and at thesame time help to build a democraticand pluralistic society But newbroadcasting policies and opera-tions would be needed

An Independent BroadcastingAuthority

The first step taken in 1993 wasthe creation of an IndependentBroadcasting Authority (IBA) ajuridical body to formulate broad-casting policy plan the use of thefrequency spectrum issue licencesadjudicate in the case of com-plaints and in general regulate thebroadcasting industry It functionsindependently of the State and ofgovernmental and political partyinfluences It is a non-profit entitythat is financed partly by the Stateand partly from fees that itreceives

The IBA is run by a Council madeup of seven people appointed bythe State President They arepeople with expertise in fields thatinclude broadcasting policy media

law marketing journalism enter-tainment and education They arealso selected on the basis of theircommitment to fairness freedomof expression the right of thepublic to be informed opennessand accountability

Overall Objectives of theBroadcasting Legislation

Among the main objectives ofSouth Africarsquos broadcasting legisla-tion are the following

bull Promote the provision of a diverserange of broadcasting services ona national regional and local levelwhich cater for all language andcultural groups and provideentertainment education andinformation

bull Promote the development ofpublic private and communitybroadcasting services which areresponsive to the needs of thepublic

bull Develop and protect a nationaland regional identity culture andcharacter

bull Encourage ownership andcontrol of broadcasting servicesby persons from historicallydisadvantaged groups

bull Ensure that private and commu-nity broadcasting licences are

Western Media Models a Disservice toDevelopment

ldquoBroadcasting media have developed into aone-way model in Third World countrieswith information news and massive dosesof entertainment flowing from large urbancentres The uniform prescription designed by theaffluent minority at decision-making level does notaddress the issues of development which require alocal perspective for each county and each community The concepts and use of the media as developed in industrialized societies have not proved conducive to the development needsof our countryrdquo 1

controlled by persons or groupsfrom a diverse range of commu-nities in the Republic

bull Ensure equitable treatment ofpolitical parties by all broadcas-ting licencees during any electionperiod

bull Ensure that broadcasting licenceesadhere to a code of conductacceptable to the IBA

Categories of Radio Broadcasting

The legislation foresees three categories of radio service

bull A public service ndash A serviceprovided by the South AfricanBroadcasting Corporation or byany other statutory body or person that receives revenuefrom licence fees paid by listenersfor their receivers

bull A private service - Operatedfor profit and controlled by aperson who is not a publicbroadcasting licencee

bull A community service - A broadcasting service which

Is fully controlled by a non-profit entity and carried onfor non- profitable purposes

Serves a particular commu-nity

Encourages members of thecommunity served by it orpersons associated with orpromoting the interest ofsuch community to partici-pate in the selection andprovision of programmes tobe broadcast

May be funded by dona-tions grants sponsorshipadvertising or membershipfees or by any combinationof these

The term lsquocommunityrsquo includes ageographically founded communityor any group of persons or sectorof the public having a specific andascertainable common interest

South African LicencingArrangements

In keeping with the general andcommunity radio policies outlinedabove the legislation providesdetailed requirements that mustbe met by applicants for commu-nity radio licences It also laysdown the procedures to be follo-wed These are complex anddemanding in terms of the detai-led information that is called forCommunity radio licences areawarded for four-year periodsalthough shorter temporarylicences can also be issued

Licences are not granted to anyparty movement organizationbody or alliance which is of a politi-cal nature

Readers may wish to browse theIBArsquos website (httpibaorgza)for more details on South Africancommunity radio policy legislationand licencing

ASIA AND INDIArsquoSLENGTHY DEBATE ON

COMMUNITY RADIO

The situation in Asia is far lessfavourable than in Africa andIndia provides a good illustration ofthe problems Nepal and Sri Lankashow ways of solving problems

All India Radio (AIR) was establishedas a state broadcasting monopolyin 1935 in line with the Britishmodel the BBC The debate aboutbreaking that monopoly beganmore than 30 years ago with theChanda Committee reportSubsequent committees have spe-cifically recommended decentrali-zing broadcasting to institutionalizethe process of participation and tomeet peoplersquos fundamental rightto information The SupremeCourt passed a landmark judge-ment in 1995 declaring that theairwaves were a lsquopublic goodrsquo andstressing the importance of main- 27

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3

Preface helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip iii

Introduction helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 1Any Community Can Start its Own Radio Station helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 1

Chapter 1 Community Radio in the Broadcasting Scene helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 3

Community Radio in the Context of the Globalization of Media helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 5

The Evolution of Community Radio helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 6

An Important Initiative by UNESCO helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 8

Box 1 The Minersrsquo Radio in Bolivia helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 12

Box 2 Radio SutatenzaACPO in Colombia helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 13

Chapter 2 Features and Functions of Community Radio helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 15

Essential Features of Community Radio helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 15

Functions of Community Radio helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 18

Box 3 Involvement of Women helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 23

Chapter 3 Legal Aspects helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 25

Uneven and Haphazard Legislation helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 25

Most Progress in Africa helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 25

Asia and Indiarsquos Lengthy Debate on Community Radio helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 27

Legislation in Some Latin American Countries helliphelliphelliphelliphellip 28

Some Examples from Western Europe helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 30

Convergence and Divergence in Legislation helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 31

Applying for a Licence helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 32

Chapter 4 Technical Aspects helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 33

Technical Background helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 33

Broadcasting Equipment helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 35

Reliability and Maintenance helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 39

Studio Premises helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 40

Spatial Relationship Between the Components of the Radio Station helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 40

Future Possibilities helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 41

Specialist Advice helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 43

Box 4 Basic Equipment for a UNESCO-supported Community Radio Station helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 44

Chapter 5 Getting Started helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 45

Legal Context helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 45

Preparatory Work in the Community helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 46

Importance of a Mission Statement helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 48

Role of the Religious Establishment helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 49

Role of Local Educational Institutions helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 49

Involvement of Politicians helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 49

Choosing a Location in the Community helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 49

Box 5 Involvement of Politicians helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 50

Choosing a Model helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 50

Power of the Transmitter helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 51

Ownership and Management helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 51

Programminghelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 51

Staff helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip52

Sustainability helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip52

Looking for Outside Funding for Start-up Costs helliphelliphelliphellip54

Box 6 Main Factors to Consider When Planning a Community Radio helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip54

Chapter 6 Programme Policieshelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 57

Participatory Programmes helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 57

Community News helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 60

Balancing Views helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 60

Coverage of Religious and Cultural Events helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 61

Local Election Broadcasts helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 61

Educational Broadcasts helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 61

Audience Surveys helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 63

Chapter 7 The Community Broadcaster helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 65

Code of Conduct helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 65

A Prototype Code of Conduct helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 66

Selection of Community Broadcasters helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 71

Training of Community Broadcasters helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 71

Chapter 8 Case Studies helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 75

Radio Olutanga (Tambuli Project) Philippines helliphelliphelliphelliphellip 75

Radio Sagarmatha Nepal helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 80

Radio Ada Ghana helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 85

Bush Radio South Africa helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 90

Radio Chaguarurco Ecuador helliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip 95

Table of contents

Communities and Communication

ldquoPeople live in a community by virtue of the thingswhich they have in common and communication isthe way in which they come to possess things in commonrdquo 1

T here are more than 20000radio stations in the worldand more than 2 billion

radio receivers Any notion thatTV and other sophisticated communication technology willreplace radio is unfounded forradio is in constant expansion Itswaves reach almost every cornerof our planet It is the prime electronic medium of the poorbecause it leaps the barriers of isolation and illiteracy and it is themost affordable electronic mediumto broadcast and receive in

The last two decades have seen arapid expansion in the number andpopularity of community radiostations Among the reasons forthis are the democratization anddecentralization processes in manyparts of the world deregulation ofthe media and the relaxing ofbroadcasting monopolies by stateinstitutions and disaffection withcommercial radio channels

Furthermore awareness is growingof the social and economic benefitsthat can result when ordinarypeople have access to appropriateinformation And it is also evidentthat when people especially the

poor can participate incommunica-tion processesand consensusbuilding aboutissues thataffect theirlives it helpsthem to cast off their traditionalstate of apathy and stimulatesthem to mobilize and organize tohelp themselves

ANY COMMUNITY CANSTART ITS OWN RADIO STATION

To start a small radio station is notas complicated and expensive asmany people think There isenough experience in many countries to prove that it is withinthe reach of almost any community

Community Will is the Key

The primordial condition for acommunity to start its own radiostation is a sense of internal cohe-sion and community consciousnessThere must be willingness forcooperative work and to poolresources and enthusiastic consensus

that the people want their own radioin order to advance their community

As part of the consensus buildingthat leads to the decision to establisha community radio the communitymust analyze its communicationneeds and determine how radiocould help to resolve them Thetraditional approach to develop-ment is to provide support to agriculture health education andso on and a radio station may notnormally be seen as a priority Buta community that analyzes itsneeds in detail and thinks aboutthe causes of its problems andmarginalization will often cometo the conclusion that it needscommunication processes to helppeople share common understan-ding and common goals This is thefirst step towards a communitytaking action to establish its ownradio station

ldquoEveryone has the right to freedom of opinion andexpression this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek receiveand impart information and ideas through any mediaand regardless of frontiersrdquo

Right of information section Article 19 of theUniversal Declaration of Human Rights

ldquoCommunity radio is a social process or eventin which members of the community associatetogether to design programmes and produce andair them thus taking on the primary role of actorsin their own destiny whether this be for something as common as mending fences in theneighbourhood or a community-wide campaign on how to use clean water and keep it clean or agitation for theelection of new leaders The emphasis is on the ownership of democratic and development efforts by the members of the communitythemselves and the use of media in this case radio toachieve it In every sense this is participatory communication(not programmes made about them by somebody else) It is above all a process not a technology not merely ameans because the people are part of that means and sois the message and the audienceCommunity radio is most relevant to a group of peoplewho live and act as a community and this could be severalfamilies several neighbourhoods or even several villagesor communities but the important thing is that theyinteract That is why I think of community radio as the

community speaking to each other and acting together forcommon goalsrdquo

Carlos A Arnaldo

Introduction

A basic Community Radio Studio in Burkina Faso

1

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2

Producing Programmes does notneed Magical Skills

The professional tasks of managing astation and producing programmesare not beyond the reach of typicalcommunities Unfortunately expo-sure to commercial andor stateradio leaves many people with theimpression that such professionalstandards are the norm and theydo not realize that good and effec-tive radio broadcasting can bemuch less formalized Nor do theyrealize that the usefulness andimpact of any media productiondepends much more on its relevan-ce to the audience than on its for-mal quality

This is not to say that quality ofprogrammes in terms of theirstructure and their technical level isunimportant For example impro-per use of recording equipmentmay result in programmes of suchpoor sound quality that they aredifficult to understand Howeverexperience with community radioshows that when people are moti-vated and enthusiastic the mini-mum technical levels required forbroadcasting can be masteredduring only a few weeks of trainingAnd as they gain hands-on produc-tion experience their skills developmarkedly They quickly reach fullysatisfactory levels of performance

The Cost and Technologyare not Prohibitive

The equipment requiredfor community radio isrobust and easy to main-tain and it does not needsupport from broadcastingengineers beyond some ini-tial training Its cost isconstantly falling For atypical community radiostation the normal cost ofthe equipment is little morethan US$20000 For minimalbroadcasting there is even asuitcase available weighing 16 kgwhich contains a five-watt trans-mitter a six-channel audio mixertwo compact disc players two cas-sette taperecordersplayers and anantenna The total cost is aboutUS$3000

There are also FM radio receiverswith a solar strip that can eitherpower the radio or charge a batteryAt night the radio can be poweredby a dynamo winding up the radioby hand for two minutes provides30 minutes of listening time

The tendency among those produ-cing equipment for communityradio has been to focus on simplicityof installation use and maintenanceAnd local people often show extra-ordinary capacity to adapt andbuild for themselves For examplein Cape Verde UNESCO helpedlocal technicians to install a single

transmitter on one islandHowever the technicians were soeager and enterprising that after-wards they built two more trans-mitters so that they could have oneon each of the three main islandsThis was despite the fact that thecomponents originally made avai-lable were scarcely enough for onestation Furthermore they also linkedthe three stations over seeminglyimpossible distances to form a net-work that shares programmes in acomplicated schedule every day5

Media and Development

ldquoDeveloping communities are characterized by isolation from ideas and information as well as services At the simplest level before people canconsider a question they need to be fully aware of allthe facts the short-term effects and the long-termimplications ways in which decisions taken in onearea will affect future planning Communicationmedia could present this informationrdquo 2

Phot

o C

A A

rnal

do

The Judges are the Listeners

ldquoIt is unfortunate that the so-called radio professionals have set certain artistic productionstandards which could intimidate the regular villagepeople The irony is that the so-called professionalproductions cannot compete with programmes doneby the inexperienced village people The professionalsforget that the ultimate judge of a radio programmeis the listenerrdquo 4

Donrsquot be afraid of radio

ldquoNo one should be afraid to use radio I have been abroadcaster for almost a quarter of a century andI know nothing about the electronics side of radio

Even today I cannot explain how my voice in the studio is processed and passed on finally to the family radio maybe hundreds of kilometres awayrdquo 5

1 John Dewey (1916) cited by Elizabeth Blanks HindmanldquoCommunity Democracy and Neighbourhood NewsrdquoInternational Communication Association (1998)

2 Frances J Berrigan ldquoCommunity Communications - the role ofcommunity media in developmentrdquo Reports and Papers onMass Communication no 90 UNESCO (Paris 1981)

3 Louie Tabing Neighbourhood Radio ProductionUNESCODANIDA Tambuli Project Philippines

4 Martin AllardrdquoOn the AirhellipThe Development of CommunityRadiordquo UNESCO Sources no 21 (1990)

5 Louie Tabing Manager of the UNESCODANIDA TambuliProject Philippines

Mang Vicente of Ibahay on Aklan Island in Southern Philippines plays traditional melodies on a flute made from PVC plumbing pipe

Chapter 1Community Radio in the Broadcasting Scene

3

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1

T his chapter describes the place of community radio in the broadcastingscene and explains the essential

difference in its approach compared to conventional public service or commercialbroadcasting A rationale is put forward for itsimportance in the scenario of increasing mediaglobalization

The evolution of community radio from itsfirst experiences some 50 years ago is tracedand set in the context of broadcast mediaownership patterns technical developmentsand the recent trends towards democratization and decentralization

The reader will acquire

bull An understanding of the special nature ofcommunity radio compared to other types ofradio broadcasting

bull An understanding of its place and importan-ce in the trend towards media globalization

bull Knowledge about its background specificfield experiences and the factors that havedetermined its evolution

This theoretical framework provides the long-term foundation for practical knowledge andskills to be gained in later chapters

Broadcasting can be divided into three general categories

bull Public-service broadcasting is generally conductedby a statutory entity which is usually - though notnecessarily ndash a state-supported or a state-ownedcorporation Its broadcasting policies and programmingare often controlled by a public body such as a councilor a legally constituted authority This body ensuresthat broadcasting operates to provide informationeducation and entertainment to the citizens andsociety in general and independently of governmentparty politics or other interests Much of the fundingfor the operation comes from licence fees that the listenersviewers pay for the receivers they have intheir homes

bull Commercial or private broadcasting providesprogrammes designed primarily for profit fromadvertising revenue and is owned and controlled byprivate individuals or by commercial enterprises

bull Community broadcasting is a non-profit servicethat is owned and managed by a particular communityusually through a trust foundation or association Itsaim is to serve and benefit that community It is ineffect a form of public-service broadcasting but itserves a community rather than the whole nation asis the usual form of public broadcasting describedabove Moreover it relies and must rely mainly on the resources of the community A community is considered to be a group of people who share

A Declaration of Principle

ldquoCommunity radio responds to the needs of the community it serves contributing to its developmentwithin progressive perspectives in favour of socialchange Community radio strives to democratizecommunication through community participation indifferent forms in accordance with each specificsocial contextrdquo

World Association of Community Broadcasters(AMARC) 1988

4

common characteristics andorinterests The commonality ofinterests may be based on

- The sharing of a single geographicallocation that is to say those livingin a specific town village orneighbourhood

- The sharing of economic and sociallife through trade marketingexchange of goods and services

Unfortunately this tidy classificationinto three categories of broadcastingis less than tidy in practice forthere can be combinations andoverlapping situations For examplea local commercial radio stationmay also broadcast some communityservice programmes a station ownedand managed by an NGO such as areligious institution may fill most ofits air time with such programmesand state-owned public-servicebroadcasting has increasingly beendecentralizing to the local level andproviding programming for thecommunities around it

Not surprisingly there is still nosingle definition or description ofcommunity radio And to complicatematters further there have beenvarious terms applied to small-scaleradio broadcasting such as lsquolocalrsquolsquoalternativersquo lsquoindependentrsquo or lsquofreersquoradio All of these lack precision Forexample the term lsquolocal radiorsquo

could also cover the decentralizedoperation through a local stationof a state-controlled broadcastingsystem or even a small commercialstation Terms such as lsquoalternativersquoand lsquofreersquo are also imprecise even ifin the context of radio they arenormally taken to mean alternativeto the mainstream mass media andfree from government ownershipand control Logically thereforethey include community radio butthey do not necessarily include it

The various definitions of communityradio that have been formulatedshare many common elements Thesimple and catchy phrase lsquoRadio bythe people and for the peoplersquo isoften used as a good summary Thisphrase captures well the essentialprinciple that must be in place for abroadcasting service to be consideredtrue community radio It must firstlybe managed by the communitysecondly be to serve that community

Strict application of these two principles would mean that a radiostation owned by a non-profitNGO and also managed by thatNGO would not necessarily qualifyas a true community radio even ifmuch of its programming wereaimed at community developmentThis is the case for many broadcastingservices run by religious organiza-tions and in practice the term

lsquocommunity radiorsquo is often used tocover this type of operation as wellOne example is Radio Maria whichbeginning from a single parish inNorthern Italy in 1983 now coversall of Italy and also has stations in21 other countries It is essentiallyan evangelical operation but it alsodoes a great deal in social servicesand community developmentusing volunteers and supported byspontaneous contributions fromlisteners

The somewhat confusing situationregarding what constitutes truecommunity radio can perhaps bestbe understood by considering thefollowing quotation this sums up aphilosophical approach that makescommunity radio different fromcommercial or public-service radio

ldquoCommunity radio emphasizes thatit is not commercial and does notshare what it would call the prescriptive and paternalistic attitude of public-service broadcas-tinghellip The key difference is thatwhile the commercial and public-service models both treat listenersas objects to be captured foradvertisers or to be improved andinformed community radio aspiresto treat its listeners as subjects andparticipantsrdquo 4

One Definition

ldquoA community radio station is characterized by itsownership and programming and the community it isauthorized to serve It is owned and controlled by anon-profit organization whose structure provides formembership management operation and programming primarily by members of the community at large Its programming should bebased on community access and participation andshould reflect the special interests and needs of thelistenership it is licenced to serverdquo 1

On Radio Work for Ordinary People - a Practitionerrsquos View

ldquoRadio is simply people talking with people The Tambuli stations have merely expanded theopportunity for people to talk more to a wideraudience and to listen to a more expansive array ofideas on matters that directly concern themrdquo 2

On Community Ownership and Management

ldquoTo qualify as a community radio the ownership and control of the station must rest squarely and unquestionably with the community it claimsto serverdquo 3

Commercial Media Antagonism Towards Community Media

ldquoMainstream commercial media continue to harbournegative feelings about community media and areconvinced that they are adequately able to servecommunity needs They have not yet come around toaccepting that the special character of communitymedia is complementary rather than antagonisticand mutually exclusiverdquo 5

This placing of both public andcommercial broadcasting into aprescriptive category treating listeners as objects is significantfor even when they broadcasttheir so-called community serviceprogrammes they usually remainin the same prescriptive modeThis is contrary to the participatoryessence of community radio programming

COMMUNITY RADIO IN THE CONTEXT OF THEGLOBALIZATION OFMEDIA

Recent years have seen a strongtrend towards the globalization ofmedia Colossal media enterprisesof a commercial nature have beenformed and increasingly span theglobe with their programmesCertain countries have also becomecentres of highly successful mediaproduction mainly of an enter-tainment character and sell theiroutput to TV channels worldwideObvious examples are soap operasfrom the USA However audienceresearch has shown that peopleprefer to watch programmes withtheir own cultural orientationsrather than those imported fromothers For this reason media productions from developing

countries such as Brazil ChinaEgypt India and Indonesia arenow gaining wider distribution inlarge-scale commercial media

While some people argue that theglobalization of the media disruptslocal cultures others state thatglobal media intensifies theconsciousness of the world as awhole and is therefore beneficialThey see global media and community media as complemen-tary each forming important functions that the other cannotAnd this is certainly the case

By definition global media arecommercial and need to attractlarge audiences for their adverti-sing content Thus they broadcastprogrammes that attempt to satisfya common thread of sensitivitiesamong large numbers of peopleusing well-tried and rather standardif not banal entertainment formatsThe lack of variety in programmeorientation is therefore generallyattributed to the lsquoself-censorshiprsquoof the market which uses entertainment as the sole criterionfor selection However it is alsotrue that governments tend to bemore comfortable with privatebroadcasters limiting themselvesto entertainment rather thanbecoming involved in the moreproblematic area of news and

current affairs For these reasonsthemes reflecting socio-politicalinterests are often insufficientlycovered or deliberately ignoredby private broadcasters

Clearly given their characteristicsand orientation commercial andglobal media can hardly meetsocio-economic and developmentneeds of the countries they coverThe excessive entertainment provided by commercial televisionhas often provoked a call for areappraisal of the potential ofpublic broadcasting stressing theneed for quality programmes anddemanding more possibilities ofchoice and access for audiences A logical step in this direction is toexpand the democratization ofmedia to the community levelespecially through communityradio in which accessibility is thenorm

Furthermore community radioworks in the cultural context ofthe community it serves it dealswith local issues in the local language or languages it is relevantto local problems and concernsand its aim is to help the commu-nity to develop socially culturallyand economically This is not onlyin contrast with global media operations it is also in contrastwith centralized urban-based 5

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Global Communication

ldquoGeorge Orwell in Nineteen Eighty-Four warned us ofa society controlled by Big Brother Is that what weare encountering today when we see so many peoplein poor communities tuning into western dominatedideals of the rich consumer society Orwell was veryconcerned about the socialist drives of the industrialage But perhaps he was also warning about the takeover of society by a democratic political power drivento degradation by these very industrial drives and bythe easy resort to globalization of mediardquo 6

The Power of the Local Approach

ldquoAn effective strategy for the community radiostation is to present what cannot be offered by any

other radio station that is local content with a localflavour The local radio station must dwell on itsstrongest reason for existence - local events issuesconcerns and personalities If a local station can doan exhaustive reportage of what goes on in its community on a regular basis there is no way aregional or national broadcast outfit could competefor listenership The element of proximity is the mostpotent quality that the community radio should capitalize on People will be enthusiastic to know ona daily or even hourly basis about the people andevents unfolding next to their place of aboderdquo 7

6

national media even of a publicservice nature for they are oftenremote from the realities of ruralcommunities and their needs

THE EVOLUTION OF COMMUNITY RADIO

The pioneering experiences fromwhich todayrsquos community radio hasevolved began some 50 years agoin Latin America Poverty and socialinjustice were the stimulus forthose first experiences one beginningin Bolivia in 1947 and known as theMinersrsquo radios and another inColombia in the same year knownas Radio SutatenzaAccioacutenCulturalPopular (See boxes 1 and 2 at the end of this Chapter for descriptions)

These experiences in Bolivia andColombia set a trend even iftodayrsquos concept of communityradio has evolved considerably Forexample the Minersrsquo radios inBolivia were working in thedecades of ideological clash between Marxism and capitalismThus their principal focus was tounite the community of miners tobattle for better and fairer workingconditions They were generallyconsidered to be trade unionradios even if the miners providedmuch of the finance for the purchase

of equipment and running costs

Radio SutatenzaACPO in Colombiaalthough inspired by the aim ofsupporting the community of peasants was not owned or directlymanaged by them There was muchfeedback from peasants - some50000 letters a year ndash and thesecertainly ensured the integration ofthe peasantsrsquo desires and needsinto the radiorsquos programming Butit was not truly lsquoradio by the peoplefor the peoplersquo which is todayrsquosaim

Even so this first systematic effortby Radio Sutatenza to educate byradio created a movement thatldquohellipspread and was later consolidatedthrough ALER the Latin AmericanEducational Radio BroadcastingAssociation This inter-linkage ofradio and education is basic to theidea of public service and markedthe birth of community media inLatin Americardquo 8

However even if the groundbreak-ing work was in Latin America itwas in Europe that communityradio first became a vital phenome-non an alternative to ndash or a critiqueof ndash mainstream broadcast mediaThe first challenges to state public-service broadcasting were in the1960s-70s when ldquoswashbucklingentrepreneurs boarded the airwavesillegally and seized as much of the

audience as they could carry awayfrom the treasure chest monopolycontrolled by the staterdquo 9 In theWest these pirate stations proved acatalyst in motivating governmentsand national broadcasting systemsto introduce legitimate local radio

In Africa the establishment ofcommunity radio became in abroad sense a social movementafter the demise of the apartheidregime in South Africa This wasfollowed by democratizationdecentralization and to someextent structural adjustmentelsewhere in that continent10

The pressure groups that have instigated community radio inmany parts of the world (egminers pirate radio operators missionaries and democracy movements) have been less presentin Asia In their place internationalagencies such as UNESCO andother external donors have oftentaken initiatives to help get community radio off the groundAnd in some cases it has been thenational broadcasting organizationthat has itself started communityradio services

Vision of Joaquiacuten Salcedo founder of RadioSutatenza and Accioacuten Cultural Popular

ldquoWithin weeks of arriving in Sutatenza Salcedo as ajunior priest had challenged the peasantry from thepulpit to take up arms against the poverty and backwardness that afflicted them and had offered hishand and vision in a partnership They respondedand so a pact was formed

Salcedo pioneered a concept known as lsquointegralfundamental educationrsquo similar to what today is

often called lsquolife educationrsquo The core of the conceptis that the educational process must be the development of the individual as a whole person and as a member of society

It became an ACPO slogan that lsquodevelopment is inthe mind of mankindrsquo And providing people witheducation in the broadest sense would enable themto make informed decisions and become proactivein taking control of their livesrdquo 11

The Influence of DifferentBroadcasting Ownership Systems

Latin America adopted the NorthAmerican system of mainly privateand commercial broadcastingwith multiple stations of variedpower and reach In this context itwas relatively easy for new stationsto start up And several thousandhave done so in Latin Americaoften initially as illegal or piratestations

In Western European countriesthe public-service state broadcastingmonopolies which had been setup when radio and later TV werefirst introduced usually had management mechanisms throughstatutory public bodies Thesecontrolling bodies ensured thatbroadcasting policies and programmes were as independentas possible of government partypolitical or other influences

European countries that adoptedthis public-service broadcastingapproach through state networksdid so because from the very firstdays of radio in the 1920s and TVsome 30 years later the electronicmedia were considered by leadingthinkers as marvellous instrumentsfor expanding culture educationand information and for improvingsocieties According to that thinkingthe mass media could not be

allowed to function principally ona commercial basis and as a vehicleto be taken over by the advertisingindustry to market products

Many countries in the developingworld especially in Africa and Asiawhere European countries hadheld influence as colonizers adoptedthe European model at least as faras the state monopoly on broad-casting was concerned Howeverthey did not always allow broad-casting policy to be controlled by astatutory and independent publicbody preferring complete controlby government of all aspects oftheir electronic media Thus manygovernments especially those ofcentrally planned economies usedtheir broadcasting networks tofurther their political aims and inparticular to consolidate theirpower base

In such circumstances and fullyrealizing that information ispower these governments withfully state-controlled broadcastingwere extremely reluctant to allowany electronic media to operateindependently This made it difficultfor community media initiatives toget started Only in the early 1980sdid some governments begin torelax their opposition to indepen-dent media but even today manygovernments still effectively oppose

the idea of relinquishing theirmonopolistic control of the broad-casting media

On the other hand it has becomeclear in the last decade or so thatattempts to control information ina society are doomed to fail The fax machine on a desk thecomputer connected to theInternet electronic mail andsatellite television are underminingall the efforts of repressiveregimes to control and conditionthe information that their peoplereceive This situation coupledwith the spread of democracy andfreedom of expression in mostparts of the world is opening thedoor to community media initiativesand particularly to communityradio And governments in countriesthat have already opened the doorare able to see for themselves thatcommunity radio has great potentialfor promoting and supportingd e ce n t ra l i ze d e n d o g e n o u sdevelopment

Technical Evolution

In addition to the political aspectsof decentralizing broadcastingthere are technical factors thathave played and continue to playa very important part in the evolu-tion of community radio 7

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Alternative Media as Antibodies

ldquoSome fifteen years ago I described alternative media as antibodies producedas a protection against the neglect insensitivity and insanity of the conventional mediardquo 12

8

Two important breakthroughs haveallowed major progress firstlycheap transistor receivers andsecondly low-powered and cheaptransmitters

Until the invention of the transistorin the mid-1950s radio receiversused valves and were expensive andcumbersome Until that time mostof the worldrsquos radio receivers weremanufactured in North Americaand Europe but the arrival of thetransistor paved the way to massiveradio ownership in developingco u n t r i e s Fo r e xa m p l e i n Sub-Saharan Africa India andChina the number of radio receiversexpanded from two million in 1956to 90 million in 1975 And the number of radios has continued toexpand dramatically worldwide tothe two billion or more of today

The availability of cheap receivershas played a key role in the evolu-tion of community radio with apush-pull effect in the sense thatonce a community station starts tobroadcast there is often a significantrise in radio ownership This is anindication that radio listening maybe as much a function of peoplersquosinterest in what is being broadcastas their ability to afford a radioreceiver For example in a poorrural area of Mali where a communityradio station began to function

radio ownership rapidly rose by 140 percent 13

The second technical breakthroughwas low-power transmitters using abroadcasting system known asFrequency Modulation (FM) Thesebecame increasingly available in the1970s and 1980s (See also Chapter4) Small companies in severalcountries began to produce equip-ment that was designed specificallyfor community radio operationsMuch of it was in kit form and sorobust and simple that it was idealfor use in the often harsh conditionsof developing countries

AN IMPORTANT INITIATIVE BY UNESCO

Among UNESCOrsquos missions areldquothe free exchange of ideas andknowledgerdquo and promoting ldquofreeflow of ideas by word and imagerdquoIn this context UNESCO launchedan initiative to support communityradio in 1980

The initiative began with discussionsin 1980 between UNESCO and theEconomic Commission for Africaon local radio broadcasting Thesehighlighted the fact that very fewAfrican countries had a commonlanguage that enabled nationalbroadcasting to effectively reachthe rural people who made up as

much as 80 percent of the popula-tion The best broadcasters coulddo was to select perhaps ten of themain local languages and broadcastdaily programmes in them on atime-sharing basis Thus no singlecommunity could listen to a languageit understood for more than a shortperiod each day

There were also problems of physi-cal and mental distance the centralbroadcasting facilities were oftentoo far away from their ruralaudiences for their broadcastsignals to be received intelligiblyand the urban-based programmeproducers were too far away mentally to know and understandtheir rural audiences properly

The discussions in those early daysand for many years afterwardsassumed that the state broadcastingsystems would be decentralized tolocal stations These would mainlyrelay the signal from the capital but would also originate some programmes locally This systemwould keep the local radio underthe control of the national broad-casters and as such it cannot beconsidered as an example of thecommunity broadcasting model oftoday

On the Potential of Community Broadcasting in Africa

ldquoCommunity-based radio broadcasting could be theleast costly mass medium for development in media-starved rural Africa It could promote positivecultural identity using local languages which areineffectively used on national broadcasting stationsand are usually accessible only to urban and eliteaudiencesrdquo 14

Big Boxes are More Impressive

ldquoIntegrated circuits and new componentsenable us to make smaller pieces of equipment but some manufacturers justlike to use big boxes open them up andthey are practically empty insiderdquo 15

Equipment Factor A first needwas for cheap and simple equip-ment quite different from the kindof equipment used by state orcommercial radio stations SoUNESCO organized a workshop atBrighton Polytechnic in 1980 thatbrought together British ChineseCuban French and Ghanaian engi-neers The purpose was to identifypriorities and outline designconcepts A first requirement wasa 10-watt FM transmitter thatcould run off a 12-volt car batteryor even solar panels and thesecond was for a simple and cheapaudio mixer similarly powered forbringing together sounds (voicesmusic and sound effects) into asingle programme for broadcast-ing The other necessary itemssuch as tape recorders and recordturntables could be purchased atreasonable prices in the market

The transmitter was designed andbuilt by Mallard Concepts inBritain and the six-channel audiomixer was designed and its pro-duction supervised by Jake Mills aGhanaian who was for many yearsthe technical director of GhanaBroadcasting Corporation

Based on integrated circuitry theMallard transmitter was onlyslightly larger than a home hi-fiamplifier It could be deliveredeither in kit form or fully assem-bled The largest component in theequipment was the transformer the

device for conver-ting power from110- or 220-voltalternating currentto 12-volt directcurrent

The cost of theMallard equipmentpackage was aroundUS$2000 comparedto about US$15000or more for com-mercial transmittersof similar power

Tests with theMallard transmittershowed that itssignal could beheard on a normalradio at a range ofup to 12-20 km Itwas so light androbust that it could easily be takenout into the countryside in a carPowered from the carrsquos batteryand with an antenna hoisted into atree an outside broadcast stationcould be set up

UNESCO also worked on solar-powered receivers and onproblems such as the cheapconversion of existing AM receiversso that they could also pick up FMbroadcasts Despite some promisingdesigns for solar-powered receiversit proved impossible to find amanufacturer that could mass-produce them on the scale necessaryto make them cheap enough for

Soldering circuits for 20-watt FM transmittersin Brixham UK

9

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1 An early model

of the FM community radiotransmitter designed byMallard ConceptsLtd UK forUNESCO

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awee

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10

even the very poor to buy Bothsolar and wind-up generator radiosets are manufactured today but atprices still prohibitive to most ruralfolk

Political Factors Solving thetechnical problems was often lessdifficult than overcoming the political ones in promoting thespread of community radioUNESCOrsquos push in the area of community radio was essentiallyradical based on concepts ofhuman rights and freedom ofexpression But the world of theearly 1980rsquos was still divided byideological conflict between Leftand Right and state monopolies onbroadcasting were the norm inmany developing countries

It is easy to think that governmentssimply wanted to repress all formsof self-expression that could pose athreat to their authority or to theirstable hold on power However closer consideration shows thatmany governments especially incountries with a multiplicity of ethnic groups and languages feltthat national identity and unitywould be strengthened throughhaving a single broadcasting voicefrom the centre and through promoting a national languageWhatever the reason for govern-ments to defend their broadcasting

monopolies UNESCO faced anoteworthy challenge in promotingcommunity radio

The First Community RadioStation in Africa

The government of Kenya was thefirst to open the door to UNESCOrsquosproposal for setting up a communityradio In May 1982 a Mallard 10-watt transmitter as well as anaudio mixer designed by Jake Millsand related broadcasting equipmentof a total value of less thanUS$25000 were supplied to thecommunity of Homa Bay on LakeVictoria This is a poor area withmany problems of underdevelop-ment Local people were givenbasic training in how to use theequipment and the station beganbroadcasting for two hours a day inLuo one of Kenyarsquos principle lan-guages but not that of the dominantethnic and political group

Homa Bay was successfully on airfor only two-and-a-half years beforethe government closed it down forit was said to be working contraryto the official policy of makingSwahili and English the nationallanguages Furthermore despite itsvery local coverage it was said tobe increasing tensions between different ethnic groups

Building on Homa Bay

Despite this political setback theHoma Bay experience proved that asmall community radio operationcould be effectively set up withequipment costs of less thanUS$25000 and that it could function in a low-technology environment without encounteringtechnical problems

UNESCOrsquos initiative in communityradio coincided with some worldtrends that favoured it The mostimportant of these was the growingawareness of the limitations of centrally planned economies leadingultimately to the collapse of theideology that had built them But innon-Marxist countries too demo-cratization decentralization andneo-liberal policies were on themarch and this was also leading toa greater willingness to decentralizenational broadcasting systems

In Sri Lanka the Sri LankaBroadcasting Corporation hadalready regionalized its services andthe notion of starting communityradio was a natural next step Thusin 1983 the second UNESCO community radio initiative wasbegun in the context of a largemulti-purpose irrigation schemethe Mahaweli DevelopmentProject About a million peoplewere being resettled on newly

Excerpt from 1988 Evaluation of MahaweliCommunity Radio

ldquoIt has animated settlers into participation in activities that not only encouraged self-actualizationbut also community identify and development Intandem with Mahaweli development workers it hasmotivated the settlers to try innovative practices inagriculture and health It has likewise motivatedlocal development workers to take the settlers andtheir problems more seriously ensuring a more palpable degree of service to the peoplerdquo

Some Achievements of Mahaweli Community Radio

ldquoIn one area we came across a group of teenagedelinquents who had no land and were desperately insearch of something to do Through our programmesand discussions we motivated them to clean up thevillage pond and set up an ornamental fish production enterprise In another village we arranged a mass wedding to solemnize the marriageof elderly couples who were living togetherTheir offspring had faced many hardships as theirparents were not legally married I produced manyprogrammes on gambling and alcoholism which helped the addicts to reflect upon themselves andgive up the vicerdquo 16

Bamako Declaration on Radio Pluralism(President Konareacute of Mali 1993)

ldquoRadio pluralism is an essential componentin the deepening of the democratic processnow under way it allows people greateraccess to a diversity of information andguarantees increased popular participation for sustainable human developmentAfrican statesmust speed up the ending of the monopoly over ofthe airwaves and give priority to national proponents of independent radio when allocatingbroadcasting frequenciesrdquo 20

irrigated land and these familiescame from various parts of thecountry Originally no media element was included among thevarious rural development inputsfor Mahaweli However it waslater realized that a communityradio service could help the sett-lers to integrate and to take initia-tives to improve their living stan-dards In effect they needed todevelop a sense of community aswell as learn more about improvedagricultural practices health andso on

Community radio offered greatpotential for this so with financialsupport from Danish InternationalDevelopment Assistance (DANIDA)and UNESCO the MahaweliCommunity Radio was set up Itsfirst station covered about 20000settlers in the major developmentregion surrounding the town ofGuirandurokotte but it was latercomplemented by several othersmall FM stations in the area

Although the Mahaweli CommunityStations were all under the controlof the Sri Lanka BroadcastingCorporation they used a truecommunity radio style This wasquite different from the style usedby the national broadcaster

One of the main thrusts ofMahaweli Radio in addition toproviding settlers with information

was to obtain feedback from themabout development activitiesthrough recordings made in thecommunities which were laterincluded in programmes orthrough having settlers come intothe studios to talk on air Withsuch participation in the radio programming and dealing as it didwith local problems and issues theradio became a vital andpersonalized link in the life of thecommunity

Community Radio Expanding ata Fast Pace

Riding on the flood tide of changethat has been sweeping the worldtowards democratization anddecentralization in the 1980rsquos and1990rsquos community radio has beenexpanding at a fast pace UNESCOfollowed its Kenyan and Sri Lankanexperience with support to otherstations in a wide variety of coun-tries among them Ghana TongaHaiti Cape Verde St LuciaTrinidad and Tobago SurinamJamaica Guyana the Philippinesand many others However UNESCO is now far from beingalone in promoting communityradio A wide range of internationaldevelopment agencies and nationaland international NGOs are involvedin many parts of the world

The rapidity of the spread of community radio is remarkableand Mali provides an interestingexample In 1991 after 23 years ofmilitary dictatorship severe socialdisturbances finally overthrew thegovernment and a multi-partydemocracy was formally establishedA transition government came topower pending democratic elections

Mali is a primarily rural society andthe transitional government orga-nized consultations with represen-tatives of the rural people It wasfound that after more than twodecades during which the nationalmedia had been the channel forissuing instructions and exhorta-tions and with government staffin rural areas equally distant thepeasantry was disaffected and alienated by the governmentrsquosimposed development programmesThey preferred to ignore them 17

The transitional government andthe elected one that took its placedecided to install with the help ofUNDP and the Food and AgriculuralOrganisation (FAO) a policy ofusing communication systemati-cally for Malirsquos development thefirst country in the world to do soMali also took a lead in media libe-ralization in Africa notablythrough organizing a crucial confe-rence in Bamako in September1993 called ldquoFreedom for AfricanRadiosrdquo 18 19 11

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12

Mali had itself just liberalized its state TV andradio which ever since they began had broadcastexclusively in French a language only understoodby the countryrsquos elite And with illiteracy levelsof about 70 percent the majority of the peoplehad had no access to media-based information

In the five years after Mali liberalized its mediamore than 60 independent radio stations beganto operate providing access in local languagesto people for the first time since the dawn ofradio broadcasting And many other countriesare becoming similarly involved with communityradio Much has happened to improve thesituation for community broadcasting since theHoma Bay community transmitter was closeddown by the government of Kenya some 15 yearsago And as an endnote Kenya today is also discussing legislation that would recognizecommunity radio as part of the countriesbroadcasting scene

The Bolivian experiencebegan with a radio servicecalled the lsquoVoice of the

Minerrsquo linked to the Siglo XXmine in the Department of PotosiacuteIn subsequent years 23 stationsin the various mining areas of thecountry were set up and came tobe known collectively as theMinersrsquo Radios

These radio stations were born asa trade union response to theappalling conditions of workersin the mines most of which wereowned and operated until 1952 bya few rapacious and fabulouslyrich families the lsquotin baronsrsquosuch as the Patintildeos who wereknown world-wide for their extra-vagant lifestyles Meanwhile theminers who were the source oftheir wealth and of the mainnational export were being inhu-manely exploited Living in primitive mining camps often inthe cold of very high altitudespoorly paid and suffering fromtypical minersrsquo afflictions such assilicosis they were already oldmen by the age of 40 Their lifeexpectancy was further reducedby the lack of safety precautionsin the mines and frequent accidents In 1952 the mineswere nationalized but little chan-ged for the miners becausegovernments lacked socialconscience

Unfortunately historical factsabout the Minersrsquo Radios remainsomewhat vague for the mainsource of information is the

memory of the people involvedHowever it is certain that theradios were a crucial element inhelping to lead the struggle ende-mic in Bolivia for many years - aconfrontation that saw massacresof miners and their families civilwar and revolution

The radios helped to unite theminers in the struggle and provided them with news andinformation that countered thenegative propaganda against theirinterests that was being put out bymost of the mainstream mediaThe importance of the MinersrsquoRadios is evident from the num-ber of times they were systemati-cally destroyed or their equip-ment confiscated by the militarysent in by one or other of the succession of governments thatruled the country

It was in fact the miners that initiated the massive strike in1981 that finally led to the end ofdictatorship in Bolivia As on allprevious occasions of seriousconfrontation with the authoritiesone of the principle demandsmade by the miners was thereturn of the equipment for theirradio stations or in cases wherethe equipment had been destroyed the right to start themup again with new equipmentThe miners usually contributedmost of the cost a further illustra-tion of the importance of theseradio stations in their lives

Although the main role of theMinersrsquo Radios was the defence

and promotion of minersrsquo rightsthey were also central to a widerange of cultural and educationalactivities They promoted andbroadcast festivals of minersrsquopoetry discussions about theaesthetic value of popular songsand other art forms and discus-sions about education issueseven including a discussion ofwhether minersrsquo children shouldlearn to play chess

The miners themselves contributedto the costs of establishing andrunning their radio stations but inmost cases the management andprogramming policy was in thehands of their unions And therewas little participation by minersin the kind of radio programmesthat would be promoted by com-munity radio today However theintegration of the radio stationsinto the mining community wasto a great extent ensured by theirphysical location close to themine they served and peoplecould generally visit the studioand say their piece if they wanted

Most Minersrsquo Radios were set upin the second half of the 1950sbut their most flourishing yearswere between 1963 and 1983After that world tin prices beganto drop and in 1985 a neo-liberalgovernment passed a decree tolsquorelocatersquo miners throwing about20000 of them out of miningwork forever This cut the groundfrom under the feet of their radiosSome were passed to peasantgroups but today less than tenare still operating

BOX 1 The Minersrsquo Radio in Bolivia

BOX 2 Radio SutatenzaAccioacuten Cultural Popular in Colombia

This initiative was launchedin 1947 by a priest JoaquiacutenSalcedo in an Andean

village called Sutatenza It beganusing a home-made transmitterwith a range of two to three kmbut from this Radio Sutatenzagrew into Colombiarsquos mostpowerful broadcasting network

Salcedo an atypical priest wasmore concerned about the socialand economic status of Colombiarsquospeasants than about conventionalChurch matters Driven by his mission to bring education to peasants to help them develop herealized that radio could reacheven into the most isolated parts ofmountainous Colombia Thus theidea of the Radio Schools ofSutatenza was born and from thatAccioacuten Cultural Popular (ACPO)

The educational broadcasts byRadio Sutatenza expanded untilthey covered a wide range oftopics including literacy numeracyhealth farm production housingimprovements family and personalrelationships sport and leisureand - crucially as it turned out - theresponsibilities of parenthood andpractising responsible procreation

People listened to these programmes in informal RadioSchools - in effect small groupswho came together each eveningThe groups were assisted by moni-tors people with more knowledge

and experience than the group Atany one time there was usually anenrolment of some 200000 peasants in about 20000 RadioSchools

To complement the radio programmes ACPO produced arange of textbooks and a PeasantrsquosLibrary of 100 books on topics forrural communities And a weeklymagazine with an estimated readership of 600000 people waspublished Furthermore trainingof peasant leaders and technicaltraining courses in communitieswere a part of the activities

The Roman Catholic Church supported the operation from thebeginning mainly with funds fromCatholic groups in Europe butACPO also attracted world-wideattention and many internationalagencies also became involved infinancing it

Ultimately Radio Sutatenza wasthe victim of its own successW h e n i t i n t r o d u c e d i t s programmes on lsquoresponsible procreationrsquo the Church begansystematically to undermine itSalcedo declared that the problemwas to convince the masses that itwas not sinful to discuss these matters and that it was difficult toeducate people for human dignityand for responsible maternity in acountry dominated by religiousrules ACPO held no position on

chemical or physical methods ofbirth control Its task was only tocreate the basis on which indivi-duals could take their own respon-sible decisions

This position infuriated the Churchhierarchy in Colombia which heldthat the only purpose of humansexual intercourse was procreationof the species So it convinced theEuropean Catholic groups to with-draw their support HoweverACPO continued to function withother international funding passedthrough the government

The operation struggled on usingmainly borrowed funds until 1985when its powerful and valuableradio infrastructure was sold to acommercial network In 1987 after40 years successfully dedicated tohelping peasants develop theirminds knowledge and life skills itfinally folded completely Itsassets which included a publi-shing house a plant for pressingmusical records a 14-storey officeblock in the capital as well as peasant training centres were soldto meet its debts

13

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1

1 Independent Radio and Television Commission of Ireland1988

2 Quote Louie Tabing Manager of the UNESCODANIDATambuli Project Philippines

3 Zane Ibrahim and Ms Adams Bush Radio 895 FM (See CaseStudy)

4 P M Lewis and J Booth The Invisible Medium PublicCommercial and Community Radio MacMillan (London 1989)

5 Jocelyn Josiah Presentation on Media for Community Buildingin the Caribbean during Roundtable on Communication forDevelopment Brazil (Bahia 1998)

6 Carlos A Arnaldo Localism and the Displacement of Politics Placebased Communication Development (Globalism and the Politicsof Place) Vol 41 No 2 1998 Sage Publications and SID (Rome June 1998)

7 Louie N Tabing Programming Tips for a Community Radio StationUNESCO-DANIDA Tambuli Project (Manila 1998)

8 Rafael Roncaglio lo Public Service Broadcasting ndash Cultural andEducational Dimensions UNESCO (Paris 1995)

9 T McCain and F Lowe Localism in Western EuropeanBroadcasting Journal of Communication Vol 40-1 (1990)

10 Moncef M Bouhafa Child Survival and Broadcasting ndashOpportunities and Challenges paper presented at internationalconference on Broadcasting for Child Survival Voice ofAmericaUSAID (Washington April 1998)

11 Colin Fraser and Sonia Restrepo-Estrada Communicating forDevelopment - Human Change for Survival IB Tauris (LondonNew York 1998)

12 Peter Lewis in Alternative Media Linking Global and LocalReports and Papers on Mass Communication No 107 UNESCO (Paris 1993)

13 Mary Myers The Promotion of Democracy at the Grass-roots The Example of Radio in Mali Frank Cass Journal Vol 5 No 2 (London 1998)

14 Jake Mills of Ghana the designer of the cheap 6-channelaudio mixer (1990)

15 Martin Allard designer of a simple and cheap FM transmitter

16 Interview Sunil Wijesinghe broadcaster of MahaweliCommunity Radio (1999)

17 Colin Fraser and Sonia Restrepo-Estrada op cit

18 Moncef M Bouhafa Grassroots Media and CommunityEmpowerment in West Africa paper presented to theInternational Conference on Media and Politics CatholicUniversity of Brussels Belgium 1997 (revised 1998)

19 Mary Myers op cit

20 Ibid

14

In Barbados after running the experimental UNESCO community radio for the 1995 World Environmental Conference students took over the radio station and continued programmes ever since from the Barbados Community College as Radio GED

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Chapter 2Features and Functions of Community Radio

15

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2

T his chapter describes the special featuresand programming approach of communityradio in terms of public access and partici-

pation ownership management funding editorial independence and credibility as wellas its representation of different groups andinterests in the community and its inclusion ofmarginalized and minority groups

The section on functions covers the role of community radio in reflecting local identity andculture in providing a diversity of voices opinionsprogrammes and content on air and in promotingdemocratic process social change developmentcivil society and good governance Its functionas a lsquopeoplersquos telephonersquo and its contribution tothe training of human resources for the broad-casting industry are also touched on

After absorbing the content the reader will

bull Have a clear picture of the many features andfunctions of community radio

bull Be able to act as a resource personleaderduring discussions in a community about the possibility of setting up a radio stationproviding the necessary background informa-tion for decisions on ownership manage-ment programming policies and the benefitsthat can be expected from a communityradio

ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF COMMUNITY RADIO

The Audience asProtagonists

While community radio is a form of public-servicebroadcasting it has anapproach that is differentfrom conventional broad-casting Its specific focus isto make its audience themain protagonists by theirinvolvement in all aspects of its management and programme productionand by providing them withprogramming that will helpthem in the developmentand social advancement oftheir community

A Special Slant on News Entertainment and Education

News on a community station unlike that on the mains-tream media is not an isolated story or event alone ratherit aims to be part of an ongoing and future process whichsupports change and development in the community

Special Sunday treat for Radio Ibahay - actress Chin ChinGutierrez visits the station during the childrenrsquos programme

and sings a song in Aklanon

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16

Entertainment is provided in aform that is a collective culturalexpression rather than a featuringof refined performers It is morelike singing Karaoke than listeningto a professional artist

Education is more the sharing ofexperiences and learning from othersin the community than listening toan expert or teacher talking

Principles of Public Access andParticipation

Citizens have a democratic right toreliable accurate and timely infor-mation Based on this right it is apublic interest of broadcasting thatit should incorporate the principlesof access and participation

Access implies the availability ofbroadcasting services to all citizensparticipation implies that the publicis actively involved in planning andmanagement and also providesproducers and performers

In concrete terms for communityradio these concepts mean that

bull A community radiorsquos broadcastpattern reaches all members ofthe community it aims to serve

bull The community participates informulating plans and policies forthe radio service and in definingits objectives its principles ofmanagement and its program-ming

bull The community participates indecisions concerning programmecontent duration and schedulesPeople se lect the types ofprogrammes they want ratherthan having them prescribed bythe producers

bull The community is free to commentand criticize

bull There is continuous interactionbetween producers and receiversof messages The radio itself actsas a principal channel for thisinteraction but there are alsomechanisms that allow easycontact between the communitythe programme producers and themanagement of the radio station

bull There are unrestricted opportu-nities for members of the com-munity as individuals or groupsto produce programmes and behelped by the radio station staffusing the technical productionfacilities available

bull The community participates inthe establishment managementadministration and financing ofthe radio station

Ownership

The facilities of community radioare almost invariably owned by thecommunity through a trust founda-tion cooperative or some similarvehicle However there could becases where formal ownership wasin the hands of a body external tothe community but which has passedthe facility to the community for itsindependent and exclusive use

Management

Irrespective of formal ownershipthe stationrsquos policies managementand programming must be the responsibility of the community inorder for it to be considered a truecommunity radio There will usual-ly be a representative communitycommittee or Board of Directors toset overall policies while day-to-day

Radio quickly and easily becomes he link in society between poor and rich between rural and urban groups between agricultural routine and city leisure At Radyo Ibahay one of the smallest Tambuli stations film and TV actress Chin Chin Gutierrez share her ideas on development in an interview for the Sunday programme

Phot

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A A

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administrative andoperational decisionsare left to a stationmanager selected by thecommunity

Funding

A community radio service is set up and run asa non-profit organization Itrelies on financial supportfrom a diversity of sourceswhich may include donationsgrants membersh ip fees sponsorsh ip or advert i s ing A combination of these is themost desirable in order to ensureindependence Many communityradios also organize fund-raisingevents among their audience Theoverall aim is always to reach astate of financial self-sufficiency

Editorial Independence andCredibility

Community radio is editoriallyindependent of central and localgovernment of political partiesand of commercial and religiousinstitutions in determining its policies and programming Overallpolicy is set by the aforementionedrepresentative community-levelcommittee but with day-to-day

operational decisionsabout programming taken by thestation manager hisher role as acredible and non-partisan personbecoming crucial

Representation of DifferentGroups and Interests in theCommunity

Communities are inevitably madeup of different groups and inter-ests Community radio broadcastsprogrammes that cater to theseand also encourages them toexpress themselves on air Clearlyhowever programme and timeallocation are approximately pro-portional to the size of any parti-cular group or interest in the com-munity taking into account anyspecial circumstances or needs

Inclusion ofMinority and MarginalizedGroups

Community radio includes minorityand marginalized groups on equalterms rather than giving them an

17

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2

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Even the smallest children haveaccess to the radio on the

Radio Ibahay Sunday childrenrsquosprogramme

Carol Singing for a Tape Recorder

Community radio stations often organize communityevents such as community fairs cultural eveningsand other fund-raising activities One Tambuli community radio station in the Philippines organizeddoor-to-door carol singing at Christmas to raisefunds to buy a new tape recorder

18

occasional voice as in the case of many public broadcasters Its programming ensures a wide diversity of voices and views frommarginalized groups such aswomen and youth and it promotesand protects the interests cultureand linguistic diversity of ethnicminorities in the community

FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNITY RADIO

Community radio aims to fulfil thefollowing functions

Reflect and Promote LocalIdentity Character and Culture

Co m m u n i t y ra d i o p ro v i d e s programming that is particular toits communityrsquos identity and character Thus it relies principallyon local content It includes outsidenews and events that have a specialinterest or implications for itsaudience

It also focuses on local cultureCulture is what a community saysto itself and what it says to othersIt is how the people the individualmembers of a community expresstheir dreams and hopes and howthey talk about their past and theirfuture It is what they care aboutLike life itself culture is infinitelyvariable and constantly evolving Itis the result of a process not of

definitions And that is why indemocracies governments areexpected only to establish broadframeworks for cultural expressionby the people Governments mustnot get involved in content or style 1

Community culture is also of courseartistic expression through localmusic dance poetry theatre storytelling and so on and these arefeatured strongly by most commu-nity radios Local performers areencouraged to go on air uninhibitedby considerations of the lsquoprofessionalstandardsrsquo they may have acquiredfrom mainstream media The valueof content and lsquolocalnessrsquo usuallyoutweighs formal quality and lsquoprofessionalismrsquo though thisshould not be used as an excuse forsub-standard technical production

Culture is also Language Locallanguages and expressions are theraw material that feeds communityradios They are the cement of cultural diversity which is as important for the successful futureof humanity as biological diversityThere are some 6700 languages inthe world and 63 percent of theseare in Africa and Asia Nationalbroadcasting and media globaliza-tion combined with other factorssuch as urban migration threatenhalf of the worldrsquos languages with extinction during the nextgeneration And with them will go

their cultures Community radio is aprime defence against this gravetrend towards the impoverishmentof cultural diversity 2

Create a Diversity of Voices andOpinions on the Air

Community radio through itsopenness to participation to all sectors and people in a communitycreates a diversity of voices andopinions on the air

Some discord is present in all communities they are not the peaceful harmonious groupingsthat outsiders may idealisticallyimagine Discord may be caused bydiffering interests by differing ethnic linguistic or religious backgrounds or even by someancient feud The acknowledgementof conflict is necessary for democracyand for democratic communitiesThrough an understanding of whyconflict exists communities canunderstand themselves better andpave the way to resolve conflicts A function of community radio is totry objectively to air all sides of a dis-cussion without itself taking sides

Main Functions of Community Radio as Formulatedin South Africa

Community radio stations should

bull Promote and reflect local culture character andidentity

bull Assist in creating a diversity of voices and opinionsand encourage individual expression

bull Increase access to a diversity of voices on air

bull Assist in creating a diversity in broadcastingownership

bull Be responsive to the needs of their community

bull Contribute to human resources development forbroadcasting and where appropriate to job creation

bull Encourage members of the relevant community toparticipate in programming and production matters

bull Encourage innovation and experimentation in programming 3

Preserving Linguistic Diversity in IndustrializedCountries too

Community radio stations in New York broadcast inWolof on Sundays for people of the Senegalese community Two other stations broadcast in Koreanwhile in France the Arab population has demandedthe right to set up media channels that meet its specific needs 4

Provide a Diversity ofProgrammes and Content

Community radio provides a diversity of programmes in a varie-ty of formats and styles Forexample roundtable discussionsreportage interviews talks call-inprogrammes live broadcasts ofmeetings in the community etcAudience preferences are takeninto account in deciding what formats are most suitable

Content also covers a wide rangeof topics again in accordance withthe expressed desires and needs ofthe audience Content is mainlydetermined by the lifestyles andlivelihood of the community andby the problems it faces In ruralareas themes such as health farming fishing environmentcredit marketing of producesmall-scale enterprises etc usuallyfeature prominently but always setin the context of the communityrsquosactual situation

News broadcasts may also focuson different types of contentThey may cover only local eventsand issues or they may includenational items that have local relevance or they may evenbroadcast national and internatio-nal news per se in the case of aremote community with no accessto other media channels

Encourage Open Dialogue andDemocratic Process

The ancient Greeks who inventeddemocracy conducted their politi-cal debate in public All those whowished could be present at themeetings to listen and voice theirviews Sheer numbers of peoplemake this impossible today andfor this reason democratic processhas become distant from ordinarycitizens Typically once politiciansare elected their contact withtheir electorates is limited andthey go about their tasks withoutmuch further consultation ordebate with them

It is a function of community radioto provide an independent platformfor interactive discussion aboutmatters and decisions of importanceto its community This is in keepingwith the decentralization processesnow being implemented in manycountries a purpose of which is tobring democratic decision-makingcloser to the people concerned

However for social and economicprogress to take place democraticprocesses cannot start and finish inthe community They must reachinto the government and privateinstitutions operating in the community as well as to policymakers and authorities at thelocal regional and even nationallevel

The public debates aired by thecommunity radio will certainlybe heard by locally-basedstaff of government andprivate institutions and theradiorsquos content should berelayed by them to theirsuperiors This lays the foun-dation for development initia-tives that are responsive to thecommunityrsquos felt needs andpossibilities In additionrecordings by the communityradio service can be used inmeetings or even broadcast byother stations to make betterknown what is happening at thegrassroots level

In sum the core of democraticprocess is the ability of people tohear and make themselves heardCommunity radio provides theforum for that to happen

Promote Development andSocial Change

People in poor communities tendto be fatalistic about their situationThey will all have individual perceptions but developmentcannot take place on the basis ofthese What is needed is a collectiveperception of the local reality andof the options for improving itThis can only be achieved throughinternal discussions within the

Connections

ldquoLocal radio stations have the responsibility toconnect people with people people with peoplersquosorganizations and people with officials and govern-ment functionariesrdquo 5

19

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While group listening is not the norm among radio audience radioachieves a certain level of similarity among people living in rural areasProblem-solving becomes easier when there is ldquocommonnessrdquo in knowledge perceptions aspirations goals and processes

20

community about its situation thecauses and possible actions forimprovement

Community radio provides the perfect platform for these internaldiscussions and for reaching a collective perception of the situationSpecific problems can be analyzedremedies discussed and thosemost affected - or who can helpwith the solution - mobilized tocollective action

Anti-social behaviour by minoritiesin a community can also be modifiedby exerting pressure from themajority through community radioprogrammes

Promote Civil Society

Civil society is that multiplicity ofsocial institutions that allows asociety to live in harmoniouscoexistence It creates its own stan-dards and values for individual andgroup behaviour rather thanhaving them imposed from above

Especially in countries that haverecently adopted democratic systems after decades of single-party or authoritarian rule theyounger generations have littleidea about what democracy entailsor about the civil society thatmakes democracies function

Some community radios focus onexplaining the implications ofdemocracy and civil society raisingawareness about peoplersquos rightsbut also about their obligationsThey work to explain how a civicsense is needed if new-found freedoms are to result in harmonyand social progress

Promote Good Governance

In poor communit ies loca l authorities and politicians can easily take advantage of citizenseither individually or as a group inpart because the marginalized andoppressed have no way to complain Community radio helpspeople to obtain their just rights bygiving them a platform to air theirgrievances And through playing acommunity watchdog role it makeslocal authorities and politiciansmore conscious of their public responsibilities

Broadcasting of discussions orquestions and answers betweenmembers of the community andlocal authorities about some issuethat i s exerc i s ing them i s a technique that is often usedAnother technique is to broadcastlive the discussions of local government meetings

This function of community radiois not always easy to fulfil In veryremote communities and wherepower has been held by a few familiesfor generations the people may bereluctant to speak their mindbecause they all have a debt of onesort or another to those familiesAnd equally the powerful familiesmay be unwilling to take criticism

Encourage Participation Sharingof Information and Innovation

Participation is a key word in development circles but it is notalways appreciated that participationand communication are two sidesof the same coin for when peoplecommunicate about their situationand about options for improving itthey are in effect participating Andthey are also laying the foundationfor collective action in which theywill participate Community radioencourages participation by providing a platform for debateanalysis and the exchange of ideasand opinions

In addition community radioallows for the sharing of informationand innovation For example onefamily or group in a communitymay have solved some problemthat is common to many otherpeople such as obtaining farm

Some of the Social and Development Benefits ofTambuli Community Radio Stations in thePhilippines

bull There is a new vibrancy and will to change in thecommunities

bull Men gave up their passionate pastime of gamblingafter a series of discussions over the radio clearlyshowed its negative economic impact on their fami-lies and on the community

bull Butchers were prohibited from bringing live ani-mals to the market and slaughtering them there

bull A large poultry farm was cleaned up to reduce itssmell and pollution

bull Creeks were dredged to reduce risks of flooding

bull A footbridge and extra lighting were installed

bull A day care centre for children was created by thelocal authorities

bull Illegal logging and fishing were stopped as a resultof community pressure 6

A Statement by the Programme Director of the Independent Radio Bamakan in Mali

ldquoThere are a lot of aspects of democracy that peopledonrsquot know about and we are obliged to raise awa-reness to explain that democracy is not anarchythat democracy involves rights and obligations Wehave the right to demand but we also have obliga-tions to the Staterdquo 7

credit from a new bank in the

nearest city A broadcast account

by them explaining how they went

about it and the procedures required

would be the stimulus for other

families to do the same Another

example might be providing infor-

mation about a farmer in the area

who had multiplied seed of an

improved vegetable variety and

was willing to sell it

Give Voices to the Voiceless

In many traditional societies

women and youth and ethnic and

linguistic minorities are virtually

ignored in community affairs But

no community can change and

develop equitably and satisfactori-

ly without the active and informed

participation of its women youth

and minority groups (See Box 3 at

the end of this Chapter)

Therefore community radio gives

voice to the voiceless in the

community This of course is in

addition to giving the community

in general a voice after years of

having been inert recipients of

state or commercial broadcasts

Provide a Social Service asa Replacement for theTelephone

In poor rural areas where

telephones hardly exist

community radio replaces

them to an important extent

by broadcasting messages

For example a family living

in a remote part of the

community can be informed

that a relative living in the

main agglomeration has

been taken ill and would they

please come to visit Or a

farmer with an animal he

wants to sell can have the

fact announced over the radio

replacing the series of calls he

would make if telephones were

available Again a person looking

for temporary labour to help with

some farm task could alert those

people who were interested to

offer their services through a

broadcast announcement

The efficiency of government ser-

vices say in health is improved by

broadcasting the schedule for field

visits ahead of time so that people

will be waiting for these on arrival

Contribute to Diversity inBroadcasting Ownership

Community commercial andnational or state broadcasting allhave roles in society though com-munity broadcasting is the onethat has generally lagged behindthe others Community radio helpsto redress this and provides thebalance of broadcast informationsources needed by democraticsocieties for their advancement

In Benin children participate directly in literacy courses on the air

21

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In October 1992 Bhutan Broadcasting Corporation was transformed from a statebroadcaster to a public corporation with a much decreased subsidy Above at thenew Punaka market a broadcast trainee talks with the people about prices travelalong country roads quality of the harvest and news of the village This project was financed by DANIDA

Phot

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Difficulties in Achieving Transparency - a Case Studyfrom the Philippines

The more remote the community the more hesitantpeople are to speak out People rely on their leadersfor the smallest problems and they all owe a debt tothe few political families To criticise them wouldseem ungrateful

The local council told the community radio to acceptcalls from listeners with queries or comments duringlive broadcasts of the weekly council sessions Butwhen the calls began to come in the council toldthem to stop accepting them The council also beganto chose which portions of the sessions could bebroadcast and told the radio team to leave the roomwhen budget discussions were under way 8

22

Contribute to theDevelopment of HumanResources for theBroadcasting Industry

Community radio arguablydemystifies the broadcasterrsquosprofession by taking communitymembers as message producersIt is also a school for fledglingbroadcasters where they ofcourse acquire valuable technicalskills

But there is another factor that makes people trained in community radio particularlyvaluable They are broadcasterswho live among their listenersshare many of the same problemsand get constant feedback ndash positive and negative - on the formats of their programmes andon their interest and usefulnessThis gives them unique insightsinto the broadcaster audiencerelationship and into radio as a toolfor change and development It isnot uncommon therefore forcommunity broadcasters go on tojoin the staff of mainstream broadcasting

lsquoThe Peoplersquos Telephonersquo in Haiti

ldquoWhen the bandits sped off on their motorcycle leaving a cloud of dust a dead body and a distressedvillage in their wake they thought they were on theroad to freedom They hadnrsquot heard about the villagersquos radio station Radyo Flanbo In Haiti community radio stations such as Flanbo are knownas lsquothe peoplersquos telephonersquo and as the bandits prepared to terrorize the next village Flanborsquos newsreader broadcast a warning of their imminentarrival The bandits might as well have drivenstraight to the police stationrdquo 10

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Radio Muye the first community radio run bywomen in the Caribbeanunder the UNESCO specialproject lsquoWomen Speaking toWomenrsquo

One of the youngest womenrecruits of the community

radio station in CuyoPalawan DYMC Radio

1 Adapted from Pierre Juneau GeneralIntroduction Public ServiceBroadcasting - the Challenge of the21st Century Reports and Papers on Mass Communication No 111 UNESCO (Paris 1997)

2 Sophie K Ly El Recuerdo delConocimiento Perdido InteRadio Vol 9 No 2 AMARC (Montreal 1997)

3 Triple Enquiry Report IndependentBroadcasting Authority Republic ofSouth Africa (1995)

4 Ibid

5 B S S Rao during the Consultationon Media Policy and Community RadioBangalore India (1996)

6 Colin FraserSonia Restrepo-Estrada Communicating forDevelopment - Human Change for Survival IB Tauris (LondonNew York) 1998

7 Mary Myers The Promotion ofDemocracy at the Grass-roots The Example of Radio in Mali FrankCass Journal Vol 5 No 2 (London Summer 1998)

8 Adapted from Cecile Balgos The Sounds of Silence UNESCOSources No 89 UNESCO(Paris 1997)

9 Felix Librero in Communication forPeople Power Ed Maslog NavarroTabing Teodoro UNESCOTambuliProject Institute of DevelopmentCommunication College of MassCommunication UNESCO NationalCommission Philippines (Manila 1997)

10 David Shanks Voices for the VoicelessA feature prepared by WorldAssociation for ChristianCommunication (WACC) (London March 1999)

Information as a Commodity for Decisions

ldquoThe appropriate use of community broadcasting isto satisfy community and social needs In the processof doing so people are able to access the very important commodity called information on whichthey base their day-to-day decisionsrdquo 9

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23

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Filipino women - particularly

those in the countryside

where socialization has been

limited by poverty and inadequate

educational attainment - are often

shy reserved and timid In addition

rural families are often resistant to

changing the traditional position of

women as housekeepers and

women would generally prefer that

their husbands participate in

community projects

It is very evident that the issue of

collectively pursuing womens rights

and empowerment has been relegated

to the lowest priority among rural

people So it often takes cajoling and

reassurances before women will

come out of their shells

However increased readiness to

participate in community projects

can be seen among those who have

been exposed to mass media culture

and our initial talks in communities

regarding special radio programmes

for about and by women were met

with much eagerness I attribute this

to the fact that some family and

social institutions that had been

trying to promote womenrsquos activities

in the community felt threatened and

welcomed the support that radio

could provide

Once involved women are highly

dependable They adhere to rules

Compared to men they are more

meticulous They are less subject

to anomalous behaviour and

malfeasance They are consistently

enthusiastic And where the women

are mixed with men the men also

become more enthusiastic if not to

say better performers

Meriam Aranas the president of

the Olutanga Islanders Media

Development Foundation was a

strong-willed leader of an active

womens group promoting livelihood

and conservation projects She

registered the association and led the

drive to erect a building for the radio

station

A schoolteacher Rosario Gozos was

appointed as station manager in

Partido Camarines Sur She is

single-handedly running a family

because her husband works abroad

She spearheaded the

successful drive against illegal

gambling in the district Among

other things she has initiated an

all-women Saturday programme

Her infectious dedication

has inspired all the other

volunteers in her radio

station In less than three

years the station became

an institutional power in

the community It has

contributed greatly to

the progress and well

being of Partido

Lyn Villasis a soft-

spoken beautician has

been running a story-

telling program for

children for years and has become

one of the most popular personalities

in the station in Banga Aklan

Malou Angolluan is a youthful

college graduate who has taken

voluntary activity as a vocation Her

exemplary work and dedication to

service have earned her profuse

admiration from her listeners She

has turned down several offers to

work in bigger commercial radio

stations

BOX 3 Involvement of Women

In Ibahay Aklan province PhilippinesAte Meds rushes from Sunday mass tothe Studio for her weekly childrenrsquosprogramme

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o C

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do

24

In Pastapur Hyderabad India women discuss local problems for airing on a regional radio station of All India Radio They are also advocating for new legislationto enable them to broadcast on their own antenna

Phot

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25

Chapter 3Legal Aspects

T his chapter gives an overview of the legis-lation governing community radio in avariety of countries world-wide Special

attention is given to South Africa wherebroadcasting legislation is in many ways exem-plary and could be used as a model by othercountries The main common factors and themain differences that exist in national commu-nity radio legislation are described as are typi-cal requirements for obtaining a licence

The reader will gain

bull An awareness of the wide variations in legisla-tion and of the obstacles that communityradio may face in some parts of the world

bull An understanding of the need to examine clo-sely the existing legislation before embarkingon a community radio project

bull Knowledge of the likely information andconditions that the authorities will requirebefore issuing a community radio licence

UNEVEN AND HAPHAZARD LEGISLATION

The airwaves or the frequencies for broadcastingare a public asset It is therefore incumbent uponnational administrations in line with the decisionsof the administrative planning conferences organizedby the International Telecommunications Union(ITU) to regulate and allocate their use with thepublic interest in mind as well as with fairness andtransparency And general national media policiesshould meet the same criteria

Unfortunately this does not always happen andthe legislation governing community radio is veryuneven In several regions of the world communityradio suffers because current legislation is eithernon-existent inconsistent or basically hostile Thishandbook is not the place for an exhaustive description of the legislation country-by-countrybut a brief overview of the situation in a few countries world-wide will give a feel for the situation

MOST PROGRESS IN AFRICA

Many countries in Africa have made good progress inlegislating for community radio This is particularlyinteresting because at first sight it would appearto be a paradox on the one hand communityradio certainly has a natural role to play in cateringto the information needs and interests of the wide

ethnic cultural and linguistic diversity present inmost African countries but on the other handgovernments fear that freedom of ethnic and linguistic expression might undermine nationalunity It will be remembered that this was partlywhat brought the Homa Bay community radioexperience in Kenya to a premature end in 1984

However it seems that the lesson has now beenlearned about authoritarian suppression of diverselinguistic and cultural expression within a countryThis ultimately produces strong resentment andtensions in society Indeed even in industrializedcountries the last two decades have seen a changeof heart by governments that now try to preservethe traditional linguistic and cultural identity of theirminority groups They have realized that a pluralisticsociety can also achieve national identity and unity

This is the case in many parts of Africa too Sincethe early 1990s countries such as Mali BurkinaFaso Namibia and South Africa have all embarkedon a course of freeing their airwaves and promo-ting community radio as part of the nationalbroadcasting spectrum backing the policy withappropriate legislation in most cases

South Africarsquos progress towards new broadcastingpolicies and community radio legislation is consideredexemplary Some countries have already copied itand many others could also find it a useful modelIt is therefore outlined in the next section

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26

Broadcasting Legislation inSouth Africa ndash an ExemplaryCase

The government of post-apartheidSouth Africa realized that the countryrsquos media could help toresolve many socio-economicdevelopment needs and at thesame time help to build a democraticand pluralistic society But newbroadcasting policies and opera-tions would be needed

An Independent BroadcastingAuthority

The first step taken in 1993 wasthe creation of an IndependentBroadcasting Authority (IBA) ajuridical body to formulate broad-casting policy plan the use of thefrequency spectrum issue licencesadjudicate in the case of com-plaints and in general regulate thebroadcasting industry It functionsindependently of the State and ofgovernmental and political partyinfluences It is a non-profit entitythat is financed partly by the Stateand partly from fees that itreceives

The IBA is run by a Council madeup of seven people appointed bythe State President They arepeople with expertise in fields thatinclude broadcasting policy media

law marketing journalism enter-tainment and education They arealso selected on the basis of theircommitment to fairness freedomof expression the right of thepublic to be informed opennessand accountability

Overall Objectives of theBroadcasting Legislation

Among the main objectives ofSouth Africarsquos broadcasting legisla-tion are the following

bull Promote the provision of a diverserange of broadcasting services ona national regional and local levelwhich cater for all language andcultural groups and provideentertainment education andinformation

bull Promote the development ofpublic private and communitybroadcasting services which areresponsive to the needs of thepublic

bull Develop and protect a nationaland regional identity culture andcharacter

bull Encourage ownership andcontrol of broadcasting servicesby persons from historicallydisadvantaged groups

bull Ensure that private and commu-nity broadcasting licences are

Western Media Models a Disservice toDevelopment

ldquoBroadcasting media have developed into aone-way model in Third World countrieswith information news and massive dosesof entertainment flowing from large urbancentres The uniform prescription designed by theaffluent minority at decision-making level does notaddress the issues of development which require alocal perspective for each county and each community The concepts and use of the media as developed in industrialized societies have not proved conducive to the development needsof our countryrdquo 1

controlled by persons or groupsfrom a diverse range of commu-nities in the Republic

bull Ensure equitable treatment ofpolitical parties by all broadcas-ting licencees during any electionperiod

bull Ensure that broadcasting licenceesadhere to a code of conductacceptable to the IBA

Categories of Radio Broadcasting

The legislation foresees three categories of radio service

bull A public service ndash A serviceprovided by the South AfricanBroadcasting Corporation or byany other statutory body or person that receives revenuefrom licence fees paid by listenersfor their receivers

bull A private service - Operatedfor profit and controlled by aperson who is not a publicbroadcasting licencee

bull A community service - A broadcasting service which

Is fully controlled by a non-profit entity and carried onfor non- profitable purposes

Serves a particular commu-nity

Encourages members of thecommunity served by it orpersons associated with orpromoting the interest ofsuch community to partici-pate in the selection andprovision of programmes tobe broadcast

May be funded by dona-tions grants sponsorshipadvertising or membershipfees or by any combinationof these

The term lsquocommunityrsquo includes ageographically founded communityor any group of persons or sectorof the public having a specific andascertainable common interest

South African LicencingArrangements

In keeping with the general andcommunity radio policies outlinedabove the legislation providesdetailed requirements that mustbe met by applicants for commu-nity radio licences It also laysdown the procedures to be follo-wed These are complex anddemanding in terms of the detai-led information that is called forCommunity radio licences areawarded for four-year periodsalthough shorter temporarylicences can also be issued

Licences are not granted to anyparty movement organizationbody or alliance which is of a politi-cal nature

Readers may wish to browse theIBArsquos website (httpibaorgza)for more details on South Africancommunity radio policy legislationand licencing

ASIA AND INDIArsquoSLENGTHY DEBATE ON

COMMUNITY RADIO

The situation in Asia is far lessfavourable than in Africa andIndia provides a good illustration ofthe problems Nepal and Sri Lankashow ways of solving problems

All India Radio (AIR) was establishedas a state broadcasting monopolyin 1935 in line with the Britishmodel the BBC The debate aboutbreaking that monopoly beganmore than 30 years ago with theChanda Committee reportSubsequent committees have spe-cifically recommended decentrali-zing broadcasting to institutionalizethe process of participation and tomeet peoplersquos fundamental rightto information The SupremeCourt passed a landmark judge-ment in 1995 declaring that theairwaves were a lsquopublic goodrsquo andstressing the importance of main- 27

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