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Immigrant Gods and Female Immortals in Ancient Japan  WE A V I N G A N D BINDING

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Estudo em língua inglesa sobre importação de divindades, práticas mágico-religiosas e tecnologias continentais no Japão antigo.

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Immigrant Gods and Female

Immortals in Ancient Japan

 WEAVING AND

BINDING Michael Como

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 Weaving and Binding 

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 Weaving and Binding 

Immigrant Gods and Female Immortalsin Ancient Japan

Michael Como

UNIVERSITY OF HAWAI‘I PRESS

HONOLULU

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© 2009 University of Hawai‘i Press

 All rights reserved

Printed in the United States of America

14 13 12 11 10 09 6 5 4 3 2 1

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication DataComo, Michael. Weaving and binding : immigrant gods and female immortalsin ancient Japan / Michael Como.

p. cm.Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN 978-0-8248-2957-5 (hard cover : alk. paper)1. Japan—Religion. I. Title.BL2202.3.C66 2010299.5'6—dc22

2009015371

University of Hawai‘i Press books are printed on acid-free

paper and meet the guidelines for permanence and durability 

of the Council on Library Resources.

Designed by University of Hawai‘i Press production department

Printed by The Maple-Vail Book Manufacturing Group

MICHAEL COMO is Tòshû Fukami Associate Professor of Shintò Studies at

Columbia University. He is author of Shòtoku: Ethnicity, Ritual and Violence

in the Japanese Buddhist Tradition (Oxford University Press, 2008) as well as

numerous articles on the religions of ancient Japan.

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 For Hui-yu, Maggie, and Danny 

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vii 

Contents

 Acknowledgments

Introduction

1 Immigrant Gods on the Road to Jindò

2  Karakami and Animal Sacrifice

3 Female Rulers and Female Immortals

4 The Queen Mother of the Westand the Ghosts of the Buddhist Tradition

5 Shamanesses, Lavatories, and the Magic of Silk

6 Silkworms and Consorts

7 Silkworm Cults in the Heavenly Grotto: Amaterasu and

the Children of Ama no Hoakari

Conclusion

Glossary of Names and Terms

 Appendix: Notes on Sources

Notes and Abbreviations

 Works Cited

Index

ix

xi

1

25

55

84

109

136

155

193

197

223

237

279

295

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 Acknowledgments

THROUGH EVERY STAGE of this project I have benefited enormously from

the work of numerous friends and scholars whose generous assistance hasmade this a far better book than it otherwise would have been. During the

formative stages of this project I was fortunate to receive the support and

encouragement of such scholars as Jackie Stone of Princeton, Paul Groner

of the University of Virginia, Terry Kleeman of the University of Colorado,

and Hank Glassman of Haverford College. Without their assistance, it is

doubtful that this project would ever have begun.

During the course of my research overseas I was also fortunate to

meet with a number of scholars who unstintingly offered me their supportand the fruits of their many academic labors. In all that I have done I have

benefited enormously from the friendship and guidance of Professor Yoshi-

kawa Shinji of Kyoto University, who both embodied the highest ideals of

academic rigor and taught me how passion and curiosity should infuse all

academic inquiry. I am also extremely grateful for the assistance of Profes-

sor Silvio Vita of the Italian School of Oriental Studies, who gave me an

academic home in Kyoto, and Professor Wang Kuo-liang of the Academica

Sinica, who provided me with a base of operations and introductions in

Taipei.

 Very special thanks must also go to Herman Ooms and Torquil Dulhe

of UCLA, Tom Conlan of Bowdoin College, and Mark Teeuwen of the Uni-

 versity of Oslo, each of whom spent countless hours and offered copious

comments, criticisms, and corrections of various incarnations of the manu-

script. Without the benefit of their assistance and insight, my own efforts

 would have been greatly impoverished.

Closer to home, those to whom I owe thanks at Barnard College and

my own Columbia University are also legion. I will always be particularlygrateful for the friendship and support of Wendi Adamek, Courtney Bend-

er, Wiebke Denecke, Rachel McDermott, and Max Moerman. Very special

thanks go to David Lurie, who as a friend, colleague, and critic, has done

ix 

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more for my work and my sanity than I shall ever be able to repay. I am

also deeply indebted to Bob Hymes, Haruo Shirane, Chun-fang Yu, and

Mark Taylor, upon each of whom I have relied for advice and encourage-

ment for so very long. I would also like to express my deepest appreciationand gratitude for the aid, instruction, and encouragement given to me these

many years by Bernard Faure, who as teacher, colleague, and friend has

been all that anyone could hope for and more.

This project was also made possible by generous support by the U.S.-

 Japan Fulbright Commission, the Chiang Ching-kuo Foundation, and the

 Japanese Society for the Promotion of Science. To each of these institutions

I offer my sincere thanks. I would also like to thank the editors of the jour-

nal Asian Folklore Studies for allowing me to include a revised version of anarticle that first appeared in the Fall 2005 edition of their journal as Chapter

6 of this work. I would also like to express my deepest thanks to Patricia

Crosby and the staff of University of Hawai‘i Press for their patience and

assistance in the completion of this project.

 Above all else, however, I would like to offer my deepest thanks to

my wife Hui-yu and my children, Maggie and Danny. These past several

 years they have endured tribulations both large and small with extraordi-

nary grace, patience, and love. To them I offer my most heartfelt thanksand the hope that someday, somehow, I may repay them for their many

kindnesses.

 x Acknowledgments

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xi 

Introduction 

 AMONG THE MOST exciting developments in the study of Japanese reli-

gion over the past two decades has been the discovery of tens of thousandsof ritual vessels, implements, and scapegoat dolls (hitogata) from the Nara

(710–784) and early Heian (794–1185) periods. Because inscriptions on

many of these items are clearly derived from Chinese rites of spirit pacifica-

tion, it is now evident that both the Japanese royal system and the Japanese

Buddhist tradition developed against a background of continental rituals

centered upon the manipulation of  yin and  yang , animal sacrifice,  and

spirit-quieting. Thus in spite of the longstanding tendency to approach Japa-

nese religion according to a bivalent Buddhist/Shintò model, it is now clearthat continental rites of purification and exorcism constituted a third major

force in the development of the religious institutions of the Nara period.

The proliferation of these rites in the Japanese islands, in turn, was

almost certainly related to the adoption of the Chinese festival calendar, a

process that was apparently underway by the time of the court of Suiko

(reigned 592–628), as envoys from the Chinese empire and the kingdoms of

the Korean peninsula helped accelerate the diffusion of continental politi-

cal, cultural, and religious norms.1 As subsequent decades witnessed the

accelerated transmission of Buddhism to the Japanese islands, they were

also characterized by the rapid absorption of systems of knowledge based

upon Chinese notions of medicine, astronomy, and ritual. This process was

to influence virtually every aspect of court life for centuries to come.2 

In light of the impressive number of continental-style effigies, ritual

 vessels, and clay figurines that have been unearthed, this book seeks to

re-examine early Buddhist and “native” religious practice in the Japanese

islands within the context of the rites, legends, and technologies associ-

ated with the Chinese festival calendar. Building upon recent archeologicaldiscoveries as well as textual sources, I chart the trajectory of this

transformation in the religious culture through a study of the immigrant

cults and deities that flourished during the Nara and early Heian periods. 3

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 xii Introduction

Throughout this work I argue that as the rites and legends of the

Chinese festival calendar pervaded popular cultic practice across the

 Japanese islands, they also to a remarkable degree shaped the emerging

Buddhist and royal traditions.4 By highlighting the revolutionary effect ofcontinental systems of technology, science, and material culture upon cultic

development across the Japanese islands, I suggest new readings for a series

of myths and legends related to the Sun Goddess Amaterasu, the formation

of the royal line, and the foundational narrative of the Buddhist tradition in

the Japanese islands. As a result, a new picture of cultic life in the period

emerges that emphasizes the importance of animal sacrifice, weaving cults,

and Chinese conceptions of medicine and immortality.

Inherent in this project are three overarching goals that have shapedboth the structure and content of the work. At the most basic level, I wish to

draw attention to the importance of continental technologies and the Chinese

festival calendar for the development of purportedly native cultic practices

and belief systems. Because continental technologies related to sericulture,

medicine, and metalworking were firmly embedded in continental ritual and

conceptual frameworks, their transmission necessitated the simultaneous

transmission and adoption of a body of rites and legends that were part

of the basic fabric of popular cultic practice in the Chinese empire(s) andin the Korean kingdoms. By focusing upon the primarily immigrant lin-

eages most closely associated with this process, I hope both to explicate

the primary mechanisms of this cultural transmission and to clarify the

nature of the transformation that it engendered. Thus the diffusion of

sericulture not only required adoption of new technologies and modes

of social organization, but it also required the adoption of cults focused

on silkworm goddesses and astral deities such as the Weaver Maiden and

the Queen Mother of the West. Similarly, the practice of Chinese medicine

required not only knowledge of human anatomy, but also an understanding

of the relationship between body and spirit predicated upon Chinese

conceptions of  yin and  yang . I argue that as a cluster of service groups

and immigrant lineages incorporated continental tropes and cultic practices

 within their own ancestral cults and legends, the rites and legends of the

Chinese festival calendar came to be embedded within the fabric of ritual

practice across the Japanese islands. As immigrant ancestral deities became

inscribed in local landscapes, continental conceptions of immortality, spirit

pacification, and animal sacrifice became ubiquitous across the spectrum ofcultic practice at court and in the countryside.

These considerations are closely related to a second, equally important

goal, which is to highlight the role of gender issues in the formation of

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   Introduction xiii 

both economic and cultic systems during the period. Much of the narrative

is devoted to the hitherto neglected consorts, shamanesses, goddesses,

and female immortals who pervaded the cultic landscape of the Japanese

islands.5 The cultic identity of these figures, I argue, was closely related tothe proliferation of weaving and sericulture, two heavily gendered activities

that featured prominently in the rites of the Chinese festival calendar. As

silks and fabrics became the commodity of choice for everything from taxes

to offerings to deities, weaving maidens cum female deities, ancestors, and

immortals played a major role in defining the nature of what would come to

be known as “native” Japanese religion. I further argue that as these figures

came to be intertwined with the newly emerging royal cult, the tropes and

legends of the Chinese festival calendar came to play a major role in theconstruction of the lineal and cultic basis of the royal cult.

Finally, I relate these developments to the emergence of the Japanese

Buddhist tradition, which took root during this period. Although obvious

instances of cultic influences from the Chinese festival calendar have often

been dismissed as preexisting accretions of popular cultic practices within

the Chinese Buddhist tradition, I argue that continental rites and legends

are best understood as integral elements of the technological and material

transformation that was sweeping the Japanese islands during the period.Focusing on a series of legends drawn from popular tale collections as

 well as from court-sponsored accounts of the founding legend of Japanese

Buddhism, I further argue that continental conceptions of medicine, spirit-

quieting, and even animal sacrifice shaped a new religious ideal that

involved  the use of drugs and ascetic practices in pursuit of immortality

and mastery of the superhuman world.

Iconoclasts and the Return of the Native

Exploring each of these issues in turn entails unraveling a series of

methodological difficulties that may be traced to the continued influence of

nationalist discourse from Japan’s prewar period. One of the most important

impediments has been an unspoken set of assumptions concerning a pur-

portedly native Japanese identity that is closely associated either with

the religious practices of the Japanese “folk” or with the Japanese royal

house. In this view Buddhism was, by contrast, a “foreign” religion that was

transformed as it gradually came to an accommodation with the “native”beliefs and practices associated with popular religious practice.

This paradigm is closely related to Meiji conceptions of the royal house

as a central engine in the development of new cultic practices across the

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 xiv Introduction

 Japanese islands. Because both the Nara and the prewar periods were

typified by rhetoric heralding a dramatic centralization and then expansion

of political power, Japanese rulers from the ancient period have almost

invariably been presented as sponsors of technological and cultic changes/innovations to which local elites then responded. This has yielded a

tendency to treat purportedly native practices as rooted in an essentialized

 Japanese identity, while the diffusion of “foreign” traditions has been seen

as resulting from the activities of a small coterie of literate courtiers familiar

 with elite textual traditions from the continent.

These premises have greatly distorted our understanding of both

Buddhist and popular cultic practices during the formative period of the

 Japanese Buddhist and royal traditions. A commitment to the category of“native” religious beliefs and practices has become increasingly difficult to

sustain in recent years, however, in light of the large number of textual and

archeological sources suggesting the clear influence of continental rites of

spirit pacification and animal sacrifice in the cultic life of the period. In

response to these developments, the traditional approach has in recent years

been challenged from two directions. Scholars such as Fukunaga Mitsuji,

Ueda Masaaki, Takigawa Masajirò, and Yoshino Hiroko have sparked heated

debate within Japan by suggesting that numerous aspects of the royal cultand early “Shintò” were in fact Taoist in essence.6 By emphasizing numerous

instances in which cultic vocabulary found in Taoist sources was employed

 within court chronicles and court-sponsored rites, the work of these scholars

represents an important breakthrough in the study of early Japanese reli-

gion. Criticisms by traditionalists angered at the thought of decoupling the

royal cult from the Shintò tradition have often proven to be unconvincing.7

Unfortunately, the work of these scholars has proven to be vulnerable

to methodological criticism on numerous other grounds. They have been

distressingly vague if not silent on key questions concerning the actual

mechanisms of transmission and on the lack of Taoist institutions during

a period when Buddhist temples were being constructed with astonishing

rapidity. Perhaps most problematic, proponents of the belief that the Tao-

ist tradition flourished in the Japanese islands have also failed to provide

a clear account of how practices that they have labeled “Taoist” differ from

popular Chinese religious practices.8 At times one suspects that virtually

any aspect of Chinese popular religion related to conceptions of immortal-

ity and/or spirit-quieting could fall under the extremely broad and rather vague conception of Taoism proffered by Fukunaga.9 

This approach stands in marked contrast to that of a long line of west-

ern scholars such as Anna Seidel, Rolf Stein, Michel Strickmann, Terry Klee-

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   Introduction xv

man, and Nathan Sivin. Each of these scholars has argued that the Taoist

tradition, far from being a general Chinese religious orientation, was from

at least the second century C.E. an elite, textually based religious movement

that defined itself in terms of ritual lineages and that emerged at least inpart in opposition to popular cultic practices.10 I argue that such termino-

logical issues are particularly important for understanding early Japanese

religion; while it is highly doubtful, for instance, that Taoist liturgical insti-

tutions were transmitted to the Japanese islands, it appears highly likely

that immigrant lineages from the Korean peninsula would have been famil-

iar with popular continental cultic forms.

 Adams and Horizons

More broadly speaking, the work of Fukunaga, Yoshino, and others is

marred by a strong reliance upon what Wiebke Denecke has dubbed

“Adamistic philology.” This approach, Denecke argues, “traces every lexical

unit to a point of origin, as if it had been ‘quoted’ directly from a Chinese

source for the first time in the history of Japanese writing.”11 Rather than

simply acknowledging a given text’s or author’s deep engagement with a

canonical tradition that had continental roots, these scholars tend to reducethe meaning of any particular term to that which is found in the oldest Chi-

nese source. In so doing, they tend to ignore the cultic horizon of reception

in which such terms emerged and were then employed within the Japanese

islands. Not surprisingly, this has had the additional effect of once again

reinforcing the notion of the “foreignness” of such practices as opposed to

the purportedly “native” practices that existed outside of the court.

This emphasis upon textual origins has thus served to reinforce the

 widely held belief that the appearance of cultic forms with continental roots

 was the work of intellectuals at court in the service of the royal house.

This has in turn perpetuated the belief that continental influences must

have come from the elite, textually based traditions of the continent. In this

sense, at least, the fundamental premises of a pure, native folk religiosity,

coupled with a dynamic royal house, could well be strengthened by the

ostensibly iconoclastic approach of Fukunaga and Yoshino.

In contrast to Fukunaga and Yoshino, I take as a point of departure the

premise that religious developments at the Yamato court are best under-

stood against the horizon of reception that was constituted by lineages andcultic centers across the Japanese islands. In so doing I have benefited enor-

mously from the work of a number of Japanese scholars, such as Murayama

Shûichi, Shinkawa Tokio, and Wada Atsumu.12 These scholars have been

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 xvi Introduction

content for the most part to focus on the role of continental conceptions of

 yin and yang (onmyòdò) within the intellectual life of the period rather than

seeking for their origins within the Taoist canon. I argue, however, that the

prevalence of onmyòdò conceptions within court-sponsored literature repre-

sented not elite appropriations of continental knowledge, but the pervasive

influence of commonly held cultic forms that had taken root throughout

the Japanese islands. Once we abandon prewar paradigms that configured

the royal cult as both the embodiment of native cultic identity and the chief

producer of cultic innovation, it becomes possible to offer a new vision of

the purportedly “native” popular cults of the Nara and Heian periods that

formed within a variety of technological and social frameworks.13 

Fabrics and Borders

In contrast to the works of the aforementioned authors, my principal concern

here is not the meaning for the court of the images woven together within

the (often divergent) court-sponsored texts that it sponsored, such as the

 Kojiki , Nihon shoki, and Fudoki . Although each of these texts can of course

be read as representations of the royal or courtier imagination, I mainly

focus on the degree to which all of them were permeated by elementsassociated with immigrant lineages and their assorted technological and

cultic practices and interests. Without ignoring the content of the court-

centered religious and ideological imaginaries that pervade the Nara and

early Heian textual corpus, I am equally concerned with the fabric from

 which these imaginaries were fashioned. Bluntly put, I argue that to a

 very large degree immigrant and service lineages closely associated with

continental technologies and cults shaped both the fabric and parameters,

in terms of which courtiers and rulers conceived and expressed their visions

of all under Heaven.

Inherent in this approach are several methodological premises, among

the most prominent of which are the following. (1) Although the archeologi-

cal record continues to improve yearly, we are fundamentally dependent

upon textual sources that were products of courtiers and elite/literate ele-

ments of society. (2) Although we cannot assume that these texts speak

 with one voice or reflect a single, coherent ideological stance, reading

them together can help elucidate points of commonality in terms of which

divergent representations were conceived and expressed.14 (3) Although itis not possible to “get outside” of these texts, it is possible (and essential)

to recontextualize them. My readings are premised upon the belief that

the court was not a discrete, unified identity, but rather a site of contesta-

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   Introduction xvii 

tion among several lineages with discrete interests, cultic traditions, and

ties to disparate regions, cultic centers, and deities. (4) Among the great-

est factors giving impetus to textual production at court was an attempt to

reconfigure both collective memories and cultic practices as they related tolineages and cultic centers across the Japanese islands. In describing this

process, I therefore assume that the court was as much a consumer as a

producer of new ideological and cultic forms. (5) To a large degree, the

royal line and the figure of the tennò were constituted out of ideological

and cultic materials at hand, not with imports from the continent or cultic

practices that were created ex nihilo. Court-sponsored texts such as Nihon

 shoki and Kojiki were not merely imaginative constructions of a world that

never was; they were also, and in large part, attempts to appropriate andtransform preexisting narratives of ancestors, gods, and shrines that were

drawn from written sources submitted by the most prominent lineages at

court. (6) The ancestral cults of these lineages were, in turn, often deeply

connected with legends of shrines, tombs, and deities inscribed in specific

cultic landscapes. Prominent court lineages both maintained ancestral

shrines in distant regions and participated in the process of assembling

and editing materials for the court chronicles, and hence they were well

positioned to mediate the process by which narratives from distant locales were transmuted into material for the royal imaginaries of Tenmu and

his successors. (7) Because, prior to their appropriation, these narratives

emerged within a wide variety of geographic and social contexts that were

not controlled by the court, not only do we find important differences in

orientation between texts such as the  Nihon shoki and the  Kojiki , but we

also find multiple and often competing voices within each text as well. Seen

from this perspective, it is therefore possible to view both the court and its

ideological/textual production as themselves products of interactions with

(and influences from) local concerns and elites.

In light of all this, I argue that the presence of continental literary and

cultic tropes within court-sponsored rites and texts often reflects not direct

literary quotations from continental texts, but rather the deployment of a cul-

tic vocabulary that, while originally rooted in continental cultic discourses,

 was widely used at cultic centers across the Japanese islands. In Denecke’s

formulation, rather than searching for intertextual relationships between the

Chinese classics and court-sponsored texts from Yamato, my concern is with

the pervasive “intertopical” cultic relationships that can be shown to haveexisted between popular religious practices in China, the Korean peninsula,

and the Japanese islands. Indeed, in some cases we shall see that cultic

 vocabulary associated with continental technologies and immortality cults

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 xviii Introduction

constituted an essential element in the ancestral cults and local legends that

appear throughout the earliest literature of the Japanese islands.

Put It Down to the Calendar 

My focus, therefore, is not on rulers and their advisers per se, but on local

cultic centers and lineages that appear to have been best placed to facili-

tate and mediate the diffusion of continental cultic traditions across the

 Japanese islands. I thus do not seek to trace the diffusion of continental

technologies and cultic practices emanating out from the court towards the

periphery. Rather, I focus on service groups and lineages that traced their

descent to the Korean peninsula, were based in coastal regions, and wereengaged in continental technological practices such as medicine, weaving,

and sericulture. These groups, I argue, were best placed both to import

cultic and technological practices from the continent and to transmit these

practices at court and in the countryside. Once we examine the cultic geog-

raphy of such groups and trace the movement of their ancestral legends and

tutelary deities from coastal regions in Kyûshû, Tamba, Kii, and elsewhere

towards the Yamato plain, it becomes possible to sketch, in at least very

broad strokes, possible sources and routes of transmission for the continen-tal cultic and technological forms that did so much to transform the political

and religious culture of the Japanese islands.

Chapter 1 begins this process by tracing the role of the Hata, an

immigrant kinship group from the Korean kingdom of Silla, in the complex

interactions between rulers, kami , and buddhas during the Nara and early

Heian periods. Because immigrant lineages such as the Hata played a major

role both in the formative Buddhist tradition and in a series of local cults

that were absorbed by the royal cult, their influence extended across the

religious spectrum of the Nara period. As the court increasingly turned

to lineages such as the Hata for Buddhist and non-Buddhist sources of

protection from the hostile spirits that traveled the roadways of the land,

members of the Hata came to pervade not only the upper echelons of the

ecclesial hierarchy, but also some of the most powerful lineages at court. As

a result, when Kammu tennò moved his court to the main Hata stronghold

in Yamashiro province at the start of the Heian period, it was Hata monks

and courtiers who propitiated the Hata shrines and deities that surrounded

the court.Because the ancestral deities of the Hata and other immigrant lineages

 were by definition “foreign” deities, or “karakami ,” Chapter 2 takes up the

role of karakami  and animal sacrifice in the construction of the “native”

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   Introduction xix 

cultic paradigms and the formation of the Japanese Buddhist tradition. In

contrast to the near-universal assertion that the “Shintò” and the Buddhist

traditions of Japan abhor the shedding of blood, this chapter argues that

animal sacrifice was a pervasive element in popular cultic practice in the Asuka and Nara periods. Beginning with a series of legends involving

sacrifice and cowherd deities, the text explores the role of the cult of the

 Weaver Maiden and the Cowherd from the Chinese festival calendar in the

diffusion of such legends. These cults, I argue, were directly related to rites

of spirit pacification at roadsides and involved not only sacrifice but also

the use of substitute bodies (hitogata) and ritual amulets. By focusing on

legends involving meat offerings and the logic of substitution that pervaded

even the Buddhist tale literature from the period, the chapter highlightsthe degree to which continental conceptions of spirit, sacrifice, and the

logic of ritual substitution were important elements of continuity across the

religious spectrum of the period.

Chapter 3 explores the influence of Chinese conceptions of medicine

and immortality in the development of the ideal religious type, known as

“hijiri .” The chapter begins with a discussion of “medicine hunts” undertaken

by the court in the Yoshino region of Yamato in accordance with the Chinese

medical texts and the Chinese festival calendar. The chapter argues that aseries of ancestral legends and cults from the region closely correlate with

legends of female shamans from Chinese sources and that the topographical

features of the Yoshino mountains were considered especially conducive to

the pursuit of superhuman powers. Because female immortals frequently

appear as ancestors of lineages closely associated with the transmission of

continental medical technologies, the chapter argues that the development

of both Buddhist and “native” cults in the region was in fact stimulated by

the importation of continental conceptions of medicine and by the belief

that a mix of drugs and ascetic practice could lead to the attainment of both

immortality and control over the spirits of the dead.

In Chapter 4 I build upon this discussion by examining the role of

continental conceptions of spirit pacification in shaping the founding legend

of Japanese Buddhism. This chapter argues that because the establishment

of the Buddhist tradition was deeply rooted in political violence and the

subsequent need to propitiate hostile spirits, the tradition encountered a

recurring “Atsumori effect,” in which the gods of the vanquished claim the

attention of the victors. Reading the founding legend of Japanese Buddhismin this light, the text examines the role of the vanquished Mononobe kinship

group in the construction of the emerging Japanese Buddhist tradition.

Focusing on the cultic practices of the Mononobe and their affiliated kinship

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 xx Introduction

groups, the chapter details a pervasive pattern of rites of spirit pacification

based upon the Chinese cults of the Queen Mother of the West and the

 Weaver Maiden and the Cowherd.

Chapter 5 explores the role of sericulture cults from the Chinesefestival calendar in the literary and cultic discourse of the period through

an examination of a set of poems and legends that feature royal emissaries

seeking to “call out” women with whom rulers have become enamored.15 

Because the motif of calling out appears to be related to rites of calling to

the spirits of the recently deceased, these legends offer a small glimpse into

the ways myths and legends associated with sericulture came to inform

purportedly native funerary practices during the period. These legends, I

argue, were directly rooted in Chinese rites of the fifteenth day of the firstmonth, during which silkworm goddesses were called out using imagery

based upon the silkworm’s ability to “die” as it enters a cocoon only to re-

emerge as a transformed being capable of flight.

In Chapter 6 I explore the role of these cults at a cluster of cultic centers

at the heart of the royal cult of the Nara and Heian periods. As silks and

 woven items came to be used as a basic medium of exchange during the

period, rites associated with sericulture and weaving assumed a major role

in both the cultic and economic life across the Japanese islands. Because weaving and sericulture were heavily gendered activities across East Asia,

the transmission of sericulture and weaving cults had a profound effect

upon the construction of the cultic identity of female shamans and ancestors

across the Japanese islands. Focusing on the sacerdotal lineages at such

major cultic centers as the Kamo, Miwa, and Izushi shrines, I conclude with

a discussion of the degree to which legends depicting “sacred marriages”

between the female ancestors of these lineages and the deities and ancestors

of the royal house helped the lineages shape the character and direction of

court ritual for centuries to come.

Chapter 7 explores the role played by rites of sericulture and resurrection

in the formation of the cult of Amaterasu no Òmikami, the founding

ancestor of the royal lineage. The chapter focuses on one version of the

myth of the Heavenly Grotto, in which Amaterasu is called back from the

land of the dead after she has impaled herself with a shuttle while weaving

in a ritual chamber. Because this legend served as the mythic basis for the

Rite of Spirit-quieting (Mitama Shizume Matsuri), one of the main pillars of

court ritual, it was of enormous importance for the royal cult. The chapterreads the myth against a series of narratives from the third and fifth months

of the Chinese festival calendar that call attention to a broader network

of sericulture rites and legends centering upon the violent death of young

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   Introduction xxi 

maidens and the subsequent propitiation of their spirits. These legends, I

suggest, so influenced the construction of Amaterasu as a royal ancestor

that she is represented not only as a weaving maiden but also as a silkworm

goddess spinning silk from cocoons in her mouth. As these chapters trace the movements of kami , ancestors, immortals,

and demons across the seas and highways of the Japanese islands, they

often lead to obscure byways of Japanese religious history. By thus focus-

ing on religious practices from the social and geographic margins as well as

those of the courtly center, I have sought to present a fuller, more nuanced

picture of the often violent ebb and flow that animated religious practice in

this land of 80,000 deities. It is my hope that in charting the course of these

developments I have done justice both to the tremendous social and reli-gious ferment that characterized this period of Japanese history and to the

profound, if often hidden, continuities that underlay the diverse responses

of rulers, monks, courtiers, and provincials to the challenges engendered by

the technological, cultural, and political upheavals of this pivotal epoch.

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1

Chapter 1

Immigrant Gds n the

Rad t Jindò

 aLthOUGh FeW SChOLarS of Jns ligion ody would cc Miji-

iod clims bou cnliy of oyl cul fo siiul lif of

Jns ol, on of mos nduing lgcis of w Jns

idology s bn ssociion of Jns oyl ous wi Jns

nionlism. In is idologicl configuion tennò nd kami w -

snd s consons of uodly coninuous niv Jns culul

nd ligious idniy wi oos in -Buddis niquiy. ps bcus

Jns univsiy sysm nd cdmic sudy of ligion bgn ok s jus is im, o lg dg s idologicl ms

v bn bsobd ino cdmic discous nd found vn wiin

slf-snion of Jns Buddis insiuions.

On of mos imon suosiions of is discous s bn

ci ssumion wil lionsi bwn oyl cul nd

Buddis diion is nomnon mus b xlind, llinc

bwn tennò nd kami is soming nul nd in nd of viu-

lly no xlnion. as sul, bivln Buddis-Sinò fmwok fo

discussing Jns ligion sill xs owful influnc in cdmic

xbooks s wll s in bod cdmic discous in Jn nd

 ws. Cnl o is modl sis of isoicl clims ood in con-

cion of Jns Buddism s n iniilly “foign” diion ws

slowly bsobd by Jns s i cd n ccommodion wi

uodly niv kami . Bcus is modl osis oizon of cion

fo Buddis diion ws domind by niv kami , i s lso

long bn imlicd in nivis discouss cning on N (710–784)

nd ly hin (794–1185) iods, wn mny of building blocks fo Jns oyl sysm w consucd.

ps gs smn o influnc of w idology

cn b sn in mgnc of wo owful councuns in

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 2 Weaving and Binding 

scolsi of ly Jns ligion v mo o lss xlicily

bn snd in oosiion o bivln modl nd is ofn disoing

suosiions. On of s movmns, cmiond by suc scols

s Fukung Misuji, Sinkw tokio, hmn Ooms, nd Dvid Bilock,s msizd ominnc of coninnl culic lmns wi lil

n conncion o Buddis diion in iul nd culul lif

of ly cou. ts scols v ndd o ss muc of w

s long bn lbld “Sinò” wiin oyl cul in fc sns ly

oiions of is nd moifs found in Cins toism.1

 a scond, qully owful movmn, ld by scols suc s Kuod

tosio nd Mk tuwn, s dicly cllngd nivis undsndings

by guing Sinò is bs undsood s n imon isoicl -nomnon wi oos in mid-hin iod Buddis discouss concning

lionsi bwn budds nd kami of Jns islnds.

Kuod fmously gud m “Sinò” islf ws usd only ly

in ncin iod nd nv in fnc o disc ligious sysm.

Similly, tuwn s gud m “Sinò,” o jindò, s i would

v bn d im, ws mos likly kn fom Cins Buddis

discouss concning diis in nd of “ming” nd Buddis slvion.

h nos ws cou-sonsod is sins w mos commonlyfd o by m “ jingi ,” m jindò s lmos xclusivly in

conxs ld o suc civiis s wosi of kami Buddis m-

ls o ml-sin mulilxs ( jingûji ). tuwn fo suggss

oigins of Sinò my li no in cou-sonsod jingi wosi, bu -

wiin jindò-syl is w fomd ml-sin mulilxs

d sulnd muc of  jingi cul by mid-hin iod.2 

In is c I oos o build on wok of s nd o

scols in od o dlin fw imon uning oins on od

ld fom sblismn of tennò-cnd oliy in l sv-

n cnuy owds sblismn of Jindò s n ognizing incil

of oyl cul in mid-hin iod. tis will qui n xminion

of comlicd s of incions bwn tennò, monk, nd kami in

 wic ofn osil lions bwn tennò nd kami  influncd

gow nd dicion of Buddis movmns on on nd nd

tennò’s sill volving oliicl nd culic idniy on o.

 along wy w sll lso dly ncoun—cony o nivis

ssumions gding coninuiy in kami wosi coss cnuis— mndous fmn in bo nu of oyl cul nd in cs of

diis fomd is co. I sll gu ougou N nd ly

hin iods is fmn ws bo oduc nd cus of conic conflic

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   Immigrant Gods on the Road to Jindò 3

nd ngonism bwn tennò nd kami . as cou suggld o find

mns o conin numb of volil diis nd wll-

bing nd vn livs of uls nd sns lik, consquncs

of is conflic ovd o b bo ofound nd long-lsing. among mos nobl cn b sn in dvlomn of cou-sonsod Buddis

insiuions, wic ook on job of ocing ul nd cou jus

is im.

tougou is book I lso gu is ligious fmn ws

inxicbly linkd o dmic nsfomion in cnologicl, m-

il, nd oliicl culus of Jns islnds. W sll s o

mkbl dg is nsfomion ws closly ld o civiis of

numous immign lings fom Kon ninsul, wic svds incil conduis fo nsmission nd ogion of coninnl

cnologis ld o wving, siculu, sology, nd wiing. I -

fo viw s lings s cucil fo undsnding culic fmn of

g. W sll lso s , vn io o N iod, bo oyl

cul nd kami wosi coss Jns islnds d bn ofoundly

sd by culs, diis, nd lgnds fom coss s.3

In is c muc of discussion cns on h, n immi-

gn kinsi gou fom Kon kingdom of Sill, wic ws omi-nn in bo oliicl nd culic lif of iod. aloug significn

 wok s bn don on ol of h nd o immign kinsi

gous wi gd o inoducion nd fomion of Buddis di-

ion in Jn, lil ffo s bn xndd o d o dmin ow

diis nd culs ssocid wi s kinsi gous ld o oyl

cul nd dvlomn of Buddism. If i is in fc cs sm

kinsi gous omod “foign” Buddis diion lso lyd

mjo ol in consucion of oyl cul, n undsnding

moivions nd mods of s lings omiss o sd imon lig

on mgnc of Jindò s iul nd concul sysm fom wic

tennò, kami, nd monk could div i vious ss of ligious c-

ic nd culic idniy.

towds is nd I oos o invsig ol of h in

ivol momns in Jns ligious isoy: consucion of o-

 vincil monsic nwok (kokubunji  ) duing N iod, Kusuko

incidn of 810, nd sblismn of cou-sonsod nwok of m-

l-sin mulilxs ougly on cnuy l. Onc w viw dvl-omn of ly Buddis insiuions in conx of immign kami , -

ifid uls, nd h iss nd couis, i bcoms ossibl o glims

ls ow nd by wom inlcing culic nwoks of tennò,

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4 Weaving and Binding 

monks, nd kami  w fis consucd. eqully imonly, w sll lso

s non-Buddis culic lmns wi oos in Kon ninsul

nd Cins minlnd my v lyd mjo— ims s

vn dominn—ol in dvlomn of ligious insiuions of  Jns islnds.

Immigrants and Kami  in the Kusuk Incident 

On of cls illusions of imonc of immign diis fo

fomion of hin ligious digms cn b found in so-clld

Kusuko incidn of 810, in wic nwly nond Sg tennò qulld

n uising ld by is bo hizi, wo d jus bdicd on.t souc of bos’ disu ws ov locion of cou; Sg

 wisd o min in cnly comld hin cil, wil hizi

soug o un cil o is fom locion on N lin.4

In mids of uising, Sg md ilgimg o low Kmo

sin, lg culic cn in cil ws dminisd by h

nd Kmo kinsi gous. Bcus h d ld consuc nw

cil in i om bs in Ymsio ovinc, Sg, h, nd

sin d sd ins in king cil in hin. a sinSg omisd if w vicoious, is dscndns would f

snd incss, s of c ign, o sv s sin’s cif

isss. h fu omisd o gn sin nk qul o of

oyl ous’s ncsl sin in Is. Following Sg’s vicoy, Kmo

sin svd fo ov 500 ys s on of min culic cns fo

oyl ous, sonsibl fo is of blssing nd sii cificion

consiud incil focus of hin oyl cul.5 

 aloug soy of Sg’s sblismn of insiuion of Kmo

isss is lmos invibly discussd in ms of is imonc fo uls

nd cou, fo ou uoss i is qully significn im of

Kusuko incidn sin nd is diis w climd s domin

of h, n immign kinsi gou fom Kon kingdom of Sill.

t dg o wic Kmo sin ws ssocid wi h cn b

sn in mnn fom  Hatashi honkeichò, h documn submid

o cou in 879. t x couns oigins of sin s follows:

In bginning ws h womn wo cm o Kdonoiv o ws clos. a im n ow cm floing down fom

usm. t gil ook ow nd und om, w s

suck ow bov doo [of ous]. a is gil bcm

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   Immigrant Gods on the Road to Jindò 5

gnn wiou ny usbnd, nd s subsqunly gv bi o

boy. h ns oug is sng, nd skd [ow is could

v nd]. t gil lid s did no know. ty skd

svl ims, bu vn f svl mons s sill sid s did

no know. h ns sid “evn oug s d no usbnd, cild

could no v bn bon wiou f. t f mus b fom

mong fmily nd livs o nigbos fqun ou ous.”

ty fo d fs nd invid g cowd of ol.

ty n odd boy o k cu nd off i o mn

blivd ws is f.

 a is boy did no indic nyon in ging, bu

insd gzd ov o ow bov doo. h ws nnsfomd ino und god nd bus oug oof of

building s flw off ino sky. tfo [god of ] U

Kmo Sin is clld Wk no Ikzuci no Kmi. t [god of ]

Low Kmo Sin is clld Mioy no Kmi. t ow bov

doo ws Msuno’o Dimyòjin. tus h wosi gods in

s lcs.6

 

 aloug no on ody would cc is ccoun s isoicl liy, x is mkbl fo is bld ssion ll diis of Kmo

sins w h ncsos. aloug x dos coninu by noing

Kmo fqunly inmid wi h nd w fo llowd

o fom is , i is cl duing iod und discussion

h w ssing clim of linl ivilg wi gds o bo

u nd low Kmo sins.7 I lso s cou, wic li-

cd s clims in is own documns, ccd h’s ccoun.

encsuld wiin Kusuko incidn nd is fm us

svl clus concning ol of immign lings suc s h in

consucion of ly oyl cul. In dcds following Kusuko

incidn cou movd o mbc lg nwok of h sins nd

immign diis. accomnying is of Kmo sins, fo insnc,

 ws similly sccul is of Msuno’o sin. Soon h diis

Kmo, Msuno’o, hiyosi, nd Fusimi Ini sins w mong

igs nking in ll Jn.8 as sul, culic cics of h nd

i ffilid kinsi gous w movd dicly ino minsm of

oyl culic cic fo cnuis f.t Kusuko incidn lso illuss dg o wic tennò’s

lionsis wi locl kami could b ccizd by dndnc nd/

o ngonism. aloug in is insnc sd inss o v

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6 Weaving and Binding 

oducd cooion, fo muc of Jns isoy locl kami  ovd o

b volil, dngous, nd difficul fo oyl ous o conol. as

sul, culic gnd nd idniy of oyl ous ws o suisingly

lg dg sd in sons o locl kinsi gous nd i gods.Bcus hin cil ws consucd in min h bs in

Kdono disic of Ymsio ovinc, h sins nd diis vdd

culic cns suoundd uls fo nx ousnd ys.

ts vns w lso ssnil bckgound lmns fo conmo-

nous fomulion of lions bwn cou nd Buddis monsic

insiuions. two cnl lmns of is fomulion w dvl-

omn of Kûki’s soic movmn nd gow of Sicò’s tndi

sc.9 Sg’s ium ws of cucil imonc o dvlomn of bomovmns if only bcus i vd un o N nd oc-

mn xisd bfo bwn Jns uls nd Buddis

insiuions of N lin. aloug disnc did no ncssily indic

uu bwn cou nd N Buddis sblismn, nw

cil ovidd nw culic s wll s ysicl nvionmn dicly

influncd dvlomn of fldgling Buddis movmns ougou

iod. hncfo tennò nd monk lik would sk ocion of

h diis s y ook u sidnc in nw cil.By nsuing id is of h culic cns suc s Kmo

nd Msuno’o sins, Sg’s ium us ld s culic, olii-

cl, nd vn ysicl in in wic hin Buddis monsicism ook

s. Bif glimss of ow is ocss unfoldd cn b sn in

dvlomn of tòji nd enykuji, wo Buddis insiuions dod

Buddis culs nd gudin diis w closly ssocid wi

h. as w sll s soly, loug is no vidnc lds

s insiuions consciously soug suo of h s, 

is ml son o bliv immign lings suc s h lyd

mjo ol in consucing oizons of cion of s movmns.

tus loug is oom fo gumn concning dg o wic

h cd s midwif of culic cng, cn b lil doub

y ld build is cdl.

Immigrants, Ancestrs, and Kami  in Heian Discurse

ps bs lc o bgin ocing c of bov vnsis wi obsvion c of m, in on wy o no, ws

conncd wi clus of issus concning sus of immign

lings nd idology of oyl ous. On mnifsion of

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   Immigrant Gods on the Road to Jindò 7 

imonc of s issus fo svn- nd ig-cnuy concions of

kingsi cn b sn in d fncs in cou conicls o

ivl of immign “bbins” fom Kon ninsul. as scols

suc s Kònosi tkmisu v oind ou, s ssgs w lmoscinly moivd by Cins concions of kingsi in wic ibu

fom disn lnds ws viwd s confimion of ul’s sg viu nd

civilizing influnc on ll “und hvn” (C. t’ien hsia, J. tenka).10 

In si of sisnc of suc oic, owv, i is igly doubful

is oulook v cculy flcd sus of immign

lings conolld so mny of xul nd cnologicl soucs

fom coninn w mos izd by cou. as s soucs

 w uilizd o fsion nivs of kingsi md oylimginis fo cnuis, immign lings cm o ly n xmly

ominn ol. tis is vividly illusd wiin cou conicls in

sis of lgnds fu immign ncsos s sgs nd wis mn

 wi univlld biliy o discn nd unic sgly viu of

 Ymo uls.11

On indicion of d nd sisnc of suc nsions ougou

N nd ly hin iods cn b found in Shinsen shòjiroku,

gnlogicl comndium fom 814 clssifis som 1,182 lings ino cgois of “bbin,” “dscndns of gods,” nd “mmbs of

oyl lin.” In fc, wic ws comosd lss n fou ys f

Sg tennò d md is ilgimg o Kmo sins, dios of

x md cl i dsi o bo snddiz nd clify boundis

xisd bwn dscndns of gods of Jns islnds

nd os wos lings oigind wi figus fom ovss:

Duing Sòò [749–757] w fom im o im dics

miing svl immigns o b gnd [sunms] in cco-

dnc wi i wiss. and so i cm bou ccs fo

old [Jns] sunms nd nw sunms [gnd o

immigns] bcm us lik; w fmily ws immign o

 Jns bcm doubful; lowly fmilis vyw numbd m-

slvs mong offsoos of nobls; nd foign sidns fom

Ko climd dscn fom gods of Jn.12

tis x, insising s i dos lings cd i oos o ncs-os fom coss s w mniuling i gnlogis, igligs

svl imon scs of oliics of immigion. By consing

cgoy of “Jns” wi of “immign,” uos of Shinsen

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8 Weaving and Binding 

 shòjiroku w sking o s cl ms fo sblising niv bon

fids in bo oliicl nd ligious discous. t conc of “immign”

us s o v funciond ls in s ssd “o”

in l gs nbld fomulion of nivis movmn cnd on oyl lin.

tis dsi fo cliy nd snddizion dws nion, owv,

o cnl dox of oliics of ling; oug linl clims nd

ncsl culs w of mndous significnc in consucing socil nd

oliicl idniis, y w lso mkbly flxibl. as uos of

Shinsen shòjiroku lizd o i n cgin, i ws ll oo sy o

invn diions did no cculy sn s, bu m

nds of sn.tis dox ws, if nying, vn mo onouncd in cs of

tennò. On of lgs soucs of uoiy fo tennò ws bil-

iy o bsow sunms nd nk on individuls nd lings. Indd, is

ow o bsow o wiold cogniion of ncsos ws in mny wys

ingl o dfiniion of kingsi duing iod.13  eqully imo-

n, owv, consucion nd mniulion of oyl ncsl lgnds

svd s vil oliicl ool ougou N nd ly hin iods,

s cn b sn in ongoing dvlomn ougou iod of cul of pinc Sòoku, oyl ncso closly ssocid wi sb-

lismn of Jns Buddis diion.14 

On finl, oug fqunly ovlookd coolly is siml fc

immign kinsi gous d ncsos jus lik vybody ls, nd

svl w kami   som of lgs sins in Jn. as sul, mny

of objcs of vnion Miji idologus ssumd snd

co of niv Jns sii w ofn ood in diions nd lgnds

fom coss s. all of is suggss vy sm immign gous

ody cdid wi dissminion of “foign” Buddis diion lmos

cinly lyd lg ol in consucion of mjo ills of u-

odly niv oyl cul.15 

t dg o wic immign kinsi gous suc s h w

involvd in consucion of oyl cul ws only discussd in

 Kogoshûi , comndium of my nd lgnd ws comld in 810,

lmos xcly sm im s Shinsen shòjiroku. t uo of is

x, on Imb no hioni, lmns:

Duing ign of tennò toyoki plc in Kusim [Òjin],

King of pkc sn s ibu o Imil cou lnd mn

nmd Wni, found of Fumi no Obio in Kwci. t h no

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   Immigrant Gods on the Road to Jindò 9

Kimi ncso Usuki lso immigd o Jn long wi numb

of ol und im wo w living in is on undd nd wny

ss in Ko. . . . ts immigns wo ivd fom C’in, ay

nd pkc, bcm nulizd in is couny. ec of s gous

numbd in ns of ousnds. I is dly gbl i

svics o Jn v, nvlss, so f no bn ublicly cog-

nizd; nd, sill fu, omg o divin siis of i

sciv ncsos is no y id wi du ligious cmonis

und usics of Imil Jns Govnmn.16

In lig of fc hioni bmons lck of cogniion ccodd

o h nd os, i would dsi o sin influ-nc of immign kinsi gous ws no limid o uos of

Shinsen shòjiroku. hioni’s oss indic, owv, suc viws

 w no univslly sd cou. anly by dvn of hin

iod concions of nivis culu w vy muc in flux.17

On ossibl son fo is my v bn incsing ominnc

of immign lings cou. Of 1,182 lings lisd in Shin-

 sen shòjiroku, ougly on-id clssifid s immign. evn mo o

oin, mmbs of immign kinsi gous d bgun bking ino igs clons of ow duing finl dcds of ig cn-

uy. tis ocss ws dmiclly illusd duing ign of Sg nd

hizi’s f, Knmu, wo d numous consos wo climd dscn

fom founding ncsos of Kon kingdom of pkc.18 

hioni’s l on blf of lings suc s h us my v

suld no fom concn suc gous w wk, bu fom

clculion y w owful nd onilly usful in omoing

hioni’s gnd. tis in un suggss sns of ugncy dmon-

sd by Shinsen shòjiroku o dlin wo ws o ws no dscndd

fom immign diis ws islf sud by succss nd vsivnss

of lings suc s h in culul nd oliicl lif.

 Vengeful Gds and Buddhist Mnasteries in Nara 

Ioniclly, influnc of immign kami   in ly hin iod in

mny wys sd common oos wi os of officil monsic sys-

m sblisd by Sòmu tennò in 741. Sòmu odd sblismnof nwok of ovincil mls known s kokubunji  coss J-

ns islnds fo uos of sfguding tennò nd lm. t

kokubunji , wic w usully buil in immdi viciniy of ovincil

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10 Weaving and Binding 

dminisiv cns, ffcivly dmizd coxnsiv nu of

ul’s oliicl nd scdol uoiy.

In so doing, kokubunji  ld dfin culic nd oliicl idni-

is of Jns uls in svl wys. as piggo s nod, Buddisdiion offd uls nw vocbuly wi wic o consuc culic

nd oliicl idniy vis-à-vis i subjcs. tus sblismn of

kokubunji sysm nd consucion of G Budd tòdiji c-

d iul sc in wic Sòmu tennò could nc ol of ld of

Buddis nion ould by dvou—nd loyl—blivs. piggo s

lso nod ol of Buddis insiuions in oviding suibl sg fo

“ of s,” in wic fomnc of iuls licid ovincil

iciion in oliicl sucus conolld by cou. Imosingmonsic cns us nncd sig of tennò  vn s y

ld xnd cou’s conol ov oliicl nd culic soucs

offd by Buddis diion.19

t oliicl mificions of kokubunji , owv, sould no ov-

sdow i sd uos, wic ws o fos communiy of monks

cgd wi sk of oducing kmic bnfis nd ocion fo

ul nd lm. On xml of imonc cou lcd

on biliy of Buddis diion o v sunul m cn bfound in 730s, no long bfo cou odd consucion of

kokubunji  nwok. a im lgu oigining in Cikuzn (non

Kyûsû) dcimd bo cou nd counysid. among lgu’s vicims

 w ds of ll fou sub-bncs of Fujiw ling. tis vn

 ws ind s sccul illusion of vulnbiliy of vn

mos owful mmbs of cou o vngful siis.20 

 as mig b xcd, lgu d imon mificions fo

culic oinion of Fujiw. On of mos imon consquncs

occud wn Sòmu’s cif conso, Kòmyò, d fco d of

Fujiw, und o sii of pinc Sòoku, o of bl fo

sblismn of Buddism in Jn, fo sunul ssisnc. Fo

ou uoss, Kòmyò’s l o inc is of icul ins fo wo

sons. Fis, Kòmyò nd cou w dicly linking Buddis di-

ion wi oyl ncso in oosiion o vngful diss-bing siis.

Scond, Sòoku cul s i xisd in Komyo’s im would v bn

unimginbl wiou ffos of immign lings suc s h,

 wo w mong cul’s cif cics.21

On ky figu in inoducing Kòmyò o Sòoku cul ws

monk Dòji, lding inllcul of dy nd on of incil

dvocs of kokubunji sysm. Wi Dòji’s ncougmn, Kòmyò in

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   Immigrant Gods on the Road to Jindò 11

733 bgn mking d quss fo Sòoku’s linl ml hòyûji o

fom svics fo own l nd fo sii of mo. Svl

suc is w fomd hòyûji by Dòji imslf. ts svics did no

go unwdd. In 737, vn s ds of ll fou Fujiw sublingssuccumbd o lgu, wok ws bgun on soing svl buildings

hòyûji, wic d bund o gound som sixy ys bfo. a

comlion of fmd Yumdono, n ocgonl sucu svd

s inc’s d fco musolum, Kòmyò, Sòmu, nd cou soug

inc’s ocion fom disss. Soly f, Dòji succssfully

iiond Kòmyò o sblis yly is is own ml, Dinji, wic

 ws im dminisiv cn fo cclsil icy nd

kokubunji  sysm. ts is w scificlly dsignd o vn diss-s suc s quks, fis, nd, of cous, lgus.22 

Chikuen Deities and Terrified Tennò 

Dòji’s ffos o sn Buddis insiuions s mns by wic cou

could find ocion fom vngful siis lyd uon longsnding fs

on of tennò vis-à-vis osil siis fom Cikuzn, souc of

lgu dcimd Fujiw. On likly souc of suc fs lyin fc som svny ys li ul Simi ws oug o

v bn suck down in Cikuzn by osil locl diis. Simi’s d,

s i is codd in  Nihon shoki , cou conicl comld in 720, is

s follows:

5 mon, 9 dy. t tennò movd sidnc o plc of

 asku no tcibn no hioniw.

  a is im s blonging o Sin of asku w cu

down nd cld wy in od o build is plc. t god

 ws us vy ngy nd dmolisd building. Wiin plc

w lso mysious fis. Bcus of is Gnd tsu

nd mny of os in wiing ook ill nd did. . . .

  6 Mon. pinc Is did.

  auumn, 7 mon, 24 dy. t emss did in lc of

 asku. . . .

  8 mon, 1s dy. t Cown pinc, wiing in ndnc wi

tennò’s mins, wn bck o plc of Iws. t vning,on o of Moun asku, ws dmon wing g

 wo lookd down on funl cmonis. t ol ll ud

xclmions of sonismn.23

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12 Weaving and Binding 

Simi’s d is no only insnc of Jns ul blivd o

v bn suck down by n ngy diy. t  Nihon shoki , fo insnc,

ss cou ibud d of Simi’s son tnmu o cus

of Kusngi swod, wic ws cif diy asu sin inOwi ovinc.24  Suc vns suggs uls duing is iod fl

mkbly vulnbl o w of diis nsconcd in sins locd

som disnc fom Ymo cou; w old in sc

of lss n iy ys, wo sovigns w blivd o v bn killd

by suc gods.

On by-oduc of cou’s sns of vulnbiliy ws succd-

ing tennò und o immign lings suc s h fo l in dling

 wi Cikuzn diis. tis my v bn du o fc h, wo d d oos in Cikuzn, d ldy dvlod clos lion-

sis wi svl of diis mos likly o inimid cou. Fu-

mo, h’s fmiliiy wi coninnl culu mn y w

icully wll qulifid o uiliz culic cnologis dvlod in Cin

nd Ko fo cificion of siis. Suc is, wic w fqunly

ood in coninnl yin- yang  (ommyòdò) oug, offd Jns uls

nw nd sumbly mo ffciv mns of cifying osil diis nd

siis.25

 Duing ys followd tnmu’s d, immign diis fom

Cikuzn nd lsw nd minsm of oyl cul s lgnd

cycls dicing oyl ncsos oiiing Cikuzn diis olifd

idly. On of bs xmls of is ocss cn b sn in ol of

Sumiyosi diis bginning of Òjin/Jingû lgnd cycl. S

in Cikuzn, following Kojiki ccoun dils ibl consquncs

bfll Jingû’s usbnd Cûi wn fusd o follow insucions

of amsu nd Sumiyosi gods:

 a is emss ws ossssd by gods wo vld o m

following commnd: “In ws is lnd of mny nd

dzzling sus bginning wi gold nd silv. I will now bsow i

uon you.” tn [Cûi] tennò lid, sying: “Wn I climb u o

ig lc nd look wswd, I s no lnd, bu only g s.”

tn, sying, “ty lying diis,” usd wy is zi [koto],

csd lying i, nd s silnly. a is gods w vy ngy nd

sid: “You sould no ul is lnd! Go o on od!” . . . tn[Cûi] slowly ook bck is zi nd lyd on i lislssly. So lmos

immdily sound of zi bcm inudibl. Wn y n

ld u lig nd lookd, ws ldy dd.26

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   Immigrant Gods on the Road to Jindò 13

tis lgnd, id in oyl conicls o cod d of

Jns ul nds of vngful god, dos mo n simly

undsco civd nd of Jns uls o c n ccommod-

ion wi vngful siis; , in sks ossibl ms, w old oiiion of s diis bings gloy, wil filu o do so bings

d.27 

On imon by-oduc of cou’s olicy of co-oing osil di-

is fom Cikuzn nd lsw ws ccld dvlomn of h

culic cns in Ymsio ovinc, w h d i songs

bs in Kinki gion. On xml of is cn b found in  Nihon

 shoki , wic ss ul Kinmi scndd on in lg

du o ffos of h ncso nd diis of Fusimi Inisin, y no h culic cn in Ymsio.28 

t cou’s linc on h’s scdol biliis is lso suggsd

in mnn of  Hatashi honkeichò, wic ss in 703 Monmu

tennò odd h o bing Okisusim him no Mikoo, on of

cif diis fom Munk sin in non Kyûsû, o

Msuno’o sin in Ymsio.29  aloug x ovids no bck-

gound fo is vn, fmily giss fom Munk disic in Buzn

ovinc in non Kyûsû suggs g mjoiy of ’soulion ws h. tus i would cou und o

h fo ssisnc wi Munk diis bcus of h’s own

oos in Cikuzn.30

Fu ins s o wy cou would sk o bing Munk

gods wiin s of oyl cul cn b found wiin  Nihon

 shoki , wic oys Munk diis s minnly cbl of inimi-

ding Jns uls wn i suid m:

5 y, Sing, 3d mon, 1s dy. t diis wo dwll in

tsukusi d wiin lc nd sid, “Wy w ou ol

kn fom us? W will now disgc you.” a is [ricû tennò]

yd, bu is ys w no nswd. . . .

19 dy. t ws sound lik bls of wind clling ou in

sky, sying “O! pinc Swod!” . . . Suddnly minis cm

nd sid “t Imil concubin is dd.” t emo ws gly

sockd, nd immdily und in is cig. . . .

 Win, 10 mon, 11 dy. t Imil concubin ws buid. af is tennò, ging d no cifid gods’ w

nd d us cusd d of Imil concubin, gin soug

f offns [ cusd gods’ ng].31

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14 Weaving and Binding 

tis lgnd, conining s i dos now-fmili n of diis

fom non Kyûsû killing mmbs of cou nd inimiding J-

ns ul, songly suggss lss n wny ys bfo fom-

ion of kokubunji sysm cou ws oougly cowd by numbof Cikuzn diis, mny of wic w closly ssocid wi h.

t cson of is ocss cm in 749,  wn god hcimn, y

no Cikuzn diy wi clos links o h nd o immign lin-

gs, dcld oug n ocl wisd o b boug o cil

o b gudin diy of tòdiji, iul nd dminisiv cn of

kokubunji  nwok. Soly f, god ws inslld ml

d of ocssion of som 5,000 monks. By ly hin iod

hcimn nd o Cikuzn diis md oyl cul o suc dg sii of Jingû ws wosid in Sumiyosi sin in

Nniw wil sii of Òjin ws idnifid wi hcimn imslf.32

 all of is suggss wo liminy conclusions gding dvlo-

mn of oyl cul. Fis, fcd wi smingly imlcbl diis fom

non Kyûsû, lg oions of culic gnd of Jns uls

 w dsignd in sons o owful diis fom gion. tis ld

o som of mos dmic culic dvlomns of N iod, s

cou mbcd sis of gods nd kinsi gous cd ioos o sos of cou’s ivls coss s. Scond, nd s

mos imon, Jns uls mbcd s culs no fom osiion of

sng bu in f nd wknss.

Lineage and Buddhist Ancestrs in Early Heian 

In cons o dynmic of f nd oiiion ccizd l-

ions bwn tennò nd locl culs nd lings co of

mging oyl cul, by dvn of hin iod lgnd cycl of

oyl ncso Sòoku d bcom conson of Jns Bud-

dis diion. Nw movmns suc s Sicò’s tndi sc w ggs-

sivly linking figu of Sòoku wi i own scin gnds. a

co lmn of Sicò’s sonl vocion, in fc, s o v bn

is blif ws siiul dscndn of Sòoku, wos cings

ld consiud imy fom of Jns Buddism. In 816, wo ys

f comlion of Shinsen shòjiroku, Sicò comosd fol-

lowing om Sinnòji, fis ml uodly buil by inc:

Sking kmic sng nd conncion wiin ss,

I k fug plc of Sòoku.

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   Immigrant Gods on the Road to Jindò 15

I now will sd docin ug by c nd lv i

nglcd no long . . .

I sk bu o mk [is] cing of nion,

to oc i nd l i flouis.33

 a of Sicò’s mssg ws blif inc d in fc

bn incnion of Cins monk hui-ssu, c of fmd

t’in-’i ic Ci-i. anly Sicò sond imoing t’in-

’i cings fom Cin o Jn consiud covy of inc’s

Buddis mssg, nd us tndi diion ws no “foign” di-

ion ll, bu oduc nd cing of oyl ncso.34

tis clim o scil link wi inc ws ggssivly omodvn in Cin by Sicò’s cclsil dscndns. On svl occsions vis-

iing tndi monks gv i Cins oss cois of commny of

 Lotus Sutra  uodly win by Sòoku. Ls nyon fil o g

oin, insciion on o of on sid: “tis is wok of pinc

Kmisumiy of Jn. I is no foign wok.”35 

 all of is us igligs on imon mns by wic oliics

of ling nd nivism influncd ligious vns of iod; w

find vn s cou ws sking o snddiz ncsl climsof lings coss Jns islnds, mjo concn of fldgling

tndi movmn ws o sblis nd mlify clim o dic siiul

dscn fom oyl inc. O Buddiss md simil clims s y

consucd Buddis ling nd culic idniy fo Jns uls. tus

 Nihon ryòiki , comilion of Buddis lgnds ws comld

somim bfo 824, conins smn Sg imslf ws in-

cnion of Jkusn, fmd scic fom Sikoku.36 all of is suggss

ingul configuion of tennò, monk, nd kami   consd sly

 wi undsnding of iod in Miji , fo w s

s of hin iod, Jns Buddis diion could clim

i ws no in ny sns foign, bu s niv s oyl lin

islf.

Hata and Fujiara in Nara Japan 

Ioniclly, ignd wnss of nivis issus s of hin

 ws mos likly dicly ld o xnding influnc of immign lin-gs nd Cikuzn diis ougou N iod. poliiclly, N

d bn ccizd by doion of coninnl concions of

govnnc nd sg kingsi. Culully, ws ccizd by

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16 Weaving and Binding 

id diffusion of coninnl liy nd cicul foms w clos-

ly ssocid wi Buddis diion. Immign kinsi gous suc s

h w closly ssocid wi c of s ocsss.

tis oliicl-ligious conx gly svd inss of h, wo ovd d nsfoming i fciliy wi coninnl culul

foms ino oliicl influnc. On of bs xmls cn b sn in

c of Bnsò, h monk wo ws sn o Cin s sudn duing

tiò (701–704). Bnsò’s c in Cin s o v bn

mkbl; duing is sy bcm  go comnion of fuu

Cins emo hsün-sung. aloug Bnsò did in Cin, is son

h no asmoo und, long wi monk Dòji, o N wi g

cclim in 718.37  asmoo nsfomd is culul cil dicly ino oliicl

influnc. h mid wo of is dugs o wo sons of Fujiw no

Umki, d of Siki bnc of Fujiw. In lig of fc

Siki Fujiw consiud min bnc of Fujiw duing

l N iod, imonc of suc n llinc cn dly b

ovsd.38 

ts llincs bo immdi fui fo h. On of asmoo’s

gndsons, Fujiw no tnsugu, lyd mjo ol in ngining is of Kònin tennò  nd nw bnc of oyl lin. tnsugu l-

svd s incil dviso fo Kònin’s succsso, Knmu, nd is

blivd o v lyd mjo ol in dcision of cou o lv

N fo Ymsio. tnsugu’s lin obbly cd is x of ow

und hizi tennò, wo ook s is cif conso tnsugu’s dug

Kusuko nd wos cif dviso ws tnsugu’s son Nkni. tus

s of hin iod svl of mos owful couis cou

clld h womn mo nd gndmo.

t imoion of coninnl culic nd govnmnl foms idd

is of o h s wll. as succssiv tennò consucd v lg

mls, odwys, cnls, nd vn cils, h wl nd ngin-

ing biliy o v ld o i dic involvmn in mk-

bl ysicl nsfomion of oogy of Kinki gion.39 p-

s mos sccul xml of is cm in 740, wn vol in

Kyûsû ld Sòmu tennò o sk o mov is cil o Kuni disic

of Ymsio ovinc. On figu cgd wi comling muc of is

ojc ws h no Simmo. Wiin y Simmo d comldis sk, mos likly oug xndiu of subsnil moun of

h soucs nd lbo nd convsion of h buildings ino suc-

us fo us by cou. a simil ocss occud som fify ys l,

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   Immigrant Gods on the Road to Jindò 17 

 wn Knmu tennò movd is cil fis o Ngok nd n o

Kdono disic in Ymsio ovinc.40 

 aloug Sòmu soon bndond Kuni cil, Simmo d

clly md lg mk cou. In 742 cou wdd Simmoby lving im fom ig o fou nk— sccul is. rnk nd

 wl soon gnd fu llincs bwn h nd Fujiw.

Soly f, Simmo mid is dug o Fujiw no Oguo-

mo, d of non bnc of Fujiw unil is d in 801.

Duing Knmu’s lifim Oguomo my v bn singl mos influ-

nil Fujiw cou. aloug w cn only scul s o ow Oguo-

mo viwd is llinc wi h, fc is lds son Fujiw

no Kdono ws nmd f lgs h bs in Ymsio suggss h lyd n civ ol in Kdono’s ubinging. Kdono imslf

 ws ominn cou ougou is c, nd s o v bn

dicly involvd in lnning of Ngok nd hin cils, bo

of wic w in Ymsio.41

tis llinc would l ov o b of mndous imonc fo

h founs duing hin iod, s non bnc of Fuji-

 w lcd Siki bnc in fm of Kusuko incidn,

fo h influnc ovd bod nd d noug o suviv vn fll of Kusuko nd Nkni. aloug doublss sv blow, fll of

hizi nd Kusuko did no sll nd of h influnc cou. r

i mn h influnc ws cnnld oug diffn bnc of

Fujiw.

Svl conclusions follow fom ll of is. Fis, by im of

comlion of G Budd in 752, h d succdd in y

of mig oliics is fmili o ny sudn of hin iod.

 Ws, ioniclly, Fujiw fqunly nod fo i biliy o

old on o ow by mying Fujiw womn o uls, w know

on ls occsions h womn w mid o mn ig-

s clons of Fujiw. ts unions nobl no only fo i

quniy bu fo i quliy—duing iod h w bl o

consuc kinsi lions wi couis vy x of cou

icy. tus vn s Fujiw mn lnd o ccumul ow by

lying ol of ul’s mnl gndf, so oo did h

ccumul influnc oug i ominnc in disff lings of

owful Fujiw.Scond, suc linl ffiliions d imon consquncs coss

svl oliicl nd culic giss. Figus suc s tnsugu nd Ogu-

omo oug o v bn ky lys in lvion of Knmu’s

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18 Weaving and Binding 

f Kònin o on. t h llinc wi Fujiw ws lso

undoubdly mjo—oug by no mns only—fco in dci-

sion o lv N lin fo Ymsio.42 

tid, s dvlomns occud duing iod wn oylcul mbcd collcion of culs nd gods includd hcimn,

Sumiyosi nd Munk diis, s wll s diis of Msuno’o nd

Fusimi Ini sins. Sn gins is bckdo, Sg’s dcision duing

Kusuko incidn o incoo diis of Kmo sin wiin

of oyl cul suggss n innsificion of longsnding nd of

oyl dndnc on h culs nd diis.

Hata Mnks, Kkûò, andthe Clerical Hierarchy 

h involvmn in mjo sin cns of oyl cul ws mi-

od by n qully lg ol in som of mos ominn Buddis

movmns nd lings of N nd ly hin iods. Svl clus

concning xn of h influnc cn b found in mins of

Kokûzòji, h ml in non Kyûsû djcn o Us hcimn

sin. acologicl mins suggs ml ws buil ndof svn cnuy wi sm cicul lyou s of hòyûji,

kinsi gou ml of pinc Sòoku.43

Kokûzòji is lso of no bcus, s is nm suggss, h w

fom n ly d involvd in cul of bodisv Kokûzò (Sk.

 akâùgb). aloug w v no wy of knowing wn is ml fis

bcm involvd wi Kokûzò cul, duing N nd ly hin

iods svl ominn monks known o v gon ino Yosino

mounins in od o fom i known s Gumonjiò, n lbo

iul of sciul ciion fomd bfo n img of Kokûzò. Fu

vidnc suggsing h involvmn in is cic—s wll s fo con-

inuiis in h Buddis cic coss lg disncs—cn b found in

suy of Kòyûji, min h ml in Ymsio, wic ousd

su of Kokûzò fom ly hin iod.44 

Fo ou uoss, Kokûzò cul is of immdi ins fo wo

sons. Fis, Kûki, sily mos succssful monk of ly hin

iod, cd fomion of is vocion o n xinc d wil

cicing Gumonjiò.45 aloug, s ab ryûici oins ou, isno vidnc Kûki gdd is momn s sing oin of is

c in soic Buddism s, Kûki’s involvmn wi Kokûzò nd

Gumonjiò sisd ougou is c.46 

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   Immigrant Gods on the Road to Jindò 19

Scond, dvlomn of Kokûzò cul is lso vling of

sus of h monks nd culs duing N nd ly hin iods. In

859 monk Dòsn, fo insnc, buil Kokûzò cn hòyûji,

cn of Sòoku cul. Kuki’s sudn Dòsò, similly, ws imslf h monk wo vnully svd s shosòzu (junio is gnl) nd

confidn of Siw tennò. Dòsò’s coninuing ffiliion wi h nd

Sòoku ws lso flcd in is coninuous svic s cif dminiso

(bettò) of h kinsi gou ml Kòyûji, w inslld

img of Kokûzò fd o bov.47 

 aloug Kûki, Dòsn, nd Dòsò oug of ody in conjunc-

ion wi Jn’s soic Buddis diion, svl of mos ominn

monks of N nd ly hin iods known o v fomdGumonjiò is. Sonod cs on ling of Gumonjiò  ciions

bginning wi Sin’i, monk fom Gngòji wo cicd hsd in

Yosino mounins. aloug lil is known bou Sin’i, is sid

o v sudid in Kon kingdom of Sill io o bing nmd o

os of risshi (Viny ms)  in 717. towds nd of is lif Sin’i,

long wi Dòji, ws givn scil sind by cou in cogniion of

is knowldg of Buddis diion.48 

Sonod lso nos f Sin’i cs of svl Gngòji monks w ccizd bo by sudy of hossò docin nd cic

of ligious usiis in Yosino mounins. Nowoy mong s

 w Sògo, wo in 806 ws nmd daisòzu (snio is gnl), s wll

s Sògo’s discil Gomyò. tis ling is icully nowoy in lig

of fc duing l N nd ly hin iods, Gngòji hossò

cm clos o domining officil clicl sblismn. In is gd

figu of Gomyò is of immdi ins bcus is known o v

cicd Gumonjiò is, ind o nk of cclsil icy

( sòjò, sum is), nd bcus ws mmb of h.49 

 a scond ling of Gumonjiò ciions cn b cd o Dinji,

om of Dòji, wom, s w sw bov, ws mjo dvoc of bo

Sòoku cul nd kokubunji sysm.50 Svl Dinji monks lso

known o v cicd in Yosino mounins, including Cins

monk Dòsn, Dòji’s discil Zngi, nd Zngi’s discil Gonsò. Gonsò is of

scil ins fo us bcus, lik Gomyò, is known o v cicd

Gumonjiò, lso ind nk of sòjò, nd ws lso mmb

of h. all of is suggss considbl h influnc wiin clicl i-

cy dvn of hin iod. No only w svl h monks

cuing dg of ligious cics of clicl li, h monks

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 20 Weaving and Binding 

 w lso n o inncl of svl of mos ominn Bud-

dis lings. Suc influnc ws sccully illusd in 827, wn

h monk Gonsò ws succdd by is kinsmn Gomyò in os of

 sòjò. Clly h monks suc s Gonsò nd Gomyò lyd mjo ols indmining cou’s sons o fldgling Buddis movmns of

iod.51 

 The Hata and Immigrant

Deities at Hiei and Tòji 

t ominnc of h-ffilid gods duing iod lso ovd o b

ky fco in dvlomn of bo Sicò’s nd Kûki’s movmns.tndi monks would l k dvng of fc diy of

hiyosi sin on sn bs of Moun hii ws Òymkui no kmi,

h diy of Msuno’o sin nd usbnd of Kmu tmyoi

him, goddss of low Kmo sin. tndi monks ougou

hin iod usd i scil lionsi wi Òymkui no kmi s

oin of ny ino Cikuzn/h nwok of gods mbcd by Sg

nd is succssos.52  Somim duing nin cnuy, fo insnc,

mnn sin o Kmu tmyoi him ws sblisd on Moun hii’ssn slo.53 Uwi nos , ccoding o Yòtenki , by 965 suc link-

gs d suld in sis of is linkd gods of Moun hii wi

Msuno’o nd Kmo sins, fo Òymkui no Kmi ws cid nnu-

lly fom Moun hii o Msuno’o sin, w ws joind by is

 wif Kmu tmyoi him nd i cild, Wk no Ikzuci no Kmi.54 

 a simil ocss s o v bn wok tòji. evn s h

monks suc s Gonsò, Gomyò, nd Dòsò civd soic insucion fom

Kûki, Kûki’s follows civly soug lionsis wi Cikuzn diis

suc s hcimn, wo ws vnully nsind s tòji’s gudin diy.

Fu linkgs bwn sin nd monsy w cd in 827, f

divinion x dcld Junn tennò d flln ill s sul of cou

officils nging h diy of Fusimi Ini sin. Soly -

f Fusimi Ini diy d wiin cincs of tòji, w

ws gully oiid. In cnuis followd, lionsi

bwn Fusimi Ini diy nd tòji coninud o sngn s

Fusimi Ini diy bcm on of mos significn culic figus fo

bugoning movmn of mounin scicism would l b knowns Sûgndò.55 tus vn s tndi sc umd is lionsi wi

Òymkui no Kmi nd Msuno’o sin, so oo did Singon

movmn com o mbc h diy of Fusimi Ini sin.

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   Immigrant Gods on the Road to Jindò 21

 The Hata and the Temple-Shrine

Cmplexes f the Heian Perid 

If Sg’s mbc of Kmo sin snd n mic ffimionof long-m culic nds fuld by oyl f nd Fujiw/h coo-

ion, ly hin iod sw svl fu innovions in oyl

cul ndd o solidify osiion of h diis wiin oyl

cul. On suc innovion cm cnuy l wi ognizion of

oyl cul cnd on nwok of officilly sonsod ml-sin

comlxs. ts insiuions svd svl imon uoss. tologi-

clly, y sblisd cl s of cosondncs bwn svl of

mos ominn kami nd budds of lm. Insiuionlly, sysm svd o clify nk nd svics quid of svl of

mos imon sins nd mls in lnd. Bu s vn mo

imon, by binding ominn kami wi monsic cns in svic

of tennò, is sysm ld domsic svl of mos volil

nd dngous diis in Jns islnds. t dg o wic Ci-

kuzn/h diis w snd mong s insiuions cn b sn

in tbl 1, wic liss wny-wo sins d in -i

sysm ws sblisd by cou in 1039. Wi xcion of hio sin, owv, ll of Cikuzn/h sins w of

nwok by 898. tis gou of sins s bn discussd by aln Gd,

 wo is suly coc o oin ou imonc of Fujiw insiuions

 Table 1 twny-wo Sins of hin piod

 UPPER SEVEN MIDDLE SEVEN LowER EIGHT

Is Òno (F) Hiyshi 

Iashimiu Òmiw Umnomiy

Kam Isonokmi Yosid (F)

Matsun’  Ymo Hirta 

hino hios Gion

Inari tsu Kino

Ksug (F) Sumiyshi Niunokwkmi

Kibun

 Notes: Fujiw sins indicd by (F). Sins ousing diis idnifid wi

Cikuzn o h in bold ls.

Source: Gd, “Insiuion, riul nd Idology,” 250.

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 22 Weaving and Binding 

on lis. as Gd nos, on Fujiw sin is lisd in c of

is on lis, nd Fujiw o v lyd mjo ol

in consucing mls fo svl of sins. If w consid css suc

s hiyosi diy, wic Fujiw wosid fom n ly d, iis cl Fujiw influnc ws vn g.

 Y s mos mkbl fu of lis is lg -

snion of diis w closly idnifid wi Cikuzn o h.

Sins o suc diis consiu mjoiy of u i, wi

Kmo, Msuno’o, Ini, nd Iwsimizu hcimn sins. In scond

nd id is w lso find Sumiyosi sin nd hiyosi sins.

In ddiion, hio sin, locd n o of Nniw, ws lso

closly ssocid wi Ymo ul Jingû, wi hcimn, nd wi Kon ninsul.56 

rmkbly, wn kn og, no lss n fiv of o svn

sins nd n of ol wny-wo sins cou cos fo

scil nion w dicly onizd by Fujiw o immign/Ci-

kuzn lings suc s h.57 tis suggss llincs bwn

h nd Fujiw ld ol cou owds Ymsio

ovinc nd of N iod ndud long noug o lv

dfiniiv sm on diis o wic cou und fo cnuis ocom. aloug viully no sudis v bn undkn on ol of

h in mid- o l-hin sociy, i is cl wv i sub-

squn f, h lf d nd nduing mk on dvlomn

of oyl cul nd dominn ligio-oliicl digms of hin

iod nd byond.

t icu mgs is on of mkbl h influnc coss

ligious nd culic scum duing vy iod wn lions

bwn tennò, monks, nd kami w fis bing s. h monks suc

s Gonsò nd Gomyò w cosn o d monsic sblismn,

nd svl of mos owful figus cou w cildn nd gnd-

cildn of h womn. t cou’s mbc of h sin nwok

nd Kmo Siin similly snd culminion of longsnding

nd of oyl dndnc on immign sins nd kami .

In is conx i is dly suising s monks fom tòji o Moun

hii comd fo cou’s suo, y found i udn o fom lli-

ncs wi culic figus closly ssocid wi h. Simly u,

culic oizon of cion duing iod ws domind by Cikuznnd h gods o suc dg fldgling Buddis movmns

could no igno h diis, h culs, h monks, o h couis if

y wisd o suviv nd os. and bcus s insiuions, in un,

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   Immigrant Gods on the Road to Jindò 23

l domind Buddis wold cou, y lso ld s jc-

oy of Jns Buddis diion fo cnuis o com.

Cnclusin 

t comlx culic inly bwn tennò, monk, nd kami   occud

duing N nd ly hin iods ws infomd by noions of niv-

ism w in un simuld by mkbl culul nd oliicl

succss of immign lings suc s h. On mnifsion of

succss of s gous ws cnl ol lyd by nwok of h

culic cns in oyl cul. t ominnc of immign lings nd

i diis wiin oyl cul d mulil oos, n imon onbing siml f on of Jns uls os volil di-

is could nd in fc d killd Jns uls nd couis on mulil

occsions.

ts fs ovidd owful moivion fo Jns uls o co-

o culs of mo owful diis fom Kyûsû, mny of wic

 w closly ssocid wi h o o immign kinsi gous.

 as sul, ougou N nd ly hin iods sins nd diis

 wi oos in Kyûsû nd Kon ninsul cm o ly n incs-ingly ominn ol in sins onizd by oyl ous nd by

ominn kinsi gous suc s Fujiw. ty lso ld ccl

nd owds ssociing volil immign kami  wi monsic insiu-

ions offd ocion fo son of ul nd cou.

By 730s s considions, could wi h’s commnd

of culul nd cnologicl diions fom coninn, ld su

fomion of kokubunji  monsic sysm nd simuld n

of inmig bwn Fujiw nd h. By l lf of

N iod, lds of wo mos ominn sublings of Fujiw

cound mmbs of h mong i closs disff livs. ts

figus w n insumnl in lvion of lin of Knmu tennò,

 wo in un md  dcision o build hin cil in Ymsio ov-

inc, squly in middl of h ioy.

In ys following mov o hin, h diis nd h monks

lyd ivol ol in sing sill-dvloing oyl cul, domining

bo cou’s culic gnd s wll s is icy of sins. tus

flouising sins nd mls of hin cil my v bn oduc no so muc of iumlis cou’s slf-confidnc, bu

of cou’s knly fl f nd wknss in fc of gods nd ivls

fom coss s. t gnd nwok of ml-sin comlxs of

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 24 Weaving and Binding 

hin iod ws bo figuivly nd lilly ood in gound d

by h.

 Wiin is oizon of cion fldgling Buddis movmns ini-

id by Kûki nd Sicò mbcd Buddis culic foms closly ssoci-d wi h vn s y sblisd h kami  s gudin diis

of i sciv mls. Glimss of h influnc cn lso b sn in

long sdow cs by h monks suc s Gonsò nd Gomyò ov

cs of bo Kûki nd Sicò. Bo of s young monks, in un,

igligd ol of figus suc s Kokûzò nd Sòoku, scivly,

in fomion of i ligious vocions. as h diis w ingd

ino iul lif of insiuions suc s tòji nd enykuji, immign gods

n mgd of nscn Jindò digm. all of is suggss cucil d of coninuiy coss vy lg

of hin culic ingl ws snc of immign lings suc

s h. evn s l gnions soug o luck “foign”

Buddis lmns of is ingl, y did so only by mbcing vy

diis wos bullying d usd ifid cou owds ocion

of Sng ousnd ys bfo.

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25 

Chapter 2

Karakami  and Animal Sacrifice

U unil now I v bn nfoffd s king nd v civd

offings of bloody viculs. I is oug m my mig

nd blssings v bn mnifs. Now loug my il of

fcd lod is xld, ll scific o m wi vgin

offings. Divd of nouismn of bloody viculs, I

consqunly lck numinous ow of my wsom mig

nd blssings.

  —Gumblings ibud o god Li e-lng f toiss

oid is cul nd ld ll m offings.1

BY the earLY hin iod svl of sins nd diis ssoci-

d wi h nd o immign kinsi gous d ldy bn

dod s imy figus of wosi by cou—so mny, in fc,

immign diis (karakami ) consiud mjo lmn wiin cou’s

culic gnd. as sul, culic cns of immign lings suc s

h lso cm o ly mjo ol in sing dvlomn of cou

iul nd w would l b oug of s “Sinò” diion.

t influnc of immign lings nd diis, owv, ws no lim-

id o gion of cil. Bcus immign lings w sld

coss Jns islnds, i ncsl diis occuid n xmly

 wid gogic . as sul, mjo locl diis f fom cou w

lso fqunly karakami . Bcus culic cics nd blifs of

 Ymo cou w in consn incion wi culs nd diis lsw,

suc disn karakami lyd mjo ol in sing culic lif ougou

Jns islnds. On consqunc ws long bfo consuc-

ion of hin cil, Ymo cou d ldy bsobd os ofimmign diis nd culic cics fom vn mos disn gions of

lm. Locl culs w vily influncd by immign lings

nd i ncsl diis w us n imon diving foc bind

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 26 Weaving and Binding 

olifion of coninnl-syl is of sii cificion nd vn niml

scific bo wiin oyl cul nd coss couny.

In is c I oos o invsig wo issus w closly

ld o ominnc of immign lings nd diis wiin Jnsculic lif. t fis concns dg o wic culs of karakami nd

diss diis w mbddd wiin woldviw of Cins fsivl

clnd. My incil focus in is gd will b clus of iul cics

suc s niml scific, odsid is of oiiion nd cificion, nd

cul of Wv Midn nd Cowd, wo of bs-known

sl diis in Cins non. I will lso xmin clus of

 wv nd cowd diis fom locls coss Jn w dod

by Ymo cou io o N iod.2 I will lso suggs bcus Ymo cou’s doion of

Buddis diion ws closly linkd o bod oiion of coni-

nnl oliicl nd culul foms, ly Buddis diion bo ld

omo nd o suising dg ws in un sd by coninnl iul

cnologis fo oiiion of siis. I focus icully on sis

of lgnds fom  Nihon ryòiki , olds Buddis l collcion in

 Jns islnds. ts lgnds suggs us of subsiu bodis,

nming of siis, nd vn m offings o siis my v lyd nimon ol in fomion of oul Buddis ls nd blifs.

Ritual Technlgies and Ppular Cultic Traditins

 aloug wosi of karakami nd coninnl is of sii cific-

ion now widly cognizd s imon lmns in culic lif

of N iod, fo mny ys suc culs w viully ignod by

scols of ly Jns ligion. tis nglc is mos likly ibubl

o wo muully infocing suosiions fom w Jns imil

idology. t fis, nd s mos ncious, ws siml noion

ligious cics of Jns “folk” nd oyl cul li

co of Jns idniy. Sinc ssigning n imon ol o karakami

in consucion of suc cics would b nmoun o dmiing

n imon ol fo immign lings in consucion of oyl

cul, fw scols in w Jn dd vnu n suc conovsil

ioy.

 af w scond, mo soisicd oc ws iculdin ccodnc wi nd o u mo cifis fc on Jns culu.

In lc of w dclions of innly mil sii of Jns

ligious lif, osw ligious gous v fqunly gud dfining

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  Karakami and Animal Sacrifice 27 

ccisic of bo Sinò nd Jns Buddism ws n vsion o

 violnc nd bloodsd.3  Os v focusd on ly concions of

uiy nd olluion (kegare ), wic ofn snd s disinciv if

no dfining lmns of Jns ligious civiy.4 On consqunc ofis oc s bn culs nd lgnds cning on blood scific

 w long cgoizd s foign influncs byond ng of niv

culic cic. as sul, fomnc of is involving blood sci-

fic, offings of m, nd sii cificion ws fo mny ys ssumd

o v bn confind o immign culic cns ou of minsm of

N nd hin ligious lif.

In suo of is osiion, som scols v fqunly oind o

numous dics fom cou bnnd cic of slugingnimls. t fis suc codd oibiion occus in  Nihon shoki fom

676, wn tnmu tennò odd comnsiv bn on killing nd

consumion of ll nimls in lm. t oibiion of slug

of cows nd oss ws subsqunly codifid wiin Yòò lw cods,

nd dics oibiing cic w lso issud in Yòò 6.7.7 (722),

tmyò 2.9 (730), tmyò 4.7.5 (732), tmyò 9.5.19 (737), nd tmyò

13.2.7 (741).5  Similly, wiin Buddis s ougou N

iod nd byond, cou fqunly odd fomnc of iknown s hòjò (assmbly of rls of Snin Bings) in sons

o dougs nd o disss. edics fom tmyò 9.8.2 (737) nd tm-

yò 13.3.24 (741) lso fobd killing of nimls duing six Buddis

fs dys.6 

 a clos xminion of s injuncions, owv, suggss

cou d comlicd oc o issus concning killing of ni-

mls, scific, nd iul uiy, on wic ws vily influncd by con-

innl is nd concions of sii. as Ud Mski nd os v

nod, s numb of oibiions issud by cou islf songly

suggss niml scific ws common occunc duing N

iod.7 Fu vidnc suggsing cic ws widsd cn

b sn in following ny fom Shoku Nihongi  fom 792:

enyku 10.19.6. t sns [hyakushò] of Is, Owi, Òmi, Mino,

 Wks, ecizn, nd Kii ovincs fobiddn fom scificing

cl fo us of wosiing karakami .8

tis dic is nowoy bo fo is smn scific ws occuing

 wiin Jns islnds nd fo is scific ssociion wi wosi

of karakami . ps vn mo imon, owv, givn numb

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 28 Weaving and Binding 

of ovincs lisd in dic, i would bo wo-

si of karakami nd cic of niml scific could b found coss

 viully ni cnl Kini gion. I would lso wv

 viw cou my v ld wi sc o iul imuiy nd snc-iy of lif, ougou N iod niml scific ws sisn nd

 widsd lmn in culic lif.

Ud s lso gud i is misk o ssum cou’s

injuncions gins killing of nimls w simly moivd by con-

cns ov iul olluion; is lso good vidnc suggsing

cou’s moivions fo oibiing killing of nimls my v d

song conomic comonn. h nos, fo insnc, svl of

tmyò nd enyku bns w issud duing iods wn lgus wmn mong oulc.9 Fu suo fo is suggsion cn b

sn in n dic fom tmyò 13.2.7 (741), wic condmns cic on

gounds i involvs dsucion of vlubl livsock:

hoss nd cl do lbo in lc of umns nd nuu m.

Bcus of is, W v viously md cl slug

of nimls is no mid. Now, W in som disics is

oibiion s no bn u ino ffc. psns coninuing oslug [nimls]. tos wo viol [is dic] sll, wiou gd

o osiion o ivilg, fis b givn 100 soks, f wic fu

unismns will b dcidd ccoding o i guil. W lso

som disic ds, wiou gd fo ublic wlf, ssmbl ol

fo uos of uning. tis ms indusy of oulc

nd dmg is uly g. hncfo is sll b bnnd. tos

 wo viol is oibiion sll wiou fil b vily unisd.10

h gin loug w find slug of nimls s bcom suf-

ficinly widsd s o cus cou concn, no mnion is md of

nd o void dfilmn fom blood, no is ny fnc o Bud-

dis concions gding killing. r, dic xlicily ss

cic is o b sod bcus of is dlious conomic cons-

quncs—in is cs ls cou’s concn is no nimls’ siiul

 wll-bing, bu i lbo. t dic lso mks cl ov fify ys

f tnmu’s injuncion gins king of lif, nd in si of fc

niml slug d bn dly bnnd duing sm imiod, cic coninud o flouis. Indd, w vn old

locl officils no only mslvs nggd in killing of gm, bu cu-

lly comlld os o id m in cic.

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  Karakami and Animal Sacrifice 29

 Wn d in conjuncion wi o dics fom is iod, im-

ing of is dic lso conins svl imon clus s o wy cou

so fqunly bnnd cic sisd in si of d injunc-

ions. In n dic fom tmyò 13.3.24, fo insnc, cou nnouncd i ws undking mjo nw iul ogm involving sblis-

mn of nwok of ovincil mls would b cgd wi ci-

ing Buddis scius, by ssuing osiy nd wll-bing

of cou nd oulc. In od o nsu fficcy of mls’

ffos, cou lso bnnd killing of nimls duing ny of six

Buddis fs dys occud c mon. tis dic is us nobl

bo fo is dic linkg of oibiion wi fomnc of Bud-

dis is fo ocion of lnd nd fo w i indics bou duion of cou’s nfocmn of is own dics—is scond bn on

killing of nimls occud lss n wo mons f cou d

nd ll wo nggd in suc cics wi 100 blows nd o,

vi unismns.

In lig of ll of is, Ud convincingly gus w cnno simly

cou’s d injuncions gins killing of nimls s vi-

dnc of coninuous vsion o blood dfilmn nd niml scific.

r, i would niml scific ws gul fu of oul culic lif of iod. I would lso wn cou

bnnd suc cics, i did so i o consv soucs duing ims

of dsi o in conx of iul sonss o ciss. Onc dng

d ssd, owv, i s killing of nimls would coninu

c unil nx cisis.

In ddiion o ll is, owv, I would lso suggs cou’s

mbivln oc o niml scific ws ood in blif , wil

c of bnning niml slug ws bo mioious nd milly

bnficil, c of sonsoing m offings could lso b iully ffic-

cious. evidnc fo is cn b sn in Yòò lw cods, wic mn-

dd cou islf gully mk m offings o siis om-

ing lnd. On suc i ws Mici no Msui (ri of rodsid

Offings), i fo oiiion of siis on igwys of Ymo

ws fomd on finl dys of six nd wlf mons of

y. accoding o  Ryò no shûge , commny on Yòò cods

is oug o v bn comosd somim in mid-nin cnuy,

cnl lmn of is i consisd of offing  ids of cows ndbo o onilly mlvoln siis on odsids in fou dicions

ound cil.11 as w sll s soly, is lso good son o

bliv wll-known tosigoi Msui, wic ws fomd

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 30 Weaving and Binding 

cou-sonsod sins ougou Jn dvn of Nw Y,

lso involvd scific of nimls nd offings of m o odsid

siis.

I would us cou usud mulil iul sgis fodling wi ciss nd , wil som of s quid oibiion

of killing, os quid m offings. On of cls illusions

of cou’s willingnss o usu mulil iul sgis duing cisis

cn b found in cou’s sons o nws lgu d bokn ou in

Kyûsû in tmyò 7.8.12 (735):

In cn dys, w v d is cunly lgu in

Dzifu nd numous ol v did. W wis o limin isdiss nd sv livs of ol. In lig of is, oblions sll

b offd o diis nd ys sll b offd fo oulc.

Fu, G tml dqus nd mny mls

in suounding ovincs sll d  Kongò hannya kyò. envoys

sll lso b sn o id sick nd ovid mdicins. Fu, o

officils nd i ssisns in ovincs on is sid of Ngo sll

minin iul uiy nd fom Mici no Msui.12

tis clcic sons is nobl no only fo viy of msus

cou mloyd o so sd of lgu, bu lso fo

cou’s willingnss o usu s msus in ndm. Buddis is suc

s ding of  Kongò hannya kyò would nomlly nil nd fo

iul uiy, wic includs, sumbly, no sdding blood. and, indd,

suc concns flcd in insucion o locl officils o bsin

fom ll olluing civiis. Bu bcus cou ws lso clly wo-

id lgu would sd long min igwys lding fom

Kyûsû o Ymo lin, i lso odd fomnc of Mici

no Msui in ll ovincs bwn ffcd gion nd cou. Sinc

is i involvd offings of niml ccsss, i would  vn s

cou soug o limin idmic in Kyûsû by Buddis mns,

i lso blivd m offings o odsid siis nd diis w n

ffciv mns of vning sd of diss fom Kyûsû o

cil.

Let it Rain Fu clus suggsing cou’s gmic mbc of mulil i-

ul sysms my b found in  Nihon shoki  in n ccoun of inmking

comiion bwn Ymo ul Kògyoku nd ld of

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  Karakami and Animal Sacrifice 31

owful Sog kinsi gou. aloug is x is of xmly dubious

 vlu s isoicl ccoun, i dos illus clcic ng of iul

cics could b dwn uon in ims of cisis:

Kògyoku 1.7.25. t Miniss discussd mong mslvs, sy-

ing “Following cings of locl sin lds [hafuri ] in

villgs, v bn som lcs w ol v killd

oss nd cl s scific o gods of vious sins, nd in

o lcs v bn fqun locions of mk lcs,

 wil in os ys v bn offd o riv el. [Y]

non of s cics s d ny ffc.” tn Sog no Òomi

sondd, sying, “t Myn sus oug o b d in mls nd nnc is sould b fomd in ccodnc wi

Budd’s cings. [W sould n] vnly y fo in.”

  27 dy. In soun couyd of G tml, imgs

of budds, bodisvs, nd fou hvnly Kings w mg-

nificnly dond. an ssmbly of iss ws qusd o d

Great Cloud Sutra. a is im Sog no Òomi imslf ook cn-

s in is nds, bun incns in i, nd iiond [fo in].

  28 dy. a slig in fll.  29 dy. Bcus ys fo in d no succdd,

ding of sus ws disconinud.

  8 mon, 1s dy. t tennò wn o souc of Min-

buci iv nd knl down in wosi owds fou qus.

Looking u o hvn, s [n] yd fo in. tuon

 ws und nd g in wic fll fo fiv dys, bsowing w

coss lnd. One writing says “For five days there was continuous

rain, and the nine grains ripened .”

  a is common ol coss lnd cid ou og,

“Bnzi!” nd xclimd, “an emo of sum viu!”13

 aloug is ssg ws onc sn s ssing suioiy of niv

“Sinò” cics ov “foign” Buddis diion, mos scols now

bliv finl img of oulc iling Kògyoku s “ ul of

sum viu” suggss x ws dsignd o cons Kògyoku’s

osiion s igful ul wi of Sog, wo snd in is

c of  Nihon shoki  s loing o usu oyl ogivs.rd in is lig, x s no s iumlis ssion of

suioiy of niv ligious cic, bu n ffimion of Ci-

ns concions of hvn nd is sonsivnss o viu of uls.14 

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 32 Weaving and Binding 

Indd, bo conn nd lngug of x songly suggs

suc “foign” noions w bsic of concul vocbuly of

cou. t ssion locl sin lds wisd o mk offings o

riv el, min w diy of Cins non, fo insnc,cn only b undsood wiin conx of coninnl culic diions.15 

Similly, cic of cnging locion of mks in od o o-

duc in mks sns only wiin fmwok of Cins concs of

 yin nd yang .16 aloug s nd o suc ssgs v fo mos

bn dismissd s mbllismns by dios of x, is no

doub suc cics did occu in suc cicumsncs; on ny fom

Shoku nihongi , fo insnc, sows mks cil w

movd in 705 in sons o doug.17

ps mos insing of ll, owv, is x’s ssion locl

sin lds, o hafuri , dvocd scific of cows nd oss in od

o oduc in.18 tis ssg is nobl no only fo fc c-

ic is no condmnd, bu lso fo w i vls bou ow cou -

snd oul culic cics of im. evn if w dismiss ssg

s noing mo n liy invnion, fc in 720 dios

of  Nihon shoki  could lusibly ss locl ligious lds d

commndd niml scific in islf suggss suc cics njoyd subsnil dg of oul cuncy wiin Jns islnds

im.19 tis is vn mo mkbl wn w consid vy singl

iul civiy dios ibud o locl ligious lds ws clly

md by lmns fom coninnl culic diions.

Ritual Implements and Substitute Bdies

Svl clus s o nu of coninnl iul diions

 w mos vln in Jns islnds cn b found in wid viy

of iul imlmns nd culic cnologis v bn found. among

mos ominn v bn ousnds of cly iul vssls fom

iod. Bcus svl of s vssls fu ind snions of

diss-cusing siis o b slls fom Cins xs w dsignd

o wd off influncs of diss-bing dmons, cn b

lil doub coninnl lmns lyd cnl ol in is. In

svl insncs suc vssls v lso bn found o conin bons of

scificd nimls. tousnds of cly figuins of cows (ushigata), oss

(umagata), nd cickns (torigata) fom N iod v lso bnfound ougou Jn.20 Suc figuins, wic fd o in num-

b of xul soucs fom iod, w usd fo viy of uoss

including cificion of siis nd inmking.21 

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  Karakami and Animal Sacrifice 33

riul vssls nd niml figuins w lso ofn usd in conjunc-

ion wi umn figuins (hitogata)  w usd s subsiu bodis.22 

 aloug sill vy ooly undsood, nks o s volum of hito-

 gata, umagata, nd ushigata v bn und o d, s wll s fncs o s objcs in cou liugicl soucs suc s  Engi-

 shiki , i is ossibl o sk in gnl wy bou i us wi fi

dg of confidnc.

Fo ou uoss oins of icul ins. Fis, hitogata 

 wokd ccoding o logic of nsfnc nd subsiuion; in numous

cou iuls of uificion nd ling, dmons w offd subsiu

umn body, givn food offings, nd dmonisd no o un. In os,

umagata nd ushigata w offd in liu of cul livsock.23 Scond, nobl ccisic of mny slls win on hitogata  ws

nm of diss-bing sii. Wiin Cins iul conx,

idnificion of siis by nm s o v bn cnl lmn in

biliy o gin conol ov m. t olifion of suc is in

 Jns islnds s o vlid vibl xlosion in numb of

suumn figus quid nion of iul sciliss.24 

Finlly, discovy of lg ccs of hitogata,  cly vssls,  nd

o iul imlmns mjo cossods (chimata) nd ivbds sug-gss s iul imlmns w lso usd in conjuncion wi od-

sid is of uificion. t clos ssociion bwn chimata nd sii

cificion ws lmos cinly ld o blif dmons vld

long odwys of lnd.25 Sinc, s w v ldy sn in

cou’s sons o lgu oigind in Dzifu in 735, idmics

did in fc sd quickly long mjo nsoion is lding o

cil, i is no suising is suc s Mici no Msui cm o

occuy suc n imon osiion in cou’s iul snl. 

 Astrlgy and the Chinese Festival Calendar 

On likly souc fo mny of s cics cn b found in Cins

sologicl culs s wll s in blifs nd cics ld o oul

Cins fsivl clnd. accoding o  Nihon shoki , Cins sologi-

cl knowldg ws nsmid o Ymo cou in 10 y of

ign of Suiko (ignd 592–628), wn monk nmd Kwll∆k fom

Kon kingdom of pkc ivd cou nd ug s of clnd-

mking, sonomy, nd divinion o mmbs of cou.26  t xfu sss Kwll∆k ws soly f nmd o o os in

nwly sblisd buuccy cgd wi ovsing dvlomn

of Buddis insiuions in Jns islnds.27 

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 34 Weaving and Binding 

 as  Nihon shoki ccoun of Kwll∆k’s ivl nd cion sug-

gss,   cou’s suo of Buddis diion ws lmos cinly

closly ld o bod olicy of ccld imoion of oliicl

nd scinific cnologis fom Cin nd Kon ninsul. ts inun w odd nd givn xssion in Cins fsivl clnd,

 wic ognizd vying fom moions of clsil bodis o olii-

cl o dic concning l ino on comnsiv fmwok

bsd uon gul flucuions of yin nd  yang . as sul, loug

Suiko cou is gnlly ldd s using in nw domind

by Buddis oug nd insiuions, in mny wys culs nd lgnds

of Cins fsivl clnd my v xd n qul o g

imc uon mil nd inllcul culu of iod. Bcus is of Cins fsivl clnd w dicd on woldviw

in wic siis of dd w no only vsiv bu lso fqunly

osil, is of sii cificion domind muc of nnul iul cycl.

By mbcing Cins fsivl clnd, fo, cou viully

gund susind iul focus cou on osil siis nd nd

fo fqun is o k m by.

Cins concions of sonomy nd clnd-mking, owv,

 w dly mbddd wiin Cins concions of oliics nd viu, wic w in un undsood in ms of conc lionsis bwn

ul nd uld on on nd nd bwn ul nd hvn on

o. In is woldviw nomlous nul nomn w sn s

mns by wic hvn xssd, mong o ings, is lsu o

dislsu wi ul. Judging by ccouns fom  Nihon shoki ,

dvn of divinion xs iggd n xlosion of discovis of omns

 wi oliicl significnc s vious fcions cou soug o dmons

i hvn’s sisfcion wi ul o is dislsu.28 By ign

of tnmu tennò  oliicl mificions of divinion w considd so

imon cou sblisd n onmyòdò Divinion Bod wi

xclusiv ig o fom divinions qus of cou. tnmu

lso odd consucion of n sonomicl obsvoy viully

sm im.29 

In ddiion o tnmu’s obsvoy, fu cologicl vidnc fo

diffusion of coninnl sologicl knowldg cn b found in

tkmsuzuk nd Kio ombs in Ymo, wic fu no only imo-

n sl configuions, bu lso snions of dicionl diis ndfigus fom Cins zodic.30  Woodn bls inscibd wi slls

nd sl configuions v bn found in so-livd Fujiw

cil lso suggs sologiclly bsd is w no simly limid

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  Karakami and Animal Sacrifice 35

o omb wosi.31 tus, loug w v no wy of scining w

 Nihon shoki ccoun of nsmission of sonomicl nd divinoy

xs duing Suiko cou cully cosonds wi isoicl vns, w

cn nonlss s wi g dg of confidnc coninnlconcions of sology nd divinion d bn nsmid o J-

ns islnds by tnmu’s ign.

Sacrifice, Resnance, and the Calendar 

t diffusion of Cins clndicl sysms cou us involvd

dmic sif in iul ns by wic ow lions wiin

cou nd bwn cou nd nul od w xssd nd

minind. tis involvd f mo n cking nd obsvion of s-sonl nomn; i lso, nd s imily, involvd ognizion

of iul gimn incood is of scific nd sii cificion

ougou clnd y. Wil is msis uon sii-quiing my

fis glnc suising, i ws in mny wys consisn wi fun-

dmnl Cins concions of lionsi bwn ul, siis,

nd nvionmn. Undlying is of Cins fsivl clnd

 ws soisicd s of miss concning nu of siis nd

i lionsi o  yin nd  yang. two ssgs fom  Lun heng , ionlis is comosd by Wng C’ung in fis cnuy C.e., c-

ciz ly Cins undsndings of fomion nd civiis of kuei  

(dmons) s follows:

I is sid dmons kind of visibl ch’i cuss diss

in umns. Wn ch’i  is no in mony, i ms ol, nd

 wic ms ol [is clld] dmons. tis ch’i s in fom

of umns. tus ol wo siously ill v n bundnc

of [unblncd] ch’i, nd is ch’i ivs wi umn nc.

 Wn i [us] ivs, sick son will n s dmon.32 

. . . . . . . .

 Wn son dis, is nim sii scnds o hvn, nd is

bons un o . tfo is [ou umn sii] is clld

kuei shen鬼神 [“dmon nd sii”]. “ Kuei ” [dmon] is [divd fom]

“kuei ” [帰un]. “Sii” [ shen] is wic is inffbl nd wiou

fom. Som sy kuei shen is diffn nm fo yin nd yang .

Ch’i   is yin ms [lif in] objcs nd uns [o ]. tusi is clld kuei . Ch’i   is yang lds objcs o lif, fo i is

clld “sii.” “Shen” [sii] mns “shen” (申xnsion).33

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 36 Weaving and Binding 

howv idiosyncic Wng C’ung’s ymologicl divions my sm,

s ccouns cculy flc fc is of sii cificion (chen

kui ) in ncin Cin w ulimly misd on dsi o gul

blnc of  yin nd yang  in od o vn olifion of diss-cusing siis. Indd, Cins fsivl clnd s wol ws in lg

dsignd o clib blnc of yin nd yang in ccodnc wi

Cins concions of numology on on nd nd ssonl nd

giculul cycls on o.34  Sii cificion nd dissl of

xcssiv mouns of  yin w us vn fom -Confucin ims bsic

sonsibiliis of govnmn wn nd in nd wi cion of

giculul bundnc nd vnion of diss.

No suisingly, s concions w songly flcd wiin Cins fsivl clnd, in wic is of scific w cfully imd

o cosond wi wxing nd wning of  yin nd  yang lmns

in ssonl/giculul cycls. as w v jus sn, bcus

blood scifics w oug o dicly ffc blnc of  yin nd

 yang wiin givn nvionmn, y w lso considd imon

mcnisms fo binging bou, o vning, infll nd os of o

nul nomn.35 ris suc s s fomd n imon of

nwok of is, yms, nd lgnds ssocid wi Cins fsivlclnd, wic lyd cnl ol in sing mkbly wid ng

of ligious nomn.

Fom n ly d culic civiis in Cins fsivl clnd

ndd o clus ound fiv momns of nsiion wiin gul

cycl of lning influnc nd dclin bwn  yin nd  yang lmns

ougou cous of c y. Known s fiv nods (C. wu chieh,

 J.  gosechi ), s ds snd imon momns of flux wiin

focs of cosmos nd us snd bo dngs nd oouniis

fo umns. Fom vy ly oin s momns w cold wi

doubld odd-numbd dys in clnd. tus ougly on mon f

win solsic, wn  yin cd is k nd n bgn lf-y

iod of dclin, is fo Nw Y bgn. Nw Y’s is, of cous,

focusd on fis dy of fis mon, bu y xndd fo fifn-

dy iod, wiin wic numous is w fomd md

o influnc jcoy of s of y. t id dy of id

mon nd fif dy of fif mon w similly ld o mjo

nsiions in blnc of yin nd yang , wil svn dy of sv-n mon ws closly cold wi summ solsic nd subs-

qun scndnc of yin nd dclin of yang . In is nd o cs

 w sll s dly coss Jns islnds s dys svd s

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  Karakami and Animal Sacrifice 37 

mjo iul foci fo giculu, indusy, nd, of cous, minnnc of

o lions wi suumn wold.36

Fom ls s f bck s ign of Cins emo hn Wu-i

(140–87 B.C.e.), co lmn of Cins cou iul ogms ws gul sis of is of niml scific w dsignd o civ

sis of gols , fo uisic uoss, cn b dividd ino ys.37 

t fis of s, ly summd u in Confucius’ mmobl dicum

on sould mk offings o on’s ncsos “s if y w sn,”

msizd nsfomiv ffc of iul ocss islf.38 Sn in

is lig, scificil is w cucil mcnism fo bo cion

nd xssion of vius suc s filil iy, loyly, nd so fo. t vi-

u of ul, in is gd, ws considd m of vil ins fo s if fo no o son n viuous fomnc of is

 ws oug o son bo wiin umn nd suumn wolds,

by scuing fo lm bo monious umn lions nd

blssings of hvn.

In si of nomous sig dd o Confucin diion

fo muc of s wo millnni, owv, i is doubful is msis

uon fomiv dimnsion of scific ws v sol o vn

dominn digm fo undsnding scific. ris of scific nd moffings sood in s nsion wi conmonous tois cics

bod imuiis ssocid wi sdding of blood. Indd, s

quo bginning of is c suggss, ly tois liugis

o v dvlod ls in s n ffo o sm ou oul

culic cics involving offings of “bloody viculs.”39 

Bo in Cin nd Jn, owv, bloody viculs consiud n

imon mdium of xcng fo vs mjoiy of oulc bwn

umn nd suumn wolds; y could b usd o oii ncsos

nd ngy siis lik. as Klmn nos, suc is lso consiud n

imon souc of iul mowmn fo villgs nd individuls sking

id of unqui dd wndd odwys of lnd:

In si of xlici gulions, fw scols ink ligious

civiy of common im ws in fc sicd o is

ncsos. r, villg nd individul scifics w dicd o

gods of ousold, icully god of , nu siis

. . . nd o unqui dd. I ws is ls cgoy osd gs civd o s.

  t unqui dd w individuls wo d did violn d,

 wo did wy fom om, wos bodis w no inc d, o

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 38 Weaving and Binding 

 wo lf bind no ml dscndns. Bcus s goss could no

civ noml ncsl scific, y wndd wold in sc

of food. ti liminl sus, ni of living no mong sf,

ovidd-fo dd, gv m numinous ow (ling ). t bsnc of

ny ffciv ncsl scific md m vilbl o nyon, vn

nonlions. tus y w svoi of unclimd siiul ow

. . . mo on o iv, slf-cnd nis.40

Sn in is lig, nly widsd us of odsid m offings

nd scific in Jns islnds consius n imon ic of

vidnc concning oos nd nu of coninnl cics

 w oid by bo cou nd oulc. F fom indicing oiion of Confucin o tois cosmologis, suc is songly suggs

widsd doion of oul coninnl cics nd blifs

bo Confucin nd tois lis wiin Cin civly soug o suss.

 The weaver Maiden and the Cherd 

ps bs-documnd cul in N Jn wi cl oos in

Cins fsivl clnd ws of Wv Midn nd Cowd.

 aloug fom ncin ims is cul ws linkd wi n sl cul mking nnul ming of ss Vg nd ali, ov im lgnd cycl

dvlod in wic Wv Midn, dug of Clsil emo,

 ws sid o v flln in lov wi cowd nd consqunly nglcd

wving duis. as sul, wo lovs w condmnd o snd

ni y on diffn sids of hvnly riv ( Milky Wy) unil

svn dy of svn mon, wn Cowd ws llowd o

coss Milky Wy nd b unid wi is lov fo singl nig.41

 as s ou in Ching ch’u sui shih chi ,  myic bsis fo cul of

s lilly s-cossd lovs ws s follows:

t Wv Midn is o s of hvnly riv. S is

dug of Clsil emo. Y f y s dvod slf

o wving duis, wving vnly gmns fom fbics md

of clouds. t Clsil emo sw is dug ws lon nd

fl soy fo , so mid o Cowd on ws of

hvnly riv. af bcoming bid, owv, Wv Midn

comlly sod wving. t Clsil emo ws fongy nd scoldd , focing o un o s sid of

hvnly riv. ec y s is llowd bu on dy o coss

hvnly riv nd m Cowd.42

 

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  Karakami and Animal Sacrifice 39

 aloug bo in Cin nd in Jn is lgnd bcm fvoi

subjc of os sking o vok imgs of gic lov, Kominmi Iciò,

Nkmu tksi, nd os v gud ming of Wv

Midn nd Cowd iv suggss cul ws mos likly oodno in omnc, bu in ncin Cins is of scific nd uificion.

Nkmu nos in ly Cins soucs ng of ossibl

mnings fo m nsld s “cowd” includs no only officins

in cg of scificing cows, bu lso scificil nimls mslvs.43 

h lso oins o clus of xs dscibing scificil offings of young

 womn s bids fo w diy known s riv el. h fo

concluds figus of Wv Midn Cowd sd no

s xld diis, bu s scificil vicims wo w only l nsfomdino objcs of wosi. Kominmi, in suo of is viw, oins o l

oul nivs in wic Cowd is sid o coss iv wing

id of is cow.44 

Bcus moif of bif ming of lovs followd by invibl

sion ws oul wi Jns os fom im of tnmu’s ign,

 Jns scols v long bn insd in liy significnc of

“nig of svns” (tanabata) imgy wiin ly Jns liu.45 

 acologicl discovis suggsing Cins concions of sono-my w mo vsiv in Jn n viously lizd, owv, v

ld s -vluion of ol of tanabata cul in myo-

ligious lif of iod. hibysi, fo insnc, s msizd

cl influnc of is cul uon ly snions of smnsss (miko)

in ly Jns myology.46 

Fu ins s o influnc of cul of Wv Midn

nd Cowd cn lso b sn in ominn ol wving iml-

mns lyd culic cns bo cou nd coss Jns islnds.

Knko hioyuki nos ccoding o  Engishiki , fou of wny-

on scd gli of Is sin wving lmns nd wv-

ing imlmn ws lso on of gli of u Kmo sin in

modn Kyoo. acologicl vidnc suggsing widsd us of

 wving imlmns s offings s lso bn found sins svl

sis n Is in Mi fcu s wll s in Kgw fcu on

islnd of Sikoku. pobbly lgs ccs of wving ools und

o d, owv, v bn Munk sin in Kyûsû nd

Okinosim sin, n imon islnd culic cn fo wosi of Munk diis. tis ws n imon soov oin fo vssls vling

bwn Kyûsû nd Kon ninsul.47 ts discovis nobl

no only fo dg o wic y bols xul vidnc fo us of

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40 Weaving and Binding 

 wving imlmns sins, bu lso fo i gogic bd, wic

includs no only cnl Jn, bu lso islnd of Sikoku nd svl

sis in Kyûsû soun nd of Jns islnds.

Fu xul vidnc concning iul uss of s imlmnscn b sn in  Hizen fudoki , n ly ig-cnuy gz fom

hizn ovinc in Kyûsû. t w find following lgnd concning

oiiion of vngful aku him, fml diy wos culic idn-

iy s o v bn closly ld o wving:

himgoso no so. Of old, o ws of iv ws

 wild god would kill vls on odsids. hlf [of os wo

ssd by] would di, lf would b llowd o sc. a divin-ion ws don o dmin wy god ws wking is vngnc

[tatari ] us, nd y w old “In Munk disic of Cikuzn,

v mn nmd azko build sin nd wosi m. If you do

s I qus, I will no long v violn .” a is y found

mn nmd azko. Wn y insucd im o build sin

nd wosi god, azko ook bnn [hata] nd isd i in is

nds, ying “If my wosi is uly ndd, my is bnn fly on

wind nd fll lc w god wo sks m sids.” a is bnn ws suddnly kn u by wind nd flw wy.

I flw o Mi disic nd fll o gound himgoso

sin. I n onc gin flw u ino i nd und, flling o

in filds n smll villg by smll mounin iv.

 azko us knw w wild diy sidd, nd nig d

dm in wic loom [kutsubiki ] nd sul [tatari ] cm dncing

bfo azko, using im. a is knw god ws fml

 wving diy nd immdily buil sin nd wosid .

 af vls w no long killd on odsids. Fo is -

son, sin ws clld himgoso ( incss’s sin) nd ody,

villg ks is nm fom sin.48

tis l of divin w nd oiiion sks volums bou

ol of wving culs duing N iod. Mos noicbly, x

clly illuss ow wving imlmns could nd w usd fo

cificion o oiiion of vngful siis. No only dos liugis

 azko loc diy oug us of flg, aku im vn -sns slf o azko in fom of wving imlmns. Wn kn

og wi xul nd cologicl vidnc of simil civiis

Munk, Okinosim, Kmo, Is, nd o sins, i would

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  Karakami and Animal Sacrifice 41

 wving culs in N Jn w ominn vn fs cs of

Jns islnds nd offings of wving imlmns w usd

o qui ng of fml diis.49 

 Animal Sacrifice, Akaru Hime, and Mitshi Kami 

 aloug cn ys v sn ccumulion of cologicl

vidnc sblising widsd us of bo niml scific nd

 wving imlmns in conjuncion wi is of sii cificion oug-

ou Jn, s o d bn no convincing ccoun of ow, if ll,

s nomn mig b linkd. Founly, smll numb of soucs

fom iod suggss fml wving diis wo dmndd off-

ings of wving imlmns w lso closly ssocid wi cowddiis wo dmndd niml scific. I would fo suggs

 wosi of karakami , us of coninnl sii-cificion cnologis,

nd cic of niml scific w ll sd by common oizon

of cion ws vily influncd by imoion of coninnl

cnologis nd bckgound blifs nd cics ssocid wi

Cins fsivl clnd. 

Svl clus s o nu of is dynmic cn b sn in

 Kogoshûi , n ly nin-cnuy x couning myic nd scdolisoy of Jns islnds. In x w find following lgnd

couning oigins of cics ssocid wi wosi of Miosi

no Kmi duing tosigoi Msui, mjo i fomd cou-son-

sod sins ougou Jn s of c y:

On on occsion in Divin ag, wn culiving ic in ddy

fild, Ookonusi no Kmi svd is mn bf, wil son of

ric God Miosi no Kmi, wn visiing fild, s in disgus

uon diny offd o im, nd uning om, od m-

o is f. tn Miosi no Kmi in w sn numb of nox-

ious inscs, o locuss, o Ookonusi no Kmi’s ddy fild o kill

 young ic lns nd in consqunc lflss ic-lns d

lik “ shino” o so bmboo gss.

  Wn Ookonusi no Kmi id o scin u cus of

incomnsibl diss, bd “kknni” o “iji ugu . . . ”

o scin divin will. t uguy n us: “Miosi no Kmi

s sn cus, wic mks young ic lns di, so yousould no fil o s offndd god wi offings of wi

bo, wo wi oss nd i of wi domsic fowl.” t condi-

ions vld in divinion bing obyd, god ws sd.

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42 Weaving and Binding 

Miosi no Kmi disclosd sc in following ci: “I is I

 wo boug cus. Mk l of mn slks, nd wi

cl ic lns, by xlling locus wi m lvs . . .

lc som bf mou of dic in fild og wi

llic symbol. . . .

t uumn ol’s s w glddnd by n bundn

ic co.

t cusom ving bn sd, Miosi no Kmi is sill wo-

sid, in sn Sinò Buu, wi offings of wi bo,

 wi os, nd i of wi domsic fowls.50

 aloug is lgnd s cd nion of numous Jns scol-s sking o undsnd ol of niml scific in N Jn, viully

ll ms o xlin x v foundd on issu of wy Miosi

no Kmi would in fis scion b ngd m offing, wil

nd of soy is ng is sd wi ddicion of nimls

nd offings of m. Yosi akiko s gud x in fc flcs

wo s oug common is, fis bing Nw Y’s giculul

i involving offing of fs o lbos, scond bing i fo

oiiion of n ngy diy.51

 Ud Mski, on o nd, sgud god is ngy simly bcus lbos sould fis v

ddicd nimls o diy bfo consuming m. Bo scol-

s g, owv, lgnd mos likly flcs conmonous

cics concning offings of m odsids o cify ngy diis.

 a clos xminion of x lso suggss is lgnd, cul

of Miosi no Kmi nd, by xnsion, oul ligious cic, w lso

dly colod by cics ssocid wi immign kinsi gous suc

s h in gd o i karakami ncsl diis. hins of is cn b

sn in Miosi no Kmi’s gnlogy, wic, s givn in  Kojiki, includs

lf bos nmd K no Kmi (lilly, “Kon diy”) s wll s Òy-

mkui no Kmi, h diy sidd in Msuno’o nd hiyosi

sins in Ymsio ovinc.52 as w sw in C 1, Msuno’o

sin lso ousd sii of Òymkui’s wif, Okisusim him no

Mikoo, on of cif diis of Munk sin. Sinc is good

cologicl vidnc suggsing Munk diy ws gully

oiid wi wving imlmns, i would svl diis

 wi wic cul of Miosi no Kmi ws mos closly ssocid wno only karakami, bu lso bo cowd nd wving diis.

Fu vidnc suggsing is of niml scific nd sii

cificion fom Cin nd Kon ninsul d ldy nd

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  Karakami and Animal Sacrifice 43

minsm of oul Jns ligious civiy is lso n in

scond lf of lgnd. t lcmn of m offings odsids, fo

insnc, cos no only coninnl iul cics bu lso cic

of mking offings of niml ids duing Mici no Msui, wiclso ook lc s of c y. t us of iul wving iml-

mn ( l) nd m similly mios Mononob liugis azko’s

us of is sm y of wving imlmn s n offing o aku him.

I would us suc is w no uniqu o cul of Miosi

no Kmi in Ymo, bu sd numb of imon is wi o culs

coss Jns islnds.

other Cherd Deitiesps mos imon, owv, lgnd of Miosi no Kmi is

bu on of clus fom iod involving karakami   fom

funcion of cowds. ano suc figu ws am no hiboko, n immi-

gn diy fom Sill wo vnully bcm objc of on of lgs

culs in Jn:

In lnd of Sill ws ond clld agunum. On bnk of

ond ws oo young gil wo ws ning. as s wsdoing so sun skld lik inbow nd nd iv

s. t ws lso oo mn wo oug is sng nd

so consnly obsvd cions. Now fom im of n

gil bcm gnn, nd s gv bi o d jwl. a is,

oo mn wo d bn obsving bggd fo jwl,

 wic f lwys k id ound is wis.

tis mn d ic fild in vlly. Wn lodd food nd

dink fo fild woks uon n ox nd boug i ino vlly,

m am no hiboko, son of ul of couny. [am no

hiboko] n skd mn “Wy you binging is ox lodd

 wi food nd dink ino vlly? You will suly kill ox nd

i.” h n sizd mn nd ws going o u im in ison, wn

mn nswd, sying “I wsn’ going o kill ox. I ws jus

binging food fo lbos in fild.” howv, [am no hiboko]

 would sill no ls im. tfo mn undid jwl

 ws id ound is wis nd offd i o inc, wo n

lsd mn.[am no hiboko] n ook jwl [om]. Wn lcd

i bsid is bd, i und ino buiful young womn. h

immdily mid , nd s bcm is cif wif. Now

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44 Weaving and Binding 

 young womn would consnly mk ll sos of dliccis s

 would fd o usbnd. Wn inc fo gw ogn

nd scoldd is wif, s sid, “I m no womn wo sould b

 wif o you. I will go o lnd of my ncsos.” S n scly

go ino smll bo nd fld [o Jns islnds], w s

sod in Nniw. This is the deity called Akaru Hime, who resides in

the Himegoso shrine in Naniwa.53

 aloug cul of am no hiboko (hvnly Sun S) s bn cc-

izd s mlwoking cul, s sun cul nd s cul, lgnd is of

dic ins o ou discussion bcus of is clos similiis wi lg-

nd of Miosi no Kmi. as wi  Kogoshûi  ccoun discussd bov, w v sm fundmnl sucu of god wo is ngd

osc of lndown bou o bing cow o woks in filds.

h, oo, diy is lcd only f civing n offing/bib. Mos

imon of ll, owv, x concluds by sing diy wo

oss s gudin of cow n mis aku him, vy diy

 wo, s w sw li, dmndd offings of wving imlmns suc

s ls in hizn ovinc.

ts sm moifs lso in lgnd cycl of tsunog asio, y no immign cowd diy fom Kon ninsul. Indd,

ccouns of is diy in  Nihon shoki nd  Kojiki b suc siking

smblnc o lgnd of immign diy am no hiboko

cn b lil doub of xnsiv incion bwn wo lgnd

cycls; bo gods snd s nobls/cowds wo com o J-

ns islnds fom Kon ninsul sking n sngd bid, wo in

bo css is sid o b wv midn goddss aku him. Similly,

 ws am no hiboko is sid o v sld in tjim ovinc long

cos of Jn/esn S, tsunog asio is sid o v kn u

sidnc in o of tsunog, lso long cos of Jn/esn

S dicly oosi fom Kon ninsul.54 ps mos imon

of ll, fo ou uoss, bo am no hiboko nd tsunog asio

o v bn wosid by h nd o immign lings long

cos of Jn/esn S.

t culs of s cowding nd wving diis us of immdi-

no fo numb of sons. Mos obviously, locion of s di-

is in ecizn, tjim, Ymo, Ymsio, nd hizn ovincs onc ginsuggss culs of immign diis d diffusd coss n xmly

lg of Jn vn bfo dvn of N iod. I would lso

c of s culs lso svd s vicl fo nsmission

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  Karakami and Animal Sacrifice 45

of wid ng of coninnl blifs nd cics closly ingd

myic nd iul ns ld o scific, sii cificion, wving,

nd vn sology. In ddiion, I suggs s culs my lso v

lyd mjo ol in fomion of ligious digms of iod;bcus h nd o immign lings ssocid wi s culs

lso lyd mjo ol in nsmission of Buddism o Jns

islnds, i would lis os nd lgnds of fldg-

ling Jns Buddis diion would v fomd wiin culic conx

ws vily influncd by suc coninnl-syl is nd lgnds. 

Sacrifice and Spirit Prpitiatin in the Nihon Ryòiki 

pobbly bs lc o bgin ocing qusion of ow

doion of ly Jns Buddis diion ld o coninnl

cnologis of sii-quiing cn b found in  Nihon shoki ccoun of

Kwll∆k’s nsmission of Cins sologicl nd divinoy xs o

Suiko cou. t fc s xs sid o v bn snd by

Buddis monk vy likly flcs fc coninnl concions

of sonomy, divinion, nd sii cificion md viully vy

mjo sin of Buddis oug in bo Cin nd Kon ninsul is im. t imonc of Buddis sl culs only incsd ov im,

 wi suc sl figus s bodisv Myòkn, Kicijò njo, nd Jijòkò

Budd occuying nion of cou nd oulc fo cnuis.

Sn in is lig, i s ly Jns Buddis diion ws

mjo ngin fo nsmission of coninnl sologicl blifs, vn

s i cm o b sd by m.55

In simil vin influnc of Buddis xs nd is on ly con-

cions of nu of siis is lso dily n. Bcus Cins

concions of nu of siis nd mns by wic y mig b

cifid oougly vdd Buddis diions nd J-

ns islnds duing svn nd ig cnuis, Buddis scius

comosd in Cin w mjo souc of slls nd dmon nms in N

 Jn. among mos imon w scius of clly tois ov-

nnc d bn dod by Cins Buddiss. On suc cnly

discovd x, Scripture Spoken by the Buddha on the 7,000 Demon

 Amulets ( Fo shuo ch’i ch’ien kuie fu ching ), conind, s is nm suggss,

lilly ousnds of sii nms could b usd o conol o-lifing numb of siis blivd o b oming lnd. I would us

coninnl is of sii cificion nd diffusion of

Buddis diion cou w muully infocing nomn.56 

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46 Weaving and Binding 

t ssociion of Buddis diion wi coninnl is of sii

cificion nd Cins fsivl clnd, owv, ws no -

nomnon limid o cou. On indicion of dg o wic y

ould oul Buddis discous cn b sn in following lgndfom  Nihon ryòiki , n ly nin-cnuy Buddis l collcion:

Dòò, Buddis scol of Koyo, ws monk of Gngòji. h cm

fom em fmily in Ymsio ovinc. In y of os,

scond y of tik , buil Uji Bidg. Onc, wn

ws ssing oug vlly in N ills; sw skull

d bn mld by mn nd nimls. In soow, d is n-

dn Mo lc i on . . . .  On Nw Y’s ev of sm y, mn cm o ml

g, sying, “I would lik o s vnbl Dòò’s ndn

Mo.” Wn Mo cm ou o s im, sid, “tnks o mcy

of you ms, I v bn y nd c. and I cn y you

kindnss only on is vning.” tn ook Mo om wi im.

toug closd g y nd bck qus of ous,

 w y found bundn food nd dink ldy d. t mn

dividd is f wi Mo, nd y og. Soly f mid-nig y d ml voic, nd mn sid o Mo, “Go wy

quickly, fo coms my bo wo killd m!” In wond, Mo

skd im bou is, nd nswd, “Onc my bo nd I w

vling on businss, nd I cquid bou fify ounds of silv in my

d. Ou of nvy nd my bo killd m o k silv. . . .

  I ws is oin mn’s mo nd ld bo

nd oom o wosi ll siis. Bing suisd sig

of Mo, y skd wy ws , nd Mo old m w

d jus d. t mo uon ccusd ld son, sying,

“a! You killd my d son. I ws no obb, bu you!” tn s

nkd Mo nd gv im fs. On is un, Mo od is

o is ms.

  evn sii of dd o sklon ys n c of kindnss,

ow cn living mn fog?57

Svl lmns of is lgnd illus dg o wic is of

sii cificion fom Cins fsivl clnd d com o vdbo Buddis nd non-Buddis discous by ly hin iod. W

old sii uns o umn wold on Nw Y’s ev, vn

s is bo s o mk offings o “ll siis” on is sm dy.

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  Karakami and Animal Sacrifice 47 

t x mks i cl iming of s wo lmns is no simly

coincidnl; s sii of skull lls Mo, “I cn y you kindnss

only on is vning.” Suc smns ll mo nowoy in lig

of fc is no suggsion in x is ws cicscificlly idnifid wi ny Buddis x o culic diion. Indd, i

s f mo likly suc offings, muc lik cou iuls suc s

Mici no Msui,  w fimly ood in Cins fsivl clnd.

ps vn mo significn, cic of mking offings o siis

on ls vning of y is d simly s n ccd of

sblisd iul cic nds no xlnion o jusificion.

 aloug, gin, i is imossibl o know w is lgnd ccu-

ly flcd oul ligious blifs fom iod, svl clussuggsing lgnd ws indd ood in oul nivs fom

 Ymsio ovinc. among s is ssion minn monk

Dòò, wo fis ks iy on skull, is fom n immign kinsi gou

fom Kon kingdom of Koguyò d sld in Uji disic of

 Ymsio duing mid-six cnuy.58 Bcus, s w sll s soly,

o lgnds fom is dic Buddis ciions ngging in is

of sii cificion nd niml scific, I suggs immign lings

suc s em, s wll s monks suc s Dòò, snd imonmcnisms fo bsoion nd nsmission of suc is wiin

fmwok of Buddis l liu.

Mo bodly, x’s smn Dòò ovsw consucion

of Uji bidg, mjo nod of ffic coss Ymsio ovinc lso

flcs n imon lmn in fomion of ly Jns Bud-

dis diion. rgdlss of isoicl ccucy of is icul

clim, is lil doub ogion of Buddis diion

in Jn ws vsly idd by consucion nd xnsion of od n-

 woks nd bidgs d bgun in ns duing ign of Suiko.59 

Suc consucion ojcs gly simuld xnsion of cnlizd

buuccy nd cnl uoiy coss Ymo lin nd byond.

On by-oduc of is ocss ws id diffusion of Buddis is

nd concs.

 an unxcd consqunc of is dynmic, owv, ws

incsd s wi wic diss could vl lg disncs. Bcus,

s bov lgnd mks cl, vls w sy gs fo obbs

nd on o svion, lg numbs of coss blivd o vlid ods of ly Jn. t obvious culic concns ising fom

so mny coss ws lmos cinly owful incniv fo cou’s

fqun us of odsid is of sii oiiion.  Y s Buddis monks

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48 Weaving and Binding 

vld igwys of Jns islnds, y s muc s nyon

ndd ocion fom vngful siis oug o b wnding

odwys. Sn in is lig, is lgnd of monk’s ncoun wi skull

on odwy would o flc song wnss bo cou nd wiin ly Buddis diion of nd fo culic mns o oii

o cify suc siis.60 I suggs fo gdlss of is isoicl

ccucy, is lgnd mos likly bodly flcs mil nd iul

concns of g.

 weavers and Substitute Bdies

By im of comosiion of  Nikon ryòiki , widsd

us of hitogata nd odsid is of sii cificion lso s o vbn flcd in oul Buddis discous on dmons nd siis of

dd. t following lgnd igligs mns by wic logic of

subsiuion co of hitogata is cm o b snd in oul

Buddis concions of flif:

In Ymd disic, Snuki ovinc, livd womn wos nm

 ws Nunosiki no Omi Kinum. In ign of emo Sòmu, s

suddnly fll ill. tfo, s lid ll kinds of dlicious offings onbo sids of g o giv diy of lgus bnqu s bib.

  t cm find, mssng of King Ym, o siz .

exusd fom scing fo , find cs covous look

offings of dliccis nd ccd m. tn sid o , “as

I v ccd you osiliy, I will y you kindnss. Do you

know nyon wi sm nm s yous?” Kinum nswd, “Ys,

is no Kinum in Ui disic of sm ovinc.”

tuon, ook o o Kinum’s om in Ui

disic o s , nd, king ou on-foo cisl fom is d bg,

dov i ino l’s fod nd sd . t fom Kinum

of Ymd disic wn om in sc.

  Wn King Ym, wo d bn wiing fo m, xmind

, sid, “tis is no Kinum I sn fo. You v go

 wong son. Kinum, will you sy fo wil? Go nd g

Kinum of Ymd disic.”

  as d fild in ying o concl , find gin wn o

Kinum of Ymd disic o s nd cm bck wi . King Ym sw nd sid, “tis is Kinum I sn fo.”

  Mnwil, Kinum of Ui disic wn om only o find

cos d bn cmd duing -dy bsnc. S cm

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  Karakami and Animal Sacrifice 49

bck nd ld o king in gif, sying, “I v no body o

n ino.”

tn king skd, “Is body of Kinum of Ymd

disic?”

t ws, wuon king sid, “Go nd k body s

 yous.”

  In is wy Kinum of Ui disic cm bck in body of

Kinum of Ymd disic. S sid, ‘tis is no my om. My om is

in Ui disic. . . . Wn s xlind in dil w King Ym d

old , bo ss of ns blivd nd llowd o ini

bo founs. tis is wy sn Kinum d fou ns nd

wo inincs.  t is somims mi in mking offings o find s

bib. If you v nying, you sould off i. tis is no of

miculous vns.61

 as wi lgnd of Dòò nd skull, is niv suggss

i ws divn in lg by coninnl concions of sii cificion.

Mos obviously, suscibiliy of dmons o biby, fficcy of

food offings, nd iul focus on nms ll suggs coninnlmoifs nd iul cics ld fom co of lgnd. If, givn

sing, w ssum lgnd oigind in Iyo ovinc, n i

 would lso suc is w undkn no only by cou

bu lso by individuls vn in comivly mo gions of Jn.

ps mos mkbl of ll, Kyòki, Buddis monk wo comild

 Nihon ryòiki , cully dviss lyol o mk suc offings o

siis.62 

On fu indicion of dg o wic concul us

undlying suc is d bn oid by Jns Buddis -

diion cn b sn in nms of wo oins. t sunm Nuno-

siki, wic lilly mns “sd clo,” ws n llion dod by

 wving svic gou cd is oigins bck o Kon ninsul.

evn mo o oin, givn nm, Kinum, is lilly ndd s

“Silk Midn.” Onc w nd sucu of lgnd using m

“Silk Midn,” lgnd’s ffiniis wi coninnl is bcom obvious.

In ssnc, is is lgnd in wic emm, King of diss dmons, snds

fo Silk Midn, wo ms o vd im by mking odsid offingso dmons nd finding subsiu body wi sm nm. tus fom

s o finis niv is divn by logic of subsiuion co

of hitogata is of sii cificion.63 

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 50 Weaving and Binding 

 Jus s cou fqunly bnnd slug of nimls vn s i

gully md offings of niml ids on odsids, Kyòki’s iud

owd cic of scific s o v bn xmly comlx.

 aloug concluds bov lgnd wi dfns of mking foodoffings o siis, lsw in x is sly ciicl of cic

of scific:

In villg of Ndkubo, higsini disic, Ssu ovinc,

 ws wly ousold wos nm is unknown. In ign

of x-emo Sòmu, ousold, fful of vil influnc

of Cins diy, ld svics fo svn ys, scificing n ox

c y unil d killd svn. a nd of svn ys concd sious diss, nd, duing following svn ys,

ni doco no mdicin could cu im. h clld divins o

uify nd y fo im, bu is diss mus v bn cusd by is

s dds of killing.64

Fo ou uoss is lgnd is s mos significn no fo Kyòki’s

condmnion of cic of niml scific, bu fo is ssum-

ion m scifics w common cic mong oulc.Indd, givn gnl ndncy of is x o sk o illus

miculous wiin odiny, i would Kyòki’s min con-

cn ws no o condmn n bn cic, bu o sow

Buddis mods of sii-quiing w mo ffciv n os of s-

ciliss fom o diions. Sn in is lig, x’s csul fnc

o us of non-Buddis divinion xs by mmbs of oulc

 would us lso suggs by im of comlion of  Nihon

ryòiki , suc figus w lso oviding i svics o ol ousid of

cil.

 aloug w v no wy of knowing o w dg Kyòki’s x

flcd cul Buddis lgnds in ciculion duing is lifim, s-

ing of lgnd in Ndkubo disic suggss is ig

obbiliy lgnd flcd locd culic liis. Ndkubo, locd

in Ssu ovinc on Inlnd S, s o v bn om o

numb of immign lings fom Kon ninsul.  aloug

x dos no mnion nm of karakami o wic ousold

md is scifics, w do know by f lgs culic cn in Ndbuko disic ws non o n himgoso sin win sid-

d aku him, vngful wving goddss nd wif of immign

cowd diy tsunog asio. I is fo likly , s is ofn

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  Karakami and Animal Sacrifice 51

cs in liu of iod, vy sm immign lings

fud s ogoniss in Buddis moliy ls lso civly

nggd in coninnl-syl is of sii-quiing nd wosi of kara-

kami . tis, og wi discovy of cologicl mins sow niml scifics did indd occu in is vy , songly suggss

Kyòki’s concns bou ouliy of scific nd non-Buddis

cics of sii cificion in gion my v bn wll foundd.65 

I would us lgnd ovids fu confimion of

dg o wic ly Jns Buddis diion dvlod wiin

iul conx vdd by karakami nd coninnl-syl is of scific

nd sii oiiion.

tis ocss of culic incion nd nsfomion s o vbn d numous immign cns coss Jn. Jus s aku

him ws wosid n immign cn in Ssu ovinc, so ws

sous tsunog asio wosid o of tsunog, mjo oin

of ny fo immign lings fom Kon kingdoms of Koguyò nd

Sill. Bcus tsunog ws conncd by wwy dicly o Ymsio, i

lso s o v svd s n imon condui fo immign lings

nd i ncsl diis sking o n Kini gion of cnl Jn.

On suc ling ws em, wic oducd, s w sw bov, noonly isns nd sin lds, bu lso Buddis monks suc s Dòò.

 ano suc ling ws N Os, wom Shinsen shòjiroku ss

 w sub-bnc of h fis ivd in Jns islnds fom

Koguyò duing mid-fif cnuy.66 t N Os, in un, of no

fo, mong o ings, building olds known ml-sin comlx

in Jns islnds.67 

t civiis of N Os icully vling bou

ocss by wic culs involving scific o cowds/karakami w bl

o n vn oul Buddis discous. On of bs xmls of

is cn b sn in following lgnd fom  Nihon ryòiki , wic, s

in cs of lgnd of monk Dòò’s ncoun wi skull, ks

lc Uji bidg in Ymsio:

N no Iwsim, livd Fif avnu, Six S, es Sid

of N, is, in villg ws of Dinji. In ign of emo

Sòmu go lon of iy kan fom Su fund of Dinji, wn

o o of tsuug in ecizn on businss, nd lodd goods d ucsd on bo o bing m om. On wy om

suddnly fll ill nd go off bo. tinking would go on

lon, id os nd s ou.

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 52 Weaving and Binding 

  Wn cd Sig no kski, tksim disic, Òmi

ovinc, lookd ound nd sw mn lf fulong wy

unning f im. a Uji Bidg of Ymsio, y cug u nd

 wn long wi im. Iwsim skd m: “W you going?”

ty lid, “W mssngs fom offic of King Ym sn

fo N no Iwsim.” tn Iwsim sid, “I m vy on

 you sn fo. Bu wy do you wn m?” t find mssngs

nswd, “Wn w lookd fo you you om, w w old, ‘h

s gon on businss ou.’ tfo, w wn o o so

 w mig m nd cc you , bu mssng fom Fou

Divin Gudins imlod us, sying, ‘You sould xcus im, sinc

is nggd in businss wi lon fom ml.’ So w l yougo f fo wil. W v sn so mny dys ying o cc you

w fl ungy nd xusd. . . .”

  evnully Iwsim ook m om nd gv m fs. t

finds sid o im: “W lik flvo of bf vy muc. Will you

sv us bf? W finds wo sl cows.” So old m, “I

v wo bindld cows. Will you l m go f if I off m o you?”

ty sid . . . “Wll, w v n muc of you food. . . . Do you

by cnc know nyon of sm g?” “No, I don’,” nswd.tn on of finds, f inking fo wil sid . . . “I

d is divin wo ws bon in sm y

sin of Iskw. h cn b you subsiu. W will k im insd.

I ug you, owv, o ci  Kongò hannya haramitsu kyò on

undd ims, invoking ou nms. . . .

  af dys find mssngs cm o Iwsim, sy-

ing, “Owing o ow of Myn sciu w scd on

undd wiing soks; bsids, w w givn lf busl mo

ic n usul ion. how y nd gful w ! pls b

 viuous nd old svics fo ou sk f on vy oly dy.”68

On of mos mkbl scs of is igly unusul lgnd is

dg o wic i bings og gogic nd mic lmns

fom lgnds of karakami  nd scific discussd bov. Mos obviously,

s in cs of Nunosiki no Kinum, x msizs imo-

nc of dmining nms of living nd dd. h gin in

Buddis ologicl x w find logic of subsiuion undly us of hitogata  co of niv. tus f n offing of niml

fls, dmons sudd o k o lnd of dd subsiu

figu known by sm nm s i oiginl g. By fusing logic

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  Karakami and Animal Sacrifice 53

of scific nd m offings wi logic of subsiuion undly

us of scgo dolls, x onc gin suggss , o suis-

ing dg, coninnl iul ns d com o influnc Buddis

nivs of iod.In ddiion, is x lso illuss dg o wic suc iul

ns svd o ovid coninuiy coss scum of iul cic

in Jns islnds. a lvl of immign culic cic, w

find mmb of subling of h mking odsid offings o

siis in od o fnd off diss nd d. t imonc of suc linl

oinions is flcd in gogic consucion of lgnd, in

 wic ogonis vls fom tsunog, om of cowd diy

tsunog asio, o Uji bidg, vy bidg  Nihon ryòi-ki   sss ws buil by monk Dòò. Mo bodly, x’s csul

fnc o  yin yang  divin in sidnc nby locl sin fu

igligs dg o wic immign diis nd cics fom

Cins fsivl clnd d nd culic lif of is .69 Mos

nobly, owv, x lso igligs dg o wic cou iul

cics flcd oul culic cic. Iwsim’s iul sgy is in is

fundmnls no diffn fom mloyd by cou in fc of

lgu of 735, fo onc gin w s odsid m offings o disssiis combind wi cning of  Kongò hannya haramitsu kyò.

Cnclusin 

t vidnc bov suggss immign kinsi gous suc s

N Os, h, nd em w sonsibl no only fo inoducion of

mny of lis foms of Buddism, bu lso fo is of niml scific

nd sii cificion ssocid wi suc karakami  s am no hiboko,

tsunog asio, nd aku him. eqully imon, i would

s lings w lso closly ssocid wi nsmission o Jn

of coninnl cnologis suc s wving, ining, nd ngining.

 as s nd o ncsos ld s culic in in wic locl

sin is nd Buddis giogy ook s, bsic ns,

cics, nd concul fmwok of Cins fsivl clnd cm

o b cnl lmns in iul vocbuly of Jns couis, sin

lds, nd vn Buddis monks.

In si of widsd sumion “niv” Jns culubod bloodsd,  widsd cologicl nd xul vidnc s

sblisd niml scific ws fqunly cicd duing N

nd hin iods. By N iod suc is w cicd no only

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 54 Weaving and Binding 

by immign kinsi gous, bu lso by oulion lg. By

dvn of hin iod, culs of karakami  suc s tsunog no asio,

 am no hiboko, aku him, nd os could b found bo cou nd

coss counysid.t culs of s nd o immign diis w in un closly

ssocid wi is of Cins fsivl clnd. among co

cics of Cins clnd w is of niml scific dsignd o

fd, nd fo oii, onilly osil siis. ty lso svd

o minin dlic quilibium bwn  yin nd  yang ncssy fo

o funcioning of giculul cycl. In ddiion, duing

N iod Cins concions of dmons s wll s iul cics

involving us of hitogata, o scgo dolls, olifd idly coss Jns islnds. ts is w buil uon logic of subsiuion

involvd nsfnc of diss-bing siis ino subsiu bodis.

 all of is suggss immign lings ssocid wi wving

nd siculu ogd viy of coninnl culs nd concs

cning no only on budds nd scius, bu lso culs of cowds

nd wving midns. Ov im, s culic cics o v

lyd n incsingly lg ol coss scum of ligious civiy in

Jns islnds. as sul, by dvn of hin iod vnBuddis ologic xs suc s  Nihon ryòiki ndosd ls in

cics involving m offings o siis odsids nd logic

of subsiuion. I would us by im Knmu movd

cil o h bs in Ymsio ovinc, “niv” ligious cics

coss Jns islnds d bn consucd o suising dg in

ms of ns nd cics of Cins fsivl clnd.

 as wving midns nd cowds cm o oul cou nd locl

myologis, y lso flcd bod mil nsfomions ngndd

by nsmission of siculu nd wving cnologis. Y scific

nd siculu w by no mns only culic concns ddssd by

Cins fsivl clnd. Of qul imonc ws nsmission of

Cins mdicl knowldg nd subsqun fomion in Jns

islnds of ligious idl bsd uon inmn of immoliy nd

conol ov ocsss of lif nd d. No suisingly, mny of

sm lings nd socil focs olling us of hitogata nd o is

fom Cins fsivl clnd lso ld ol is dvlomn. In

C 3 w will k u issu of ow s concions ook oo in svn cnuy in d cly of Yosino gion of Ymo s

sis of oliicl uvls gv is o fis slf-oclimd hvnly

Sovigns of lm.

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Chapter 3

Female Rulers and

Female Immrtals

tus in ncin ims, mong os wo cicd wy

w non wo nglcd mdicl s.

  —  Pao p’u tzu<

BY the Start of N iod coninnl-syl is nd diis w

n sblisd of culic lif of Jns islnds. On by-oduc

of sblismn of tennò-cnd oliy mgd followingtnmu’s vicoy in Jinsin w of 672 ws subsnil fmn in

 wosi of kami . as culs nd diis fom s f s disn Kyûsû nd

Ymo lin, karakami nd iul cics wi oos in coninnl

undsndings of siis nd  yin nd  yang olifd bo cou nd

coss counysid.

t diffusion of coninnl concions of sii ws no limid o

s of mls nd sins. Indd, on of mos slin cc-

isics of oul culic lif bo in Cin nd in Jns islnds ws

is ig dg of ingion wi mos bsic civiis of dily lif. In

Cin, concions of ch’i , fiv lmns, nd  yin nd  yang  undly

no only wosi of siis nd ncsos, bu lso n xmly wid

ng of civiis involving c of umn body, oducion

nd consumion of food, nd viully ll o ssnil civiis of dily

lif. I fo suggs nc of is of scific, sii cifi-

cion, nd vn usui of immoliy in Jns islnds ws mos

likly ld o sd of coninnl cnologis ld o siculu,

 wving, mdicin, ngining, nd lik. Cucilly, fo ou uoss,c of s civiis ws in on wy o no ld o Cins

fsivl clnd. all w lso cicd o vying dgs by locl lin-

gs s wll s by svic gous of cou.

 55 

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 56 Weaving and Binding 

I is us dly suising in cou conicls nd coss mul-

il liy gns fom N iod w find fqun fncs o

coninnl-syl is nd os ld o immols nd diis fom

oul nd li culic diions in Cin. Bodly sking, sfncs v licid wo ys of sons fom Jns scols of

iod. Fo mny ys widsd sumion of ssnilly

“niv” cc of oul kami wosi ld mny o simly dismiss

xlici fncs in ly Jns xs o immols nd Cins di-

is s ffcions of couis sking o dmons i fmiliiy wi

coninnl liy os. tis osiion is siously undmind, owv,

by xisnc of culic cns coss Jns islnds w ddi-

cd o wosi of jus suc figus. a scond oc, cmiond mos focfully by Fukung Misuji,

s gud suc fncs indic snc of xnsiv tois

influnc wiin Jns islnds duing iod.2 Suc clims, ow-

v, on o numb of objcions, on of mos imon bing

sii-quiing, usui of immoliy, nd mniulion of yin

nd  yang , f fom bing xclusivly tois nomn, w of

bsic fbic of Cins oul ligious lif of iod. t Cins fs-

ivl clnd conind numous is nd lgnds ld o sl diis,immols, nd, of cous, cificion of dmons. Fukung’s mod-

ology fo cis significn isks, s ny oc focuss on

xully bsd tois diion will nd o focus no uon oul culs

nd diis, bu on smll cicl of li figus cou. as w v

dly sn in Cs 1 nd 2, owv, uls nd couis duing

iod w no only oducs of oliicl nd ligious idology bu

lso consums s y soug o gl wi ofound nsfom-

ions w swing coss Jn.

 a scond modologicl isk inn in dwing sig lin fom

coninnl xs o Jns culic cics of svn nd ig cn-

uis is imon isoicl nd ligious diffncs bwn li-

is of Jns islnds nd idls of ncin Cins soucs nd

o bcom blud. Svl of mos onouncd diffncs concn

ol of gnd s i ld o issus of ling nd oliicl uoiy. as

Simod Skiyo s oind ou in no conx, on imon xml

cn b sn in fc numb of fml immols in liu

fom N nd ly hin iods dwfs of ml immols. tisconss sly wi Cins soucs, wic, wi nobl xcions,

nd o b domind by nivs cnd on ml ogoniss.3 ts

discncis iglig cucil diffnc gding culic sus of

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   Female Rulers and Female Immortals 57 

 womn wiin linl sucus of Cin nd Jn. Ws lings

mind soluly ml in Cin, disff lings nd fml ncsos

lyd mjo ol in culic lif of Jns islnds. Indd,

dissminion of coninnl culs nd lgnds coss Jn ws fcilidby culs of svl fml immols wo w climd s founding

ncsos by locl lings. ts fml immols us sn vil

nods of inscion bwn suosdly “foign” ligious mods fom

coninn nd locl culic cics nd blifs sould no b

ignod.4

In is c I oos o invsig is conflunc of issus ling

o gnd, kingsi, nd immoliy in wo s. In fis, I focus on

sis of culic incions ook lc in Yosino, gion of Ymoovinc ws conncd by Yosino iv o Kii ninsul nd

Inlnd S.5 tis lg gion s ominnly ougou

liu of iod s locus fo culs nd lings o

v oos in Kon ninsul.6  In ddiion, is ws fom n

ly d ominn cn fo os wo wisd o usu immol-

iy oug fomnc of usiis nd consumion of dugs

s scibd in vious Cins mdicl nd culic diions. I ws lso

focl oin of bo ly Buddis nivs nd oyl myologisslld ou in cou conicls. My uos is no o unngl is wb

of cics nd blifs, bu o xmin i inly wi o gions

coss Jns islnds. In doing so I focus on culic civiis of

smll clus of lings conolld muc of cosl gions of

Kii ninsul nd Kyûsû nd lso known o v bn civ in

imoion of coninnl is nd cnologis ld o ling nd

usui of immoliy. W sll s suc lings lyd mjo

ol in fomion of foundionl nivs of bo Buddis nd oyl

diions ld o Yosino.

In scond scion, I xmin suising dg o wic

simil lgnds involving locl ncsos nd culic cns cn b found

in N- nd ly hin-iod soucs. af diling bod ng of

nivs concning fml immols, o “hvnly Midns,” wo w

 wosid no only cou, bu lso culic cns coss Jn, I n

discuss in g dil figus of Unosimko nd toyouk him,

wo tmb diis wo w xlicily snd s coninnl-syl

immols. Sinc hvnly Midn toyouk him ws inslld s cif diy ou sin of Is, I lso gu , o suising dg,

ominnc of is nd blifs ld o usui of immoliy

 wiin cou iul nd nivs flcd no only invnions of li

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 58 Weaving and Binding 

couis, bu lso, nd cucilly, oiion of culic cics nd

os sblisd in o gions ougou Jns islnds.

Cultic Interactins in Yshin 

Medicine Hunts and Yshin

pobbly bs indicion of dg o wic Yosino gion

 ws ssocid wi Cins mdicl cniqus nd omis of immo-

liy cn b sn in s of fncs in Suiko nd tnji cs of

 Nihon shoki o nnul mdicin uns (kusagari ) in gion. ts

uns sid o v kn lc in gions of Ud nd Yosino nd

sumd o v bn scs fo bs Cins mdicl xsssd would llow ciion o in longviy nd vn immo-

liy.7 On nobl ccisic of  Nihon shoki ’s dicion of s

mdicin uns is y w undkn on id dy of id

lun mon o fif dy of fif lun mon. Bo ds w ky

nodl oins in Cins clnd, wic mkd imon sifs in

liv blnc of yin nd yang . as Wd asumu s nod, dios of

 Nihon shoki nly wisd o iglig is sc of mdicin

uns, so muc so, in fc, y ld i cusomy wy of loggingnis in od o msiz oin.8 

By xlicily linking cquisiion of bs wi scific ds in

Cins clnd, dios us signld uls of Jns

islnds mbcd closly ingd nwok of blifs nd cics l-

d o mdicin, iul, nd sonomy ws commonly ld coss es

 asi. t Samguk sagi , fo xml, olds isoicl conicl fom

Kon ninsul, ss by nd of six cnuy cou of

Kon kingdom of Koguyò gully nggd in simil civiis on

id dy of id mon.9 Suc cics, owv, w no uniqu o

is kingdom nd cn b cd bck in Cin s f s  Li chi .10 

 aloug w v lil infomion gding scific nu of

civiis undkn by Ymo cou on suc nodl dys, num-

ous xmls fom Cins soucs suggs cquisiion of bs

on s icul ds ws ood in concions of mdicin w

closly inwind wi is of sii cificion. tus Ching ch’u sui

 shih chi , cod of iul civiy in soun Cin comild viully

sm im s Suiko’s ign, ss on fif dy of fifmon imgs of umn figus md fom moxa (mugwo) w ung on

gs o won in i in od o diss noxious siis nd vos.11 

t x fu quos fom  Rites of Chou nd commnis on

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   Female Rulers and Female Immortals 59

 Book of Odes o ffc duing id dy of id mon

fml smns bd mslvs wi mdicins nd scnd w in

ion bo fo bnqus nd fo is of uificion nd sii-clling

(C: chao hun hsü p’o) ivs.12 t ominn ol lyd by fml smns in is of id dy

of id mon nd fif dy of fif mon in un ln islf o fu

ssociions wi concun lmns in Cins fsivl clnd. t

id dy of id mon, fo insnc, lso sw bginning of sis

of is fomd by womn involvd fding mulby lvs o

silkwoms. t fif dy of fif mon similly mkd nw s

in siculu wn womn would bgin ging cocoons. Fom n ly

d wovn ims w lso won ound wis o cs on s dysin od o fosll ivl of osil siis. ts is, i sould b

nod, w no simly lmns in cou iul of iod, bu

o v bn undkn by oulc lg. tus tu Kung-sn’s

commny on Ching ch’u sui shih chi ’s ny fo fif dy of

fif mon ss:

Fiv colod sings id o sould. tis is clld “void-

ing [ pi ] mis [of dmons]”nd will vn diss. ty lsoxcng sns of bcls nd wovn ims. . . .

  a mid-summ cocoons bgin o nd womn sin nd

dy, wi vyon woking. ty mk ns of sun, moon,

nd consllions, bids nd nimls, mboid wi goldn d

nd off m o os wom y dmi. On is nmd “n

of long lif,” on is nmd “ n of coninuing lif,” on is

clld “ n of voiding mis (of dmons),” nd on is clld

“vmilion d.” Suc nms xmly numous. rd, gn,

 wi, nd blck usd fo fou dicions wil yllow is

u in cn. tis is clld “mod of voidnc [ pi fang ].”

ts [muls] ung in fon of cs nd sow on’s wif’s

civmns wi silkwoms.13

tis x, suggsing s i dos colod sings nd sologicl sym-

bols could b usd bo o vn diss nd o bing bou osiy

in fom of silkwoms, igligs bo imonc of sologicl

nd dicionl culs coss wid ng of cics wiin Cinsfsivl clnd nd igly gndd nu of wving nd siculu

culs. W sll s is conflunc of is nd blifs ld o fml

smns nd wv midns nly ld su dvlomn

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60 Weaving and Binding 

of numous lgnds nd vn culs of fml immols in Jns

islnds.

 aloug w v no wy of knowing w cully occud du-

ing mdicin uns sid o v occud duing Suikocou, on ny fom finl y of lif of tnmu tennò ss

pkc monk nmd hòzò nd ly dvo nmd Konsò w sn

o mounins of Mino ovinc o find lif-sving bs fo dying

tnmu. t ny songly suggss concul oizon imlid by

suc cics ws ldy sn cou duing finl dcds of

svn cnuy.14 Six wks l, on d ws cfully coodind

 wi win solsic nd scndnc of lif-giving yang lmn,

x ss hòzò gv iling ul n lixi ws sumblymd fom bs d collcd in Mino.15

Cucilly, x lso ss on sm dy i of “sii-cll-

ing,” (J. shòkon, C. chao hun)  ws fomd fo iling ul. aloug

x dos no lbo uon w ws cully don duing i,

l commnos v ssumd is ws n ly insnc of

 wll-known ri of Sii-quiing (J. chinkonsai ). By im of com-

osiion of tiò Lw Cod in 701, is i ws obbly ldy n

sblisd lmn of cou iul. By ly hin iod, Cinkon-si ws undsood o b -ncmn of hvnly Goo my

is codd in bo  Kojiki nd  Nihon shoki . In is lgnd oyl

ncso nd sun diy amsu scluds slf in cv nd by

lungs wold ino dknss, only o b dwn ou gin wn no

fml diy foms iul dnc.16 

Fo ou uoss, owv, i is f mo imon i -

fomd fo tnmu ws closly coodind wi Cins fsivl cln-

d nd clly don wi n xcion of iul fficcy; hòzò nd tn-

mu w clly ying o so ul o l, no simly o -nc

myologicl momn. as w v ldy sn wi collcion of

mdicins in id nd fif mons, nodl, o nsiionl oins wiin

Cins clnd w vily iulizd bcus suc ims dnod

imon sifs in liv blnc nd movmn of focs of  yin

nd yang . as win solsic mkd bginning of dclin of yin

nd consqun scndnc of  yang , hòzò nd tnmu w lmos

cinly oing suc momn would b scilly oiious fo

siing, o clling bck,  yang lmns of tnmu’s sii.t is ml vidnc suggsing suc n oc would

v consiud common wisdom bo on coninn nd in Jn. t

x of Ching ch’u sui shih chi jus quod nos fml smns

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   Female Rulers and Female Immortals 61

fomd is of sii-clling ivs on id dy of id mon.

In Cin, ougou modn iod, is of sii-clling w g-

ully fomd fud sking clos of dd o dying in

os y mig by viv.17 Suc cics w nlyflcd in co lmn of Cinkonsi,  win wovn ims d

bn won by ul w foldd nd lcd wiin sii box (tam-

abako) nd n skn.18 Sinc cic of wving scvs o cloing

in bndicion is wll sd in viy of conxs nd gns of li-

u fom vn bfo N iod, I suggs sii-clling i

ws fomd fo tnmu mos likly flcd xnsiv dg o

 wic vn common iul cic d bcom influncd by coninnl

is of ling nd sii-quiing. Indd, w could dly o fo b- illusion of dg o wic ly Jns Buddis diion

nd ly cou iul w inwind wi blifs nd cics fom

Cins mdicl diion w mslvs closly linkd o nd co-

ld wi Cins fsivl clnd.

I would us by ign of tnmu tennò, Cins is

of sii cificion w closly linkd wi w ws considd bs

mdicl cic. In ddiion, i is icully wo noing non of

xs cid bov cn b considd scificlly tois o Buddis. Indd, Ching ch’u sui shih chi ws win no so muc s sciiv x,

bu s n ccoun of cul oul cic in soun Cin duing

Sui iod. all of is us suggss is of sii-clling nd

 Jns islnds s of nwok of blifs, is, nd culic cics

ood in commonly ld Cins concions of body nd sii w

flcd in oul Cins fsivl clnd. W sll s vn

io o N iod suc is nd blifs w ingl lmns of

bo oul ligious cic nd oyl lin. W sll lso s

bckgound lgnds nd blifs fo mny of s cics igligd

ol of fml smns nd wving midns s gns fo cificion

of siis.

Imprinting the Ryal Seal at Yshin

t igns of tnmu (ignd 673–686) nd Jiò (ignd 690–697) wi-

nssd dmic fomulion nd xnsion of is of oyl cul.

 as tnmu nd is succssos s bou consucing insiuions of

nw, tennò-cnd oliicl nd ligious oliy, y inoducd num-ous iul innovions dsignd o mlify scliy of ul’s -

son. aloug is ofn involvd inoducion of nw iul foms wi

cl oos in coninnl modls, i lso fqunly consisd of modifying

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62 Weaving and Binding 

-xising iul foms in od o giv m nw mnings d

song coninnl coloion.19

On xml of is ocss cn b sn in cnging cions of

giculul is suc s tmi (lilly, ric Fild Dnc), dnc  ws nly oiginlly fomd in os of nsuing bouniful

vs. an ny in  Nihon shoki fom ign of tnmu’s dcs-

so, tnji, ss dnc ws fomd cou on fif dy of

fif mon of 671 in snc of tnji, tnji’s cown inc, nd

ssmbld miniss cou.20 I would us vn io o

tnmu’s ign i d ldy kn on oliicl cc, s bil-

iy o oii kami nd ffc conol ov focs of nu d com

o b sn s dfining ibu of kingsi in Jns islnds.21 I would lso , givn d of fomnc, cou d bgun

ligning ls som of is is wi nodl dys in Cins fsivl

clnd.

 aloug tmi  ws nv bndond by cou, tnmu is

blivd o v insiud nw iul dnc known s Goscimi,

o Dnc of Fiv Nods.22 In so doing, tnmu s o v dwn

uon coninnl lgnds in wic fml immols o uls on

imon nodl dys wiin Cins clnd. On fml diy in Cins clssics wo ws ubiquious in is gd ws Qun Mo

of Ws; s ws sid o v visid suc sg uls s King Mu of

Cou nd emo hn Wu-i on svn dy of svn mon

in od o sn m wi fuis of immoliy.23 By nd of

svn cnuy, s nd o suc lgnds fom coninn o

v ld simul fomion of cous of lgnds in wic fml

immols d bfo Ymo uls Yosino. tus in  Kojiki w

find n ccoun of buiful young gil wo dncd lik diviniy bfo

Ymo ul Yûyku Yosino.24 

Duing ign of tnmu’s cif conso nd succsso Jiò tennò,

cou’s involvmn wi Yosino sisd nd my vn v innsifid.

 aloug Jiò is gnlly oug o v bn n xmly consqunil

ul, wo wokd o xnd nd dn mny of culic nd insiu-

ionl innovions w bgun by tnmu nd is dcsso tnji,

scnsion o on ws in mny wys n imovisd sons o

ly d of son nd i n, Cown pinc Kuskb.25 

 Wiou n obvious cndid o lc Kuskb, Jiò ssumd onfo svn ys unil young gndson pinc Ku cd muiy

nd ws bl o ssum on. Jiò’s ign us commncd in

fm of subsnil moun of umoil. Jiò d dvod ngis

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   Female Rulers and Female Immortals 63

duing Kuskb’s lifim o nsuing is succssion n -

ing fo own. tis d includd limining oul ivls of Kuskb

suc s tnmu’s son pinc Òsu. I d lso bn lss n wny ys

sinc tnmu d sizd ow in w suld in d of tnji’sown coic fo on nd xcuion of numb of tnji’s igs

nking miniss.

Iniguingly, wiin is conx, Jiò md iy-on jounys o Yosi-

no following tnmu’s d. Mos xlnions fo Jiò’s bvio un on

fc Yosino sms o v ld scil significnc fo

tnmu. tnmu is dicd in  Nihon shoki  s fling duing momn

of g il fom cou in Òsu o Yosino mounins, w is

sid o v kn onsu nd solvd o lv oliicl lif. tnmu’ssubsqun dcision o fig fo on ws nly md Yosino,

nd fom nd smll bnd of suos—including Jiò—fis s

ou on cmign vnully ld o i vicoy in Jinsin w

nd tnmu’s insllmn s ul. tnmu lso fmously quid is own s

 wll s tnji’s offsing o sw n o of loyly Yosino nd ldg

nv o bl. By dly binging cou o Yosino, Jiò my v

bn minding tnmu nd tnji fcions cou of tnmu’s vicoy s

 wll s of Yosino vow.26

 Y vn bfo tnmu fis isd is bnn Yosino, Yosino

ldy occuid n imon lc in Ymo imginy. Muc s

 Kojiki commmod Yûyku’s ncoun wi midn Yosino

 wo lyd koto nd dncd lik goddss, Jiò’s dsi o inscib

own snc on Yosino lndsc my v bn ld o

lgnds fom  Kojiki nd  Nihon shoki suggs gion nd

is diis lyd ofoundly imon ol in volving myologis

of uling ous. On Yosino diy of umos imonc in is gd

 ws Niu kmi, o Niu diy, on of -minn inmking di-

is ougou N nd hin iods.27 t Niu Kwkmi sin,

 wic ws locd souc of Yosino iv, ws ougou

N nd hin iods mjo culic cn fo oyl ous. Sinc, s

 w v ldy sn in C 2, is of inmking o v bn

n ssnil lmn in cul of kingsi in Ymo, Niu cul ws of

obvious imonc fo oyl cul.28

In cou conicls, owv, svl indicions

imonc of Niu diy in icul nd Yosino gion in gn-l ld n vn g iul significnc fo cou. In Jinmu c-

s of  Nihon shoki  nd  Kojiki , fo insnc, Niu iv is dicd

s ky si fo uling lin’s miliy nd culic conqus of Ymo.

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64 Weaving and Binding 

hving vld fom Kyûsû o Yosino, Jinmu’s my is sid o v bn

symid in is ffos o n Ymo lin. a Yosino, Jinmu is guidd

by on Mici no Omi no Mikoo, founding ncso of Òomo, n

imon miliy kinsi gou. In od o bk imss, Mici noOmi no Mikoo s iul imlmns fo Jinmu o us in ffcing

conqus of Ymo:

 a is tennò ws gly lsd nd king is cly, d igy

ls, igy smll ls nd igy scd js md, wn u

Niu iv nd usd m s md offings o gods of hvn

nd e. . . .29

  agin, md vow [ukehi ], sying: I will now k s iuljs nd submg m in Niu iv. If fis, w g

o smll, ll cid dunk [downsm] lik maki  lvs flo

[long iv], n my I wiou fil ul is lnd. If is dos

no occu, n my ll b fo nug. h n submgd js

in iv wi i mous fcing down. af wil fis ll

cm floing u [o sufc] wi i mous ging s y

flod downsm. t tennò ws gly dligd nd, king on

of bundn sakaki  s gw usm of Niu iv,  wosid vious gods of . tis ws bginning of

[cic] of sing scd js.30

tis lgnd conins svl clus s o nu of cou’s lionsi

o Yosino gion. a on lvl, x xlicily xlins scil

iul uss of cly fom is gion in iuls of oyl cul. Only

sligly lss obviously, x lso dics Yosino s oin of ny fo

ol, goods, nd gods ino Ymo lin; ving vld wi is

my fom Kyûsû, Jinmu mus conqu sisnc Yosino bfo cn

clim ulsi of Ymo lin. tis is significn fo wo sons. Fis,

dios of  Nihon shoki nly ook i fo gnd conol of

 Yosino nd wwys suc s Niu iv w of cucil imonc fo

 Ymo uls. Scond, nd cucilly, muc of is nwok of wwys, s

 wll s muc of Kii ninsul, ws locd in min bs of

Òomo kinsi gou. as w sll s dly ougou is book,

Òomo, s wll s numb of immign lings in cosl ovincs

of Izumi nd Kii, o v lyd mjo ol in diffusion of con-innl culu nd cnology ougou Jns islnds.

t lgnd lso flcs wo imon oliicl nd ligious dynmics

duing iod. Bcus on of tnmu’s mos imon gnls duing

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   Female Rulers and Female Immortals 65

Jinsin w ws on Òomo Muji Fuki, ominn lc givn

o n Òomo ncso in is lgnd of oyl conqus mios oliicl

nd miliy liis of os-tnmu cou. Fu vidnc fo is cn

b sn fom fc Jinmu imslf s o v bn focus ofscil iul ins o tnmu tennò nd is lin. Wiin tnmu c-

s of  Nihon shoki , fo insnc, tnmu’s focs in Jinsin w

sid o civ divin ssisnc, f wic x is cful o mnion

tnmu d offings md Jinmu’s omb.31 

 all of is us suggss culs nd diis in Yosino bs

undsood wiin bod nwok of oliicl nd culic lions

xndd fom cou ll wy o Kyûsû nd byond. Indd,

ccoun of mmb of Òomo guiding oyl ncso fom Kyûsûino Ymo lin s o b mblmic of bod isoicl

ocss in wic lings fom cosl gions n Yosino guidd

sis of diis fom disn gions coss Jns islnds ino

oyl cul.32 

Buddhist Practice and the Gd Earth 

eqully imon, lgnd lso undscos imonc of

oogicl ccisics of Yosino fo oyl cul. t ffcivnssof iul imlmns usd o subdu Jinmu’s nmis is ibud s-

cificlly o d cly fom . Sinc m “Niu” islf conins

cc fo “d,” Wd asumu s suggsd coloion of

, long wi mdicinl ois ssocid wi i, w of

immdi consqunc fo cly’s civd iul fficcy. Wd lso

nos d dys oducd fom d Niu v bn found on

funy figuins (haniwa), wic suggss d igmnion ws

considd scilly fficcious fo sii-quiing.33 

t d cly of Yosino is lso of cucil imonc fo undsnding

sing of mdicin uns in of Ud nd Yosino. t sing

 ws lmos cinly ld o d Yosino, wic is ic in

cinnb, fundmnl lmn in mny ocs o immoliy in

Cins mdicl diion.34 as Wd s nod, dicly ingsing suc

dugs ws xmly dngous nd could sily b fl. By collcing

bs nd fis fom nvionmn nuud by soil, owv,

 Jns o v bn following sgy of indicly ingsing

sf quniis of cinnb.35  all of is us suggss wid scum of cics in Yosino,

 w y involvd mnufcu of iul vssls o usui of

mdicinl bs, my v bn dicly ld o d yifid

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66 Weaving and Binding 

gion. No only ws is cinnb-ldn gound oug o b om

of numous fml immols, i would lso blifs nd c-

ics ld o coninnl noions of mdicin nd immoliy d ldy

bgun o influnc consucion of locl culic lo.36 ps no suisingly, s sm oogic nd culic ccis-

ics lso o v songly influncd fomion of Buddis c-

ics nd lgnds in nd ound Yosino. On indicion of dg o

 wic bo cou nd gnl oulc ssocid gion wi

qus fo immoliy cn b sn in sis of lgnds concning

gion in  Nihon ryòiki , Buddis ologic x comosd somim

bfo 824. Consid following lgnd concning cic of

monk on Moun Oonio (hòkiym), mounin on bod bwn Yosino nd tkci disic of Ymo ovinc , s w v

ldy sn, ousd bo sin o fml Niu diy nd ml

suosdly buil by Sog kinsi gou duing ign of Ymo

ul Kògyoku:

In ign of Jiò tennò, ws dhyana ms of pkc

 wos nm ws tjò. h livd lif of sic discilin in hòkiym-

d in tkci disic nd md i is cif concn o cu disss.t dying w sod o l by is miculous woks. Wnv

cid fomuls fo sick, ws miculous vn. . . . t

tennò scd im nd md offings o im, nd ol u

fi in im nd vd im.37

Fom n ly d Yosino ws nly fmd s ining gound

fo numous Buddis scics, wo cnd slls nd cicd usi-

is in usui of immoliy nd suumn ows. t mos fmous

suc scic, known o l gnions s en no Gyòj, l svd s

digmic figu of  shûgendò movmn in Jn. t nu of

en’s cic s i is dscibd in  Nihon ryòiki  mks cl en ws

blivd o v d s is imy focus us of bs nd usui

of immoliy:

his gs dsi ws o fly on fiv-colod cloud byond sky

nd ly in gdn of niy wi guss immols’

lc, lying in flowing gdn nd sucking vil foc ou of z o nouis is nu.

 accodingly, in is l fois wn o liv in cv, wo

cloing md of vins, dnk dwdos on in ndls, bd

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   Female Rulers and Female Immortals 67 

in u sing w o ins wy fil of wold of dsi,

nd lnd fomul of pcock o in xodiny ow.

tus could mloy siis nd kmi is commnd. Onc

summond m ll nd odd m, “Mk bidg bwn Kn-

no-k [in Yosino] nd Kzuki-no-k.” . . . a nd of

tiò , . . . ocd cil, finlly bcoming n immol

(hijiri ) flying o vn.38

 

tis ssg, wi is xlici smn en’s gs wis ws o in

sunul ows nd immoliy oug cic of usiis nd

consumion of dugs, ly illuss dg o wic usui

of suc ows ws ssocid wi Buddis cic Yosino. Numouslgnds concning en nd o scics in Yosino mounins in un

svd s insiion fo counlss l gnions of ciions, wo

soug immoliy nd sunoml ows mids gion’s d cly.39

Duing N iod Yosino ws lso mjo cn fo cic

of Gumonjiò, i involving oiiion of Budd Kokûzò.

 among mny ominn cou-sonsod monks wo known o

v cicd is i numb of h monks suc s Dòsò, Gomyò,

nd Gonsò, ll of wom cd u cs of cclsil i-cy. In ddiion o is, owv, cic of Gumonjiò i

 Yosino is of immdi no fo ou uoss fo wo o sons. Fis,

cul of Kokûzò—lilly, Sc Soous Bodisv—s

o v bn closly idnifid fom is incion wi Buddis sologi-

cl oug. By im Kokûzò cul ivd in Jns islnds,

Kokûzò ws ldy widly ssocid wi moning s in s.40 I

us s by ign of Sòmu tennò, Buddis monks wo d

ls udimny fmiliiy wi coninnl sology w iving

Yosino in usui of scil ows. ps bs indicion

suc monks w conscious of sologicl dimnsion of i cn b

sn in monk Kûki’s ccoun of is own nlignmn xinc in

791, in wic cid nc of moning s climcic

momn following is fomnc of Gumonjiò:

 a ign I nd collg in cil nd sudid dilignly.

Mnwil Buddis monk sowd m sciu clld  Kokûzò

 gumonji no hò. In wok i is sd if on cis mysic vs on million ims ccoding o o mod, on will b

bl o mmoiz ssgs nd undsnd mning of ny sci-

u. Bliving w Budd sys o b u, I cid vs

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68 Weaving and Binding 

incssnly, s if I w ubbing on ic of wood gins no

o mk fi, ll wil nsly oing o civ is sul. I

climbd Moun tiyû in aw povinc nd mdid Muoo C

in tos. t vlly vbd o sound of my voic s I cid,

nd ln Vnus d in sky.41

 

t fc suc is w fomd Yosino by ominn

monks mos likly lso flcs on fu sc of Buddis cic in

gion: fom ly N iod svl of lgs mls in

 Jns islnds, including Kòfukuji nd Dinji, bgn building moun-

in mls wic ffilid monks could sy s y nggd in i

cics. aloug monks in s-sonsod mls w xcd odvo mslvs o sudy of Buddis xs nd fomnc of

is fo bnfi of s, svl of mos oul xs omisd

g siiul nd mil bnfis fo ciion wo nggd in

fomnc of usiis o is w mo sily undkn

in mounins. t dvlomn of Buddis insiuions in Yosino

us s o v mgd no in oosiion o mo scolsiclly

oind mls of N lin, bu in ndm wi m. as

sul, by ly hin iod Yosino gion ousd nwok ofmls suc s hisod (lso known s Yosinod), hsd, Muòji,

tsuboskd, nd Kojimd, ll of wic in un ld s c-

c of mounin scicism fo cnuis o com.42

 Yshin and the Plitics f the Lcal 

Bcus Yosino cm o sv s si w mos cn Buddis

xs nd cics fom coninn could b u ino cic, is imo-

nc fo fldgling Jns Buddis diion only incsd ov im.

On ominn indicion of is cn b sn in Yosino’s scil lc

in lo suounding nsmission of Buddis diion o

 Jns islnds. In  Nihon shoki , fo insnc, w old fis

Buddis imgs o b md in Jns islnds w oducd duing

ign of Ymo ul Kinmi fom wood miculously d

off cos of Izumi ovinc nd w n inslld in Yosinod

(hisod).43  In  Nihon ryòiki  w find n vn song msis on

 Yosino in is ccoun of nsmission of Buddis diion o

 Jns islnds:

 accoding o cod, in ign of Bidsu tennò, sounds of musi-

cl insumns w d off cos of Izumi ovinc. . . . Lod

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   Female Rulers and Female Immortals 69

Òomo no Ysunoko no Muji d is l nd od i o

tennò, wo did no bliv i nd mind siln. Wn od

i o qun conso, owv, s odd im o invsig. h

 wn o ssid imslf nd found i xcly s od. Wil

found cmo log wic d bn suck by und. On

is un, sid o qun conso, “I v found cmo

log on bc of tksi. I umbly qus mission o mk

Budd imgs ou of i.” t qun conso gv mission, sying,

“You wis is gnd.”

  Ysunoko ws vy y nd nnouncd oyl dc o Si-

m no Ooomi [Sog no Umko] wo, in g joy, commissiond Ik-

b no hi o cv bodisvs. ty w conscd in ll in toyou o insi w nd vnc in ol. how-

v, Lod Mononob no Yug no Moiy no Oomuji ddssd

mss sying, “No Budd imgs sould b k in is couny.

ty mus b own wy.” . . . h bukd Ysunoko, sying, “t

cus of ou sn diss lis in king gn imgs sn fom

nigboing couny. Giv m u nd ow m ino cun

 wic flows owd Ko.” . . . h ws ls ovown in ign

of Yòmi tennò, nd Buddis imgs w boug ino ono b k fo osiy. t img of amid is now nsind hiso-

d in Yosino.44

In ddiion o is obvious sss on imonc of Yosino s cdl

of Jns Buddis diion, is lgnd conins svl fu clus

concning Yosino’s ol s n imon nod in bod nwok of

culic nd oliicl lions xndd fom Ymo cou coss

 Jns islnds o Kon ninsul. h ivl of miculous

objcs o Jns islnds is sid o v occud in cosl ov-

inc of Izumi on Kii ninsul. Bcus ogonis of l is

lso mmb of Òomo, lgnd gin igligs imonc of

is ling fo gion; jus s lgnd of Jinmu’s conqus fud

n Òomo ncso guiding would-b conquo ino Ymo lin,

, oo, w s n Òomo ncso bo figuivly nd lilly guiding

nw diviniy ino Jns islnds.

Bcus figu of Òomo no Ysunoko s now in

cou conicls o o ccouns of founding lgnd of Jns Bud-dism, i would  Nihon ryòiki ccoun of lgnd dw

uon Òomo-ld soucs fom Yosino gion. Fu vidnc

fo imcy of locl concns cn b sn svl oins in x.

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70 Weaving and Binding 

 Ws  Nihon shoki vsion of lgnd, fo insnc, ss

fis Buddis img in Jns islnds ws snd o Ymo

cou by n nvoy fom Kon kingdom of pkc, w old

mils fo icon flod ono bc tksi. Similly, ws founding lgnd of Jns Buddism culmins wi pinc

Sòoku dsoying Mononob no Moiy nd building Sinnòji ml in

Nniw, dsucion of Mononob lds o insllion of

Buddis imgs hisod in Yosino.

t msis on locl os nd mls in  Nihon ryòiki ccoun

cn lso b sn in w ns fwd: Òomo no Ysunoko ms is

fom lod Sòoku in undwold soly bfo inc civs

n lixi of immoliy fom fmd monk Gyòki.45 tis ncoun is ofimmdi no no only bcus i onc gin suggss song ins in

usui of immoliy, bu lso bcus i is xclln vidnc

ly cul of Gyòki njoyd widsd suo in Izumi ovinc. accod-

ing o Gyòki nenpu, no only ws Gyòki bon in Izumi, bu nd is

follows lso buil no lss n six mls in Òoi disic of Izumi

bwn 724 nd 727.46 Dd su ddicions fom 730s in Izumi

lis nms of ov 700 dvos of Gyòki’s movmn bo sify o is

ouliy nd ovid us wi fu insig ino lis suosof Gyòki’s movmn.

On figu of scil no ws Kuskb no Obio Mo, wo ws

bo ld of on of lgs su-coying movmns nd

disic cifin.47 t ominnc of locl Kuskb in is movmn

is in un of ins bcus, in ddiion o ving bn civ in culs

of Gyòki nd Sòoku, Kuskb nd clus of colll immign

lings lso blivd o v bn incil sonsos of Cown

pinc Kuskb, dsignd i of tnmu nd Jiò. aloug pinc

Kuskb did bfo ssuming on, is dscndns oducd sv-

l uls, including is son Monmu tennò (ignd 697–707), is dug-

Gnmi tennò (ignd 707–715), is gndson Sòmu tennò (ignd

724–749), nd is g-gnddug Kòkn tennò (ignd 749–758 nd

764–770).48 all of is us suggss kinsi gous suc s Òomo

nd Kuskb would v bn wll lcd o influnc consucion

of foundionl nivs igligd imonc of Yosino fo

bo ly Buddis diion nd oyl lin.

Òtm and Kusakabe Ancestrs

Fu vidnc concning ol of Òomo Yosino cn b

sn in numous nis in  Nihon shoki  duing six cnuy, wn

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   Female Rulers and Female Immortals 71

Òomo w fofon of miliy nd dilomic incions wi

Kon ninsul. txul soucs suggs Òomo no only

gind fisnd xosu o coninnl culu, y lso boug numous

isns nd woks fom Kon ninsul bck o Jns islnds.ts immigns ofn o v bn subsqunly ognizd ino

svic gou lings und juisdicion of Òomo.49 

On icully nowoy kinsi gou, Ymo Kususi, is

discussd in Shinsen shòjiroku, n ly nin-cnuy gnlogicl com-

ndium. t x ss on Òomo no Sdiko ws sn by Ymo

cou o Kon kingdom of pkc in l six cnuy. Uon is

un Sdiko is sid o v boug bck found of Ymo

Kususi kinsi gou, wo w n sld in Ud disic of Ymoovinc. In lig of fc m fo “mdicin” (kusushi ) ws usd

s nm fo is svic gou, i s by im of comosi-

ion of Shinsen shòjiroku, bo Ymo Kususi nd Òomo w

closly ssocid wi inoducion of Cins mdicl cniqus o

 Jns islnds in gnl nd Ud/Yosino gion in icul.50

Fu vidnc fo is cn b found in  Hizen fudoki , wic

couns soy of ow Sdiko ivd in Msuu disic of hizn

ovinc in Kyûsû, wil n ou o Kon ninsul. t, xinfoms us, fll in lov wi nd mid Kuskb ncso Sino-

no Ooiimko. t x coninus:

Scf Wving pk. Wn Òomo Sdiko bodd is si nd cossd

ov o Mimn, Ooiimko climbd u o nd, king scf,

 wvd i [owds Sdiko]. tus i is clld Scf Wving pk.51

tis lgnd is nobl no only fo fc i ssocis locl lc

nm in hizn wi joining of Kuskb nd Òomo ncsos, bu lso

fo is dicion of Sino no Oom wving scf in bndicion,

muc s tkk Mgmi ws sid o sk slvs fiv ims wn

s d bfo tnmu Yosino. elsw in  Hizen fudoki Oo-

iimko is lso oyd in ms suggs influnc of coninnl

 wving culs.52 Sinc, s w v ldy sn in C 2, is gion ws

lso om o vngful wving goddss wo dmndd offings in

fom of wving imlmns, i is nily ossibl suc sonncs

flc ig dg of nion of suc moifs wiin locl culiclndsc.

 all of is is of no bcus x lso igligs imonc

of Msuu s n imon nod fo ffic going o nd fom Kon

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72 Weaving and Binding 

ninsul. tis conjuncion of wving culs nd Kuskb nd Òomo

ncsl lgnds in Msuu disic of hizn, wn d og wi

Shinsen shòjiroku smn Òomo Sdiko sld Ymo

Kususi in Ud uon is un fom Kon ninsul, ly illuss mns by wic lings suc s Kuskb nd Òomo could

v fcilid nsmission of bo culs nd cnologis fom

Kon ninsul o Ymo. as Kuskb nd Òomo ncsos cm o b

inscibd in locl lndscs long imon nsmission ous wiin

Jns islnds, lgnds of wving diis nd fml immols lso

o v kn u sidnc sis of mjo ins o uls sking

o conol lings nd siis of lm.

Female Immrtals

 aloug Yosino ws closly ssocid wi fml immols nd

usui of suumn ows, is xmly good vidnc suggsing

lings suc s Kuskb omod simil culs lsw.

Consid, fo insnc, wll-known lgnd cycl of Unosimko,

Kuskb ncso ws wosid in numb of culic cns in

tmb ovinc. Vsions of Unosimko lgnd my b found noonly in bif ccoun in Yûyku c of  Nihon shoki , bu lso

in  Manyòshû nd Tango fudoki .53 t gnl oulin of lgnd

my b summizd s follows:

1. Unosimko is fismn fom villg of hioki in Os

disic of tngo ovinc. h is n ncso of Kuskb no

Obio, wo sid in disic.

2. Onc, f bing ou s fo dys nd nigs wiou

ccing singl fis, ccs fiv-colod ul

mgiclly nsfoms islf ino buiful midn.

3. t midn nnouncs s is n immol nd s

 wiss o my Unosimko nd k im o p’ng li, lnd

of immols in Cins myology.

4. Unosimko gs nd wo lung und s, w

y go o lnd of immols.

5. af ys in p’ng li, Unosimko suddnly longs o

un o is niv villg nd s is ns.6. t ul midn givs Unosimko sii comb box (tama

kushige ) nd lls im mus k i bu nv on i if

 wiss o un o p’ng li.

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   Female Rulers and Female Immortals 73

7. Unosimko uns o is niv villg, only o discov

undd ys v ssd nd ll is sng .

8. Unosimko fogs is omis o is wif nd ons sii

box.9. t box immdily flis wy, lving Unosimko wiou

ny mns of joining is wif in p’ng li.

10. Unosimko comoss song lmning is sion fom

is lov.

Bcus is lgnd is filld fom s o finis wi moifs fom Ci-

ns culs nd lgnds of immoliy, cn b lil doub of coninnl

influncs on lgnd. t ogonis is xlicily sid o vl o pngli, n islnd of immols in Cins myology, f ncouning nd

mying fml immol. In Tango fudoki ccoun, wic is by f

mos lbo vsion, w vn old Unosimko’s wif is

Cins sl diy.54 t is, owv, qully song vidnc suggs-

ing lgnd ws wll wiin minsm of locl culic cics.

Muc s sii box ws usd in Cinkonsi  o sk sii of

ul, Unosimko is givn sii comb box (tama kushige )

so my -n lnd of immols. Bcus m “kushi ,”ndd s “comb” ws omoonous bo wi m fo woodn

bls w usd s ccls fo siis sins nd fo mdi-

cins, mgic combs s wll s divin lixis fud ominnly in

numb of mys nd lgnds fom iod.55 In ddiion, is lso

song vidnc figu of Unosimko ws widly wosid in

tmb ovinc—svl sins o lss fismn lisd in

 Engishiki nd o ly hin-iod xs.56

Svl ins s o oos of Unosimko cul cn lso b found

in bsic sucu of lgnd— fismn cus nd mis

clsil fml immol, only in nd o b sd fov. tis

sucu s o b bodly in lin wi coninnl nivs ld o

siculu, mdicin, nd inmn of immoliy. On of lis

founns of s lgnds cn b found in  Huai nan tzu. tis wok

couns digmic my of c Yi, wo is givn lixi

of immoliy by Qun Mo of Ws f soos nin suns

fom clsil mulby . Bfo Yi cn dink lixi, owv, is

 wif C’ng o sls nd dinks oion nd n flis wy o moon.t s mins, ccomnid by bbi coninuously oducs

mo of lixi of immoliy und mulby .57 O suc lg-

nds fu fml immols wo dscndd o in mgicl gmns

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74 Weaving and Binding 

llow m o fly. On yicl xml cn b sn in Sou shen chi ,

fou-cnuy l collcion:

In Yü cng Disic, Sin yü Couny, ws mn wo sw six o

svn womn, ll wing fd clos, in ic ddis. h

did no know y w [in fc] bids. Coucing low, cwld

owds m nd ook gmns on of womn d

movd nd id m. h n ocd bids, wo ll flw

wy, sv fo on bid lon could no lv. t mn ook

nd md is wif, nd s gv bi o dugs.

L, mo sn on of dugs o sk f

[w d id clos]. Wn [ mo] lnd y w und sck of svs, s ook m, u m on, nd

flw wy. L s und fo dugs, wo lso flw

wy.58

By dvn of N iod subsnil cous of lgnds

concning fml immols wo my mols bfo flying wy d

dvlod in Jns islnds s wll. On fom -N Jn my

b found in mnn fom Suruga fudoki , gz submid o N cou somim ound 713: 

Long go ws divin midn wo dscndd fom vn nd

ung fd gmn on bnc of in o dy. Wn

fismn gd u gmn nd xmind i, [ found] i

 ws lig nd sul byond wods. W i ws rokushu gmn

o soming ws wovn loom of Wv Midn [

could no ll].59 t divin midn bggd fismn o un

gmn, bu fusd. aloug divin midn wisd o

fly bck o vn, s did no v gmn, nd fo s

d no coic bu o bcom wif of fismn. L, on dy

midn ook fd ob nd od off on clouds. t

fismn lso bcm n immol nd flw u o vn.60

tis lgnd, wi is xlici fnc o Wv Midn nd cnl

moif of hvnly Midn/immol wo is cud body of w,

onc gin suggss oos in coninnl lgnds ld o siculu ndfml immols. t lgnd lso bs bod sucul smblnc

o Unosimko lgnd, wi imon diffnc objc

miing vl bwn vnly nd ly lms is no comb,

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   Female Rulers and Female Immortals 75

o mdicin, box, bu wovn im. Suc moifs cn b found in bod

ng of simil lgnds in ovincil gzs nd oy

collcions fom iod. Consid, fo insnc, following lgnd

fom Òmi fudoki :

Ig sm. accoding o lds, is sm o sou of

 villg of Yogo in Ig Disic. eig sky womn nsfomd mslvs

ino wi bids nd dscndd fom sky o fod o sou

of sm, w y n bd. a im, mn nmd Ig

tomi ws on mounin o ws. Wn viwd bids, i

 ws cl i nc ws vy unusul. Suscing y

mig b divin bings, wn o look, nd sw y w indddivin. a is, Ig tomi immdily fll in lov nd could no [b

o] lv m. h suiiously sn is wi dog o sl v-

nly gmns, nd f obining gmn of youngs midn,

id i. Wn sky midns lizd [ ws ], svn old

siss flw off o hvn, lving only youngs sis, wo ws

unbl o fly wy. Wi bck o hvn closd o fo

long wil, s finlly bcm n ly umn.

t by w hvnly Midns bd is now clld “Divin By.” Ig tomi mid hvnly Midn nd livd

, w s vnully gv bi o wo boys nd wo gils. . . .

ts ncsos of Ig Muji. L, mo found

hvnly wingd gmn, u i on nd flw off o hvn. Ig tomi

could only [liv ou is dys] in my lonlinss, siging nd g-

ing ndlssly.61

 as wi lgnds of Unosimko nd Suruga fudoki , is soy

gin fus fml immol wo is cud by ml umn

 wwy. W xlicily old i is wovn gmn llows

immol o fly o hvn. Bu s mos imon, is x, comosd

bly n ys f Jiò tennò undook ls sojoun in Yosino, onc

gin dmonss vn bfo N iod fml immols d

ldy bcom ingd ino ncsl culs of locl lings

nkd f blow inn cicls of cou.62

 all of is ms bcus, s w nod bov, wiin N-iod

oy w find numous oms fuing fml nscndns woind immoliy oug consumion of bs d gown

 wild in d of gion. On suc figu, known s Nuiim,

 ws subjc of om by no lss figu n Fujiw Fuio,

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76 Weaving and Binding 

scond scion of Fujiw ling nd ky dviso o svl uls.63 

 aloug w cn ll lil bou is figu fom Fuio’s om,  Nihon

ryòiki conins following ccoun of on Nuib no him fom

gion:

In villg of Nuib, Ud disic, Ymo ovinc, livd n

xodiny womn, wo ws mid o Nuib no Miysuko Mo.

Innly u nd sigfowd in uolding w ws ig, s

gv bi o svn cildn, bu s ws oo oo o fd m sinc

s d no on o dnd on. . . . evy dy s uifid slf in

b nd clod slf in gs. S would g dibl bs in

filds, nd dvod slf o sying om nd clning ous. Wn s cookd bs, s clld cildn, s u sig,

nd food, ll wil smiling, lking cfully, nd bing

gful. tis consn discilin in mind nd body md sii

smbl of “gus fom vn.”

In fif y of hkuci . . . vnly bings [immo-

ls] communicd wi , nd s scil bs gd in

fild in singim nd flw bou in vns.64

tis lgnd, igliging s i dos common womn fom locl

ling in Ud, undscos imonc of fml figus suc s

Nuib no him, tkk Mgmi, nd hvnly Midns of Suug

nd Ig fo locl culs nd lgnds coss Jns islnds. ps

vn mo siking is fc is lgnd fom Buddis ologicl

x simly ks fo gnd blif mdicinl bs fom Ud

gion of Ymo could bsow immoliy. all of is gin suggss

gion’s clos ssociion wi immoliy, s wll s ig dg o

 wic Cins immoliy blifs d nd oul l liu of

iod.65 

On fu indicion of dg o wic coninnl os ld

o siculu nd immoliy d nd ino liy nd culic dis-

couss of iod cn b sn fom fc no ll oic fncs

o fml immols Yosino w comosd in Cins-syl vs. In

 Manyòshû, fo insnc,  w find on om in icul is suggs-

iv of mns by wic suc blifs olifd in Ymo. t x of

om nd is ccomnying no s follows:

 W il coms down

On igs of Kisimi

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   Female Rulers and Female Immortals 77 

t climb is s:

I los my gi on gsss,

I gs nd of my gil.

Concning bov om, i is lso sd i is om givn o

Immol Mulby-Bnc Midn by Umsin, mn of Yosi-

no. Bu n inscion of The Mulberry-Branch Legend fils o vl

suc om.66

tis x is of immdi ins no so muc fo conn of om,

bu fo no’s fnc o n nly wll-known lgnd involving

mn wo succds in ccing Immol Mulby-bnc Midnnd mking is lov.67 t fc is immol is nmd f

mulby , lvs of wic w usd fo fding silkwoms, lso

songly suggss is figu ws ssocid wi coninnl concions

of wv midns s fml smns/immols. ps mos imon,

owv, fnc o now-los Mulberry-branch Maiden onc gin

suggss vn io o N iod configuion of Yosino s

si fqund by fml immols ws commonlc in liu

of iod.68

 Svl imon clus concning ocss by wic figus suc

s Immol Mulby-bnc Midn w consucd cn b found in

 y no ccoun fom  Hizen fudoki . tis x dscibs conx

fo oul song sung by young mn nd womn duing couing fsivls

c sing in Kisim disic of ovinc:

Kisim Disic. two lgus sou of disic is soliy moun-

in. I s ks in lin fom souws o nos. Is nm

is Kisim. . . . evy y young mn nd womn fom vil-

lgs, cying win nd cin, climb u nd in nd nd gz ou

ov vlly. ty ly music, dink, sing, nd dnc, nd wn

songs ov y go om. t wods of [on of i] songs go:

 W il coms down

On igs of Kisim

t climb is s:

I los my gi on gsss,I gi nd of my gil.

tis is Kisim msu.69

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78 Weaving and Binding 

tis x is of immdi ins bcus i is viully idnicl wi

song ws snd in  Manyòshû  s fing o Immol

Mulby-bnc Midn. h, owv, x clly sss

song is of disinciv y oigind in Kisim disic in hiznovinc in Kyûsû.  as w v sn dly, is gion ws mjo

gwy fo ol, cnology, nd ids fom Kon ninsul ino

Jns islnds. t gion ws om o Kuskb nd u-

od oin of ny fo Òomo Sdiko wn nsod Ymo

Kususi fom pkc o Yosino/Ud. I ws lso mjo cn fo

culs of aku him, Munk diis, nd Sumiyosi diis, ll

of wom by dvn of N iod d md i wy o Ymo

nd fomd n ingl of oyl cul.70 all of is suggss Immol Mulby-bnc Midn my v bn y no diy wi

oos in Kon ninsul wo ws nsod fom Kyûsû o Ymo

io o N iod. I would lso Immol Mulby-

bnc Midn y gin illuss imy culic dynmic of iod,

in wic diis ssocid wi coninnl cnologis suc s siculu

nd mdicin movd fom Kyûsû ino Ymo lin.71 

 Tyuke Hime and UranshimakOn fml immol wo ws lso ssocid wi bo Ud/

 Yosino gion nd tmb ovinc ws hvnly Midn toyouk

him no Mikoo.  accoding o Toyuke no miya gishikichò, cod

fom Is sin ws comosd in 804, io o king u sidnc

in Is goddss ws wosid sin in Ud, om of Nuib

him, s wll s vious culic cns coss tmb ovinc, om

of Unosimko on cos of Jn/esn S.72 Cucilly, toy-

ouk him no Mikoo, muc lik Immol Mulby-bnc Midn,

hvnly Midn of Ig, nd bid of Unosimko, s in

liu of iod s fml immol wo is cud by umn

mol nd focd o min in umn lm. Founly, lngy

ccoun of myic oigins of is diy’s cul cn b sn in following

mnn fom Tango fudoki :

tngo povinc, tmb Disic. Nows of disic dqus

is ownsi of hiji. t is wllsing on summi of Moun

hiji in is ownsi. I is nmd Mni [tu Wll]. I s now bcom ms.

  eig sky womn cm down o b in is sing. a is im

ws n old coul; y w clld Old Mn of Wns nd

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   Female Rulers and Female Immortals 79

Old Womn of Wns. ts old ol cm o wllsing

nd slily ook cloing of on of sky womn nd id i.

Dicly, ll midns wo d i clos flw u ino sky;

only on wiou clos mind bind, sying iddn in

 w, lon nd smd.

  huon old mn sid o sky womn, “W v no cild.

hvnly Midn, ls b ou cild.” . . .

S ccomnid m om, w y livd og fo ov

n ys. t sky womn usd skill o bw sake. to dink

on cu ws noug o disl n ousnd ills. Clods of -

su w sn s ic of singl cu. In im ous ov-

flowd wi bundnc, nd muddy booms [hijikata] osd.hnc ownsi ws clld hijik. . . .

  L old mn nd is wif sok o sky womn, sying,

“You no ou cild. You v moily livd wi us, is ll.

Now b off wi you.”

  a is sky womn lookd u vn nd w in gif,

lookd down nd mond in soow. . . . Wn s d

gon byond g, s sok o villgs, sying, “Fo long

im I v bn sunkn mong umnkind, nd now I cnno uno sky.” . . .

 a ls s wn wy. aiving villg of asio, s old

 villgs “Wn I ink of w old mn nd womn lly lik,

my is ging id [arashio].” tus y clld lc villg

of asio in ownsi of hiji. agin, s ivd in Nkiki. . . .

  Onc mo, iving in villg of Ngu, in Funki townsi,

tkno Disic, s old villgs, “h my s bcom

nquil [nagushiku nirinu].” [ Nagushi  is old wod fo “nquil.”]

 and s syd on in is villg. S is goddss known s toyou-

knom no Mikoo siding in Ngu Sin in tkno Disic.73

Bcus is Tango fudoki ccoun of toyouk no him is so muc

mo dvlod n oic fncs o fml immols in  Man-

 yoshû nd  Kaifûsò, i ovids svl invlubl clus concning

nu of N-iod concions of suc figus. h, imonc of

mdicin nd immoliy fo toyouk him no Mikoo’s culic idniy is

clly suggsd by x’s dicion of goddss s oduc of sake , o kusushi , cn b usd s mdicin fo ling ny illnss. In

ddiion o is, figu of toyouk him no Mikoo is lso of immdi-

ins bcus s is cdid in  Nihon shoki s bing souc

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80 Weaving and Binding 

of siculu nd o cnologis w nsmid o Jns

islnds fom Kon ninsul duing asuk nd N iods.74 

Mos likly du o clos ssociion wi coninnl cnologis nd

is, l xs fom Kmku iod lso s toyouk himno Mikoo d msd cniqus fo ffcing own sucion nd

subsqun immoliy.75 

On fu clu s o nu of ly cul of toyouk him

no Mikoo cn b found in gogy of culic cns in s

of tmb ovinc s is sid o v visid. S nd svn sis-

s sid o v dscndd o in hiji ownsi n of

Unosimko cul. Sinc Unosimko niv lso involvs

fml immol wo bsows mdicin sii box (tama kushige ) uon mol fismn f s s bn cud in umn lm, I suggs

toyouk niv, in wic s slls mgicl lixi f bing

cud,  is bodly flciv of culic oinions of Kuskb

in gnl nd gion in icul. t mulil sins in gion

ddicd o toyouk no him nd Unosimko songly suggs

moifs of wving, kusushi , nd immoliy ssocid wi Immol

Mulby-bnc Midn nd toyouk no him w no simly liy

os bu common lmns in oul culic cic long cos of Jn/esn ss.76 Simly u, is xmly good vidnc

vn io o N iod, culs of fml immols nd mdicin di-

is d u down oos no only in suc cosl ovincs s tmb nd

hizn, bu lso in Ud nd Yosino. Givn influnc of Kuskb

nd Òomo cou, i ominnc in hizn nd in cosl ov-

incs long Inlnd nd Jn/esn ss, nd ominnc of i

ncsos in foundionl nivs of bo oyl lin nd Buddis

diion, i s s lings lyd mjo ol in nsmis-

sion of culs of fml immols nd mdicin diis ino min-

sm of Ymo ligion.

 The Gsechimai, Princess Abe, and Tyuke

On indicion of imonc of fml immols fo N

cou in gnl cn b sn in subsqun dvlomn in uss of

Goscimi— cou dnc ibud o tnmu s in cul

of toyouk him. On icully vling incidn concning sus

of Goscimi  cou occud in 743, som fiv ys f Sòmutennò d kn uncdnd s of nming is dug, pin-

css ab, s is succsso. Oosiion o Fujiw cou, combind

 wi fc il of taishi , usully nsld s “cown inc,” d

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   Female Rulers and Female Immortals 81

nv bn givn o womn, mn pincss ab’s osiion mind

cious.77 anly in sons o s concns, on 5 dy of

5 mon of 743, cown incss fmously fomd Goscimi 

in Digokudn, min cmonil ll fo cou. In ndnc fo vn w f Sòmu, gndmo id ul Gnsò,

nd ssmbld miniss of cou. Ls nyon cou fil o gs

significnc of vn, Gnsò isd incss’s dnc s bing

no simly n c of ninmn, bu lso mns dvisd by “sg

king” tnmu o nsu icis of nk w k in good od nd

miniss undsood i o lionsi wi i ul.78

 as Jon piggo s nod in no conx, on ky lmn of is

fomnc ws lmos cinly ab’s lionsi wi f, Sòmutennò. In dncing fo f, incss igligd bo filil iy

nd linl clim o on.79  I would lso submi, owv,

Gnsò’s fnc o tnmu s “sg”— m lodd wi connoions

of immoliy—suggss n imon subx fo dnc my lso

v bn ld o tnmu’s scil involvmn wi coninnl noions

of immoliy nd Yosino.80  Jus s Jiò d mindd cou of

conncion wi tnmu by undking no lss n iy-on ilgimgs

o Yosino, pincss ab s o v uilizd Goscimi o mind cou of own linl conncions wi “sg king” wo d

fsiond so muc of cou iul wi moifs dwn fom lgnds of

fml immols nd Cins fsivl clnd.

In lig of clos lionsi bwn Dnc of Fiv Nods

nd myic os of Cins fsivl clnd, i is s fiing

Goscimi l cm o b usd in conjuncion wi wosi

of toyouk him, hvnly Midn nd mdicin goddss fom tm-

b nd Ud, wo, s w sw li, ws lso cdid wi giving bi

o oducs of siculu wiin Jns islnds. By dvn

of hin iod moic is of is hvnly Midn wiin

oyl cul d culmind wi nsinmn of toyouk s cif

diy of ou sin Is, w s ws wosid fo cnuis

long wi amsu by conscd incss in sidnc n

sin.81 Bcus toyouk him l bcm focl objc of li-

gious movmn l known s Is Sinò, imonc of cul

fo isoy of Jns ligion ws nomous.82 By im of

comlion of Toyuke no miya gishikichò in 804, xld sus ofbo is diy nd Goscimi d bn codifid wiin oyl cul.

hncfo, Goscimi  ws o b fomd only by conso of

tennò, i in is snc Fsivl of tsing of Fis Fuis

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82 Weaving and Binding 

(Niinmsi), o ou sin of Is, fo njoymn of non o

n toyouk him.83

In lig of imonc of toyouk him no Mikoo fo oyl

cul, i is sy o ovlook fc oigins of cul ly no wicou inllculs, bu wi locl lings ould cosl gions

nd w mong fis o bsob coninnl culul nd cnologi-

cl influncs. Suc oos imon, fo y suggs , f fom

bing souc fo suc concions, cou s o v bsobd

coninnl blifs nd cics s of is oiion of culic

soucs of Kuskb, Òomo, nd o immign lings. I would

duing N iod, culs nd lgnds ssocid wi mdi-

cin, siculu, nd immoliy did no simly di ou fom Ym-o cou o ovincs. r, o suising dg, suc lmns w

nsmid o cou by lings in tmb, hizn, nd Yosino suc s

Òomo, Kuskb, nd os. 

Cnclusin 

 as Cins mdicl nd clndicl blifs  sd cou nd in

counysid duing middl dcds of svn cnuy, y ngn-dd culic nd concul voluion ld nsfom oliicl

nd ligious lndsc of Jns islnds. On mkbl by-oduc

of is ocss ws idl of fml immol wi conol ov

ocsss of lif nd d. By dvn of N iod is idl,

long wi Cins concions of mdicin nd immoliy, d mgd

s cnl lmn in myic vocbuly of numous ncsl culs

coss lnd.

On gion closly ssocid wi is ocss ws Yosino. Wi is

ig liud nd d , is ws blivd o b icully oduc-

iv of bs nd lns , if consumd oly, could oduc l

nd vnully immoliy. as sul, vn io o N iod,

 Yosino gion d bcom cnl locl in founding lgnds of

oyl ous s wll s of Jns Buddis diion. evn

lgndy oyl ncso Jinmu ws dicd s cifying is nmis

 Yosino wi scil vssls md fom gion’s d cly, nd mls

suc s hisod climd o b ciins of fis Buddis icons o

iv in Jns islnds.t imonc of Yosino fo bo oyl cul nd fomiv

 Jns Buddis diion ws lso lmos cinly ld o suc kinsi

gous s Òomo, Kuskb, nd h, ll of wic w dly

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   Female Rulers and Female Immortals 83

involvd wi ffis of Kon ninsul on on nd nd

dvlomn of cou iul on o. ec of s gous s

o v bsobd fom n xmly ly d Cins concions of

mdicin nd immoliy ino i own ncsl culs nd lgnds. as sul, vn bfo N iod lgnds of fml ncsos wo w

immols could b found no only Yosino, bu vn in fs

cs of Jns islnds. By nd of N iod, s culs

nd lgnds of figus suc s Nuib no him, Immol Mulby-

bnc Midn, tkk Mgmi, nd, mos sccully, toyouk no

him w bsobd ino vy of mging oyl myology,

s nd o suc figus lyd mjo ol in sing bo oyl

cul nd nscn Jns Buddis diion.t vy fc consucion of Yosino s si of immols

 ws ld o oogicl nd gogic imonc of gion

sould l us o n ddiionl s of issus concning dvlomn

of Jns Buddis diion nd imonc of ncsos s 

hijiri . Fo mos of six cnuy, Yosino ws lso mjo bs of

Mononob, s mos owful kinsi gou in lnd io o

ign of Suiko. No suisingly, som of mos imon lings

o mg fom Mononob obi following i dmis in 587 wlocl lings ssocid wi Yosino. two of s— Kuskb nd

Kmo—wn on o ly mjo ol in consucion of cul of

pinc Sòoku, oyl ncso wo ws lso uod sonso of

bo Cins fsivl clnd nd Buddis diion in Jn. Bcus

Sòoku ws lso cdid wi dsucion of Mononob, nx

c will consid ow s lings, using oliics of violnc,

sii oiiion, nd Cins fsivl clnd ld o inscib

founding lgnd of Jns Buddism wi culic lmns dwn no fom

Buddis scius, bu fom cul of Qun Mo of Ws,

ul of lnd of immols nd bnfco of sg uls.

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Chapter 4

 The Queen Mther f the west 

 and the Ghsts f

the Buddhist Traditin  

rckoning wi goss is no lik dciding o d book: you

cnno simly coos goss wi wic you ngg. . . .

to b und is o b id o isoicl nd socil ffcs.

   —avy Godon, Ghostly Matters 1

ONe aFterNOON earLY in svn mon of 587, so soy gos,

oliicl nd culic lndsc of Jns islnds ws ofoundly

nsfomd s n my of o-Buddis incs nd lings ld by Sogkinsi gou ovcm focs of i owful Mononob oonns

nd sblisd nw, o-Buddis gim wiin Jns islnds.

t bi of nw od, owv, ws lso nly dncd in

blood, s vicos und down mmbs of min Mononob lin

nd confiscd lnds of i llis. af inslling nw ul, Suiko,

uon on, Sog nd llis suc s pinc Kmisumiy (Sòoku)

n sid o v s bou ugmning ow of on oug

omoion of coninnl oliicl, ligious, nd cnologicl foms.

 aloug, s is so ofn cs, is ccoun cnno b considd n

ccu nding of isoicl liy, lgnd ws clly conson

of ly Jns Buddis diion’s undsnding of is own oigins.

In ddiion o ccoun of bl nd is fm is ovidd in

 Nihon shoki , fo insnc, simil vsions of lgnd cound

in  Hòryûji garan engi narabi ni ruki shizaichò nd Gangòji garan

engi narabi ni ruki shizaichò, wo of only xn ml cods

fom N iod. t lgnd is lso cound in  Jògû Shòtoku hòò

teisetsu, n ly giogicl x, s of wic oug o d Nihon shoki , s wll s in  Nihon ryòiki , wic, s w v ldy

nod, is olds collcion of Buddis lgnds in Jns islnds.

t vsivnss of is lgnd coss so mny diffn xs nd gns

84 

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  Queen Mother of the West & Ghosts of Buddhist Tradition 85

sifis o is cnl lc in lis Buddis liu of Jns

islnds.2 

t undoubd imonc of is lgnd nd figu of Sòoku fo

ly Buddis diion, owv, sould no blind us o fc inc of lgnd ws lso dicd in suc xs s  Nihon shoki s

gon of coninnl culu nd lning. Wiin x Sòoku is lso

sid o v bn ms of non-Buddis lning, wo comosd

fis isoicl conicl in Jns islnds, omulgd consiuion

fo cou, nd consucd fis coninnl-syl sysm of nks fo

cou. Sòoku’s ssociion wi win coninnl culu cn us b

sn in numous lgnds dicing inc s sg, xg, judg,

lwgiv, nd immol.3  as w v ldy sn in C 2,  Nihon shoki  lso dics

Suiko cou s in wic Cins sologicl nd divinoy xs

 w fis omulgd cou. t is, fu, good son o bliv

coninnl is nd culs ssocid wi suc xs w omod

by immign kinsi gous suc s os fofon of ly cul

of pinc Sòoku. In is c I fo oos o xlo nu

nd uss of Cins is of sii cificion in N Jn s y ld

o fomion of founding lgnd of Jns Buddism. Bcusis lgnd is snd vn in imy soucs in ms of sisnc o

inoducion of “foign” Buddis diion, i is lso n idl vicl

oug wic o xmin in g d ow is of Cins

fsivl clnd influncd dvlomn of Buddis nd locl culic

diions of N Jn.

tis involvs vnuing ino livly uncd ioy. aloug

 wid scum of Cins culs nd diis infomd ligious lif in

 Jns islnds, my focus will b on influnc of cul of Qun

Mo of Ws, n ncin figu in Cins non wi d

oos in Cins clnd, immoliy blifs, nd wving culs. W

sll s cul of Qun Mo lyd ominn ol in

lgnds nd culic cics of clus of influnil kinsi gous

ssocid wi bo Mononob nd ly Sòoku cul. W sll

lso s o suising dg founding lgnd of Jns Bud-

dism islf s o b sucud in ms of iul gsus nd moifs

divd no only fom Buddis scius, bu lso fom scific is nd

ds w commonly obsvd in yly fsivl cycl.t c focuss on sis of inlocking issus of cnl

imonc fo undsnding bo ligion nd oliics of N Jn.

Mos gnlly, givn i ominn ol in consucion of oliicl

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86 Weaving and Binding 

nd ligious wolds of -N Jn, I suggs n undsnding of

culic oinions of Mononob nd i ffilid lings is ssn-

il fo vn bsic undsnding of culic cics of g. Onc

 w focus on ol of lings ffilid wi Mononob in ofnsnguiny oliics of iod, cucil ol of oliicl violnc s

clys fo olifion of coninnl culic cics bcoms dily

n. In ddiion o i ininsic ins, owv, s issus lso

v immdi lvnc fo ou undsnding of founding lgnd of

 Jns Buddism, in wic diion is snd s dly ood

in oliicl violnc. rding founding lgnd of Jns Buddism

in lig of is nd lgnds of lings ssocid wi Mononob

us omiss o sd lig bo on ly Buddis diion in Jnnd is lionsi wi suc Cins diis s Qun Mo of

 Ws. ps mos imon, owv, bcus is lgnd scificlly

ins Mononob s cmions of niv culic cics, founding

lgnd of Jns Buddism lso omiss o sd lig uon dg

o wic is nd blifs ssocid wi Cins iul clnd w

undsood by dios of  Nihon shoki o b n ingl of

culic lndsc of Jns islnds.

 The Funding Legend f Japanese

Buddhism and the Atsumri  Effect 

 aloug comosd svl undd ys f suc xs s  Nihon

 shoki , on of mos comlling dicions of conncions bwn

 violnc, cul, nd sii-quiing in clssicl Jns liu cn b

found in asumoi c fom  Heike monogatari , in-

cnuy mil omnc. In is x oug, xincd sn w-

io Kumg sily ovcoms isocic you asumoi in indi-

 vidul comb, only o b imssd wi you’s isocic bing.

Kumg is vnully focd o kill you in od o vn mo

inful xcuion by o wios.4 In Zmi’s onymous Nò ly bsd

uon is isod, Kumg uns o scn of bl nd onc

gin ncouns asumoi, now ungy gos unbl o ovcom

owful km ssocid wi violn d, ng, nd dsi fo

vng. tougou, ly focuss on dmic nsions suling

no only fom Kumg’s ncoun wi asumoi’s gos, bu lso fom mo figuiv goss cd by Kumg’s g ving killd

boy. evnully bo ys of gos find c s Kumg, now monk,

ys fo sii of asumoi.5 

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  Queen Mother of the West & Ghosts of Buddhist Tradition 87 

 Wiou climing ny dic conncion bwn asumoi  soy

nd founding lgnd of Jns Buddism, I suggs i cn l

illumin svl imon fus of founding lgnd. Muc of

 asumoi soy’s moionl l sms fom fc lionsibwn wo ccs bgins wi gic ncoun nd xcuion.

 Ws Wsn gdy ofn nds wi violn d of on ogo-

nis nds of no wi wom o s is inimly conncd,

w my sy lionsi bwn wo mn sms fom

xcuion islf. Indd, n sying wo fom bond in si

of wkwd fc on kills o, i is mo ccu o sy

wo fom lionsi cisly bcus on kills o.

 aloug is dilcic of violnc oducing ssions nd fokmic bonds mong ngoniss s long bn cognizd sl of

 Jns dm, s o d bn lil o no discussion of dg

o wic coninnl concions of violnc, siis, nd i cificion

 w imlicd in nd of Buddis diion o confon lil

nd figuiv goss fom is own s. Suc goss, owv, vd

 Nihon shoki ccoun of is founding lgnd. a of is lgnd is

 violn conflic bwn o-Buddis focs, ld by Sog kinsi

gou, nd ni-Buddis focs ld by Mononob kinsi gou. as sul of dsoying min bnc of Mononob, lis

oonns of Buddis diion d o dl wi Mononob nd

i goss, wic ofoundly influncd ow Jns Buddis di-

ion dicd is oigins nd subsqun jcoy. I suggs wil

Mononob los (lil) bl, y won (figuiv) w, s did asu-

moi. W mig vn sy because   Mononob los lil bl

y—nd Cins is of sii cificion wi wic y w

ssocid—w bl o x lsing influnc on Jns ligion in

gnl nd Jns Buddis diion in icul.

Building a Fundatin 

In od o undsnd is ocss i is ncssy o bgin bgin-

ning, ls s i ws l configud by Jns Buddis diion.

 aloug niv is qui long, w my summiz oins of com-

monliy in viully ll of ly soucs s follows:

1. Duing ign of Ymo ul Kimmi, king of Kon kingdom of pkc snds Buddis su o

 Ymo cou nd commnds wosi of is nw diy, wo is

mo fficcious n ll o gods. t king dds is nw

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88 Weaving and Binding 

diy is wosid ougou s of asi. h concluds

 wi qus fo miliy ssisnc gins Kon kingdom

of Koguyò, wic s bn ncocing on pkc’s ioy.

2. a db bks ou Ymo cou ov w o ccnd wosi nw god. t Mononob, on of wo mos

owful kinsi gous cou, oos wosi of su,

guing gods of Jn would b ngd by wosi of

nw diy.

3. t Sog, ivls o Mononob nd lds of clus of

immign kinsi gous fom pkc, ug wosi of diy.

4. I is gd Sog sll wosi img, vn if os

do no.5. a lgu bks ou nd mny di.

6. Mononob no Yug Moiy, ld of Mononob, sizs

su nd ows i ino cnl in Nniw.

7. Ys l ld of Sog flls ill nd divinion

x dcls son o b s fild o coninu

 wosiing Buddis su.

8. t su is ddgd u fom Nniw cnl, nd Sog

sum wosi of su.9. t Sog c lgu of incs oosd o Mononob.

 among m is young inc nmd Kmisumiy (Sòoku),

 wo is of Sog dscn.

10. Bl bks ou bwn Mononob nd Sog coliions.

 as focs of Sog bou o b dfd, pinc Sòoku

mks imgs of Fou hvnly Kings ( shitennò) of Buddism

ou of bncs fom nuride  . h vows o build ml o

Fou hvnly Kings nd sd Buddis diion if

Sog gnd vicoy. Sog no Umko, d of Sog,

mks simil vow. Sòoku n lcs imgs of Fou

hvnly Kings in is i io o ning bl.

11. t Sog coliion mgs iumn, f Mononob no Yug

Moiy is killd in bl.

12. Kmisumiy is givn lf of ll Mononob lnds nd lbos,

 wic uss o build Sinnòji (Fou hvnly Kings tml)

in Nniw. t Sog lso build i kinsi gou ml

 asukd.13. Sòoku nd Sog n k ov ins of govnmn nd

us in nw ogm of suo fo Buddis diion nd

cnlizion of ow of Ymo uls.

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  Queen Mother of the West & Ghosts of Buddhist Tradition 89

embddd in is lgnd svl imon oins gding ol of

Cins is of sii cificion in N Jn. among mos imon

following: (1) a cn of lgnd is pinc Sòoku, wom

l xs closly ssoci wi doion of Cins iul cic by Suiko cou. (2) t lgnd concluds wi consucion of Sin-

nòji, suggsing kinsi gous ssocid wi ml would v

d n imon ol in lgnd’s consucion. (3) Following df

of Mononob, svl kinsi gous fomly llid wi Monon-

ob cm o b closly ssocid wi Sòoku cul nd Sinnòji. (4)

t consucion of Sinnòji islf ws md ossibl by oi-

ion of Mononob lnds nd lbo. (5) aloug x ibus vic-

oy of o-Buddis focs o Sòoku’s wosi of Fou hvnlyKings, Sòoku’s mod of oiiion ( lcing of imgs of Fou

hvnly Kings in is i) dos no ld o ny known Buddis

cics fom dy.

 winners, Lsers, and the Cnstructin f Traditin 

Bfo nlyzing niv fu, i is wo mmbing is-

oy is gnlly win fom sciv of vicos. tis judgmn,

oug undsndbl, sldom gos byond fily obvious obsv-ion soucs wi wic w consuc s v bn bisd

by oliicl liis of g in wic y w win. I would

s b mo o oin o no mos insing figus fo

isoins nd o b os wo v gsd ow o ffc d-

mic cngs in sociy nd culu. tis s bn lmos univsl

ndncy wi gd o scolsi dvod o founding lgnd of

 Jns Buddism. t vicoy of Sog is gnlly undsood s

imon bcus i usd in iod of univld gmony fo o-

Buddis figus inn uon nsfoming Jns sociy.6 Suc viw

of Sog vicoy nully lds o s of qusions cnd on pinc

Kmisumiy nd Sog. W w Kmisumiy’s lions wi

Sog ldsi lly lik? how did y sk o us in nw g in

 Jns isoy? W did y wn o do, nd o w dg did y

succd in doing i?

On coolly of focusing on vicos nd i gnd s bn

comiv nglc of ol lyd by Mononob in consuc-

ion of Jns Buddis diion. t  Nihon shoki  ccoun, uon wic mos discussions bsd, sns Mononob s cionis

 wo f ccnc of “foign” Buddis diion will disub

locl gods nd sus quo. as sul, Mononob lmos lwys

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 90 Weaving and Binding 

oyd in scolly  liu s consviv foc nobl minly fo

bing oosd o cng if no o Buddism log. tus Monon-

ob nd o v bn dfind imily in ni-Buddis ms n

in ms of i own culic cics.I, owv, ocd fom mis Buddis diion ws

sd no only by iod’s xcuions, bu lso by vicims. W

sll s jus s asumoi’s lionsi wi Kumg ws ood

in fc Kumg killd im, so oo did dsucion of

min Mononob lin llow m o civ osiion of influnc ov

Kmisumiy, Sog, nd culic movmns Sog omod.

pcisly bcus y w dfd in bl by focs cdid wi

using in Buddis diion, figuiv nd lil goss of Mononob lingd ino nw g.7 

 Vilence and Its Cultic Cnsequences

Svl clus s o wy df of Mononob my v incsd

i influnc ov subsqun culic dvlomns cn b found in

immdi fm of i df. as Sog movd o occuy go-

gic nd culic nics viously ld by Mononob nd i ffili-d lings, Sog w focd o confon o oii locl diis

nd ncsos d viously bn lignd wi i cn fos. In

ddiion, bsoion of lings viously lignd wi Mononob

ino nw Sog-domind ow sucu s o v fcilid

bsoion of is nd diis d bn ssocid wi Monon-

ob. Finlly, I suggs dsucion of min lin of Mononob

 would v cd lg numb of siis nd ncsos would v

quid immdi nd xnsiv oiiion.8 

If consquncs of vicoy w incsd culic involvmn

of vicos wi culs of vnquisd, i ws lso cs

cngs in nu of wf ssocid wi Mononob’s iod of

scndncy my v ccld is nd. among mos imon of

suc oliicl/miliy dvlomns d bn is of blocs of kinsi

gous und conol of kinsi gou lds wi ils of Òmuji 

nd Òomi,  wo bo ognizd lbos on oyl ss nd svd s

miliy m fo Ymo uls. accoding o  Nihon shoki , dsign-

ion of Òmuji ws givn o ld of Mononob duing ignof Ymo moun Yûyku duing l lf of fif cnuy.9 

Mononob ow s o v coninud uninud f unil

i df nds of Sog in 587.

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  Queen Mother of the West & Ghosts of Buddhist Tradition 91

 as Ymo uls duing fif nd six cnuis soug o xnd

bd nd d of i c coss Jns islnds nd ino

Kon ninsul, Mononob o v bcom  ominn

foc coss no only min islnd of honsû, bu lso ov muc ofKyûsû s wll.10 Bcus of is, i s lg numb of kin-

si gous nd nwly fomd svic-gou lings wi oos in

Kon ninsul found i udn o cll mslvs Mononob nd wo-

si Mononob ncsos. ts gous o v fqunly bn

siud n imon nods of nso, wic in un w ofn

sis of oyl ss consucd bo o nic Ymo uls nd o

minin ig gi on sgic s. aloug w cn only scul on

is oin, i sms sonbl o ssum bsoion of immignlings ino Mononob would lso v fcilid Mononob involv-

mn wi immign diis.

On ky of ovl bwn culic nd gooliicl concns ly

in dvlomn of is of sii oiiion inscions (chi-

mata) of sgic ods nd wwys coss Ymo. By l six

cnuy kinsi gous suc s Mononob nly soug conol of

suc nods of ffic no only fo i conomic nd miliy imonc

bu lso fo culic conol y omisd ov ny givn gion.11

 tus in  Nihon shoki nd  Kojiki  w find numous fncs o is

mjo cossods nd bods dsignd o bing bou subjugion

of bo siiul nd miliy nmis of Ymo cou.12 By im

of comosiion of tiò lw cods in 701, suc cics d bn

codifid wiin oyl cul in suc is s Mici no Msui, wic

involvd oiiion of diss-cusing siis long odsids wi

offings of niml ids long odsids. 

Givn wid viy of kinsi gous climd dscn fom

Mononob ncsos, i is imon o mmb Mononob w

no singl, monoliic uni in ms of oigins o culic cic. No sould

Mononob—o ny kinsi gou fom iod—b undsood in

ny “nul” o biologicl sns. r, Mononob w socilly

consucd nomnon os in sons o oliicl liis of

g. tis mn   cosivnss of s consucd lings ws

mos likly nncd by wosi of common ncsos, bu

culic flxibiliy inn in suc s sysm mn oliicl uvls

could gn widsd culic lignmns. tis dynmic nsud bsoion nd dissl of immign kinsi gous lignd wi

Mononob would sul in ofound consquncs fo dvlo-

mn of culic cics in Jns islnds.

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 92 Weaving and Binding 

 among mos imon kinsi gous, fo ou uoss, w os

bo climd dscn fom Mononob ncsos nd w ssocid

 wi sgic cossods (chimata). On suc ling ws Kuskb,

kinsi gou , s w sw in C 3, ws ominn in Kyûsû s wll s in him nd svl o cosl ovincs long Inlnd nd

 Jn/esn ss. t Kuskb nly followd n common

o svl kinsi gous ffilid wi Mononob in wk of

Sog vicoy. evn s Mononob lnds in him ovinc nd Nniw

 w givn o pinc Kmisumiy, Kuskb cm o b closly con-

ncd wi Sinnòji, vy ml Kmisumiy is sid o v

consucd following df of Mononob.13 O kinsi gous

followd is n includd Inb, n immign kinsi goufom Sill ws ominn in Nniw , nd Fumi no Obio,

no immign kinsi gou cnd in Kwci ovinc clos o

eg chimata.14 

 among mos imon chimata in gions conolld by Monon-

ob w Isonokmi chimata  inscion of U Ll

higwy nd Ymd ab higwy in sn Ymo, Kok

chimata in Ikom mounins of Ymo ovinc, nd eg chimata

in Kwci ovinc.15

 evidnc fo Mononob involvmn in chimatais cn b sn in lgnds in ly N-iod ovincil gzs

dic mmbs of Mononob cifying vngful diis odsids

vn in disn Kyûsû.16 Following df of Mononob, conol

of s chimata s o v in mos css flln o Kmisumiy nd

Sog, wo coninud o us m s iul cns fo cificion

of siis nd subjugion of nmis. as kinsi gous suc s

Kuskb, Inb, nd Fumi no Obio w by bsobd ino

Sog ow sucu, y coninud o ly mjo ol in olif-

ion of Cins culs of sii cificion in Ymo. Bcus s sm

lings w l fofon of ly cul of pinc Sòoku, y

lso sn cucil culic link bwn inc nd vy ling

is sid o v dsoyd.

 The Mnnbe and Spirit Pacificatin 

 aloug Mononob dicd in founding lgnd of J-

ns Buddism s dfnds of “niv” ligious diions in fc of

inoducion of “foign” Buddis diion, is g dl ofvidnc suggsing Mononob w closly involvd bo in

fomion of cou is of sii cificion nd inoducion of culic

lmns fom Kon ninsul o Ymo cou. as Okd Sisi

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  Queen Mother of the West & Ghosts of Buddhist Tradition 93

s nod, wiin  Nihon shoki Mononob sid o v cd

inncl of ow somim duing l fif cnuy, wn sis

of uls suc s “G King” Wku md i cils in Kwci

gion of cnl Jn. On indicion of Mononob’s ol s iul s-ciliss cn b sn in i nm; suffix “-be ” indics svic gou,

nd m “mono” clly mns no “ing,” s i would in modn J-

ns, bu “sii” o “dmon” (s in “mononoke ”). tus i would

fo muc of six cnuy Mononob w in nm nd fc sii

svic gou. In simil vin, Msum tksi s nod vidnc

fo Mononob involvmn wi ninsul cn b sn no only in

smiisoicl ccouns of  Nihon shoki , bu lso in fc svl

ominn Mononob bo ils fom Kon kingdom of pkc.17

Fu vidnc of Mononob involvmn in is of sii oii-

ion cn b sn in Sendai kuji hongi, n ly hin-iod myo-is-

oicl x oug o v bn comild by mmb of Mononob.18 

In following ssg Mononob ncso Umsimji no Mikoo is

cdid wi insucing fis Ymo ul, Jinmu, in fomnc of

Cinkonsi (Mim Sizum Msui), i of sii cificion ,

s w sw in C 3, ws fomd by cou duing Nw Y.

 af foming i of blssing nd cificion (kotohoki ) Umsimjino Mikoo ls Mononob sll of sucion:

t vnly diy insucd if w n [of body]

in in, [on sould] us s n gli, sying “On, wo, ,

fou, fiv, six, svn, ig, nin, n, furu be, yura yura to furube.”

Don in is wy, dd will com bck o lif. tis is oigin of

Sll of Fuu. t oigins of Cinkonsi o b found .19

 aloug fw conmoy scols would cc is x’s ssion

Cinkonsi  ws divd fom Mononob is, fc suc n ss-

ion could b lusibly md suggss vn in ly nin cnuy

Mononob w closly ssocid wi suc cics. Mo imon fom

ou sciv, owv, bov x nd o ssgs in Sendai

kujihongi songly suggs Mononob cicd i own vsion of

is of sii cificion nd sucion Isonokmi sin.20 

Chimata , Hokai , and the Queen Mther By im Mononob cd k of i ow in finl

qu of six cnuy, Mononob culic cns nd chimata w

nly so dly inscibd ino culic lndsc of Jns

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 94 Weaving and Binding 

islnds y w bl o s o considbl dg culic

in in wic Jns Buddis diion dvlod. On xml

of ow is ocss unfoldd cn b sn fom isoy of sgic

cossods n villg of Ngno in eg disic of Kwci ov-inc. In  Nihon shoki w old duing ign of Yûyku is

ws cdd o Mononob cmony ook lc

bs of tachibana (Jns ong)  in eg.21  Wn Mononob

sblisd mjo bs in djcn Wk disic of Kwci, y

lso xndd i influnc ov locl lings suc s Fumi no

Obio, n immign kinsi gou bsd in villg of Ngno in eg.

Following dmis of Mononob, Fumi no Obio buil i kin-

si gou ml Fujiid in Ngno, wic l bcm cn fo cul of Mononob’s nmsis, pinc Sòoku. tus w ny numb

of Buddis insiuions nd nivs in Jn ood in gound d

by -xising culic cns, s kinsi gous suc s Fumi no Obio

fis cm und swy of Mononob only o l b bsobd ino

obi of pinc Kmisumiy nd Sog.22

t Fumi no Imiki lso known o v lyd n imon ol in

cou-sonsod is of cificion Nniw cnl. accoding o

 Jingiryò, s of gulions in tiò lw cods govning cou’siul civiis, Fumi no Obio w dsignd by cou o d

liugy using Cins onunciions s of ri of G puificion

(Ò), on of mos imon is on Jns iul clnd. tis

i, wic ws mos likly fis fomd in is fom in 703, ws cid ou

by s Nniw.23  aloug  Jingiryò dos no, unfounly, ovid

us wi x of invocion,  Engishiki , n ly-n-cnuy cou

comndium conins mny old mils, givs x s follows:

 W umbly bsc Sum rul of hvn, (Six) G

Lods of t tcs, sun, moon, ss, nd ln-

s, oss of gods in ig dicions, bis of umn dsiny

nd ks of cods, F King of es on lf,

Mo Qun of Ws on ig, fiv uls of fiv dic-

ions, fou clims of fou ssons, s w umbly sn s

silv ffigis [hitogata], w bsc y, f us fom clmiis. as w

umbly sn goldn swod, w bsc y, olong ign

of ou Sovign. W onounc cm: to s s f s Fusò,o ws s f s Yu yn, o sou s f s buning oics,

o no s f s cic [wk ws], o ousnd ciis,

undd counis, l nl ign xnd. Bnzi! Bnzi!24

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  Queen Mother of the West & Ghosts of Buddhist Tradition 95

tis liugy is mkbl no only fo fc i ws o b d

 wi Cins onunciions, bu lso fo is clos colion wi is of

sii cificion ood in Cins sologicl nd clndicl noions.25 

No only is x ddicd o Sum Lod of hvn, i lso con-inus wi n xnsiv iion of sl siis, ssonl diis, nd dic-

ionl gods fom Cins myology, suc s Qun Mo of Ws

nd coun, King F of es. t x is lso nobl in

i fs o Jn s “Fusò,” n islnd of immols in tois myol-

ogy, nd fo is fnc o “wk ws,” m fqunly ssocid

 wi Qun Mo.26 Finlly, is i illuss ow slls w usd in

conjuncion wi scgo dolls, o hitogata, o bsob imuiis fom

body of ul bfo y w disosd of in s Nniw.27 Fu clus s o nu of Ò cn b found in is locion

in cou’s iul clnd. accoding o  Jingiryò,  Ò ws -

fomd on ls dy of y nd on finl dy of six mon.28 

t Ò  ws us bo i of uificion nd mjo of is

of wold nwl ook lc Nw Y. t iing of s ds

gin flcs cou’s clos dnc o Cins iul clnd, in

 wic fis nd svn mons w closly conncd.29 ps vn

mo imon fo ou uoss, s of Nw Y nd svnmon w lso iods of Cins iul clnd mos closly

ssocid wi Qun Mo of Ws.30 all of is us suggss

s kinsi gous suc s Fumi no Obio w ssimild ino

Sog ow sucu, coninnl is of sii cificion oiginlly

ssocid wi Mononob nd i follows w bsobd ino

minsm of cou iul cic.

tis in un is of immdi lvnc fo undsnding foundionl

lgnd of Jns Buddism, fo Ò i in mny wys bs

clos smblnc o  Nihon shoki ’s ccoun of ow Moiy disosd of

Buddis img fom pkc io o bl bwn Sog nd

Mononob. Moiy is sid o go o Nniw fom Wk o id lnd of

 w blivs o b diss-cusing sii. t ows img

of Budd ino s. In Ò,  Fumi no Obio, wo w

lso bsd in Wk, fom i of xocism in Nniw in wic y

us ml hitogata o bsob imuiis mig bing diss o ul

nd cil. ts, oo, w n own ino s.

 all of is suggss lings suc s Fumi no Obio woiginlly ffilid wi Mononob lyd n imon ol no only in

comosiion of founding lgnd of Jns Buddism, bu lso in

cou-sonsod liugis suc s Ò. Mo bodly, ominnc

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 96 Weaving and Binding 

of Mononob-ffilid lings lso clls ino qusion common cc-

izion of Mononob nd i llis oosing inoducion of “fo-

ign” gods nd culs. Indd, onc w bndon mis Monon-

ob w simly consviv xnoobs, i bcoms ossibl o d icions in founding lgnd of Jns Buddism lmos nily in

ms of is of sii cificion ood ls in in Cins iul nd

myic diions. F fom bing siml lgnd bou suio fficcy

of “foign” Buddis diion, x sows Moiy foming iul

closly smbling cics ssocid wi Qun Mo of Ws

nd Cins sologicl culs.

I suggs, fo, f fom bing ciony niviss,

Mononob my v bn ominn iuliss wo civly nggd in dvlomn of nw iul sysms bsd on is nd blifs of

Cins iul clnd. In lig of x’s xlici smn Moiy’s

cions w undkn in dfns of “niv” culic cic, lgnd

 would o suggs Cins is of sii cificion d ldy

bcom wovn ino bsic fbic of Jns culic lif duing iod

of Mononob’s scndncy.

 The Queen Mther f the west in China and Japan 

to w dg d cul of Qun Mo of Ws nd o

Cins iul os nd Jns islnds in wk of

Mononob? Ws influnc of suc culs limid o on o wo cou

liugis, o ws i mo widsd? and if cul of Qun Mo

of Ws ws by im n imon lmn in ligious lif of

Jns islnds, in w wys did i influnc founding lgnd of

 Jns Buddism? I oos o ddss s issus by dlining

Qun Mo’s mos ominn culic ibus nd n xmining o

 w dg y cn b found in culs nd lgnds ssocid wi

lings fofon of ly Sòoku cul.

On of lis, mos coml dsciions of Qun Mo in

clssicl Cins soucs coms fom Shan hai ching , wic dscibs

Qun Mo’s nc s follows:

Sou of wsn lk, by sos of flowing snds, bind

rd riv nd bfo Blck riv is g mouninclld “ igs of K’un lun.” t siis wi umn

fcs nd bodis of igs, sid nd wi ils, wi in ll css.

Blow, ds of Juo iv [Wk Ws] ncicl

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  Queen Mother of the West & Ghosts of Buddhist Tradition 97 

so. Wiou, is mounin of flming fi, nd wn

n objc is cs in i is immdily bun. t is son wo

 ws [wving imlmn known s ] sheng  on d, wi

of ig nd il of lod; s dwlls in cv nd is

nmd Qun Mo of Ws. On is mounin found

ll mnn of living cus.31

 

In  Po wu chih w lso find dicion of Qun Mo in con-

x of fmd visi o emo hn Wu-i:

hn Wu i lovd wys of immol bings nd usd o

 wosi fmous mounins nd g lks so s o sk wys ofos oly ons. Onc uon im Qun Mo of Ws sn

mssng iding uon wi sg o ll mo s

 ws coming; so funisd hll of Nin Flowy Dligs

 wi cuins o wi visi. On svn dy of svn

mon, svn division of clock, Qun Mo ivd

ws sid of ll, iding in cig of ul clouds.

Bing on sou [sic] sid s fcd s; on d s cid

svn-fold ngis of nw gow, ulsing lik clouds. tgn bids, s lg s cows, wid in ndnc sid; nd

givn momn lm of nin ligs ws s u.

t mo ws on s sid, fcing ws. t Qun

Mo oducd svn cs, siz of lls; fiv s gv o

mo, wo s slf. Wn mo d n is

fui, sigwy lid is in fon of is kns. “W sll you

do wi c sons you v kn?” skd Qun. “t

cs so sw nd xclln I sould lik o ln m,”

lid mo. Wi smil Qun Mo old im

c s would b fui only onc in vy 3,000 ys.32

ts ssgs suggs svl imon lmns of ly Cins -

snions of Qun Mo. Of icul no bids sid o

sv s mssngs, wic ofn o on sid of Qun in

ly Cins iconogy. ts bids “s lg s cows” lso

fqunly dicd individully s n niml known s t-lggd

Cow, wic ws ofn sown gins bckgound of n uol -sning sun.33

t Shan hai ching ssg lso sbliss Qun Mo s

ul of Moun Kunlun, bod o wic siis go f lving wold

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 98 Weaving and Binding 

of living. Fo is son Qun Mo ws fqunly snd

in hn nd Six Dynsis omb inings in Cin. t dg o wic

Qun Mo ws ssocid wi flif nd cificion of siis

is suggsd in fmd M wng ui sy fom hn dynsy Cin. In sy Qun Mo is dicd scoing soul of dcsd

o Wsn pdis.34 a u lf-nd con is t-lggd

Cow gins n uol of sun. Flnking is on u ig-nd

con is bbi in moon ing lixi of immoliy. 35

tis moif of Qun Mo guiding siis of dd o -

dis involvd mo, owv, n simly oviding fo os-mom

bliss of dd. Fom ncin ims imy gol of Cins d

iuls s bn o guid sii of dcsd o iully oilocl w i cn n civ offings. tus n ssnil lmn of suc

is ws “clling bck” (C: chao hun, J: shòkon) of sii. as w sw

in C 2 wn discussing  shòkon i ws fomd fo tnmu

soly bfo is d, is involvd iniil ms o viv dying

individul by uniing sii wi body. If s fild, soul ws

n guidd o n oi iul cn nd sing lc.36 Filu o do

so lf confusd nd ngy siis on o wnding on odsids nd

 wking voc mong living.37

 

Icngraphy f the Queen Mther 

By im of comosiion of  Po wu chih in mid-id cn-

uy C.e. i is lso cl  Qun Mo d lso bcom n un-

ico of viu of uls. Vious xs cod mings bwn

Qun Mo nd suc sg uls s King Mu of Cou, nd myic

ul hung i.38 t Qun Mo’s ssociion wi sg kingsi is -

s mos clly sn, owv, in sis of xs dicing ming

 wi hn emo Wu-i. t nu of Qun’s lionsi wi

is ul cn b sn no only in  Po wu chih ssg cid bov, bu

lso in sis of xs dic Qun Mo offing cs of

immoliy o hn Wu-i long wi xoions o viu. Imlici in is

nd o suc nivs is Qun Mo’s ol s guid o lnd of

immols nd unico of sg viu of kings.39 

t cs givn emo hn Wu-i iglig on fu lmn

in Qun’s culic idniy. as is so ofn cs in es asin ligion,

s symbols of immoliy lso funciond s imlmns of sii-qui-ing. By hn dynsy cs nd c wood w blivd o b ffi-

ccious in cificion of dmons, nd ssociion of cs wi

sii cificion coninud fo cnuis. t Ching ch’u sui shih chi , fo

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  Queen Mother of the West & Ghosts of Buddhist Tradition 99

insnc, nos duing Nw Y muls of cs w sd

on doofms of ouss, long wi imgs of cickns, bcus “

undd dmons f is.”40

t is ml xul vidnc suc concions w wll und-sood in -N Jn. t  Nihon shoki , in dicing god Izngi’s

flig fom lnd of dd, s im uling cs o fnd off

und siis usu im:

Now im on sid of od ws lg c .

Izngi fo id imslf foo of nd ook is fui

nd w i und [siis], wic ll n wy. tis is

oigin of [ cic] of using cs o k wy dmons.41

tis ssg igligs dg o wic Cins moifs of sii

cificion could m vn suosdly indignous mys in cou

conicls. t ssion on of dios of  Nihon shoki   is

is “oigin of cic of king off vil siis by mns of cs”

lso suggss y ssumd suc cics w commonly undsood

by i inndd dsi cou. Fo sons f fom cl,

owv, is undsnding of iul fficcis of cs lso cm ob ssocid wi y of Jns ong known s tachibana, fo

by N iod i ws common cic fo ol o lc tachibana

insd of cs bov doofms of i ouss Nw Y.42 

ps mos disinciv lmn in Qun Mo’s icono-

gic snions, owv, ly in ddss, wic ly xs

suc s  Po wu chih ssg cid bov consisnly f o s wv-

ing imlmn known s “ sheng .” t ssociion of Qun Mo

 wi wving imlmn obbly flcs fc fom n ly d

cul of Qun Mo ws ssocid wi svn dy of

svn mon, wic ws lso fsivl dy fo cul of Wving

Midn nd Cowd. evidnc fo is cn b found no only in

Qun Mo’s iconogy, bu lso fom xs suc s  Po wu chih 

ssg cid bov nd bod hn Wu-i lgnd cous, in wic

ul is sid o v m Qun Mo on is dy. tus fom vy

ly d Qun Mo cm o b ssocid bo wi fsivl of

Wving Midn on svn dy of svn mon nd is

of wold nwl occud duing fis wks of Nw Y.43 ts wo iods in Cins fsivl clnd w lso c-

cizd by ignd iul incions bwn living nd

siis of dd. Duing fis fifn dys of Nw Y, siis

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100 Weaving and Binding 

nd ncsos w oug o b bl o un o lm of liv-

ing—cll, fo insnc,  Nihon ryòiki niv in wic sii lls

monk Dòò’s ssisn only on v of Nw Y ws i

ossibl fo siis o un nd nk living fo i offings. tfis fifn dys of svn mon w lso closly idnifid wi

oiiion of dcsd ncsos nd siis. ps bs indicion

of is cn b sn fom Buddis oiion of fifn dy of

svn mon s culmining d of gos fsivl.44

In ddiion o is obvious ssociions wi wving culs nd sicul-

u, Kominmi Iciò s lso suggsd  sheng  ws closly linkd

 wi ffos o “cll bck siis” (chao hun) of cnly dcsd. 

In suo of is clim Kominmi nos wo dys in Cinsfsivl clnd mos closly ssocid wi Qun Mo w

svn dy of fis mon nd svn dy of svn mon.

Bo dys, s w v jus sn, w midoins duing iods of ig-

nd iul incions wi siis of dd. Kominmi lso nos

Qun Mo’s ssociion wi s ds ws lso xssd

in  Po wu chih nd o xs by ving Qun Mo wing

no on, bu svn  sheng  in ddss. aloug w cn only scu-

l s o iul significnc of svn  sheng , Kominmi nos ss of svn dolls v bn und in ombs in tufn

sd mkbly lik svn sheng . In lig of fc s dolls b

insciions ding “chao hun,” Kominmi gus s dolls,

nd s  sheng s wll, svd s iul imlmns fo conolling

siis of dd.45 

 The Three-legged Cr and the Hakuji 

t Qun Mo’s clos ssociion wi t-lggd Cow,

 sheng, tachibana, nd is of sii cificion ovid us od m fo

cing influncs of cul in N Jn. Onc w look fo s l-

mns in culic cics nd ncsl lgnds of immign kinsi

gous mos closly ffilid wi ly Sòoku cul, i bcoms os-

sibl o s ow nd wy ly Buddis diion und o Qun

Mo fo l in dling wi goss in is s.

 among mos imon soucs of infomion w v bou

ol of cul of Qun Mo in ly Jn cn b found in

 Nihon shoki  nd Shoku nihongi, bo of wic cod vious omnsnd nomlis cd nion of cou.46 

ps mos vling insnc is lngy ccoun in  Nihon

 shoki concning wi sn, o hakuji , soy ws snd

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  Queen Mother of the West & Ghosts of Buddhist Tradition 101

by Kuskb Muji Sikibu o cou of Ymo ul Kòoku in 645.

 as w v sn dly, Kuskb w Mononob-ffilid lin-

g lyd ominn ol in nsmission of coninnl culic

cics o Jns islnds. Bcus  Nihon shoki   ovids nxmly dild ccoun of ow sn ws civd Kòoku’s

cou, is incidn ovids n unusully good snso of ow omns

nd divinion w undsood by dios of  Nihon shoki . accod-

ing o x cou ws unsu bou ow o in omn nd

fo skd numous figus o in is significnc in lig of

isoicl cdn. a yicl sons is ibud o minn monk

Dòò, wo is sid o v sd:

Long go Koguyô wisd o build ml, nd ws no

lc wn unxmind. tn in on lc wi d [ws

sn] slowly moving bou, nd vnully ml nmd

tml of Gdn of Wi D ws buil si fo

sblismn of Buddis Lw . also, [wn] wi sow

 ws sn on s of on ml, ol of lnd ll sid

i ws n usicious omn. also n mbssdo wo ws sn

fom G t’ng [onc] boug wi im dd -lggdcow. t ol of lnd gin sid is ws n usicious

omn. aloug s ll bu smll ings, y sill sid o b

usicious ims. how muc mo so is wi sn.47

t x coninus by sing hakuji ws officilly snd o

cou cmonis mking dvn of following Nw Y.

 W lso old cou oclimd s of nw ign ,

bing nm hkuji, long wi is mking bginning of

nw .

rgdlss of isoicl vlidiy of  Nihon shoki ccoun, i is

significn dios fl vn dd, imod fowl could lusi-

bly b consud s good omn. tis ignd wnss of omns nd

symbols suc s t-lggd Cow mss wll wi cn colog-

icl discovis in Ko nd Jn. t snc of bo t-lggd

Cow nd  cul of Qun Mo in omb inings dd o fif

cnuy in Koguyô suggss cul of Qun Mo ws wll

sblisd on Kon ninsul by Dòò’s im.48 In Jn, similly,n img of t-lggd Cow s gins uol of sun cn

b sn in tmmusi sin hòyuji.49 all of is songly suggss

Qun Mo nd missy w of comlx of is nd

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102 Weaving and Binding 

symbols nsmid o Jns islnds long wi Cins iul

clnd nd Cins divinoy xs.

Fu vidnc fo imonc of is comlx cn b sn in

lvn y of tnmu’s ign, wn w old -lggdcock ws snd o cou. tn duing Nw Y cmonis

of 701, flg bing n img of cow ws lnd squly min

g of cou’s min cmonil ll, flnkd on ll sids by imgs of

zodicl symbols of fou cdinl dicions.50 acologicl mins

s wll s ccouns of suc nimls in subsqun cou iul mnuls

confim y w n imon of cou is ougou N

nd hin iods.51 all of is us songly suggss vn bfo

N iod cows nd -lggd bids d bcom fimly sblisdlmns in symbolic vocbuly of cou.

t Nihon shoki dicion of snion of hakuji us s

o b mblmic of n imon uning oin in oliicizion of

Cins iul clnd; vn bfo N iod, uls of Jns

islnds d bgun ocliming cngs in nms in od o mk

nc of usicious omns. Indd, snion of usicious

omns soon bcm n sblisd of Nw Y’s is dsignd o

uify cil nd omo mos oiml condiions fo com-ing y. Bcus iul ns nd cics of fis fifn dys

of Nw Y w oug o dmin cc of subsqun

vns duing coming y, cowding of usicious omns ino is

iod lso sifis o cou’s gowing soisicion in using iul

clnd. In mking nc of usicious omns in is wy,

 Ymo cou us lcd islf squly in minsm of w ws n

cun cic ougou es asi. In 690, fo xml, Yu yang tsa

tsu cods emss Wu ws snd wi t-lggd Cow

s ind s vliding “soion” of Cou dynsy.52 

On fu mnifsion of imonc of usicious cows fo

 Jns uls cn b found in sis of lgnds focusing on Yg-

su, myic cow ws climd s founding ncso of Kmo

kinsi gou in Ymsio ovinc.53

t figu of Ygsu s dwn nion of Jns scol-

s bcus of is ominnc in  Nihon shoki nd Kojiki  ccouns of

conqus of Jns islnds by lgndy oyl ncso  Jinmu. In

 Nihon shoki Ygsu, f ing o Jinmu in dm, comscully o Jinmu Ud/Yosino, gion , s w sw in C 3,

svd s n imon nodl oin fo nsmission of coninnl is

nd blifs ssocid wi immoliy.

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  Queen Mother of the West & Ghosts of Buddhist Tradition 103

 a im amsu no Òmikmi insucd tennò in dm,

sying: “I will now snd [o you] Ygsu. Us i s guid

coss lnd.” tn Ygsu did in fc flying down

fom sky. t tennò sid “tis cow’s ivl s bn gnd [in

ccodnc wi] usicious dm. how g, ow mgnificn!

My oyl ncso amsu no Òmikmi wiss o id m in

sblising oyl lin!”

  a is im hi no Omi no Mikoo, disn ncso of

Òomo, king Òkum wi im s commnd of g my, wn

u o n oning in mounins. Looking u nd following f

cow, y finlly ivd in low disic of Ud.54

 aloug no oin dos  Nihon shoki  xlicily link t-lggd

Cow wi Ygsu, Sinkw s nod solid vidnc suggsing

susind ins on of cou in Ygsu nd t-

lggd Cow ougou l N nd ly hin iods. In 780,

fo insnc, cou sblisd Ygsu sin in Ud disic

of Ymo.55 By im of ccssion is of Junn tennò in 823,

 Ygsu ws xlicily idnifid wi t-lggd Cow.56  t

ominnc of is Kmo ncso could only v incsd dmicllyfollowing cou’s doion of Kmo sin s cif iul cn

of cil in 810.

t Kmo nd h, owv, w by no mns only dvos of

Sòoku cul o oi symbols of Qun Mo fo i

own ncsl lgnds. On of cls xmls of Sòoku dvos

dicing i ncsos gins bckgound of cul of Qun

Mo cn b sn in following lgnd concning tjim Moi, n

ncso of Miyk Muji. t Miyk Muji w y no immi-

gn kinsi gou bsd long cos of Jn/esn S

 w closly ssocid wi Sinnòji nd ly Sòoku cul. t

lgnd s found in  Nihon shoki  ds s follows:

90 y, Sing, 2nd mon, 1s dy. t tennò commndd tjim

Moi o go o tokoyo o sc fo fui is vlsingly fgn.

tis is now clld tachibana.57

99 y, Sing, 3d mon. tuon tjim Moi und

fom tokoyo bing fui is vlsingly fgn. . . .tjim Moi ws filld wi gif nd w, sying, “hving civd

n od fom hvnly cou, I v gon o disn lnd,

cossing ov n ousnd ri  of wvs nd disn wk ws.

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104 Weaving and Binding 

tis lnd of tokoyo is w immols concl mslvs,

nd odiny mols cnno go . tus in cous of is

 voyg n ys ssd. how could I v oug ll lon I

could wisnd ig wvs nd un o my niv lnd? Y

dnding on siis of Sg Kings, I v bly mngd

o un. [Bu] now tennò is ldy dd nd I cnno mk my

o. aloug I min liv, w would i ofi m? h n

 wn nd wild bfo tennò’s omb nd n imslf did.

 Wn miniss nd ol d of is, y w ll movd o

s.58

Svl fcos songly suggs linkgs wi cul of QunMo. among mos imon fnc o “wk ws,”

m ofn usd o idnify ws suounding Qun Mo’s

bod on Moun Kunlun, nd moif of fui of immoliy. t s-

cil nu of tjim Moi imslf is suggsd by is dclion

s bn bl o go “w immols concl mslvs, nd odiny

mols cnno go.” tus Miyk climd s n ncso n immo-

l cbl of vling bck nd fo bwn Kunlun nd Jns

islnds.t lngug of x lso suggss clos colion wi is

ssocid wi Mononob nd i ins. “Wk ws,” fo

insnc, dicly cos fnc o “wk ws” in Ò

liugy d by Fumi no Obio fom Kwci. Fu sonncs wi

Fumi no Obio’s culic cics cn b sn in  niv’s ssion

fui of immoliy ind by tjim Moi ws non o n

Jns tachibana.

 The Queen Mther and Shòtku

Long bfo Ymo cou dod Cins iul clnd,

is of sii cificion ssocid wi Qun Mo d com o

m iul in Cin bo cou nd mong oulc. Fu

vidnc of influnc of suc is cn b sn in tois iul cln-

d, in wic fifn dy of fis, svn, nd n mons w

sid o b ds wn Qun Mo nd mmbs of tois

non w blivd o od ffis of bo living nd dd.

ts ds, known collcivly s  san yuan,  w in un cddiully by  san hui,  svn dy of fis nd svn mons nd

fif dy of n mon, duing wic dvos would ssmbl fo

fomnc of scil is.59

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  Queen Mother of the West & Ghosts of Buddhist Tradition 105

Suc tois cics d bn buil uon longsnding oul li-

gious cics involving is of sii cificion nd niml scific on

s dys. tus on fis dy of Nw Y’s iod i ws cusomy

o scific oos nd sd is blood on on’s g in od o wd offvil siis. Niv commnos fom s ly s hn dynsy xlind

is cic bo in conncion wi cock’s cow using in Nw

 Y s wll s fficcy of blood of yang  nimls suc s ooss

nd dogs in lling diss-bing yin siis.60 

By six cnuy, owv, scific of liv nimls in Cin d

bn widly lcd o sulmnd by mniulion of iul ffi-

gis, muls, bs, nd vn fuis, mny of wic w ofn mound on

gs. t oos of s cics xlind in mnn fom Chingch’u sui shih chi , wic ss on Nw Y, “Imgs of cickns

sd on doos. abov m y ng bidd ds nd ins c

 wood muls in sids. t undd dmons f is.”61 t Ching ch’u

 sui shih chi coninus by diling is fomd on svn dy of

Nw Y, wic ws known s “dy of umns” ( jen jih). as w v

ldy nod,  jen jih ws id iully wi is coun six mons

l midoin of Cins iul cycl.62 t d, of cous, ws

non o n svn dy of svn mon, d ddicdo culs of Qun Mo of Ws nd Wv Midn nd

Cowd. No suisingly, is ld o Qun Mo nd sii

cificion ominnly on is dy. t Ching ch’u sui shih chi  

ss coss soun Cin cusom on is dy ws s follows:

t svn dy of fis mon is known s dy of umns

( jen jih). Gul is md wi svn ys of vgbls. Clo is cu in

s of umn figus. Som ol cv s of umn

figus ino foil nd sick m on scns o w m in i i.

Som mk flow ddsss ( sheng ) nd xcng m. [pol

lso] climb o ig [gound] nd comos oy.

  t [cusom of mking nd xcnging] sheng bgn duing

Cin. S ny gding Ci C’ung’s wif Mdm Li [in

 History of Chin], wic sys y “sould b md lik usicious

dwings in s of goldn sheng .” ty lso sn

ddss of Qun Mo of Ws.63

 as inlin nos o x mk cl, s is nd symbol

of  sheng w undsood wiin conx of g-old ojc of

ocing ousold fom mis of dmons:

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106 Weaving and Binding 

t svn dy of fis mon is dy of umns, us i is

clld “ jen jih.” t clo is cu nd foil is cvd ll

md ino s of umns. all signify umniy. I is sm s

uing imgs of cickns on g.64

By igliging fc umn imgs nd dolls w usd in

Cin o sn Qun Mo’s ddss, x mks cl

suc is w no limid o li lmns of oulion, bu d

nd ino oul culic cic. By six cnuy C.e., sn-

ions of Qun Mo’s ddss s wll s dolls could b

found in ombs coss Cin, fom tufn in nos nd on doo-

fms coss soun Cin.Bcus simil cics w wll sblisd in Jns islnds

vn io o N iod, i is xmly likly N cou ws

fmili wi significnc of bo Qun Mo’s ddss nd

ol in king by siis would dsoy good foun in so

s of y. ts is, in un, w of muc bod culic

movmn coss Jns islnds lid uon us of scgo

dolls nd slls o oc living fom vngful siis of gods nd

dd. Bcus, s w sw in C 2, wving imlmns in sof Qun Mo’s  sheng  w lso bing offd coss Jns

islnds o vngful diis suc s aku him, i s igly likly

lings clos o bo Mononob nd ly Sòoku cul  w using

suc imlmns in is of oiiion nd cificion. I is lso cl

lings fofon of ly Sòoku cul d incood l-

mns fom Qun Mo of Ws ino i own ncsl lgnd

cycls.

 all of is bings us bck o Sòoku’s gsu climcic momn

of founding lgnd of Jns Buddism. Sòoku is sid o v -

fomd is gsu dvn of svn mon— iod closly

ssocid wi Qun Mo of Ws. Wiou climing dic

linkg bwn flows/dolls usd duing  jen jih nd bncs/

imgs scibd o inc, i is nonlss cl climcic

momn in founding lgnd of Jns Buddism, in wic Sòoku

oiis Fou hvnly Kings by lcing i imgs in is i,

 ws ood no so muc in Buddis iul, bu in culic miliu in wic

ol would “cv s of umn figus nd . . . w m ini i” in od o k siis by. h s lsw ougou

founding lgnd of Jns Buddism, suggl bwn Sog nd

Mononob ds in lg s culic comiion in wic bo sids

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  Queen Mother of the West & Ghosts of Buddhist Tradition 107 

sought to utilize such rites to pacify their enemies. Long before the Nara

period, violence and victory, even for the forces of Buddhism, occurred on

a conceptual battlefield shaped by rites and conceptions from the Chinese

ritual calendar.

Conclusion 

In light of the prominence of Chinese-style rites of spirit pacification within

the ostensibly “native” religious practices championed by the Mononobe,

the common characterization of a struggle between forces of nativism ver-

sus advocates of a “foreign” religion no longer appears tenable. Instead,

throughout the narrative both the Mononobe and Shòtoku behave withina common ritual framework determined by the widespread currency of

Chinese ritual elements that were rooted neither in any Buddhist textual

tradition nor in any “native” Japanese tradition. Ironically, as the editors of

the Nihon shoki sought to portray the initial encounter of the Buddhist tra-

dition with the indigenous traditions of the Japanese islands, they codified

a narrative in which the practices of the most xenophobic advocates of

resistance were deeply colored by Chinese rites of spirit pacification and

the Chinese ritual calendar.The sheer pervasiveness of Chinese rites of spirit pacification through-

out the founding legend of Japanese Buddhism also suggests that the image

of the paradigmatic Buddhist sage Shòtoku was constructed to a surpris-

ingly large degree in terms of these same rites of spirit pacification. The

prominence of motifs such as the tachibana, the Three-legged Crow, and

even the Queen Mother’s sheng in a variety of legends and liturgies further

testifies to the widely felt need in Nara Japan to develop ritual means of

coping with violence and disease. For this reason Chinese conceptions of

the afterlife and ritual elements involving chimata and the use of hitogata 

 were from an extremely early date incorporated into the Shòtoku legend

corpus as well as the nascent Buddhist tradition.

The themes of violence and spirit pacification that permeate the found-

ing legend of Japanese Buddhism also suggest that an Atsumori effect played

a major role in determining the nature of cultic practice in early Japan. In

the final analysis Kamitsumiya’s rise to power and all that he accomplished

 were in large part rooted in the violent destruction of the Mononobe and

the appropriation of their lands, laborers, and cultic resources. Materiallythis meant that the construction of temples such as Hòryûji and Shitennòji

 was made possible by the appropriation of Mononobe lands. Cultically, the

absorption of kinship groups such as the Kusakabe and the Fumi no Obito

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108 Weaving and Binding 

into the Soga power structure provided the Soga and those who followed

them with the ritual means and vocabulary to pacify the spirits of their

 vanquished foes.

 Although it is tempting to simply conclude from all this that the earliestroots of the Japanese Buddhist tradition were closely bound up with notions

of purity, violence, disease, and spirit pacification, I would suggest that

there are other, broader lessons to be learned here as well. Most notably,

the founding legend of Japanese Buddhism took shape at a time when the

cult of the royal ancestor Amaterasu and the core rites and legends of the

royal cult were also undergoing rapid development. In the chapters that

follow we shall repeatedly encounter not only the same motifs involving

rulers and spirits, but also, to a surprising degree, the very same lineages as we explore the mythology of the royal cult and the development of such

rites as the Chinkonsai (Rite of Spirit-quieting) and the Òharae 

(the Great

Purification). We will begin this process in Chapter 5 as we trace the origins

and development of the legend of the Heavenly Grandchild during the

peak of the Mononobe and Òtomo ascendancy.

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109 

CHAPTER 5

Shamanesses, Lavatories, and

the Magic of Silk 

Never leave your night soil for someone else’s field.

   —Chinese proverb

IN THE STORY of Rumpelstiltskin, every western child knows that the mys-

terious forest dweller’s ability to spin straw into gold helped a young maid-

en become queen of a kingdom. The basic elements of this legend would

probably have been intelligible to people across Asia by the sixth century

C.E. Indeed, triangles of kings, weavers, and spirits have been ubiquitous

elements in East Asian myths and legends since at least the second century

C.E. These legends were not rooted, however, in the fanciful premise that

straw could be turned into gold. Rather, they focused on something at once

more real and more magical, the transmutation of the cocoons of voracious

silkworms into the garments of courtiers and kings.

Because sericulture constituted something both miraculous and essential,

cults and legends of weavers represent an important intersection of economic,

political, and cultic concerns in premodern China, Korea, and Japan. In ancient

China the cultivation of silkworms and the production of silk involved not

only economic considerations related to the use of land and labor, but also the

development and diffusion of ritual systems based upon early conceptions of

 yin and yang , astronomy, popular myths, and cultic practices. Thus from the

Chou dynasty onward, rites concerned with weaving and sericulture were a

primary ritual concern for rulers and commoners alike.

 As we saw in Chapter 4, among the most prominent mythologicalfigures related to sericulture and weaving in ancient China was the Queen

Mother of the West, who was believed to control the fates of the spirits

of the dead and who was depicted wearing a weaving implement as a

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110 Weaving and Binding 

ddss. Closly ld o cul ws of Wving Midn nd

Cowd, wic combind dis lmns fom Cins sonomy

 wi giculul is focusing on inmn of filiy nd osiy.

Bcus culs of Qun Mo of Ws nd Wving Midnnd Cowd known o v vld o Jns islnds by

ign of tnmu tennò (673–686) ls, y lso sn n imo-

n culic link bwn iul nd mil culu of Cin nd of

mging tennò-cnd oliy of N nd hin iods.

 Wving culs in Cin lso fomd of lg comlx of is

ld o scilizion of bo giculul nd ousold funcions.

evn im of comosiion of  Li chi , o Book of Rites , ov 2,000

 ys go, gulizd is fo gods of ousold funcions w ldyn sblisd of Cins iul lndsc. Bcus dominn

digm fo ow lions in ly Cin ws fmily sucu,

is of ousold w lso dly imlicd in consucion of

nk nd oliicl uoiy. ris closly ssocid wi ousold

fo svd o n no only iul bvio, bu lso mods of socil

ognizion s wll s giculul nd mil oducion. as sul,

ousold diis suc s gods of g, kicn, nd lvoy

mgd s mjo culic figus vn in ublic culic lif. and bcusgiculul sociis dnd vily on nig soil fo filiz, diy of

lvoy in icul occuid n imon lc in c ousold’s

siions fo wl.1

On fu s of diis dicly ld o siculu in ncin Cin

 w numous silkwom goddsss wo offd osiy o os

 wo md offings o m. t nu of suc culs cn b sn in

following lgnd fom  Hsü chi chieh chi , l fif- o ly six-

cnuy Cins comndium of ls nd lgnds:

Cng C’ng of Wu disic wok on nig nd suddnly sw

ldy snding sous con of is sidnc. S isd

nd nd gsud fo C’ng o com nd s . C’ng wn o

nd ldy sid: “tis lc is you silkwom ous. I m

god of is lc. tomoow is middl of fis mon [1.15].

p wi ic gul is ick s s nd off i o m. You

silkwoms nd mulbis will wiou fil incs undd-fold.”

 Wn s d finisd sking, s disd. C’ng dic gul in ccodnc wi insucions nd f obind

g mny silkwoms. tis is oigin of cic of offing

 wi ic gul in middl of fis mon.2

 

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  Shamanesses, Lavatories, and the Magic of Silk 111

Suc is nd lgnds ndud fo millnni in Cin. By Sui

dynsy (581–618)  ws viul idnificion of silkwoms wi wl

in Cin, nd silkwom diis w oougly ingd ino ousold

culs. txs suc s Ching ch’u sui shih chi , six-cnuy gzfom soun Cin, fu suggs comlx of silkwom is ws

closly ingd bo wi iul ming of ousolds nd wi

lvoy goddss, wo ws gully wosid on fifn dy of

fis mon. as w sll s in C 6, is dy, wic ws known s

fis of  san yuan, o “dys of oigin,” ws scificlly ssocid in

Cins fsivl clnd wi lun cul, fml diis, nd, o lss

dg, sii cificion.3 

Bcus ousold diis w ofn closly ld o gnd-scificciviis in Cin, s culs lso d n nomous influnc on

consucion of idniis fo smnsss nd goddsss coss es asi.

tus w find in  Book of Rites   c y on fis dy of id

mon, on of mo’s consos ws o b slcd by lo nd quid

o n iul nclosu nd fd mulby lvs o silkwoms in od o

ssu n bundn suly of silk duing y.4 elsw  Book of

 Rites os Confucius ws filld wi scon fo ml individul wo

 wosid kicn sov diy.5

 Silkwom culs o v nd Jns islnds n ly d; in  Nihon shoki w old of

mssiv millnnil movmn in 644 in wic blivs w ssud

long lif, you, nd ics would b is if y bu wosid n insc

“in nc nily smbls silkwom.”6 

 as w v ldy sn, xclln xul nd cologicl vidnc

suggss gnd-scific nu of bo wving nd wving culs

cid ov o Jn; cll, fo insnc, aku him, vngful diy

of himgoso sin, wo snd slf in fom of wving

imlmns wn s dmndd wosi. howv, significnc of

 wving culs nd imlmns fo gnd nd culic discouss ws by

no mns limid o insncs involving oiiion of vngful god-

dsss.7 Jus s w (tatari ) of fml diis could b dissid wi

offings of wving imlmns, w of ml diis ws fqunly

dissid wi offings of miko (fml smns) s bids. all of is

suggss wll bfo comlion of fis cou conicl, wv-

ing is lyd n imon ol in mdiing incions bwn kami

nd umns, infoming no only mns of oiiion, bu lso consucion of idniis of bo objcs nd subjcs of iul

fomnc.

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112 Weaving and Binding 

I oos o xmin ow suc culs influncd ly snions

of fml smns, o miko, in Jns islnds. tis will involv dis-

cussion of wo closly ld socil/oliicl nomn: fomion of

 wving svic gous duing fif cnuy C.e. nd mgnc ofncsl mys of wving midns in oyl myologis of  Kojiki

nd  Nihon shoki . By king bo influnc nd gnd-scific nu

of wving nd wving culs siously, I no only msiz imonc

of coninnl is fo mys nd lgnds of oyl cul, bu lso sd

nw lig uon ol of fml smns in fomion of oliicl

nd iul dynmics vnully ld o cion of N s.

My focus is on numb of scdol nd svic lings

ominnly snd in cou conicls of sis of uls wosblisd i lcs in Kwci duing l fif nd ly six

cnuis. as w v sn, is iod winssd no only scndn-

cy of Mononob nd Òomo, bu lso influx of lg numbs of

immigns fom Kon ninsul. Sinc is xclln son o

bliv bo Mononob nd Òomo w closly involvd in

imoion of coninnl cnologis nd culic cics, I gu i is

igly likly vn bfo tnmu tennò oclimd imslf vnly

sovign, blifs nd culic cics fom Cins fsivl clnd w ldy n sblisd of culic lif of Jns islnds.

Indd, i would lso s cou oid culic

cns of s lings ino oyl cul, s is my v xd

considbl influnc uon dvlomn of oyl myologis.

I v dividd is c ino wo disinc oug closly ld

scions. t fis xlos mns by wic os concning wving

midns nd sii cificion cm o b inwind wi ncsl

lgnds of uling ous. h I xmin sis of lgnds ld

o dscn of “hvnly Gndcild,” Ninigi no Mikoo, fom

hvnly plin o lnd of Kyûsû. W sll s by focusing on

disff ncsos of sis of svic gous closly ssocid wi

ogion of wving cnologis, i is ossibl o s ow s

lings nd os of Cins fsivl clnd ld dfin

cc nd conn of is nd o oyl ncsl nivs.

In scond scion I xmin founding nivs of Kmo,

Miw, nd Izusi sins— mjo culic cns fo cou

nonlss fud founding lgnds bsd on scd migs bwn wving midn ncsos nd vngful diis byond cou’s conol. I

suggs c of s lgnds ws consucd gins s of bckgound

lgnds fom Cins fsivl clnd ld o wosi of

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  Shamanesses, Lavatories, and the Magic of Silk 113

lvoy goddss clos of Nw Y’s is on fifn dy of

fis mon. Bcus vn duing hin iod s sins w

cnl nods in nwok of sins nd diis consiud fbic

of oyl cul, y mly illus dg o wic oyl cul ws imbud wi culic lmns wi oos scd byond Kyûsû

nd vn Ko ino disn Cins s. ty lso illus d,

bd, nd, mos cucilly, sisnc of suc blifs duing cnuis of

oliicl nd ligious ubulnc.

 weaving, Cult, and Scial Structure

 aloug wovn ims known o v xisd in Jns islndsov 2,000 ys go, cologicl discovis long cos of Jn/

esn S suggs siculu nd wving xincd dmic

ls in bo quniy nd quliy bginning in fif cnuy C.e.8 tis

cosonds wi nis fom  Nihon shoki , wic s wvs

fom Cin nd Kon ninsul w sn o Jns islnds

ougly is im. t x fu ss wving midns w

ousd in suc culic cns s Munk sin in Cikuzn ovinc

in Kyûsû nd Miw sin on Ymo lin.9

 t inoducion of nw wving cnologis ino Ymo s o

v ffcd culic cics nd blifs in svl giss. Fom vy

ly d wovn mils lyd n ssnil ol in incions bwn

umns nd kami   s s vlu of wovn gmns nd wving

imlmns md m bo oi nd n ncssy lmns of

ny oiioy offings. In conjuncion wi s dvlomns, som

oin yly is involving “mig” of wving midns o ncsl

diis lso cm o vd Jns islnds.10 

 accomnying nsfomion of Ymo mil culu ws

inoducion of nw sysms of knowldg ld o, mong o ings,

mnufcu of cloing, sinning of mil, nd ising of

silkwoms. ts in un quid msy of nw cniqus fo ogniz-

ing ol nd mnufcuing ocsss. I is us obbly no ccidn

dvlomn of cfs suc s wving nd mlwoking cm

o m Jns islnds duing sm iod in wic wiing,

cod-king, nd udimny buucic insiuions ook oo

 Ymo cou. By middl of six cnuy, svic gous scilizingin s cnologis ldy o v bn fomd coss J-

ns islnds, so i would dly b suising if, s cngs in mil

culu of Ymo simuld nw mods of oducion nd nw foms of

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114 Weaving and Binding 

socil ognizion, y lso lyd n imon ol in dvlomn

of culic nd iul cics.

On of icul no in is ocss ws mgnc of

smll numb of kinsi gous scilizd in mnging ss, ov-sing oducion, nd unning culic cns ddicd o gods ssocid

 wi siculu. ts dminisos w ofn closly idnifid wi

Kon ninsul, mos likly bcus i sks quid msy of

 vious sysms of knowldg ssocid wi wiing nd s mng-

mn s wll s iul nd myic sysms ood in Cins fsivl

clnd. By msing suc dis sysms of knowldg s nwly

consiud kinsi gous o v ccumuld ow nd fomd

linl idniis on gis mkdly diffn fom of o lings Ymo cou.

ts dvlomns d f-cing ffcs on ligious xis fom

cou o counysid. Incsd scilizion of lbo in oducion

of ndicfs ws ccomnid by incsd scilizion in scdol

funcions ld o vying fom ncsl wosi o is of kingsi.

Fu, nd cucilly, nw cfs, oducion cniqus, nd i sso-

cid culic nd myic soucs w dly imlicd in fomion

of kinsi sucus. Duing is iod knowldg nd iul w sdo sv nds of ling, s ncsos w -visiond in lig of

nw cnologicl nd mil liis. as sul, is nd mys ssoci-

d wi wving nd siculu cm o b blndd wi ncsl culs

nd diis w dfind in ms of bo cf nd kingsi.

Svl ins bou oliicl/scdol ol of suc kinsi gous

cn b found in  Nihon shoki , wic s o b icully concnd

o link kinsi gous ssocid wi wving wi figu fd o

in cou conicls s “Wku” nd commonly known ody by

Cins-syl nm Yûyku.11 aloug vy lil solid isoicl infom-

ion mins bou is Ymo ul, is cdid in  Nihon shoki  nd

 Kojiki  wi fomion of svl svic gous lyd ky ol in

dvlomn of wving culs in ly Ymo. ts sm lings, in

un, o v lyd mjo ol in sing img of Yûyku

mins wi us in cou conicls.

 weaving Lineages and wakateru

 W lil solid infomion w v bou Wku’s ign suggss i my v bn n imon uning oin in isoy of J-

ns islnds. Cins isoicl soucs indic Wku sn dilo-

mic missions o soun Cin, nd duing is ign coninnl foms

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  Shamanesses, Lavatories, and the Magic of Silk 115

of kingsi o v gind ominnc.12 Wku my lso v

bn fis Ymo ul o syl imslf s “G King,” in imiion

of il dod by uls of Kon kingdom of Koguyô. ts

cngs o v com in mids of g dl of umoil ndconflic. Yûyku’s ign s i is dicd in cou conicls ws vn

mo snguiny n usul, s s o v bn concnd wi

dsucion of ominn kinsi gous could v cllngd is

gowing uoiy.

Kò Knkici s cnly suggsd on clu concning

 Wku’s lionsi o wving lings cn b found in ccouns in

cou conicls s Yûyku dsoyd gou of owful

lings in of Kzuki. tis is known o v d xnsivconcs wi Kon ninsul, nd lg immign communiis fom

Kon ninsul known o v sidd . Kò s oosd

h, wo w nly sld in Kzuki by locl mouns,

cm ino obi of Ymo cou is im. 13 ps s sul of

is, in Yûyku cs of cou conicls w find svl f-

ncs o wving is s wll s sins w dminisd by h

nd o immign lings.

t dsucion of owful locl mouns in Kzuki nd lsw  ws lso ccomnid by fomion of svic gous known s be.

ts gous, wic scilizd in oducion of scific commodiis

fo cou, w ognizd linlly s kinsi gous.14 Suc gous w

ssnil in fomion of oyl ss nd cion of scilizd

lbo nbld Ymo uls o xnd i uoiy o incsingly

disn gions. aloug viully ll scifics of is ocss v bn

los in miss of im, culic consquncs o v bn

nomous: lings quid ncsos, nd ncsos quid ncsl

lgnds, ombs, nd culic cns fo fomnc of ncsl is.

ps s sul of is, figu of Yûyku cm o b closly idni-

fid in cou conicls wi ligious cics nd concs dvl-

od in clos conjuncion wi doion of coninnl cnologis

nd fomion of nw lings. ts in un w vily influncd

by is ssocid wi siculu nd ousold funcions in Cin.

No suisingly, ins Ymo uls suc s Wku ook

in ffis on Kon ninsul s o v bn moivd in good

msu by dsi o imo cn culul nd cnologicl dvlo-mns. t sng of linkgs bwn wving cnologis, linl

fomion, nd cnlizion of ow flcd in following

ccoun of soion of h kinsi gou, wic  Nihon shoki

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116 Weaving and Binding 

sns s singl mos imon kinsi gou in Ymo fo o-

ducion of silk nd cloing:

t h ol w dissd nd vious Omi nd Muji

ll usd m s y wisd nd would no lv m o h

no Miysuko. Bcus of is, h no Miysuko Sk ws gly

ggivd, nd wn ino svic of tennò. h bcm

fvoi of tennò,  wo odd h ol ll b

ssmbld nd givn o h no Sk no Kimi. [Sk no] Kimi us

ld 180 kinds of suguri  svic gous nd snd [so mny]

fin silks fo xs [wn y w] ild u y filld

couyd. Fo is ws givn il of “Uzums” One book says“Uzumorimasa”—piled up to overflowing.15 

. . . . . . . .

16 y, auumn, 7 mon. a oyl dic ws issud mulby

s b lnd in suibl ovincs nd disics. t h ol

 w dissd [o s lcs] nd md o sn svic xs.16

 aloug fw scols would cc is ccoun s isoiclly ccu, i

ly illuss on of cnl dynmics in oliics of linl fom-ion in ly Ymo; by “ssmbling” lings suc s h, uls suc

s Wku w bl o oi cnologicl nd buucic skills

suld ov im in dvlomn of nw giculul nd x sys-

ms nd xnsion of cnlizd uoiy.

t Yûyku c of  Nihon shoki lso suggss o kin-

si gous closly ld o h lyd mjo ol in is ocss.

On suc kinsi gou ws Ciiskob, wo cdid in Shin-

 sen shòjiroku wi ging og scd h kinsi gou in

hyûg ovinc.17 Svl lgnds fom  Nihon shoki  concning fo-

mion of Ciiskob kinsi gou suggs y, oo, w closly

involvd wi siculu is nd Cins fsivl clnd:

 Yûyku 6.3.7. t tennò [Yûyku] wisd o mk is consos ln

mulby s wi i own nds in od o ncoug siculu.

So odd Sugu [Sugu is sonl nm] o g silkwoms

[ko] ougou lnd. Now Sugu misundsood nd gd

bbis [wagako], wic snd o tennò. t tennò lugdgly nd gv bbis o Sugu, sying, “You is m.”

Sugu us isd ons by wll of lc. h ws

fo givn il nd md “Ciiskob no Muji.”18

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  Shamanesses, Lavatories, and the Magic of Silk 117 

tis lgnd, oug doublss ocyl, onc gin xmlifis clos

lionsi bwn fomion of svic gous (be ), imoion of

nw cnologis, nd ogion of culic cics fom Cins

fsivl clnd. h Yûyku is oyd in ms lmos cin-ly divd fom Cins cou cics quid ul’s consos o

sonlly ngg in lning of mulbis nd fding of silkwoms

s of id mon. Lgnds suc s s us songly suggs

coninnl cnologis no only fcilid xnsion of ul’s

 wl nd ow, y lso suld in doion of coninnl mods

of sning kingsi. Fosing coninnl cnologis us quid

oging iul foms of Cins clnd nd idologis of

kingsi nd cnlizd govnmn mbddd wiin m fo cnuis.On fu by-oduc ws sblismn of lings knowldgbl in

fomnc of is fo silkwom diis nd wving goddsss.

ts is in un ld omo bod scdol nsfomion

 wiin Jns islnds. Svl ins s o ow is ocss unfoldd

cn b sn in o lgnds involving Ciiskob nd is of sii

cificion. Consid following lgnd fom  Nihon shoki :

t tennò commndd Ciiskob no Muji Sugu, sying: “I wiso s fom of god on Moun Mimuo. Some books say the god

of this mountain is Òmononushi no kami. Others say it is the god of

Sumisaka in Uda. You mn of xcding sng. Go nd siz

[ god] nd bing i bck.” Sugu sid “I sll m o go nd siz

im.” h n climbd Moun Mimuo nd sizd lg snk, wic

sowd o tennò. t tennò, [owv] d no obsvd ny

boos, so snk’s und soundd nd is yblls flsd. t

tennò ws ifid nd covd is ys nd did no look [ i]. h

n fld ino lc nd d [ snk] lsd on ill. ty

ccodingly gv [ god] nw nm, clling i Ikzuci [und].19

tis lgnd, dicing Sugu s iulis cbl of ming volil

und god, ssocis Ciiskob no only wi siculu, bu lso

 wi oiiion of osil diis. two oins of icul no in is

gd (1) diy in qusion is non o n Òmononusi,

min diy Miw sin nd incil objc of wosi of Ymo

uls duing fou nd fif cnuis, nd (2) Yûyku is oyd s singully unqulifid o dl wi god.20 In cons o Sugu’s

sng nd dminion, Yûyku cn only cow in inn cincs

of is lc.

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118 Weaving and Binding 

tis dicion of Yûyku’s f mos obbly flcs svl imon

oliicl nd culic liis of svn- nd ig-cnuy Jn. as w

v sn in C 1, is ml son o bliv Jns

uls fqunly fl inimidd nd bullid by wful locl kami ; cll  Nihon shoki  islf ins no fw n uls w killd

by ngy siis, including wo in finl dcds of svn cnuy.21 

Duing is iod uls ofn und o lings fmili wi coninnl

is of sii cificion fo ocion fom wful gods. On by-oduc

of is ocss s o v bn mgnc of clus of lgnds

in wic founding ncso of scdol ling is dicd s

cild of wving midn nd vngful diy byond conol of

ul of Ymo. ts dvlomns wiin oyl cul w dly imlicd in

lg gooliicl dynmics of g, wic w divn in good

by Ymo cou’s coninud dndnc on Kon ninsul

fo coninnl cnologicl nd culic foms. as Ymo uls suc s

 Wku nd is succssos soug o sv ccss o cnologi-

cl nd culul dvlomns of Kon ninsul, i involvmn

in locl ffis in Kyûsû, min condui of nsf duing iod,

s o v gly incsd. accoding o  Nihon shoki , soly f Yûyku’s ign Ymo cou movd in foc o suss bkwy

lmns in in bloody conflic. tis suld in g conol

by Ymo cou nd in g conc bwn Ymo uls nd

locl culs fom gion.22 On of mos imon culic cns in

gion o civ nion of Ymo cou duing is iod

 ws of Munk sin. as w v ldy sn,  Nihon

 shoki  ss wving midns sn s “ibu” by Kon kingdom

of pkc duing Yûyku’s ign w offd o diis of bo

Miw nd Munk sins. In ddiion o xnsiv cologicl

vidnc documning cou’s involvmn in Munk cul, 

clos is bwn Ymo uls nd sin cn b sn fom

fc Òmononusi, diy of Miw sin nd cif objc of

cou wosi duing Wku’s , ws sid o v bn mid o

Okisusim him no Mikoo, on of fml diis of Munk

sin.23 Wku’s linkgs wi Munk sin of icul

no bcus cologicl findings v dmonsd Munk

diis w no only fml, y w lso gully oiid wi wving imlmns. In lig of fc aku him, diy of

himgoso sin in Ki disic of hizn ws lso snd

 wi wving imlmns, i s igly likly no only wving

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  Shamanesses, Lavatories, and the Magic of Silk 119

cnologis bu lso wving culs d bn nsmid o is gion of

Jns islnds duing six cnuy. 

 Miko , Ancestrs, and one-Night Stands

Sinc  lg numb of immign o Kyûsû diis sisd

co of oyl cul fo cnuis, significnc of ly doion

of Munk sin nd o culic cns in Kyûsû s o v

bn f mo n siml ugmnion of numb of diis oii-

d by cou. as ow of Ymo uls xndd in conjuncion

 wi imoion of coninnl is nd concions of kingsi,

consucion of n ncsl ling fo w vnully cm o b known

s Jns uling ous bcm mjo oliicl nd ligious con-cn. Svl imon ins s o ol lyd by wving culs in

fomion of ly oyl cul cn b found in  Nihon shoki  nd

 Kojiki  ccouns of hvnly Gndcild Niningi’s dscn fom vn

nd subsqun conqus of Jns islnds by is is. Bcus

is lgnd cycl is mos commonly sn s n idologicl ool usd o

jusify Ymo gmony ov Jns islnds, cdmic discous

o d s bn fmd dominnly in ms of niv’s ml

ccs nd imily fom sciv of oyl lin.24

 escillynobl in is gd s bn wok of Kònosi tkmisu, wo s

comllingly gud divgn ccouns of lgnd in  Kojiki nd

 Nihon shoki  flc subsnilly divgn idologis of kingsi mos

likly mgd in l svn cnuy.25

In cons o Kònosi, owv, my concn wi mny ccouns

of is lgnd will b fo w y cn ll us bou myic soucs

cou conicls oid nd nsfomd. r n focus

on (imily ml) oyl ncsos in lgnd, I will discuss ol

of fml smns, consos, nd goddsss ougou

s nivs. Bcus s figus lso s fml ncsos of

ominn cou lings nd s figus of wosi sis coss Jns

islnds, y l vl no only luliy of voics nd gnds

xisd in c of cou conicls, bu lso mkbl dg o

 wic coninnl is nd blifs concning vying fom siculu

o ousold diis w inwind wi ncsl lgnds of som of

mos imon scdol nd miliy lings in ncin Jn.

 Jus ow suc influncs svd s clys fo fomion of llgdly niv concions of kings nd kami   in Ymo cn b sn

onc w consid fml figus closs o Ninigi no Mikoo. as

Misin Sòi nod long go, bsic sucu of lgnd of hvnly

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120 Weaving and Binding 

Gndcild closly mios of nion-founding nivs of Kon

kingdoms, in ll of wic cild of diviniy is sn down fom vn o

clim is kingdom by is mo, wo fo ocion ws im in clo

s s wovn fo im. Wnding bou in sc of is kingdom, divin cild is sd, mis, nd vnully sbliss uling dynsy

of is kingdom.26 evidnc suggsing lmns fom Cins fsivl

clnd d lso bn dod wiin Kon kingdoms cn b sn in

omb inings in Koguyô, wic v dfiniivly sblisd snc

of cul of Wv nd Cowd by fif cnuy.27 enis fom

Samguk sagi , olds isoicl conicl in Ko, similly suggs

by is im wving is w of Koguyò cou’s iul clnd.28

 as Òbysi nd os v nod, muc of sucu of nion-founding lgnds of Kon kingdoms is licd in  Nihon shoki ,

 wic conins svl vsions of my in wic Ninigi no Mikoo,

son of tkmi Musubi’s dug amyoozu tku Ci him (pin-

css hvnly Myid of tousnds nd tousnds of Wving Looms) is

sn down o hyûg ovinc in Kyûsû wd in ociv gmn.29 

 as Ninigi no Mikoo nvigs is wy oug gion wi locl diy

fo guid, ncouns nd mis i of siss, bo of wom

dicd s wving midns nding i looms by iul nclosu:

Ninigi no Mikoo skd “Wos cildn s [midns] wo v

buil on cs of wvs n ig-fulong lc, nd wos

bcls jngl s y nd o i loom.” [t god] nswd “ty

cildn of Òymsumi no Kmi. t ld on is nmd

Iwng him. t young on is nmd Konon Skuy him,

[oug s is] lso known s toyosu him.” . . . Ninigi no Mikoo

n visid toyosu him, nd s bcm gnn in singl

nig.30

On obvious indicion wving is nd os d nd

is oion of founding lgnd of uling ous cn b sn in

fc vy fml figu is xlicily snd s wv midn.

t mo of Ninigi no Mikoo is lisd in  Nihon shoki s pincss

hvnly Myid of tousnds nd tousnds of Wving Looms. as if o

limin ny doub bou nu of Ninigi no Mikoo’s bids Kono-

n Skuy him nd sis Iwng him, x xlicily snsm sd by iv nd wving looms.31

ps vn mo vling niv mns usd o dic

s womn s ognios of bo oyl ncsos nd diis of scil

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  Shamanesses, Lavatories, and the Magic of Silk 121

imo fo oyl lin. Consid, fo insnc, following ccoun of

Ninigi no Mikoo’s cion f Konon Skuy him nnouncs

s s bcom gnn f singl nig wi Ninigi:

Ninigi no Mikoo sid “evn oug I m hvnly diy, ow could

I v imgnd you in singl nig? I could no b my cild.”

Konon Skuy him [on ing is] ws xmly smd nd

ngy. S us md doolss iul nclosu [muro] nd vowd,

“If I v concivd cild of no diy, my i wiou fil

m wi misfoun. If i is uly cild of Ninigi no Mikoo, my

i wiou fil b bon sfly.” S n nd nclosu nd s

i on fi. Wn flms bgn o is, cild ws bon nmd hono Susi no Mikoo. Nx s fi gw ig, cild ws bon

nmd ho no aki no Mikoo. Nx cild ws bon wo ws clld

hiko hoo Dmi no Mikoo.32

 

tis lgnd lics common myic sucu in N-iod

liu includs ll o of following moifs: (1) wving

midn wi loom ncouns ml diy in o by body of w; (2)

iul nclosu (muro) is buil in od o wlcom diy, wo scom o fom f; (3) io o is ivl, god is givn scil

cloing ids im in is jouny; (4) midn civs god in

muro, moy iul cmb usd in is involving moifs of lif,

d, nd sucion; nd (5) oduc of union is n god

 wos bi symbolizs fosing of lif nd bundnc.33 

 as hibysi s nod, is sucu closly llls nnul is

in wic fml smnss, o miko, would b joind wi locl diy

in “scd mig” ws iully consummd in singl nig in

muro. h lso nos is sucu ms closly bsic sucu

of cul of Wv nd Cowd, in wic: (1) Wv Midn

 wis on dg of Milky Wy fo lov, Cowd diy; (2)

Milky Wy is undsood o b iv cn b cossd onc y;

(3) Cowd is bl o coss iv f is givn scil ociv

cloing md fom id of cow; (4) Cowd visis Wv

Midn fo only on nig; (5) union of wo lovs llows fo

 yin nd  yang lmns of univs o min in quilibium, by

ssuing filiy nd bundnc fo following y.ps bcus lgnds ognizd ound moif of imgnion of

(wving) midn in singl nig svd s imon dvics fo dfining

linl ffiliions, y lso conin g dl of infomion concning

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122 Weaving and Binding 

nu nd uss of coninnl ligious os in ncsl lgnds of

nonoyl lings. tus, fo ou uoss, lgnd of miculous bi

of Konon Skuy him’s cildn is nobl no only s n ncsl

lgnd fo oyl lin, wic cd is dscn fom Ninigi oug id cild, hiko hoo Dmi no Mikoo, bu lso fo sis of lings

suc s Owi Muji nd Kuskb, wic climd dscn fom

Konon Skuy him’s scond cild, am no hoki no Mikoo.34 as w

sll s in C 7, cul of am no hoki no Mikoo s o v

lso bn fundmnlly conncd o mgnc of cul of oyl

ncso amsu, wo is lso snd in cou conicls s wv

midn in iul nclosu ing cloing fo ligious fsivl.

t following lgnd fom Jinmu c of  Kojiki ovids us wi imon gnlogicl infomion ld o sis of lings

 w cgd wi wosi of Miw diy Òmononusi:

Isukyoi him ws om bov Si riv. t tennò

[Jinmu] wn o visi , nd sl wi fo on nig. . . . t cil-

dn w n bon w hikoyi no Mikoo, Kmuyimimi no

Mikoo, nd Kmununkwmimi no Mikoo. t cildn in ll.35

h, s in lgnd of hvnly Gndcild, w old of oyl

ncso wo visis dug of diy fo singl nig, nd is union

suls in bi of sons.  as in hvnly Gndcild my,

is lgnd is of icul ins fo gnlogicl linkgs

sblisd oug mo nd cild. picully nobl is x’s

ssion Kmuyimimi no Mikoo is gndson of Miw diy

Òmononusi. Bcus Kmuyimimi no Mikoo is non o n

founding ncso of Ciiskob kinsi gou, is gnlogy ws

lmos cinly n imon bckgound lmn fo sis of lgnds

in  Nihon shoki nd  Nihon ryòiki in wic Ciiskob ncso is

clld uon o cify diy Òmononusi on Moun Miw.36 

ps bs indicion lgnds cning uon diy’s fui-

ful union wi wving midn fo singl nig w no xclusiv

ovnnc of oyl ous, owv, cn b sn in following locl

lgnd fom Msuu disic of hizn ovinc. as w sw in C 3,

Msuu ws mjo nsi oin fo ffic o nd fom Kon n-

insul nd si w Òomo ncso Sdiko ws sid o vd wi is lov, Kuskb ncso Sino no Ooiimko.

t following ccoun fom  Hizen fudoki , gz comosd som-

im ound 713, ls w nd f Sdiko’s du:

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  Shamanesses, Lavatories, and the Magic of Silk 123

 Wn Ooiimko nd Sdiko Muji d bn sd fo fiv

dys, somon cm o Ooiimko vy nig o sl wi ,

lving c im ly in moning. his fc nd s w lik

Sdiko’s. t gil oug vy sng, so wiou doing ny-

ing suddn, s scly id d o visio’s slv. Wn

s wn ou o c d, s discovd snk sling

by sid of ond is k. Is body ws of mn’s, nd

submgd in ond. t d ws lying on bnk of ond.

[t god] suddnly sood u nd sng:

Sino no Ooiimko!

toug w w og bu on nigNow you sll nv un om!

 a im Ooiimko’s sving gil n bck o ll fmily w

d nd, nd wn s boug bck mny of livs o

look fo Ooiimko, ni snk no gil could b found.

tn boom of ond y found singl umn cos,

 wic ll sy Ooiimko’s mins. ty buil omb o sou

of k, w y ind . t omb suvivs o is dy.37

 aloug  Hizen fudoki  ws wok commissiond by cou, I bliv

is lgnd offs svl invlubl clus concning nu nd

ng of uss fo is moif of divin union wiin singl nig in

gion disn fom Ymo cou. Mos obviously, w gin old of

midn wo is imgnd by god in singl vning. On indicion

of ow of is mo cn b sn in fc song sung

by diy xlicily fs o i on nig of conjugl lions, vn

oug body of x ss cm o on fiv conscu-

iv vnings. Moov, loug  Hizen fudoki ws comosd

commnd of N cou, no mmbs of oyl lin in is

lgnd. t is no son o doub is lgnd’s sd uos of xlin-

ing xisnc of locl ncsl omb nd culic cn in ovinc

f fom Ymo lin. t lgnd lso bodly flcs o lgnds

ld o o diis fom gion, suc s vngful wving diy

 aku him nd Munk diis. rcll, fo insnc, lgnd of

cificion of aku him discussd in C 2. Jus s Mononobncso azko dmind idniy of aku him oug us of

 wving imlmns, w find Ooiimko using ndl nd d

o dmin idniy of cul diy s bcom lov. as

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124 Weaving and Binding 

 w sw in C 3, lgnds of fml immols fom Msuu

o v dicly influncd fomion of lgnds bou suc figus s

Immol Mulby Midn Yosino nd in Ymo lin. W

lso nod wo lings ominn in Msuu w Kuskbnd Òomo nd bo o v bn insumnl in nsmi-

ing coninnl cnologis nd culic foms o Jns islnds. In

ddiion, Sino no Ooiimko, unfoun midn dicd in

is lgnd, is xlicily dscibd s mmb of Kuskb nd

lov of Òomo no Sdiko. I fo suggs lgnds suc s s

my v lyd n imon ol in fomion of oyl ncs-

l lgnds. Lgnds suc s s could lso b usd o link scdol

lings no only o oyl ncsos bu lso o violn diis woug o ndng locl oulc (aku him) o uls nd

cou (Òmononusi). By climing dscn fom suc diis nd building

culic cns ddicd o i wosi, lings suc s Kuskb

nd Ciiskob could clim o b uniquly qulifid o cify violn

siis would owis v bn byond conol of cou.

Finlly, nd cucilly, s xs fqunly mloyd ms ssocid wi

 wving midns in Cins fsivl clnd—w in i nms

(pincss of tousnds of Looms), in wy y inoducd ino niv (sd iv jngling bcls wil nding loom), o in

i cions (cing idniy of god wi ndl nd d).

 weaving and Binding in the Yamat Plain 

t diffusion of is nd lgnds ssocid wi Cins fsivl

clnd ws no limid o oiion of lmns fom Wving

Midn nd Cowd; no ws i influnc limid o Ymo

lin. Svl lgnds wiin cou conicls nd  fudoki suggs

is nd lgnds ld o lvoy goddss—on of mos

imon fml diis in Cins non—ld s

founding lgnds of svl lings in cg of ominn sins in

oyl cul. t lvoy goddss ws ousold diy closly ssocid

 wi cquisiion of wl. S ws mos ominnly wosid on

fifn dy of fis mon conclusion of Nw Y’s is

dsignd o sblis cful nd osous bsis fo coming y.

tis dy ws lso mkd by is ld o lun cul, fml diis,nd, o lss dg, sii cificion.

On of bs xmls of ocss by wic is nd lgnds

ssocid wi lvoy goddss cm o influnc myology of

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  Shamanesses, Lavatories, and the Magic of Silk 125

Jns islnds cn b sn in founding lgnds of  u nd

low Kmo sins in Kdono disic of Ymsio ovinc. as w

sw in C 1, by ly hin iod s culic cns d bn

bsobd ino of oyl cul nd hin digms of oliicl/ligious uoiy. t imonc of s sins fo uling ous,

owv, ws n vn io o N iod. Bcus low

Kmo sin ws siud sgic nod fo bo lnd nd w ffic

bwn suc mjo os on Jn/esn S s tsunog, tmb,

nd Izusi nd cou in Ymo, i lyd mjo ol in diffusion of

culic influncs fom s s bo o cou nd coss Jns

islnds. Bcus c of s os dicly fcd Kon ninsul

nd conind lg immign oulions fom Kon kingdoms ofKoguyò nd Sill, Kmo sins o v occuid n idl so

fo nsmission of culic cics nd myic os ssocid wi

immign culs nd diis.38

tis locion ws no, mos likly, oduc of m cnc, fo

Kdono wwy ws nly of lg nwok of cnls nd

 wwys buil by gous suc s h ougou Ymo. tis con-

sucd gogy ffcd culic cic Kmo sin in ls

wo snss: fis, h o v cngd ysicl oogysuounding sin, nsfoming i ino culic cn chimata-y

 wwy ws idlly suid fo is of uificion nd sii cific-

ion. t dg o wic sin vnully cm o b ssocid wi

suc is cn b sn mos dmiclly in ly hin iod, wn is

of uificion fo cil w fomd on monly bsis. 39 

evn mo imon, nwok of wwys h cd

linkd no only mjo os on cos of Inlnd nd Jn/esn

ss, bu lso ominn sins nd culic cns. Ov im diis

svl of s sins cm o b closly ssocid wi h. By

im  Nihon shoki  ws comosd in 720, fo insnc, h o

ffilid immign lings w wosiing diis suc mjo

culic cns s Munk sin in Cikuzn, Izusi sin in

tjim ovinc, nd Ki sin in tsunog. I would us

vn s h ld o lilly nsfom ysicl nd culic

lndsc of ly Ymo, i culic idniy cm o b dfind by

nsfomion.

t consucion of cnls nd odwys lso gly idd xn-sion of uoiy of Ymo uls ino s io only nominlly

und i conol. t xnsion of Ymo ow, owv, d imo-

n scondy consquncs fo culic cic in Jns islnds.

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126 Weaving and Binding 

 among mos imon of s w uncdnd lvls of f-

fic mong bo umns nd gods bwn cilgo’s cn nd

is iy. as w sw in C 1, locl gods fom iy

dicd in  Nihon shoki  nd lsw s bing fqunly osil o Ymo uls. as Ymo cou soug fo mns o oii

 vngful diis fom Kyûsû nd lsw, i und fo l o kinsi

gous suc s h, Miw, Ciiskob, nd os wi scil linl

clims nd scdol xis. t incsingly lg ol lyd by s

gous in consucion of ncsl culs fo Ymo uls in un

fcilid bsoion of culic cics ssocid wi wving nd

sii cificion ino fbic of oyl cul.

t following mnn fom Yamashiro fudoki  dscibs isnd lgnds of u Kmo sin s follows:

tmyoi hiko is ncso of Kmo agnusi. On is fsivl

dy is os-iding. [t oigins of is cusom go bck o]

ign of tennò wo ignd Sikisim [Kinmi], wn

 w mndous winds nd in nd ol suffd gly.

 a im, Wkiko of Iki Ub ws commndd o fom

divinion. h dmind [ oubls] w vngnc(tatari ) of Kmo diy. a is y ld fsivl on n usicious

dy duing fou mon, w y ung blls on oss s mn

od oss wing bo’s msks. ty fomd os-iding

nd offd u i ys, fiv gins ind, nd c slowly

cm bck o wold. [t Kmo fsivl’s] os-iding ws bgun

is im.40

 

tis ccoun is nobl no only fo is dicion of tmyoi hiko s

 wful diy in nd of oiiion, bu lso fo song influncs

fom coninn mnifs in is mslvs; oss, niml

msks, nd ows w considd songly yang lmns, nd y w

usd fqunly in Cins fsivl clnd s mns of cifying

dngous  yin siis.41 tis x is lso nowoy fo is fnc o

divin fom Iki Ub ling. Bcus, s i nm suggss,

Iki Ub w scdol ling ws oiginlly bsd in Kyûsû,

x gin suggss significn dg of culic incng bwn

gions suc s Ymsio nd Kyûsû.In cons o ml diy in u Kmo sin, low Kmo

sin ousd fml diy climd by bo h nd Kmo lings.

 as w sw in C 1,  Hatashi honkeichò xlins is s follows:

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  Shamanesses, Lavatories, and the Magic of Silk 127 

In bginning ws h womn wo cm o Kdono

iv o ws clos. a im n ow cm floing down fom

usm. t gil ook ow nd und om, w s

suck ow bov doo [of ous]. a is gil bcm

gnn wiou ny usbnd, nd s subsqunly gv bi o

boy. h ns oug is sng, nd skd [ow is could

v nd]. t gil lid s did no know. ty skd

svl ims, bu vn f svl mons s sill sid s did

no know. h ns sid, “evn oug s d no usbnd, cild

could no v bn bon wiou f. t f mus b fom

mong fmily nd livs o nigbos fqun ou ous.”

ty fo d fs nd invid g cowd of ol.ty n odd boy o k cu nd off i o mn

blivd ws is f.

 a is boy did no indic nyon in ging, bu

insd gzd ov o ow bov doo. h ws n ns-

fomd ino und god, nd bus oug oof of build-

ing s flw off ino sky. tfo [god of ] U Kmo

Sin is clld Wk no Ikzuci no Kmi. t [god of ] Low

Kmo Sin is clld Mioy no Kmi. t ow bov doo is Msuno’o Dimyòjin. tus h wosi gods in s

lcs.42

 as numous commnos v nod, is lgnd, couning s i

dos bi of Wk no Ikzuci no Kmi (Young tund), suggss

Kmo cul ws dly involvd in cificion of volil und

diis. eqully nobl, owv, is  ominnc givn o young

god’s disff ling. tougou lgnd i is mnl gndf

 wo dmins sing nd iming of vns. I is lso mnl

gndf wo consucs muro nd ngs offings. ps

mos imon, i is mnl gndf wo bsows nw

nm, nd fo idniy, uon young god. tis focus on disff

lings lmos cinly ls o x’s xlici ssions

midn is fom h kinsi gou nd young god’s f is

non o n (h) diy of Msuno’o sin.

Kam and Mia t Kmo lgnd cycl’s msis uon young midns nd disff

lings lso igligs mkbl s of coninuiis wi o oyl

culic cns. Jus s Ciiskob dicd i founding ncso

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128 Weaving and Binding 

cifying Òmononusi (Ikzuci), und diy Miw sin,

oigins of Kmo cul ood in bi of und diy

 Wk no Ikzuci.43 evn mo comlling vidnc of linkgs bwn

Kmo, Ciiskob, nd Miw culs cn b sn in sis of lgndsconcning o fml ncsos of Ciiskob nd Miw kinsi gous.

Consid, fo insnc, following lgnd fom  Kojiki concning

Miw ncso Syd him:

 Wn [ Ymo ul Jinmu] soug fo buiful womn o b

is cif conso, Òkum no Mikoo sid: “t is buiful midn

wo is sid o b cild of god. t son s is sid o

b cild of god is dug of Misim no Mizokui, wo ws nmd Syd him, ws xmly buiful. Òmonon-

usi, [ god] of Miw ws suck by buy. Wn s wn o

dfc, nsfomd imslf ino d ow nd, coming down

iv w s ws dfcing, nd iv s.

Sld by is, s sood u nd n wy in s. S n ook

ow nd s i by bd, w i nsfomd ino ndsom

mn. h n wd midn, wo gv bi o cild nmd

hoo Isusuki him.44

 as in lgnd of bi of Kmo diy Wk no Ikzuci, gin

 w v lgnd involving midn wo is ocd iv by

und god in s of d ow. In bo lgnds midn ks

ow om nd is imgnd in sc of singl nig. 

ts similiis ll mo iniguing in lig of  Nihon shoki ’s

ssion midn Syd ws mo of Isukyoi him

(fd o in x s Isusuki him). tis is of immdi no bcus,

s w v jus sn, Isukyoi him slf ws sid o v givn bi

o Kmu no Yimimi no Mikoo, founding ncso of Ciisko-

b kinsi gou, f s ws imgnd in singl nig.45 aloug

no on would k suc smns s isoicl u, similiis in

lgnds vy obbly l o fc Ciiskob climd

common ncsy wi Miw.46 Lgnds suc s s illus ow

conncions bwn lings suc s h, Ciiskob, nd Miw

could b imon mcnisms fo nsmission of culic influncs

fom non Kyûsû o Miw nd Kmo culs. ty lso suggs ou by wic coninnl wving nd siculu cnologis

nd Jns islnds cold closly wi nsmission fo

 wving nd siculu culs.

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  Shamanesses, Lavatories, and the Magic of Silk 129

Fu vidnc suggsing clos linkgs in ncsl lgnds

of s lings d dvlod n ly d cn b sn in y o

Miw ncsl lgnds. Consid, fo insnc, s nis fom  Nihon

 shoki :

 auumn, 8 mon, 7 dy. Ymo toy Kmusji Mgu-

si him, Òminkuci no Sukun, disn ncso of hozumi

no Omi, nd Is no ami no Kimi ll od [o on]:

“Ls nig w [c] d dm in wic nobl mn sid o us:

‘If you giv Ònko no Mikoo cg of wosi of Òmonon-

usi no Òkmi . . . [n] lnd will wiou qusion b c.”

 Wn tennò lnd wods of dm ws mo ndmo dligd in is . h issud oclmion sking fo

Ònko, wo ws n found in villg of Su, in disic

of Cinu, nd sn o emo. [Sujin] skd Ònko, sying:

“Of wom you cild?” Ònko nswd, sying: “My f is

clld Òmononusi no Òkmi. My mo is clld Ikumyoi him,

dug of Susu mimi.”

. . . . . . . .

11 mon. . . . Ònko ws givn cg of wosi ofÒmononusi. . . . tuon silnc fis csd, couny

 ws incsingly qui, fiv kinds of gin w oducd, nd

sny osd.47

Bcus is lgnd concluds wi jusificion fo Miw bing

invsd wi conol of cul of Òmononusi, Wd asumu nd os

v gud i could only v bn cd f Ymo uls bgn

dlging sonsibiliy fo wosi of Òmononusi o Miw.  Wd

ds is sif o ly six cnuy, wn cologicl vidnc

suggss dmic cng ook lc in culic cic

Miw sin.48 among mos imon vidnc fo suc sif ws

ofusion of iul imlmns v bn dd o is iod nd

o v bn md in Kon kingdom of Sill. Discovis of

 viully idnicl imlmns nd kiln in Òoi disic of gion,

fomly known s Cinu, v ndd o coobo is viw.49 

eqully imon, owv, culic gogy of is lgnd sug-

gss ossibiliy i oigind in culic conx songly influncdby lings fom Kyûsû s wll s cosl gions long Inlnd S.

 as w sw in C 3, Cinu disic of Izumi ovinc, wic ws

locd on Inlnd S in clos oximiy o Kii ninsul, s

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130 Weaving and Binding 

o v bn mjo o of ny fo immigns fom Kon n-

insul. W lso sw duing N iod ld kinsi gou of

is disic ws Kuskb, vy ling climd Sino no

Ooim s on of i ncsos. tus fc is lgnd lls us Miw ncso Ònko ws “found” in jus is , could wi

fc is mo’s nm Susu Mimi, wic my b ndd s

“bundn oy,” onc gin undlins imonc of s gions

fo nsmission of iul imlmns fom Kon ninsul o

 Jns islnds duing vy sm iod winssd fomion

of svic gous suc s Kuskb, Ciiskob, h, nd os.50

eqully imonly, lgnds of hizn diis suc s Kuskb

ncso Sino no Ooim xibi ig dg of colion wilgnds fom Miw cul in o wys s wll. Consid  Nihon shoki

ccoun of bi of Ònko’s mo, Syd:

t son wy mn clld Ònko is known o v bn

son of god is bov-mniond Ikumyoi him, wo ws

xmly buiful, ws visid suddnly in middl of nig by

ndsom mn wo ws movd by incombl buy. tus

y lovd c o, nd f y d wd nd livd og bu so wil, midn ws gnn. tn f nd mo

mvld bing gnn, nd y skd i dug “You

now gnn. [Y] wiou mn w could v cusd is

gnncy?” S nswd sying “I v bn nully imgnd

by buiful mn, wos nm I do no know, wo coms vy

nig o sy wi m.” a is ns, wning o know mn’s

[idniy], insucd i dug, sying: “Sd d bfo

 you bd, ss skin of d oug ndl nd ic is

gmn wi i.” S fo did s s d bn insucd, nd

 wn y lookd nx moning, m d bn u in

ndl d com ou oug ol in doo ook wi only

loos [miwa] lf. tn, knowing d gon ou oug

ol in doo ook, y followd d ll wy u o

sin on Moun Miw, w i sod. tus y knw

cild ws cild of god. Bcus d d mind in

loos [miwa], is lc ws clld Miw.51

t similiis bwn is lgnd nd of Sino Ooim

so g s o dly b lboing. h gin w find mysious

diy visiing midn only nig, only o v is idniy vld

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  Shamanesses, Lavatories, and the Magic of Silk 131

 wn midn uss ndl nd d o c god bck o is li.

 as in Sino Ooim lgnd cycl, god is sid o v bn

smd o b sn in is nul fom s snk, wi n sul bing

midn dis violn, uny d bcus of god’s ng. agin x concluds wi consucion of omb/culic cn fo

ling.

tis lgnd lso s o flc svl o lgnds involving con-

innl-syl immols. In C 3 w sw culic significnc of d

fo fml immols nd diis of Yosino, nd w find

Syd’s ns commnding o sd d bfo bd

uon god’s ivl. as Miw, Kmo, nd os incood wv-

ing-midn moifs ino lgnd cycls of i own fml ncsldiis, I would fo suggs wo fu sifs lso occud: fis,

s culs nd fml diis fom Kyûsû nd cosl s of Jn/

esn S smd ino Ymo lin, concul vocbuly su-

ounding smnsss nd fml ncsos bcm colod by minol-

ogy ld o siculu nd wving cnologis.52 Scond, s lings

suc s Kmo, h, Ciiskob, nd Miw civd ominnc

cou, i sins nd i ncsos ld sblis is vocbuly

vy of oyl cul.Non of is, of cous, nd b sn s of ny gnd dsign o

omo cin woldviw o ligious oinion. I dos suggs, ow-

v, s lings os o ominnc y my v uilizd myic nd

iul os fom coninn o c o mlify gnlogicl linkgs

nd oliicl ccommodion. I would lso gnlogicl unions

 w ofn civd o ls mnifsd oug lgnds concning

fml ncsos wo w snd in vocbuly of coninnl

lgnds concning wving midns, goddsss, nd fml immols.

Iushi otme and the Lavatry Gddess

Fu vidnc concning mcnisms diving is ocss cn

b found in of Izusi in tjim, cosl ovinc fcd

Kon kingdom of Sill. t Izusi sin ws om o Sill immign

cowd diy am no hiboko, wo is sid o v com o Jns

islnds in sc of is wif, vngful wving goddss aku him.

Svl am no hiboko sins known o v xisd in hizn, Ci-

kuzn, nd Buzn ovincs, ofn in s suc s Msuu w Kuskb lso known o v d song snc. tis gion is of

immdi ins bcus bo xul soucs nd mokkan fom

suggs vn bfo N iod mos owful kinsi gous

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132 Weaving and Binding 

in gion w Kuskb nd Miw. as w v sn dly

in Cs 3 nd 4, Kuskb w civly involvd in imo-

ion of coninnl-syl immoliy culs. In ddiion o ll is, Izusi lso

s o v bn mjo cn fo oducion of wovn goodsnd n imon oin of ny fo lmns of coninnl culu.53

I is s no suising, fo, cologiss v uncovd

ns of ousnds of iul imlmns fom N nd ly hin i-

ods in xmly clos oximiy o fom ovincil dminisiv

offics nd o Izusi sin. among mos imon discovis v

bn lg numbs of cly vssls, niml figuins, nd hitogata, mny

of wic b slls fom Cins iul mnuls clling uon diis fom

Cins non o subdu diss-cusing siis. Givn bo nu nd s volum of ifcs, i s igly likly Izusi ws

mjo cn fo coninnl-syl is of sii cificion.54

Cucilly fo ou uoss, diy of Izusi sin ws non

o n am no hiboko. W v ncound is diy s n immign

cowd diy fom Sill wo ws mid o vngful wving goddss

 aku him. am no hiboko ws lso sid o v bn f of Izusi

him, y no wving goddss wos soy cols closly wi

Miw nd Kmo lgnd cycls:

tis diy [am no hiboko] d dug by nm of Izusi

Oom no Kmi. aloug mny gods wisd o v , non w

bl o wd . a is, w wo gods, n old bo, wo

 ws nmd akiym Sibi no Mikoo, nd young bo, wo

 ws young mn nmd huym Ksu no Mikoo. So old

bo sid o young bo, “aloug I v ldd wi

Izusi Oom, I sill cnno v s wif. Would you b bl o

obin is midn?” t young bo lid “I could v

sily.” tn old bo sid “If you cn v , I will mov

my u nd low gmns, bw fo you sake in j qul o you

ig, nd I will fo you ll ings of mounins nd

ivs [s ymn fo winning is] wg.

  tn young bo old is mo vying

old bo d sid. S n ook [m md fom] wisi vins

( fuji no kazura) nd, in singl nig, s wov nd swd n ov

gmn (kinu hakama) nd ouss nd socks. S lso md bownd ow. S n d im w gmns nd k bow nd

ow nd sn im o midn’s ous, w clos nd

bow nd ow ll und ino wisi flows. a is huym no

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  Shamanesses, Lavatories, and the Magic of Silk 133

Mikoo ook bow nd ow nd fsnd m o midn’s

lvoy. Now Izusi Oom oug s flows w vy sng.

 Wn s boug m om, [huym no Mikoo] followd bind

, nd oom nd wd . ty us gv bi o cild.

tn nnouncd o is bo, “I v obind Izusi Oom.”55

Bcus is lgnd bings og lmns fom viully ll of

lgnds w v considd so f, i ovids invlubl vidnc

suggsing ow nd o w dg culic influncs fom Kyûsû cm

o n ly oyl cul. h, s in Kmo lgnd cycl, Izusi

Oom is imgnd in on nig f binging om n ow s

s found n w nd s bn lcd uon doofm. asin lgnd cycl of hvnly Gndcild Nininigi no Mikoo, n-

iv lso fus ogonis’s mo, wo in sc of singl

nig, wvs fo im cloing llows im o in is gol.56 ps

mos iniguing of ll, owv, lgnd’s sonncs wi lgnd

of Òmononusi nd Syd. Ws Òmononusi, f ssuming

fom of n ow imgns Syd wil s is dfcing, Izusi

Oom is imgnd f binging om n ow s bn lcd

on doofm of lvoy. aloug Jns scols v lmos invibly ssd ov is

finl sc of Syd lgnd in mbssd silnc, I suggs

is dil mos likly flcs longsnding imonc of lvoy god-

dsss in oul ligious cic of Cin.57 Sinc lvoy goddsss

in Cin w lso ofn ssocid wi wving culs nd cion of

 wl, ssociion of wo ominn fml ncsos wi lvoy

sould dly b suising. I suggs, fo, ssociion of bo

Syd nd Izusi Oom wi lvoy is cully no indico

of coninnl influncs in fomion of wo co lgnds of su-

osdly niv Jns diion.

ps mos imon of ll, owv, Izusi Oom lgnd

illuss dg o wic bo Miw nd Kmo culs dw uon

soucs of wving diis siud in Kyûsû nd long cos of

Inlnd S. h w find founding lgnds of bo Kmo

nd Miw sins closly flc lgnd of y no immign diy

closly ssocid wi Kuskb nd Cins fsivl clnd. to

consid closnss of is s of lgnds, consid tbl 2.t cn b lil doub founding mys of Izusi, Kmo,

nd Miw sins no only ovl significnly, bu lso numb of i

is suggs song influncs fom Cins fsivl clnd. t

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134 Weaving and Binding 

xnsiv ovl ws lmos cinly ld o clos oliicl, linl, nd

gogic linkgs mong h, Kmo, Ciiskob, Kuskb, nd

Miw, mking i n diffusion of siculu nd wving

cnologis wn nd in nd wi culic voluion in wic nwly

fomd lings cd ncsl lgnds cning on young midns

mid o volil diis in nd of fqun cificion. all of is lso suggss gnlogis of suc suosdly niv

culic cics nd lgnds xndd ll wy bck fom Jns

sos o culs nd cics of ncin Cin. as lings suc s

h, Kmo, Kuskb, nd Miw os o ominnc cou, s culic

oos nouisd mging oyl cul. By N iod, concn wi

siculu diis nd sii cificion od culic gnd bo

cou nd in counysid

By dvn of hin iod, ocss d culmind in

mgnc of Kmo, Miw, nd Izusi sins s cnl nods in

sis of iul cns suoundd ul’s son nd cou wi

concnic ings of iul uiy nd bundnc. a cn of is nwok

 ws low Kmo sin, culic cn dod by Sg tennò in 810

s soug ssisnc of Kmo diis in uing down Kusuko

uising. Fo nx 500 ys following Sg’s sblismn of Kmo

isss, young womn fom oyl lin sving s officins

sin sidd x of cou’s mos imon iul nwok.

tus did ms com full cicl s oyl ling movd fom dlgingiul uoiy o kinsi gous suc s h nd i wving-mid-

n dugs o oyl mbc of wving midn/miko digm.

hncfo disff mmbs of oyl ling would civ Kmo

Table 2  aows nd Divin pgnncis in Cou Conicls

KAMo SHRINE MIwA SHRINE IzUSHI SHRINE

Midn finds god s Midn ocd by Midn finds godow god s ow s ow 

Midn finds god Midn ms god Midn ms god iv iv wil dfcing lvoy 

Midn bings ow Midn bings ow Midn bings ow om om om

Midn bcoms Midn bcoms Midn “is wd o” godgnn gnn in on nig in on nig

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  Shamanesses, Lavatories, and the Magic of Silk 135

diy Wk Ikzuci in fou mon of c y. tougou

hin iod i ws fml mmbs of uling lin wo w cgd

 wi uifying cil nd oiiing owful nwok of mosly

immign diis in od o oc body nd sii of ul.

Cnclusin 

t nsmission of siculu nd wving cnologis o Jns

islnds occud wiin conx of bod oliicl nd conomic

nsfomions, fo nw mods of mil oducion (ss) ld

su cion of nw mods of socil ognizion (svic gous).

 as lings mos closly ssocid wi s nsfomions oso ominnc, y cd ncsl culs nd lgnds oid

os nd cics mbddd in Cins fsivl clnd nd cul-

ic cnologis w ning Jns islnds fom coninn.

In ocss s gous lso dvlod clims of scil scdol

fficcy mjo culic cns nd cm o fill ol of culic sciliss

in svic of Ymo uls.

 accomnying is scilizion of lbo ws fomion of ncsl

lgnds cnd uon volil diis wo quid i dscndns ofom is of cificion. as w v sn dly, n unxcd by-

oduc of Ymo xnsion ino s suc s hizn nd Cikuzn ws

uls w focd o confon osil diis . Moov s s

 w lso ould by fml diis, wving diis suc s Konon

Skuy him, aku him, Sino Ooiimko,  nd Munk

diis, wo soon nd no only oyl myology bu lso mjo

culic cns of cnl Jn. By N iod scd migs bwn

 wving midns nd vngful gods w co lmns of nnul is

coss Jns islnds, nd mjo culic cns suc s Munk,

himgoso, Izusi, Msuno’o, Kmo, nd Miw sins ll cd i oigins

o wving midn/miko nd wful gods y oiid.

tis us igligs y gin dg o wic coninnl

cnologis nd iul os infomd consucion of gnd ols

nd iul ow. Jus s w sw in cs of fml immols in C

3, w find on of oo os fo configuion of fml

smns cum ncsos ws figu of wving midn. In nx

c w sll xmin ol of suc os in dicions of oylconsos in cou conicls bfo xmining in finl c i

ol in consucion of -minn figu in nivis discous—

 wving midn nd silkwom goddss amsu no Òmikmi.

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136 

Chapter 6

Silkrms and Cnsrts

IN 608 a dlgion fom cou of Cins ul Sui Yng-i ivd

on sos of Jns islnds wi gol of sblising micbl

lions wi Ymo in dvnc of lnnd invsion of Sui’s nmsis,

Kon kingdom of Koguyô. aloug gooliicl concns lmos c-

inly w fomos in minds of Sui nvoys, culul nd culic

ffcs of i ivl vbd coss Jns islnds long f

Sui dynsy islf d csd o xis. Bcus dilomic conc wi

Sui quid iciion in dilomic oocols w dly oodin Cins concions of kingsi nd iul, ivl of Sui nvoys

mkd fo Ymo cou n imon momn of nggmn wi no

only Sui govnmn, bu lso coninnl oliicl nd culic noms.

In  Nihon shoki svl indicions vn bfo

ivl of nvoys Ymo cou bgn ogm of muling Ci-

ns cou iul cics. Jus fw ys bfo ivl of nvoys,

fo insnc, w old cou insiud nw sysm of cou

nks s o v bn bsd uon coninnl modls.1 Similly,

ccouns of miniss sning mmoils o on fom is im

flc cng in cou iqu. W lso old in 604 pinc Kmi-

sumiy, known o l gnions s Sòoku, comosd wll-known

Svnn aicl Consiuion, lis of dmoniions concning o l-

ions bwn ul nd minis gus iul sould b bsis

of govnmn.2

 Wil vy fw scols ody would k  Nihon shoki ccoun

fc vlu, is subsnil vidnc wi innsificion of

dilomic concs wi succssiv Cins dynsis, s wll s wi kingdoms of Kon ninsul, Ymo cou ws incsingly

doing nd oging Cins cou iul foms s wll s Cins

fsivl clnd. Nisimoo Msio nos simil ocss sms o

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  Silkworms and Consorts 137 

v occud on Kon ninsul, wi Kon kingdom of Sill

fully doing Cins cou iul in 651.3 In fc of  Kaifûsò,

oic nology comld in 751, w old duing Suiko cou

pinc Kmisumiy “sblisd nks nd offics cou nd bgn oding of iul,” wil Ymo ul tnci “sblisd fiv

is” som foy ys l.4 ps bs vidnc suggsing

Suiko cou ws fmili wi Cins fsivl clnd, owv, cn b

sn in Sui shu, n officil isoy of Sui dynsy comld by 656.

h w old , wi xcion of Nw Y’s is, obsvncs

on nodl dys of clnd w clos o os cicd in Cin.5

 all of is suggss svl imon oins concning ol of bo

Cins cou iul nd Cins fsivl clnd in svn-cnuy Ymo. Fis, i would Ymo cou’s mbc of Cins

cou iul foms ws no disc isoicl vn, bu n xndd

ocss mos likly bgn ly in svn cnuy bu cm o

fuiion duing ign of tnci, mo n fify ys f ivl of

fis Sui nvoys nd ov dcd f ls Kon kingdom d

comld simil nsiion. Scond, doion of Cins cou iul

 ws lmos cinly omod by Ymo uls inn uon nsfoming

sus of on nd lm. Fom iul flowd uoiy ndn ow.

t consquncs of is nsfomion w nomous. aloug

scols of Jns ligion v long focusd on olifion of

Buddis icons, mls, nd iss in Jns islnds wn discuss-

ing ligious dvlomns s of svn cnuy, doion

by cou of Ymo ul Suiko (ignd 592–628) of udimny

Cins cou iul foms s wll s bsic lmns fom Cins fs-

ivl clnd ldd sif in culic cic my v bn no lss

momnous. as Ymo uls incsingly dod iul cics nd

fsivls of Cins iul cycl s i own, Cins mys, lgnds,

nd cosmologicl visions cm o vd bsic mns by wic olii-

cl, culic, nd vn nul vns w ognizd nd cgoizd. Fw if

ny scs of cou lif mind unoucd by s cngs.6 

Long bfo comilion of Sui shu, Cins is ndd o fll

on scific dys w closly cold wi Cins numology—us

-minnc of fsivls on fis dy of y, id dy of

id mon, fif dy of fif mon, nd so fo—nd gicul-ul cycl—us fsivls on sol nd lun quinoxs, miduumn

fsivl, nd so fo. By doing Cins fsivl clnd Ymo

cou us mbcd n ni woldviw ingd oliicl, iul, nd

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138 Weaving and Binding 

vn sonomicl vns ino singl, con wol omisd o

moniz lionsis mong vious lmns of cosmos vn s

i ld nsfom s nd minds of is icins.

On mo mundn lvl, owv, is ssocid wi oduc-ion of mnufcud goods suc s silks nd wovn fbics w lso givn

fixd ds ougou y. tus womn yd fo silkwoms on

fifn dy of fis mon nd skill in wving on svn dy of

svn mon. Duing fou mon viy of boos ld o

silkwoms w obsvd, wil muc of n mon ws kn u

 wi offings of nks o silkwom goddss.7 O is ld o

giculu, mlwoking, nd mdicin w lso ubiquious ougou

y. aloug sldom discussd s suc, diffusion of coninnl

iul foms ws lso of immdi consqunc fo olifion of

coninnl xul diions nd nivs. No only did clnd

ovid nw ns fo ognizing culic lif, i lso fcilid diffusion

of coninnl isoicl nd oic os w closly conncd

 wi iul clnd. tus cou-sonsod isoicl nivs suc s

 Nihon shoki  no only uilizd nw conicl gn, bu y lso

consucd nw s concivd in lg in ms of coninnl nomsnd concions of kingsi. Bcus muc of oy of g ws

comosd o commmo occsions cou, doion of sock oic

llusions fom coninnl liu lso quid xnsiv fmiliiy wi

lgnds nd cics ssocid wi Cins fsivl clnd.

I is no suising n on of bs soucs w v fo sudy-

ing inoducion of wving culs ino Jns islnds is oy

of iod, muc of i comosd on occsions suc s tnb

fsivl mking union of Wv Midn nd Cowd diis.

t cous of tanabata oy in  Manyòshû nd  Kaifûsò, wo collc-

ions comosd duing N iod, is suisingly lg. Svl suc

oms, including wll-known cycl comosd by Kkinomoo hiomo,

dmons obsvnc of tnb fsivl dd N

iod.8 

rfncs o wving midns nd immoliy w by no mns

limid o oy; s w v sn dly, w lso find goddsss,

smnsss (miko), nd fml immols snd s wving mid-

ns in cou conicls nd locl gzs. Wil s figus ofnomous ins in i own ig, i nivs scilly

significn fo wo fu sons. Fis, s w sw in C 5, us of

coninnl os o sn fml ncsos nd diis s o v

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  Silkworms and Consorts 139

bn n imon momn in fomulion of gnd idniis in

culic lif of iod. Scond, givn fundmnlly llusiv nu of

muc of liu of iod, s xs cn lso ll us muc bou

oizon of cion gins wic s diis dvlod.t coninud influnc of w nionlis digms s mn

unil cnly isoins of Jns ligion v viwd culs nd

lgnds ood in Cins myology s il lmns in li-

gion of iod. Scols of Jns liu v lso long ssumd

llusions o Cins lgnds in oy of iod mly flc

vy dndnc of Jns inllculs on Cins modls fo

comosiion of Cins os nd vs.9 

In w follows I oos o xlo smll s of oms nd lgnds fu oyl missis wo os mslvs nd cwl s y

cll ou o womn wi wom uls v bcom nmod. 10 Bcus

moifs of cwling nd “clling ou” ld o is of clling o

siis of cnly dcsd, s lgnds off smll glims ino

mns by wic mys nd lgnds ssocid wi Cins

fsivl clnd cm o infom vn nly niv culic cics nd

liu. aloug no on would misk s xs fo isoicl l-

iy, i vy consucd nu ovids us wi invlubl infomionconcning mns by wic coninnl culs nd cics ssocid

 wi wving nd siculu infomd gnd digms coss culic

nd liy scum of N Jn.

Onc w nlyz soucs usd in consucion of s lgnds,

slin fus involving Cins is of siculu bcom -

n. Fis, s lgnds of cwling nd clling ou, nd oy ssoci-

d wi m, mly illus dg o wic moifs fom Cins

lgnds of wving nd siculu infomd liu of iod.

Scond, immign kinsi gous nsmid cnologis

ssocid wi siculu o Jns islnds w lso likly soucs

fo diffusion of suc wving culs nd lgnds. Finlly, silkwom’s

biliy o “di” wiin is cocoon, only o -mg s mo cbl of

flig, mn is of siculu in Jn w ssocid no only wi

cquisiion of wl, bu lso wi sucion nd immoliy.

of weavers, wrms, and Kings

 aloug is of Cins fsivl clnd fqunly discussd

in ms of Confucin gnd of monizing lions bwn ul

nd uld, iul duing iod ws f mo n simly oliics by

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140 Weaving and Binding 

o mns. Blncing  yin nd yang  lmns in cosmos ws nc-

ssy o nsu o infll nd bundn cos. Similly, ofusion

of is ld o siculu nd wving flcd no only imonc

of os civiis fo cou, bu lso ncssiy of suc is fo succssful oducion of silks nd fbics.

t doion of Cins fsivl clnd in Jn ws us inxi-

cbly linkd wi dvlomn of cnologis ld o wving nd

mlwoking. as w sw in C 5, diffusion of s cnologis

 ws gly fcilid by immign kinsi gous fom Kon nin-

sul, wo w coming o Jns islnds in lg numbs in mid-

fif cnuy. t nsfomions y ngndd in ms of socil

ognizion nd conomic oduciviy incsd wl of Ymocou nd us ld mk ossibl xnsion of Ymo ow nd

subsqun fomion of risuyò lw cods, wic yifid govn-

mn duing N iod.

Svl clus s o conomic dimnsions of is ocss cn b

sn in is lgnd couning fomion of h, on of lgs

nd mos owful immign kinsi gous:

In dys of emo wo ignd asku plc inhsus, mmbs of h fmily bcm dndn on o

fmilis unld o i oiginl ous. t emo, owv,

gciously fvoing h cifin, Sk no Kimi, wo svd

cou, ws lsd o g gin ll scd mmbs of

fmily nd lc m und conol of Sk no Kimi, wo wi

180 xclln wokmn, snd xs o cou of fin silks, wi

 wic filld lc couyd. . . . ts xd sof silks wn

 won vy lsing o skin, nd so fmily nm h, o

hd, mning “skin” oigind. Wi s sm silks y covd

il of scd swod wn wosiing Sino sin,

nd ncin cusom sill mins uncngd. tus w s ow

silk wving indusy ws oigind by h fmily in Jn.11

tis lgnd, oug doublss ocyl, igligs wo cnl socil nd

conomic fcs gding diffusion of siculu nd wving is. Fis,

fbics nd silks w no simly on y of vlud commodiy mong

mny. r, y w cnl mdium of xcng ougou iod. t dg o wic silks nd fbics svd s lifblood of bo

conomic nd dminisiv civiy in modn Jn cn b sn in

x cods nd giss of N nd hin iods, wic consisnly

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  Silkworms and Consorts 141

suggs vs mjoiy of mils collcd by cou s xs

cm in fom of ic, fbics, nd silks.12 Sinds o couis nd offi-

cils w id dominnly in fbics. tus ougou is iod

oducion of silks nd wovn fbics closly oximd oducionof mony islf.

tis lgnd igligs onc gin dg o wic inoducion

nd diffusion of cnologis ld o wving nd siculu ws ld

o immigion of kinsi gous suc s h. tis is suggsd

no only by ig dg of fmiliiy wi coninnl mods of culu

nd cnology suc gous ossssd, bu lso by conmonous

soucs mslvs, wic fqunly f xlicily o immign kinsi

gous in conjuncion wi dissminion of wving cnologis.13  as w v sn dly, on fu lmn of nomous cons-

qunc fo dvlomn of is nd lgnds ssocid wi wving

 ws igly gndd division of lbo ccomnid diffusion

of siculu. In Jn s lsw in asi, only womn od

looms md fbic. Womn lso o v bn sonsibl fo

xmly lbo-innsiv cic of fding mulby lvs o

silkwoms. Womn us occuid cnl osiion in oducion of

 wl in mny ousolds.No suisingly, s socil nd conomic liis w flcd

coss wid scum of my nd culic cic. By s of N

iod mos common offings o diis w wovn ims, wv-

ing imlmns, nd wving midns. ps bs illusion of

dg o wic wving moifs nd ligious discous cou cn

b sn in wll-known hvnly Goo my in  Nihon shoki . h

vn sun goddss nd oyl ncso amsu is dicd in iul

 wving cmb woking loom io o ncoun wi

 violn bo Susnoo nd sclusion wiin hvnly Goo.14

ts os w no limid, owv, o ccouns of lnd’s myic

oigins; s w sw in C 5, cou conicls w lso ins o

oy uls nd i consos in ms of Cins siculu is. In

 Nihon shoki , fo insnc, w old Ymo ul Yûyku

insiud siculu is in wic oyl conso ws quid o son-

lly fd mulby lvs o silkwoms s of id mon. 15

Suc is w cicd in Cin vn im of comosiion of

 Nihon shoki ; Chiu T’ang shu, fo insnc, cods vn emss Wu ts-’in (ignd 690–705) fd silkwoms in is mnn duing

ign of usbnd Ko-zu.16 all of is us suggss by im of

comosiion of  Nihon shoki  in 720 cou ws wll w of

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142 Weaving and Binding 

scil ssociion of oyl consos nd vn msss wi silkwoms

nd siculu wiin Cins cou iul. as suc iul ssociions cm

o infom vn lgnds of cousi mong uls nd i consos,

os nd lgnds fom Cins fsivl clnd cm o vdvn uodly niv oy nd lgnds of iod.

 On xml of dg o wic cnologicl ocsss nd cos-

mologicl concns w inwind cn b sn in n ny in  Rites of

Chou  ss Cou bnnd “doubl culivion” of silkwom

cocoons duing singl y.17 t sons fo is indicion dis-

cussd in Sou shen chi , Cins l collcion fom fif cnuy:

t Book of Silkwoms sys, “Wn moon is in osiion ofg fi, n [fi] vds is nu. t silkwom nd os

of sm cc.” In  Rites of Chou i is win

Ms of hos Sbls “fobd doubl culivion of silk-

 woms.” t no sys, “two ings [wiin sm clssificoy

gou] cnno domin [ sm im]. t doubl culivion

of silkwoms ws fobiddn bcus is would m oss.”18

tis mkbl x illuss dg o wic cnicl knowl-dg concning ising of silkwoms ws imlicd in bod cos-

mologicl nd culic sysms. h w find doubl culivion of silk-

 woms ws concivd of in ms of sl culs nd fiv ss (wu hsing )

oug. Suc concns w so sblisd in Cin y sisd fo

cnuis f cou of Suiko bgn o ing suc blifs ino

dily yms of lif in Jns islnds.

tis bod cosmologicl fmwok is of cnl imonc fo

undsnding culic ffcs of nsmission of siculu. aloug,

givn modn judics, i is s nul o viw oducion ocsss

lmos xclusivly in ms of cnology, bov x dmonss

siculu duing iod involvd muc mo n o cniqus

fo using lnd, culiving mulby s, nd ising silkwoms. I lso

quid knowldg of diis, is, nd lgnds, no only os ssocid

 wi wving nd silkwoms, nd i lionsis o ll o lmns

of cosmos. 

Silkrms and Immrtality 

I is fo no suising cou’s occuion wi siculu

s o v bn mcd by n qully owful ins in silkwom

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  Silkworms and Consorts 143

culs mong oulc. Indd, silkwoms w objc of consid-

bl culic nion in bo Cin nd Jn ougou modn

iod. as silkwoms w souc of silk nd, by xnsion, osiy,

is iul focus is s no suising. evidnc of on suc cul cn bfound in Kiko no Ysio (Silkwom sin), h culic cn in

 Ymsio ovinc ousd silkwom diy.19 

t lif cycl of silkwoms, xibiing s i did -sg ocss

of bi, “d” wiin cocoon, nd “bi” s mo, lso snd

owful mo fo immoliy nd sucion. On of lis

indicions suc ssociions w widsd in Jns islnds

cn b found in  Nihon shoki  ny:

 a mn fom sn lnds in of Fuji iv nmd

Òfub no Òsi ncougd ol in villgs o wosi n

insc, sying “tis is god of vlsing wold [tokoyo no

kami ]. If you wosi is god, i will bing you wl nd long lif.”

Smns ndd o civ ocls sying, “If [y] wosi

tokoyo no kami, oo will bcom wly nd old will un

o you.” ty us incsingly ncougd ol o ow

wy i ousold vlubls, nd lin u sake , vgbls, nd six domsic nimls by odsids. ty lso d m cy ou,

“t nw wl is coming!” pol in cil nd counysid

ook tokoyo insc nd inslld i on sncifid lfoms. ty

sng nd dncd fo wl nd w wy i sus wiou

obining ny bnfi. t loss nd ws w xm.

 a is h no Miysuko no Kwksu fom Kdono, ing o

s ol so dludd, killd Òfub no Òsi. t smns w

fignd by is nd csd ncouging cul. t ol of

im us md song, singing:

“I’s god, god!”

So cm is fm sounding

Bu Uzums

hs suck down nd unisd i

t god of evwold [tokoyo].

tis insc usully bds on tachibana (Jns ong) ohosoki s. I is ov fou incs in lng nd is icknss is bou

of umb. I is gn colod wi blck sos nd in vy wy

smbls silkwom.20

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144 Weaving and Binding 

tis ssg is nobl no only fo xcion god of

immoliy will in fom “in vy wy smbls silkwom,”

bu lso fo fc lon dsciion in cou conicls of mss

ligious movmn suggss song oul wnss of silkwom culsnd diis. I would us on by-oduc of inoducion of

siculu ino Jns islnds ws owful wnss of silkwom

diis nd widsd linkg of silkwom wi oul siions

fo bo osiy nd nl lif. all of is us onc gin suggss

long bfo comlion of  Nihon shoki in 720, coninnl mil

culu d ldy oducd dmic cngs in oul ligious

imginion.

t linkg bwn siculu nd immoliy my lso b sn in vsiv liy moif of fml immol wo s on

in fom of wving midn. as w sw in C 3, on of

bs-known suc figus ws tsumino no hijii him (lilly: Immol

Mulby-bnc Midn), fml immol fom Yosino wo is -

dly fncd in oy of iod. tis midn ws sid o v

ssumd fom of mulby bnc floing in mounin sm in

 Yosino, only o b focd o my umn ml wo d discovd

mgic gmn llowd o fly bwn vn nd . Bcustsumino no hijii him is sid o v ulimly covd clok nd

und o vn, lgnd, s old fom oin of viw of us-

bnd, fud ominnly in oy xssing g ov los lov. 21 

On xml of ow moifs dwn fom lgnds of figus suc s

tsumino no hijii him cm o vd oic vocbuly of

iod cn b sn in following om ibud in  Nihon shoki o

ul Ninoku. t om is s wiin conx of lgnd in wic

Ninoku sks o i lions wi is sngd cif conso, Iw no

him:

t emo luncd on iv nd book imslf o Ymsio.

 Jus n mulby bnc flod by. t emo sw mulby

bnc nd sng:

 Vin-swming

rock pincss Iw no him

No indiffnly  Will of you

Lfy mulby :

 You souldn’ go n m

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  Silkworms and Consorts 145

 All those bending river bends

But you round them every one

Leafy mulberry tree.22

This poem, which somewhat improbably posits a relationship between

Iwa no Hime and a mulberry branch floating in a river, brings to mind the

following poem from the  Manyòshû, in which Tsuminoe no Hijiri Hime’s

benighted husband is said to recollect Tsuminoe no Hijiri Hime’s first

appearance on earth as a mulberry branch in a river at Yoshino: 

If this evening

 A branch of wild mulberry Should come floating by,

I’ve set no traps to catch it in,

 And it might get away.23

Given the thematic similarities between these two poems, it would

appear either that the two poems were unrelated, in which case they serve

to illustrate the widespread degree to which continental tropes concerning

 women and sericulture had penetrated the poetic imagination of the age,or the editors of the Nihon shoki  consciously utilized a poem rooted in the

Tsuminoe no Hijiri Hime legend cycle in order to evoke Nintoku’s regret

at his separation from his wife. If this is in fact the case, then the use of

such imagery suggests that by the time of its composition the Nihon shoki ’s

editors could be confident that the Tsuminoe no Hijiri Hime legend cycle

 would be well known to their readers. This is especially important because,

unlike the legend concerning Yûryaku’s establishment of Chinese-based

rites of sericulture, Nintoku’s poem is based upon references to a female

immortal who was a fixture of indigenous legends.

Crawling and Calling Out

These allusions to female immortals in the depiction of Iwa no Hime are

especially important because of a series of poems and legends recounting

episodes from the stormy relationship between Nintoku and Iwa no Hime

that feature the following rite of prostration and calling out:

 As Kuchiko sang his song, a great rain began to fall. Without trying to

avoid the rain, he prostrated himself before the front door of the hall.

The queen consort [then] went out to the back door. He went and

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146 Weaving and Binding 

osd imslf bfo bck doo of ll, nd s wn bck

ou o fon. as cwld bck nd fo nd osd imslf

in couyd, w cm u o is wis. a im, Omi

 ws wing d ss wi gn gmn. as w cd

ss, gn ll und d.

Now Kuciko’s young sis Kuciim ws in svic of

qun conso. Kuciim us md song, sying:

 

My lod nd ld bo,

Clling ou [mono mòsu] in lc

 a tsusuki in Ymsio.

Is on vg of s.24

tis unusul lgnd gin illuss dg o wic nsfo-

mion in cou iul in Suiko iod ws flcd in oyl ncsl

lgnds by dvn of N iod. h Kuciko’s osion bfo

qun conso s o b dic flcion of doion of Ci-

ns cou iul, wic would v quid is xssion of vnc

bfo qun conso. a mo subl suggsion of influnc of

nw cou dcoum cn lso b found in x’s dicion of Kuciko’si; nvoy’s gn obs nd d ss cosond cisly wi

scibd coloing fo iul gb fo onmyòdò iuliss bo

t’ng nd N cous.25 Dils suc s s us suggs is lgnd

 ws comosd f nion of iul cics nd lgnds

ssocid wi Cins clnd ino Jns islnds in fis

qu of svn cnuy.

O lmns of Kuciko’s bvio, owv, cnno b ccound

fo simly in ms of coninnl foms of cou iqu. t x’s ss-

ion Kuciko cully cwld bck nd fo in Iw no him’s cou-

 yd, fo insnc, s unld o cou dcoum dod by

Suiko. Suc cwling sons songly, owv, wi indignous funy

cics bfo body o omb of cnly dcsd figu. Sinkw

suggss, fo, Kuciko’s cions my lso v bn ld o

iul gsus ssocid wi d nd sucion.26

Svl clus s o ow Kuciko’s cwling mig v bn ld

o ly d iuls cn b sn in lgnd of d nd suc-

ion of y no Wni ncso, inc Ymo tku. Bcus  Nihon shoki vsion of is lgnd sows inc civing sucion

in ms closly smbling os in lgnds of Cins immols, is

lgnd is lso ofn cid s im xml of tois influncs in ly

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  Silkworms and Consorts 147 

 Jns ligion.27 Of icul no is  Kojiki ’s ccoun of cion

of Ymo tku’s fmily o is d:

tuon is consos wo livd in Ymo, nd ll is cildn,

cm down nd md im omb. Cwling ound in muddy

ddis, y cid nd sng:

 

In sicky filds

In mong slks of ic,

 among ic slks,

 W cwl ound nd ound

Cs of wild ym . . .

ts fou songs w ll sung is funl. tus vn uno ody

y sing s songs n emo’s funl.28

tis x is nobl fo is ssion songs clling bck sii of

dcsd w n sblisd of oyl funy is by ly

N iod. Sinkw nos on of bs-known xmls of is

cic cn b found in  Nihon shoki  ccoun of oigins of d, in wic diy Izngi cwls bou d nd f of is dcsd wif

Iznmi bfo undks o bing bck fom undwold:29

 Wn i ws im fo fi god Kgusuci o b bon, is mo

Iznmi ws bund nd did. Izngi no Mikoo sid bily: “[I v]

xcngd sis I lov fo jus on cild!” h n cwld

bou d nd f, wiling nd sdding s.30

 Wn d gins lgnds suc s s, lgnd of Kuciko’s cwling

bou qun conso’s couyd in onmyòdò iul gb in od o cll

ou qun conso Iw no him, suggss iniguing ossibiliy

iul/liy os fo clling o siis of dd my v com o

influnc vn ls of cousi bwn uls nd consos do

gs of cou conicls.

Silkrms, weavers, and Calling out 

Founly, svl clus s o nu nd ol of suc os cn b

sn in wo fu lgnds fom cou conicls fu moif of

iulis/nvoy sking o cll ou n imil conso. t mos dvlod

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148 Weaving and Binding 

of s concns ffos of oyl nvoy Nkomi no Iksu, wo

is sn by ul Ingyò o summon Soòi Isum (Ooim), sis

of Ingyò’s cif conso. Ooim, fful of sis’s jlousy, is fis

lucn o bfo ul:

huon Iksu no Omi, ving civd is ods, id. hiding

ovisions in is cloing, wn o Sk nd osd imslf

in Ooim’s couyd, sying, “By commnd of emo, I cll

 you.” Ooim nswd, “how could I no vnilly civ

commnd of emo? I bu wis o no m flings of

qun conso. [tfo] vn oug i cos m my lif, I will no go

bck [o emo]. a is Iksu no Omi lid “You svn s ldy civd

oyl commnd—I mus bing you bck. If you do no com, I will

suly b judgd o b guily [of nglignc]. r n uning nd

bing xcud, I would di os in is couyd.” a is

n ly os in couyd fo svn dys, nd oug y

offd im food nd dink, did no k. [Insd] scly

fom ovisions d concld.

 a is Ooim oug “Du o qun conso’s jlousy Iv ldy disobyd emo’s commnd, nd my lod, wo

is fiful minis, will di. tis oo will b my ful.” S fo

dcidd o go bck wi Iksu.31

tis lgnd closly smbls in wic nvoy Kuciko clls

ou Qun Conso Iw no him.32 Fu mic similiis cn b

sn lsw in lgnd cycl of Ingyò nd Ooim/Soòi’s cousi,

 w w gin find w o b fncs o Cins is nd

cics ld o siculu. Consid, fo insnc, following ssg

fom  Nihon shoki :

In ig y, sing, scond mon, [ emo] wn

o Fujiw nd scly obsvd dmno of Ldy Soòi. t

vning Ldy Soòi ws lon, yning fo emo. Unw

emo d com, s comosd song, sying:

tonig is nigMy young lov will com o m:

Lil bmboo cb

Sid’s nics mk i cl,

O, vy cl onig!

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  Silkworms and Consorts 149

t emo ws movd on ing is song, nd comosd song

of is own:

Fin-nd

Sss of bocd undon,

Lying ou s,

Mny ims w v no sl— 

Only fo singl nig.33

 aloug dios of Nion kon bungku iki diion of

 Nihon shoki  gloss Soòi Isum’s om s fing somw incongu-

ously o sid wb on n umbll, hibysi s suggsd i fso common divinion cic fomd on vning of tanabata

fsivl.34 tis cic is dscibd in Ching ch’u sui shih chi , l six-

cnuy x diling oul iul clnd of soun Cin:

On is vning ouswivs i colod ds [wi wic] y

d ndls wi svn ols, som of wic md of gold,

silv, o cious sons. ty lc fuis in couyd nd y

fo skill [in wving]. ty y if sid wvs wb on fui, wic y in s n [usicious] sign.35

Bcus Ching ch’u sui shih chi ws comosd only sligly bfo

Suiko cou dod Cins fsivl clnd, cou ws lmos

cinly w of suc is. Fu vidnc fo is cn b sn in

ysicl ims fom iod: ss of jus suc colod blls of yn nd

iul ndls svd in Sòsòin soous in N dmons

suc is w fomd in Jn s wll s in Cin.36 

Fu llusions o tanabata moifs cning on nnul ming of

Wv Midn nd Cowd cn b found wiin o oms fom

Ooim/Soòi om cycl. aloug w old in x Ooim is

unw Ingyò is n, in om s dcls, “tis is nig my

usbnd will com.” Ingyò’s fnc o ming of lovs fo “bu on

nig only” is lso inxlicbl ousid of conx of tanabata is,

 wic clb nnul ming of Wv nd Cowd fo singl

nig. all of is us gin igligs imonc of Cins wving

culs nd mys fo x’s oizon of cion, fo onc gin diosof  Nihon shoki   o b quoing widly known Cins diion

of iul nd lgnd in od o convy bo xcion nd soow fl

by is oyl ncso nd is nwly cquid conso.

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150 Weaving and Binding 

Perhaps the most conclusive evidence that this legend cycle was

conceived in terms related to sericulture and weaving cults, however, can

be found in the following poem, in which Iwa no Hime refers explicitly to

herself and her rival as silkworms:

Summer crawlers,

Silkworms that make double clothes:

 Wearing two layers,

Sleeping snug and bundled up— 

Oh, no, that can’t be right!37

 Although this legend is usually glossed as a protest against Nintoku’s keepingtwo lovers, there can be no doubt that rites and practices associated with

sericulture were essential background elements. One important clue may

be found in the allusion to the insect “wearing double garments.” Assuming

that this indicates a silkworm in its cocoon, the text’s protest against double

garments would suggest some connection with the Chinese interdiction of

the double cultivation of silkworms.38

These references, when taken together, suggest that the editors of the

 Nihon shoki deliberately highlighted Chinese tropes derived from weavingand sericulture as they set down a cluster of legends centered upon the

calling out of royal consorts. Although the limited scope and nature of these

sources allows for few definitive conclusions, the familiarity with Chinese

cultic practices that these allusions demonstrate strongly suggests that the

adoption of the Chinese festival calendar had by the Nara period given rise

to a broader poetic and ritual vocabulary that informed even the suppos-

edly native legends and rites of the period.

Nurinomi and the “Insect

of the Three Transformations”

Fortunately, much more solid evidence concerning the nature and extent of

the court’s interest in Chinese silkworm cults can be found in the conclu-

sion to the  Kojiki account of the Wani ancestor Kuchiko’s attempt to call

out the Queen Consort Iwa no Hime from the home of one Nurinomi, an

immigrant woman from the Korean peninsula who raises silkworms:

Then Kuchiko no Omi, his younger sister Kuchi Hime and Nurinomi

discussed [the situation] all three [together], and sent word to the

Emperor saying “The reason for the queen consort’s journey is [to

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  Silkworms and Consorts 151

b found] in som inscs Nuinomi is ing. ts mvlous

inscs on im cwling inscs, on im cocoons,

nd on im bcom [lik] flying bids—[y ] mvlous inscs

of nsfomions nd colos. S s com simly o

s s inscs. S s no sng innions.” Wn y d

md is o, emo sid, “If is cs, n I wis

o go nd s s [inscs], s I ink y [mus b] sng nd

mvlous.”39

S in tsusuki disic of Ymsio ovinc, songold of bo

 Wni nd h kinsi gous, is x dislys svl fmili liy

os. t img of n immign fom Kon ninsul inoducingmmbs of cou o ocss of ising silkwoms s mblm-

ic of bod ocss by wic siculu cm o b inoducd ino

Jns islnds.

Mo concly, owv, ssg lso suggss ow nd wy

Cins silkwom culs cm o b ld o lgnds of clling ou.

h x xlicily is moif of Wni ncso clling ou

qun conso wi n img of qun conso su in n nclosu

 wcing silkwoms. Sinc w v ldy sn N cou wsknly w of Cins cou iuls quid qun conso o

fom jus is ol, is x is lmos cinly y no insnc of

N cou sning islf nd is ncsos on bsis of Cins iul

digms ld o siculu.

evn mo imon n conn of lgnd, owv,

xul soucs uon wic i is bsd; is lgnd dmonss n

wnss on of N cou of oul Cins silkwom

culs cnno b cd o clssicl oic soucs. h Nuinomi is

no dicd in vocbuly of  Book of Rites  “ncouging silk

indusy”; , s is xolling silkwom’s sng nd wondous

ows o di nd n b bon. escilly nobl in is gd is Nui-

nomi’s us of s “nsfomions in colos” in fnc o

silkwom. tis s s closly ld o ssg fom  Po

wu chih, id-cnuy Cins gz lso fs o silkwom

s insc of “ nsfomions.”40 aloug lgnd my v

lil bsis s isoicl fc, i songly suggss dios of  Nihon

 shoki w fmili wi oul concions of silkwoms in Cin. If wssum suc llusions fomd of bod concul vocbuly

fmili o x’s ds, n i would miculous biliy

of silkwoms o “di” wiin cocoons only o b bon ws cus fo

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152 Weaving and Binding 

 wond no only mong millnnil movmns in counysid, bu lso

mong li mmbs of cou.

Cucilly, is moif of silkwom s insc of “ nsfom-

ions” ws nsind ominnly in oul Cins fsivl clndon fifn dy of fis mon of y. tis d, wic mkd

iul nd of Nw Y, ws iod wn siis of dd

 w oug o b cbl of uning o visi living. Known s

fis of “ oigins” (C.  san yuan), i ws lso oug o mk

mjo uning oin fom wic vns of coming y w oug o

flow. as sul, on is dy, s ougou Nw Y’s iod, is of

divinion fo following y w fomd long wi is fo

siis of ncsos nd o ousold diis.41

Bcus fifn dy of fis mon of y lso mkd

fis full moon of y, is d ws lso closly ssocid wi

lun cul nd womn. In Cin s sonncs vnully ld o

bifucion of iul long gnd lins, wi womn iciing in culic

civiis on fifn dy of fis mon nd mn iciing in

culic civiis fo sov god in wlf mon.42 In mids of is

conflunc of is of gnd, divinion, nd sii wosi, ws sis of

is dsignd o cll ou siis of fml diis ssocid wi silk- woms. accoding o Ching ch’u sui shih chi, s bgn duing

dy wi i clld ou mic, wic w civd o b nmy

of “silkwom wic gs ims.”43 

ts is w followd wi fu s dsignd o cll ou

lvoy/siculu goddss, on of mos imon fml diis in

Cin duing iod in qusion. as w sw in C 5, moifs ld

o is diy o v bn mbddd in ncsl lgnds of

svl lings cou. eqully imon, muc s Iw no him nd

Soòi Isuim w clld ou by Nkomi nd Wni ncsos dssd

in t’ng iul gb, oul Cins culic cics on vning of

fifn dy of fis mon cnd uon clling ou of sii of

lvoy goddss fo uos of divining y’s yild of silk:

On is vning y wlcom tzu-ku, nd divin [ moun of]

i fuu silks nd o ffis. accoding o Lui Cing-su’s Yi

 yuan, tzu-ku ws oiginlly sombody’s concubin. t fis wif ws

jlous of . On fifn dy of fis mon, s did fomgif nd umiliion. Fo is son ol mk imgs of nd

civ , sying sll. . . . If [ doll] bcoms vy, n

goddss s com.44

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  Silkworms and Consorts 153

  In lig of fc Ching ch’u sui shih chi ws comosd

viully sm im Suiko cou ws fis civing nvoys

fom Sui cou, i sould no b suising is ssocid wi

siculu w fomd on on of mos imon dys in Cins yly iul cycl my v influncd myic nd iul lif in

Jns islnds in dcds ld o comosiion of cou

conicls. On s dys womn coss Cin no only fomd is

of divinion dsignd o mximiz numb of silkwoms would

com o m duing coming y, y lso clld ou of n nclosu

sii of silkwom goddss. By N iod, suc moifs w

of bsic concul vocbuly in ms of wic s uls suc s

 Yûyku nd Ingyò s wll s i consos w snd in nwlymind conicls of cou.

Non of is is o sy figus suc s Iw no him o Nuinom

xcisd g influnc ov dvlomn of ligious insiuions

of N Jn. r, s nd o suc figus of ins fo

 w y vl bou soucs fo consucion of os of

kingsi nd cousi duing iod. By N iod, o of

wv midn/conso fding mulby lvs o “insc of

nsfomions” d nd no only Cins-syl oy of couinllculs, bu lso vs nd nivs coding locl lgnds nd

couly omncs fom s nv ws. as mysious silkwom

fscind no only silk-cld couis bu lso ds follows of mil-

lnnil movmns, siculu is nd os fom coninn bcm

fixus in concul univs sd ills of N Jn.

Cnclusin 

t doion of Cins fsivl clnd ws of bod culul

nd oliicl nsfomion sw no only xnsion of ow

of uls of Ymo lin, bu lso nsfomion in mns

by wic ow ws undsood nd snd. among mos

imon lmns llowing fo xnsion of wl nd ow of

s uls ws inoducion of mnufcuing cnologis fom

coninn. ts cnologis, cnl o oliicl nd conomic lif in bo

Cin nd Jns islnds, w lso vily snd in is

nd lgnds ssocid wi Cins clnd. as sul, mny of culic cics dod by Suiko cou w buil no only uon con-

cions of yin nd yang nd so fo, bu lso uon w im ws

considd bs cic in cfs nd indusis md couly lif

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154 Weaving and Binding 

ossibl. tus s Ymo cou dod Cins fsivl clnd,

i no only omod nw mods of govnnc, i lso fud iul

ogm ssocid wi cfs nd indusis fomd mjo

of is conomic foundion. among mny by-oducs of is conflunc of influncs in iul,

cf, nd oy ws nsfomion in wy womn w snd

by bo os nd conicls. tus ougou cou conicls s wll

s in oy of g w find d fncs o womn s wv-

ing midns, immols, o vn, s w v sn, s mulby bncs

nd silkwoms. On fu coolly of is ocss involvd nvoys sn

o cll ou oyl consos nd qun consos fom iul nclosus w

y climd, mong o ings, o b nding silkwoms.ts lgnds of clling ou immdily lvn o qusion

of ow coninnl moifs of immoliy nd sucion cm o occuy

suc lg lc in liu of iod. aloug i would b

foolis o dw fim conclusions bsd on suc smll smling of xs,

bov oms nd lgnds suggs oizon of cion fo

oms nd lgnds of g ws subsnilly influncd by diffusion

of siculu nd doion of Cins fsivl clnd. tus vn

s mo of silkwom undgoing nsfomions so-nd mong mmbs of mss millnnil cul of Òfub no Òsi, so oo

did figus suc s tsumino no hijii him nd tzu-ku com o un

oic nd myic vocbuly of N cou. as sul, nw ml

fo fomion of uodly niv is nd lgnds vdd Lnd

of eig Islnds.

By dvn of N iod is ocss d bcom so dvncd

s o fundmnlly s mny of mos imon insiuions of ly

 Jns ligion. In following c w xmin ow mil

nd cnologicl voluion sw Jns islnds dicly

influncd fomion of cul of amsu, incil ncso

of oyl lin.

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155 

Chapter 7

Silkrm Cults in the

Heavenly Grtt Amaterasu and the Children of Ama no Hoakari

IN the DeCaDeS following Suiko cou’s dcision o civly omulg

coninnlly insid cou iul nd Cins fsivl clnd, succs-

siv uls wokd xnding n xnsiv ogm of buucic nd

iul innovions w in lg ood in coninnl concions of

divinion, sii cificion, nd sg kingsi. By ign of tnmu tennò, 

on imon lmn ws dvlomn of ncsl is nd lgnds

fo fsly mind tennò  x of nwly consiud ogns of

govnmn. accomnying is sif ws n incsd focus wiin oylcul on Is sin nd figu of amsu, wo ws omod ggs-

sivly by tnmu nd is dscndns s min oyl ncso.1

 aloug is g dl of db s o wn nd wy fig-

u of amsu cm o occuy n imon osiion in oyl cul,

cn b lil doub tnmu nd is succssos w dmind

o undsco imonc s cif ncso of uling lin. In

 Nihon shoki  w old tnmu vivd cusom of snding cons-

cd incss o sid Is f ls of fify ys. Similly, tnmu’s

conso nd succsso, Jiò, is sid o v kn uncdnd s of

sonlly visiing Is sin. No long f tnmu’s d, sus

of amsu s moun oyl ncso ws mnifsd insiuionlly by

Dmn of ris (Jingikn), wic ovsw yly cycl of is fo

cou w vily focusd on conncion bwn tennò

nd oyl ncso Is. all of is suggss snions of

 amsu in cou iul nd cou conicls w bing consucd

nd modifid im wn cou ws lso civly mbcing lgnds

of fml immols nd coninnl concions of sology.Givn imonc of Is cul fo tnmu, wos ign in mny

 wys s o v bn oliicl nd culic wsd in isoy

of Jns islnds, i is s no suising scolsi of ly

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156 Weaving and Binding 

kami wosi in Jns islnds s bn vily oind owds

sudy of oyl cul in gnl nd Is sin in icul. Wil i

 would b unfi o sy locl lings nd culs v bn comlly

ignod, i is nonlss cs locl o nonoyl culic concns du-ing iod nd o b discussd minly in ms of ow y sd lig

uon dvlomn of Is nd oyl cul.

In is c I oos o vs is oinion. aloug culic

influnc is ofn ssumd o v mnd fom cou ou owds

iy, I gu cul of amsu nd cou is ( jingi ) of

iod cn in mny wys b viwd s inomn ood in d

culic movmns w swing coss Jns islnds vn i-

o o tnmu’s ign. as w v sn dly, mny of mos imo-n culic dvlomns of g w simuld by culul nd olii-

cl concs wi Kon ninsul nd by civiis of immign

lings ook u sidnc in Jns islnds. aloug, givn

nu of xul soucs vilbl o us, i is no ossibl o igno

culic civiis of cou, I k is nd lgnds ssocid wi

 amsu nd Is sin s oin of du, no n ndoin fo

my inquiy. On cnl mis in is oc is blif  jingi

is nd myic digms of os-tnmu cou w no cd xniilo, bu oug oiion nd nsfomion of -xising

myic nd iul soucs. In gs follow, I xmin is ocss

oug discussion of wll-known my of hvnly Goo nd is

lionsi o Cinkonsi nd Ò, wo of mos imon

is of os-tnmu cou.2 

Isoling imon momns of culic oiion in cou-son-

sod xul cous quis simulnously usuing svl disinc,

oug closly ld cks. Muc of is c focuss on lin-

gs o v ind disinc culic nd myic diions vn

s y njoyd clos lions wi Ymo uls duing six cn-

uy. On ling, Owi Muji, climd dscn fom god am no

hoki no Mikoo, diy wos cul s o v bn closly ld

o nscn culs of amsu nd of Ymo tku, n ncso of

considbl myic imonc by im of tnmu cou. t lg-

nd cycl of Ymo tku is of icul ins no only fo is inim

conncion wi Is myology, bu lso bcus i ominnly fus

moifs of d nd sucion lso in lgnd of hvnly Goo. t is lso xnsiv vidnc bo Is cul nd

cul of Ymo tku xincd id dvlomn in l lf

of svn cnuy.

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  Silkworm Cults in the Heavenly Grotto 157 

I lso focus on culic civiis of Wni, no ling

climd dscn fom am no hoki no Mikoo. as in cs of

Owi Muji, in bo  Kojiki nd  Nihon shoki Wni sid o

v ovidd consos fo svl uls duing fif nd six cnu-is, wn succssiv moncs locd i cous in gion of Kw-

ci ovinc. as w sw in C 6, Wni consos lso in svl

lgnds of uls clling ou consos in ms divd fom coninnl lg-

nds ld o wving nd siculu. t Wni lso fu ominnly

in ou discussion bcus pinc Ymo tku imslf ws sid o b

cild of Wni mo, nd bcus Wni o v dly

incood coninnl-syl moifs of d nd sucion ino i

ncsl lgnds.Finlly, g dl of is c involvs discussion of culic

cics of Mononob, ling w v ldy ncound in

viy of conxs nging fom founding lgnd of Jns Bud-

dism o myic oigins of Miw sin. t Mononob mk n

idl subjc of sudy fo svl sons. as w v ldy sn, y

known o v lyd mjo ol in oliicl nd miliy lif of

Ymo cou fom ls im of Ymo ul Wku unil

dmis of min Mononob lin nds of Sog in 584.t is lso ml vidnc by six cnuy Mononob d

dvlod i own disinciv culic nd myic diions nd y

lyd ominn ol in culic lif of six, svn, nd ig

cnuis. Bcus xis fom N nd ly hin iods sub-

snil numb of lgnds nd documns ld o Mononob, i is

lso ossibl o sk wi g confidnc bou culic cics of

Mononob n fo mos o lings.

In ddiion, duing six cnuy Mononob known o v

lyd n imon ol in ubuln lions bwn Ymo

cou nd Kon ninsul, nd y o v bn closly con-

ncd wi numous immign lings climd o dscnd fom

Mononob ncsos. t Mononob us o v bn idlly

lcd o sv s condui fo diffusion of culic influncs fom

Kon ninsul o oyl cul nd coss Jns islnds. Som of

mos owful of s culic influncs w ood in coninnl is

nd lgnds concnd wi sucion, sii-quiing, nd oigins of

siculu. ts culs nd lgnds svd s imon ills no only fomjo  jingi is suc s Cinkonsi nd Ò, bu lso fo

culs of min diis of inn nd ou Is sins.

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158 Weaving and Binding 

 The Heavenly Grtt Myth and

the Pst-Tenmu Ryal Cult 

In gs follow muc of my discussion will focus on qusionsconcning ow nd o w dg is nd lgnds ld o sii-qui-

ing, sun diis, nd sucion fom coss Jns islnds my v

ld s wll-known lgnd of hvnly Goo, in wic

sun goddss amsu ids slf in cv, only o b lud ou by

muliud of diis wo ugnly sking o bing lig of sun

bck ino wold. Bcus is lgnd svd s n mic smn

of amsu no Òmikmi’s moun sus mong gods, is

gnl consnsus i mos likly ook finl s ound tnmu’s ign,s amsu cm o b cnl focus wiin oyl cul.

 aloug I v fd o hvnly Goo my s singl niy,

i is imon o no lgnd is long nd s in svl

 vins in  Kojiki nd Nihon shoki . as cful discussion of c vi-

n is wll byond ms of is book, I sll sic my discussion

o following lmns, c of wic s in svl—oug no

ncssily ll—of vins. agin my uos is no o y o combin

s lmns o dmin on bsic oulook fo cou, bu osiu s myic nd iul os wiin bod conx of cics

nd blifs ssocid wi lings nd culic cns ougou J-

ns islnds:

1. t diy Susnoo soms u o hvnly plin o s is

sis, sun diy amsu. Unsu of bo’s innions,

 amsu us on sui of mo nd wis bo, wons

in nd.

2. Susnoo no Mikoo cllngs amsu o cons in wic

c sks o oduc mo cildn n o. amsu

oducs , wil Susnoo oducs fiv.

3. Susnoo unillly clims vicoy in cons nd gos on

mg in wic commis vious ddions, including

filling in dics nd dsoying idgs in filds.

4. amsu, in cons o bo’s nisocil bvio, is

dicd s ing fo Niinmsi, vs i nd on of

mos imon vns in cou’s iul clnd. as ofis ion, amsu ns iul wving cmb w

s sis loom nd bgins mking scil wovn ims o b

usd s offings in Niinm is.

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  Silkworm Cults in the Heavenly Grotto 159

5. Susnoo, sill on mg, ows fcs ino wving

cmb, by dfiling i. h lso flys ibld os “in

vs dicion” nd ows ccss ino wving

cmb.6. In som vsions of lgnd, amsu, ougd, imls

slf uon sul. h sii ns hvnly Goo, nd

ul nig sls ov .3

7. t o gods sk o lu amsu ou by nging iul

imlmns suc s scil wovn clo ( shidori ), cly imlmns,

jwls, nd mios ousid of cv.

8. t ncsl diis of imon iul lings Is mk

iul offings. t goddss lvs cv, owv, only fs s o gods luging s goddss Uzum him

foms lwd dnc n cv.4 

9. t o gods n siz Susnoo, fom i of uificion

(harae ), nd bnis im o undwold.5

Fo mny ys dominn oc o is nd viully vy o

my in cou conicls ws of scols suc s Okd Sisi, wo

 viwd hvnly Goo my s oigin of suc cou iuls s Ò (ri of G puificion) nd Cinkonsi (ri of Sii-qui-

ing). Mos likly du o ci ssumion cou xs suc s  Kojiki

nd Nihon shoki  snd wo xmls of singl, unifid oyl idol-

ogy, Okd ofn i glossd ov imon discncis bwn

xs of  Nihon shoki nd  Kojiki o d m s simly flcing

diffn sgs in dvlomn of oyl my. tis oc s bn

ciicizd by scols suc s Kònosi tkmisu, wo s gud focfully

Okd fundmnlly misundsnd no only disinc idologicl

gnd of c x, bu lso i lionsi o dvlomn of cou

iuls suc s Ò nd Cinkonsi. r n diffncs

bwn xs s mks of isoicl dvlomn, Kònosi gus

y bs undsood s indicions of divgn idologicl gnds.6

Somw mo conovsilly, Kònosi s lso gud gins sk-

ing oos of suc is s Ò nd Cinkonsi in mys nd

lgnds of cou conicls. h wis:

t Kojiki couns sblismn of xising wold od,bginning wi fomion of wold, wil isuyò iuls

m o gun odly ocssion of ssons. Unil now,

ll of s ( Kojiki , Nihon shoki , nd noio) w sn s of

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160 Weaving and Binding 

singl, xising myology, bu singl, unifid myology ws c-

d only after wiing of  Kojiki nd  Nihon shoki . . . .

ts vious lmns—s snd by  Kojiki ,  Nihon

 shoki , nd cul iul cic—fomd mo o lss indndnly,

ossssing ccisics could no b comlly concild wi

c o.7

rgdlss of w Kònosi is coc in ssing idologicl

gnds of  Kojiki ,  Nihon shoki , nd  jingi is of cou fomd

indndnly nd in svic of diffn gnds, i is f mo imo-

n fo ou uoss c lmn dvlod gins oizon in

 wic numous lings nd sins cou nd coss Jnsislnds nggd in is of uificion (harae ), sii-quiing (chinkon)

nd sii-sking (tama furi ).  as w sll s, ncsl lgnds of

svl of s lings involvd moifs of sucion nd wosi of

sun diis. tus, n simly ssing idologicl gnd

of  Nihon shoki diffd fom of  Kojiki , wic my o my no

v bn so, I focus on mulil voics, conflics, nd dundncis

xis in c of s xs nd bwn m. 

Muc of my discussion lso cns on lionsi bwn myologis of  Nihon shoki nd Kojiki on on nd nd cou iu-

ls suc s Ò nd Cinkonsi on o. addssing suc

conncions is ssnil if fo no o son n fc svl of

mos imon of oyl mys, including my of hvnly

Goo, mk xlici fnc o cou iuls. Consid, fo insnc,

following ssg fom  Kojiki , wic ss is of “g uific-

ion” (òharae ) w odd coss lnd f Ymo ul Cûi

 ws suck down by wful diis in non Kyûsû:

tking u scd objcs [ònusa], y fomd i of g

uificion [òharae ] [f fis] sking ou [insncs of] suc sins s

flying [nimls] liv, flying bckwds, dsoying boundy idgs

nd filling in dics in filds, dfilmn oug dfcion, illici

lions bwn n nd cild, nd migs o oss, cows, nd

cickns nd dogs.8

 as numous scols v nod, sins ddssd in is liugy closlymc cions of Susnoo in hvnly Goo my—so muc so,

in fc, x is simly no comnsibl wiou fnc o

hvnly Goo lgnd.9 

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  Silkworm Cults in the Heavenly Grotto 161

In cons o xlici fncs o Niinmsi nd is of

“g uificion,” fis us of m “Cinkonsi,” o “ri of Sii-

quiing” is oug o v bn no in  Kojiki o  Nihon shoki , bu

in tiò lw cods, wic w comosd in 701. In  Nihon shoki ,owv, w do find fnc o “ri of Sii-clling” (Sòkonsi)

 ws fomd by monk hòzò fo iling ul tnmu. t is us

g dl of oom fo inion concning uos nd oigins. M-

sum, fo insnc, nos  Ryò no gige , commny on tiò

nd Yòò lw cods ws comld in 833, ss uos of

Cinkonsi  ws o nsu l of ul by viving is sii

nd clling i o is body sould i s o wnd.10 Os, suc s W-

nb Ksuyosi, v sn i s n imon cmony of kingsi,in wic siis of fom uls would b quid.11 Founly, givn

myic nd iul comlxiis ssocid wi Cinkonsi, i is no

ncssy fo ou uoss o y o isol “l” mning of i.

Indd, in lig of xnsiv isoicl lying in bo iul nd

lgnd, i is xmly doubful ny singl mning fo iul cn

b dducd.12 

I sll fo sic muc of my discussion of hvnly Goo

my o on sc s civd considbl nion fom Msumtksi, wo gus in ls som vins amsu is clly -

snd s ving did nd n com bck o lif. In suo of is viw,

Msum nos is is osiion of lis commnis

 w v on Cinkonsi nd   xssion “iwa gakuri ,” usd in

 Nihon shoki fo goddss’s ny ino cv, is lso usd in

 Manyòshû s umism fo d.13 Msum lso nos iming

of Cinkonsi in cou’s iul clnd cosonds cisly wi

i of sii-clling ws fomd by monk hòzò jus io o

tnmu’s d. In ddiion, is xclln xul vidnc suggsing

Mononob lso cicd chinkon i ws xlicily con-

cnd wi “sking” o viving sii of ul nd by so-

ing l nd lif.

ts obsvions undsco fc ni mny vi-

ns of hvnly Goo my no suc is s Ò nd

Cinkonsi w cd in isolion. Indd, s w sll s dly,

is owful vidnc hvnly Goo my nd Ò 

nd Cinkonsi dvlod in conjuncion wi, nd in sons o,simil culic blifs nd cics of kinsi gous ougou J-

ns islnds.  Wn viwd s sis of oiion nd consion,

s nd o is nd lgnds of cou us omis o l us

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162 Weaving and Binding 

glims, lbi indicly, owful culic concns nd influncs

sond fom Kyûsû ll wy o Ymo lin.

 Takami Musubi, Ama n Hakari, and Early Sun Cults

 an idl wy o oc hvnly Goo my is o obsv

 ws no on bu mny sun culs in ncin Jn.14 On suc diy w

v ldy ncound in C 2 ws Sill immign diy am

no hiboko, o hvnly Sun S. tis god is snd in  Nihon

 shoki nd Kojiki s cowd wo mis aku him, dug of

sun, wo dmnds offings of wving imlmns.

 Jus s am no hiboko nd aku him w sid o v nd  Jns islnds in Kyûsû nd fom movd clos o Ymo

lin, so, oo, did o sun diis fom Kyûsû com o b wosid

by Ymo cou. On xml cn b found in Knzò c of

 Nihon shoki :

 a sun god ossssd somon nd sid o ab no Omi Koosio:

“tk ic filds fom Iw nd off m o my fob tkmi

Musubi no Mikoo.” Koosio uon od is [o cou]. Jus s god qusd, foy-fou chò of ic filds w offd.

t tsusim Simog no ai ws cgd wi wosi .15

 aloug is x dos no s wic sun god skd Koosio fo

conscion of ic filds, founding ncso of tsusim Si-

mog no i, s Snd Minou s nod, ws diy nmd am

no higmi no Mikoo—lilly, hvnly Sun God.16 Figus suc s

 am no higmi no Mikoo of immdi ins bcus y illus

siml fc no on bu mny sun diis xisd in Jns

islnds. Long bfo comosiion of cou conicls, sun gods w

 wosid by lings nd locl mouns coss Jns islnds.

tis icul lgnd, wic s o v bn dsignd o xlin

ow cul of on sun diy fom Kyûsû nd Ymo gion

 wll bfo N iod, offs us n invlubl mind god-

dss amsu of Is sin ws bu on of numb of sun diis

io o doion by cou.

Fu clus concning nu of suc sun culs cn lso b foundin min culic cn of tsusim Simog no ai in Kyûsû.

Iniguingly, nm of is sin ws amu Jinj. Sinc, s w sll

s momnily,  Nihon shoki lgnd coninus wi moon diy

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  Silkworm Cults in the Heavenly Grotto 163

(nd amsu Òmikmi’s bo) tsukiyomi no Mikoo ing bfo

Koosio, i would lso amu Jinj in tsusim my v

in som wy bn ld o cou’s oiion of amsu cul

Is.On fu clu concning is ocss cn lso b found in fc

min diy amu sin in tsusim ws no am no

higmi no Mikoo, bu am no hoki no Mikoo. as w sw in

C 5, is diy s in cou conicls s lds son of

hvnly Gndcild nd wving midn Konon Skuy him

nd s gndson of tku Cici him, pincss of tousnds

nd tousnds of Looms. eqully imon, owv, am no hoki

 ws lso climd s founding ncso by svl lings ov lyd n imon ol in fomion of ly cou myology. In

 Kojiki , Nihon shoki , nd Shinsen shòjiroku w old   am no

hoki no Mikoo ws founding ncso of Owi Muji, wil

Sendai kuji hongi ss ws lso non o n found-

ing Mononob ncso Nigiyi no Mikoo. Bo of s lings

known o v bn sn in numous s in Kyûsû s wll s in

cosl gions bwn Kyûsû nd Is ovinc.

Fu clus concning culs of ly sun diis cn lso b gdfom no lgnd concning ab no Omi Koosio in  Nihon shoki :

 ab no Omi Koosio, ving civd n od, wn o Mimn s

n nvoy. t moon god ook ossssion of somon nd sid:

“My fob tkmi Musubi no Mikoo fomd mioious svic

in conjuncion wi cion of hvn nd e. Ddic ol

nd lnds o moon god. If you off o m s I v insucd,

 you will njoy osiy.” a is Koosio und o cil

nd od vying nd Usu ic filds w ddicd

[o moon god]. [The Utaarasu rice fields are in the Kadono district

of Yamashiro province .] Osimi no Sukun, ncso of Iki

 agnusi, ws oind o offici [ sin].17

 as bfis moon diy, sds indic lig in is lgnd on wo

cnl scs of dvlomn of sun culs in Jns islnds.

Muc s w sw in cs of tsusim Simognusi no ai,

Iki agnusi w oiginlly bsd on islnd of Iki bwn Kyûsûnd Kon ninsul. Jus s lgnd of sun diy ing

o ab no Omi Koosio s o v bn dsignd o xlin

ddicion of ic filds in Ymo o Kyûsû diy, w v

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164 Weaving and Binding 

lgnd xlins conscion of ic filds in Ymsio ovinc

o amsu’s bo, moon diy tsukiyomi no Mikoo. tllingly,

owv, w lso old moon diy d o Koosio

no in Kyûsû, bu in kingdom of Mimn on Kon ninsul.t locion of tsukiyomi no Mikoo’s sin in Kdono disic of

 Ymsio ovinc is lso of no bcus is disic ws min bs

of h, immign kinsi gou wo lyd suc mjo ol in

inoducion of coninnl oliicl nd ligious foms o Jns

islnds. ps no suisingly, by l N iod, is culic cn

d com o b subsin of Msuno’o sin, on of nwok of

h sins in Ymsio ovinc , s w sw in C 1, w

so imon in fomion of ly hin oyl cul. Fumo, Usu filds w in clos oximiy o y no h sin in

Kdono disic, known s Konosim ni msu amsu Mim

 Jinj. tis sin, wic is sd in nis fom Shoku Nihongi fo

-N iod, is of no no only bcus i s o sn

dlib iing of n amsu culic cn wi on ddicd o

moon god tsukiyomi no Mikoo, bu lso bcus sin l cm o

b fd o s Kiko Jinj (Silkwom sin).18 tis clusing us offs

n imon xml of ow culic cns ddicd o siculu, locl amu sins, nd diis fom oyl cul could lilly b ood in

sm in. I lso suggss scdol lings wi oos bo in

Kon ninsul nd Kyûsû my lso v bn n imon fco

in mgnc of amsu inncl of oyl cul.

On fu lgnd of no in is gd concns no mmb

of ab kinsi gou nd on tku him, incss sn by

 Ymo ul Yûyku o b cif isss ( saiò) Is sin:

 Yûyku 3.4. ab no Kunimi slndd pincss tku nd

sonl ndn19 Ioib no Muji tkiko, sying: “tkiko s

 viold incss nd md gnn.” . . . tkiko’s f

Kikoyu d of is nd fing diss, clld tkiko o Ioki

iv. t, lik comon diving fo fis in w, Kikoyu cug

tkiko unws nd killd im. t tennò, ing of is, sn n

nvoy o incss nd skd of ffi. t incss lid,

“I do no know [nying bou is].” tn, suddnly, incss

ook scd mio nd wn o Isuzu iv nd, sking ou lc w ol sldom go, s buid mio nd sngld

slf. t tennò, wonding bsnc of incss, scd

fo consnly bo s nd ws. tn, bov iv soming

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  Silkworm Cults in the Heavenly Grotto 165

lik inbow d ws fou o fiv jò [ig].20 Wn y dug

souc of inbow, y covd mio. No f fom

lc, y found body of incss. Wn y cu on

bdomn, ws wy objc [insid]. Wiin w ws

son. Kikoyu ws us bl o ov is son’s innocnc, nd

gd ving killd im. h wisd o kill Kunimi fo vng, bu

[Kunimi] fld o Isonokmi sin nd id imslf .21

 In is gisly soy w find svl igly suggsiv lmns. Mos

obviously, x is win s if cusom of snding oyl incss o

b isss Is sin d ldy bn sblisd duing Yûyku’s

im. aloug isoicl ccucy of suc dicion is wid on oqusion, x is consisn wi l diions loc svl imo-

n dvlomns in Is cul wiin im fm of Yûyku’s ign.

t figu of tku him is lso of ins bcus nm

s o v bn consucd s dic flcion of tku Cici

him, mo of hvnly Gndcild Ninigi no Mikoo. Sinc, s

Okd Sisi s nod, tku Cici him ws lso wosid wiin

Is sin longsid amsu, i is igly unlikly ovl of

nms ws uly ccidnl. I is lso of no , s w sw in C 5,tku Cici him is no only xlicily idnifid in x wi looms

(hata) nd wving, bu son Niningi is sid in svl vins o v

dscndd o Jns islnds f ving bn givn clo cov-

l. as w v sn in C 5, moif of nion found civing

ic of clo fom is mo io o is du fo lnd is

dsind o ul is common o in nion-founding lgnds of

kingdoms of Kon ninsul.22 tus pincss tku him’s nm

no only xlicily idnifis s wving midn, bu i lso suggss

n imon o fom oyl founding nivs in un s

o flc influnc fom Kon ninsul.

Fu clus concning oigins of is lgnd lso in

soy’s soluion. aloug x dos no lbo on is oin,

son wiin incss’s somc s o v bn kn s oof

tku him ws gnn no wi umn cild, bu wi cild of

sun diy.23 tis o of young womn imgnd by sun god giving

bi o son cn lso b sn in bi niv of vngful wving

diy aku him, wo ws sid o v bn bon in Kon kingdomof Sill s d son f sun diy imgnd mo ond.

tus is lgnd, in wic cif isss ws sid o v bn gnn

 wi cild of (sumbly ml) sun diy, would gin indic

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166 Weaving and Binding 

ly Is cul nd ly Ymo sun wosi w consucd wiin

conx of bckgound lgnds fom Kon ninsul.

Fu vidnc of suc conncions cn lso b sn wn w

xmin gnlogicl conncions of figus in lgnd. ab noKunimi, fo insnc, s o v bn cd in conjuncion wi is

uiv kinsmn ab no Omi Koosio. Bcus, s w v jus sn,

Koosio ws uodly visid by moon diy tsukiyomi no Mikoo

in Kon kingdom of Mimn, i would soucs fo

s lgnds w insd wi linking oyl cul wi diis nd

cics d oos in coninn. tku him’s links wi

Kon ninsul suggsd vn mo immdily in nm of

uiv mo, Ku him, wos nm my b ndd lilly inoenglis s “Kon incss.”

ts n links wi culs nd lgnds fom Kon ninsul

lso iglig no ubiquious moif fom ly Ymo myology; nm-

ly, ominn violnc gins womn in lgnds ld o Is cul.

tis cn b sn no only in d of Is isss tku him,

bu lso in n suicid of amsu in som vins of hv-

nly Goo lgnd, nd, s w sll s soly, in y no lgnd fom

cou conicls in wic moon diy tsukiyomi no Mikoo is sid ov mudd toyouk him, goddss of Is’s ou sin. aloug

sldom commnd uon, I suggs violnc gins fml s-

mns nd diis is of no fo sons. Fis, fc suc lgnds

s cuing lmn in cou conicls suggss y

lyd n imon ol in ly oyl myologis. Scond, suc lgnds

lso o v bn dicly ld o is of sii-clling nd sii-

sking w fomd by fml smns, wo w ofn sn-

d in ssociion wi looms nd in vocbuly fom wving culs. Finlly,

suc lgnds lso suggs ossibl conncions wi cous of coninnl

mys nd lgnds iglig siculu moifs nd womn/fml s-

mns wo di violn ds. ts lgnds, s w sll s soly, lso

fqunly discuss msus o qui siis of nwly dd.

 Takuhata and Ise

ps bs lc o bgin unvling s issus is o un o

n conncion bwn Is isss tku him nd tkuCici him, mo of hvnly Gndcild. Cucilly, tku

Cici him ws lso nsind in min ll in inn sin Is,

 w, long wi id diy nmd tciko, tku Cici him

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  Silkworm Cults in the Heavenly Grotto 167 

 ws oiid dily og wi amsu. as Okd Sisi s nod,

is iing is xmly odd in i gous amsu wi dug-

-in-lw, bu omis amsu’s son. Sinc amsu nd tku Ci-

ci him v no o n conncion, Okd suggss wntku Cici him ws inslld in sin, myic bckgound

fo s diis mus v bn diffn. Noing tku him’s ol s

isss Is, Okd sculs min diy sin ws oigi-

nlly ml sun god tkmi Musubi no Mikoo, nd is isss,

o wom would v bn “mid,” ws vnully difid nd joind

im s n objc of wosi. Okd fo gus nm tku

Cici him o pincss of tousnds nd tousnds of Looms would v

bn i gnic m fo fml smn o vy ls nm igligd n ssnil ccisic of miko fom iod.24 

In lig of amsu’s nc in my of hvnly Goo

s wving midn wo is ing offings fo Niinmsi, Okd

lso suggss amsu nd tku Cici him w bo oducs

of sm ocss of umizion. h sculs tkmi Musubi

mus v fis bn wosid in ndm wi is conso diy tku-

Cici him, bu wn, fo sill ooly undsood sons, amsu

vnully lcd tkmi Musubi Is, s ws simly id wi tku- Cici him, wo ws ldy sblisd .

 as Okd imslf nos, is n imon coolly o is viw.

tis suggss lgnd of dscn of hvnly Gndcild

 would oiginlly v d muc siml sucu. as w sw in C

5, is lgnd s o v incood svl gnions in o

giv n imon ol o bo tkmi Musubi nd amsu. pio o

mgnc of amsu, owv, Okd gus, hvnly Gnd-

cild ws mos likly sn s son of tku Cici him nd tkmi

Musubi.25 t sucu of suc n li lgnd would closly flc

nion-founding lgnds of Kon ninsul, in wic son of

ml sun diy is givn wovn clo by is mo io o dscnding o

umn lm o sblis is kingdom. aloug Okd dos no u-

su is oin, i is s qully imon fo ou uoss in suc

scm tku Cici him’s lds gndson would v bn non

o n am no hoki no Mikoo.

Mnnbe Legends f Ancestral Descent 

On fu ic of vidnc suggsing am no hoki’s conncions

 wi cul of amsu cn b sn in  Nihon shoki , wic lso fs

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168 Weaving and Binding 

o am no hoki s amu Kuniu hiko am no hoki.   am no

hoki is lso fud ominnly in Sendai kuji hongi , n osnsi-

bly svn-cnuy x is gnlly oug o v bn comosd

somim in nin cnuy by mmb of Mononob. In Sen-dai kuji hongi , am no hoki is xlicily idnifid wi Mononob

ncso Nigiyi no Mikoo, wo is fd o by imobbly long

nm amu Kuniu hiko am no hoki Nigiyi.26

In Sendai kuji hongi w lso find n lbo couning of

dscn of Nigiyi no Mikoo o Jns islnds. Svl ins s o

xisnc of s of lgnds cning uon Nigiyi’s dscn cn

lso b found in  Nihon shoki nd Kojiki . In  Nihon shoki w find

following ssnil lmns concning founding Mononob ncso:

1. Nigiyi dscnds fom hvnly plin o o of

mounin in Ikug, in Kwci ovinc.

2. Nigiyi, cild of vnly diy, is sid o b ing

o build cil in Ymo, suggsing innds o b ul

of lnd.

3. Uon ming Jinmu, Nigiyi’s dscndn Ngsunbiko

sows Jinmu wons, quiv nd ow, s oof of is owndivin dscn.

4. Ngsunbiko n scus vicoy fo Jinmu’s my Yosino

nd lds is focs ino Ymo.

5. In  Nihon shoki  w vn find no sying lnd

of Ymo is known s “ lnd ws sn fom sky”

bcus Nigiyi, “Son of hvnly Diy” d

dscndd fom hvn in son bo .27

In Sendai kuji hongi , is soy is mlifid o includ following

dils:

1. Nigiyi’s son, Umsimji, cs i of Cinkonsi 

o Jinmu nd is conso. a of is i is sll of

sii-sking ( furu no kotohoki ).

2 tis i is no only sid o b oigins of Cinkonsi, bu

is inn is lso xlicily sd o b o viv sick nd vn

dd.3. t mns by wic siis o b vivd o sucd

involv n gli sid o v bn bsowd uon

Umsimji, s wll s sll of sii-sking (tama furi ).

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  Silkworm Cults in the Heavenly Grotto 169

4. accomnying Nigiyi in is dscn wny-fiv diis

 wo sid o b ncsos of colll Mononob lings.

5. ts wny-fiv diis sid o v bn goud ino fiv

gous of fiv.6. Svl of s Mononob sublings b nms clly

mk m s immign lings fom Kon ninsul.

7. Uon is d, Nigiyi is sid o v bn kn bck u o

hvn fo buil. as Òbysi s nod, is o is lso found

in nion-founding mys of Kon kingdoms.28

Bcus ovnnc nd ding of Sendai kuji hongi sill vy

muc in disu, vy fw scols bliv i cn b usd s li-bl guid o -tnmu myology. Founly, owv, considbl

moun of lisd mil cn lso b found in o soucs fom

iod. t il amu Kuniu hiko am no hoki, fo insnc,

s in  Nihon shoki islf. t n gli boug down by Nigi-

yi s wll s Mononob sucion sll fd o in l-

N o ly-hin-iod soucs.29 as Msum tksi s lso nod,

fu vidnc suggsing influnc of sii-quiing iuls

Isonokmi sin cn lso b sn in ly Cinkonsi  liugis fom Is sin, wic mk xlici fnc o swod diy Fusunusi no

Mikoo wo ws vncd Isonokmi sin.30 

ps mos significn sc of s ccouns my simly b

y suggs Mononob is nd lgnd cycls my v dvl-

od sly fom os of oyl ous.31 as Òbysi tyò s

oind ou,  Nihon shoki ,  Kojiki, nd Sendai kuji hongi ll

sn  my of dscn of Nigiyi no Mikoo in wys sug-

gs ofound influnc fom nion-founding lgnds of Kon

kingdoms. evidnc of suc influncs cn b sn no only in gnl

o of ncso wo dscnds fom hvn o mounin k, bu

lso in ys of wons Nigiyi nd is son Imsimji no Mikoo

sid o b. as Òbysi nos, in bo  Kojiki nd  Nihon shoki  

s wons offd s oof of Nigiyi’s vnly dscn nd

ccd s vlid vn by would-b Ymo ul Jinmu.32 Moifs

suc s ognizion of colll dscn unis in gous of fiv, s

 wll s inclusion of numous lings wi cl oos in Kon

ninsul, fu suggs Mononob lgnds of dscn of Nigi-yi no Mikoo w ofoundly ffcd by culs nd lgnds fom

Kon ninsul.33

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170 Weaving and Binding 

Mnnbe Spirit-Shaking Rites

t is lso good vidnc fom numous soucs Mononob

cicd i own vsion of chinkonsai , o sii-sking i. Onindicion cn b sn in nm of min diy of Isonokmi sin,

 wo ws non o n Fusunusi no Mikoo (Ms Sk). tis god

s in cou conicls s miliy figu wo cifis fo cou

siis of bllious locl diis.34 Dic vidnc Mononob

 w ssocid wi chinkon is cn b found in l cou isois

suc s  Nihon kòki , wic cods fomnc of suc i

Isonokmi sin fo iling Knmu tennò in 805.35 Sinc is i ws

fomd ougly im mos scols bliv Sendai kuji hongi ws bing comosd, ccoun lso suggss Sendai kuji hongi

dicion of Cinkonsi s i involving Mononob gli ws no

simly liy invnion, bu mos likly ood in cul culic cic

Isonokmi sin.36 

 all of is in un sds fu lig on ol of Mononob in

 Nihon shoki nd  Kojiki ccouns of Ymo ul Jinmu’s conqus

of Ymo. Consid following ccoun fom  Kojiki , wic couns

ow Isonokmi diy, fd o s Fusunusi no Mim, svd Jinmu nd is my f locl diy d boug m o bink of

d:

 a is Kmu Ymo Iw hiko [Jinmu] suddnly bcm ill, nd

is my lso bcm ill nd fll os. a is im, Kumno no

tkkuji . . . ook bod swod nd wn nd offd i o

os cild of vnly diy [Jinmu], wo vivd nd sid, “I

mus v d long sl.” h imslf n ook swod nd cu

down ll wild diis of Kumno mounins. . . .

This sword is called the Sashi Futsu deity. . . . It also has the name of

 Futsunushi Mitama. This sword is enshrined in the Isonokami Shrine.37

No only dos is lgnd link Mononob gin wi gogicl

gions mos closly ssocid wi Ymo uls suc s G King Bu,

bu i lso gin clly dics Mononob diy Fusunusi no Mikoo

s mbodimn of swod is cbl of bo quiing siis of

lnd nd viving sii of Ymo ul. t conncion bwnFusunusi no Mikoo nd sii sking is lso of immdi no bcus

sins bing nm of is diy known o v xisd in cosl

ovincs scing fom Okinosim off cos of Kyûsû ll wy

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  Silkworm Cults in the Heavenly Grotto 171

o Inlnd S n Is. I would us Mononob nd

cul of Fusunusi no Mikoo w wll sblisd long sm ous

w usd o nsmi culic cics nd siculu cnologis fom

Kon ninsul coss Jns islnds.

 The Isnkami Shrine

 addiionl vidnc concning Mononob culic cics cn b sn in

sis of lgnds in cou conicls ld o min Mononob

culic cn, Isonokmi sin. On indicion of is imonc is is

dsignion no simly s “sin” ( jinja, yashiro) bu s “ jingû,” il

givn in ncin iod only o Is, Izumo, nd Isonokmi sins.tis m mos likly divd fom oyl ncsl culic cns in Ko-

n kingdom of Sill.38 Fu vidnc of mkbl ol of Iso-

nokmi sin cn b sn in fc cou usd sin o so

gli of lings ougou Jns islnds d submid

o Ymo’s ul. I is gnlly ssumd is cic smmd fom

blif conol ov soucs of culic ow svd o gun oliicl

conol s wll. tus chinkon is Isonokmi my v svd bo

o gun oliicl uoiy of uls nd o cify siis of numous submiing lings.39 t sin lso s o v bn usd

by cou s mjo soous fo wons.

Bo  Kojiki nd  Nihon shoki  mk cl sin’s ol s

soous of bo wons nd gli ws inimly conncd wi

oliicl nd miliy ol of Mononob. No only Mononob

figus sown vious oins oiing gli fo cou, y lso

conclusion of sin’s foundionl lgnd. tis lgnd

cs sin’s oigins o Ymo ul Suinin, wo commndd is

son Inisiki Iiiko o c ousnd swods o b usd s iul iml-

mns, nd s w subsqunly sod in Isonokmi sin. Bu

in x w find svl ins Inisiki Iiiko ws closly conncd

 wi Mononob. pio o cing swods, Inisiki Iiiko is sid o

v buil ond in tomi, bs of mjo Mononob subling nd

si of omb of Nigiyi no Mikoo, fis Mononob ncso,

 wo is sid o v dscndd fom hvn o Cnl Jn. L x

lso xlins oigins of Mononob involvmn Isonokmi:

In on wiing i is sid wn pinc Inisiki ws siding bov

Uogw no Kwkmi in Cinu, md 1,000 swods, o wic

gv nm “Kwkmi.” . . . t 1,000 swods w fis sod

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172 Weaving and Binding 

in villg of Osk. L y w movd fom Osk o Iso-

nokmi sin. a im, god [of sin] sid: “hv mm-

b of Ksug Omi nmd Icikw lcd in cg.” Icikw

 ws ccodingly givn cg [of sin]. h ws founding

ncso of Mononob Obio.40

tis lgnd is of immdi no bo fo is xlnion of oigins

of iul imlmns Isonokmi sin nd fo infomion is

ncodd in gnlogicl ffiliions of lgnd’s min cos. W sw

ow in ddiion o bing fis officin Isonokmi sin, Inisiki

Iiiko is lso of no bcus is sid o v bn no only son of

hibsu him no Mikoo, cif conso of Ymo ul Suinin, bulso gndson of tmb no Mici Nusi, founding ncso of

Kuskb kinsi gou nd dscndn of am no hoki no Mikoo.

h is lso sid o v bn bo of Ymo him, lgndy fis

cif isss of Is sin.41

 ancsl lgnds of lings suc s Mononob nd Wni

flc song influncs of coninnl culic nd myic foms. aloug

 w cn only scul on is oin, y lso o flc olii-

cl nd gogic liis duing Mononob’s scndncy in sixcnuy, wn Mononob blivd o v domind muc of

G Non Ll higwy xndd coss Cnl Jn

fom Isonokmi oug min Wni bs n foo of Moun Miw

owds hgui mounins nd o of Nniw. tis gogic

oximiy undoubdly fcilid cion of gnlogicl links s wll

s lgnds in wic Mononob ncsos sown dfnding inss

of Wni consos cou. all of is suggss wll bfo comosi-

ion of Sendai kuji hongi , Mononob w mos likly closly sso-

cid wi diy am no hoki no Mikoo nd is numous uiv

dscndns.42 

 Yamat Takeru and the Ise Priestess

 all of is s dic lvnc fo undsnding cul of Ymo tku,

oyl ncso wo ws mjo focus fo tnmu tennò nd is succs-

sos. Cucilly, cou conicls nd vn gzs of iod sow

fml ncsos of suc lings s Mononob, Owi Muji, nd Wni ly mjo ol in lgnd cycl of is inc wo, s

mo n ny o figu fom iod, ws closly ssocid wi

bo Is sin nd sucion. On fml figu of icul no in

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  Silkworm Cults in the Heavenly Grotto 173

is gd is inc’s un Ymo him no Mikoo, lgndy fis

conscd incss ( saiò) o sv Is sin. In cou conicls

 Ymo tku is sid o v md d visis o Ymo him io

o mbking uon miliy cmigns. Duing s visis civs fomis un suc imlmns s fmd Kusngi swod. as Noki Kòjiò

s gud, suc lgnds o v bn dsignd o connc Is

cul wi figu of Ymo tku nd, by xnsion, cou’s con-

qus of disn cs of lm.43 Sinc  Nihon shoki nd vn

soucs fom Is ll us cic of snding oyl incss o Is

 ws vivd by tnmu f ius of fify ys, i sms fi o scul

suc lgnds lso flcd ins of tnmu nd is succssos in

insiuion of  saiò nd Is sin.44  as w v nod, Ymo him is sid o v bn dug

of Suinin, Ymo ul wo uodly sblisd is lc in Iso-

nokmi nd wos mnl gndmo is sid o v bn mmb of

Mononob kinsi gou.45 evn mo vling, owv, Ymo

him’s disff lions. Bo  Kojiki nd  Nihon shoki s

mo ws Suinin’s cif conso hibsu him, wos f ws non

o n tmb no Mici Nusi, uod founding ncso of

Kuskb kinsi gou. ts gnlogicl links lso suggsiv of fu- ossibl conncions bwn figu of am no hoki no Mikoo

nd Is cul bcus y no locl diy fom tmb, toyouk him,

 ws inslld s min diy of ou sin Is, nd bcus tmb

no Mici Nusi ws imslf sid o v bn cild of Wni mo

nd dscndn of am no hoki no Mikoo.46 

 W nod in C 4 figu of hibsu him lso s o

v bn closly ssocid wi ly lgnds concning funy c-

ics nd usui of immoliy. In  Nihon shoki , fo insnc, 

d is sid o v bn occsion fo sblismn of funy

lings scilizd in buil is nd oducion of cly figuins

suounding ombs.47 evn mo iniguing,  Kojiki conins n ccoun

of ow tjim Moi, dscndn of Sill inc am no hiboko nd n

ncso of immign Miyk Muji ling, lf bfo hibsu him

nd Suinin’s ombs fui of immoliy fom lm of Qun

Mo of Ws.48 

Suc bckgound lgnds o v lyd n imon ol

in sing ly undsndings of Ymo tku nd os-tnmuIs cul. as w v nod li, fis n fnc w v o

ri of Sii-quiing coms in tnmu c of  Nihon shoki ,

 w monk hòzò foms i of “sii clling” (J. shòkon, C. chao

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174 Weaving and Binding 

hun) fo tnmu on win solsic jus wks bfo monc’s

d. On cucil clu fo undsnding concul bckgound fo

fomnc of is i is tnmu’s finl illnss ws no scibd

o m cnc, bu o ng of Kusngi swod, vy won givn o Ymo tku by Ymo him.49 

By tnmu’s im Kusnngi swod ws ousd in asu sin

in Owi ovinc, w i ws wosid by Owi Muji, omi-

nn ling  Nihon shoki nd Shinsen shòjiroku lis s min

lin of dscndns fom god am no hoki. If cou conicls

my b blivd, Owi Muji d svl ims duing fif nd

six cnuis ovidd consos fo Ymo uls. Gnlogicl infom-

ion givn in Sendai kuji hongi nd Nihon shoki  lso suggss subsnilinmig wi mmbs of Kzuki Omi, owful kinsi gou

oug o v sld numous immign lings suc s h

 wiin is domin io o is dsucion nds of Yûyku nd

Mononob owds nd of fif cnuy.50 Suc links imon

bcus, wn kn og wi snc of villgs suc s tk

Owi so in Kwci ovinc, y suggs Owi Muji, muc

lik Mononob nd h, w fom vy ly d conncd no

only wi Kwci uls suc s Yûyku, bu y w lso n imonoin of ny fo immign culu nd cnologis.51

 aloug w v no wy of knowing wy Kusngi swod ws

blmd fo tnmu’s illnss, scols suc s Yoko Kn’ici v scu-

ld tnmu my v fl scil conncion o Owi Muji

nd asu sin du o is own linl ffiliions. Yoko nos

io o scnding on, tnmu ws known s pinc Òm nd sug-

gss inc ws mos likly isd by am, ling locd

in cosl gions in tmb nd Owi ovincs s wll s in numous

s of Kyûsû. Lik Owi Muji, am climd dscn fom am

no hoki no Mikoo, nd in  Nihon shoki on Òm him is xlic-

ily sd o b n ncso of Owi Muji.52 On fu indicion

am my v bn influncd by asu cul is fc

am disic of Owi ovinc is locd immdily djcn o

Owi sin. ps bs indicion sng of tnmu’s links

o am cid ov o Owi Muji cn b sn in  Nihon shoki

ccoun of tnmu’s funy is, wic ss fis ulogy fo

dcsd ul ws givn by am Sukun akm.53 Fu vidnc suggsing tnmu nd is succssos ssocid

Is cul wi concions of sucion nd long lif cn lso b sn

in y no ssg fom Suinin c of  Nihon shoki :

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  Silkworm Cults in the Heavenly Grotto 175

In on wiing i is sid tennò [Suinin] offd Ymo him no

Mikoo s mdium o amsu no Òmikmi, nd Ymo him no

Mikoo nsind goddss in scd in Siki nd wosid

. On kòshi dy of 11 mon of 26 y, [

goddss ws] movd o Wi lc in Is ovinc.

 a is im Ymo no Òkmi ossssd Òminkuci no Sukun,

disn ncso of hozumi no Omi nd sok, sying: “a

bginning [of wold] I swo ‘amsu no Òmikmi sll ul

ov hvnly plin, nd my oyl dscndns sll ul mul-

iudinous gods of Middl rlm. I [Ymo no Òkmi] sll govn

gods of e.’ . . . Duing im of Sujin tennò, loug

gods of hvn nd e w wosid, i oo ws no[comndd] o ds nd mos dild dg, nd y

sod vulg lvs nd bncs. tus tennò d bu

so lifsn. Now you cun ul, ging [Sujun]

did no c [ longviy of fom uls], cfully wosi-

ing, you sll in long lif nd ll und hvn sll gin njoy

g c.” 54

tis ssg is nobl fo numb of sons. Mos obviously, xsvs o xlin bo mns by wic amsu cm o sid in Is

nd oigins of insiuion of Is isss. as w v ldy

nod, cusom of snding oyl incss o Is o sv s isss

 ws nly vivd f long iod of nglc duing tnmu’s ign.

Sn in is lig, god’s smn suc iul ogm would gu-

n long lif fo Ymo uls would o v bn consucd

 wi iul gnd of tnmu cou in mind. tis gnd, in un,

s o v linkd sun wosi nd Is cul wi myic lon-

gviy of ncin uls; jus s monk hòzò soug o viv dying

tnmu wi sii-clling i ws ld in conjuncion wi win

solsic nd “bi” of sun, w old insiuion of

Is isss nd o wosi of sun goddss would xnd

lif sn of uls by undds of ys.

I is lso of no x igligs no only Ymo tku’s un

 Ymo him, bu lso Òminkuci Sukun, Mononob ncso wo is

lso sid o v civd ocls fom Miw diis s wll. I suggs

ominnc of Mononob ncso in is x no only indics Mononob culic diions coninud o x scdol influnc on

mging culic ogm of tnmu cou, bu lso cou

my lso v bn igly conscious of Mononob chinkon is

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176 Weaving and Binding 

Isonokmi sin could viv sick nd vn bing dd bck

o lif.

On cl indicion Ymo tku ws lso closly ssocid

 wi moif of sucion cn b found in  Nihon shoki ccoun of vns immdily following inc’s buil:

 a is im Ymo tku no Mikoo ws nsfomd ino wi

bid, wuon lf is omb (misasagi ) nd flw off in dic-

ion of Ymo. Wn miniss ond coffin nd lookd

[wiin], ll ws lf ws is my funy cloing wiou

cos. Mssngs w n sn o follow bid. . . . howv, in

nd i flw ig u o hvn nd only is cloing nd is couc w buid.55

 as numous commnos v obsvd, is dicion of Ymo

tku’s sucion s o v bn dicly ood in coninnl

lgnds of immols wo, ving ind “libion fom cos,”

lv bind n icl of cloing f y d fom i omb. I is

 wo noing loug is moif is fqunly lbld s “tois,” suc

lgnds ciculd in wid viy of conxs in Cins liu, mny ofm dicly ld o lm of immoliy uld by Qun Mo

of Ws.56 By im tnmu bgn is ign in 673, suc lgnds d

bcom oougly ingd ino oul Cins ligious nd liy

discous. Sn in conx of suc immols s Unosimko, tk-

k Mgmi, nd toyouk him, lgnd of Ymo tku’s libion

fom cos gin igligs dg o wic coninnl blifs

nd culic cics ld o d nd immoliy d com o influnc

lgnd cycls no jus cou bu lso coss Jns islnds. I lso

suggss lings suc s Mononob, Owi Muji, nd Wni my

v lyd n imon ol in diffusion of suc concions.

 wmen and Resurrectin in

the Yamat Takeru Legend Cycle

 as is so ofn cs, svl fu clus ld o diffusion of con-

innl immoliy blifs nd oigins nd fomion of lgnd of

 Ymo tku’s sucion cn b found in bckgound conx o- vidd by is consos nd ffinl lions. In N-iod liu w find

sis of lgnds ld o Ymo tku’s mo, Wki no Isum,

is un, Is isss Ymo him, nd wo consos, Oo tcibn

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  Silkworm Cults in the Heavenly Grotto 177 

him nd Miyzu him. In cou conicls w old Wki no

Isum ws bon ino Wni kinsi gou, wil Oo tcibn him

is sid o v bn dug of found of hozumi Muji, on

of mos imon bncs of Mononob kinsi gou. Miyzuhim is sid o v bn mmb of Owi Muji nd isss

asu sin. I would us womn mos closly

ssocid wi Ymo tku w ll fom ominn lings w

closly ssocid wi god am no hoki no Mikoo.

how culic inclinions of s lings my v bn ld o

lgnd of Ymo tku’s libion fom cos cn b found in

fnc in  Nihon shoki o founding ncso of Mononob

s Kusim Ninigi no Mikoo, lilly, Jd-combd Nininigi no Mikoo.57 t m “kushitama,” commonly usd fix fo numb of diis,

is gnlly oug o v bn ssocid wi woodn bls (kushi )

w usd s ccls fo dscnding siis, wil m tama is

undsood o indic sii. Bo of s ms, owv, w omo-

onous wi numb of ms in ncin Jns. tus “tama” ws ofn

ndd wi cc fo jd, wil “kushi ” ws omoonous wi

m fo comb (櫛, kushi ) s wll s m fo mdicin (薬, 酒,

kusushi , kushi ). as w sw in C 3, lgnds ling o mdicin nd immoliy

cn b found in numous N nd ly-hin soucs.58 In ddiion,

suising numb of lgnds in liu of iod suggs

combs w usd o sn inmn of lif f d s wll s

ow ov focs of undwold. tus god Izngi is sid in

 Kojiki nd Nihon shoki o v lld siis of undwold wi lig

mnd fom is buning comb, wil in Luck of S lgnd

 am no hoki no Mikoo’s bo ho no Susi no Mikoo indvnly

divs off Ikumyoi him, is wif fom bn s, wn ligs

comb in biing cmb.59 

In N-iod soucs combs w lso closly ssocid wi fml

immols nd ny ino lnd of nl lif (tokoyo) bn s. In

Luck of S niv w lso old ho no Susi no Mikoo

ns tokoyo by lunging ino s in bsk md fom bmboo

s sung fom oucd by mgicl comb.60 t is gd

by s god wo wlcoms im uon “ig icknsss of ms,” nd

vnully llows is dug tm Yoi him o b wd o ho no Susino Mikoo.61 t Kuskb ncso Unosimko is similly sid o v

civd sii comb box (tama kushige ) fom fml immol wom

s wd duing is sy in tokoyo bn s.62 

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178 Weaving and Binding 

In o lgnds combs o v funcion simil o of

ob lf bind in Ymo tku’s omb. W find lgnds in wic combs

nsind s subsiu foci of wosi fo womn blivd o v

nd lnd of immols bn s. Consid, fo xml, following lgnd concning d of Ymo tku’s Mononob

conso Oo tcibn him:

 Wn wn in fom nd ws cossing lc w s

flowd in swif cun, god of cossing isd wvs nd

sun bo ound so i ws unbl o ocd. tuon

is conso, wos nm ws Oo tcibn him no Mikoo, sok

nd sid, “I sll k lc of pinc nd go ino s. L pinc fulfill is cg of govnmn nd un o mk is

o.” and wn s ws bou o go ino s, y sd ig

icknsss of sdg ms, ig icknsss of skin m, nd ig

icknsss of silk ms on wvs, nd s wn down nd s

uon m. . . .

Now, f svn dys is conso’s comb wsd so. and

y ook comb nd md gv nd lcd i in mound. 63

Svl mks in is lgnd suggs ls fmily smblnc

 wi Luck of S niv. t am no hoki’s bo ns

lnd of immols bn s in bsk d wi mgicl

comb nd is gd by s god sd uon ig icknsss of sdg;

am no hoki’s dscndn Oo tcibn him lungs ino

s uon ig msss of sdg nd diss fom umn lm,

 wil comb is nombd in sd. Imon vidnc suggsing

Oo tcibn him ws blivd o v ind som so of lif

f d cn b sn in numb of sins ddicd o b

nms suc s Kusim Jinj.64 

t moif of insllion of comb s subsiu body fo fml

 wo s vld o tokoyo bn s is lso found in d

ccoun of Ymo tku’s mo, Wki no Isum.65 Consid fol-

lowing x fom  Harima fudoki , gz ws d fo

cou somim ound 714:

 af som ys Wki no Isum did is lc. ty us buil omb hiok o buy . as y nsod cos down In-

mi iv, wilwind blw fom und iv, nd cos ws sub-

mgd in middl of iv. toug y lookd [fo mins]

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  Silkworm Cults in the Heavenly Grotto 179

y could find noing bu comb box nd scf. So y buid s

wo ims in omb, wic is clld hire haka [scf omb].66

 all of is suggss moif of d nd sucion my v bn cuing lmn in lgnds ld o Ymo tku; no only is Ymo

tku sid o v lf bind ob bfo busing fo fom is omb,

bu lgnds v combs of is conso nd is mo nsind nd

 wosid following i ds nd (sumd) ny ino tokoyo.

On fu xml of libion fom cos occus in lgnd

of pinc Sòoku’s ncoun wi bgg on od o Kok. as in

soy of Ymo tku, moif of libion fom cos is xlic-

ily igligd. as old in  Nihon shoki lgnd concluds:

t cown inc clld on of is sonl ndns nd sid o

im, “t sving mn w sw lying by od svl dys go ws

no odiny mn. h mus cinly v bn n immol (hijiri ).”

So sn [no] mssng o look [ omb]. t mssng

und nd sid, “Wn I ivd omb, [ ] ws fim

nd d no movd. [Y] wn I ond i nd lookd insid

cos d ldy disd. t ws only cloing folddbov csk.”67

 aloug bgg is nv givn nm, is nc in Sòoku

lgnd cous songly suggss kinsi gous suc s h nd

Kuskb w fofon of ly Sòoku cul my v

bn ssocid wi is lgnd. On in s o ow nd wy is moif

my v nd Sòoku lgnd cous cn b sn fom is lgnd’s

gogy: Kok, si of inc’s ncoun wi bgg, ws

locd on Non G Ll higwy jus o ws of min

 Wni bs n foo of Moun Miw, wic ws locd jus o ws

of Isonokmi sin, min culic cn of Mononob.68

 all of is suggss duing im amsu ws ising o -

minnc in oyl cul, clus of lings d fsiond ncsl

lgnds in wic moifs of sucion o libion fom cos w

ominn lmns. aloug ou soucs ovid only limid numb

of css, infomion sms o indic song colion bwn

suc lgnds nd lings climing dscn fom am no hoki no Miko-o. to s closnss of is colion, consid tbl 3, in wic fou

of fiv figus lisd w climd s ncsos by lings cd

i dscn fom am no hoki no Mikoo.

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180 Weaving and Binding 

Sinc s lgnds in suc vid soucs s  Nihon sho-

ki ,  Kojiki , ovincil gzs,  Manyòshû, nd  Nihon ryòiki ,

i s y snd culic nd xndd byond

ms of oyl cul. eqully imon, is vy good vidnc

s lgnds commndd nion of tnmu nd is succssos.

 a bif xminion of tbl 3 suggss s lgnds nd i ssoci-

d lings w closly ld o culs of Ymo tku nd pinc

Sòoku, wo figus of unqusionbl imonc fo os-tnmu

cou. I would dly b suising, fo, if lings ssocid wi

culs of s wo oyl ncsos influncd dvlomn of

cul of amsu, lgnd of hvnly Goo, nd Cinkonsi.

 W v ldy sn ls wo am no hoki no Mikoo culic cns

conind m “amu” in i nms, wic gin songly sug-

gss am no hoki lings bo ogd lgnds of sucion

nd lyd n imon ol in fomion of cul of amsu.

 Ama n Hakari and Amaterasu

how nd wy ws am no hoki ld o amsu? Unfounly, li-

l bou am no hoki is known byond is bi niv in lgnd

of dscn of hvnly Gndcild. as w sw in C 5, am

no hoki no Mikoo fis s in  Nihon shoki wn wving

midn Konon Skuy him ncloss slf in muro, o iul sl,

in od o ov cildn v bn concivd by hvnly

Gndcild in singl vning.t ovll sucu of am no hoki’s bi niv bs song

mic smblnc o of hvnly Goo my; in bi n-

iv, Konon Skuy him fis s wving loom, bcoms

Table 3  Lgnds of rsucion nd Libion fom Cos

NAME ITEMS LEFT BEHIND TYPE oF LIFE AFTER DEATH LINEAL AFFILIATIoN

 Ymo tku clos/c libion fom cos Wni

Oo tcibn comb tokoyo  Wni/him Mononob

 Wki no Isum comb, scf tokoyo  Wni

Unosimko comb box tokoyo  Kuskb

Kok bgg ob libion fom cos ?

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  Silkworm Cults in the Heavenly Grotto 181

gnn wi cildn, ncloss slf wiin muro, immols

slf, nd n -mgs liv. In hvnly Goo my, amsu

oducs cildn wi bo Susnoo, ncloss slf wiin

muro, imls slf wil wving loom, nd n -mgs liv.I us s lgnd of hvnly Goo ws no simly

fbicion ding fom tnmu’s ign, bu n xnsiv sis of o-

iions fom culic diions ld o Mononob, Owi Muji, nd

o lings cd i dscn o am no hoki no Mikoo.

tis in un suggss oos of am no hoki nd amsu

culs my b found no only cou, bu lso in locl culic cns ffilid

 wi lings climd dscn fom am no hoki. Founly,

xisnc of suc sins cn b vifid by siml suvy of loclculic cns lisd in suc xs s  Engishiki , wic ovids cusoy

infomion on cou-sonsod sins ougou Jns islnds.  as

tbl 4 illuss, culic cns wi nms suc s amu Jinj in

tsusim nd Konosim ni msu amu Jinj in Ymsio ov-

inc w suisingly common in ncin Jn; indd, ls n suc

sins known o v xisd duing iod.69  Cucilly, s

 amu sins w closly cold wi wosi of am no ho-

ki no Mikoo. No fw n svn known o v ousd is god si min diy. Givn is ovl, I oos cn b lil doub

cul of amsu ws in som ofound wy linkd o cul of

 am no hoki nd is dscndns.

tbls 3 nd 4 suggs svl imon conclusions concning

nu nd oigins of Is cul, of Ymo tku, nd lgnd of

hvnly Goo. Fis, bcus am no hoki no Mikoo ws climd

s n ncsl diy by svl lings w lso closly ssocid

 wi oyl ncso Ymo tku, i s likly influnc

of s lings on ly oyl cul ws bo mulifcd nd xn-

siv. Mny of lgnds ogd by s lings igligd i

fml ncsos, wo w fqunly snd in ms of coninnl

os ld o coninnl siculu nd wving culs. t influnc of

s lings is icully onouncd in sis of lgnds linkd

figu of Ymo tku wi Kusngi swod nd Is sin. In

lig of tnmu tennò’s sonl lionsi wi Kusngi swod nd

Owi Muji, i would influnc of s culs conin-

ud oug tnmu nd byond.Svl of mos ominn lings climing dscn fom am

no hoki no Mikoo fsiond lgnds involving moifs of sucion

o libion fom cos w ood in os fom coninnl

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182 Weaving and Binding 

Table 4  amsu Sins Ousid of Is

SHRINE NAME/PRoVINCE AFFILIATED LINEAGE ANCESTRAL/SHRINE GoD

Konosim ni msu amu h amu Kuniumim Jinj (Ymsio ovinc) hiko am nohoki

Minusi ni msu amu Minusi a am no hokimim Jinj (Ymsio ovinc)

Osd ni msu amu mim ? am no hoki Jinj (Ymo ovinc,Sikinokmi disic)

Kgmizukui ni msu amu ? am no hokimim Jinj (Ymo ovinc,Sikinosimo disic)

Niiy ni msu amu mim Ku no sugui (?) am no hoki Jinj (Ssu ovinc,Simsimo disic)

Iibo ni msu amu Jinj Owi Muji am no hoki(him ovinc, Iibo disic)

 amsu Òmikmi tkku h amsu Jinj (Kwci ovinc, Òmikmi (lsotkysu disic) tkmi Musubi)

Is amsu mim Jinj ? Is amsu(Cikugo ovinc) Òmikmi

 amu Jinj tsusim am no hoki(tsusim ovinc, Simog no aiSimog disic)

 amu tm no Mikoo Jinj Owi Muji am no hoki(tmb ovinc, am disic)

ls of immols. Sinc lgnd of hvnly Goo lso fus

is moif in d nd sucion of amsu, i s igly

likly lings lyd n imon ol in inoducing coninnl

concions of body nd flif ino lgnd of hvnly

Goo, Cinkonsi, nd cul of amsu.70 

Fom vy ly d lings lik Mononob, Owi Muji,

nd Wni lso o v bsobd culic influncs fom Ko-n ninsul ino i own ncsl lgnds, ocss lmos cinly

fcilid by lg numb of Mononob sins nd diis suc s

“Ms Sk” Fusunusi no Mikoo w siud long

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  Silkworm Cults in the Heavenly Grotto 183

min ous of cnologicl nd culul nsmission fom Kon

ninsul o Oki no Sim off cos of Kyûsû o o of Nniw

nd byond.

Sericulture, Cult, and Gender 

 

t is lso vidnc suggsing o lings nd culic concns

my v lso lyd n imon ol in fomion of lgnd of

hvnly Goo nd cul of amsu. In tbl 3, fo insnc,

 w s wil fou of fiv figus lisd blongd o lings

climd dscn fom am no hoki, finl figu ws lso clly

ssocid wi cul of pinc Sòoku. Similly, in tbl 4 w find wil svn ou of n sins w ssocid wi am no hoki

lings, wo w culic cns of h, n immign wving ling

ws lso fofon of ly Sòoku cul. On fu sin,

Niiy ni msu amu mim Jinj, s o v bn culic

cn of Ku no tsugui, y no immign ling cd is

ncsy o gou of wvs uodly sn o Ymo fom soun

Cin duing ign of Ymo ul Òjin.71 No only do Mononob

nd Wni ncsl lgnds iglig wving moifs, bu so do immign wving lings suc s h.

t ssociion of wo immign wving lings wi amu

sins my sd fu lig on Is cul in o wys s wll. as w

v nod, bsic sucu of lgnd of hvnly Goo in

mny wys smbls of bi of am no hoki nd hvnly

Gndcild, in wic wving midn Konon Skuy him ns

iul cmb wil liv, ss i fi, nd n -mgs ino wold

unscd. Mo bodly, owv, I suggs figu of amsu

cn lso b sn in hvnly Goo lgnd s undgoing -

nsfomion: s s is wving midn ing fo i; in

middl s is nclosd in cv is idnifid wi tokoyo; nd

climx of lgnd s iumnly -mgs fom lnd of

dd s undisud sum diy of non. 

 aloug w cn only scul on is oin, vy gnl lvl

is ii sucu smbls ly blifs concning miculous

“insc of nsfomions” fscind bo immign si-

cululis Nuinom him nd muliudinous wosis of Ofubno Osi’s tokoyo diy “in vy wy smbld silkwom.” Sinc

Konosim ni msu amu Jinj cm som oin o b clld Kiko

 Jinj o Silkwom sin, I oos i is wo sking w—nd

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184 Weaving and Binding 

o w dg—immign lings suc s h w closly

involvd wi bo wving nd siculu my lso v influncd

fomion of hvnly Goo lgnd nd Cinkonsi.

Hrses, Purificatin, and the Death

f the weaver Maiden 

 a g dl of bckgound infomion concning coninnl is nd lg-

nds ld o oigins of siculu, sucion, nd violnc gins

 womn cn b found in clssicl Cins soucs. tougou mod-

n iod womn viully vy lvl of Cins sociy icid

in siculu is. Womn coss Cin yd fo skill in wving on svn dy of svn mon, wil is fom s of

id mon involvd mss nd ul’s consos in ging

mulby lvs o fd silkwoms.72  W v lso dly sn

s is vocbuly cm o domin isoicl nd culic discous in

 Jns islnds, wving nd siculu culs ld s oizon of

cion fo mging mys nd lgnds of numous oyl ncsos

nd locl fml diviniis.

On in s o ow suc lgnds my v influncd dvlo-mn of Is cul cn b sn in coninnl lgnds ld o sii-

quiing is on nodl dys in Cins fsivl clnd. On cuing

o involvs d of young womn wos siis n oiid

 wi is of uificion ivs. tus in  Hsü chi chieh chi , n ly-

six-cnuy Cins x comosd by Wu Cün (469–520), w find

following ccoun of oigin of cou bnqus w ld coss

 asi on id dy of id mon:

Cin Wu-i skd oyl scy Ci Cung-c’i, “W is

mning of   w bnqus of id dy of id mon?”

[Cung-c’i lid] “Duing im of hn Cng-i, in p’ing-yun,

hsü-co d gils bon o im s of id mon,

[bu] by id dy ll d did. t ni villg oug is

sng nd wn og o w’s dg o uify [mslvs]

nd snd win cus down iv. t oigins of bnqus

iv mus b .”73

 aloug is x sould by no mns b kn fo isoicl liy, i mly

illuss dg o wic concns ov uificion nd nion o

siis of dd infomd Cins culic discous in six cnuy.

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  Silkworm Cults in the Heavenly Grotto 185

Of qul imonc, w old oigins of n imon i

on nodl d in clnd cn b cd bck o unimly ds

of gils.

Fu linkg of suc moifs wi id dy of id moncn b sn in Ching ch’u sui shih chi , wic ls oul ligious

cics on is dy o is of sii-clling w fomd by fml

smns ivs. t x quos fncs o suc is in svl cls-

sicl xs, bginning wi  Han shih, nod commny on  Book

of Songs :

t [hn] commny sys, “Now, in id mon, bn c

blossom w, ol’s yin nd yang siis summond ndxndd [C: chao hun hsü p’o, J: shòkon zokubaku] nd dfilmns

uifid.” . . . Cng’s commny [on  Rites of Chou] ss: “I

is sm s [w is don] now w s of id

mon.”74

pssgs suc s is of immdi ins fo ou uoss fo svl

sons. as w v nod svl ims, sii-clling i ( shòkonsai ) ws

fomd fo tnmu nd of is ign; cou is known o vnggd in bo mdicin uns nd siculu is nodl oins suc s

id dy of id mon in fsivl clnd; nd oyl bnqus

on is dy mniond dly ougou  Nihon shoki . all of is

s o b of dic lvnc fo undsnding culic bckgound

of hvnly Goo lgnd.

how suc lgnds l o of hvnly Goo cn b sn

if w cll hvnly Goo lgnd s o v fomd

myic bsis fo liugy of ri of G puificion, wic ws

lisd in lis lw cods long wi Cinkonsi, s on of

mjo is in cou clnd. a co lmn of liugy fo ri

of G puificion is confssion of lis of sins v boug

olluion uon cou nd nd o b movd. ts sins

o m xmly closly wi cions of Susnoo io o amsu’s

ny ino cv. On cuious sc bou lis, owv, is i

juxoss bsiliy nd illici lions bwn n nd cild wi sins

suc s movl of giculul sign oss nd filling in of iigion

dics. Now in cou conicls is Susnoo ccusd of suc civi-is. Sinc w now find fncs o nyon ls mying oss o

cickns in liu of iod, i is difficul o bliv suc

cics w so widsd y quid confssion nd xiion

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186 Weaving and Binding 

wic y. aloug w cn only scul on is oin, I suggs

sinc ni hvnly Goo my no conmoy socil cics

o v bn souc fo is lmn of i, i mos likly

coms fom bckgound lgnd fo hvnly Goo my.On indicion of w suc lgnd my v lookd lik cn b

found in fc ri of G puificion s o v bn

vily influncd by svl coninnl is nd lgnds. as w sw in

C 3, duing is i n invocion ws d, wi Cins onun-

ciion, by mmbs of subling of Kwci no ay, n immign

ling s o v bn und influnc of Mononob

io o dsucion of min Mononob lin in 584. t x, s

givn in  Engishiki , cns on n invocion of numous sl diisnd suc oul Cins culic figus s Qun Mo of Ws

nd King F of es. as w sw in C 2, cul of

 Wv Midn nd Cowd lso s o v oigind in ncin

Cins is mos likly involvd scific no only of cows, bu

lso of young midns. Givn hvnly Goo lgnd fus

d of wv midn, i boovs us o sk w coninnl

lgnds involving oss, silkwoms, nd wving midns my v influ-

ncd suc suosdly “niv” lgnds s of amsu’s d ndsucion.

Founly, jus suc lgnd couning oigins of siculu

s bn svd in Sou shen chi , fou-cnuy comndium of

Cins lgnds:

I is sid of old ws n minn mn wo d o jouny f

wy fom is om. a is om ws no on ls sv fo is

dug nd i sllion, wic gil cd fo. Living ll lon,

nd missing f, gil jokingly sid o os, “If you cn

bing my f bck o m, I will my you.” t os, uon civ-

ing s insucions, bok is ins nd vld unil ivd

lc w f ws. t f ws suisd nd dligd

o s os nd bgn o id im.

t os lookd owds dicion d com fom, nd

 wimd cslssly. t f sid, “tis os would no b is

 wy fo no son. hs soming nd my om?” nd u-

id bck.Bcus d sown scil snsiiviy fo n niml, f

wdd os wi scil fodd. t os, owv, would

no , nd vy im sw dug coming nd going,

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  Silkworm Cults in the Heavenly Grotto 187 

 would bcom dligd o ngy, vn o oin w would

kick . tis nd mo n onc o wic. t f snsd

soming sng d nd, nd suiiously skd is

dug w [d nd]. t dug old im vying, sy-

ing is mus b son.

  t f sid, “Don’ ll nyon! [If is gs ou], i will uin

ou fmily’s uion. You sould no go ou fo wil.” t f

n wn, scly d bow nd ow, nd n so nd

killd os. h n ung os’s id u in couyd.

t f n lf, nd dug, long wi nigbo gil,

bgn lying in lc w os’s id ws. S kickd

os’s id nd sid “You n niml nd you wn o k umn fo you bid? You boug is skinning uon youslf. how

dos is fl?” Wn s d no qui finisd, os’s id sud-

dnly flw u, wd u gil, nd flw wy. t nigbo gil

 ws ifid nd dd no y o l . S n o ll f.

t f und, lookd fo , bu could no find c.

  af svl dys, y found m in bncs of g

. t gil nd os id d bn comlly nsfomd

ino silkwoms, nd w cocoons ll wy u o o of . ti ds w scilly ick nd lg, unlik odi-

ny silkwoms. t nigbo womn ook m om nd isd

silkwoms nd obind mny ims mo silk [n noml]. Fo

is son is clld “mulby” [C. sang ]. “Sang ” is sm

[omoonous] wi sang [d]. Bcus of is sns ll

com o ln s s, wic y us o is silkwoms vn

ody.75

 

tis mkbl ssion oigins of siculu cn b cd o

gic, bod wdding of young midn nd os no only fus

by-now fmili ms of violn d of midn nd siculu,

bu i lso xlicily igligs moifs of bsiliy s wll s domsic siu-

ion in wic f is living lon wi is dug. Iniguingly,

moif of flyd os lso fus ominnly in hvnly Goo

lgnd, w w lso find flying os dicly cds

d of wv midn.

Suc similiis did no go unnoicd by l gnions. Jnsfolkloiss v long cid closnss of s wo lgnds s mos

likly souc of oul oshira cul, in wic young gils dssd in os

skins y fo skill in wving. aloug lck of documnion cluds

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188 Weaving and Binding 

ny sculion s o wn oshira cul fis cm ino xisnc, i conin-

us o b fomd ody numous sins in nosn Jn s wll

s Konosim ni msu amu Jinj in Ymsio ovinc.76

Beynd the Grtt: Amaterasu

and Sericulture Cults

 Y in si of imon mic similiis bwn hvnly

Goo my nd Sou shen chi ccoun of oigins of siculu,

imon sucul diffncs s wll. Mos nobly, in Sou shen

chi ccoun, violn d of midn dos no ld o sucion,

bu o bi of silkwoms nd bundnc fo communiy.Cucilly, owv, is moif lso s in cou conicls in n

ddiionl s of lgnds concn amsu’s cions following

mgnc fom hvnly Goo. among mos imon of s

fo ou uoss is old in following lgnd, in wic sun goddss

snds moon diy tsukiyomi no Mikoo o visi goddss toyouk

him ( fd o s Ukmoci no Kmi):

 Wn amsu no Òmikmi ws ldy in hvn, s sid, “Iv d in Cnl Lnd of rd plin is

goddss Ukmoci no Kmi [toyouk him]. Go nd inqui f

.” tsukiyomi no Mikoo civd is ods, dscndd, nd wn

o lc w Ukmoci no Kmi ws. Ukmoci no Kmi und

d, nd wn i fcd lnd, ic cm fo fom mou.

 Wn s fcd s, bod-finnd nd now-finnd [fis] cm

ou of mou. agin, wn s fcd mounins, oug-fud

[nimls] nd fin-fud [nimls] cm ou of mou. ts

ings s d nd ild u fo fs on undd bls. a

is tsukiyomi no Mikoo bcm flusd wi ng nd sid, “how

dfiling! how disgusing! how d you off o m s food ings

 you v si ou fom you mou!” So dw is swod, suck,

nd killd . h l wn bck nd od vying. tn

 amsu no Òmikmi ws xmly ngy nd sid, “You

 wickd diy. I will no m wi you [gin].” tus s ws s-

d fom tsukiyomi no Mikoo, nd y livd , on by dy nd

on by nig.77

Svl clus s o oizon of cion fo is lgnd cn b

sn onc w consid culic gogy of c of s diis. as

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  Silkworm Cults in the Heavenly Grotto 189

 w sw bginning of is c, sin o tsukiyomi no Mikoo

 ws uodly sblisd in Kdono disic of Ymsio ovinc

f moon diy d o ab no Omi Koosio on Kon

ninsul nd dmndd o b wosid. W lso nod is sin ws incood n ly d s subsin of Msuno’o sin,

nd i ws nly lso id wi Konosim ni msu amu

 Jinj, y no h culic cn l known s Silkwom sin. In

ddiion, s w sw in C 3, no only did toyouk him com o b

 wosid in ou sin Is, bu s ws lso fud in locl

lgnds in tmb ovinc in wic s ws dicd s fml immo-

l nd mdicin diy. Sinc is lgnd igligs violn d nd

nsfomion of toyouk him, i songly suggss influnc of coni-nnl os ld o siculu nd violn ds of young womn.

Fu vidnc fo coninnl influncs cn b sn in conclusion

of lgnd, wic is non o n myic ccoun of oigins of

siculu:

 amsu n l sn am no Kumio o go nd s [

siuion]. a is im Ukmoci no Kmi ws uly ldy dd.

howv, o of d d bn nsfomd ino cows ndoss. t o of skull d oducd mill, nd ybows

d oducd silkwom cocoons. Gsss w oducd fom

 wiin ys, nd ic ws oducd fom wiin somc.

Fom gnils d bn oducd bly, lg nd smll

bns.78

 

Bcus is lgnd dics oigins of svl imy lmns of

Cins civilizion, i is s no suising i onc gin igligs

svl fmili ms fom Cins myology. No only dos x

c oigins of siculu o violn d of womn, bu i

lso xlicily cols vious s of Ukmoci’s body wi oigins

of mos ssnil lmns of coninnl mil culu. evn mo

mkbly, s cosondncs ll o v bn bsd uon

onic cosondncs in ncin Kon bwn m fo c

body nd m fo im oducd.79 ts mic nd linguisic

linkgs onc gin suggs fily dic coninnl influnc on

fomion of lgnd.t x lso ovids comlling vidnc siculu culs nd

lgnds fom Cins fsivl clnd w dicly ld o figu

of amsu:

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190 Weaving and Binding 

 am no Kumio ook ll of s ings nd offd m [o

 amsu no Òmikmi]. a is im amsu no Òmikmi ws

dligd nd sid, “ts ings by wic ol of

 visibl wold sll nd liv.” S us ook mill, gsss,

bly, nd bns o b sds fo dy filds, nd s ook ic

s sds fo iigd filds. tn s ccodingly oind villg

dmn in vn nd wi ic sds bgn lning of

now filds of vn nd long filds of vn. t uumn

s [of ic lns] dooing down in bundnc, w ig

nd sns long nd vy fsing [in nc].

  [amsu no Òmikmi] lso u cocoons ino mou nd

n dw d fom m. Fom is wy of ising silkwomsbgn.80

I is difficul o imgin cl snion of amsu no Òmikmi

s silkwom goddss n is x, wic xlicily dics god-

dss dwing ds of silk fom mou in mnn of silkwom.

tkn og wi my of hvnly Goo, w amsu is

oyd s wving midn wo dis nd is sucd, is lgnd

ovids owful illusion of imonc of is nd lgndsof siculu fo consucion of is diy’s idniy.

ps vn mo imon, is lgnd sks volums bou

nu of focs sd culic idniy no only of locl diis

suc s toyouk him, bu lso of oyl ling islf. In si of

fc amsu s long bn sn s ill of Jns nionl

idniy, i is cl cul ws dly ood in Cins concions

of iul nd sii s wll s cnologicl innovions of siculu. I

is lso bundnly cl suc concions w in no wy il

o consucion of culic idniy. No, fo m, w y

il fo iul ogm of os-tnmu cou.

On cony, i would suc is nd concions

flc d nd ow of cnologicl nd culul focs

nsfomd oliicl nd mil liis of g vn s y

dfind culic gnd md oyl ous ossibl. Sn in is

lig, i sould dly b suising amsu lgnd cycl—o

of tsukiyomi no Mikoo, toyouk him, o ny o of os of

“niv” diis—is simly no inlligibl ousid of conx of Cinsconcions of vying fom sucion o oss.

Non of is is o suggs figu of amsu ws “lly”

Cins o cul ws ny mo o lss imon fo bing influncd

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  Silkworm Cults in the Heavenly Grotto 191

by immign lings nd Cins culs. Bu i dos clly sow ow

fundmnlly misguidd undsndings of “niv” in Jns

culu nd ligion, lf ov fom w scolsi, coninu o diso

ou undsnding of som of mos bsic ms of ligiousdiions of Jns islnds. I lso sows ow wid ng of issus

ling o consucion of gnd ols, cion of wl, nd

olifion of nw concions of sii nd sucion—ll ood in

coninnl culu—svd s ml fo consucion of so muc

of w w ink of s foundions of Jns ligion.

Cnclusin 

tis c s gud s figu of amsu no Òmikmi bcm

imlicd in consucion of oyl ling, s lso bcm nwind

 wi conmonous concions of iul, onmyòdò oug, nd gnd

w omulgd by immign kinsi gous fom Kon n-

insul nd Cins minlnd. Undsnding is ocss s quid

bo ignd wnss of ol of Cins culic cics in asuk

nd N Jn nd -xminion of usfulnss of cgois

of “niv” nd “foign” fo undsnding culic dvlomns of  asuk nd N iods.

Bcus cul of amsu no Òmikmi s sinc ls Miji

iod bn d s conson of Jns “niv” culic nd oliicl

idniy, s s bn sn by folkloiss, isoins, nd idologus lik

s co lmn of niv culul/ligious idniy ws dfind in

oosiion o “foign” Buddis diion. On ionic consqunc of

is bivln oc o Jns ligion s bn viully ll non-

Buddis culic cics v bn lumd og in n m o c

“niv” ligious diion. as sul, lgnds dicing amsu s

 wv midn o vn s silkwom goddss v bn ssd ino

svic of Jns nivis idologis.

 Y onc w consid figu of amsu no Òmikmi wiin

muc bod fmwok of oul ligious cic in asuk nd

N iods, dg o wic figu of amsu in icul

nd oyl cul in gnl w ood in digms fom Cins

fsivl clnd bcoms dily n. a clos look amsu nd

o diis fom Is cul vls ofound ssociions wi immignlings suc s h s wll s d oos in coninnl siculu

is. all of is suggss cul of amsu undwn id dvl-

omn jus s coninnl noions of iul nd sii cificion w

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192 Weaving and Binding 

ning Jns islnds. as sul, miss nd cics of

Cins fsivl clnd funciond s co lmns in Is cul s

i ws configud in N iod nd f.

ts culic lmns o v bn sul of widsdboowing on of oyl ous fom oul culs w m-

slvs oougly imbud wi Cins concions of sii, sucion,

immoliy, nd siculu. tus s Is cul oid oul culic

lmns fom cul of goddss nd fml immol toyouk him,

figu of amsu slf cm o b dly colod by Cins con-

cions of sucion nd immoliy. Bcus s concions w

lmos cinly ogd by immign kinsi gous fofon of

siculu nd imoion of coninnl culu, i would lso figu of amsu s w know , nd, fo m, oyl

cul, could no v bn w y w wiou immign lings nd

is of siculu nd sii cificion y omod.

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193 

Conclusion 

IN THIS BOOK we have examined several key moments in the formation of

the Japanese Buddhist tradition, the Japanese royal cult, and popular worshipof kami in the Japanese islands. We have seen that from at least the time of

the Yamato ruler Wakateru down to the Heian period, both the royal cult and

popular cultic life were characterized by tremendous ferment, as changes in

the technological and material culture of the Japanese islands helped spur

dramatic changes in political and cultic orientation both at the Yamato court

and in the countryside. As continental cults and deities were inscribed into

the landscape of the Japanese islands, they played a major role in the forma-

tion of even purportedly native religious practices. I have sought to provide aframework for explaining not only the presence of such continental cults and

practices, but also the mechanisms of their transmission and their evolving

role in the cultic life of the Japanese islands.

In so doing, I have focused on a series of lineages and cultic centers that

to a large degree shaped the cultic and political context in which the royal cult

and the Buddhist tradition emerged. Most prominent in this regard have been

immigrant lineages such as the Hata and Kawachi no Aya, whose ancestral dei-

ties were by definition karakami . Given their cultural and cultic prominence

not just at court but across the Japanese islands, the cultic practices and dei-

ties of the Hata and other such immigrant groups represent perhaps the most

immediate means for the transmission of continental cults to the Japanese

islands. Crucially, however, we have also seen that even such supposedly

xenophobic lineages as the Mononobe and Òtomo aggressively sought out

technological and cultic forms from the Korean peninsula even as sacerdotal

and service lineages such as the Kusakabe, Chiisakobe, Kamo, Wani, and

Miwa incorporated continental rites and narrative tropes into their own ances-

tral cults. It is perhaps not surprising that the Nara period drew to a closejust a few years before the court settled into a Hata stronghold in Yamashiro

province and thereafter sought the protection of Hata-affiliated deities at the

Kamo, Matsuno’o, Hiyoshi, and Fushimi Inari shrines.

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194 Conclusion

Location, Location, Location 

Because the kami were as often as not ancestors in premodern Japan, they

frequently migrated along with their descendants. As immigrant lineages suchas the Hata, which had a strong presence in the coastal regions along the

Inland and Japan/Eastern seas, rose higher and higher at court, and as ances-

tral karakami grew in importance in the royal cult, the court increasingly

absorbed continental rites and practices from local cultic centers throughout

the domain. By tracking the movements of both lineages and cults—that is,

paying attention to where cultic practice took place  —we have been able to

identify and trace the flow of both cults and technologies from the Korean

peninsula to Japan’s coastal regions and into Yamato. When seen in thislight, the influx of technologies, diseases, and deities from Kyûshû to Yamato

becomes not only explicable, but also a significant indicator of the appeal that

continental practices had for the insecure rulers and courtiers of the age.

One further theme that has become readily apparent is the degree to

 which fear of disease and vengeful kami helped drive the development of

both the royal and popular cults. Because both rulers and commoners during

the period were frequently overawed by forces beyond their control, they

frequently sought new methods to propitiate the spirits that were thought to visit their wrath upon the human realm.

 All of this suggests several conclusions not only about the nature of reli-

gion in the Japanese islands, but also about the means by which we approach

the study of the Nara and Heian periods. I have throughout this book sought

to highlight the importance of an integrated approach to the religion of this

era that takes into account not only political maneuverings at the court, but

also the important developments in the material culture and technological

capabilities of the age. This approach stems from a belief that in many ways

the expansion of road networks or the diffusion of sericulture may have had

a greater impact upon the way spirits were worshipped than the edicts pro-

mulgated by the court. In a similar vein, once we see the royal cult as being

in constant interaction with local cults across the Japanese islands, the impor-

tance of understanding the cults, deities, and lineages in such remote regions

as Hizen, Tamba, Suruga, and Yamashiro becomes obvious. By inquiring into

the nature and origins of such interactions, I have resisted post-Meiji catego-

ries of “native” and “foreign” in order to shed a brighter light on the cultic

horizon in terms of which the court’s ritual parameters were both defined andtransgressed.

None of this, of course, is to deny the importance of the royal cult, nor

does it in any way diminish the importance of particular actors and rulers

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  Conclusion 195

in the development of early Japanese religious forms. Time and again we

have seen, however, that these figures drew upon the cultic resources offered

by local deities from distant regions and, frequently, the ancestral deities of

important service groups and immigrant lineages that were familiar with con-tinental methods of propitiating spirits and bringing prosperity.

More broadly speaking, I have also argued that each of these develop-

ments must also be seen in the context of a patterning of narratives and ritual

that was codified within the popular Chinese festival calendar. This patterning

provided an essential template for the construction not only of the edifice of

court ritual and, indeed, governance, but also for the harmonization of innu-

merable aspects of daily life within a single, overarching context. Because

the calendar tracked the waxing and waning of  yin and  yang throughouteach yearly cycle, it helped make sense of everything from the rhythms of

agriculture to the choice of colors for clothing to the encouragement of crafts

and industry. If weaving maidens, goddesses, and female immortals played

a prominent role in the court-sponsored narratives, it was due not simply to

literary fancy, but to the vital importance of these women for the workings of

the ritual and economic systems on which the court depended.

In a similar vein we have seen that this same template played a major role

in shaping the formation of the early Japanese Buddhist tradition. We haveseen this not only in accounts in the Nihon shoki and the Nihon ryòiki of the

founding legend of the Japanese Buddhist tradition, but also in popular nar-

ratives concerning the way to propitiate spirits on the roadsides and to escape

the reach of Emma, the king of hell. In these narratives it appeared that even

in the land of the dead, ancestors and demons understood that events needed

to flow within a set calendrical regimen punctuated by nodal points in which

contact with the living could be achieved and ritualized.

Future Directions

One of the most important results of this investigation has been to illuminate

the profoundly important role played by local cults and deities in shaping the

emerging royal cult. It is my hope that this view may serve as an important

corrective to the court-oriented biases of much modern scholarship as well

as virtually all of our earliest sources. It is telling that although we have only

scratched the surface of important cults and deities of the period, the total

 volume of scholarly attention given to all of the deities mentioned in thisbook is dwarfed by that given to the royal ancestor Amaterasu. This imbal-

ance appears all the greater when we consider the scholarly research devoted

to the Buddhist institutions and practices of the court. Although no one can

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196 Conclusion

doubt the influence of Nara-period Buddhism on Japanese religious history,

there is nonetheless little evidence that Buddhist cultic practices dominated

religious life in the countryside. Indeed, provincial gazetteers composed in

714 scarcely mention the tradition. Much work remains to be done.I also suggest that we have barely begun to understand how gender

helped drive the material, political, and social changes that transformed life

in the Japanese islands even before the Nara period. In every chapter of this

book we have seen that gender roles played a crucial role in these processes,

and that legends of female deities, ancestors, and shamans helped shape

not only how royal consorts were represented in court chronicles, but also

notions of immortality and the propitiation of spirits. Because of the gen-

der-specific nature of weaving, these figures also represented a major linkbetween the economic and material culture of the Japanese islands and the

 worship of local kami .

 Although the bulk of this book has focused on religious developments

leading up to and including the Nara period, we have also seen that the con-

siderations under discussion should be of immediate interest for the study

of later eras as well. Certainly the end of the Nara period, marked as it was

by the ascendancy of the healer-monk Dòkyò, the rule of the female tennò

Kòken, and the emergence of the Kyûshû deity Hachiman, deserves renewedscrutiny. Given the importance of karakami in the system of twenty-two

temple-shrine complexes sponsored by the court, it also appears that the

importance of immigrant lineages and deities for the court during the Heian

period may have been equally great.

There is also good reason to believe that the worship of karakami con-

tinued to flourish among the populace in the Heian period and beyond. I

suggest, for instance, that healer monks,  yin-yang  specialists (onmyòji ), and

popular festivals for the propitiation of  goryò that burst into prominence in

this period were in innumerable ways related to roadside rites of spirit paci-

fication and animal sacrifice that had deep roots in popular cultic practices in

China and the Korean peninsula. Such connections are of particular note not

only because of their indisputable influence upon the cultic life of both the

court and the populace in subsequent periods, but also because they suggest

that as continental medical and astrological systems continuously shaped

and were in turn shaped by popular religious movements, they served as

touchstones for understanding the mysteries of purity, politics, disease, and

death for monks, rulers, commoners, and kami  alike for centuries to come.

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197 

Glossary of Names and Terms

 Abe no Kunimi  This doubtless legendary figure is said to have slandered

the chief priestess of the Ise shrine during the reign of Yûryaku. Although few scholars would accept the historicity of virtually any

aspect of the account, the legend would appear to once again sug-

gest some connection between the Abe and early sun cults in the

 Japanese islands.

 Abe no Omi Kotoshiro  This otherwise unknown figure appears within the

Kenzò chapter of the  Nihon shoki , where he is said to have been

possessed first by a sun deity who requests that land be set aside

for the worship of Takami Musubi no Mikoto and then by the moondeity Tsukiyomi no Mikoto while in the Korean kingdom of Mimana.

Because this latter legend also served as the shrine-founding leg-

end for the Kaiko Yashiro (Silkworm shrine), a Hata cultic center in

 Yamashiro province, the text also suggests the possibility of some

sort of early cooperation between these two kinship groups. Both

groups were later closely associated with Shitennòji temple in the

port of Naniwa and the early cult of Prince Shòtoku. In addition to

the importance of this legend for our understanding of the develop-

ment of worship of the sun deity Amaterasu, these legends also sug-gest the possibility that the Abe kinship group may have at one point

been associated with spirit possession and the use of mediums.

 Akaru Hime  Within the  Nihon shoki and the  Kojiki this deity is at various

points said to be the wife of both Ame no Hiboko and Tsunuga

 Arashito, two immigrant cowherd deities from the Korean penin-

sula. Akaru Hime herself is said to have been born as a red stone

on the Korean peninsula, after a young girl was impregnated by a

ray from the sun. Within the  Hizen fudoki  she is also depicted as a vengeful weaving goddess who demands offerings in the form of

 woven items. One of several deities from Kyûshû who came to play

an important role in the royal cult, within the court chronicles she

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198 Glossary of Names and Terms

is said to have resided in the Himegoso shrines in Buzen and Settsu

provinces. During the Heian period she also took up residence in

the Suminoe shrine.

 Ama no Hoakari no Mikoto  Although little is written about this deity in thecourt chronicles, there is good reason to believe that the cult of this

deity played a major role in the formation of early royal mythol-

ogy. Within the  Nihon shoki  and Kojiki, Ama no Hoakari no Mikoto

appears as one of the children of Konohana Sakuya Hime in the myth

of the descent of the Heavenly Grandchild. He was also claimed as

an ancestor by a number of cultically and politically influential lin-

eages, including the Owari Muraji, the Wani, and the Kusakabe. Later

texts such as the Sendai kuji hongi also state that Ama no Hoakarino Mikoto was none other than the founding Mononobe ancestor,

Nigihayahi no Mikoto.

 Amaterasu  As the chief deity of the Ise shrine and the principal ancestor of

the royal line, the sun deity Amaterasu occupied a central place in

court ritual throughout the Nara period and beyond. Although we

have little concrete information concerning this deity’s origins, her

cult appears to have been intimately connected not only with sun

 worship, but also with continental legends and kinship groups asso-ciated with rites related to sericulture and weaving.

 Amayorozu Takuhata Chihata Hime  See  Takuhata Chichi Hime.

 Ame no Hiboko  Ame no Hiboko appears in both the  Kojiki and the  Nihon

 shoki as a Silla prince who emigrated from the Korean peninsula to

the Japanese islands in pursuit of his estranged wife, Akaru Hime.

Since he is also presented within these texts in the role of a defender

of cows, it would appear that his union with the weaving deity Akaru

Hime may have been connected with this image of Ame no Hiboko

as a cowherd. Elsewhere in the court chronicles he is said to have

been the father of Izushi Hime, an important figure whose legend

cycle in several important ways mirrors that of the Miwa and Kamo

no Kimi lineages.

 Atsumori  Atsumori appears within the Tale of the Heike   as a young Taira

 warrior with a refined, courtly demeanor that renders him thorough-

ly unsuited for his final, fatal battle with the experienced Minamoto

 warrior Kumagae. Later the relationship between these two figures

became the subject of a Nò play by Zeami, who depicted a subse-quent encounter and final reconciliation between Kumagae and the

ghost of his lamented young victim.

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  Glossary of Names and Terms 199

 Atsuta shrine  The Atsuta shrine in Owari province was the kinship group

shrine of the Owari Muraji, a prominent regional lineage that pur-

portedly provided several consorts to rulers during the fifth and sixth

centuries. The shrine, which plays an important role in the YamatoTakeru legend cycle, also claimed as its main object of worship Yama-

to Takeru’s weapon, the Kusanagi sword. Intriguingly, this sword was

also believed to have caused the final illness of Tenmu tennò.

Benshò  Benshò was a monk from the Hata kinship group that was sent

to China for study during the Taihò era (701–704). During his stay

in China, Benshò was purportedly well received by the Emperor

Hsüan-tsung. Although Benshò died in China, his son, Hata no

 Asamoto, returned to the Japanese islands and succeeded in marry-ing his daughters to prominent members of the Fujiwara.

Bu, Great King  See  Yûryaku.

chimata  Chimata were crossroads or intersections of major roadways. In

addition to being of tremendous importance for the military, eco-

nomic, and political systems of the Japanese islands, chimata were

also frequently the site of rites of propitiation and pacification of

dangerous spirits that were thought to travel the roadways of the

 Japanese islands. As such, chimata represent an important point ofintersection between religious practice and political/material devel-

opments during the period.

Chinkonsai (Mitama Shizume Matsuri)  Chinkonsai is generally thought to

have been one of the most important rites in the court’s ritual calen-

dar, in which the spirit of the ruler is “shaken” in order to prevent

death and assure the ruler’s health. Since at least the ninth century

the mythic background for the rite was understood to be the leg-

end of the Heavenly Grotto, in which the spirit of the sun goddess

entered into a cave and thereby plunged the world into darkness

until she was tricked into coming out by deities engaged in a number

of ritual activities. It is doubtful, however, that the origins of the rite

lay strictly with the royal house, as lineages such as the Mononobe

and Wani also appear to have performed rites of spirit-calling and

resurrection independently of the royal cult. Within the Sendai kuji

hongi we are even told that the origins of the royal Chinkonsai are

to be found in rites performed at the Isonokami shrine, a major

Mononobe cultic center.Chiisakobe kinship group  This lineage, which claimed descent from the

royal ancestor and liturgist Kamu Yaimimi no Mikoto, appears to

have played an important role in the formation of court rites related

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 200 Glossary of Names and Terms

to spirit-quieting and sericulture. Within several legends in such

sources as the  Nihon shoki ,  Kojiki, and the  Nihon ryòiki , members

of the Chisakobe are also closely associated with the Yamato ruler

 Yûryaku and with the introduction of sericulture to the Japaneseislands. Within the Shinsen shòjiroku, they are also explicitly singled

out as having played a major role in the formation of the Hata, an

immigrant lineage from the Korean peninsula that was said to have

been the foremost producers of silk during Yûryaku’s reign.

Chûai  Within the court chronicles, this Yamato ruler is said to have been

slain by the Sumiyoshi deities after he scoffed at their suggestion that

he invade the Korean kingdom of Silla. Within the  Kojiki account

of his death and its aftermath, we also find the first depiction of theÒharae, along with an invaluable account in which Chûai’s consort

and successor Jingû Kògò serves as a medium for communication

 with the kami . Perhaps because of the prominent role of Silla immi-

grant lineages in the construction of the Jingû legend cycle, Chûai

 was, by the early Heian period, identified with the immigrant cow-

herd deity Tsunoga Arashito.

Daianji  Prior to the construction of Tòdaiji and the Great Buddha, Daianji

served as the main administrative headquarters for the state’s ecclesi-al bureaucracy. The abbot of temple for most of this period was Dòji,

one of the pre-eminent intellectuals of the day and a devotee of the

Shòtoku cult. Although the temple in its earliest incarnations appears

to have been the kinship group temple of the Nukadabe (Dòji’s

own lineage), the temple’s official account of its origins traces the

temple’s construction to Shòtoku himself. In addition to the Chinese-

educated Dòji, the temple also served for much of the Nara period

as a home for the Tao-hsüan, one of the first and most prominent

Chinese monks to emigrate to the Japanese islands. The temple was

also a primary center for the Gumonjihò, an important rite associated

 with the Space Buddha Kokûzò.

Dòji  One of the most prominent intellectuals of his day, Dòji studied in the

Chinese capital at Ch’ang-an for over fifteen years before returning to

the Japanese islands in 718. He is credited with playing a major role

in the formation of the kokubunji  system, and he is known to have

been instrumental in convincing Shòmu’s Queen Consort Kòmyò to

help support the rebuilding of Hòryûji after a plague decimated asubstantial portion of the court, including four of Kòmyò’s brothers.

Dòji is also thought to have been related to the proliferation of the

Gumonjihò rite and the worship of the bodhisattva Kokûzò.

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  Glossary of Names and Terms 201

Dòkyò  Few monks in Japanese history have inspired such enduring con-

demnation as Dòkyò, a monk who purportedly attempted to usurp

the throne during the reign of Kòken tennò through the manipula-

tion of omens and oracles. Although Dòkyò has been condemnedfor centuries as a particularly unscrupulous monk whose political

entanglements brought about the end of the Nara period, very little

is known about the events surrounding his rise and fall and even

less is known about his Buddhist practice. What little we do know

about Dòkyò, who came to power shortly after healing Kòken of a

near-fatal disease, suggests that he utilized Buddhist healing prac-

tices recently imported from the continent that had roots in astro-

logical and onmyòdò traditions. Intriguingly, Dòkyò was also said tohave practiced austerities in the Kazuragi region of Yamato not far

from Yoshino and also to have been a member of the Yuge Monon-

obe lineage.

Dòshò  Dòshò was a Hata monk and Gumonjihò practitioner who was also a

student of Kûkai. For most of his career he served as the abbot of the

Hata kinship-group temple Kòryûji, where in 859 he built a retreat

center for the worship of the Space Buddha Kokûzò. He eventually

attained the rank of shosòzu (junior priest general) and was a confi-dant of Seiwa tennò.

Dòtò  Dòtò was a monk from the Ema, an immigrant kinship group from

the Korean kingdom of Koguryô that was based in Yamashiro prov-

ince. Although he is referenced only briefly in the  Nihon shoki , he

appears in a legend in the  Nihon ryòiki  concerning a grateful spirit

that sought to repay the kindness of Dòtò’s servant from beyond the

grave. The text also asserts that Dòtò was responsible for construct-

ing the region’s famed Uji Bridge.

En no Gyòja  Although shrouded in mystery, this legendary mountain ascetic

became from an early date a paradigmatic figure for practitioners of

mountain asceticism across the Japanese islands. What little we know

of En can be found in his biography in the Shoku Nihongi and in a

legend in the Nihon ryòiki  concerning his career and his battle with

the deity Hitokoto Nushi. Of particular note in this latter account is

the text’s assertion that En was from a branch of the Kamo no Kimi

kinship group. Both accounts stress En’s ability to control spirits as

 well as his pursuit of superhuman powers in the region near MountKazuragi and Kane no Take (Mount Yoshino).

Fujiwara no Tanetsugu  Fujiwara no Tanetsugu was the son of Fujiwara no

Umakai and a daughter of Hata no Asamoto. As the head of the

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 202 Glossary of Names and Terms

Shiki branch of the Fujiwara, he played a major role in engineering

the accession of Kònin tennò to the throne following the tumultuous

reign of Kòken tennò. Tanetsugu’s line probably reached the apex of

its power during the reign of Heizei tennò (reigned 806–809),  whenhis daughter Kusuko served as Heizei’s chief consort and his son

Nakanari served as Heizei’s chief advisor.

Fushimi Inari shrine  Fushimi Inari shrine, much like the Matsuno’o, Kamo,

and other Hata cultic centers in Yamashiro province, enjoyed a

surge of royal patronage following the court’s arrival in Yamashiro

at the start of the Heian period. The Fushimi deity also quickly came

to be worshipped within the precincts of Kûkai’s temple Tòji and

from there across the Japanese islands by practitioners of mountainasceticism.

Futsunushi no Mikoto  Futsunushi no Mikoto is depicted in the  Nihon shoki

as a spirit-quieting deity who, along with the chimata deity Kunado,

pacifies the realm for the Heavenly Grandchild Ninigi no Mikoto. He

is also said to have been sent from the Heavenly Plain by the royal

ancestor Amaterasu to revitalize the spirit of the Yamato ruler during

 Jinmu’s campaign to conquer Yamato. Futsunushi no Mikoto was

also worshipped in the form of a sword at the Isonokami shrine, themost important cultic center of the Mononobe kinship group, and he

 was claimed as a founding ancestor by the Kasuga no Omi, a major

sublineage of the Wani kinship group.

Gomyò  Gomyò, a Hata monk, was one of the most prominent members of

the powerful Hossò school of Buddhism in the decades following

the move of the capital to Heian. He also held several of the high-

est posts in the court’s ecclesial hierarchy, including Sòjò (Supreme

Priest). Gomyò is also of note because he was an early practitioner

of the Gumonjihò rite and because he took a famously adversarial

stance to the Tendai patriarch Saichò.

Gonsò  Gonsò was a Hata monk who studied with Dòji’s disciple Zengi at

Daianji. Much like his fellow Hata monk Gomyò, Gonsò was also a

Gumonjihò practitioner who rose to become one of the most promi-

nent monks of the early Heian period. In 827 Gonsò succeeded

Gomyò in the position of Sòjò.

Gumonjihò  The Gumonjihò  is a rite of propitiation of the Space Buddha

Kokûzò, which, if performed properly, offers the devotee the prom-ise of the ability to understand any Buddhist scripture. Because of

the extremely arduous requirements of the rite, the  Kokûzò bosatsu

nòman shogan saishòshin darani gumonji no hò recommends its

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  Glossary of Names and Terms 203

performance in remote mountain settings such as are found in Yoshi-

no. During the Nara and early Heian periods the rite was popular

among monks seeking superhuman knowledge. Several of the most

prominent such practitioners, including such monks as Gomyò, Gon-sò, and Dòshò were from the Hata kinship group.

Hachiman  Although Hachiman is not mentioned within the Nihon shoki and 

 Kojiki , this deity from northern Kyûshû became one of the most

influential deities in the Japanese islands during the Nara period.

 Although the reasons for Hachiman’s rise are not entirely clear, it

appears likely that the deity was given credit for quieting local unrest

in Kyûshû during the reign of Shòmu tennò. In 752 Hachiman was

brought from Kyûshû to Nara and installed at Tòdaiji, apparently as aresult of aid that the deity was believed to have given in the creation

of the Great Buddha. Hachiman would later play a central role in the

downfall of the monk Dòkyò, who was accused of having manufac-

tured an oracle from Hachiman suggesting that Dòkyò be allowed to

ascend the throne.

hakuji  The hakuji was an auspicious white pheasant that was purportedly

discovered and presented to the court during the reign of the Yamato

ruler Kòtoku by a member of the Kusakabe kinship group.Hata kinship group  As one of the largest immigrant lineages in the Japa-

nese islands, the Hata exerted a powerful and enduring influence

upon the formation of the political and religious institutions of the

 Japanese islands. Although little is known of their origins, it would

appear that at least one major branch of this lineage was composed

of immigrants from the Korean kingdoms that were settled in the

region of Kazuragi in the fourth and fifth centuries by the Kazuragi no

Omi, one of the most powerful lineages of that age. Within the court

chronicles the Hata appear in prominent cultural and technological

roles following the destruction of the main line of the Kazuragi no

Omi by the Yamato ruler Yûryaku. Within the Nihon shoki we are told

that the Hata were instrumental in such activities as building canals

and administering royal estates and storehouses. They are referred to

as the paramount weavers of the Japanese islands, and they are also

shown performing important sacerdotal functions for the court, both

as propitiants of kami and as worshippers of buddhas. In addition to

all this, the Hata are also known to have been at the forefront of theearly Shòtoku cult. With the establishment of the Heian capital in the

main Hata base of Kadano in Yamashiro province, Hata cultic centers

 were also absorbed into the heart of the royal cult.

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 204 Glossary of Names and Terms

Hata no Asamoto  Hata no Asamoto was the son of Benshò, a Hata monk

 who was sent to China to study during the Taihò era (701–704).

Following Asamoto’s arrival in the Japanese islands, he succeeded

in marrying two of his daughters to sons of Fujiwara no Umakai,the leader of the Shiki Fujiwara, the most powerful branch of the

Fujiwara kinship group for much of the Nara period. As a result,

 Asamoto became the maternal grandfather and great-grandfather of

some of the most powerful figures of the late Nara and early Heian

periods.

Hata no Shimamaro  Although little is known about the background of Hata

no Shimamaro, he appears to have been the head of the Hata kin-

ship group in the Kadono district of Yamashiro province during thereign of Shòmu tennò. When Shòmu decided to build a new capital

in Yamashiro in 740, Shimamaro appears to have provided major

economic aid and labor for the project. As a result, Shimamaro was

raised to the fourth rank. Shimamaro then married his daughter to

Fujiwara no Ogimaro, who became the head of the northern branch

of the Fujiwara and perhaps the most influential member at court

for much of his life. Evidence of the importance of such links can

be seen in the name of Shimamaro’s grandson Fujiwara no Kadono, who would later play an active role in moving the court from the

Nara capital to the Kadono district.

Heavenly Grotto  The legend of the Heavenly Grotto, which is recounted in

numerous forms in the  Nihon shoki and  Kojiki , served as an essen-

tial pillar for the construction of royal myth and ritual during the

Nara period and afterward. At the center of the legend is the figure

of the royal ancestor Amaterasu, who is engaged in a contest with

her brother Susanoo no Mikoto. After Susanoo performs a series of

outrageous and defiling acts, Amaterasu enters the Heavenly Grotto,

thereby plunging the world into darkness. Following a great deal of

ritual activity on the part of the other gods in the Heavenly Plain,

 Amaterasu re-emerges from the cave. She is then in effect recog-

nized as the supreme deity, while Susanoo is punished. The legend

came to be used as the basis for the liturgies of the Chinkonsai and

the Òharae, two of the most important rites in the court’s liturgical

calendar.

Heavenly Maidens  Throughout the literature of the Nara period we find ref-erences to female immortals or deities who are apparently based

upon continental models related to the Weaver Maiden. Within these

narratives a Heavenly Maiden is typically said to descend to earth to

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  Glossary of Names and Terms 205

bathe, only to have her magical garments stolen by a human male,

 who forces her to marry him. After she has given birth to one or

more children, however, she almost invariably finds the garments

or some other device that allows her to fly away and rejoin theimmortals.

Hibasu Hime  Within the court chronicles Hibasu Hime is said to have been

the daughter of Tamba Nushi no Mikoto, an important figure claimed

as an ancestor by the Kusakabe and Wani kinship groups. She is also

said to have been the mother of Keikò tennò,  Yamato Hime, and

Inishiki Irihiko. Within the court chronicles her death and funeral

are said to have led to the formation of a number of funerary service

groups. In addition, Tajima Mori, the Miyake Muraji ancestor whopurportedly journeyed to the realm of the Queen Mother of the West,

is said to have left fruits of immortality as offerings at her grave upon

his return to Yamato.

Hiei, Mount  Although Mount Hiei is most famous as the center of the Saichò’s

Tendai Buddhist movement, this mountain in Òmi province was also

the site of the Hiyoshi shrines, two important cultic centers that pre-

dated Saichò by at least one hundred years.

Himegoso shrines  Located in Buzen and the port of Naniwa in Settsu prov-ince, the Himegoso shrines housed the vengeful weaving deity Akaru

Hime.

hitogata   Hitogata appear to have been used from an extremely early period

as effigies in purification rites. Discoveries of hitogata from all areas

of the Japanese islands that bear inscriptions and spells from conti-

nental purification texts have conclusively established the presence

of such ritual systems in the Japanese islands from at least the late

seventh century.

Hiyoshi shrines  Although the history of the Hiyoshi cultic centers on Mount

Hiei in Òmi province is quite murky, within the  Kojiki we are told

that the deity of the mountain was Òyamakui no Mikoto, who was

also worshipped at the Matsuno’o shrine, an important Hata cultic

center in adjacent Yamashiro province. At some point the cultic cen-

ter devoted to Òyamakui, which was located at the base of the moun-

tain, came to be referred to as the lower Hiyoshi shrine, in contrast

to the upper Hiyoshi shrine, a cultic center higher up the mountain

that housed the Miwa deity Òmononushi. During the Heian periodthe number of shrines on the mountain continued to proliferate in

conjunction with the tremendous growth of the Tendai sect. During

the medieval period new understandings of these deities rooted in

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  Glossary of Names and Terms 207 

islands. In addition, the shrine appears to have functioned at least

partially as a military storehouse in which thousands of weapons

could be stored.

Izushi Otome no Kami  Within the  Kojiki we are told that Izushi Otome noKami was the daughter of Ame no Hiboko, an immigrant cowherd

deity from Silla who also had a strong cultic presence in Izushi. With-

in the text Izushi Otome no Kami is said to have been the object of

competition of two brothers, one of whom wins her after she brings

home a magic arrow that has been placed above her lavatory.

 Jingû  Within the court chronicles Jingû is said to have been the chief con-

sort of the Yamato ruler Chûai and the mother of the Yamato ruler

Òjin. Immediately following Chûai’s death, which is said to haveoccurred following his refusal to heed the advice of the Suminoe

deities, Jingû is said to have carried out the gods’ will by attacking

and conquering the Korean kingdom of Silla. Intriguingly, within the

court chronicles she is also said to have been a descendant of the

Silla prince and immigrant deity Ame no Hiboko.

 Jinmu  Within the court chronicles Jinmu is said to have been the first mem-

ber of the royal line to enter into Yamato. The tale of Jinmu’s con-

quest of the Japanese islands highlights the role of the Òtomo andMononobe, two kinship groups that were at the peak of their power

in the sixth century C.E. Of particular note, for our purposes, is

the extensive discussion devoted within both texts to the ritual and

political activities of Jinmu and his allies at Yoshino.

 Jitò tennò  Although Jitò tennò (reigned 690–697) was the queen consort of

Tenmu tennò and the daughter of the Yamato ruler Tenchi, she is

generally thought to have assumed the throne only as a temporary

measure following the death of Prince Kusakabe, her son by Tenmu.

 Jitò’s reign was nonetheless extremely significant for the formation of

the political institutions of the Japanese islands, for she consolidated

and extended many of the bureaucratic reforms initiated by Tenchi

and Tenmu. Cultically, her reign was also notable for her unprec-

edented visit to the Ise shrine and for her numerous pilgrimages to

 Yoshino.

Kamitsumiya, Prince  See  Shòtoku.

Kamo Agatanushi kinship group  Based in the Kadono district of Yamashi-

ro province, the Kamo Agatanushi are said to have frequentlyintermarried with the Hata. During the Heian period, the Kamo

shrines, which housed Tamayori Hime and Wake no Ikazuchi no

Kami, two deities that the Kamo claimed as ancestors, came to

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 208 Glossary of Names and Terms

be ranked alongside the Ise shrines as among the most important

centers in the royal cult. In addition, the Kamo Agatanushi claimed

as an ancestor the Yatagarasu, a legendary crow that purportedly

guided Jinmu’s army during that Yamato ruler’s conquest of the Japanese islands.

Kamo no Kimi kinship group  Based in the Yoshino region of Yamato prov-

ince, the Kamo no Kimi appear to have been an important sacer-

dotal lineage in the fifth and sixth centuries. Along with the Miwa,

another major sacerdotal lineage charged with worshipping the deity

Òmononushi on Mount Miwa in Yamato province, the Kamo no Kimi

claimed descent from Òtataneko no Mikoto, a paradigmatic ritualist

for the royal line.Kamo shrines  Located in the Kadono district of Yamashiro province, the

upper and lower Kamo shrines came to serve as principal foci in

the Heian court’s ritual program. As early accounts of the shrines

diverge on such basic points as the names and character of the gods

in residence at the shrines, it would appear that from an early date

both cultic centers were contested religious sites. According to the

Yamashiro fudoki  the lower Kamo shrine housed the female deity

Tamayori Hime, while the upper Kamo shrine housed her male coun-terpart Tamayori Hiko. Within the court chronicles, however, we are

told that the upper shrine housed Tamayori Hime’s child Wake no

Ikazuchi no Kami. Making the picture even murkier, according to a

remnant of the Hatashi honkeichò, the deity of the upper shrine was

 Wake no Ikazuchi no Kami, while the deity of the lower shrine is

referred to only as a “Hata woman” whose name is Mioya Kami (the

parent deity). Such multiple claims are most likely indicative of the

importance of the Kamo shrines within cultic discourse of the period

as well as their disputed status.

karakami   The term “karakami ” (literally ”continental deity”) appears in

conjunction with immigrant deities, such as Ame no Hiboko and

Tsunoga Arashito, who were said to have come to the Japanese

islands from across the sea. Perhaps not surprisingly, given the large

number of immigrant lineages and ancestral cults in the Japanese

islands, karakami appear in virtually every literary genre from the

period.

Kitora Kofun  Kitora Kofun, a pre-Nara-period tomb in the Asuka region ofancient Yamato, captured the attention of scholars worldwide when

it was discovered in 2001 that its ceiling contained what is thought to

be the oldest extant star chart in East Asia. Thanks both to its degree

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  Glossary of Names and Terms 209

of preservation and its complexity, there can now be little doubt that

even before the Nara period there was a substantial interest in and

knowledge of continental astrological systems.

Kògyoku  Kògyoku, the chief consort of Jomei tennò and the mother ofTenchi and Tenmu, ascended the throne twice during the middle

decades of the seventh century. Within the  Nihon shoki her death

and funeral are depicted in terms that suggest that she was believed

to have been killed by a demon in Kyûshû. During her reign, we are

also told, her prayers were able to end a drought after sutra readings

and even animal sacrifice had failed to bring rain.

Kòken tennò  Kòken tennò,  the daughter of Shòmu tennò and his Queen

Consort Kòmyò, ruled twice, from 749 to 757 and again from 764to 770. These reigns are remembered as having been marked by

numerous upheavals, not the least of which was the rapid rise and

even more rapid fall of her counselor, the healer-monk Dòkyò. Fol-

lowing Kòken’s death, no woman was allowed upon the throne for

several hundred years.

kokubunji   The kokubunji   temple network was created by order of the

Shòmu court in the wake of a series of natural and political disasters.

Kokûzò  Literally the Space Storehouse Buddha, Kokûzò appears to havebeen associated with astral beliefs long before his cult arrived in

the Japanese islands at the start of the Nara period. During the Nara

and early Heian periods, Kokûzò was a popular object of worship

among monks seeking enhanced powers of understanding through

practice of the Gumonjihò rite in the mountains of Japan. During the

Heian period Kokûzò was also widely worshipped by members of

the Shingon and Tendai movements.

Kòmyò, Queen Consort  As the daughter of the Fujiwara leader Fujiwara

Fuhito and the chief consort of Shòmu tennò, Queen Consort Kòmyò

 was among the most influential figures at court throughout the 730s

and 740s. A devout Buddhist, Kòmyò provided crucial support for

the reconstruction of Hòryûji and the early Shòtoku cult.

Konohana Sakuya Hime  Konohana Sakuya Hime appears in the legend of

the Heavenly Grandchild as a Weaving Maiden who is the mother

of three children by Ninigi no Mikoto, including not only the royal

ancestor Hiko Hoho Demi no Mikoto, but also the fire deity, Ama

no Hoakari no Mikoto, and Ho no Suseri no Mikoto, purportedly thefounding ancestor of the Hayato people of southern Japan.

Konoshima ni masu Amaterasu Mitama Jinja  Located in the Kadono district of

 Yamashiro province, this Hata cultic center appears to have been a

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 210 Glossary of Names and Terms

shrine dedicated to the sun deity Amaterasu. Intriguingly, the shrine

 was also located in extremely close proximity to rice fields dedicated

to Amaterasu’s brother, the moon deity Tsukiyomi no Mikoto. At

some point the shrine also came to house a subshrine known as theKaiko Yashiro (Silkworm shrine).

Kûkai  Easily one of the most influential monks in Japanese history, Kûkai

is claimed today as a founder by the Shingon sect. Like many other

monks from the period, Kûkai in his early years practiced the Gumon-

jihò rite. After spending a number of years in China, he returned to the

Heian court, where he introduced a number of esoteric scriptures into

the mainstream of Japanese Buddhist discourse. During his lifetime

Kûkai also sought to establish connections with several prominentdeities, including the deity of the Fushimi Inari and Nihu shrines.

kusagari    Kusagari , or medicine hunts, are first mentioned in the  Nihon

 shoki during the reign of Suiko. Although there is no way of knowing

if such events did in fact occur, such entries at the very least confirm

that by the time of the composition of the  Nihon shoki in 720, such

practices were associated both with nodal days in the Chinese festi-

 val calendar and with such mountainous regions as Yoshino.

Kusakabe kinship group  The Kusakabe were a service lineage group withsignificant populations in several coastal regions across the Japanese

islands. Although within the court chronicles there are several accounts

of the group’s origins, within the  Nihon shoki they are said to have

been descended from one Hiko Imasu no Mikoto, the grandfather of

Hibasu Hime and a descendant of the fire deity Ama no Hoakari no

Mikoto. During the reign of Tenmu tennò the Kusakabe appear to

have enjoyed a significant rise in status, for Prince Kusakabe, who

 was apparently raised with the aid of a Kusakabe sublineage, was

named crown prince. Although Prince Kusakabe died before ascend-

ing the throne, subsequent rulers for virtually the entire Nara period

 were his descendents.

Kusakabe, Prince  The son of Tenmu tennò and Jitò tennò, Prince Kusakabe

 was expected to ascend to the throne, but he died an untimely death

in 689. As a result Kusakabe’s mother Jitò ascended the throne,

 which she held for some eight years before stepping aside in favor

of her grandson Monmu. Although Prince Kusakabe never ascended

the throne, rulers for the next eighty years were all either his descen-dents or consorts of his descendents.

Kusanagi sword  The Kusanagi sword, which is the main object of worship

at the Atsuta shrine in Owari province, was purportedly the weapon

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  Glossary of Names and Terms 211

used by Yamato Takeru as he moved to pacify the realm for his

father, the Yamato ruler Keikò. Further indications of the importance

of the sword for the royal line can be seen from the fact that within

the court chronicles we are told that the sword was given to YamatoTakeru by his aunt Yamato Hime, the legendary first chief priestess

at the Ise shrine. We are also told that the sword brought about the

death of Tenmu tennò.

Kusuko incident  The Kusuko incident occurred in 810, when the recently

retired Heizei tennò, against the wishes of the recently installed Saga

tennò (reigned 809–823), sought to force the court to abandon the

Heian capital and return to Nara. In the brief, violent struggle that

ensued, Heizei, his consort Fujiwara no Kusuko, and Fujiwara Naka-nari were defeated after Saga visited the Kamo shrines and pledged

that rulers in perpetuity would send a consecrated princess to wor-

ship at the shrines. In the aftermath the Kamo shrines emerged as the

primary cultic centers for the capital.

Kwall∆k   According to the Nihon shoki , Kwall∆k was a monk from the Korean

kingdom of Paekche who presented the court of Suiko with books

on astrology and divination. He is said to have instructed students

at the court in these arts and was later purportedly made the headof an official ecclesial hierarchy that we are told was established by

the Suiko court.

Lavatory goddess  Within Chinese popular religion the lavatory goddess

played an important role both for her association with fertilizer and

abundance and as a manifestation of the tendency to localize specific

deities within specific household locations and functions. Rites for

this deity were performed on the fifteenth day of the first month in

the popular Chinese festival calendar. Resonances with the cult of

this deity can be seen in the founding ancestral legends of the Miwa,

Chiisakobe, and Kamo no Kimi kinship groups.

Matsuno’o shrine  This Hata cultic center in Yamashiro province appears to

have been closely connected from a very early date with the nearby

Kamo shrines. Evidence for this can be seen in numerous edicts from

the court addressing the shrines in tandem, and in a remnant from

the Hatashi honkeichò that asserts that Òyamakui, the main deity at

the Matsuno’o shrine, was the father of Wake no Ikazuchi no Mikoto,

the deity of the upper Kamo shrine.Michiae no Matsuri (Rite of Roadside Offerings)  Although a regular part of

the court’s ritual calendar, the Michiae no Matsuri  was also frequent-

ly employed as a defense against epidemics. At its core, the rite

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 212 Glossary of Names and Terms

involved using animal hides to propitiate potentially hostile, disease-

causing spirits on the roadsides of the Japanese islands.

Mitoshi no Kami  Although the Mitoshi Kami appears only briefly in the

court chronicles, he is the subject of a legend in the  Kogoshûi thatrecounts the origins of the Toshigoi Matsuri. Within the text he

appears incensed at the prospect of meat being consumed by farm

 workers, with the result that meat offerings are eventually made to

the god instead.

Miwa kinship group  The Miwa were a sacerdotal lineage dedicated to the

 worship of the deity Òmononushi on Mount Miwa. Several legends

concerning such Miwa ancestors as Seyatadera, Òtataneko, Isukeyori

Hime, and others can be found in the court chronicles.Miyake kinship group  The Miyake Muraji were an immigrant kinship group

that claimed as its founding ancestor the Silla immigrant deity Ame

no Hiboko. Other prominent members of the Miyake Muraji included

Tajima Mori, a sage figure who is said to have traveled to the land of

immortals and brought back the fruit of immortality for his sovereign,

the Yamato ruler Sujin.

Mononobe kinship group  One of the most powerful kinship groups

of the sixth century, the Mononobe were also one of the mostimportant sacerdotal lineages in the Japanese islands. They are

perhaps most commonly remembered, however, for their role

in the founding narrative of Japanese Buddhism, in which they

 were portrayed as the greatest antagonists of the new tradition.

Far from being xenophobes, however, there is good reason to

believe that the Mononobe were actively involved in promoting

continental-style rites of spirit-quieting and resurrection within

the Japanese islands.

Nara Osa  According to the Shinsen shòjiroku, the Nara Osa were an immi-

grant kinship group from the Korean kingdom of Koguryö that set-

tled in Yamashiro province during the sixth century.

Nigihayahi no Mikoto  The founding ancestor of the Mononobe kinship

group, Nigihayahi is said to have descended from the Heavenly Plain

in much the same manner as the Heavenly Grandchild Ninigi no

Mikoto. Within the Sendai kuji hongi Nigihayahi is also identified as

the fire deity Ama no Hoakari no Mikoto.

Nintoku  Nintoku was a Yamato ruler said to have been the son of the Yamato ruler Òjin. Within the  Kojiki we find a series of poems that

make heavy use of sericulture imagery and were purportedly com-

posed by Nintoku for his estranged consort Iwa no Hime.

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  Glossary of Names and Terms 213

norito   Norito is a term given to petitionary prayers spoken in court liturgies.

The earliest textual sources for norito are in the  Engishiki , a ritual

and administrative compendium composed around 927.

Nunoshiki no Omi Kinume  Nunoshiki no Omi Kinume is the central figurein a narrative from the  Nihon ryòiki in which a demon from the

underworld accepts a bribe in the form of roadside offerings and

agrees to seek out a substitute victim to bring back to the king of

the dead.

Nuribe Hime  Within the  Nihon ryòiki  Nuribe Hime appears in a narrative

recounting her travails as a mother and her eventual attainment of

immortality after ingesting herbs from the Uda region of Yamato.

Òfube no Òshi  Òfube no Òshi appears in the Nihon shoki as the leader of apopular millennial movement focused on the imminent arrival of a

tokoyo deity that was said to resemble in every way a silkworm.

Òharae  Òharae was a rite of purification performed on the final evening

of the sixth and twelfth months in order to purify the court and the

realm at the start of each half of the year. The liturgy for the rite

appears to have been closely based upon the legend of the Heavenly

Grotto, in which the numerous offenses committed by Susanoo are

confessed to as defiling acts that require divine purification.Òmononushi  Òmononushi, the god of Mount Miwa, is believed to have

been the chief focus of royal worship for much of Japan’s ancient

period. At some time during the fifth century, worship of the deity

 was apparently given over to the Miwa, a sacerdotal lineage that rose

to prominence at the Yamato court at roughly this time.

Òtataneko  Within the court chronicles Òtataneko—purportedly the founding

ancestor of the Miwa and Kamo no Kimi kinship groups—appears

in a legend recounting the origins of the court’s involvement in the

cult of Òmononushi, the deity of the Miwa shrine. Within these texts

Òtataneko is said to have been the child of Òmononushi and Ikuta-

mayori Hime.

Owari kinship group  The Owari Muraji were a prominent regional lineage that

purportedly provided several consorts to rulers during the fifth and

sixth centuries. They are generally associated with Owari province,

 where their chief cultic center, the Atsuta shrine, was located. The

Owari Muraji appear prominently in the legend cycle of Yamato

Takeru, and they also appear to have had a special connection with Tenmu tennò, who bore the name of a lineage affiliated with

the Owari Muraji prior to ascending the throne. In addition, by the

time of the composition of the Shinsen shòjiroku at the start of the

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 214 Glossary of Names and Terms

Heian period, the Owari Muraji were considered to be a main line of

descent from their founding ancestor Ama no Hoakari no Mikoto.

Òyamakui no Mikoto  Òyamakui no Mikoto was the chief object of worship

at the Matsuno’o shrine, a Hata cultic center in Yamashiro province,and at the lower Hiyoshi shrine, a cultic center located on Mount

Hiei in neighboring Òmi province. Although he does not appear

prominently within the court chronicles, he did play an important

role in mythology of the Kamo shrines.

Queen Mother of the West  The Queen Mother of the West was one of the

most widely venerated deities in the Chinese pantheon. As early

as the Warring States period she was believed to reside on Mount

Kunlun in western China, where she purportedly ruled over therealm of the immortals. Later she was also seen as the authenticator

of sage rulers and an important member of the Taoist pantheon.

The appropriation of the cult of the Queen Mother of the West

 within elite traditions did not, however, preclude popular worship

of the goddess. Within the  Han shu we are told that towards the

end of that dynasty a popular millennial movement centering upon

the advent of the Queen Mother of the West broke out near the

capital. The Queen Mother of the West, whose main iconographicattribute was a weaving implement that served as her headdress,

 was also closely associated with sericulture and the figure of the

 Weaver Maiden. Evidence suggesting that the Queen Mother was

known in the Japanese islands can be seen in the  Kojiki account of

Tajima Mori’s journey to the land of immortals and in legends and

prognostications related to the Three-legged Crow, an animal from

the Chinese pantheon that was often associated with the Queen

Mother.

River Earl  The River Earl, another widely venerated deity within the Chinese

pantheon, was regularly propitiated across East Asia for his ability

to bring rain. The importance of this deity on the Korean peninsula

can be seen in the founding legend of Koguryô, which states that the

River Earl was the maternal father-in-law of the founding ancestor

of the royal line. Within the Japanese islands we find references to

the River Earl in the court chronicles within the contexts of canal-

building and rain-making.

Saga tennò  Saga tennò, the brother of Heizei tennò and the son of Kanmutennò, reigned from 809 to 823. During the Kusuko incident of 810,

the recently installed Saga petitioned the Kamo deities for assistance

in quelling the uprising. In return, Saga pledged that rulers thereafter

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  Glossary of Names and Terms 215

 would send a consecrated princess to the shrines at the start of each

reign.

Saichò  Although Saichò’s Tendai sect came to be the dominant religious insti-

tution for much of the Heian period, during his lifetime Saichò’s groupremained a small, isolated movement on the periphery of the Buddhist

establishment. Saichò and his successors not only succeeded in trans-

forming Buddhist doctrinal discourse in the Japanese islands, but they

also successfully identified themselves with—and then promoted—the

cults of Prince Shòtoku and the deities of the Hiyoshi shrines.

Saimei  See  Kògyoku.

Seyatadera Hime  Seyatadera appears in the court chronicles as the wife of

Òmononushi and the mother of Isukeyori Hime, a maiden who givesbirth to three children after being with her husband Jinmu for only

a single night. As the mother and grandmother of Kamu Yaimimi no

Mikoto, both women were claimed as ancestors by the Miwa and

Chiisakobe kinship groups.

Shinohara no Otohihimeko  Shinohara no Otohihimeko appears in two leg-

ends in the Hizen fudoki , a provincial gazetteer that was composed

sometime around 713. In the first story she is said to have been the

lover of one Òtomo no Sadehiko, a leader of the Òtomo kinshipgroup, who was said to have been active on the Korean peninsula

during the sixth century. In the second, she is said to have been

 visited nightly in much the same manner as the unfortunate Miwa

ancestor Ikutamayori Hime. Like Ikutamayori Hime, Shinohara no

Otohihimeko meets a violent end after discovering her lover’s secret

identity.

Shòmu tennò  The son of Monmu tennò and a daughter of Fujiwara no Fuhi-

to, Shòmu tennò  (reigned 727–749) is generally remembered as a

patron of the Buddhist tradition whose long and complicated reign

left a lasting mark on innumerable aspects of court culture. During

his reign Shòmu ordered the formation of the kokubunji system of

provincial temples dedicated to the protection of the realm. He also

committed tremendous resources to the construction of new temples

such as Tòdaiji and the creation of icons such as the Great Buddha.

During Shòmu’s reign much of Hòryûji was also rebuilt, as the cult of

Prince Shòtoku flourished. While still on the throne, Shòmu declared

that he was a servant of the Three Jewels of Buddhism, and in retire-ment he took priestly orders. Shòmu’s daughter Kòken tennò con-

tinued this trend, for she became the first monarch in the Japanese

islands to take the vows of a Buddhist nun.

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 216 Glossary of Names and Terms

Shòtoku (Prince Kamitsumiya)  Although little is known about the historical

Prince Kamitsumiya—Prince Shòtoku, as he came to be known in

legend—he was widely seen as having played a crucial role in the

establishment of the Buddhist tradition in the Japanese islands. Evenas the Shòtoku cult continued to grow in importance during the Nara

and Heian periods, however, Shòtoku was also closely identified

 with the importation of continental ritual and literary systems as well.

Thus, in addition to his role as a temple-founder and warrior for the

Buddhist cause, within the  Nihon shoki Shòtoku was also said to

have composed the first history of the royal line, to have established

a comprehensive rank system for the court based upon continental

models, and to have cultivated powers of sage-like perception.Suiko  The reign of Suiko, the first woman to be referred to as “tennò” in

the court chronicles, is presented within the  Nihon shoki as hav-

ing been in many ways a cultural and political watershed for the

 Japanese islands. Having assumed the throne in the aftermath of the

battle for the establishment of Buddhism in the Japanese islands, the

Suiko court is presented as opening relations with the Sui empire

and aggressively supporting the importation of continental cultural,

political, and religious systems. Although the  Nihon shoki and laterhagiography often associate these events with Prince Kamitsumiya

(Shòtoku), it appears highly likely that Suiko and her kinsmen in

the powerful Soga kinship group were primarily responsible for the

affairs of the court.

Sumiyoshi deities  The three Sumiyoshi deities, like many other vengeful

gods from Kyûshû, play an important role in the myths and legends

of the court chronicles. Most famously, they are said to have killed

the Yamato ruler Chûai, after Chûai refused to obey their command

to invade the Korean kingdom of Silla. By the early Heian period,

there is good reason to believe that the Sumiyoshi cult had merged

 with the cults of Jingû and Akaru Hime, the wife of Jingû’s distaff

ancestor, the Silla prince Ame no Hiboko, for both Jingû and Akaru

Hime had by then taken up residence in the Sumiyoshi shrine in the

port of Naniwa. Yet another legend stating that Sumiyoshi Daijin,

an aggregate form of the shrine’s deities, flew across Yamato and

Kawachi provinces upon a dragon while dressed in continental garb

also suggests that the Sumiyoshi cult was closely associated with theKorean peninsula.

Suruga, Heavenly Maiden of   The Heavenly Maiden of Suruga is depicted

in the Suruga fudoki in terms that make explicit reference to the

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  Glossary of Names and Terms 217 

 Weaver Maiden of Chinese mythology. As is the case in many such

legends, this Heavenly Maiden descends to earth to bathe in a pond,

only to have her clothes stolen by a human male whom she is forced

to marry. Unusually, however, this legend concludes with both theHeavenly Maiden and her husband becoming immortals.

Susanoo no Mikoto  The brother of the royal ancestor Amaterasu, Susanoo

plays the role of Amaterasu’s antagonist in the legend of the Heav-

enly Grotto, where he is depicted as a volatile, powerful deity who

commits a series of defiling acts and is eventually driven from the

Heavenly Plain by the other gods. Following his banishment, how-

ever, he is depicted in a far more sympathetic light as he travels in

the land of Izumo. There are indications within the court chroniclesas well as in local gazetteers ( fudoki ) that Susanoo may have been

closely associated with the Korean kingdom of Silla.

Tajima Mori  Within the court chronicles Tajima Mori appears as a devoted ser-

 vant of the Yamato ruler Sujin, who travels to the land of the immortals

in order to bring back the fruit of immortality for his ailing monarch.

Tajima Mori is also said to have been a descendant of Ame no Hiboko,

an immigrant cowherd deity from the Korean kingdom of Silla.

Takakara Megami  Although virtually nothing is known about this deity, sheappears in mid-Heian period texts such as the Seiji yòryaku as a

goddess whose dance before Tenmu tennò at Yoshino inspired the

incorporation of the Gosechimai dance into court ritual.

Takamatsuzuka Kofun  In 1972 scholars investigating the Takamatsuzuka

Kofun in the Asuka region of ancient Yamato were startled to find

extremely well-preserved wall paintings illustrating not only the

court dress and material culture of the period, but also figures from

the Chinese zodiac. The tomb thus stands as an important indication

that Chinese astrological beliefs had been incorporated in the cultic

practice of the elite in the Japanese islands by the time of the tomb’s

construction, sometime towards the end of the seventh century.

Takami Musubi no Mikoto  Although little is known about the cult of this

deity, Takami Musubi no Mikoto plays a central role in what are

thought to be the oldest versions of several important royal myths,

including the legend of the Heavenly Grandchild. He also appears

as a central object of propitiation in the Festival of the Tasting of

the First Fruits (Niinamesai) and in royal accession ceremonies. It istherefore widely believed that Takami Musubi no Mikoto may have

been the court’s chief object of worship prior to the eventual adop-

tion of Amaterasu as the chief ancestor of the royal line.

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 218 Glossary of Names and Terms

Takuhata Chichi Hime  Also known as Amayorozu Takuhata Chihata Hime,

Takuhata Chichi Hime appears in royal mythology as the mother of

the Heavenly Grandchild Ninigi no Mikoto. Takuhata Chichi Hime

 was also from an early date installed in the inner shrine at Ise, along-side the sun deity Amaterasu no Mikoto. Given her name (Princess

of Thousands and Thousands of Looms) and the prominent motif of

the woven covering that was given to Ninigi prior to his descent from

the Heavenly Plain, it would appear that Takuhata was at some point

also conceived of as a weaving maiden.

Takuhata Hime  Takuhata Hime appears in the Yûryaku chapter of the Nihon

 shoki as a consecrated princess at the Ise shrine who is slandered

by one Abe no Kunimi. In the legend Takuhata Hime runs off witha sacred mirror and commits suicide. The legend concludes by

stating that after the mirror gave off a miraculous light, her corpse

 was found, and she was vindicated. Takuhata Hime is also of note

because of the close resemblance between her name and that of

Takuhata Chichi Hime, the mother of the Heavenly Grandchild and

one of the principal deities of the Ise inner shrine. Possible connec-

tions between Takuhata Hime and the Korean peninsula are also

suggested by her mother’s putative name, Karu Hime, which may berendered in English as “Korean princess.”

Tamayori Hime, Tamayori Hiko  Within the Yamashiro fudoki we are told that

these figures were the main deities of the lower and upper Kamo

shrines, respectively. Elsewhere, however, we are told that the chief

deity of the upper shrine was Tamayori Hime’s child Wake no Ika-

zuchi no Kami. Although Tamayori Hiko does not appear in any

other sources from the period, he is depicted within the Yamashiro

 fudoki as a vengeful deity who was propitiated in the annual Kamo

Matsuri.

Tamba Michi no Nushi  Within the court chronicles Tamba Michi no Nushi

appears as a powerful regional paramount from Tamba who offers

his daughters as consorts for the Yamato ruler Keikò. He is said to

be the father of Hibasu Hime and was claimed as an ancestor by the

 Wani and Kusakabe kinship groups.

Tenmu tennò  The brother of the Yamato ruler Tenchi, Tenmu came

to power following the Jinshin war of 670. He is credited with

accelerating a wide-ranging series of institutional and cultic inno- vations that led eventually to the creation of the ritsuryò  state.

During Tenmu’s reign the importation of continental systems of

technology and governance was greatly accelerated. Among the

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  Glossary of Names and Terms 219

most important developments in this regard were the construction

of an astrological observatory, the establishment of a Bureau of

 Yin and Yang (Onmyòryò), the adoption of the title “tennò” for

the ruler, and the revival/institution of the practice of appoint-ing a consecrated princess dedicated to the worship of the royal

ancestor Amaterasu at Ise. Tenmu was also the first Yamato ruler

to be proclaimed a manifest deity, and at the end of his life he had

performed a rite of “spirit-calling” that appears to have been a fore-

runner of the Chinkonsai.

Toyouke Hime  Toyouke Hime is best known as the chief deity of the outer

shrine at Ise. She also appears in a  Nihon shoki account of the ori-

gins of sericulture, in which silkworms and other products of humancivilization emerge from her body after she is slain by the moon deity

Tsukiyomi no Mikoto. Within the Tango fudoki , however, Toyouke

appears as a Heavenly Maiden who descends to earth and is cap-

tured by an elderly couple who force her to live as their daughter.

The legend further tells us that while on earth Toyouke makes mon-

ey for her parents by selling a magical elixir that can cure any illness.

The text also refers to several shrines to the deity within Tamba, sug-

gesting that before she was appropriated by the royal cult, Toyouke was an important local deity in the region.

Tsukiyomi no Mikoto  Within the court chronicles Tsukiyomi no Mikoto

appears as a moon deity and brother of the sun goddess and royal

ancestor Amaterasu. Although we have very little way of knowing

much about the origins of Tsukiyomi’s cult, we are told in the Kenzò

chapter of the  Nihon shoki that lands and a shrine in the Kadono

district of Yamashiro province were dedicated to this god after he

appeared to one Abe no Omi Kotoshiro in the Korean kingdom of

Mimana. Tsukiyomi no Mikoto also appears in the  Nihon shoki in

an account of the origins of sericulture in which he slays Toyouke

Hime, a female immortal and the main object of worship of the Ise

outer shrine.

Tsuminoe no Hijiri Hime  Although little is known about this legendary fig-

ure, she is referenced in both Chinese and waka-style poems from

the period. Judging from these poems and one important prefatory

note in the  Manyòshû, she appears to have been a female immortal

 who descends from Heaven to Yoshino only to be discovered by ahuman male who forces her to marry him. There is also evidence,

however, that Tsuminoe no Hijiri Hime may also have had roots in

Hizen province in Kyûshû.

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 220 Glossary of Names and Terms

Tsunoga  Tsunoga was a port in the region of Koshi on the coast of the

 Japan/Eastern Sea. Not surprisingly, given its location directly across

from the Korean peninsula, Tsunoga appears to have been from an

early date a center for immigrants from the Korean kingdoms of Sillaand Koguryô. The Kehi shrine, the largest cultic center in Tsunoga,

 was home to the immigrant cowherd deity Tsunoga Arashito.

Umashimaji  Purportedly the son of the founding Mononobe ancestor, Nigi-

hayahi no Mikoto, Umashimaji is depicted in the court chronicles as

playing an important role in aiding the would-be Yamato ruler Jinmu

to enter the Yamato plain. Within the Sendai kuji hongi he is also

said to have instructed Jinmu on the use of a spell of resurrection

related to the early Chinkonsai.Uranoshimako  The legend of Uranoshimako, a fisherman who, having cap-

tured and married a female immortal, enters the land tokoyo beneath

the sea, appears to have been widely circulated even prior to the

Nara period. While the legend bears the unmistakable imprint of

popular continental conceptions of immortality, Uranoshimako was

also worshipped as a local deity at several shrines in Tamba prov-

ince. He was also claimed as an ancestor by members of the Kusak-

abe kinship group in Tamba.Uzume Hime  Uzume Hime was claimed as a founding ancestor by the Sar-

ume no Kimi, an important liturgical lineage at the Yamato court.

 Within the court chronicles she appears in the legend of the Heaven-

ly Grotto, where she draws the royal ancestor Amaterasu out of the

cave by performing a lewd dance for the assembled gods. In light of

this, Uzume Hime has often been taken as a prototypical representa-

tion of female shamanism in the ancient period.

 Wake no Ikazuchi no Kami  Within the Hatashi honkeichò Wake no Ikazuchi

no Kami, the main deity of the upper Kamo shrine in Yamashiro

province, is said to be the child of a female Hata ancestor and Òya-

makui no Mikoto, the chief deity of the Matsuno’o shrine and lower

Hiyoshi shrine. At some point in the mid-Heian period this legend

appears to have served as the basis for rites in which Òyamakui no

Mikoto was brought from the Hiyoshi shrine in Òmi province to the

Kamo shrines in Yamashiro, where he was joined with his son and

consort.

 Waki no Iratsume  Within the court chronicles Waki no Iratsume is said tohave been a consort of the Yamato ruler Keikò and a member of the

 Wani kinship group. Within the  Harima fudoki she is also the sub-

ject of a legend that appears to suggest that following her death she

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  Glossary of Names and Terms 221

attains entry into tokoyo beneath the sea. This legend is also notable

for its use of motifs that appear to be drawn from continental narra-

tives of immortals that attain “liberation from the corpse.”

 Wani kinship group  Within the court chronicles, the Wani are said to haveprovided numerous consorts to Yamato rulers in the fourth, fifth, and

sixth centuries. Numerous sublineages of the Wani, such as the Kasu-

ga no Omi, the Kakinomoto, and the Ono appear to have played an

active role in the formation of royal mythology and ritual during the

seventh century as well. Intriguingly, several legends from the Wani

ancestral legend corpus feature themes of death and resurrection.

 Weaver Maiden and Cowherd  Going back at least as far as the Warring States

period in China, the legend of the Weaver Maiden and the Cowherdappears to have played an important role within both popular and

elite religious practice. Within the literature of the Nara and early

Heian periods we find such figures as Ame no Hiboko, Tsunuga

 Arashito, and Mitoshi no Kami in the role of defender of cows. Each

of these deities also appears to have had close genealogical associa-

tions with deities from the Korean peninsula, including, in the case

of Ame no Hiboko and Tsunoga Arashito, the immigrant weaving

deity Akaru Hime. Yamato Hime  Yamato Hime appears prominently within the court chronicles

as the legendary first consecrated princess dedicated to the worship

of the royal ancestor Amaterasu. She also features prominently in

the narrative of Yamato Takeru, the royal prince who purportedly

subdued resistance to royal authority across the Japanese islands

during the reign of the Yamato ruler Keikò. In addition Yamato Hime

appears to have played an important role in supplying genealogical

linkages between a number of lineages and their putative founding

ancestors. Thus in addition to being an aunt of Yamato Takeru, she

is also said to have been the daughter of Hibasu Hime, the sister of

Inishiki no Irihiko, and the granddaughter of Tamba no Michi Nushi,

 who was claimed as an ancestor by both the Wani and Kusakabe

kinship groups.

 Yamato Takeru  Yamato Takeru is presented in the court chronicles as the

son of the Yamato ruler Keikò and Waki no Iratsume, a consort from

the Wani kinship group. He is said to have pacified the realm for his

father only to eventually be killed by a god on Mount Ibuki on theborder between Òmi and Mino provinces. By the seventh century

at the latest, the Yamato Takeru legend cycle appears to have been

linked with that of the Ise shrine and the royal ancestor Amaterasu.

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 222 Glossary of Names and Terms

 Also featuring prominently within the corpus of legends related to

this prince are figures from the Wani, Mononobe, and Owari Muraji,

three kinship groups that claimed descent from the fire deity Ama

no Hoakari no Mikoto. Among the most famous legends associated with the prince takes place after his death and burial, when his spirit

 was said to burst forth from his tomb in the shape of a white bird, a

manner reminiscent of continental narratives of immortals attaining

“liberation from the corpse.”

 Yatagarasu  Within the court chronicles the Yatagarasu appears as a crow sent

by the royal ancestor Amaterasu to serve as a guide for the would-

be Yamato ruler Jinmu during his campaign to subdue the Central

Plain of the Japanese islands. The Yatagarasu was also claimed asan ancestor by the Kamo no Agatanushi, a kinship group based in

 Yamashiro province that claimed the upper and lower Kamo shrines

as their kinship group shrines.

 Yoshino  Yoshino is a region of Yamato known for its red earth, which was

believed to be rich in cinnabar, a metal that figured prominently in

continental beliefs concerning medicine and the pursuit of immortal-

ity. The region appears prominently in such major myths and legends

as Jinmu’s conquest of the Yamato plain and the founding legend of Japanese Buddhism. It also appears in numerous narratives from the

period as a home for (mostly female) immortals and for the practice

of mountain asceticism.

 Yûryaku (Great King Bu)  This Yamato ruler, who during his lifetime was

apparently referred to as “Great King Bu,” is believed to have come

to power at the end of the fifth century. In many ways Bu’s reign

appears to have been a watershed moment for the formation of

political institutions in the Japanese islands, as lineages such as the

Mononobe and Òtomo helped extend both the depth and the reach

of the Yamato court’s influence over the Japanese islands. Within

the court chronicles Yûryaku is said to have destroyed the power of

the Kazuragi no Omi, a powerful lineage from the Kazuragi region

of Kawachi that appears to have been extremely active in settling

immigrant lineages such as the Hata and others within Yamato. Dur-

ing Bu’s reign immigrant lineages appear to have played a major role

in the formation of institutions of kingship at court as well as the

transmission of technologies associated with writing, metal working, weaving, and governance. Perhaps not surprisingly, legends concern-

ing the Hata, Mononobe, and several other such lineages also appear

frequently in the Yûryaku chapters of the Nihon shoki and Kojiki .

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223 

 Appendix

Notes on Sources 

The following notes are intended to provide background information on

the primary sources used in this book. For a more complete historiograph-ic account of these and many other Japanese sources, see Joan Piggott et

al., eds.,  Dictionary of Sources of Classical Japan. For Chinese sources, see

 William H. Nienhauser, ed.,  Indiana Companion to Traditional Chinese Lit-

erature . For the textual history of the many Chih kuai , or “anomaly accounts,”

that appear below, see Robert Campany, Strange Writing: Anomaly Accounts

in Early Medieval China.

 Japanese Sources

Myth and Chronicle

 Kogoshûi. The  Kogoshûi , a mytho-historical text submitted by Imbe no

Hironari to the court in 807, purports to give a history of the role of

the Imbe, a liturgical kinship group for the court, from the Age of

the Gods down to its date of composition. Hironari utilized a wealth

of mytho-historical material to argue for a return to what Hironari

believed to be the ancient Imbe ritual prerogatives at court. Although

the text may have played an important role in unifying later royalmythology, the text is nonetheless at several points at variance with

court chronicles such as the  Nihon shoki and  Kojiki . Of particular

note for this book is the  Kogoshûi account of the origins of the

Toshigoi Matsuri, which appears to take for granted the practice of

offering meat to the kami . Along with such texts as the Tòshi kaden,

the Sendai kuji hongi, and the (mostly lost)  Hatashi honkeichò, the

 Kogoshûi  also serves as an important reminder that during the ancient

period textual production was undertaken not only for the court, butalso, and perhaps primarily, for particular lineages.

 Kojiki .  Ostensibly a written record of the oral recitations of one Hieda no

 Are shortly before the Nara period, the  Kojiki  is one of the oldest

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 224 Appendix 

extant historical accounts in Japanese literature and hence a trea-

sure trove of information concerning the emergence of writing in

the Japanese islands, early Japanese historical consciousness, and

early Japanese poetic traditions. In addition, because it purports totrace the history of the royal lineage from the Age of the Gods to

the reign of the Yamato ruler Suiko, this text also contains a wealth

of genealogical information and what appear to be kinship-group

narratives from lineages across the Japanese islands. Thus, although

highly dubious as an historical document, it can provide an oblique

 vantage point from which to view a range of mythic and ideologi-

cal crosscurrents that raged just below the text’s unified narrative

of royal dominion. Of special interest for this book are the  Kojiki’ sdepiction of female ancestors both in the legend of the descent of

the Heavenly Grandchild and in later legends of royal consorts.

 Nihon shoki .  The Nihon shoki, which purports to chronicle the history of the

royal line from the Age of the Gods through the abdication of Jitò

tennò at the end of the seventh century, serves for better or worse as

the main point of departure for the study of ancient Japan. Although

notoriously unreliable for all but perhaps the latest periods it cov-

ers, the Nihon shoki , unlike the Kojiki , provides numerous divergingaccounts of individual myths and political events. Although no one

doubts that the text was edited to elaborate on the mytho-historical

underpinnings for the post-Tenmu court, the  Nihon shoki ’s plurality

of voices, as well as its sheer scope and depth, make it a necessary

point of departure for understanding not only the historical events it

purports to relate, but also the period of its composition. Throughout

this book I have treated the Nihon shoki as a site of ideological con-

testation that was shaped by a multitude of competing forces both at

court and in local power centers throughout the Japanese islands.

Sendai kuji hongi .  The Sendai kuji hongi  appears to have been composed

by a member of the Mononobe kinship group at some point in the

ninth century. Much as the  Kogoshûi served as a mytho-history for

the advancement of the interests of the Imbe, this text highlights

the role of the Mononobe in court history from the Age of the Gods

to the Nara period. Of particular interest to us is the account of the

descent of the Heavenly Grandchild, which provides in great detail

the independent descent from Heaven of the founding Mononobeancestor Nigihayahi no Mikoto. Although the Sendai kuji hongi  dif-

fers markedly from the account found in the court chronicles, it does

appear to have drawn on sources that are hinted at in the  Nihon

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   Notes on Sources 225

 shoki and Kojiki . For this study the text’s account of the origins of the

Chinkonsai as well as the overall cultic orientation of the Mononobe

is a basic resource for understanding the role of spirit-quieting in the

period.Shoku Nihongi .  The Shoku Nihongi,  the sequel to the  Nihon shoki , con-

tains far fewer of the outright fabrications than do the Kojiki and the

 Nihon shoki . Because the text records numerous edicts promulgated

by the court during times of plague and famine, it often provides the

most concrete information we have about the court’s ritual responses

to crises. Also of immediate interest for this book are the text’s biog-

raphies of prominent monks such as Dòji and En no Gyòja.

Hagiography and Tale Collections

 Denjutsu isshin kaimon.  The  Denjutsu isshin kaimon  recounts the life

of the Tendai patriarch Saichò and the history of the early Tendai

movement. It was composed sometime around 833 by Kòjò, one of

Saichò’s main disciples. It is one of the earliest accounts we have of

Saichò’s life and one of the earliest examples of Tendai polemics.

For this study the  Denjutsu isshin kaimon provides an account of

Saichò’s devotion to the cult of Prince Shòtoku and includes a poemthat Saichò is said to have dedicated to the prince while the prince

 was worshipping at Shitennòji.

 Jògû Shòtoku hòò teisetsu.  The  Jògû Shòtoku hòò teisetsu  is a collection of

materials related to Shòtoku (Prince Kamitsumiya), the seventh-cen-

tury prince who came to be seen as the paradigmatic Buddhist mon-

arch, a fountainhead of continental learning, and a sage immortal.

 Although the text probably did not reach its final form until some-

time in the late tenth or early eleventh century, it is believed to con-

tain a wealth of older material, some of which probably predates the Nihon shoki and the Kojiki . Much as in the case of the Hòryûji garan

engi narabi ni ruki shizaichò and the Daianji garan engi narabi ni

ruki shizaichò, the text appears to reflect the influence of a number

of immigrant lineages on the legend corpus of a particular Buddhist

temple (Hòryûji), and it amply illustrates the degree to which con-

tinental notions of divination and sagehood permeated the story of

one of the most important building blocks of the Japanese Buddhist

tradition. Nihon ryòiki. The Nihon ryòiki , which was composed by the monk Kyòkai

sometime before 824, is the oldest Buddhist tale collection in the Jap-

anese islands. Comprising some 116 stories, the Nihon ryòiki  provides

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 226 Appendix 

 virtually our only point of entry into popular culture and religious

beliefs beyond the purview of the early Heian court. Its influence on

the development of Japanese tale literature and Buddhist preaching

are believed to be equally great. In this book I frequently use the Nihon ryòiki  for its references to continental-style ritual practices and

for its account of the founding legend of Japanese Buddhism.

Sangò shiiki .  The Sangò shiiki , which is thought to be the oldest extant liter-

ary work of the Shingon patriarch Kûkai, was completed sometime

around 797. It is notable both as a rare example of prose literature

from this period and for its account of a fictional discussion among

three animals on the relative merits of the Confucian, Taoist, and

Buddhist traditions. For this study the text is of great interest for itsapparently autobiographical preface, in which Kûkai describes his

early practice of the Gumonjihò rite of the astral Buddha Kokûzò.

Tòshi kaden.  The Tòshi kaden, a mid-eighth-century text, contains extended

biographies of three of the earliest heads of the Fujiwara lineage. It

is believed to have been composed at the direction of Fujiwara no

Nakamaro, the highest-ranking official at court in the 750s and 760s.

The text is a supplementary historical source for events that occurred

during the seventh and early eighth centuries and an example ofa nonofficial document with obvious ideological intent. Of special

interest for us, the Tòshi kaden  asserts a connection between the

Fujiwara and the immigrant deity Tsunoga Arashito and indicates that

Tenchi tennò played a major role in establishing continental-style

ritual at court. For a recent critical edition of the text see Okamori

Takuya et. al., eds., Tòshi kaden:  Kamatari, Jòe, Muchimaro den

chûshaku to kenkyû.

Provincial Gazetteers (  Fudoki  )

 Fudoki ,   which were produced at the order of the court in 713, contain

a wealth of information concerning pre-Nara local geography, cus-

toms, legends, and cultic practices. Although composed by literate

courtiers at the behest of a court seeking to portray itself as the

center of a realm that included “all under Heaven,” the  fudoki differ

from such texts as the  Nihon shoki and  Kojiki in that they were

composed in far closer proximity to the regions they describe, and

often, apparently, with substantial input from members of local elite. As such they provide a wealth of information about local customs

and beliefs across the Japanese islands. Although only five gazetteers

exist in full or even partial form, quotations in numerous sources

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   Notes on Sources 227 

allow us to piece together fragments of others. Notably, while these

gazetteers make only sporadic references to Buddhist temples or leg-

ends, they contain numerous legends that appear to demonstrate the

penetration of continental mythic and cultic tropes into the farthestreaches of the land. Gazetteers from Buzen, Hizen, Òmi, Suruga,

Tango (Tamba), and Yamashiro provinces have been a fruitful source

for legends featuring female deities, weaving maidens, and immor-

tals. All extant  fudoki as well as fragments have been collected and

annotated by Uegaki Setsuya in SNKBZ 5: Fudoki .

Ritual Texts and Law Codes

 Engishiki .  The Engishiki  is very large compendium of the ritual and admin-istrative procedures of the court that was completed in 927. Covering

 virtually all court functions first set out in the Yòrò law codes, the

text provides the finest details of court functions and the material cul-

ture of the age. Of particular note for the student of Japanese religion

are Books 9 and 10,  which list and rank all court-sponsored shrines

and deities in the Japanese islands. The text also preserves detailed

information concerning the material support given to the Ise shrine

and the Kamo shrines as well as liturgies and petitionary prayers(norito) that were read at specific rites in the court’s ritual calendar.

 Honchò gatsuryò.  Attributed to Koremune no Kinkata, the Honchò gatsuryò 

is believed to have been composed sometime between 930 and 946.

 Although only a portion remains, it details major ritual activities at

court and at important court-sponsored shrines for each month of

the year. Due to its extensive citation of other sources, many of

 which are now lost, the  Honchò gatsuryò also has considerable his-

toriographical value. Moreover, the text helps identify which sources

 were considered authoritative by intellectuals during the early tomid-Heian period. The text is of immediate interest because Kinkata

and his brother Koremune no Naoto, in addition to being premier

intellectuals of their day, authored a number of works that have had

a major impact on our understanding of the court’s ritual agenda dur-

ing the Heian period. Since the Koremune kinship group was a sub-

lineage of the Hata, the prominence of these figures also testifies to

the continued influence of the Hata into the Heian period. The text

has also preserved crucial information from the now-lost  Hatashihonkeichò, including a series of claims that the Hata regularly inter-

married with the Kamo no Kimi lineage in Yamashiro province and

performed rites at the Kamo shrines.

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 228 Appendix 

 Ryò no gige .  The  Ryò no gige  is a commentary on the Yòrò law codes. It

 was composed by court order and completed in 833. Because this

 work preserves the Yòrò law codes in their entirety, it is of immense

 value for any student of Japanese history. In addition, its relativelyearly composition has allowed scholars to trace divergences in com-

mentarial and intellectual traditions at court by comparing the Ryò no

 gige  with the slightly later Ryò no shûge .

 Ryò no shûge .  The  Ryò no shûge , a heavily annotated commentary on the

 Yòrò law codes, was composed during the mid-tenth century by

Koremune no Naoto. In addition to providing a line-by-line exegesis

of the law codes, the  Ryò no shûge  also cites a wide range of oth-

erwise lost works concerning all aspects of court procedures andpractices. It is therefore a major resource for the study of early court

institutions as well as for Japanese intellectual history. Of immediate

interest here are the  Ryò no shûge ’s detailed commentaries on ritual

performance at court as well as on contemporaneous understandings

of the origins and nature of those rites.

Seiji yòryaku.  Composed by Koremune no Tadasuke in 1002, the Seiji yòry-

aku  seeks to give a comprehensive account of the administrative

procedures at court as well as the court’s annual ritual cycle. Asis true of the  Ryò no shûge and the  Honchò gatsuryò, two other

notable works composed by members of the Koremune lineage,

this text contains a wealth of references to now-lost texts as well as

information on the nature and methods of interpretation of ancient

sources during the period. Of particular note here is the Seiji yòry-

aku’s account of the origins of the Gosechimai (Dance of the Five

Nodes), which it traces to the appearance of a Chinese goddess

before Tenmu tennò at Yoshino.

Yòrò ritsuryò.  The Yòrò ritsuryò is a compilation of administrative procedures

believed to have been completed during the Yòrò era (717–724),

although it was not fully implemented until 757. It is thought to have

followed very closely on the Òmi and Taihò codes, the latter of which

 was adopted in 701. It is an important resource for understanding

the institutional structures and procedures of the court. Although the

earlier codes have been lost, the Yòrò code is known to us through

the  Ryò no gige . Of particular note for the scholar of Japanese reli-

gion is the text’s account of procedures for court ritual ( Jingiryò) andfor Buddhist monks and nuns (Soniryò), both of which function as

foundational sources for understanding court ritual practice at the

start of the Nara period.

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   Notes on Sources 229

Temple and Shrine Sources

In this book we discuss three temple sources from the Nara period: the

 Hòryûji garan engi narabi ni ruki shizaichò, the Gangòji garan engi narabi

ni ruki shizaichò, and the Daianji garan engi narabi ni ruki shizaichò. Thesetexts, which were composed in 747 at the direction of the court, contain the

founding narratives as well as accounts of later important events for three

of the largest court-sponsored temples of the Nara period. In addition, they

contain detailed accounts of each temple’s possessions and iconography. As

such, they provide information on extant sources and the nature of the court’s

patronage of Buddhist tradition. Along with the  Jògû Shòtoku hòò teisetsu,

these records also contain some of the earliest accounts of the emergence of

the Japanese Buddhist tradition itself. Of particular note here is the fact thateach text in one way or another locates its origins with the figure of Prince

Shòtoku, the paradigmatic Buddhist layman and sage. Crucially, however, this

prince was also closely identified with the introduction of continental ritual

and cultic forms at court.

Toyuke miya gishiki chò.  The Toyuke miya gishiki chò, which was submit-

ted to the court in 804, details the purported origins, ritual proce-

dures, and material holdings of the outer shrine at Ise. Together withthe  Kòtai jingû gishikichò, it provides information concerning the

state of the Ise cult immediately following the demise of the monk

Dòkyò and the shift of the capital to Heian. Of particular interest

for this study is the figure of Toyouke Hime, the main deity of the

outer shrine, originally a Heavenly Maiden with cultic roots in Tamba

province, who also attained a continental-style liberation from the

corpse.

Yamato Hime Mikoto no seiki .  The Yamato Hime Mikoto no seiki , generally

thought to have been composed in the late Heian or early Kamakura

period, recounts the journey of the Yamato Hime, the first royal

princess said to have been brought the deity Amaterasu to Ise. The

text is of immediate interest not only for its highly elaborated leg-

ends concerning the Wani ancestor Yamato Hime, but also for its

depiction of the figure of Toyouke Hime, the chief deity of the outer

shrine at Ise

Poetry Collections Kaifûsò.  The oldest extant collection of Chinese-style verse (kanshi ) in the

 Japanese islands, the  Kaifûsò contains a preface dating from 751.

It constitutes an essential resource for understanding not only the

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 230 Appendix 

development of Japanese literature, but also intellectual currents at

court during the first half of the Nara period. Of particular note here

is the view presented of the court of Tenchi, who is hailed as an

enlightened ruler who, among other things, instituted continental-style ritual practices at court.

 Manyòshû.  This massive compendium of some 4,500 Japanese-style poems

(waka) was most likely completed shortly after 759. In addition to

its enormous influence on the development of poetry in the Japa-

nese islands, the text is a treasure trove of information concerning

everything from contemporaneous geographic appellations to early

understandings of the afterlife. Of particular interest here are several

poems that refer to weaving maidens and female immortals.

Other Literary Sources

 Atsumori .   A Nò play by Zeami,  Atsumori is based upon the Heike tale of

the encounter between young Taira warrior Atsumori and the older

Minamoto warrior Kumagae. The Heike tale ends with the death of

 Atsumori at the hands of Kumagae, but the Nò drama focuses on

the relationship between Atsumori’s spirit and Kumagae, who, hav-

ing taken the tonsure, seeks to release Atsumori from his torment.Intriguingly, Zeami claimed—probably spuriously—to have been of

Hata descent.

 Heike monogatari .  This epic work is actually a series of tales related to the

House of Taira during the height of their power and then spectacular

fall at the end of the Heian period. As the first great warrior romance

in the Japanese islands, its influence on later Japanese literature has

been enormous. For this study the importance of the work lies in the

deep roots it appears to have had in earlier story-telling forms related

to Buddhist preaching as well as onmyòdò rites of spirit pacificationthat can be traced back even as far as the reign of Tenmu.

Shinsen shòjiroku. This genealogical compendium, which was composed

sometime around 815, contains some 1,182 entries detailing infor-

mation related to founding ancestors and claims of descent for lin-

eages in residence at the capital and in five surrounding provinces.

 According to the preface, one of the main objectives of the work

 was to standardize lineal accounts and thereby discourage immi-

grant lineages from claiming descent from the gods of the Japaneseislands. In this study I frequently refer to information provided about

such important lineages as the Mononobe, Òtomo, Hata, Chiisakobe,

Kamo, and Wani kinship groups.

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   Notes on Sources 231

Chinese and Korean Sources

Ching ch’u sui shih chi. The Ching ch’u sui shih chi  is an account by the

literatus Tu Kung-shan of popular festival observances in southernChina during the sixth century. It offers an extraordinary snapshot

of popular religious practice during the period. Written in an almost

anthropological style, Tu Kung-shan first chronicles what customs

are observed at each festival and then seeks for textual precedents

to explain their origins and provide perspective for their interpreta-

tion. The text thus both documents practices related to the festival

calendar even as it theorizes about the overarching ritual framework

in which each particular festival was situated. For this study the text isparticularly valuable because it was completed not long before a mis-

sion from the Sui court arrived in the Japanese islands and observed

that observances on nodal days in the calendar did not markedly

differ from those practiced in China. Of particular note in this regard

are the numerous references to sericulture rites, shamanesses, and

spirit-quieting.

Chou li .  The Chou li (The Rites of Chou) ,  a text from the Warring States

period, purports to present the administrative and ritual proceduresof the Chou dynasty of ancient China. Along with the Li chi  ( Book of

 Rites ) and the Yi li  (Ceremonies and Rituals ), this text has been con-

sidered as one of the three classic texts on ritual from at least as far

back as the second century C.E. The Chou li  is of immediate interest

for this study because of its account of ritual procedures related to

sericulture.

Ch’u tz’u.  The Ch’u tz’u is an ancient poetic anthology composed of seven-

teen poems that are thought to have been composed in the southern

state of Ch’u between the second and third centuries B.C.E. It wascompiled and provided with a commentary by Wang I in the second

century C.E. Because the poems appear to have drawn upon sha-

manistic verses and themes for their inspiration, they offer insight

not only into early Chinese poetic forms, but also into early Chinese

understandings of spirits and their relationship to humans. Of partic-

ular note for this study are three poems entitled “Spirit Summoning”

(Ch: Chao hun, J: Shòkon), “The Great Summons,” (Ch: Ta chao, J:

Daishò), and “Summoning the Recluse” (Ch: Chao Yin, J: Shòinshi),all of which center on the theme of spirit-summoning.

 Han Wu ku shih.  The Han Wu ku shih, which was probably composed dur-

ing the third century C.E., centers on the relations between the Han

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 232 Appendix 

Emperor Wu-ti and members of his court. The text is of note for this

study because it features the famed legend of the visit paid to this

ruler by the Queen Mother of the West.

 Han Wu-ti nei chuan.  Much like the  Han Wu ku shih, the  Han Wu-ti nei

chuan also highlights the legend of the Queen Mother of the West’s

 visit to the Han ruler Wu-ti. Unlike the  Han Wu ku shih, however,

there are strong indications that this text emerged in the context of

the Mao Shan tradition of Taoism towards the end of the Six Dynasties

period. In the text the Queen Mother bestows not only the peaches

of immortality on Wu-ti, but also Taoist texts and talismans.

 Hsü ch’i chieh chi .  The Hsü ch’i chieh chi  is a small collection of anomalous

tales compiled by Wu Chun (469–520) a prominent literary figureand historian. Although much of the text has been lost, it appears

to have exerted considerable influence in the formation of later chih

kuai literature. Of particular note for this study are the text’s frequent

references to popular ritual observances on nodal days in the Chi-

nese calendar.

 Huai nan zu.  The Huai nan zu, a compendium of Huang-Lao thought, was

commissioned and perhaps edited by Liu An, the ruler of Huai-nan

and the grandson of Liu Pang, the founder of the Han dynasty. Forthis study the chapters on cosmological and astrological thought are

of immediate interest.

 Lun heng .  The  Lun heng  is a collection of rationalist essays from the first

century, C.E. In many ways the essays represent an astounding

achievement of critical inquiry as the author seeks to dispel numer-

ous notions related to, among other phenomena, the supernatural.

The value of the  Lun heng   for this study rests in his presentation

of the beliefs that the author seeks to denigrate—in choosing such

topics for criticism, he indirectly testifies to their salience in popular

thought. Of particular importance here are the author’s discussions

of popular understandings of death, spirits, and their relationship to

the forces of yin and yang .

 Pao p’u tzu.  The  Pao p’u tzu is a work by Ko Hung (283–343) that details

innumerable spells, medicines, and alchemical recipes for the pacifi-

cation of spirits and the pursuit of health, longevity, and immortality.

 Although Ko Hung is sometimes described as a Taoist, as Nathan

Sivin has noted in his article “On the Pao P’u Tzu Nei Pien and theLife of Ko Hong,” Ko Hung does not appear to have received any

Taoist initiations and was apparently not even aware of the existence

of the tradition of the Celestial Masters or any other Taoist sect. While

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   Notes on Sources 233

conspicuously failing to reference any communal forms of salva-

tion that were at the center of early Taoist thought and practice, his

 work is filled with instructions concerning elixirs, spells, and mantic

practices. He is thus perhaps a quintessential example of the degreeto which such pursuits, far from being the exclusive domain of Taoist

recluses, were an essential part of the popular religious landscape of

ancient China. Judging from numerous allusions to the Pao p’u tzu in

such texts as the Nihon ryòiki , we can be confident that his work was

transmitted to the Japanese islands at an early date and that it exerted

influence over Buddhists and non-Buddhists alike.

 Po wu chih.  The  Po wu chih consists of ten volumes related to anomalous

geographic and culture phenomena across the Chinese empire, andhence the text does not center on the court. The text is of particular

note for this study for its account of the appearance of the Queen

Mother of the West and its description of the silkworm as an insect

of “three transformations.”

Samguk sagi.  Although the Samguk sagi  was not completed until 1145, this

chronicle stands as our single most important source for understand-

ing the earliest history of the Korean peninsula. Given the text’s late

date, it is generally thought to be reliable. For this study the text pro- vides information concerning the speed with which weaving cults

and the rites of the Chinese festival calendar were adopted on the

Korean peninsula.

Shan hai ching.  Although the Shan hai ching  in its current form appears to

have taken shape during the late Han or early Six Dynasties periods,

much of its material is believed to date from as far back as the War-

ring States period. It focuses on strange and exotic geographic and

cultural phenomena across the Chinese empire. As such, the text is

considered the oldest anomaly account in Chinese literature. For this

study the text is of immediate interest for its account of the Queen

Mother of the West and because it is believed to have served as an

important source of inspiration for the Yamato court’s decision to

order the composition of provincial gazetteers ( fudoki ) in 713.

Sou shen chi .  The Sou shen chi  is a compendium of anomalous and other-

 worldly stories thought to have been compiled by Kan Pao, a literatus

and historian who died in 320. Kan was supposedly inspired to col-

lect the stories after hearing tales of the afterlife told to him by familymembers who had died and come back to life. Although it would be

a mistake to view each tale as a simple transcription of a popular nar-

rative, the over 400 stories constitute a treasure trove of information

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 234 Appendix 

concerning popular beliefs on the subject during the period. For this

study two legends are important because they recount the origins

of sericulture and the descent of a Heavenly Weaver Maiden who is

forced to marry a human after he steals her cloak of feathers.Sui shu. The Sui shu, the official history of the Sui dynasty, was completed

in 636. As with all Chinese dynastic histories, it contains detailed

information about the administrative workings of the Sui empire as

 well as the accomplishments of many of its brightest cultural lights.

For this study, however, the most valuable section of the text is the

small account of the kingdom of Yamato. Because much information

in this section was derived from successive missions from the Sui

to the court of Suiko, it offers a perspective on early Japanese soci-ety that is not colored by the historical revisionism of the Japanese

court. 

Yi ching . The Yi ching , the most ancient of Chinese divination texts, served

as a touchstone for Chinese intellectual and mantic traditions through-

out the premodern era. Not surprisingly it appears to have played an

important role in the formation of early conceptions of onmyòdò in

the Japanese islands. Evidence for this can be seen not only because

the text was part of the required curriculum for students in trainingfor positions at the Nara court’s Bureau of Yin and Yang, but also

because of its influence over the Wu hsing ta yi , a Sui-dynasty divina-

tion manual that appears to have been transmitted to the Japanese

islands as early as the seventh century. In the literature of the period

 we also find references to Yi ching practitioners in the Tòshi kaden,

 which asserts that the future ruler Tenchi and Fujiwara Kamatari stud-

ied the text with the monk Bin, and in the Nihon ryòiki , which makes

casual reference to a Yi ching diviner in residence at a local shrine.

Yi yuan.  The Yi yuan  is a collection of anomalous anecdotes and stories

compiled sometime in the fifth century by one Liu Ching-shu. The

text is notable for its accounts of popular beliefs and tales. One indi-

cation of its influence can be seen in an entry from the Ching ch’u

 sui shih chi , which cites the text in order to explain popular under-

standings of rites performed on the fifteenth day of the first month.

Yu yang tsa tsu. The Yu yang tsa tsu, a work by Tuan Ch’eng-shih (800– 

863), consists of brief accounts and reports concerning a wide variety

of strange or difficult-to-classify phenomena. Throughout the textTuan retains a critical outlook, as in the open skepticism with which

he describes Wu Tse-t’ien’s claims to have been presented with an

auspicious three-legged crow.

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   Notes on Sources 235

Buddhist Scriptures

Chin kang po jo po luo mi ching (J:  Kongò hannya haramitsu kyò). This

scripture, one of the most popular in East Asian Buddhism, longserved as a primary means for preventing disasters and plague. Evi-

dence for the scripture’s popular appeal can also be seen in the 

 Nihon ryòiki , which features narratives of spirits requesting the sutra

be chanted for their benefit.

 Kokûzò bosatsu nòman shògan saishòshin darani gumonji no hò. This text,

 which was apparently first brought to the Japanese islands by the

monk Dòji in 718, served as the source for the Gumonjihò, a rite

of propitiation of the Space Buddha Kokûzò. This rite held out thepromise of virtually unlimited understanding of the Buddhist scrip-

tures to all those who performed it correctly. 

 Kujakuò shukyò. Although little is known about the means by which the

Scripture on the Spell of the Peacock King   was transmitted to the

 Japanese islands, it appears to have played an important role in the

religious history of the Nara period. In addition to the Nihon ryòiki ’s

assertion that the spell was used by En no Gyòja, the spell was also

famously used by the monk Dòkyò to heal the ailing Kòken shortlybefore she moved to retake the throne in 765.

Sukuyòkyò. This scripture is concerned almost exclusively with providing

instructions for astral divination and the means by which calamities

associated with numerous astral deities could be avoided. Although

the famed Central Asian monk Amoghavajra claimed that the text

 was simply a translation of an Indian Buddhist scripture, he appears

to have actually created the work by combining two distinct Indian

astrological manuals. During the Heian period and afterward, the

text was highly prized by the Shingon school, but it served as a foun-dational astrological manual for Buddhists of all persuasions.

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237 

Notes and Abbreviations

 Abbreviations and Citation Methods

CCSSC Ching ch’u sui shih chi 

 DNBZ Dai Nihon Bukkyò zensho ES Er shi si shi 

GR Gunsho ruijû

 KT Kokushi taikei 

 MYS Manyòshû

 NI Nara ibun

 NKBT Nihon koten bungaku taikei 

 NSK Nihon shoki 

 NST Nihon shisò taikei SNG Shoku Nihongi 

SNKBT Shin Nihon koten bungaku taikei 

SNKBZ Shinpen Nihon koten bungaku zenshû

SSC Sou shen chi 

ST Shintò taikei 

STZ Shòtoku taishi zenshû

SZKT Shintei zòhò kokushi taikei  

T Taishò shinshû daizòkyò

ZGR  Zoku gunsho ruijû

Throughout this book references to the  Nihon shoki ( NSK ) list the reign date

followed by the volume and page number in the three-volume edition of the

text in the SNKBZ series, which had as its chief editor Kojima Noriyuki. For

references from the Shoku Nihongi (SNG ) , I also use the same reign-date for-

mat, followed by a citation from the five-volume SNKBT series edition of the

text, for which Aoki Kazuo was chief editor. Interlinear notes from these texts

are translated in italics. For all references from the Buddhist canon I first citethe Taishò volume and page number followed by the Taishò number of the

text under discussion. For romanization of Chinese and Korean terms I use

the Wade-Giles and McCune-Reischauer systems, respectively.

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 238 Notes to Pages xi–xiv

Introduction 

1.  Nihon shoki (henceforth  NSK ) Suiko 10.10. SNKBT 3:539. Nishimoto

Masahiro, Nihon kodai girei seiritsushi no kenkyû, 9.2. For an excellent discussion of continental influences on the trajectory of

court ritual during the seventh and eighth centuries, see Shinkawa Tokio, Nihon

kodai girei to hyògen; and Nishimoto Masahiro, Nihon kodai girei seiritsushi no

kenkyû. Other notable works on early court ritual include Miyake Kazuo, Kodai

kokka no jingi to saishi ; and Obinata Katsumi, Kodai kokka to nenjû gyòji .

3. I realize that the concept of “immigrant,” like race or ethnicity, is

socially constructed. In the following pages I will use the term “immigrant

kinship group” to refer to any kinship group that claims as its founding ances-tor a figure who was said to have come to the Japanese islands from across

the sea. I will use the term “immigrant deity” to refer to any god that is

explicitly said to have crossed over the sea to the Japanese islands. Similarly,

I shall in most cases use the term “Yamato”—an early term for the Japa-

nese islands—in place of “Japan” in order to highlight the fact that “Japan”

itself was being constructed at just this time. For convenience and stylistic

purposes, however, I have occasionally found it necessary to use the term

“Japan.” In such instances I do not mean to imply the existence of a unifiednational entity.

4. In using the term “Chinese” I am emphatically not referring to an

essentialized Chinese religious identity to be contrasted with a Japanese one.

By “Chinese festival calendar” I am referring not to the intricate astrological

and mathematical apparatus involved in the lunar calendrical system, but

rather to the broad patterning of rites and festivals that constituted the ritual

 year for court and populace alike across China. I have therefore relied not

only on canonical texts such as the  Book of Rites and the  Rites of Chou, but

also on texts such as Kan Pao’s edition of the Ching ch’u sui shih chi , a

detailed account of the popular ritual cycle in southern China that was com-

pleted in the Sui dynasty shortly before such rites began to proliferate rapidly

across the Japanese islands; see Wang Yü-jung, ed., Ching ch’u sui shih chi .

5. Because figures labeled as immortals (hijiri ) were frequently

 worshipped in shrines and referred to in texts such as the  Nihon shoki and

 Kojiki as “kami ,” I shall also frequently refer to them as kami in this book.

Please also note that, in accordance with modern convention, I shall often

refer to the title of post-Tenmu rulers as “tennò,” although there were manypossible readings for this term in the ancient period.

6. See, for instance, Fukunaga Mitsuji,  Dòkyò to kodai Nihon as well as

his Dòkyò to Nihon bunka. See also Ueda Masaaki, Kodai no dòkyò; Takikawa

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   Notes to Pages xiv–xx 239

Masajirò,  Ritsuryò to  daijòsai ; Yoshino Hiroko,  In’yò gogyò shisò;  Yoshino

Hiroko,  In’yò gogyò to Nihon.

7. For a sympathetic review of Fukunaga’s disputes with his critics, see

Bialock, Eccentric Spaces, 26–32.8. For more on these issues, see Kohn, “Taoism in Japan.” See also Tim

Barrett’s thoughtful essay “Shinto and Taoism,” which systematically combs

through official Chinese sources that might have made an impact on emerging

notions of kingship and statecraft in the Japanese islands.

9. See, for instance, the first two essays of Fukunaga’s  Dòkyò to Nihon

bunka, in which he repeatedly equates Taoism with “Chinese religious

thought” and offers as examples of “Taoist” influence references to such

broad-based Chinese religious phenomena as Yi ching divination and Chinesepole-star cults. Fukunaga, Dòkyò to Nihon bunka, 7–56.

10. Seidel, “Imperial Treasures”; Stein, “Religious Taoism”; Strickmann,

“History, Anthropology”; Kleeman, “Licentious Cults”; Sivin, “On the Word

‘Taoist.’” 

11. Denecke, “‘Topic Poetry is All Ours,’” 4.

12. Murayama Shûichi,  Nihon onmyòdòshi sòsetsu; Shinkawa Tokio,

 Nihon kodai girei to hyògen; Wada Atsumu, Nihon kodai no girei to saishi .

13. This book also owes a great debt to a broad range of western schol-ars of Japanese religion and history. Scholars such as Gary Ebersole ( Ritual

 Poetry ), Paul Groner (Saichò), and Ryûichi Abe (Weaving of Mantra) have

transformed our understanding of the religious history of the period, while

scholars such as Joan Piggott ( Emergence of Japanese Kingship) and Wayne

Farris ( Population, Disease and Land ) have similarly opened up new ave-

nues of inquiry into the institutional and social history of the Nara period.

I have also benefited enormously from the work of Herman Ooms ( Impe-

rial Politics ), who has emphasized the role of onmyòdò influences on the

formation of the early cult of the tennò, as well as from the work of David

Bialock ( Eccentric Spaces ), who has demonstrated the extraordinary degree

to which onmyòdò practices influenced the formation of genres of literature

and performance.

14. The divergence of the ideological positions found in such texts as

the Nihon shoki and Kojiki is a theme that is developed at length in Kònoshi

Takamitsu,  Kojiki to Nihon shoki . For a brief, English-language summary of

Kònoshi’s views, see Kònoshi, “Constructing Imperial Ideology.”

15. These texts were first identified as a set in Shinkawa, Nihon kodai no saishi to hyògen, 23 –45.

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 240 Notes to Pages 2–8 

Chapter 1: Immigrant Gods on the Road to Jindò

1. Fukunaga Mitsuji,  Dòkyò to Nihon bunka; Shinkawa Tokio,  Dòkyò o

meguru kòbò; Herman Ooms, Imperial Politics ; Bialock, Eccentric Spaces .2. Kuroda Toshio, “Shinto in the History of Japanese Religion”; Mark

Teeuwen, “From Jindò to Shintò,” 243–247.

3. For a sampling of works on the role of immigrant lineages in the

political and cultural discourses of the age, see Ueda Masaaki, Kikajin; Hirano

Kunio, Kikajin to kodai kokka; Mizoguchi Mutsuko,  Kodai shizoku no keifu;

and Katò Kenkichi, Hatashi to sono tami .

4. For the background for these events, see Abe Shigeru,  Heian zenki

 seijishi no kenkyû, 18–92.5. This incident is discussed briefly in Mikael Adolphson’s Gates of Power ,

32. For an overview of rites performed at the capital, see Kaneko Hiroyuki,

“Miyako o meguru matsuri.” See also Emura Hiroyuki, Ritsuryò tennòsei saishi no

kenkyû, 359–408. For the history of the Kamo shrine in the Nara period, see Oka-

da Seishi, “Nara jidai no Kamo Jinja.” For the role of the Kamo priestess in the

Heian period, see Uwai Hisayoshi, Nihon kodai no shinzoku to saishi , 43–61.

6. The passage is quoted in the  Honchò gatsuryò, an eleventh-century

court document. The text may be found in ZGR  4:309–310. All translations aremy own unless otherwise indicated.

7.  ZGR 4:310.

8. These and other immigrant cults are discussed briefly in Ueda Masaa-

ki, Kodai kokka to shûkyò, 164–216. 

9. Abe argues persuasively and at length that Kûkai’s energies were direct-

ed to a large degree in redefining not only Buddhist hermeneutics but also

Buddhist-tennò relations. See Abe Ryûichi, Weaving of Mantra, 305–358.

10. See, for example, Kònoshi, Kojiki no sekaikan, 163–171.

11. For a detailed examination of such legends, see Como, Shòtoku,

75–92.

12. The original text may be found in Saeki Arikiyo, Shinsen shòjiroku

no kenkyû 1:145. The translation is from Kiley  , “Surnames in Ancient Japan,”

178. Kiley concludes by noting: “The Shinsen shòjiroku reflects an attitude

 whereby all persons of acknowledged foreign origin, however thoroughly

naturalized in the cultural sense, are equally alien” (ibid., 185).

13. One fundamental means of differentiating ruler and ruled was the

fact that although the ruler was the source of surnames, the ruler did not haveone. When Saga’s brother Heizei revolted in 810, Saga executed Heizei’s sub-

ordinates and then “granted” his brother a surname, thereby forever eliminat-

ing Heizei’s line from consideration for the throne.

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   Notes to Pages 8–13 241

14. For the early Shòtoku cult, see Como, Shòtoku; Hayashi Mikiya, Tai-

 shi shinkò no kenkyû; Iida Mizuho Shòtoku taishiden no kenkyû. I discuss this

prince repeatedly throughout the book. 

15. For a discussion of the role played by the Hata and others in theconstruction of the royal ancestral legend cycles and notions of sage kingship

in the Asuka period, see Como, “Divination.”

16. The translation, with emendations, is from Katò and Hoshino, trans.,

 Kogoshûi or Gleanings from Ancient Stories , 38. For the original text, see ST  

koten hen 5: Kogoshûi , 35.

17. Although I know of no one who has attempted to do a genealogy of

the concept of the “immigrant,” or even the purportedly “native,” in Japanese

history, the contrast here with the Kojiki , which blithely states that rulers suchas Òjin and Jingû were descended from the Silla prince Ame no Hiboko, is

striking; see Kojiki , Òjin chapter. SNKBZ 1:277.

18. For Kanmu, see Inoue Mitsuo, Kanmu tennò; and Abe Shigeru, Heian

zenki seijishi no kenkyû. Kanmu’s policies towards shrine worship are also

discussed in length in Okada Shòji, “Heian zenki jinja saishi no ‘kòsaika.’”

19. Piggott’s discussion of the role of Buddhist ideology in the politics of

the period can be found in her Emergence of Japanese Kingship, 236–280.

20. The classic study of the role of disease in early Japanese history is William Wayne Farris, Population, Disease and Land .

21. I have discussed the Hata’s role in the early Shòtoku cult extensively

in Shòtoku.

22. These events are discussed in detail by Òyama Seiichi in his Nagaya

no òkimike mokkan to kinsekibun, 276–281. See also Como, “Of Temples,

Horses, and Tombs,” 8–10.

23.  NSK  Saimei 7.5.9, 7.7.24, and 7.8.1. In SNKBZ 4:242–244.

24.  NSK  Tenmu, Suzuka, 1.6. SNKBZ 4:461.

25. I will discuss such rites in greater detail throughout this book. After

long neglect, the number of works on the role of onmyòdò has recently grown

substantially. Among the most important are: Murayama Shûichi et al., ed.,

Onmyòdò sòsho; Hayashi Makoto and Koike Jun’ichi, eds., Onmyòdò no kògi ;

Bernard Frank,  Kataimi to katatagae ; Suzuki Ikkei, Onmyòdò; Murayama

Shûichi, Shûgen, onmyòdò to shaji shiryò; Murayama Shûichi, Nihon onmyòdòshi

 sòsetsu; Noguchi Tetsurò and Sakai Tatao, eds., Senshû Dòkyò to Nihon.

26.  Kojiki  Chûai, part 2. SNKBZ 1:243.

27. There is strong, though circumstantial evidence indicating that theSumiyoshi deities were conceived of in close conjunction with the Korean

kingdom of Silla. The Nihon shoki records a sighting of a god “with the appear-

ance of a foreigner [karabito]” flying over the Yoshino region of Yamato and

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 242 Notes to Pages 13–16 

then to Suminoe on a dragon before heading westward to the continent. The

later pairing of this shrine with a temple named Shiragidera (Silla temple) also

suggests strong associations with the Korean peninsula ( NSK Saimei, Period

Prior to Accession. SNKBZ 4:203–204). I am therefore inclined to believe thatthe legend originally centered on the Sumiyoshi gods and that Amaterasu was

a much later addition. For more on connections between the figures of Chûai,

 Jingû (as well as their son Òjin), and Silla immigrant deities from northern

Kyûshû, see Como, Shòtoku, 55–74.

28.  NSK Kimmei, Period Prior to Accession. SNKBZ 2:357–359.

29. The text, which is quoted in the Honchò gatsuryò, may be found in

GR  4:305.

30. Relations between the Munakata, the Hata, and the royal house arediscussed in Wada Atsumu, “Oki no shima to Yamato òken.”

31.  NSK  Richû 5.3.1. SNKBZ 3:90–92. This legend has also been treated

briefly in Taketani Hisao,  Kodai shizoku denshò no kenkyû, 351–354; and

Como, Shòtoku, 67–69.

32. SNG   Tempyò Shòhò 1.12.27. SNKBT 14:97–98. For the Hachiman

cult, see Nakano Hatayoshi, Hachiman shinkò no kenkyû; Nakano Hatayoshi,

 Hachiman shinkò; and Nakano Hatayoshi,  Hachiman shinkò to shûgendò.

For Hachiman and Òjin, see Nakano, Hachiman shinkò, 84–99; and Mishina, Nissen shinwa densetsu no kenkyû, 96–98. For the early Hachiman cult, see

Saigò Nobutaka, “Hachiman kami no hassei.”

33. The poem is included in the  Denjutsu isshin kaimon, which was

completed in 834 by Saichò’s disciple Kòjò. The text is discussed in Hayashi

Mikiya, Taishi shinkò no kenkyû, 195; and Wang Yung, Shòtoku taishi jikû

chòetsu, 380–393.

34. Como, Shòtoku, 150–152.

35. Literally, “It is not from overseas.” The relationship between the Shò-

toku commentaries and the legend of Hui-ssu’s incarnation in Japan is dis-

cussed in Iida Zuiho, Shòtoku Taishiden, 73–109.  Wang also cites numerous

references to Shòtoku as an incarnation of Hui-ssu in Tendai texts from both

China and Japan; see Wang, Shòtoku taishi jikû chòetsu, 326–394.

36.  Nihon ryòiki , 3.39. SNKBZ 10:367–371.

37. Asamoto later returned to China, where Hsüan-tsung is said to have

granted him an audience and treated him warmly. Benshò, Asamoto, and the

Fujiwara are discussed in Nakamura Shûya, Hatashi to Kamoshi , 191–199.

38. Thus at the advent of the Heian period, rulers such as Heizei, Saga,and Junna were all descended from Umakai. 

39. Hata building projects are discussed in Katò Kenkichi,  Hatashi to

 sono tami , 130–144.

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   Notes to Pages 17–20 243

40. This event is discussed in Nakamura Shûya,  Hatashi to Kamoshi , 

168–186.

41. For more on the role of Kadono and other Hata-affiliated Fujiwara in

the construction of the Heian capital, see ibid., 187–203.42. For the politics of lineage and the decision to build a new capital, see

Ronald Toby’s “Why Leave Nara?” Ueda Masaaki and others have also argued

that Kanmu would have been attracted to Yamashiro due to his own distaff

affiliations with immigrant lineages from the Korean kingdom of Paekche; see

Ueda Masaaki, Ueda Masaaki chosakushû, 3:209–216.

43. For the archeology of the temple, see Beppu Daigaku Fuzoku

Hakubutsukan and Usa-shi Kyòikuiinkai, Tempyò no Usa. The temple is also

mentioned briefly by Edward Kidder in his discussion of Hòryûji-style tem-ples; The Lucky Seventh, 394.

44. I will discuss the worship of Kokûzò and Yoshino in greater detail

in Chapter 3.

45. The assertion comes in Kûkai’s Sangò shiiki  (Indications of the goals

of the Three Teachings), which has been translated by Hakeda Yoshito in his 

 Kûkai: Major Works , 102.

46. Abe Ryûichi, Weaving of Mantra, 73–75.

47. The history of Kòryûji is discussed in Katò Kenkichi, Hatashi to sonotami , 185–195. 

48. Sonoda Kòyû, “Kokûzò shinkò no shiteki tenkai,” 144–149.

49. This is discussed briefly in Katò Kenkichi, Hatashi to sono tami , 128– 

129.

50. Ibid., 155–160. Dòji is also known to have brought several Kokûzò

scriptures to the court upon his return from China in 718.

51. Gomyò and Gonsò, in fact, played a major role in the careers of both

Saichò and Kûkai. Gomyò’s opposition to Saichò meant that Saichò’s career

 was dogged by conflict with the monastic establishment. In contrast, Kûkai

 was careful to cultivate good relations with Gomyò, whom he referred to

as his teacher and for whom he composed congratulatory birthday poems.

Later generations of Shingon monks claimed that Kûkai had been taught the

Gumonjihò rite by Gonsò. Although such claims may be spurious, they are

most likely rooted in close relations between the two monks: both Gonsò and

his student Enmyò, for instance, also served in the post of chief administrator

of Tòji. All of this suggests that Hata influence was such that Kûkai found it

prudent to cultivate good relations with Hata monks and institutions.52. The history of cultic centers on Mount Hiei is extremely complex.

The  Honchò gatsuryò notes, however, that Òyamakui no kami is designated

as the deity on Mount Hiei by both the  Kojiki   and the Senda kuji hongi ,

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 244 Notes to Pages 20–22

another liturgical history submitted to the court in the first decades of the

ninth century  ( ZGR 4:304).

53. Sagai Tatsuru, Hiyoshi Taisha to San’ò Gongen, 157.

54. Uwai,  Nihon kodai no shinzoku to saishi , 46. For the original text,see ST  29: Jinja hen: Hiyoshi : 52. Relations between the Hiyoshi, Kamo, and

Matsuno’o shrines are discussed at length in Uwai,  Nihon kodai no shin-

zoku to saishi , 43–61.  Although source materials for the Hiyoshi shrines are

distressingly sparse, numerous references to cultic interactions between

the Hiyoshi and Kamo shrines can be found in our two earliest sources for

Hiyoshi; the Hiesha negi kudenshò, a late Heian-period text, and the Yòtenki ,

a text generally thought to have been composed during the eleventh century

(ST   29:  Jinja hen:  Hiyoshi : 1–6 and 7–96, respectively).  These interactions were undoubtedly facilitated by the fact that the Hafuribe liturgical lineage

at Hiyoshi claimed common descent with the Kamo. For a dissenting view

that questions both the dating of these texts and the lineal connections of the

Hafuribe and Kamo, see Okada Seishi “Hiyoshi Jinja to Tenchichò Òtsumiya,”

54–57. Okada’s view, however, appears to be compromised by the fact that

the Hafuribe are explicitly listed as a sublineage of the Kamo in the Shinsen

 shòjiroku, an early ninth-century genealogical text (Saeki, Shinsen shòjiroku

no kenkyû, 1:241).55. The relationship between the Inari shrine and Tòji is discussed in

Murayama Shûichi, Shûgen, onmyòdò to shaji shiryò, 32–38.

56. The shrine, located close to Suminoe, is said to have been established

by Jingû after her conquest of Silla; see NSK Jingû 1.2. SNKBZ 2:439. In addi-

tion, the Hirano shrine, which was closely associated with Kanmu tennò’s dis-

taff line, also housed deities that were clearly of continental provenance. This

is discussed in Ueda Masaaki, Ueda Masaaki chosakushû 3:209–216. Ueda

notes that the shrine housed both a hearth deity (Kudo no kami) as well as

a deity named Imaki no kami, who was apparently associated with Paekche

immigrant lineages that bore the same name.

57. This figure would be much higher if we included deities of immigrant

lineages that have fallen out of the purview of this study. There is strong evi-

dence suggesting that the Kitano, Gion, and Hirano shrines were all closely

associated with immigrant kinship groups that were prominent in Kanmu’s

distaff lineage. Katò Kenkichi has provided strong circumstantial evidence

suggesting that the Nihu deity was also closely associated with the Hata; see

Katò Kenkichi, Hatashi to sono tami, 120–130. I will discuss the Nihu deity ingreater detail in Chapter 3.

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   Notes to Pages 25–31 245

Chapter 2: Karakami  and Animal Sacrifice

1. As quoted in Kleeman, “Licentious Cults,” 190.

2. As I have already noted, in using the term “Chinese festival calendar”I do not wish to associate the deities and rites discussed with any essentially

“Chinese” characteristics. I only seek to underscore the fact that understand-

ing such rites requires an examination of their roots in the cultic practices and

beliefs of the Chinese mainland. As should already be apparent, a major thesis

of this book is that these rites constituted a core element in what later came

to be understood as native Japanese religious practice.

3. Thus recently Stuart Picken has stated that “traditionally, death,

childbirth, and any occasion where blood is present were sources of pollu-tion” ( Historical Dictionary of Shinto, 113), while the Shintò daijiten defines

impurity (kegare ) in similar terms (Shimonaka Nisaburò, ed., Shintò daijiten,

494).

4. For notions of purity and taboo in the Japanese islands, see Okada

Shigekiyo, Imi no sekai ; Okada Shigekiyo, Kodai no imi ; and Yamamoto Kòji,

 Kegare to òharae .

5. SNG  Yòrò 6.7.7 (722), SNKBT 13:119–123. SNG  Tempyò 2.9 (730), SNK-

 BT 13:237–239. SNG  Tempyò 4.7.5 (732), SNKBT 13:257–259. SNG   Tempyò9.5.19 (737), SNKBT 13:321–322. SNG  Tempyò 13.2.7 (741), SNKBT 13:387.

6. SNG   Tempyò 9.8.2 (737), SNG   13:325. SNG Tempyò 13.3.24 (741).

SNKBT 13:387–391.

7. Ueda Masaaki, “Satsu gyûma shinkò no kòsatsu.” Nakai Kazuo, “Sat-

suma girei to sono shûhen,” 107–118.

8. SNG  Enryaku 10.9.16. SNKBT 16:507. The editors of the SNG also note

that yet another edict, recorded in the  Ruijû kokushi from Enryaku 20.4.8,

forbids worship of a “Butcher god” in Echizen province (SNKBT 16:625–626,

note 40: 92; for the original citation, see  Ruijû kokushi in SZKT 5: 90).

9. Ueda notes the entries in the SNG Yòrò 6.7.7. (722), Tempyò 4.7.5

(732), and Tempyò 9.5.19 (737) just cited that the consumption of alcohol and

butchering of animals was banned due to drought. Note also that at this time,

as we saw in Chapter 1, the court was reeling from revolts, internal divisions,

and a series of devastating plagues that had killed large numbers of courtiers

only a few years earlier.

10. SNG  Tempyò 13.2.7 (741). SNKBT 13:387.

11. SZKT 23:196.12. SNG Tempyò 6.12. SNKBT 13:293. We shall see further evidence sug-

gesting popular use of the Kongò hannya kyò shortly.

13.  NSK Kògyoku 1.7.25 through 1.8.1. SNKBZ 4:63–65.

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 246 Notes to Pages 31–33

14. This conception of cosmic resonance (kan ying ) was not only a hall-

mark of Chinese political philosophy, but pervaded astrological and medical

systems as well. I will discuss the importance of continental astral and medical

systems later in this chapter and in Chapter 3.15. The River Earl, in addition to being one of the main water deities in

the Chinese pantheon, also appears as a founding ancestor in the legends of

kingship in the Korean kingdoms. 

16. Such practices were almost certainly related to the fact that markets

took place at the intersections of major roads (chimata) and that they were

therefore important nodes of interaction between intermingling yin and yang

elements. For an extended discussion of the role of chimata in early Japanese

religion, see Maeda Haruto, Nihon kodai no michi to chimata. 17. SNG Keiun 2.6. SNKBT  12:89.

18. Intriguingly, the  Nihon shoki contains another passage from virtually

the same time as Kògyoku’s purported rain contest with the Soga in which the

leaders of a popular millennial cult encourage their followers to “throw away

their household valuables, and line up  sake , vegetables, and the six domestic

animals by the roadsides.” In light of the fact that the Michiae no Matsuri also

involved offerings of animal hides on the roadsides, it is possible that the court’s

rites reflected popular cultic practice. See NSK Kògyoku 3.7. SNKBZ 4:93–95.19. Not surprisingly, rainmaking was a central cultic concern of the court

throughout the Nara and Heian periods. For the history of rainmaking rites

in the Japanese islands, see Yabu Motoaki, Amagoi girei no seiritsu to tenkai ;

and Namiki Katsuko, “Heian jidai no amagoi hòbei.”

20. See, for instance,  Wakamatsu Ryòichi, “Saisei no inori to jinbutsu

haniwa”; Segawa Yoshinori, “Umakai shûdan no kami matsuri,”122–130;

Tanigawa Ken’ichi, “Torigata doki ni tsuite.”

21. Thus an entry in the SNG from 706 states: “In many provinces there is

plague, and many peasants have died. Begin making earthen cattle [figurines]

for a great tsuina rite [pacification rite].” SNG Keiun 3. SNKBT 12:109. In the

 Hizen fudoki , a gazetteer compiled for the court sometime around 713, we

also find an entry for the Saga district recounting how two shamanesses used

hitogata (human figurines) and umagata to placate an angry deity and ward

off a plague. The text may be found in  Hizen fudoki , Saga district. SNKBZ

5:326–327.

22. For a superb discussion of hitogata and related ritual implements,

see Wada,  Nihon kodai no girei to saishi 2:151–214. See also Izumi Takeshi,“Hitogata saishi no kisòteki kòsatsu,” 144–191.

23. Murayama Shûichi,  Nihon onmyòdòshi sòsetsu. See also Kaneko

Hiroyuki, “Bukkyò, Dòkyò.” 

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   Notes to Pages 33–36 247 

24. Early interest in continental ritual systems was also almost certainly

stimulated by the transmission and use of such texts as the Gogyò taigi , a

Sui-dynasty work that set out a comprehensive framework for understanding

the workings of  yin and  yang and the five phases within a broad range ofphenomena related to governance, cosmology, and medicine. The text may

be found in Nakamura Shòhachi, Gogyò taigi . See also Nakamura Shòhachi,

Gogyò taigi kisoteki kenkyû; and Nakamura Shòhachi, Gogyò taigi zenshaku 1.

It would also appear that the transmission of continental medical texts to the

 Japanese islands helped reorient early Japanese cultic practice in terms of yin

and yang and the Chinese festival calendar. I will discuss the diffusion of Chi-

nese conceptions of the body and immortality in greater detail in Chapter 3.

25. This is discussed in Yokota Ken’ichi,  Asuka no kamigami , 97. Chi-mata rites are also a central focus of Maeda Haruto, Nihon kodai no michi to

chimata. For more on popular disease cults in the Heian period, see Kubota

Osamu, Yasaka jinja no kenkyû, esp. 59–84; Neil McMullen, “On Placating

the Gods”; Sasò Mamoru, “Heian jidai ni okeru ekijinkan no shòsò.” See also

Shibata Minoru, “Gion Goryòe”; Murayama Shûichi, “Gionsha no goryòjinteki

hatten”; and Kikuike Kyòko, “Goryò shinkò no seiritsu to tenkai.”

26.  NSK Suiko 10.10. SNKBZ 3:539.

27.  NSK Suiko 22.4. SNKBZ 3:586.28. See Como, “Divination.” See also Tamura Enchò,  Nihon Bukkyòshi  

4: 419–441.

29.  NSK Tenmu 4.1.5. SNKBZ 4:359. For the history of astrology and cal-

endar-making within the Japanese islands, see Hosoi Hiroshi, “Tenmondò

to rekidò”; Yamashita Katsuaki, “Tenmon, reki, sukuyòdò,” 411–425; and

 Yamashita Katsuaki, “Onmyòdòryò to onmyòdò.” For astrological cults in

China, see Edward Schafer, Pacing the Void .

30. For the Takamatsuzuka tomb, see Inokuma Kanekatsu and Watanabe

 Akiyoshi, eds.,  Nihon no bijutsu 217:  Takamatsuzuka kofun; and Suenaga

Masao and Inoue Mitsusada, eds., Takamatsuzuka kofun to Asuka. For Kito-

ra, see Nara Bunkazai Kenkyûjo Asuka Shiryòkan,  Kitora kofun to hakkutsu

 sareta hekigatachi .

31. Hirabayashi, Tanabata to sumò no kodaishi , 232.

32. The text may be found in T’sai Chen-ch’u, ed.,  Hsin i: Lun heng tu

 pen 2:1143. 

33. Ibid., 2:1060.

34. Chinese numerology, while extremely complex, was itself predicatedupon the belief that odd numbers were yang  and even numbers were yin. As

a result, although there were several systems for recording cycles of time in

China, the performance of many of the most important rites of the calendar

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 248 Notes to Pages 36–39

 was gradually fixed in a regular sequence of odd numbered “nodal” days— 

that is, the first day of the first month, the third day of the third month, the fifth

day of the fifth month, the seventh day of the seventh month, and so on.

35. For a general introduction to the Chinese festival calendar, see Naka-mura Takashi, Chûgoku  saijishi no kenkyû. 

36. I will discuss legends concerning the origin of the Gosechimai (Dance

of the Five Nodes) at the Yamato court in Chapter 3. Throughout the rest of

the book I shall repeatedly make reference to these nodal days.

37. As we shall see in Chapters 3 and 4, Han Wu-ti also became the

subject of a number of legends related to the cult of the Queen Mother of the

 West and the acquisition of immortality.

38.  Lun yü Book 3, 12. In Hsin i ssu shu tu pen, eds. Hsieh Ping-ying etal. For an excellent translation and commentary, see Slingerland,  Analects ,

21.

39. Kleeman, “Licentious Cults,” 200–211. Bokenkamp notes that

although the earlier Taoists sought to ban sacrifices entirely, the demand

for such practices was such that they eventually had to allow for offerings

to ancestors on a limited number of days within a prescribed ritual context;

Bokenkamp, Ancestors and Anxiety , 181–182.

40. Kleeman, “Licentious Cults,” 195.41. For the cult of the Weaver Maiden and Cowherd in China, see Komi-

nami Ichirò, Seiòbò to tanabata denshò; and Hung Shu-hui, Niu lang chih nü

 yen chiu. For the Weaver Maiden in Japan, see Alan Miller, “Ame no Miso-Ori

Me”; Alan Miller, Of Weavers and Birds”; and Hirabayashi Akihito, Tanabata

to sumò no kodaishi .

42. Ching ch’u sui shih chi (henceforth CCSSC ), 7.7. Kominami, Seiòbò to

tanabata denshò, 31.

43. Nakamura Takashi, Chûgoku  saijishi no kenkyû, 343–344.

44. Ibid., 345. Kominami, Seiòbò to tanabata denshò, 228. As we saw

earlier, sacrifice to the River Earl was apparently not unknown in the Japanese

islands prior to the Nara period.

45. See, for instance, Watase Masatada, “Kakinomoto no Hitomaro.”

46. Hirabayashi Akihito, Tanabata to sumò no kodaishi , esp. 128–226. 

Throughout this book we shall see repeated examples of female deities and

ancestors represented in Nara-period texts in vocabulary drawn from conti-

nental astral and weaving cults. In Chapters 5, 6, and 7, I will discuss the role

of the Hata, as well as numerous other immigrant lineages, in the transmissionof weaving and sericulture technologies to the Japanese islands.

47. Kaneko Hiroyuki, “Gakki, shuzògu, bòshokogu.” Kaneko also notes

that the Engishiki mandates that weaving implements be regularly offered to

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   Notes to Pages 40–46 249

the Tatsuta shrine, one of the most important shrines for the Tenmu court,

 while shrine records from the Hiyoshi Taisha, the Kasuga shrine, and the

Hayatama shrine in the Kumano region of Wakayama prefecture all also stipu-

late that weaving implements were to be used as offerings.48.  Hizen fudoki, Ki no gun, Himegoso no sato. SNKBZ 5:316–317.

49. The figure Azeko, whose lineage in the legend is given charge of

 worshipping the deity, is from a sub-branch of the Mononobe kinship group,

the main lineage that is said to have opposed the entry of Buddhism into the

 Japanese islands. For more on Azeko and this legend, see Masaki Kisaburò,

“Munakata san megami to kiki shinwa,” 66–70. I will discuss the Mononobe in

detail in Chapter 4. For drawings of ritual weaving implements found in this

region of Kyûshû, see Kikuchi Yasuaki, Ritsuryòsei saishi ronkò, 488. See alsoKaneko Hiroyuki, “Gakki, shûzògu, hòogu,” 156–160.

50. The translation is from Katò Genchi and Hoshino Hikoshiro, trans.,

 Kogoshûi or Gleanings from Ancient Stories , 48–49.

51. Yoshie Akiko, Nihon kodai no saishi to josei , 185. The legend is also

discussed at length in Yokota Ken’ichi, Asuka no kamigami , 94–119.

52.  Kojiki , Age of the Gods. SNKBZ 1:97.

53.  Kojiki, Òjin chapter. SNKBZ 5:275–277. This text’s account of the birth

of Akaru Hime is notable in one further way as well; although she is clearlyrepresented as a daughter of a sun deity, she was never represented as a child

of the royal ancestor and sun divinity Amaterasu. In point of fact there were

many sun deities that were worshipped at different sites across the Japanese

islands. I shall discuss other such sun deities—and their implications for our

understanding of the cult of Amaterasu—in Chapter 7.

54. According to the Tòshi kaden, a late Nara-period history produced by

the Fujiwara, this deity, located at the port of Tsunoga along the Japan/East-

ern Sea, was also claimed by the Fujiwara as a special protector deity. The

text may be found in NI  3:875–886.

55. See, for instance, Hayashi On and Marui Keiji, ed., Myòken bosatsu to

hoshi mandara, 377. See also Lucia Dolce, “Introduction.”

56. Kaneko Hiroyuki, “Bukkyò, Dòkyò,” 180. Throughout the Nara and

Heian periods, the court appears to have shown a marked predilection for

Buddhist scriptures that were composed in China. Among the most notable

 were the  Bonmyò kyò, the  Ninnò-kyò, and the Sukuyòkyò. For a discussion

of the reception of this last astrological text in the Heian period, see  Yano

Michio, “Bukkyò keiten no naka no reki, Sukuyòkyò.” See also Yano Michio, Mikkyò senseijutsu.

57.  Nihon ryòiki 1.12. Kyoko Nakamura,  Miraculous Stories ,  123–124.

SNKBZ 10:60–62.

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 250 Notes to Pages 47–51

58. The first reference in the NSK to the settling of immigrants highlights

the role of the Kishi, an immigrant lineage that is said to have brought Kogu-

ryô artisans to the village of Nukatasato in the Yamabe district of Yamato ( NSK  

Ninken 6. SNKBZ 3:261–263). This is thought to be the home village of Dòji,the final editor of the  Nihon shoki  and the head of Daianji, the largest state

temple of the day. In Chapter 4 we shall also see that Dòtò is also mentioned

 within the  Nihon shoki in the context of interpreting the appearance of an

auspicious omen at the court of the Yamato ruler Kòtoku.

59. See, for example,  NSK Suiko 21. SNKBZ 3:569. For the development

of early Japanese road networks, see Kinoshita Ryò, Kodai dòro. 

60. I will discuss this topic briefly in Chapter 3. Disease and economic

privation may in fact have increased as a result of the numerous construc-tion projects undertaken by the court during the Nara period. One refer-

ence to hardships and death on the roadsides can be found in SNG Wadò

5.1.16. SNKBT 12:177. For more on the cultic significance of this, see Como,

“Horses, Dragons and Disease”; and Yamachika Kumiko, “Michi to matsuri.”

For the influence of roadside rites on the early Japanese Buddhist tradition,

see Como, “Of Temples, Horses, and Tombs.”

61.  Nihon ryòiki 2.25. Kyoko Nakamura,  Miraculous Stories , 194–196.

SNKBZ 10194–10197.62. Although the text does not explicitly say that the food offerings

Kinume made involved meat, in light of the fact that offerings of meat and/

or animal hides are known to have been made to spirits in the Toshigoi no

Matsuri and Michae no Matsuri, I suspect that the text is intended to imply

that the food the demons desired was meat. We shall see this made explicit

shortly in another legend from the Nihon ryòiki .

63. Similar linkages between popular spirit cults and the figure of Emma

(Ch: Yen-luo) appear to have occurred in China by the sixth century, and

even in the Japanese islands, the figure of Yen lo had from an early date

become closely connected with the figure of T’ai Shan Fu Chun, a member of

the Chinese pantheon who sat in judgment of the dead. Indeed, T’ai Shan Fu

Chun appears as an attendant of Emma in such texts as the Yen lo wang kung

hsing fa tsu ti , a liturgical manual in use for much of the Heian period. (T

1290, 21:374–376). By the tenth century, yin-yang masters at the Heian court

 were petitioning T’ai Shan Fu Chun using virtually the same form as that used

by Buddhist priests who petitioned King Emma. For more on this, see Shigeta

Shinichi, Abe no Seimei , 34–45.64.  Nihon ryòiki   2.5. Kyoko Nakamura,  Miraculous Stories , 164–165.

SNKBZ 10:131–137.

65. Kaneko, “Bukkyò, Dòkyò,” 170.

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   Notes to Pages 51–57 251

66. Shinkawa notes that one figure closely associated with this process

 was none other than Òtomo no Sadehiko, a figure whom we shall encoun-

ter again in Chapters 3 and 5; see Shinkawa,  Nihon kodai no saishi to hyò-

 gen, 302–303. References to official guest residences for Koguryò emissariesappear in the  Nihon shoki as early as 570 (Kinmei 31.4. SNKBZ 3:457–458). 

The first reference to the settling of Koguryò immigrants in Yamato highlights

the role of the Kishi, an immigrant lineage closely associated with the Hata

( NSK  Ninken 6. SNKBZ 3:261–263).

67. Both the Nara Osa and the following legend are discussed at length

in Wada, Nihon kodai no girai to saishi  2:215–242.

68.  Nihon ryòiki , 2.25. Kyoko Nakamura,  Miraculous Stories , 192–194.

SNKBZ 10:194–197. For the use of the  Kongò hannya haramitsu kyò amongthe populace in the early Heian period, see Tachibana Kyòdò, “Wagakuni ni

okeru goryò.” The Kumarajiva translation of the Chin kang po jo po luo mi

ching (J: Kongò hannya haramitsu kyò) may be found in T 235, 8:748–752.

69. Another point worth noting is that Iwashima is said to be traveling

on business for Daianji temple. Daianji also appears to have been closely

connected with immigrant kinship groups from the Korean kingdom of Silla

from an early date. Its connections with the early Shòtoku cult, at which the

Hata were at the forefront, can also be clearly seen from the Daianji engi , anaccount of the temple’s origins that was submitted to the court in 747. The text

claims as the temple’s founder none other than Shòtoku. See  NI  2:366–367.

Chapter 3: Female Rulers and Female Immortals

1.  Pao pu tzu. Nei p’ien, 15th fascicle. The text may be found in Li Chung-

hua’s annotated edition Hsin i: Pao p’u tzu, 379.

2. Fukunaga’s contention that the source of these religious borrowings

can be found within the Taoist textual tradition remains extremely controver-

sial. For a brief appraisal of Fukunaga’s place in Japanese scholarship on the

period, see Bialock, Eccentric Spaces , 26–28.

3. Shimode Sekiyo, Kodai shinsen shisò no kenkyû, 105.

4. The role of gender and family structures is a topic of vast importance

that remains understudied by scholars of Nara-period religion. For a discus-

sion of the advance of patriarchal notions of lineage during the Nara period,

see Sekiguchi Hiroko, “The Patriarchical Family Paradigm.” See also Yoshie

 Akiko,  Nihon kodai no uji no kòzò; Fukutò Sanae,  Ie seiritsushi no kenkyû;and Yoshie Akiko, Nihon kodai no saishi to josei .

5. Today Yoshino remains an administrative unit within Nara prefecture,

comprising, along with the Uda district, almost two-thirds of the prefecture’s

territory.

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 252 Notes to Pages 57–60

6. As Wada notes, understandings of Yoshino’s borders appear to have

shifted over time. Yoshino’s physical characteristics as well as its roadways

and even bridges are discussed in detail in Wada, Nihon kodai no girei saishi,

129–142. Note, however, that my purpose here is not to present a detailedaccount of religious practices within a fixed geographic site, but to investigate

how Yoshino and similar sites were imagined within the cultic discourse of

the period.

7. Although Uda and Yoshino constituted two adjacent administra-

tive units within the structures of the early state, they formed one common

topographical/botanical region (Wada,  Nihon kodai no girei saishi 3:131).

Throughout this chapter I therefore treat them as one entity.

8. Ibid., 2:99.9. Samguk sagi  4:121.

10. Wada,  Nihon kodai no girei saishi 2:111–115. Further evidence sug-

gesting that the Yamato court was actively pursuing knowledge of continental

medical techniques can also be found in the Yòrò law codes, which stipulate a

curriculum of Chinese medical texts that all aspirants for governmental medical

posts were required to master ( NST 5:421). Evidence suggesting that Yoshino was

highly valued as a site for the collection of medicinal herbs can also be found in

an entry from the Shoku Nihongi for the year 699 that refers to both En and oneKarakuni Muraji Hirotari practicing austerities in nearby Kazuragi in pursuit of

immortality (SNG Monmu 3.5.24, SNKBT 12:17). Karakuni’s existence is attested

in several other Nara-period sources, including the Tòshi kaden, which lists him

as one of the notable medical figures of the age (Tòshi kaden, 111).

11. CCSSC   5.5. The text may also be found in Wang Yü-jung’s anno-

tated edition, Ching ch’u sui shih chi , 156–157. See also Moriya Mitsuo, Keiso

 saijiki , 123. Note that the CCSSC has been transmitted to us along with a com-

mentary composed by Tu Kung-shan sometime between 605 and 619, which

is to say, during Suiko’s reign.

12. Quoted in CCSSC  5.5; Wang Yü-jung , ed., 156–157. I shall discuss this

further in Chapter 7.

13. CCSSC  5.5. Moriya, Keiso saijiki , 136. CCSSC  Wang Yü-jung, ed. , 170– 

173. The CCSSC also goes on to cite Ke Hung’s discussion of amulets used

on the fifth day of the fifth month in his  Pao p’u tzu, Nei pien, 15th fascicle.

The text may be found in Li Chung-hua’s annotated edition  Hsin i: Pao p’u

tzu, 374–375.

14.  NSK Tenmu 14.10.8. SNKBZ 4:452.15. This event is discussed in detail in Shinkawa Tokio, Dòkyò o meguru

kòbò, 67–100. See also Bialock, Eccentric Spaces , 80–84; and Ooms, Imperial

 Politics , 156–163.

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   Notes to Pages 60–63 253

16. I will discuss this rite further in Chapter 7.

17. For rites of spirit-calling and clothing, see Yü Ying-shih, “O Soul,

Come Back!” For examples of scarves and clothing being waved within the

context of funerary rites or benedictions, see Hitomaro’s ode to his deceased wife in MYS , Book 2, no. 207. SNKBT  1:252–253. The text has also been trans-

lated in Ebersole, Ritual Poetry , 192–194. I will discuss the Kusakabe ancestor

Shinohara Otohihimeko in greater detail in Chapter 5. I will discuss rites of

resurrection in greater detail in Chapter 7.

18. I will discuss this rite in greater detail in Chapter 7.

19. Many scholars also believe that it was during this period that the court

began to emphasize the cult of Amaterasu. Tenmu, for instance, is said to have

sent a female member of his line to serve as priestess ( saigû) at Ise after afifty-year hiatus during which this custom was not observed. Tenmu’s consort

and successor Jitò, similarly, made the first visit to the shrine by a ruler. I will

discuss Amaterasu and the chinkonsai in greater detail in Chapter 7.

20.  NSK Tenji 671.5.5. SNKBZ 4:391.

21. For a history of the Tamai and the closely related Gosechimai down

through later ages, see Hayashi Tatsusaburò, Chûsei geinòshi no kenkyû,

157–164. See also Fukutò Sanae, Heian òchò shakai no jendâ, 143–181. I will

briefly discuss Tenji’s role in the development of court ritual in Chapter 6.22. Tenmu’s close association with this dance is suggested by an entry

in the Shoku Nihongi for the fifth day of the fifth month of 743, in which the

retired ruler Genshò attributes the dance’s origins to Tenmu. I will discuss

this passage further below. Tenmu’s association with imagery of immortals at

 Yoshino is also discussed in Bialock, Eccentric Spaces , 85–99. See also Ooms,

 Imperial Politics , 147–149.

23. I will discuss legends depicting the Queen Mother of the West’s visits

to sage rulers in Chapter 4. For the development of the concept of the sage

king in the Japanese islands, see Como, Shòtoku, 75–92.

24.  Kojiki , Yûryaku chapter. SNKBZ 1:345. Wada,  Nihon kodai no girei

to saishi  2:97.

25. For a discussion of Jitò’s reign in conjunction with that of Tenmu, see

Piggott, Emergence of Japanese Kingship, 127–166.

26. This thesis is discussed at length in Shinbori Shinobu, “Jitò Jotei to

 Yoshino Gyòkò.” See also Ooms, Imperial Politics , 179–180.

27. For the history of rainmaking rites in the Japanese islands, see Yabu

Motoaki, Amagoi girei no seiritsu to tenkai , and Namiki, “Heian jidai no ama-goi hòbi.”

28. One further indication of the deity’s importance for the royal cult may

be found in the Kògyoku chapter of the Nihon shoki , in which the Soga kinship

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 254 Notes to Pages 64–66 

group is depicted as repeatedly seeking to usurp royal ritual prerogatives.

Here we are told that the Soga built a temple known as Hòkiyamadera on a

mountain on which the Nihu deity was thought to reside ( NSK Kògyoku 3:11,

SNKBZ 4:95–97). For possible connections between this temple and others inthe region, see Tsuji, Narachò sangaku jiin no kenkyû, 201–220. I discuss this

temple again below.

29.  NSK Jinmu, Period Prior to Accession. SNKBZ 2:213.

30.  NSK Jinmu, Tsuchinoe Uma, 9.5. SNKBZ 2:213–215.

31. Offerings at Jinmu’s tomb are recorded in  NSK Tenmu 1.7. SNKBZ

4:341. This is discussed in Ooms, Imperial Politics , 74.

32. This legend illustrating Jinmu’s mastery of the fish in Yoshino is also

mirrored in a series of legends of fishermen and immortals that were associ-ated with lineages such as the Òtomo and Kusakabe, which had large pres-

ences along the coastal regions both on the Japan/Eastern Sea and on the

Inland Sea. I shall discuss this in greater detail below.

33. Wada, Nihon kodai no girei to saishi, 3:465. Recently Katò Kenkichi has

argued that sites named Nihu across Japan were closely connected with metal

production and cinnabar. As a result, there is an extremely high correspon-

dence between such areas and the Hata, who were at the forefront of metal

production during the period (Katò Kenkichi, Hatashi to sono tami , 120–129).34. Katò Kenkichi, Hatashi to sono tami , 120–130.

35. Wada , Nihon kodai no girei to saishi 3:172.

36. Wada’s suggestion that the court may have been interested in Yoshi-

no for its red earth provides several further clues as to the transmission of

continental conceptions of immortals to the Japanese islands. If he is correct,

 we should expect to find similar legends in other regions with similar climate

and geology. We should also expect that lineages associated with the mining

of minerals or metal-working would be prominent in such regions. Fortu-

nately, we already have the remarkable research of Matsuda Hisao, who took

the trouble of having geological analysis done in numerous regions across the

 Japanese islands to determine which areas contained the compound that the

 Japanese court appears to have identified as cinnabar. Among the most star-

tling findings was that in every region where we find cinnabar, we also find

a place name referring to “Nihu.” Matsuda also demonstrates that the Nihu

 Atae must have lived in these areas and, almost certainly, mined for metal

there (Matsuda, Niu no kenkyû). Katò Kenkichi, building on Matsuda’s work,

has further demonstrated that in every area where the Nihu atae lived, there were also members of the Hata kinship group. Katò concludes that the Hata,

 who are known to have been involved in metal-working, were most likely

overseers of the Nihu Atae.

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   Notes to Pages 66–70 255

37.  Nihon ryòiki, 1.26. Kyoko Nakamura,  Miraculous Stories , 138–139.

SNKBZ 10:87–88.

38.  Nihon ryòiki 1.28. Kyoko Nakamura,  Miraculous Stories ,  140–142.

SNKBZ 10:90–93.39. More subtly, the Nihon ryòiki account of the goals and practices of En

no Gyòja is also suggestive of the conceptual framework that lay behind such

practices. The Spell of the Peacock was held in high regard by ascetic prac-

titioners in pursuit of superhuman powers and the ability to control spirits.

 Although it is not clear which scripture this spell derived from, the most likely

appears to be the K’ung ch’üeh wang chou ching  (The Scripture on the Spell of

the Peacock King ; J:  Kujakuòshukyò), T  982, 983, and 985, 19:446–458. Several

other scriptures with similar titles are also known to have circulated duringthe Nara period and were among the most highly valued texts in the early

Heian period. This spell also appears to have been associated with the monk

Dòkyò, whose rise to power apparently began when he used the Spell of the

Peacock to heal the retired ruler Kòken of a serious illness shortly before she

retook the throne in 765 (Nemoto Seiji, Tempyòki no sòryo to tennò). I will

discuss further connections between Dòkyò, Kòken, and Yoshino below.

40. For an extended discussion of Kokûzò’s identification with Venus in

popular Japanese religion, see Sano Kenji, Kokûzò bosatsu shinkò no kenkyû,235–299. Kokûzò worship is also discussed briefly in Lucia Dolce, “Introduc-

tion,” 7–9.

41. The translation is from Hakeda Yoshito, Kûkai: Major Works , 19–20.

For the original text, see  NKBT 71: Sangò shiiki, Shòryòshû, 84. The textual

basis for the Gumonjihò is the  Kokûzò bosatsu nòman shogan saishòshin

darani gumonji no hò. The text may be found in T 1145, 20:601–603.

42. Each of these temples is discussed in Tsuji Hidenori,  Narachò san-

 gaku jiin no kenkyû. For Hasedera, see also Tsuji Hidenori,  Hasederashi no

kenkyû. For Muròji, see also Sherry Fowler,  Muroji . See also Tsuji Hidenori,

 Muròjishi no kenkyû.

43.  NSK Kinmei 13.5. SNKBZ 3:421.

44.  Nihon ryòiki   1.5. Kyoko Nakamura,  Miraculous Stories , 111–112.

SNKBZ 10:39–46.

45.  Nihon ryòiki 1.5. Kyoko Nakamura,  Miraculous Stories , 113–116.

SNKBZ 10:42–43. For Gyòki and his movement, see Nakai Shinkò, Gyòki to

kodai Bukkyò; Nemoto, Nara Bukkyò to Gyòki denshò no tenkai ; and Yoshida

 Yasuo, Gyòki to ritsuryò.46. For the text of the Gyòki nenpu, see Inoue Kaoru, ed., Gyòki jiten,

255–275.

47. For the sutra dedication, see Takeuchi, NI 2:612. For temples purport-

edly built by Gyòki during this period, see Inoue Kaoru, “Gyòki no shògai,”

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 256 Notes to Pages 70–74 

17–18.  Yoshida gives a list of temples attributed to Gyòki in the Gyòki  nenpu 

in Yoshida Yasuo, Gyòki to ritsury ò, 318–320. For more on relations between

the cults of Gyòki and Shòtoku, see Como, Shòtoku, 111–132.

48. For the relationship between Prince Kusakabe, the Kusakabe kinshipgroup, and other, affiliated kinship groups, see Òhashi Nobuya, Nihon kodai

no òken to shizoku, 199–207.

49. Òtomo genealogies and their connections with the Korean peninsula

are discussed at length in Mizoguchi Mutsuko,  Kodai shizoku no keifu, esp.

176–211. See also Naoki Kòjirò, Nihon kodai no shizoku to tennò, 57–74.

50. Saeki, Shinsen shòjiroku no kenkyû  1:285. This is discussed in

Shinkawa, Nihon kodai no saishi to hyògen, 262–267.

51.  Hizen fudoki , Matsuura district. SNKBZ 5:331.52. I shall discuss this in greater detail in Chapter 5.

53. Variant renderings of the Uranoshimako legend are discussed at

length in Shimode, Kodai shinsen shisò no kenkyû, 171–222. For a discussion

of this legend as it relates to both the Kusakabe and the Shòtoku cult, see

Como, Shòtoku, 94–97.

54. Tango fudoki , SNKBZ 5:476. Continental influences in the text are

also discussed in Bialock, Eccentric Spaces , 89.

55. Thus the frequent use of the prefix “kushitama” in the names of dei-ties. I will further discuss the relationship between combs (kushi ) and elixirs

of immortality (kusushi, kushi ) in the context of several important legends in

Chapter 7.

56. Shimode lists several Uranoshimako shrines from the region in Shi-

mode, Kodai shinsen shisò no kenkyû, 189. During the Heian period increas-

ingly elaborate versions of the legend continued to be produced. For more

on the Uranoshimako cult during the early Nara period, see also Takioto

 Yoshiyuki, “Urashimako denshò no seiritsu kiban”; Hayashi Kòhei, Urashima

densetsu no kenkyû; and Masuda Sanae, Urashima densetsu ni miru kodai

 Nihonjin no shinkò.

57.  Huai nan tzu, fascicle six. Hsiung Li-hui, ed.,  Hsin fan Huai nan

tzu, 300–301 and 358–359. Although the textual origins for the rabbit on the

moon are obscure, the rabbit appears both in the Ma wang tui tapestry and

more broadly throughout Han dynasty epigraphy (Loewe, Ways to Paradise ,

127–133).

58. Sou shen chi , by Kan Pao, Book 14, #354. In Sou shen chi , ed. Huang

Ti-ming, 486.59. Just what sort of garment this would have been is unclear. Akimoto

glosses it as a garment worn by beings in the Buddhist heaven Toriten ( NKBT

2:447, n.11).

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   Notes to Pages 74–77 257 

60. This remnant of the Suruga fudoki may be found in SNKBZ 5:575– 

576. 

61. This remnant of the Òmi fudoki  may be found in SNKBZ 5:578–579.

The legend is also discussed in Shimode,  Kodai shinsen shisò no kenkyû,130–134. For a discussion of this and other such legends of Heavenly Maid-

ens from the point of view of folklore studies, see Miller, “The Swan-Maiden

Revisited.”

62. The Iga Muraji’s claims to descent from this female immortal were

repeated as late as the Kamakura period, although Shimode notes that by the

time of the composition of the Shinsen shòjiroku the Iga Muraji had also con-

structed genealogical links with the Nakatomi kinship group (Shimode, Kodai

 shinsen shisò no kenkyû, 137–139). Further possible evidence associating theIga Muraji with female immortals can be found in the Iga fudoki , which con-

tains the tale of a Heavenly Maiden who, much like the female immortal who

appeared before Yûryaku at Yoshino, descends to earth and plays a magical

“Chinese harp” (kara no koto).

63.  Kaifûsò #31.  NKBT 69:100. The  Kaifûsò, a collection of Chinese-

style poems from the Nara period, contains several other poems concerning

immortals as well. Because there is widespread agreement that the poems col-

lected in this work reflect a high degree of familiarity with (if not dependenceupon) Chinese models, however, Japanese commentators have long argued

that motifs associated with Taoist immortals simply reflected the close adher-

ence of Japanese poets to the tropes and allusions of Chinese literary works.

 As a result, there is a widespread tendency to dismiss virtually all references

to Chinese cults and conceptions of immortality in the literature of the period

as mere literary ornamentation. See, for instance, Shimode,  Kodai shinsen

 shisò no kenkyû, 119–120.

64.  Nihon ryòiki 1.13. Kyoko Nakamura,  Miraculous Stories , 124–125.

SNKBZ 6:92–93.

65. In addition, the  Nihon ryòiki account of Nuribe Hime highlights the

degree to which lineal affiliations helped shape cultic orientations even among

Buddhist clergy. Nuribe no Hime, for instance, would have been considered

a relative of Ròben, one of the most important monks of the Nara period and

a member of the Nuribe kinship group.

66.  MYS , Book 3, no. 385. SNKBT 1:252. The translation is from Edwin

Cranston’s Waka Anthology 1, 497. Note that I have altered Cranston’s render-

ing of this maiden’s name from “Mulberry-branch Nymph” to the more literal“Immortal Mulberry-branch Maiden” (Tsuminoe no Hijiri Hime) in order to

emphasize her explicit designation as a female immortal.

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 258 Notes to Pages 77–81

67. For a discussion of textual sources for the Immortal Mulberry-branch

Maiden, see Shimode, Kodai shinsen shisò no kenkyû, 110–120. See also Kata-

ta Osamu, Nihon kodai shinkò to Bukkyò, 39–55.

68. Literary references to female immortals at Yoshino are discussed atlength in Shimode, Kodai shinsen shisò no kenkyû, 97–157. I will discuss other

poems from the Immortal Mulberry-branch Maiden corpus in Chapter 6.

69.  Hizen fudoki, Kishima district. SNKBZ 5: 515. Cranston, Waka Anthol-

ogy 1, 144.

70. The Sumiyoshi Daijin, an aggregate form of the Sumiyoshi deities, in

this regard, is particularly important. As we noted in Chapter 1, this deity was

said to have flown over the Yoshino region while riding a dragon and wear-

ing continental-style clothing.71. In the MYS we also find a dialogue that purportedly occurs between

Òtomo no Yakamochi and local women in the Matsuura district of Hizen

province in which Yakamochi playfully asks the women if they are not, in

fact, “immortals of Matsuura.” The text may be found in the preface to a series

of poems set in Matsuura in book 5. See SNKBZ 1:479.

72. Toyuke miya no gishiki chò, in GR 2:53. This is also recounted in

numerous later texts of importance for Ise Shintò. See, for instance, the Toyuke

kòtaijin gochinza hongi . In SZKT  7:453.73. This remnant from the Tango  fudoki can be found in SNKBZ 5:483– 

484. Cranston, Waka Anthology 1, 150–151.

74.  NSK Age of the Gods, SNKBZ 2:60–61. I will discuss this in detail in

Chapter 7.

75. See, for instance,  Ise nisho kòtaijingû gochinza denki , SZKT 7:439,

also 453.

76. Shimode names fourteen Toyouke Hime shrines that are listed in the

 Engishiki  ( Kodai shinsen shisò no kenkyû, 156).

77. For more on the political background of Abe’s dance, see Piggott,

“The Last Classical Female Sovereign,” 51–55.

78. SNG Tempyò 15.5.5. SNKBT 13:419–421.  See also Ooms,  Imperial

 Politics , 121–123.

79. Piggott, “The Last Classical Female Sovereign,” 54. In due time the

Princess Abe did in fact ascend the throne, not once but twice during the

tumultuous final decades of the Nara period. Her fateful alliance with the monk

Dòkyò, yet another healer-monk from the region, would have far-reaching con-

sequences for the structure of court ritual and the balance of power at court forcenturies to come. For Dòkyò, see Nemoto Seiji, Tempyòki no sòryo to tennò.

80. Shimode notes that although Nara-period sources are unfortunately

silent on the topic, by the middle of the Heian period the linkages between

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   Notes to Pages 81–90 259

the Gosechimai, Tenmu, Yoshino, and immortality had grown to be so strong

that texts such as the Seiji yòryaku traced the origins of the Gosechimai to

a dance performed by the Chinese deity Takakara Megami for Tenmu at

 Yoshino. Seiji yòryaku,  Nenjû gyòji , section 27. In SZKT 28:145. Shimode, Kodai shinsen shisò no kenkyû, 98. For more on the role of immigrant lineages

in the formation of the concept of the sage king, see Como, Shòtoku, 75–92.

81. I discuss legends relating this deity to both the origins of sericul-

ture and Amaterasu in Chapter 7. Legends relating this deity to Amatera-

su within the Ise textual corpus can be found in the  Ise nisho kòtaijingû

 gochinza shidaiki, KT 7:429–434,  Ise nisho kòtaijingû gochinza denki , KSTK

7: 435–450, Toyuke kòtaijin gochinza hongi, KT 7:451–463,  Zò Ise nisho tai-

 jingû hò kihongi, KT 7:464–479, and the Yamato hime no mikoto seiki, KSTK7:479–508.

82. During the Kamakura period, of course, the outer shrine of Ise, where

Toyuke Hime was housed, was to be a major source for the emergence of

medieval understandings of Shintò (Teeuwen, Watarai Shintò).

83. Fukutò Sanae, Heian òchò shakai no jendâ, 154.

Chapter 4: The Queen Mother of the West and

the Ghosts of the Buddhist Tradition 

1. Gordon, Ghostly Matters , 190.

2. The Gangòji garan engi narabi ni ruki shizaichò may be found in NI  

2:383–393. Hòryûji garan engi narabi ni ruki shizaichò may be found in  NI  

2:344–365. The Jògû Shòtoku hòòteisetsu may be found in STZ  3:9–22.

3. For the early Shòtoku cult, see Como, Shòtoku; Hayashi Mikiya, Taishi

 shinkò no kenkyû; and Iida Mizuho, Shòtoku taishiden no kenkyû. 

4. Helen McCulough, trans., Tale of the Heike , 315–317. For a fascinating

discussion of the role of onmyòdò beliefs and practices in the shaping of the

text, see David Bialock, Eccentric Spaces . 

5. For the original text of Atsumori , see NKBT 40: Yòkyokushû 1:233–240.

 An English translation may be found in Arthur Waley,  Noh Plays of Japan,

63–73.

6. The Buddhist founding legend has been discussed by a large number

of Japanese scholars. For a brief overview, see Tamura Enchò,  Nihon Buk-

kyòshi , 1:68–84. See also Hiraoka Jòkai , Nihonjiin shi no kenkyû, 22–43.

7. Much of my understanding of the Mononobe has been shaped byMayuzumi Hiromichi,  Mononobe Sogashi to kodai òken. For the cultic activi-

ties of the Mononobe, see Hon’iden Kikushi, “Mononobeshi to Isonokami

 Jingû”; Izumiya Yasuo, “Mononobe to shûkyò”; Kamei Kiichirò, “Isonokami

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 260 Notes to Pages 90–93

 Jingû to Oshisaka Ònakahime”; Watanabe Katsuyoshi, Chinkonsai no kenkyû, 

139–149; and Emura Hiroyuki, Ritsuryò tennòsei saishi no kenkyû, 76–109.

8. For more on the cycle of political violence and rites of propitiation,

see Como, Shòtoku, 93–110.9. For the formation of service lineages known as be in Japan, see Yoshie

 Akiko, Nihon kodai no shizoku no kòzò; and Takemitsu Makoto, Kenkyûshi .

10. Inoue Hideo, “Chiku, Toyo, Hi no gòzoku to Yamato chòtei,” 157.

11. For chimata rites in Japan, see Maeda Haruto, Nihon kodai no michi

to chimata. See also Wada,  Nihon kodai no girei to saishi 2:269–364; and

Como, Shòtoku, 111–132.

12. See, for example,  NSK  Sujin 10.9; SNKBZ 2:281;  NSK Jinmu, Period

Prior to Accession; and SNKBZ 2:215–217. Although I know of no explicitexplanation in the primary sources as to why crossroads were a favored site

for these rites, in China such sites were most likely regarded as especially

 volatile because the  yin  and  yang   elements flowing along each roadway

 would become turbulent as their paths crossed.

13. One of the most important chimata for the subsequent cult of Prince

Shòtoku was in Kataoka at the intersection of the Great Lateral and Kusakabe/

Tatsuta highways. I have discussed the legend of Shòtoku’s encounter with

an immortal at this chimata in Shòtoku, 93–109. Note also that the Kusakabeclaimed as a founding ancestor Tamba no Michi Omi, who was in turn said

to be a direct descendant of the deity Ama no Hoakari no Mikoto. This deity,

discussed in greater detail in Chapters 5 and 7, was also claimed as an ances-

tor by several sub-branches of the Mononobe.

14. Hirano discusses the Inabe’s genealogical connections with both the

Mononobe and the Hata in his “Hatashi no kenkyû.” The Fumi no Obito were

a sub-branch of the Kawachi no Aya, an immigrant kinship group that traced

its origins to a scholar of the Confucian classics who was said to have been

sent to the Japanese islands during the reign of Òjin.

15. The most prominent chimata prior to the Nara period are discussed

throughout Maeda Haruto,  Nihon kodai no michi to chimata; as well as in

 Wada, Nihon kodai no girei to saishi 2:295–324. 

16. To give but one example, we saw in Chapter 2 that Azeko, the offi-

ciant said to have propitiated the vengeful weaving deity Akaru Hime in

Kyûshû, was himself from just such a Mononobe sublineage.

17. Matsumae Takeshi, Kodai denshò to kyûtei saishi , 91.

18. The Sendai kuji hongi may be found in ST . For an English transla-tion, see John R. Bentley, The Authenticity of the Sendai Kuji Hongi:  A New

 Examination of Texts, with a Translation and Commentary . Bentley’s claims

about the early provenance of the text, however, are highly controversial. For

a review of the issue, see Mark Teeuwen, “Sendai kuji hongi .”

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   Notes to Pages 93–94 261

19. Sendai kuji hongi . Tennò hongi, Jinmu 1.11. ST, 125. Alternatively,

the Spell of Furu can be taken to mean “the spell of shaking.” Bentley renders

the phrase “ yura yura” not as a phonetic incantation, but as a stage direction

for the officiant to sway while speaking.20. For the relationship between court rites of spirit pacification and the

Isonokami shrine, see Matsumae Takeshi, Kodai denshò to kyûtei saishi , 115– 

127. I discuss this further in Chapter 7. The text’s reference to the rite as the

Furu kotohoki contains broader implications for understanding Mononobe

ritual practice. As Katata Osamu has noted, “hoki,” “hoku,” and “hokai ” are

all terms for ritual speech in which the speaker seeks to effect some change

in the world through the expression of the wish for that change ( Nihon kodai

 shinkò to Bukkyò, 142–144). Although often translated as “prayer” or “charm,”hokai  were frequently used at chimata both to bring blessings and to subju-

gate the enemies—living or dead—of the court.

21.  NSK Yûryaku 13.3. SNKBZ  3:193. This reference to the tachibana in

conjunction with the Ega chimata is highly suggestive in light of the tachiba-

na’s role as a symbol of  tokoyo —a land beyond death closely related to mil-

lenarian cults and immigrant kinship group deities. Perhaps the most famous

example of such cults can be found in another passage in the  Nihon shoki ,

 which refers to a popular religious movement that anticipated the advent ofthe tokoyo deity in the form of a worm on the tachibana tree. This millenial

movement is of particular interest because its main figures were from immi-

grant kinship groups closely related to the formation of the cult of Prince

Shòtoku; see Como, Shòtoku, 33–54. Òfube’s movement is also discussed

in Ellwood, “A Cargo Cult in Seventh Century Japan”; and Katò Kenkichi,

 Hatashi to sono tami , 196–205.

22. The standard work on the Fumi no Obito and their kinsmen is Inoue

Mitsusada, Nihon kodai shisòshi no kenkyû, 412–468.

23.  NST 3: 213–214. For court purification rites in Naniwa, see also Okada

Seishi, Kodai òken no saishi to shinwa, 59–94. See also Uwai Hisayoshi, Nihon

kodai no shizoku to saishi , 62–82. For a more speculative view, emphasizing

the importance of onmyòdò in such rites, see Takikawa Seijirò,  Ritsuryò to 

daijòsai , 223–328.

24.  Engishiki, Book 8.  Bock,  Engi-Shiki: Procedures of the Engi

 Era —Books 6 –10, 88 –89. This liturgy also appears to have greatly influenced

later developments in the history of Japanese religion. See, for instance, the

 Nakatomi harae kunge , a twelfth-century commentary upon the rite, whichlater served as a major source for the birth of medieval Shintò. For more on

the commentary, see Mark Teeuwen and Hendrik ven der Veere,  Nakatomi

harae kunge .

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 262 Notes to Pages 95–97 

25. For the Òharae, see Miyake Kazuo,  Kodai kokka no jingi to saishi ,

163–214; and Obinata Kasumi, Kodai kokka to nenchû gyòji , 184–220.

26. In addition to examples from the Po wu chih cited below, these terms

appear in such texts as the Shan hai ching , second fascicle. The text may befound in Yuan K’o, ed., Shan hai ching chiao chu, 21–66.

27. The Engishiki’s instructions for the uses of these implements are dis-

cussed briefly in Bock,  Engi-Shiki: Procedures of the Engi Era —Books 6–10,

88. Chapter 7 discusses the importance of these rites in conjunction with the

development of the Chinkonsai.

28.  NST  3:215.

29. This is discussed at length in Kominami, Seiòbò to tanabata denshò,

109–142. I discuss the ritual pairing of these days in greater detail shortly. Ialso discuss the Òharae in greater detail in Chapter 7.

30. Just as the first fifteen days of the first month marked the beginning

of the first half of the year (and the ascent of  yang ), so the first fifteen days

of the seventh month marked the advent of the second half of the year (and

the ascent of  yin). As a result, the beginning, midpoint, and end of the new

 year cycle (that is, 1.1, 1.7, and 1.15), as well as corresponding days of the

seventh month (that is, 7.1, 7.7, and 7.15) were among the most heavily ritual-

ized in the festival calendar. These days were also thought to be moments ofheightened interaction between the human and spirit worlds. I shall discuss

the ritual significance of the seventh day of the seventh month (tanabata) and

the seventh day of the first month ( jen-jih) shortly. I discuss the importance of

rites associated with the fifteenth day of the first month in Chapter 6.

31. Shan hai ching, fourth fascicle. The text may be found in Yüan K’o,

ed., Shan hai ching chiao chu, 407. The Queen Mother has been the object

of sustained interest among scholars of Chinese religion. For an extensive

treatment of the role of the Queen Mother in T’ang religion and literature, see

Cahill’s Transcendence and Divine Passion. The Queen Mother’s appearance

is discussed in detail in Kominami, Seiòbò to tanabata denshò, 71–103. Virtu-

ally all aspects of the Queen Mother are also discussed with great erudition

in Loewe’s Ways to Paradise , esp. 86–134. For an extensive treatment of the

origins of the Queen Mother’s cult as well as the development of different

means of representing her, see Fracassso, “Holy Mothers in Ancient China.”

The translation is from Loewe, Ways to Paradise, 91.

32.  Po wu chih, eighth fascicle. The text may be found in Fan Ning, ed.,

 Po wu chih chiao cheng , 97. The translation is from Loewe, Ways to Paradise,116–117. 

33. For more on the role of the Three-legged Crow and bird messengers

for the cult of the Queen Mother of the West, see Cahill, Transcendence and

 Divine Passion, 91–98.

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   Notes to Pages 98–99 263

34. For Mount Kunlun, see Kominami, Seiòbò to tanabata denshò, 143– 

186. For the tapestry, see Loewe, Ways to Paradise , 17–59.

35. Similar iconographic motifs have been found in Japan as well. The

Tenjukoku shûchò  tapestry purportedly commissioned by Shòtoku’s fourth wife, the Lady Tachibana Inabe no òiratsume, contains an image of the rabbit

in the moon in the upper left corner of the tapestry. Although the upper right

portion of the tapestry no longer exists, making it impossible to tell if the rab-

bit was flanked by the Three-legged Crow, the Three-legged Crow is depicted

on the Tamamushi shrine at Hòryûji. Intriguingly, the Lady Tachibana’s name

includes both the motif of the Tachibana and the surname Inabe. For a discus-

sion of the tapestry, see Pradel, Fragments of the Tenjukoku Shûchò Mandara;

and Òhashi Katsuaki, Tenjukoku shûchò no kenkyû. For a brief discussion of various attempts to date the tapestry, see Lurie, “Origins of Writing in Early

 Japan,” 416–417. For a discussion of the symbol of the rabbit, see Loewe,

Ways to Paradise, 127–133. Excellent photographs of both the Tamamushi

shrine and the tapestry may be found in the catalogue of the NHK Shòtoku

exhibition in Òsaka in 2001 (Tòkyòto Bijutsukan, ed., Shòtoku taishi ten,

72–77).

36. References to rites involving the calling back of the dead can be

found even in the Ch’u tz’u. See Hawks, Songs of the South, 219–231. Rites ofspirit-calling are discussed in detail in Yü Ying-shih’s classic study  “O Soul,

Come Back.” For a variety of viewpoints on Chinese death rituals from the

late imperial period, see Watkins and Rawski, eds., Death Ritual .

37. Such spirits, of course, would then become the objects of rites of

pacification such as the Òharae.

38. For legends concerning the Queen Mother of the West and these and

other rulers, see Cahill, Transcendence and Divine Passion, 108–142.

39. See, for instance, the Han wu ku shih, in Masuda Wataru, trans., Dai

 Rojin zensho 6:52–54; and the Han Wu-ti nei chuan, in Wang Kuo-liang, ed.,

 Han Wu t’ung ming chi yen chiu, 50–51. For an extended discussion of the

role of the Han Wu-ti legend corpus in early Chinese religious discourse,

see Kominami, Chûgoku no shinwa to monogatari , 237–434. See also Cahill,

Transcendence and Divine Passion, 143–189.

40. CCSSC, as quoted in Moriya,  Keisosaijiki, 22. I will discuss this pas-

sage further below.

41.  NSK Age of the Gods, SNKBZ , 2:55.

42. As we shall see shortly, the Kojiki  explicitly identifies the tachibanaas the Queen Mother’s “fruit of immortality.”

43. Kominami, Seiòbò to tanabata denshò,109–142. I will discuss this in

greater detail below. By the advent of the Sui dynasty there was a large corpus

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 264 Notes to Pages 100–103

of Chinese literature related to the Queen Mother of the West’s visits to sage

rulers on the seventh day of the seventh month (see Chapter 3), and as we

shall see shortly the Queen Mother was in addition the focus of popular wor-

ship on the seventh day of the first month.44. This issue is discussed in detail in Kominami, Chûgoku no shinwa to

monogatari , 241–257. For the classic work on the ghost festival, see Stephen

Teiser, The Ghost Festival in Medieval China. I discuss Taoist conceptions of

the fifteenth day of the seventh month as a day for judging the dead shortly.

45. Kominami, Seiòbò to tanabata denshò, 118. As I noted in Chapter

2, weaving elements resembling the Queen Mother’s  sheng have also been

found in substantial numbers in Hizen province in Kyûshû.

46. As I noted in Chapter 2, the introduction of classical Chinese divinationtexts to the court of Suiko was followed by an explosion of omen entries in the

court chronicles. These omens were frequently taken to have political import,

signifying everything from changes in the ruler’s health to Heaven’s pleasure

or displeasure with the ruler’s virtue. See Tamura Enchò,  Nihon Bukky ò shi

4:419–441. See also Como, “Ethnicity, Sagehood and the Politics of Literacy.”

47.  NSK Hakuji 1.1. SNKBZ  4:181–183.

48. Images of the Weaver Maiden in Koguryò tomb paintings are dis-

cussed briefly in Hirabayashi Akihito, Tanabata to sumò no kodaishi , 44–49.49. Shinkawa, Nihon kodai girei to hyògen, 147.

50. SNG Taihò 1.1, SNKBT 12:33. Shinkawa, Nihon kodai girei to hyògen,

141–147.

51. This is discussed at length in Shinkawa, Nihon kodai girei to hyògen,

134–141.

52. The passage in question from the Yu yang tsa tsu can be found in

a critical edition with Japanese commentary in Imamura Yoshio, trans., Yûyò

zasso 4:208. The text also suggests that the omen was met with considerable

skepticism. Although the significance of such an omen was not questioned,

the text states that courtiers believed one of the bird’s legs to be false.

53. For the origins and development of the cult of the Yatagarasu, see

Nakamura Shûya, Hatashi to Kamoshi, 46–49.

54.  NSK Jinmu, Tsuchinoe no Uma, 6.23. SNKBZ  1:204–205.

55. Shinkawa Tokio has noted that even in the court chronicles the Yata-

garasu’s role as emissary from the Sun Goddess Amaterasu has obvious paral-

lels with the role of the Three-legged Crow as emissary for the Queen Mother

of the West. Shinkawa also notes that Jinmu’s explicit characterization of the Yatagarasu as an auspicious omen closely mirrors Chinese and Japanese con-

ceptions of the auspicious nature of the Three-legged Crow ( Nihon kodai

 girei to hyògen, 151).

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   Notes to Pages 103–113 265

56. Ibid., 148–149.

57.  NSK  Suinin 90.7.14. SNKBZ 2:335.

58.  NSK  Suinin 99.3.12. SNKBZ 2:336–337.

59. See Nakamura Takashi, Chûgoku  saijishi no kenkyû,  24–48; andKominami, Seiòbò to tanabata denshò, 125.

60. Popular New Year’s rites of spirit worship in the Japanese islands are

discussed briefly in Chapter 2. The role of the rooster in New Year’s rites at

the gate is discussed in detail in Moriya, Keiso saijiki, 23–25.

61. CCSSC  1.1; Moriya , Keiso saijiki , 22. 

62. Kominami, Seiòbò to tanabata denshò, 125–126.

63. CCSSC  1.7; Moriya, Keiso saijiki, 37–38.

64. CCSSC 1.7; Moriya, Keiso saijiki, 38.

Chapter 5: Shamanesses, Lavatories,

and the Magic of Silk 

 

1. The lavatory goddess is discussed at length in Nakamura Takashi,

Chûgoku saijishi no kenkyû, 49–66. I will discuss legends associated with this

goddess again in Chapter 6.

2. The text may be found in Hsü chi chieh chi yen chiu, ed. Wang Kuo-liang, 47. See also Nakamura Takashi, Chûgoku saijishi no kenkyû, 53–54.

3. For more on this, see Nakamura Takashi, Chûgoku  saijishi no kenkyû, 

24–48 and Kominami, Seiòbò to tanabata denshò, 125. I shall discuss rites

related to the lavatory goddess again in Chapter 6.

4.  Li chi , fascicle 6. Chiang Yi-hua,  Hsin fan Li chi tu pen, 238–239.

5. Ibid., 352.

6.  NSK Kògyoku 3.7, 2. SNKBZ  4:93–95. I will discuss this cult briefly in

Chapter 6.

7. As we noted in Chapter 2, archeological discoveries of large numbers of

looms and weaving implements at shrines across the Japanese islands confirm

that female deities were regularly propitiated with objects associated with weav-

ing and sericulture. For archeological remains from the area including weaving

implements and hitogata, see Yuba Tadanori, “Saishi ibutsu no naiyò.”

8. Periodization and routes for the arrival of sericulture are discussed in

Nunome Junrò, Kinu no tòden, 113–119. For a more technical discussion of

the history of weaving in the Japanese islands, see Nunome Junrò,  Kinu to

nuno no kòkogaku.9. Weaving maidens are said to have been given to the Munakata dei-

ties in NSK  Òjin 41.2, SNKBZ  2:497. Weaving maidens are said to have been

installed at the Miwa shrine in NSK Yûryaku 14.3. SNKBZ  3:197.

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 266 Notes to Pages 113–120

10. Just what this entailed is unclear. For a recent discussion of the prac-

tice in the context of gender roles during the period, see Yoshie Akiko, Nihon

kodai no saishi to josei , esp. 1–20.

11. For Wakateru’s reign, see Piggott,  Emergence of Japanese Kingship,44–65. Throughout this paper I refer to the historical Yamato ruler as Wakateru,

but the constructed figure of the texts as Yûryaku. In this way I hope to high-

light the constructed nature of royal genealogies and ancestral legends. I also

hope to reinforce the point that weaving and weaving cults helped shape the

identity of not only various craft lineages but also of the royal house itself.

12. For diplomatic missions to both northern and southern Chinese

dynasties during this period, see Inoue Mitsusada,  “Yûryakuchò ni okeru

òken to higashi ajia.’’13. The Hata were discussed extensively in Chapter 1. For more on

 Yûryaku and the Hata, see Katò Kenkichi,  Hatashi to sono tami , 156–164. For

 Yûryaku and the Kazuraki paramounts, see also Saeki Arikiyo, “Yûryaku chò

no rekishiteki ichi,” 8–13.

14. For an extended survey of Japanese scholarship on the formation of

the be system in ancient Yamato, see Takemitsu Makoto, Kenkyûshi .

15.  NSK Yûryaku 15. SNKBZ  3:201.

16.  NSK Yûryaku 16.7. SNKBZ  3:201.17. Shinsen shòjiroku,  Yamashiro. Saeki, Shinsen shòjiroku no kenkyû

1:306.

18.  NSK  Yûryaku 6.3.7. SNKBZ  3:167.

19.  NSK Yûryaku 7.7. SNKBZ  3:168–169.

20. For the Miwa cult, see Wada, Nihon kodai no girei to saishi 3:19–84.

See also Wada Atsumu, ed., Òmiwa to Isonokami .

21. For more on this, see Chapter 1.

22. For the “Iwai rebellion,” see Oda Fujio, “Iwai no hanran,” and Oda

Fujio, ed., Iwai no ran. 

23. For archeological connections between the Yamato court and the

Munakata shrine, see Mayumi Tsunetada, “Saishi iseki no keisei”; Yuba Nori-

tomo, “Saishi ibutsu no naiyò”; and Tamura Enchò, “Munakata, Usa, Asò.”

24. The major exception, of course, is the female ancestral deity Amaterasu

no Òmikami.

25. See, for instance, Kònoshi, Kojiki no sekaikan and Kònoshi, Kojiki to

 Nihon shoki .

26. Mishina, Nissen shinwa densetsu no kenkyû, 268–270. See also Mizo-guchi, Òken shinwa no nigen kòzò, 185–191. See also Matsumae, “The Myth

of the Descent of the Heavenly Grandson.”

27. Hirabayashi, Tanabata to sumò no kodaishi , 128–129.

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   Notes to Pages 120–126 267 

28. See, for instance, Samguk sagi, Silla Pongi, Yuri Isagüm 9.7.15. Inoue

Hideo, trans., Sankoku shiki , 13.

29. The appearance of this trope in the Korean legends of kingship is

noted in Òbayashi, “Japanese Myths of Descent,” 173.30.  NSK Age of the Gods. SNKBZ 2:152–153. This is also a trope found in

the nation-founding legends from the Korean kingdoms.

31. This is discussed in Hirabayashi, Tanabata to sumò no kodaishi, 165.

Note also that Takuhata Chichi Hime was also worshipped together with the

royal ancestor Amaterasu at the inner shrine at Ise. I will discuss this in greater

detail in Chapter 7.

32.  NSK  Age of the Gods, Book 2. SNKBZ  2:143. 

33. For more on this, see Hirabayashi, Tanabata to sumò no kodaishi,164–168. The presence of the god Ama no Hoakari no Mikoto in this narrative

is also of particular note, as he was claimed as the founding ancestor of the

Kusakabe, an important service group that played a major role in the spread

of weaving cults and technologies. In Chapter 7 we shall see that descendants

of this deity also played an important role in the formation of the early cult

of Amaterasu no Òmikami.

34. I will discuss Ama no Hoakari and the Mononobe in greater detail

in Chapter 7.35.  Kojiki, Jinmu chapter. NKBZ 167. SNKBZ 1:159–161.

36. Recall, for instance, the legend cited earlier in the chapter in which

Sugaru is said to have seized the Miwa deity in the form of a snake before

bringing him before a terrified Yûryaku. For more on Kamuyaimimi no Mikoto,

 who was claimed as a founding ancestor of a number of sacerdotal lineages

associated with chimata spirit-quieting rites, see Como, Shòtoku, 105–108.

Below we shall also see that Isukeyori Hime herself was said to have been

born after a single encounter between her mother and the Miwa deity.

37.  Hizen fudoki, Matsuura district. SNKBZ 5:331–333. The translation is

from Cranston, Waka Anthology 1, 143.

38. The cultic interactions among these regions are discussed at length in

Kadowaki, Nihon kaiiki no kodaishi , 160–300.

39. For a detailed examination of archeological remains from such rites,

see Kaneko Hiroyuki, “Tojòto saishi,” 198–213.

40. This remnant from the Yamashiro fudoki can be found in SNKBZ 5:569.

The rites performed during the third stage of the festival included exhibitions

of horse-riding and archery and are known to have attracted large crowds. Therites were so popular and so boisterous that the court eventually felt compelled

to ban the participation of people from outside of Yamashiro province, appar-

ently in order to preserve public order (SNG Monmu 2.3.21, SNKBZ 12:9). 

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 268 Notes to Pages 126–133

41. The island of Iki, which is located off the coast of Chikuzen in close

proximity to the Korean peninsula, is a virtual treasure trove of ritual imple-

ments from the continent. Archeological finds from the area are discussed in

Sada Shigeru, “Oki no Shima Saishi to Hensen.” I will discuss the Iki no Urabeagain in Chapter 7.

42. The passage is quoted in the  Honchò gatsuryò, an eleventh-century

court document. The text may be found in GR 4:309–310.

43. The assertion that the father of Wake no Ikazuchi was the deity at the

Matsuno’o shrine, is also highly suggestive; recall that this shrine was not only

run by the Hata, it also housed Òmononushi’s wife, the female deity from the

Munakata shrine.

44.  Kojiki , Jinmu chapter. SNKBZ 1:157.45.  NSK Jinmu 1. SNKBZ   2:233. Such genealogical linkages go a long

 way towards explaining why Chiisakobe no Sugaru is able to pacify the Miwa

deity. They also undoubtedly help explain the common thematic motifs in the

ancestral legends of both kinship groups.

46. A great deal of evidence suggests that during the sixth century the

Miwa were closely affiliated with the Mononobe as well. See Yuba Tadanori,

“Miwa to Isonokami no saishi iseki”; Shirai Isamu, “Miwa Jinja to Isonokami

 Jingû”; and Wada Atsumu, “Saishi no genryû.”47.  NSK  Sujin 7.8.7. SNKBZ  2:273–275.

48. Wada, Nihon kodai no girei to saishi, 3:44–46.

49. Ibid., 44–45.

50. This process was discussed in Chapter 3. Note also the role of the

Mononobe liturgist Hozumi Omi no Oya Òminakuchi Sukune, whose dream

helps provide the impetus for the search along the coast of the Japan/Eastern

Sea. Since the Mononobe appear to have had a strong military and cultic

presence in Hizen following the failure of the Iwai rebellion early in the fifth

century, this appears to be strong evidence that this and the other legends in

the chapter had already begun to take shape during the Mononobe ascen-

dancy in the sixth century.

51.  Kojiki, Sujin chapter. SNKBZ 1:185–188.

52. For more on the often fearsome nature of these deities and the court’s

response to them, see Chapter 1.

53. Yoshikawa Shinji, “Kodai Tajima no sen’i seisan to ryûtsû.” For the

Kusakabe in Tajima, see Yoshida Akira. “Kodai Tajima no gòzoku to bumin.”

54. These are discussed in Kaneko Hiroyuki, “Tojò to saishi,” 213–216,and Kaneko Hiroyuki, “Bukkyò, Dòkyò.”

55.  Kojiki , Òjin chapter. SNKBZ 1:279–281.

56. This is discussed in Hirabayashi, Tanabata to sumò no kodaishi ,

166–167.

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   Notes to Pages 133–139 269

57. The lone exception I was able to find was Mayumi Tsunetada, who

rather heroically argues that the legend is reflective of metalworking tech-

nologies; see Mayumi Tsunetada, Nihon kodai saishi no kenkyû, 291.

Chapter 6: Silkworms and Consorts

 An earlier version of this chapter first appeared under the title “Silkworms

and Consorts in Nara Japan,” in  Asian Folklore Studies  64 (2005):111–131. I

am grateful to the editors for their permission to include the material in this

 volume.

1.  NSK Suiko 11.12.5. SNKBZ 3:541–542.

2.  NSK Suiko 12.4. SNKBZ 3:543–551. Although there is no evidencebefore the Nihon shoki indicating that the Seventeen Article Constitution was

actually composed by Prince Kamitsumiya or even during his lifetime, it was

almost certainly a seventh-century document. Possible sources for the Seven-

teen Article Constitution are discussed in Òno Tatsunosuke, Shòtoku taishi no

kenkyû, 171–211. My understanding of the court’s adoption of Chinese calen-

drical tropes has been shaped in large degree by Nishimoto Masahiro, Nihon

kodai girei seiritsushi no kenkyû; Shinkawa, Nihon kodai no saishi to hyògen;

and Miyake Kazuo, Kodai kokka no jingi to saishi .3. Nishimoto Masahiro, Nihon kodai girei seiritsushi no kenkyû, 9.

4.  Kaifûsò, preface. NKBT 69:58–59.

5. Sui shu, Wo chuan. In ES 29: Sui shu, 1827.

6. For the Chinese festival calendar, see Nakamura Takashi, Chûgoku 

 saijishi no kenkyû. For the ritual calendar of the Nara court, see Miyake

Kazuo, Kodai kokka no jingi to saishi .

7. For the development of such practices, see Kuhn, “Tracing a Chinese

Legend.” For weaving cults in Japan, see Hirabayashi, Tanabata to sumò no

kodaishi .

8. For this cycle of poems as well as a more general discussion of tana-

bata poetry from the period, see Kojima Noriyuki,  Jòdai Nihon bungaku to

Chûgoku bungaku, 2:1120–1153; and Watase Masatada, “Kakinomoto no

Hitomaro.”

9. This line has been repeatedly adopted by  Shimode Sekiyo, one of the

first scholars to discuss the role of Taoism in early Japan. See his Kodai shin-

 sen shisò no kenkyû and  Nihon kodai no dòkyò. On the literary front, much

the same line is taken by Kojima in his  Jòdai Nihon bungaku to Chûgokubungaku. For an excellent discussion of current debates concerning the role

of Taoism in Japan, see Kohn, “Taoism in Japan.” As Kohn notes, legends of

immortals and resurrection and so forth were not the exclusive provenance of

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 270 Notes to Pages 139–145

the Taoist tradition, and as I noted in the introduction, my concern here is not

so much with Taoist tradition as with religious practices and beliefs that could

be found across the Chinese religious spectrum during the period.

10. These texts were first identified as a set by Shinkawa Tokio in his Nihon kodai no saishi to hyògen, 23–45.

11. The translation is from Katò Genchi and Hoshino Hikoshiro, trans.,

 Kogoshûi or Gleanings from Ancient Stories , 39. This legend is also recounted

in Nihon shoki , Yûryaku 16.7, after which the Hata were dispersed to collect

silk taxes. I discussed a variant rendering of this legend in the Nihon shoki  in

Chapter 5.

12. This is suggested most famously in the fourth article of the Taika

edicts ( NSK Taika 2.1., SNKBZ 4:131–133). Although the historicity of the Taikareforms is greatly open to question, by the start of the Nara period there is

little doubt that woven products were a mainstay of both taxes and salaries at

court. Torao Toshiya states that during the period: “Produce taxes were paid

in kind on goods produced locally and required by the central government.

These were mainly textiles, especially silk and hemp cloth, but also included

dyes, lacquer, paper and salt” (“Nara Economic and Social Institutions,” 432).

For more on the role of silks in provincial taxes paid to the Nara government ,

see Yoshikawa Shinji, “Kodai Tajima no sen’i seisan to ryûtsû.”13. These are listed and discussed in detail in Takebe Yoshito,  Nihon

momenshi no kenkyû, 59–121. 

14. Numerous variations of this legend are presented in the NSK Age of

the Gods. SNKBZ 2:75–91. I will discuss it at length in Chapter 7.

15.  NSK Yûryaku 6.3. SNKBZ 3:167.

16. Chiu T’ang shu, fourth fascicle,Yung wei, 7.3. Chung-hua Shuju, 1:75.

17. Chou li, seventh fascicle. The text may be found in Lin Yi, ed., Chou

li chin chu chin fan, 307.

18. Sou shen chi , by Kan Pao, The text may be found in Huang Ti-ming,

ed., Sou shen chi , 481. I will discuss this passage further in Chapter 7.

19. This shrine later became a center of the oshira silkworm cult. For

rites and legends associated with this most unusual cult, see Konno Ensuke,

 Bajò kon’in tan. I will also discuss this shrine further in Chapter 7.

20. Kògyoku 3.7. SNKBZ 4:93–95. The translation of the song is from

Cranston, Waka Anthology 1, 120.

21. The Tsuminoe no Hijiri Hime legend cycle is discussed at length in

Shimode , Kodai shinsen shisò no kenkyû, 110–127, and Katata Osamu, Nihonkodai shinkò to Bukkyò, 39–56.

22. The translation is from Cranston’s superb Waka Anthology 1, 83. NSK

Nintoku 39.11.7. SNKBZ 3:49–50.

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   Notes to Pages 145–152 271

23.  MYS 3:386. Cranston, Waka Anthology 1, 497.

24.  Kojiki, Nintoku, part 4. SNKBZ 1:295–297.

25. Shinkawa also notes that the Wani appear to have been closely

connected with the performance of onmyòdò rites for the Nara court ( Nihon

kodai no saishi to hyògen, 32).

26. Ibid., 33.

27. I will discuss this aspect of the legend in greater detail in Chapter 7.

28.  Kojiki, Keikò chapter. SNKBZ 1:235–237. Cranston, Waka Anthology

1, 24–25.

29. Shinkawa, Nihon kodai no saishi to hyògen, 32–33.

30.  NSK  Age of the Gods, Book 1. SNKBZ 2:43. 

31.  NSK Ingyò 7.12. SNKBZ 3:115–117.32. In this regard Shinkawa notes that Kuchiko was an ancestor of the

 Wani kinship group. Because later in the legend Ikatsu and Otohime are

shown stopping at the residences of other Wani ancestors at the center of the

 Wani’s main base, he suggests that the Wani may have played an important

role in the construction of this legend ( Nihon kodai no saishi to hyògen, 29).

33.  NSK Ingyò 8.2. SNKBZ 3:119. Cranston, Waka Anthology 1, 85.

34. Hirabayashi, Tanabata to sumò no kodaishi, 150–155.

35. CCSSC  7.7. Moriya, Keiso saijiki , 155.36. Hirabayashi, Tanabata to sumò no kodaishi, 154. 

37.  NSK Nintoku 22.1. SNKBZ 3:45. Cranston, Waka Anthology 1, 80.

38. Cranston notes: “Why the cocoon should be considered ‘double-

layered’ is not clear; it has been suggested that the reference is to silkworms

that spin cocoons twice (i.e. go through two generations) in a season. The

application of the jo to the human situation must envisage the happy husband

enjoying the warmth of two bedmates at once” (Waka Anthology 1, 80).

39.  Kojiki , Nintoku chapter. SNKBZ 1:297.

40.  Po wu chih, fourth fascicle. The passage may be found in T’ang Chiu-

ch’ung, Po wu chih chiao shih, 45. Moriya also notes other such references in

classical sources in Keiso saijiki, 52.

41. Nakamura Takashi, Chûgoku  saijishi no kenkyû, 49–65. As we saw in

Chapter 5, the fifteenth day of the first month was also the date for worshiping

the lavatory goddess.

42. For worship of the stove god, see ibid., 501–503.

43. CCSSC  1.15. Moriya, Keiso saijiki , 48.

44. CCSSC   1.15. Moriya,  Keiso saijiki, 53–58. This legend can also befound in the fifth fascicle of the Yi yuan by Liu Ching-hsiu; see Fan Ning, ed.,

Yi yuan, Tan sou, 44–45.

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 272 Notes to Pages 155–160

Chapter 7: Silkworm Cults in the Heavenly Grotto

1. This is not to say that royal mythologies focused exclusively on

 Amaterasu. Another focus of worship for Yamato rulers was Takami Musubino Mikoto, an agricultural deity that we met briefly in Chapter 5. Evidence

for Takami Musubi’s ascendancy can be seen in the legend of the descent of

the Heavenly Grandchild, where most variations of the legend have Taka-

mi Musubi send the royal ancestor Ninigi no Mikoto down to the Japanese

islands. Further evidence for the importance of this deity in the early royal

cult can be seen in the Niinamesai (Festival of the Tasting of the First Fruits)

and the closely related Daijòsai, a major rite of accession. In both of these rites

Takami Musubi is the main object of worship. For more on Takami Musubino Mikoto, see Mizoguchi Mutsuko, Òken shinwa no nigen kòzò. The topic

of the Daijòsai is vast and cannot be treated in depth in a single chapter. For

more on the Daijòsai, see Kògakkan Daigaku Shintò Kenkyûjo, ed., Daijòsai

no kenkyû; Mayumi Tsunetada, Daijòsai ; Okada Seishi, Kodai saishi no shiteki

kenkyû, 85–138; and Okada Seishi, ed., Daijòsai to niiname .

2. Tenmu’s role in the development of the Chinkonsai is also discussed in

Bialock, Eccentric Spaces , 67–84. See also Ooms, Imperial Politics , 156–162.

3. The Nihon shoki provides several versions on this point. Some state thatit is a maidservant of Amaterasu’s who impales herself; others say that Amatera-

su impales herself, but that it is the maid who dies. Matsumae has argued rather

forcefully, however, that in the earliest versions in which Amaterasu appears in

the myth and in later liturgies it was assumed that it is Amaterasu who has died

and entered the cave (“The Heavenly Rock-Grotto Myth,” 10). This legend has

also been treated from the point of view of folklore studies in Miller, “Ame no

Miso-Ori Me.” See also Miller, “Of Weavers and Birds.”

4. Several variants of  this legend are listed in the  NSK  Age of the Gods.

SNKBZ 2:75–90. For the  Kojiki account, see  Kojiki , Age of the Gods. SNKBZ

1:63–69. Although Ame no Uzume is often seen as a paradigm of early Japa-

nese religiosity, Okada Seishi has argued that this goddess was not a part of

the original Ise cult ( Kodai saishi no shiteki kenkyû, 300–301).

5. For a sample of interpretive positions concerning Susanoo’s role in

this narrative, see Ebersole, Ritual Poetry , 88–101; and Naumann, “Sakahagi .”

I shall return to this topic below.

6. This theme runs throughout much of Kònoshi Takamitsu,  Kojiki to

 Nihon shoki . For a brief English-language summary of Kònoshi’s views, seeKònoshi, “Constructing Imperial Ideology.”

7. Kònoshi, “Constructing Imperial Mythology,” 55–56.

8.  Kojiki , Chûai chapter. SNKBZ 1:245.

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   Notes to Pages 160–168 273

9. Liturgical prayers (norito) recorded in the  Engishiki , an early tenth-

century ritual compendium, indicate that liturgists regularly confessed to a

similar list of sins and requested that the resulting impurities be carried away

to the underworld. See, for instance, the Tataru kami  o utsusiyaru liturgy,in Phillipi,  Norito, 70. The norito have also been collected and annotated in

 NKBT 1: Kojiki, Norito, ed. Kurano Kenji and Takeda Yûkichi.

10. Matsumae, “The Heavenly Rock-Grotto Myth,” 13.

11. Watanabe Katsuyoshi, Chinkonsai no kenkyû, 125–139.

12. Matsumae posits at least three separate layers in the rite. Citing later

liturgical traditions as well as the court chronicles, he suggests that in its earli-

est form the rite may have been one of spirit-binding that involved the tying of

knots (musubi ), and that it was then merged with a spirit-shaking rite associat-ed with the Mononobe and the Isonokami shrine. He also suggests that a third

layer was added with the re-enactment of the dance of Uzume Hime by female

members of the Sarume no Kimi, a liturgical lineage that claimed descent from

this goddess. See Matsumae, “The Heavenly Rock-Grotto Myth,” 13–14.

13. Ibid., 11. This is also briefly discussed in Òbayashi Taryò, “Japanese

Myths of Descent,” 174.

14. This was first noted in Matsumae, “Origin and Growth of the Worship

of Amaterasu,” 1–3.15.  NSK Kenzò 3.4. SNKBZ 3:253.

16. Senda Minoru, Ise Jingû, 22.

17. Kenzò 3.2. SNKBZ 3:252–253.

18. SNG  Taihò 1.4.3. SNKBT 12:39. For the archeology of this shrine, see 

Kyòto-shi Maizò Bunkazai Kenkyûjo, Shiseki Konoshima ni masu Amaterasu

 Mitama Jinja (Kaiko no Yashiro) Keidai . Note that I referred to this shrine

briefly in Chapter 6.

19. Literally, “bath person.”

20. One jò equals approximately ten feet.

21.  NSK Yûryaku 3.4. SNKBZ 2:157–159

22. Òbayashi Taryò, “Japanese Myths of Descent,” 173.

23. As we shall see shortly, Matsumae, Okada Seishi, and many others

have suggested that the deity at the Ise shrine was originally a male sun god

 who required a female shaman as a consort. This view is strongly opposed,

however, by Mizoguchi Mutsuko. See Mizoguchi, Òken shinwa no nigen kòzò,

esp. 218–240.

24. Okada Seishi, “Ise Naigû sòdenkami no seikaku to seiritsu,” 9–12.25. Ibid., 12–16.

26. Mayuzumi Hiromichi, Mononobe Sogashi to kodai òken, 91.

27.  NSK Jinmu, 76th year. SNKBZ  2:237.

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 274 Notes to Pages 169–172

28. Òbayashi, “Japanese Myths of Descent,” 175–176.

29. Teeuwen, “Sendai kuji hongi ,” 94.

30. The relationship between court rites of spirit pacification and the

Isonokami shrine are discussed at length in Matsumae Takeshi, Kodai denshò

to kyûtei saishi , 115–127.

31.  NSK Jinmu, Period Prior to Accession, SNKBZ   2:225. For more on

Mononobe legends related to Nigihayahi’s descent from the Heavenly Plain as

 well as the role of Nigihayahi in the court chronicles, see Mayuzumi Hiromichi,

 Mononobe Sogashi to kodai òken, 87–100.

32. Òbayashi, “Japanese Myths of Descent,” 176.

33. Òbayashi notes this and other extensive overlaps in thematic content

between Mononobe and Korean nation-founding legends in ibid., 171–176.34. See, for instance,  NSK Age of the Gods, SNKBZ 2:117, where Futsu-

nushi is sent to pacify rebellious spirits across the land.

35.  Nihon koki Enryaku 24.2. SZKT 3:39.

36. Watanabe, Chinkonsai no kenkyû, 139–158.

37.  Kojiki , Jinmu, Period Prior to Accession. SNKBZ 1:145–147. This legend

is also found in NSK  Jinmu, Period Prior to Accession. SNKBZ 2:203–205.

38. For possible Silla influences on the Ise shrine, see Maekawa Akihisa,

 Nihon kodai shizoku to òken no kenkyû, 262–284.39. Izumiya Yasuo has also speculated that such rites were originally

derived from the cult of Ame no Hiboko. See Izumiya Yasuo, “Mononobe to

shûkyò.” Similarities between accounts related to the Isonokami Jingû and

the Izushi shrine of Ame no Hiboko are also discussed in Taketani Hisao,

 Kodai shizoku denshò no kenkyû, 279–311. For Korean influences on the

legend cycles of Futsunushi and Susanoo, see Mishina Shòei,  Mishina Shòei

ronbunshû 2:255–329.

40.  NSK Suinin, 39.10. SNKBZ 2:329–330.

41. Equally noteworthy is the fact that the text explicitly states that the

founding ancestor of the Mononobe sublineage in charge of the shrine bore

the name of Kasuga Omi. As we saw in Chapter 6, the Kasuga Omi were also

an important branch of the Wani kinship group, which created a number of

legends about royal consorts who were called out by rulers using the vocabu-

lary of continental weaving and sericulture rites. See, for instance, the legend

of Mononobe no Me Òmuraji’s intercession on behalf of Kasuga Wani Omi

Fukame, a consort who fell into disfavor with the ruler Yûryaku when she

became pregnant after having been with him for only a single night, in  NSK Yûryaku 1.3. SNKBZ  3:150–152.

42. For an excellent illustration of how Mononobe ancestral legends

 were inscribed in the cultic landscape of the Wani, see the Muretsu chapter

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   Notes to Pages 173–174 275

of the  Nihon shoki , in which the Mononobe ancestor Kage no Hime sings a

funeral dirge for her deceased husband as she journeys to the base of Mount

Miwa, recounting each step of a journey from Isonokami across a number of

 Wani villages. NSK Muretsu, Period Prior to Accession, SNKBZ 3:273–275. Thisis also discussed in Wada Atsumu, “Yamabe no Michi no Rekishiteki Igi,” 9–14.

Similarly, in the Shinsen shòjiroku  the Kakinomoto branch of the Wani are

explicitly said to have been descended from Ichikawa and the Mononobe Iso-

nokami liturgical line known as the Furu Sukune. Shinsen shòjiroku, Yamato

Kòbetsu section. Saeki, Shinsen shòjiroku no kenkyû, 191.

43. Naoki, Nihon kodai shizoku to tennò, 269–282.

44. This is discussed briefly in Okada Seishi, Kodai saishi no shiteki ken-

kyû, 301–303.45. Suinin’s genealogy, as given in the court chronicles, also states that

his maternal grandfather was a Mononobe.

46. Further indications that the early cult of Amaterasu may have been

linked to the Mononobe can be seen in accounts in the Nihon shoki and Kojiki

that state that Amaterasu resided in the village of Kasanui in Yamato province

until she informed Yamato Hime no Mikoto that she wished to move to a

more congenial spot. Although this legend has drawn the attention of scholars

interested in the history of the institution of the Saiò, one of its most importantaspects for our purpose is the simple statement that Amaterasu was not origi-

nally from the region of the Ise shrine. By highlighting the village of Kasanui

in Yamato province as the point of departure for the cult, the text provides

an important clue as to early associations of the deity that perhaps were still

present at during Tenmu’s reign. Of further interest is the fact that the Kasanui

appear to have been a service group associated with stitching sails for court

ships. In addition an ancestor of the Kasanui is listed in the Sendai kuji hongi

as a member of the Mononobe kinship group who descended to earth along

 with the deity Amateru Kuniteru Hiko Ama no Hoakari. The connections

between Amaterasu, Yamato Hime no Mikoto, and Toyuke Hime, the goddess

of the Outer Ise shrine, later became the subject of the Yamato Hime Mikoto

no seiki , one of the fundamental texts of medieval Ise Shinto. This text may

be found in SZKT 7:479–508.

47.  NSK  Suinin 32.7.6. SNKBZ 2:325–327; Aston, Nihongi  1:180–181. 

48. This legend was discussed in Chapter 4.

49. For the Kusanagi sword of the Owari shrine, see Okada Seishi, Kodai

 saishi no shiteki kenkyû, 239–259.50. Matsumae, Kodai denshò to kyûtei saishi , 271–283

51. The Owari Muraji are discussed in detail in ibid., 269–308. For the

origins of the Atsuta shrine, see Maekawa Akihisa,  Nihon kodai shizoku to

òken no kenkyû, 306–323.

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 276 Notes to Pages 174–178 

52.  NSK Sujin, 1.2. SNKBZ 2:268.

53.  NSK Suzaku 1.9.27. SNKBZ 4:467. See also Ueda,  Kodai no Dòkyò,

54–55. Further evidence suggesting that the Yamato Takeru legend cycle was

prominent in the minds of the Tenmu court can also be seen from the Kojiki

account of Yamato Takeru’s funeral, which, as we saw in Chapter 6, con-

cludes by stating of the dirges sung for the mythic prince that “even today

they sing these songs at a tennò’s funeral.”

It would appear in addition that the funerary rites for Tenmu, the first

ruler to claim to be a manifest deity, were also used as an occasion to reas-

sert the ruler’s divine status. In this regard the legend of the Heavenly Grotto,

 which focuses upon Amaterasu’s death and triumphant resurrection, may

have served as an important ideological touchstone. Evidence for this canbe seen in funerary odes composed for Tenmu and his successors that utilize

such euphemisms for the ruler’s death as iwa gakuri (hiding in the cave), an

apparent reference to Amaterasu’s death and resurrection.

54.  NSK Suinin 25.3.10. SNKBZ 2:320–321.

55.  NSK  Keikò 40. SNKBZ 2: 386–387.

56. The motif of the immortal who leaves behind an article of clothing

after achieving ‘‘liberation from the corpse’’ was an important element in a

number of legends of Chinese immortals that appear to have little connec-tion with any Taoist liturgical tradition. Robert Ford Campany has recently

suggested that this belief can be traced to funerary rites involving figures that

impersonate the deceased (To Live as Long as Heaven and Earth, 52–60).

57. See, for instance,  NSK  Jinmu, Period Prior to Accession, SNKBZ

2:225.

58. For a discussion of the immigrant “ Kushi no kami ” Sukuna Bikona no

Mikoto and other such tokoyo deities, see Como, Shòtoku, 33–54.

59.  NSK  Age of the Gods. SNKBZ 2:167.

60.  NSK Age of the Gods. SNKBZ 2:163.

61.  NSK Age of the Gods. SNKBZ 2:175.

62. Matsumae notes in another context that in Heian-period liturgies for

the Chinkonsai, this motif is also seen in the shaking of a “soul-box” (“The

Heavenly Rock-Grotto Myth,” 13). As we saw in Chapter 4, the Kusakabe also

claimed to be direct descendants of Ama no Hoakari no Mikoto.

63.  Kojiki , Keikò chapter. NKBT 215. For more on this and other legends

concerning combs and immortality, see Como, Shòtoku, 99–100.

64.  Engishiki , section ten. SZKT  26:312.65. This legend is discussed in the context of early conceptions of tokoyo 

in Sugano Masao,  Kojiki setsuwa no kenkyû, 192 –229. For a detailed look at

the relationship between this legend and legends concerning Yamato Takeru’s

mother and the Kataoka beggar, see Como, Shòtoku, 100–102.

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   Notes to Pages 179–190 277 

66.  Harima fudoki  (Records of the customs and land of Harima), Kago

district, Hire no Oka. SNKBZ  5:23.

67.  NSK Suiko 21.11.2. SNKBZ 3:570–571.

68. Como, Shòtoku, 104.69. I have derived Table 4 from Matsumae, “Origin and Growth of the

 Worship of Amaterasu,” 1–3; and Senda, Ise Jingû, 17–22.

70. This is the conclusion of Matsumae, who argues that while the royal

line may have originally used a rite centered on Takami Musibi, in which the

ruler’s spirit was bound with knots to prevent it from leaving during the win-

ter solstice, the spirit-calling function of the rite was most likely a contribution

of the Mononobe (“The Heavenly Rock-Grotto Myth,” 17–19).

71. Senda, Ise Jingû, 20.72. For a history of silkworm cults and goddesses in China, see Kuhn,

“Tracing a Chinese Legend.”

73. The passage may be found in Wang Kuo-liang, Hsu chi chieh chi yen

chiu, 40.

74. CCSSC , 3rd month, 3rd day. Moriya, Keiso saijiki , 100.

75. Sou shen chi, Book 14, #351. In Huang Ti-ming, ed., Sou shen chi ,

480–481. This legend is also discussed from a structural point of view in

Miller, “The Woman Who Married a Horse.” For a discussion of the role ofthe Sou shen chi in the formation of early Chinese tale literature, see Kenneth

DeWoskin, “The ‘Sou shen chi’ and the ‘Chih-kuai’ Tradition.”

76. The oshira cult has been well studied by Konno Ensuke in his  Bajò

kon’in tan.

77.  NSK Age of the Gods. SNKBZ 2:59–60. There is some evidence that

the linkage between the moon deity and sericulture may also have conti-

nental roots. In China the arrival of the first full moon of the New Year, on

the fifteenth day of the first month, was also a festival closely associated

 with women and with silkworms. This is discussed thoroughly in Nakamura

Takashi, Chûgoku saijishi no kenkyû, 49–66.

78.  NSK Age of the Gods. SNKBZ 2:60–61.

79. The ancient Korean word for the top of the head is homophonous

 with horse, while the word for forehead is virtually identical with millet and

so forth. This is discussed in  NSK  Age of the Gods. SNKBZ 2:60, n.4. Mishina

Shòei, Nissen shinwa densetsu no kenkyû, 257–258.

80.  NSK Age of the Gods. SNKBZ  2:61.

 

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295 

Index

 Abe no Kotoshiro, 162–164, 166, 189,197, 219

 Abe no Kunimi, 164–166, 197, 218 Akaru Hime: Ame no Hiboko and,

43, 54, 131–132, 162, 197–198;animal sacrifice and, 45, 53;cowherd deities and, 44, 197, 221;epidemics and, 40, 197; Himegososhrines and, 40, 44, 50, 111, 118,197, 205; Jingû kògò and, 216; askarakami, 41, 43–45, 51, 53–54,

78; as Kyûshû deity, 40, 78, 118,135, 162, 197; Mononobe and, 40,43, 106, 123, 260n.16; Munakatadeities and, 40, 118, 123;Sumiyoshi shrine and, 216; sundeities and, 165, 249n.53; Tsunoga Arashito and, 44–45, 51, 53–54,197; as vengeful goddess, 40, 54,111, 118, 124, 131, 197; weavingimplements and, 40–41, 43, 106,

111, 118, 123, 162, 197 Ama no Hoakari no Mikoto: Amaterasu and, 122, 163, 167–168,180–183, 267n.33; Amaterushrines and, 163, 179, 181, 183;Heavenly Grandchild legendand, 122, 163, 167, 180–181; Hono Suseri and, 121, 177–178, 209;Konohana Sakiya Hime and,121–122, 163, 167, 180, 198, 209;

Kusakabe kinship group and,172, 198, 210, 260n.13, 276n.62;Mononobe kinship group and,156, 163, 168, 172, 179, 181,

198, 212, 267n.34; Owari Murajikinship group and, 122, 156,163, 172, 181–182, 198, 213; Wanikinship group and, 156–157,172–173, 179, 198; Yamato Takeruand, 156–157, 172, 174, 177, 181,222, 275n.46

 Amaterasu: Ama no Hoakari and, 122,163, 167–168, 180–183, 267n.33, Amateru shrines and, 162,163–165, 181–183, 189, 209–210;

Chinkonsai and, xx, 60, 108,156, 169, 180, 204; consecratedprincesses and, 81, 175, 253n.19,277n.46; Heavenly Grandchildlegend and, 122, 163, 167, 180,183, 185; Heavenly Grotto and,xx, 60, 141, 156, 158–159, 166, 181,188, 204, 276n.53; horses and, 159,184–186; immigrant lineages and,183, 189–191, 198; Konoshima

ni masu Amateru Jinja, 164, 209;Mononobe and, 181–183, 202,275n.46; Niinamesai and, 82,158, 167; Oshira cult and, 188;resurrection and, 60, 156, 158–159,166, 192, 202, 272n.3; as royalancestor, xx–xxi, 155; as silkwormgoddess, xxi, 135, 183, 188–191;sun gods and, 197, 249n.53;Susanoo and, 141, 158–159, 181,

185, 204, 217; Takami Musubi and,162–163, 167, 182, 217, 272n.1;Takuhata Hime and, 164–165, 167,267n.31; Tenmu and, 155, 158–159,

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 296 Index 

185, 219, 253n.19; Toyouke Himeand, 81, 188–190, 218, 275n.46;Tsukiyomi Mikoto and, 163–164,

166, 188–189, 210, 219; as weavingmaiden, 141, 158–159, 167; UzumeHime and, 159, 220, 272n.4,272n.12; Yamato Hime and, 175,206, 221, 229, 277n.46; YamatoTakeru and, 156, 221, 276n.53; Yatagarasu and, 103, 222, 264n.55

 Amateru shrines: Ama no Hoakariand, 163, 179, 181, 183; Amaterasuand, 162, 163–165, 181–183, 189,

209–210; immigrant lineagesand, 164, 180, 182–183, 189;Konoshima nimasu AmateruMitama Jinja and, 164, 181,182, 189; Kyûshû lineages and,162–163, 180; Mononobe kinshipgroup and, 168–169, 182, 275n.46

 Ama yorozu taku hata chi hata hime.See  Takuhata Chichi Hime

 Ame no Hiboko: Akaru Hime and,

43–44, 53–54, 132, 162, 197, 216;as cowherd deity, 43–44, 53–54,197–198, 221; Izushi Otome and,131–132, 198, 207; Izushi shrineand, 131–132; Jingû kògò and,207, 216, 241n.17; Mitoshi noKami and, 43–44, 221; MiyakeMuraji and, 173, 212; sun deitiesand, 162; Tajima Mori and, 173,212, 217; Tsunoga Arashito and,44, 53–54, 197

animal sacrifice, xi–xiv, xviii–xix,25–32, 36–39, 41–42, 45, 47, 50– 55, 105, 186, 196, 209, 248n.39,248n.44

 Atsumori, 86–87, 90, 107, 198 Atsuta shrine, 12, 174, 177, 199, 210,

213, 275n.51 Azeko, 40, 43, 123, 249n.49, 260n.16

Benshò, 16, 199, 204, 242n.37Bu, Great King. See  YûryakuBureau of Yin and Yang (Onmyòryò),

219, 234

Chiisakobe kinship group: Hatakinship group and, 116, 126, 130– 131, 193, 200; Kamuyaimimi no

Mikoto and, 122, 199, 216; Miwakinship group and, 117, 126,131, 134, 193, 211, 216, 268n.45;Òmononushi and, 117, 122, 124,268n.45; as sacerdotal lineage,117, 122, 124, 126–127, 130–131,134, 193, 268n.45; sericulture ritesand, 116–117; thunder deitiesand, 117, 127, 268n.45; weavinglineages and, 116; Yûryaku and,

116–117, 200Chiisakobe Sugaru, 116–117, 267n.36,

268n.45chimata: Hata kinship group and,

125; hitogata and, 33, 107, 199;Mononobe kinship group and,91–94, 202, 261n.20; Òfube noÒshi and, 261n.21; purificationand, 33, 199; spirit quietingand, 33, 199, 202, 206, 247n.45,

261n.20, 267n.39; strategicimportance of, 91, 199, 246n.16

Chinese festival calendar: animalsacrifice and, xii–xiii, xix, 26, 35– 39, 41, 45, 53–55, 105; Ching ch’u

 sui shih chi  and, 38, 58–61, 98,105, 111, 149, 152–153, 185, 231,234, 238n.4; kusagari and, xix,58, 60, 65, 185, 210; nodal daysand, 58, 60, 62, 137, 184–185, 195,210, 231–232, 248n.34, 248n.36;Queen Mother of the West and,62, 99–100, 102, 104–107, 214,264n.33; Suiko court and, xi,33–35, 45, 58, 60, 83, 85, 89, 137,146, 149, 153, 155, 210, 211, 216,234; technologies and, xi–xiii,xviii, 34, 41, 45, 53–55, 84, 112,117, 135, 153; Weaver Maiden and

Cowherd and, xii, xix–xx, 26, 38– 39, 105, 148–149, 184, 186, 221; yin and yang and, xi–xii, 34–36,54–56, 60, 109, 114, 139–140, 153,185, 195, 247n.24

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   Index 297 

Chinkonsai (Mitama shizume matsuri): Amaterasu and, xx, 60, 108, 156,169, 180, 204; Futsunushi no

Mikoto and, 170; Heavenly Grottolegend and, xx, 60, 156–157, 159– 161, 180, 182, 184–185, 199, 204,276; Hòzò and, 60, 161, 173, 175;Isonokami shrine and, 93, 169– 171, 199, 261n.20; Mononobe and,93, 108, 157, 161, 169–171, 175,180, 182, 199, 206, 212, 220, 224– 225, 261n.20, 273n.12, 277n.66;Umashimaji and, 93, 168, 220

Chûai, 12, 160, 200, 207, 216, 242n.27cinnabar, 65–66, 222, 254n.33, 254n.36combs, 72–74, 80, 177–180, 256n.55,

276n.63consecrated princess (Saiò, Saiin):

Ise shrine and, 81, 165, 173, 175,253n.19, 277n.46; Kamo shrinesand, 4, 22; Tenmu and, 155, 173,175; Yamato Hime as, 174–176,206, 221, 229

Daianji, 11, 19, 51, 68, 200, 202,250n.58, 251n.69

Dòji, 10–11, 16, 19, 200, 202, 225, 235,243n.50, 250n.58

Dòkyò, 196, 201, 204, 209, 229, 235,255n.32, 258n.79

Dòshò, 19–20, 67, 201, 203Dòtò, 46–47, 49, 51, 53, 100–101, 201,

250

elixirs. See  medicine huntsEma kinship group, 46–47, 51, 201Enma (King Yama), 48–49, 195,

250n.63En no Gyòja, 66, 201, 203, 235,

255n.39

female immortals: Heavenly Maiden

of Suruga as, 74–76, 184, 216–217;Nuribe Hime as, 75–76, 78, 83,213, 257n.65; Takakara Megamias, 71, 76, 83, 176, 217, 259n.80;Toyouke Hime as, 57, 78, 80–81,

176, 229; Tsuminoe no HijiriHime as; 57, 78, 80–81, 176, 229;Uranoshimako and, 57, 72–75,

176–177, 180, 220; Weaver Maidenand, 74, 77, 120–121, 204, 216,221, 234

fruit of immortality: peaches as, 97– 99, 105, 185, 232; Queen Motherof the West and, 97–99, 104–105,173, 232, 263n.42; tachibana as,94, 99–100, 103–104, 107, 143,261n.21, 263n.35, 263n.42; TajimaMori and, 103–104, 205, 212, 214,

217Fujiwara Fuhito, 75–76, 209, 215Fujiwara Kadono, 17, 204Fujiwara kinship group: epidemics

and, 10–11; Hata kinship groupand, 16–18, 21–23, 199, 242n.37,243n.41; Hòryûji and, 10–11;Kusuko incident and, 17, 211;Tòshi kaden and, 226, 249n.54;Tsunoga and, 226, 249n.54;

twenty-two shrine-temple systemand, 21–23

Fujiwara Nakanari, 16–17, 202, 211Fujiwara Tanetsugu, 16–17, 201–202Fujiwara Umakai, 16, 201, 204,

242n.38, 246n.20Fukunaga Mitsuji, xiv–xv, 2, 56, 251n.2Fushimi Inari shrine: Hata kinship

group and, 5, 13, 20, 193, 202;Kamo shrines and, 5, 18, 193,202; Tòji and, 20, 202, 210

Futsunushi no Mikoto: Chinkonsaiand, 170, Isonokami shrine and,169–170, 202, 206; Jinmu and,169–170, 170–171, 202, 206; asMaster Shaker, 170–171, 202;Mononobe kinship group and,169–170, 202, 206; spirit shakingand, 169–171

Gomyò: Gumonjihò and, 19–20, 67,202, 243n.51; Hata kinship groupand, 19–20, 22, 24, 67, 243n.51;Saichò and, 24, 202, 243n.51

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 298 Index 

Gonsò: Gumonjihò and, 19–20, 67,202, 243n.51; Hata and, 19–20, 22,24, 67, 243n.51; Saichò and, 24,

202, 243n.51Gosechimai dance, 62, 80–81, 217,228, 248n.36, 253n.21, 259n.80

Great Buddha of Nara, 10, 17, 200,201, 215

Gumonjihò: Daianji and, 19, 200; Dòjiand, 19, 200, 235; Dòshò and, 18,201; Gomyò and, 19–20, 67, 202,243n.51; Gonsò and, 19–20, 67,202, 243n.51; Hata kinship group

and, 19–20, 67, 202–203, 243n.51;Kûkai and, 18–19, 67, 210, 226,243n.51; Yoshino and, 19, 67, 203

Hachiman, 14, 18, 20, 22, 196, 203,242n.32

Hakuji, 100–102, 203Hata kinship group: Amaterasu and,

164, 182–184, 189, 191, 197;Chiisakobe kinship group and,

116, 126, 130–131, 193, 200;Fujiwara kinship group and, 16– 18, 21–23, 199, 242n.37, 243n.41;Fushimi Inari shrine and, 5, 13,20, 193, 202; Gumonjihò and,19–20, 67, 202–203, 243n.51;Heian capital and, xviii, 4, 6,193, 203; Kamo shrines and,4–5, 7, 18, 20–22, 103, 125–128,131, 134; Kokûzò and, 18–19;Konoshima ni masu AmateruMitama Jinja, 164, 182, 189, 197;Kòryûji and, 18–19, 201; Kûkaiand, 6, 18–20, 24, 201–202,243n.51; Matsuno’o shrine and,5–6, 10, 18, 20–22, 42, 127, 135,164, 189, 193, 202, 205, 211, 214,220, 244n.54, 268n.43; Munakatadeities, 13, 18, 42, 120, 125,

242n.30, 268n.43; Òyamakui noMikoto and, 20, 42, 205, 211, 214,220; Saga and, 4, 18, 20–21, 134,214; Shòtoku and, 8, 10, 19, 24,183, 197, 241n.27

Hata no Asamoto, 16, 199, 201, 204,242n.37

Hata no Shimamaro, 16–17, 204

Heavenly Grandchild (Ninigi noMikoto): Ama no Hoakari, 122,163, 167, 180–181; Amaterasuand, 122, 163, 167, 180, 183,185; Konohana Sakiya Himeand, 120–122, 163, 180, 209;pregnancy in a single night motifin, 120–121; Takami Musubi and,120, 217

Heavenly Grotto legend: Ama no

Hoakari and, 122, 163, 167,180–181; Amaterasu and, xx, 60,141, 156, 158–159, 166, 181, 188,204, 276n.53; Chinkonsai and, xx,60, 156–157, 159–161, 180, 182,184–185, 199, 204, 276; Òharaeand, 156–157, 159, 161, 204, 211;resurrection and, 60, 156, 158– 159, 166, 192, 202, 272n.3; TakamiMusubi and, 162–163, 167, 182,

217, 272n.1Heavenly Maidens. See  female

immortalsHeizei: Fujiwara kinship group and,

16–17, 202, 211, 242n.38; Kusukoincident and, 4, 16–17, 202, 211,214; Saga and, 4, 211, 240n.13

Hibasu Hime: fruit of immortalityand, 173, 205; Inishiki Irihikoand, 172, 205–206, 221; Kusakabekinship group and, 172–173, 210,218; Tajima Mori and, 173, 205; Wani kinship group and, 173,218; Yamato Hime and, 172–173,205–206, 221

Hiei, Mount. See  Hiyoshi shrinesHiko Hoho Demi no Mikoto, 121–122,

209Himegoso shrines, 40, 43–44, 50–51,

111, 118, 135, 197–198, 205,249n.48hitogata, xi, xix, 33, 48–49, 52, 54,

94–95, 107, 110, 205, 246n.21,246n.22, 265n.7

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   Index 299

Hiyoshi shrines, 5, 20–22, 42, 193,205, 214–215, 220, 244n.54,249n.47

hokai, 93, 206, 261n.20Ho no Suseri no Mikoto, 121, 177, 209Hòryûji, 11, 18–19, 101, 107, 200, 206,

209, 215, 225, 243, 263n.35Hòzò: Chinese festival calendar and,

60, 173, 175, 206; Chinkonsai and,60, 161, 173, 175; medicine huntsand, 60; Shòkonsai, 60, 161, 175,206; Tenmu and, 60, 161, 173,175, 206

Ikutamayori Hime, 129–130, 213, 215Inishiki Irihiko: Hibasu Hime and,

172, 205–206, 221; Isonokamishrine and, 171, 206; Mononobekinship group and, 171, 206

Ise shrines: Abe no Kunimi and,164–166, 197, 218; consecratedprincesses and, 155, 164–166, 169,172–173, 197, 253n.19; Jitò and,

155, 210, 253n.19; regalia and, 39;royal cult and, 21, 155–157, 159,164–165, 169, 227, 273n.23; Sillaand, 166, 171, 274n.38; TakuhataChichi Hime and, 165–167 218,267n.37; Takuhata Hime and,164–167, 218; Tenmu and, 155,173–175, 181, 219, 253n.19;Toyouke Hime and, 57, 78, 81–82,166, 219, 229; Yamato Hime and,172, 174–176, 211, 229, 275n.46; Yamato Takeru and, 156, 173–176,181, 211, 221

Isonokami shrine: Chinkonsai and, 93,169–171, 199, 261n.20, Futsunushino Mikoto and, 169–170, 202,206; Inishiki Irihiko and, 171–172,206; Isonokami chimata and, 92;Mononobe kinship group and, 93,

169–173, 175, 179, 206; regalia and,170–171, 206; resurrection ritesand, 93, 175–176, 220; twenty-twoshrine-temple system and, 21

Isonokami chimata, 92, 206

Isukeyori Hime, 122, 128, 212, 267n.36Iwa no Hime, 144–148, 150, 152–153,

212

Izushi Hime. See  Izushi OtomeIzushi Otome, 131–134, 198, 207Izushi shrine, xx, 112, 125, 131–132,

134, 154, 274n.39

 Jingû kògò, 12, 14, 22, 200, 207, 238,241n.17, 242n.27, 244n.56

 Jinmu: Futsunushi Mikoto and,170–171, 202; Isukeyori Himeand, 122, 128; Mononobe kinship

group and, 93, 168–170, 202,207, 220; Òtomo kinship groupand, 64–65, 103, 207; Yatagarasuand, 102–103, 208, 222, 264n.55; Yoshino and, 64–65, 69, 82, 122,207, 254n.32

 Jitò: Ise shrine and, 155, 210, 253n.19;Prince Kusakabe and, 62–63, 70,210, 224; Tenmu and, 61–62, 210,253n.25; Yoshino and, 62–63, 75,

81, 210

Kamitsumiya, Prince. See  ShòtokuKamo Agata Nushi kinship group:

Hata kinship group and, 4–5, 7,18, 20–22, 103, 125–128, 131, 134,207; Yatagarasu and, 103, 208, 222

Kamo shrines: consecrated princessand, 4, 22; Hata kinship groupand, 4–5, 7, 18, 20–22, 103, 125– 128, 131, 134; Matsuno’o shrineand, 20, 42, 205, 211, 220; MioayaKami and, 5, 127, 208; Òyamakuino Mikoto and, 20, 42, 205, 211,220; Saga and, 4, 6–7, 18, 20–21,134, 211, 214; Tamayori Hiko and,126, 208, 218; Tamayori Himeand, 126, 208, 218; Wake noIkazuchi no Kami and, 20, 211,

220, 268n.43Kamu Yaimimi no Mikoto: Chiisakobekinship group and, 122, 199,216; Isukeyori Hime, 122, 128;Òmononushi and, 122

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 300 Index 

karakami: animal sacrifice and,xviii–xix, 25–26, 41, 50; Chinesefestival calendar and, 25–26, 41,

193, 196; continental technologiesand, 26, 53; as cowherd deities,43–44, 53–54, 197–198, 221;immigrant lineages and, xviii–xix,21–23, 25–26, 41–42, 50–51, 54,193–195, 208; as local deities, 25– 26, 50; twenty-two shrine-templesystem and, 21–23, 196

Kasuga no Omi kinship group, 172,202, 221, 274n.41

Keikò: Hibasu Hime and, 205, 218; Waki no Iratsume and, 220; Yamato Hime and, 205, 221; Yamato Takeru and, 211, 220–221

Kitora kofun, 34, 208, 247n.30Koguryô: Dòtò and, 201, 250n.58;

immigrant lineages and, 47, 51,125, 212, 220, 251; medicine huntsand, 58; omens and, 101; ritualcalendar and, 58, 120; River Earl

and, 214; Sui dynasty and, 136;tomb paintings and, 101, 198,264n.48; Tsunoga and, 51, 125,220; Yamashiro and, 47, 51, 125,250n.58; Yûryaku and, 93

Kògyoku (Saimei), 11–12, 30–31, 66,209, 246n.18

Kòken (Princess Abe), 70, 196, 201,202, 209, 215, 235, 255n.39,258n.79

Kokubunji, 3, 9–11, 14, 17, 23, 200,209, 215

Kokûzò (Space Buddha): astrologyand, 67, 252n.53; Dòji and, 19,200; Gumonjihò and, 18–19, 67,200, 202, 209, 226, 235, 252n.54;Hata kinship group and, 18–19;Kòryûji and, 18–19, 201; Kûkaiand, 18–19, 24, 200, 226; Yoshino

and, 67, 243n.43Kòmyò, 10–11, 200, 209 Kongò hannya haramitsu kyò, 31,

52–53, 235Kònin, 16, 18, 202

Konohana Sakiya Hime: Ama noHoakari and, 121–122, 163, 167,180, 198, 209; Amaterasu and,

121–122, 163, 167, 180, 198, 209;Heavenly Grandchild and, 120– 122, 163, 180, 209; pregnancy insingle night motif and, 121–122,180, 209; as weaving maiden,120, 135, 163, 180, 183, 209

Konoshima nimasu Amateru Mitama Jinja: Amaterasu and, 164, 209; Amateru shrines and, 164,181–182, 189; Hata kinship group

and, 164, 182, 189, 197; Oshiracult and, 188; silkworm cults and,164, 183, 188–189, 209

Kòryûji: Dòshò and, 19, 201; Hatakinship group and, 18–19, 201;Kokûzò and, 18–19, 201

Kuchiko no Omi, 145–148, 150,271n.32

Kûkai, 6, 18–20, 24, 67, 201–202, 210,226, 240n.9, 243n.45, 243n.51

Kunlun, Mount, 97, 104, 214, 263n.34kusagari (medicine hunts), xix, 58, 60,

65, 185, 210Kusakabe kinship group: Ama no

Hoakari and, 122, 172, 198, 210,260n.13, 276n.62, Gyòki and,69–70, Hakuji and, 100–102, 203,Hibasu Hime and, 172–173, 210,218, Mononobe kinship groupand, 83, 92, 101, 107, 180, 198,Òtomo kinship group and, 70–72,80, 82, 124, 254n.32; PrinceKusakabe and, 70, Shinoharano Otohime and, 122–124, 215,251n.66; Uranoshimako and,72–73, 177, 220

Kusakabe, Prince, 62–63, 70, 207, 210,256n.48

Kusanagi Sword: Atsuta shrine and,

12, 174, 199, 210; Owari Murajikinship group, 174, 181, 199, 213;Tenmu and, 12, 174, 181, 199, 211; Yamato Takeru and, 173–174, 181,199, 211

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   Index 301

Kusuko incident, 3–5, 16–18, 134, 211,214

Kwall∆k, 33–34, 45, 211

Lavatory goddess: ancestral legendsand, 124, 131, 133, 211; Chinesefestival calendar and, 111, 113,211, 271n.41; household deitiesand, 110, 124, 211; sericultureand, 110, 124, 133, 152, 211

liberation from the corpse: 176–177,179–181, 221–222, 229, 276n.56; Ama no Hoakari and, 180–181;

Chinese beliefs and, 276n.56;Kataoka beggar and, 179, 180;Oto Tachibana Hime and, 180;Toyouke Hime and, 229; Wakino Iratsume and, 180, 199, 221; Yamato Takeru and, 176–177, 180,222

Matsuno’o shrine: Hata kinship groupand, 5–6, 10, 18, 20–22, 42, 127,

135, 164, 189, 193, 202, 205,211, 214, 220, 244n.54, 268n.43;Hiyoshi shrines and, 20, 42,205, 214, 220, 243n.52; Kamoshrines and, 20, 42, 205, 211, 220;Òyamakui and, 20, 42, 205, 211,220; Tendai and, 20, 205

Matsuura, 71–72, 122, 124, 131,258n.71

medicine hunts (kusagari), xix, 58, 60,65, 185, 210

 Michiae matsuri  (Rite of RoadsideOfferings), 51–53, 43, 47, 91, 211,246n.18

Mitoshi no Kami: Ame no Hibokoand, 43–44, 221; animal sacrificeand, 41–44, 212; cowherd deitiesand, 43–44, 221; karakami and,43, 221, Kogoshûi  and, 41–42, 44,

212; Toshigoi matsuri and, 41–42,212Miwa kinship group: Chiisakobe

kinship group and, 117, 126, 131,134, 193, 211, 216, 268n.45; Kamo

no Kimi kinship group and,128–129, 213; Òmononushi and,117–118, 128; Òtataneko and,

128–129, 213Miwa shrine: Izushi shrine and,133–134; Kamo shrines and, 128,133–134; Mononobe kinshipgroup and, 157; Munakata shrinesand, 117–118, 265n.9; òmononushiand, 117–118, 128; òtataneko and,128–129, 213; sacerdotal lineagesand, 128–129, 135; weavers and,113, 118, 265n.9; Yûryaku and,

117–118Miyake kinship group: Ame no

Hiboko and, 173, 212; fruit ofimmortality and, 103–104, 212;Hibasu Hime and, 173, 205;Queen Mother of the West and,103–104, 173; Shòtoku and, 103;Tajima Mori and, 103–104, 173,212

Mononobe kinship group: Akaru

Hime and, 40, 43, 106, 123,260n.16; Ama no Hoakari and,156, 163, 168, 172, 179, 181, 198,212, 267n.34; Amaterasu and,122, 163, 167–168, 180–183,267n.33; Amateru shrines and,168–169, 182, 275n.46; Atsumorieffect and, xix, 86–87, 90, 107;chimata and, 91–94, 202, 261n.20;Chinkonsai and, 93, 108, 157,161, 169–171, 175, 180, 182, 199,206, 212, 220, 224–225, 261n.20,273n.12, 277n.66; foundinglegend of Japanese Buddhismand, xix, 69–70, 83–88, 90, 95–96107; Fumi no Obito and, 94–95,104; Futsunushi no Mikoto and,169–170, 202, 206; Isonokamishrine and, 93, 169–173, 175, 179,

206; Jinmu and, 93, 168–170, 202,207, 220; Korean Peninsula and,91–92, 112, 157, 169, 171, 182,193; Kusakabe kinship groupand, 83, 92, 101, 107, 180, 198;

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 302 Index 

Òharae and, 95, 104, 186; OwariMuraji and, 157, 163, 172, 177, 181,213; Sendai kuji hongi  and, 93,

163, 168–170, 172, 174, 198–199,212, 220, 223–224, 297n.46; Wanikinship group and, 172, 176–177,179–180, 182, 274n.41, 274n.42; Yûryaku and, 91, 93–94, 157, 170,174, 222, 274n.41

Mononobe no Yuge Moriya, 69–70, 88,95–96

moon deity. See  Tsukiyomi no MikotoMunakata Cult: Hata kinship group

and, 13, 18, 42, 120, 125, 242n.30,268n.43; as Kyûshû deities, 14, 18,39, 78, 118–119, 125; Matsuno’oshrine and, 13, 18, 42, 268n.43;Miwa shrine and, 118, 268n.43; Weaving deities and, 39; Weavingofferings and, 42, 113, 118,249n.49, 265n.9

Nara Osa, 51, 53, 212, 251n.67

Nigihayahi no Mikoto, 163, 168–169,171, 198, 212, 220, 224, 274n.31

 Nihon ryòiki , 15, 26, 45–46, 48–51,53–54, 66, 68–70, 76, 84, 100, 122,180, 195, 200–201, 213, 225–226,233–235, 250n.62, 255n.39,257n.39

Nihu Kami, 63–66, 244n.57, 254n.28,254n.33, 254n.36

Ninigi no Mikoto. See  HeavenlyGrandchild

Nintoku, 144–145, 150, 212Norito, 159, 213, 227, 273n.9Nukadabe kinship group, 200, 250n.58Nunoshiki no Omi Kinume, 48–49,

52, 213Nuribe Hime, 75–76, 78, 83, 213,

257n.65Nurinomi, 150–151, 183

Òfube no Òshi, 143, 154, 183, 213,261n.21

Òharae (Rite of Great Purification):bestiality and, 160, 185; Chinese

deities and, 94–95, 104, 108,186; Chinkonsai and, 108,156–157, 161; Chûai and, 161,

200; founding legend of JapaneseBuddhism and, 95, 104, 108;Fumi no Obito and, 94–95,104; Heavenly Grotto legendand, 156–157, 159, 161, 204, 211;hitogata and, 95, 104; Mononobeand, 95, 104, 186; Susanoo and,159, 185, 204

Okinoshima shrine, 39–40, 170Òmononushi: Chiisakobe kinship

group and, 117, 122, 124, 268n.45,Hiyoshi shrines and, 205; Kamono Kimi kinship group and, 212– 213; Miwa kinship group and,118, 122, 124, 212–213; MunakataDeities and, 118, 268n.43;Òtataneko and, 128–129, 213;Seyatadera and, 128; as thunderdeity, 117–118, 128; Yûryaku and,117–118

onmyòdò. See  yin and yangOnmyòryò (Bureau of Yin and Yang),

219, 234Oshira cult, 187–188, 270n.19, 277n.76Òtataneko no Mikoto, 129–130, 208,

212–213Òtomo kinship group: founding

legend of Japanese Buddhismand, 69–70; Gyòki and, 70; Jinmu and, 64, 103, 207; Koreanpeninsula and, 71–72, 122, 193,215, 256n.49; Kusakabe kinshipgroup and, 70–72, 80, 82, 124,254n.32; medicine and, 71–72, 78,82; Shòtoku and, 69–70; Tenmuand, 65; Yamato Kusushi and,71–72, 78; Yoshino and, 64, 71,80, 82, 103, 207

Òtomo no Sadehiko, 71–72, 78, 122– 

124, 215, 251n.66Òtomo no Yasunoko no Muraji, 69–70Owari Muraji: Ama no Hoakari and,

122, 156, 163, 172, 181–182, 198,213; Atsuta shrine and, 174,

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   Index 303

177, 199, 213, 275n.51; Kusanagisword and, 174, 181, 199, 213;Mononobe kinship group and,

157, 163, 172, 177, 181, 213;Tenmu and, 174, 176, 181, 213; Yamato Takeru and, 156, 172, 176,177, 181, 199, 213, 222

Òyamakui no Mikoto: Hata kinshipgroup and, 20, 42, 205, 211, 214,220, Hiyoshi shrines and, 20,42, 205, 214, 220, 243n.52; Kamoshrines and, 20, 211, 214, 220;Matsuno’o shrine and, 20, 42,

205, 211, 220; Munakata deitiesand, 42, 268n.43; Tamayori Himeand, 20; Tendai sect and, 20, 205; Wake no Ikazuchi and, 20, 211,220, 268n.43

peaches. See  fruit of immortality pregnancy in single night motif, 43,

121, 123, 127–128, 133–134,274n.41

Queen Mother of the West: Chinesefestival calendar and, 62, 99–100,102, 104–107, 214, 264n.33;Chinese mythology and, 62, 73,82, 85, 96–98, 104, 109, 214, 232– 233, 248n.37, 262n.31, 264n.33;founding legend of Buddhismand, 86, 96, 106–107, 214; fruitof immortality and, 62, 82, 98,104–105, 205, 214; Han Wu-ti and,62, 97–99, 232, 248n.37; land ofimmortals and, 83, 98, 104, 109,176, 205, 214, 262n.31; Òharaeand, 95–96, 186; sage rulers and,62, 73, 82, 98, 104, 214, 253n.23,264n.33; sheng and, 97, 99–100,105–107, 264n.45; Three LeggedCrow and, 97–98, 100–101, 214,

262n.33, 264n.55; tombs and, 98,100–101, 106; weak waters and,96, 104; Weaver Maiden and, xii,xx, 105, 214

rain making: animal sacrifice and, 31– 32, 209; Chinese festival calendarand, 36, 140; kingship and, 30– 

32, 85, 209, 246n.19; markets and,31–32; Nihu Kami and, 85; RiverEarl and, 31, 214, 246n.15

resurrection, xx, 80, 93, 121, 139,143, 145, 154, 157–158, 168–169,174, 176, 179, 180–182, 184, 186,188, 190–192, 199, 212, 220–221,269n.9, 276n.53

River Earl, 31–32, 39, 214, 246n.15,248n.44

Saga, 4, 6–7, 15, 18, 20–21, 134, 211,214, 242n.38

sages: Chinese conceptions of, 7, 82,98, 104, 155, 214, immortalityand, 82, 104, 214, 225; kingshipand, 15, 62, 82, 98, 104, 155, 214;Queen Mother of the West and,62, 82, 98, 104, 214; Shòtoku and,85, 107, 216, 225, 229; Tajima Mori

as, 212; Tenmu and, 81–82Saichò, 6, 14–15, 20, 24, 202, 205, 215,

225, 242n.33, 243n.51Saigû. See  consecrated princessSaiin. See  consecrated princessSaimei. See  KògyokuSaiò. See  consecrated princess

 san yuan, 104, 111, 152Seiwa, 19, 201Sendai kuji hongi , 93, 163, 168–170,

172, 174, 198–199, 212, 220, 223– 224, 297n.46

Seyatadera Hime, 128, 130–131, 133,212, 215

Shinohara no Otohime, 71, 122–124,130–131, 135, 215, 251n.66

Shinsen shòjiroku, 7–9, 14, 51, 71–72,116, 163, 174, 200, 212–213, 230,240n.12, 244n.54, 257n.62, 275n.42

Shòkonsai , 161, 185Shòmu, 9–11, 16–17, 67, 80–81, 200,203–204, 209, 215

Shòtoku (Prince Kamitsumiya), 8, 10– 11, 14–15, 18–19, 24, 70, 83–85,

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 304 Index 

88–89, 92, 94, 96, 100, 103–104,106–107, 136, 179–180, 183, 197,200, 203, 206, 209, 215, 215–216,

225, 229, 241n.21Soga kinship group, 31, 66, 69, 84,87–90, 92, 94–95, 106–107, 157,216, 246n.18, 253n.28

Space Buddha. See  KokûzòSpell of the Peacock, 67, 235, 255n.39spirit quelling rites. See  ChinkonsaiSui empire: Ching ch’u sui shih chi

and , 53, 61, 111, 231, 260n.4;Koguryô and, 136; Queen Mother

of the West and, 263n.43; SuikoCourt and, 216; Sui shu and, 234

Suiko: astrology and, 33, 35, 45, 85;Chinese festival calendar and, xi,34, 58, 137, 142, 149, 216; Chingch’u sui shih chi  and, 153, 216;court ritual and, 142, 146, 153,155, 216; Kwall∆k and, 45, 211,216; medicine hunts and, 58, 210;roadways and, 47; Shòtoku and,

84, 89, 137, 216; Sui and, 234Suinin, 171–173, 175, 206, 275n.45Sujin, 129, 153, 212, 217Sumiyoshi deities, 12, 14, 18, 78, 200,

216, 241n.27, 258n.70Sumiyoshi shrine, 14, 22, 198, 216Suruga, Heavenly Maiden of, 74–76,

184, 216–217Susanoo no Mikoto, 141, 158–159, 181,

185, 204, 217

Tachibana. See  fruit of immortality Tajima Mori: Ame no Hiboko and,

173, 212, 217; fruit of immortalityand, 103–104, 205, 212, 214,217; Hibasu Hime and, 173, 205;Miyake kinship group and, 103– 104, 173, 212; Queen Mother ofthe West and, 103–104, 173, 214;

tokoyo and, 103–104Takakara Megami (Exalted ChineseGoddess): female immortals and,76, 83, 176; Yoshino and, 71, 217,259n.80

Takamatsuzuka Kofun, 34, 217,247n.22

Takami Musubi no Mikoto: Ama no

Hoakari and, 162, HeavenlyGrandchild and, 120, 217; Iseshrine and, 167; moon deity and,163, 197; Niinamesai and, 217,272n.1; royal cult and, 217, 277;sun gods and, 162, 167; TakuhataChichi Hime and, 120,

Takuhata Chichi Hime (Ama yorozutaku hata chi hata hime), 120,163, 165–167, 218, 267n.31

Takuhata Hime, 165–167, 218Tamayori Hiko, 126, 208, 218Tamayori Hime, 20, 130, 207, 208, 218Taoism: animal sacrifice and, 25,

37–38, 248n.39; Chinese festivalcalendar and, xiv–xvi, 46–47,105, 264n.44; Fukunaga Mitsujiand, xiv, 2, 46, 239n.9, 252n.2;immortality and, 146, 176, 232– 233, 257n.53, 270n.9, 276n.56;

Kûkai and, 226; literature and,257n.53, 259n.9; Queen Mother ofthe West and, 95, 104, 214, 232;spirits and, 45

Tasting of the First Fruits( Niinamesai ): Amaterasu and,82, 158, 167; Gosechimai and,82; Takami Musubi and, 167, 217,272n.1

Tenchi: court ritual and, 62 137, 226,230, 253n.21; Jitò and, 207; Tamaiand, 62, 253n.21

Tenmu: Amaterasu and, 155, 158–159,185, 219, 253n.19; animal sacrificeand, 27–28; astrology and, 34–35; Atsuta shrine and, 12, 174, 199,211, 213; Chinkonsai and, 60, 161,173, 175; consecrated princessand, 155, 173, 175; Gosechimai

and, 62, 71, 80–81; Hòzò and,60, 161, 173, 175, 206; Jitò and,61–62, 210, 253n.25; Kusanagisword and, 173–174, 181, 199, 211;Òtomo kinship group and, 64–65;

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   Index 305

Owari Muraji kinship group, 174,176, 181, 213; Yamato Takeruand, 156, 174–175, 199, 211, 222,

276n.53; Yoshino and, 61–63, 71,80–81Three Legged Crow: court ritual and,

102; Empress Wu and, 102, 234;Hakuji and, 100; Ma wang tuiand, 98; omens and, 101; QueenMother of the West and, 97–98,100–101, 214, 262n.33; sagekingship and, 102; Tamanushialtar and, 101, 263n.35;

 Yatagarasu and, 103, 264n.55Tòdaiji, 10, 14, 200, 203, 215tokoyo (land of immortals):

 Amaterasu and, 180; combs and,179, 180; female immortals and,177, 178, 180; fruit of immortalityand, 103, 261n.21; Òfube no Òshiand, 143, 180, 213; Oto TachibanaHime and, 180; Queen Motherof the West and, 103; silkworms

and, 143; Tajima Mori and, 103;Uranoshimako and, 178, 220; Waki no Iratsume and, 178

Toshigoi matsuri, 29–30, 41, 212, 223,250n.62

Tòshi kaden, 223, 226, 234, 249n.54,252n.10

Toyouke Hime: Gosechimai and, 81;as a Heavenly Maiden, 78–83;immortality and, 57, 78, 80–81,176, 229; Ise and, 81, 166, 173,190, 219, 259n.82; medicine and,79, 81, 189; sericulture and, 80,166, 188–189, 219; Tamba and,78–80, 189, 219, 229; Tsukiyomino Mikoto and, 188–189, 219;Uranshoshimako and, 57, 78, 80,176; Yoshino and, 78, 229

Tsukiyomi no Mikoto: Amaterasu and,

163–164, 166, 188–189, 210, 219;Kadono district and, 163–164,189; Korean peninsula and,163–164, 166; Toyouke Hime and,166, 188

Tsuminoe no Hijiri Hime (ImmortalMulberry-branch Maiden), 144– 145, 154, 219, 257

Tsunoga, 44, 51, 53, 125, 249n.54Tsunoga Arashito, 44–45, 50–51,53–54, 197, 200, 220–221, 226,249n.54

twenty-two shrine-temple system,21–22, 196

Uji bridge, 46–47, 51–53, 201Umashimaji: Chinkonsai and, 93, 168,

220, Mononobe kinship group

and, 93, 168, 220; resurrectionspell and, 93, 220

Uranoshimako: combs and, 73, 177,180, 220; immortals and, 57, 72– 75, 176–177, 180, 220; Kusakabekinship group and, 72–73, 177,220; medicine and, 73, 80; Tambacults and, 57, 80, 220, 256n.56;Tokoyo and, 73, 177, 180, 220;Toyouke Hime and, 57, 78, 80, 176

Uzume Hime, 159, 220, 272n.4,273n.12

 Wakateru. See  Yûryaku Wake no Ikazuchi no Kami, 5, 20,

127–128, 207–208, 218, 220,268n.43

 Waki no Iratsume, 176–178, 180,220–221

 Wani kinship group: Ama no Hoakariand, 156–157, 172–173, 179, 198;Hibasu Hime and, 173, 205, 218;Kuchiko no Omi and, 150–152,272n.32; Kusakabe kinshipgroup and, 182, 198, 205, 221;Mononobe kinship group and,172, 176–177, 179–180, 182,274n.41, 274n.42; resurrectionand, 176–177, 179–180, 221;

 Waki no Iratsume and, 176–178; Yamato Takeru and, 146, 157,172–175, 178, 222

 Wani no Kuchiko. See  Kuchiko noOmi

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 306 Index 

 Weaver Maiden and Cowherd: AkaruHime and, 44; Amaterasu and,141, 158–159, 167; animal sacrifice

and, xix, 26, 39, 54, 186, 221; asastral deities, xii, xx, 38, 138, 221;Chinese festival calendar and, xii,xix–xx, 26, 38–39, 105, 148–149,184, 186, 221; consorts and, 149,153; Heavenly Maidens and, 74,77, 120–121, 204, 216, 221, 234;human sacrifice and, 39, 186;poetry and, 138; pregnancy insingle night motif, 121; Queen

Mother of the West and, xii,xx, 105, 214; weaving regaliaand offerings and, 39; weavingtechnologies and, xii, 184

 Yamato Hime: Amaterasu and,175, 206, 221, 229, 277n.46; asconsecrated princess, 174–176,221, 229; Hibasu Hime and,172–173, 205–206; Inishiki

Irihiko and, 172, 205–206, 221;Kusangai sword and, 173–174,221; Mononobe kinship groupand, 173, 275n.46; Wani kinshipgroup and, 173, 221, 229; YamatoTakeru and, 173–175, 211, 221

 Yamato Kusushi kinship group, 71–72,78

 Yamato Takeru: Ama no Hoakari and,156–157, 172, 174, 177, 181, 222,275n.46; Amaterasu and, 156, 221,276n.53; Atsuta shrine and, 177,199, 211, 213; Kusanagi swordand, 173–174, 181, 199, 211; OwariMuraji kinship group and, 156,172, 176, 177, 181, 199, 213, 222;resurrection and, 146–147, 176–179,222, 276n.65; Tenmu and, 156,174–175, 199, 211, 222, 276n.53;

 Waki no Iratsume and, 176–178; Wani kinship group and, 146, 157,172–175, 178, 222; Yamato Himeand, 173–175, 211, 221

 Yatagarasu: Amaterasu and, 103,222, 264n.55; court ritual and,103; Jinmu and, 102–103, 208,

222, 264n.55; Kamo Agatanushikinship group and, 103, 208, 222;Three Legged Crow and, 103,264n.55; Yoshino and, 102–103,208, 222

 yin and yang, xi–xii, xvi, 32, 34–36,54–56, 58, 60, 109, 121, 140, 146– 147, 153, 185, 195, 219, 232, 234,246n.16, 247n.24, 260n.12, 261n.13

 Yoshino: female immortals and,

xix, 57, 59–60, 62, 66, 72–78,80, 82–83, 124, 131, 144–145,213, 219, 222, 253n.22, 259n.80;Gosechimai and, 62, 81, 217, 228,259n.80; Gumonjihò and, 19, 67,203; Jinmu and, 64–65, 69, 82,122, 207, 254n.32; Jitò and, 62–63,75, 81, 210; medicine huntsand, xix, 58, 60, 65, 185, 210;Nihu Kami and, 63–66, 244n.57,

254n.28, 254n.33, 254n.36; NuribeHime and, 75–76, 78, 83, 213,257n.65; rain making and, 63–66;red earth and, 65–66, 82, 131,222, 254n.36; Takakara Megamiand, 71, 217, 259n.80; Tenmu and,61–63, 71, 80–81; Toyouke Himeand, 78, 229; Yatagarasu and,102–103, 208, 222

 Yûryaku (Wakateru, Great KingBu): Chiisakobe kinship groupand, 116–117, 200, 267n.36;consecrated princess and, 164– 165, 197; Heavenly Grandchildlegend and, 119; Koguryô and,93; Miwa shrine and, 117–118,267n.36; Mononobe and, 91,93–94, 157, 170, 174, 222, 274n.41;sericulture rites and, 116, 141,

145, 153, 222, 266n.11; weavinglineages and, 114–119, 141, 174,200, 203, 222, 270n.11; Yoshinoand, 62–63, 257n.52