companion book teaching notes

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Teaching Notes on Theory of KnowledgeOxfordCompanion Book

(These teaching notes are for reference purposes only. Quotes may not be exact and many are paraphrased. Do not reproduce from thesepages EVER! Use the original book.)

As you read through these pages please note (on these sheets if you have copied them, or in your binder if you are using my class set) allStrengths and Limitations you find for each of these Ways of Knowing.

Chapter 1Knowing(Read the following 2 pages for homework.)

p. 9 Whos in the centre?

As you go through this course, you can be critical (as in looking at things critically) but this doesntnecessarily mean that you are looking for negativesyou can also appreciate and note the positives you findas well.Examining and evaluating allows us to sift the ideas we have been given in order to affirm the ones with the

best claim on our belief, by considering the reasons that support different claims. (This is your job during thiscourse.)

p. 15 When students from around the world are asked to draw a map of the world we often find differencesdepending on where that student lives. We learn from this that our pictures of the world, and our knowledgeof the world, are learned within our own contexts and our own cultural worldviews.

A map is created by human beings, and we put a lot of our personal and human knowledge into it. These

precious images, which pack so much knowledge onto a small surface, are a product of our history, ourtechnological skill, and our politics.

We link ourselves to it with ideas of belonging to certain places and not to others. And sometimes with grimconsequences, we link it with ownership (borders and names).

With a map, colonizing nations have laid claim to territory, dispossessing or killing indigenous people whohad no concept of ownership of their homeland, no deeds of possession, no flags. Maps represent not what we see but what we believe.(It is not wrong that maps represent our worldview as long as we acknowledge there are other world views.However, if we are using the map for practical purposes our maps must correspond to the world itself.)

p. 16 Here is one of the major challenges for all of us-- to build our understanding of ourselves and our world.

There are so many different representations around us. How can we simultaneously appreciate the variabilityof worldviews, and at the same time insist on some standard of accurate representation with which to evaluatethem all? How do we deal with worldviews that clash? In attempting to understand, evaluate, reject, orreconcile multiple views, we are taking on possibly the most interesting and significant challenge of living inan international, intercultural world.

p. 18Mission statement from IBO

The International Baccalaureate Organization aims to develop inquiring, knowledgeable, and caring youngpeople who help to create a better and more peaceful world through intercultural understanding and respect.

To this end the IBO works with schools, governments, and international organizations to develop challengingprogrammes of international education and rigorous assessment. These programmes encourage studentsacross the world to become active, compassionate, and lifelong learners who understand that other people,with their differences, can also be right.

Your recognition of differing perspectives from different geographical centres is only the beginning in ToKand a step toward a larger goal of trying to become, if you choose, not just international (as isEVERYONE, from someone elses point of view) but internationally minded.

How can you start thinking more internationally?In growing more aware of your own perspective and understanding it is one possibility among many, you

become more internationally minded without needing ever to travel from your home. (Note: "Many

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perspectives" does not mean they are all equally correct. that is where we need to continue to be criticallyaware.)

P. 20 HOW DO WE KNOW?

Regardless of where on the planet we live and regardless of all the influences upon us, we gain ourknowledge as human beings insimilarways:

1) Sense perceptionThis refers to information gained by our five senses (sight, sound, smell, touch,and taste). Although our senses have many limitations, they are a window to the world, because

we gain so much knowledge through them. Our senses and the technologies we have invented toexpandthem play a role in how we gain knowledge in all disciplines (Areas of Knowledge such asnatural science, history, the arts etc.).

2) LanguageThrough language we report, give instructions, have conversations, and archive stories(written or in our minds). In one way or another, language is involved in most of the knowledge youhave gained from others (including cultural knowledge passed on by your family, informationthrough books etc.) Like perception, language has its limitations and even deceptions, but it is socrucial to knowledge that some consider it essential even to a definition of knowledge.

3) EmotionWe may act emotionally so swiftly we may not even be aware of it (when lightningflashes it may provoke fear and an instant search for shelter). Emotion can be a way of knowing thatis private and deeply personal, and which affects knowing other human beings. (We may sense

something is wrong with a friend even when she says nothing.) More than any of the other ways ofknowing, emotion has had its flaws emphasized by individuals, historical epochs, and cultures.However, emotions provide us with an avenue to knowing ideas, people, and situations, and modernscientific findings even indicate that emotions are essential to reasoning. (Damasio, A.2005.Descartes

Error: Emotion, Reason, and the Human Brain. New York, USA. G.P.Putnam.)

4) Reasoning may come so naturally to us that we may rarely stop to think about how we arrive at ourconclusions. (Although by the end of this course you probably will!!) Yet reasoning is the way ofknowing that allows us to reach sound conclusions, as well as convince others that our arguments arevalid. It does have its limitations and can be applied carelessly, yet it interacts with the other ways ofknowing to contribute powerfully to our knowledge.

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Teaching Notes on Theory of KnowledgeOxford Compani

p. 21 SENSE PECEPTION (Remember to mark strengths and limitations are we go through this. In fact, pleasepoint them out, when you think you have spotted one.)

We do not sense all the stimuli that were potentially able to sense. Theres too much going on in our environment for us to handle,and we unconsciously ignore many stimuli.

Our five senses are like threads that connect us to our inner selves and, crucially, to the world outside ourselves.

p. 23 Knowing how other animals gain sensory information makes us aware of our own specifically human perception of the world,a world that most people assume to exist outside themselves. We are not perceiving the world as it is, in the only way it can beperceived. We are sensing it in a human way, and building our knowledge from a limited range of all the sensory

possibilities of all the species on the planet.

Our sense receptors are human as also are our interpretation of our senses. Note: ALL perception involves interpretation.

Technologies (microscopes, ultrasound, video cameras, smoke detectors, etc.) have given us access to knowledge of the worldbeyond that which our senses allow us. An interesting question, to be explored when we discuss the natural sciences, is how we canknow what we are detecting, through these devices, what we think we are detecting.

Interpretation:

Turn to page 26 and read the text box at the bottom of the pageEven when we are not consciously aware of interpreting our perceptions, our brains are actively engage in doing so.

p. 27 According to the Gestalt theory of psychology, we tend to perceive objects visually as meaningful patterns or groups, ratherthan as collections of separate parts. We tend to simplify visual information, grouping it in patterns that are easier to process. (Itworks quite well for us, except that sometimes we tend to recall whats not there.) Also, optical illusions and mirages can point tohow easily we can be tricked.

However, the fact that our brains interpret new stimuli based on past experiences is critical to our being able to use perception as a

way of knowing. If we perceived very new sensation as a unique experience, without any associations from the past, we would notbe able to act in the world, and probably not survive in it either.p. 28 Perception and Selection (Group exercise on object or eye witness and then discuss questions.)

Note #1 on eye witnesses: Even when their senses are functioning perfectly well (which is not always the case) and even with thestrongest of intentions to tell the truth, witnesses may vary considerably in their accounts of an event. Indeed, all may tell the truth,and still not give the same account because of all the factors which influenced what they selected, consciously or unconsciously.

Note# 2 Expectation also has a huge influence on perception (Emperors new clothes!)

What we perceive, ultimately, is much affected not just by what is there but by who we are, biologically, personally, and culturally.

As a class read paragraph on page 29Columbuss encounter with the Native Americans, andPage 30- Cultural concept of the

cow

p. 31 Some factors which may affect perception are:Characteristics of the object or incident under observation - size, colour, familiarity, length of time it can be seen or heard etc.Characteristics of the observing conditions: quality of light, background noise or distractions, positive or negative reactions of otherobservers

Characteristics of the observer: normality of the persons senses at the time, emotions, degree of interest, expectations, backgroundknowledge.

p. 31 Discussion Questions on Perception:

1) The sciences use perception in gaining knowledge, gathering observations with great care in order to converge in a commonunderstanding of what the world (assuming that it exists outside our sense information) is really like. How does science seek toovercome individual or group variability in pursuit of truth?2) The arts use perception as a source for their more divergent work. How do the arts (such as literature, art or music) useindividual or group variability as a strength?3) How might the other ways of knowingemotion, language and reason blend with perception when considering gainingknowledge in science or the arts?

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Teaching Notes on Theory of KnowledgeOxford Companion Book

p. 32 LANGUAGE

Much of the power of language is rooted in its symbolic nature, the use of sounds to stand for things or ideaswith which they have no necessary connection, within a grammatical system which enables the symbols to becombined to connect ideas. There are several theories suggesting exactly how language creates meaning.Central, though, to all forms of symbolism is the use of one thing (an object, an image, a sound, a word, forexample) to stand for something else.

p. 34 This capacity to move into symbolism, using our sounds meaningfully, opens to us as human beingsvast possibilities for thinking and communicating; we can think and talk in abstractions removed from ourimmediate sense experiences; we can speak not just of what is there before us but of what has been, willbe, might be, or could be only in the imagination. We are able to connect our own lives with the lives ofothers in our language community, giving words to categories or experiences that we seem to share andallowing us to create meaning socially. Words group the sensations that we associate in the neuronalnetworks of our sense perceptionor possibly give us a grouping that influences our perception of them.

This capacity for symbolism to group and classify our experiences, with its impact on thought and cultureprofoundly affects what and how we know.

p. 36 Language as a symbolic System:

The words we use are not isolated. We do not possess just independent word-symbols; the entire system issymbolic and gives us nearly infinite possibilities for meaningful combinations.

Describe in a couple of sentences what is happening in the cartoons on page 36.

Discus the influence of perception on language and after this read through the questions at the bottom of page36 and top of 37.

P. 37 How do we learn language?

Read It doesnt translate # 2 Gender and #3 Structure or politeness

p. 38 There are questions as to how we learn language. Noam Chomskys view is that human beings are born

already possessing the capacity for symbolic manipulation, a universal grammar of language that provides akind of template for learning the particular language of the local speech community. (This also includes signlanguage.)

Precise or Suggestive?

Words gain their meaning not solely through their reference (to something) but through associated ideas thatcome to our minds when we use them. (Theatre and poetry really encourages us to do this!)Even words for which the reference seems obvious, we quickly encounter ambiguity.

Picture in your head the image/idea you imagine when you hear the following words:

Chicken, skinny, justice, angel, evil, liberator

Choosing the right word can be a struggle in all areas of knowledge, but the nature of that strugglewhetherit is to try to pin down definitions more and more precisely in order to use language entirelyDENOTATIVELY, or whether it is to choose words deliberately for exactly the right aura ofCONNOTATIONSdepends of the area of knowledge. The goals of language are important. How mightdifferent goals affect our language use of the following words:Sunlight, gold, gardens.

Read poem on page 40, and the information on language in science, denotations and connotations, and

language in poetry. It doesnt translate #43 on page 41.

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p. 42 In the past it had been suggested that the particular language we speak causes us to think in a certainway (Sapir-Whorfs hypothesis of linguistic relativity). We now consider differences between languages to bethe surface of a deeper symbolic capacity. The variation, however, is far from trivial for those seeing awindow into the cultural worldview of others.

All day long we use language as we think, interact socially and connect with others, give factual reports,express our emotions, create using language for literature or humour, persuade, give instructions, makerequest, affect actions, make vows that change our lives etc.

For some of these clarity and precision are important for others ambiguity is less of a problem or even an

advantage. (which ones?)

p. 43 Language, emotion and values:*This is important for all the AoKs (Science, History etc.)

When judging whether or not we are being given a factual report we need to consider:

1) Selection: Out of all the possible events or details that could have been reported, what has beenchosen? Is it possible to compare the description with another by someone else? We can be gratefulthe writer selects the important details but what does important mean to him? What is the purpose ofthe report and its intended audience? To what criteria were the selections picked?

2) Emphasis- Out of all the events or details reported, what has been stressed as the most important,and what do the guiding values or criteria seem to be for this emphasis? How has this emphasis been

achieved: through placement of ideas in a certain structure in the sentence or part of the report?through more detailed treatment of some details rather than others? (I may tell you my story of AnneBoleyn here, beware!)

3) Word choice: What kind of language is used, and does it seem to be appropriate to the apparentpurpose of the description? Is it denotative, factual language, or is it connotative and suggestive?What emotions, values (positive or negative) are expressed or suggested? It there evidence of bias?Is a person described as lazy, relaxed, courageous or reckless etc. (The choice of words in thedescription may tell you more about the writers values than about the person being described.)

4) Context- In what context has the description been placed, and how might this framing affect theoverall meaning of the passage? What does its purpose seem to be?

5) (My question: What bias or perspectives do you add to the article as you read it?)

Read page 45 Take back the language: words tell a story of their own

p. 46 Metaphors of time and space: the case of the Aymara culture

p. 46 Metaphors as pervasive figures of thought

P. 48 Looking at the pictures discuss what symbols we use that are more readily comprehended by

different cultures or do they all have to be learned? In what AOK are these symbols most commonly usedand are they more or less effective than symbolic language in these areas?

Last thought on language: Expanding your vocabulary gives you better tools for drawing distinctions andunderstanding shades of meaning. As a result, you increase your potential for exploring ideas andcommunicating effectively with others. Learning another language may help increase ones awareness of thatculture and expand our international-mindedness.

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p. 50EMOTION

Emotions are reactions or responses related to sense perceptions, internal states, thoughts, or beliefs aboutthings or people, real or imaged. (Feelings and emotions are basically the same thing, this book says.)

Knowing your Emotions:If you say, Right now I am happy you mean that your direct experience and personal familiarity withyourself leads you to this conclusion.(Although sometimes others a friend, parent or teacher) may help you become more aware of, or help youunderstand which emotion you are feeling. (i.e.: Some say that anger is often really a result of being hurt andthat if you remedy that feeling of hurt you will also dissolve the anger.)

Some of the ways of identifying our emotions include language, sense perception, and reasoning. All threeprovide highly interconnected ways of associating the emotions we experience with those that other peopleexperience, and allow us to emerge from solitary introspective awareness into some degree of sharedknowledge.

Knowing through perception:Highly acute observers, often not even conscious of their swift reading of tiny signals, are often consideredintuitive in their capacity to sense how someone else is feeling.

In observing a particular pattern of actions or gestures, we come to associate it with a particular emotion(through the naming of language and generalizing of reasoning). Observation of others emotions and actionscan then give us a context for recognizing our own actions and emotions (and vice versa). You can realizethat you are angry as you notice that you are sounding and acting like an angry person.

(Observation alone, however, can be misleading in determining how someone is feeling as they may masktheir feelings, may fake them, or may embellish them etc.)

p. 53 Emotions are affected by (or created by!) our physical state, such as our biochemical balance; and ourphysical state, even our health, is affected by our emotions. (Note: If you have ever had a bad flu or food

poisoning, you may have found it difficult to care about ANYTHING while you were feeling that way.)

Knowing Emotion through language:

Emotions are even more difficult to classify than perceptions, not just because we cannot see them, but alsobecause they may mix together in a way that our perceptions do not. (It is possible to be sad and happy at thesame timeat a wedding; feel love and jealousy over the same person etc.)

The naming and classifying of emotional responses and their combinations have not been without debate.

It is probably unsurprising, given the variability of ways of classifying and thinking about emotions, thatdifferent languages reflect, and possibly reinforce, particular feelings. The words that different cultures useto describe the emotional worlds of their members give us a clue about the way different structures mould the

emotional experiences of their peoples. (David Matsumoto p. 54)

Read Kohei Noda p. 54

Knowing through reasoning:p. 55 The capacity to see the place of the particular within the general adds to being able to understandhow emotions can affect people. We might also gain a greater understanding of our own emotions as werecognize them to fall into patterns within human experienceexperiences of grief or conflict, for example.

Reasoning also can help us to project consequences and to judge whether a reaction makes sense in itscontext. (We might conclude we need to seek help to manage our anger, for example, or to combat phobias.)

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Emotions are also affected by our beliefs upon which we draw heavily. Two peoples beliefs of what is fair(i.e.: slave owner compared to an abolitionist) might evoke a very different emotional response to a situation.

Some feel that emotion is a something to be overcome. It does have a reputation for clouding ourreasoning or preventing us from thinking clearly. Manipulations by leaders through combining language withemotions can manipulate or brainwash people. The instant reaction often posed by emotion can also be bothnegative or positive depending on the situation. However, recent research indicates that reason and emotionare much more complementary than has often been thought, and that each keeps the other in balance. (Theclassical case of Phineas Gage [who in 1848 suffered brain damage in his frontal lobes, which prevented himfrom feeling any emotion and from making any decisions] is often cited to demonstrate the close connection

between our emotional and reasoning centres. (Ratey, J.J. 2001. A Users Guide to the Brain: Perception, Attention, and theFour Theatres of the Brain. New York, USA. Panthenon Books.p.231) _______

Iftime, look at how reasoning can guide emotions on p.57, and read examining the emotions behind

certain collective beliefs (i.e.; your attitude towards your country) p.58

Read The Happiness Machine; Better Living Through Chemicals, and Brave New World paragraph p.59

p. 60 As we grow up in a society, shaped by different influencesfamily, sports organizations, schoolsystems, community groups, religions and so forth, we receive guidance about what emotions are acceptableto display, and which should be kept within us.

p.61 The complexity of emotional education increases further as we consider what empathy involves. Many

teachings such as the Dalai Lamas loving kindness to others, and Jesus Christs teaching to love theyneighbour as thyself, emphases the relationship between oneself and other people (standing in someone elsesshoes).

When emotional outreaches crosses cultures there may be further gaps in assumptions, experiences, values,and communication. 1) A first step in cross-cultural awareness is to realize that people everywhere are justlike you, 2) A second step, without denying the first, is to realize that they are not! 3) A third is not to giveup the attempt.

The feeling of empathy is a very important way of knowing as through empathy we can make connectionswith others.

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teaching Notes on Theory of KnowledgeOxford Companion Book

p. 65 REASONING

(Note on emotion and reasoning: Decision-making relies on emotion as well as reason. All logic and noemotion may not allow us to feel love, anger or choose what we prefer to eat for lunch.)

Language and Reasoning:

p.68 Language is also a huge part of reasoning. Having mental concepts, for example of dog and cookieallows us to live in the world without having to treat every new encounter with a dog or a cookie as unique.Establishing categories, naming them and classifying are part of the inductive reasoning process: it beginswith particular observations we take in through our senses, and it results in generalizations applicable to allthe members of the class or category. Because of this,Induction is not fool-proof but we sure do use it a lotas when it is based on good evidence it is pretty reliable.

Deductive Reasoning

Deduction starts with generalizations (such as all, some, no, or none) and can be established as either valid orinvalid if the REASONING PROCESS is logical. To determine whether a statement is true or false, we needto examine its context and its meaning. We need to look at evidence, justifications, and reasons why we

consider the statement to be true.

By-the-waythe relationship between the validity of an argument and the truth of its premises (called thekey assertion of deductive reasoning) is: If the argument is valid and all premises are true, then the conclusionmustbe true.

p. 72 An argument in reasoning is entirely peaceful. It is a clear and orderly progression from theassumptions (or premises) that we start with to the conclusions which we draw from them.

Very simple deductive arguments (syllogisms) have two premises (often called assumptions) and oneconclusion.

Example:

Argument 1Premise 1 (major): All IB Diploma students are geniusesPremise 2 (minor): I am an IB Diploma studentConclusion: I am a genius

In tackling Truth in this syllogism ask:How can I determine if the major premise is true? (i.e.: I need to examine MANY particular classes of IB

Diploma students)

Note: The way to contradict and demolish the above generalization is to find even one instance where thethere is a diploma student who is not a genius. So to contradict the word ALL in your argument you justneed one or more than one exception. To contradict the word SOME as in some diploma students aregeniuses you would have to find out that all of them are not geniuses. Some diploma students are geniusescannot be contradicted by some are not, as they can both stand together.Lets also look at whether or not the conclusion is true. This is a valid argument, so we know, from the keyassertion of deductive reasoning, that the conclusion must be true IF all the premises are true. (Remember,though, that valid and true are not the same thing.)

In tackling Validity in this syllogism ask: Is the argument written in a certain correct pattern? (It can beinvalid even if the premises are true. It can also be valid when the premises are false. Argument # 1 above isvalid)

(The following syllogism is invalid)All IB candidates are intelligent

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Stephen Hawking is intelligentStephen Hawking is an IB Dipolma Candidate

A fallacy is a mistake in reasoning such as this one.

Valid argument formula All P is QR is PR is Q

Invalid All P is QR is QR is P

p. 75 Counter-Arguments and Counter-Claims

The key assertion of deductive reasoning is: If all premises are true and the argument is valid, then theconclusion must be true.

There is a logical implication here: if the part following the if is the case, then the part following the then

MUST be the case. This idea allows us to ENSURE that we can conclude true conclusions from true premisesand makes deductive reasoning certain.

Now, the way you can counter-argue the conclusion stated in an argument is either to:1) argue that the reasoning is invalid or2) argue that one of the premises is uncertain, questionable, or false.

VERY IMPORTANT-- in criterion C of your ToK essay assessment it talks about counter-claims to

your argument. By asking what can be said against my argument? and addressing its weaknesses

yourself, you strengthen your argument by demonstrating that youve carefully and thoughtfully considered

your premises and chain of reasoning. (It is very important to address the weaknesses of your own argument

and counter them yourself, if possible, when writing your essay.)

As you write your own arguments and analyze those written by others, keep in mind that a sound argument is

a strong argument. This means the form of the argument is valid(the arguments conclusion logicallyfollows from its premises) AND sound(the argument is valid and all its premises are true).

(Also noteBe sure if you make a statement like Everyone feels this way that there is not even oneperson that feels differently. Perhaps that is why it is less tricky to say, Some people feel this way)

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p. 76 Inductive Reasoning

Many of our mathematical arguments (called proofs) are based on deductive reasoning.In the case of the premise, All right angled triangles have a 90 degree angle,we can be 100% certain that all future cases of a right triangle will be a right angle, because if somethingdoesnt have a right angle then it wouldnt be a right triangle. (Yes, definitions are circular by definition.) Incontrast, the inductive methods such as classical induction, statistics, and analogical reasoning, will not

provide us with generalizations that are applicable to all possible present and future instances, even if weoften have excellent reasons to trust them despite that. (For example, you can be pretty certain that the sunwill rise tomorrow or that someday you will die, but you cannot be 100% certain.)

One of our challenges with inductive reasoning is thus to decide how much we can trust the inductive

generalizations about the world that we and others make.

Classical InductionClassical induction involves a leap of faith (and perhaps this is where intuitiveness andemotion can help). Reason alone cant get us to make a decision if first we have to be certain. Again, if you

have only seen white swans and you have seen millions you might use classical induction to decide that allswans are white. Much of our knowledge about natural science is based on generalizations backed byrepeated observation of phenomenon. (However, again you can not be certain you will not see a red swan atsome point.) (The story of the Thanksgiving Turkey also follows this pattern.)

p. 78 Statistics-

Statistics enables correlations to be drawn between things that are observed in the world and possible factorsthat contribute to their occurrence. Numbers and statistics can convey a lot of information in a condensedform and might seem to you to be the most neutral of all possible ways of representing reality. But each resultis based on an experimental design (how was the random sample selected?) and on a methodology (How wasthe data analyzed? Does this assessment stand up to your scrutiny? A well, you miss the stories when onlyusing numbers. What does six million mean to a Holocaust survivor? Do all your loved ones who died just

become another statistic?

Mark Twain famously attributed to Benjamin Disraeli the remark that there are three kinds of lies: lies,damned lies, and statistics. (British Broadcasting Corporation. How to Understand Statistics. 28 July 2 003.http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A1091350(accessed 14 November 2006). When misused, distorted, andmisinterpreted, this can indeed be the case with statistics. The strength of well-applied statistics, however, isthat it does not attempt to generalize beyond what the data allows, and offers us a measure of that uncertainty.

p. 80 Analogical reasoning- Analogical reasoning is based on two steps: 1) there is a recognition ofsimilarities between two or more things, and 2) there is an assumption that if two or more things are similar inone way, they will also be similar in other ways. (In medicine analogical reasoning helps diagnose patients.By reasoning that this medicine is effective in 96 % of patients doctors apply these statistics to new cases.If 96% of people react a certain way they make an educated guess in treating you using this information. )

Hypo-deductive reasoning

The hypothetical-deductive method is a continual interplay between deductive and inductive reasoning,mediated by testing done in the real world.

(Try the captains game on p. 81)(Perhaps what attracts people to the natural sciences is that they enjoy cracking puzzles.)

Creative Reasoning: In creative reasoning you are looking for a patternbut you might have to thinkoutside the box. (Try to solve the puzzles on the bottom of page 82.)

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p. 83 Classification

Classification is profoundly significant for what and how we know. Carl Linnaeus in the 1730s starteddeveloping his impressive Species Plantarum and Systema Naturae (which put species intokingdoms/phyla/classes/orders/families/genera/species). It was aimed to classify all the elements of thenatural world! You can image how hard it was to decide on the criterion on which he would make hisselections (Would it be texture, shape, weight, smell etc.) Linneaeus based his classification system mostlyon the way things looked and their shape. Over a period of 35 years Linnaeus continually revised his systemincluding in the 10th edition classifying whales as mammals instead of fish. [Uppsala University. Sytema

Naturae-an epoch-making book. http://www.linnaeus.uu.se/online/animal/1_1.html(accessed 14Novmember2006).]

Language plays an important role in classification because everything needs to be named. Language is aconventional system of symbols because everyone agrees that certain words (i.e.: dog) stands for a four-legged creature not a piece of cheese. The words used in a language symbolize or stands for that thing.

Classification systems are subject to change when more information becomes available, or when objects thatdont fit into a pre-existing category are invented or discovered.(Classification in the world of industry, etc. can also be based on many other things such as use, cost, type ofworkers and so forth.)

Classification is not permanent and may be abandoned when not relevant or useful or may be changeddramatically through revolution.

See page 85 for complete summary of ideas about classification. Here is the shortened version:

Classification is: interpretive (our brains do the groupings),may be deliberate or not,is passed down generation to generation through language,

may be very specific to content,may depend on the person doing the classification,may exist on higher or lower levels of generality (and the criteria for classification will

provide what system you use),may be ambiguous,have both denotations and connotations,and by be elastic or rigid.

Some classification is filled with stereotypes and prejudice. However, examining how perception, language,emotion, and reasoning combine to give us our beliefs about the world, may be one step towardunderstanding prejudice and setting the stage for dismantlement.

When you have time on your own, readOn Racism p. 87 Also, if time you should try Project Implicit: our

hidden assumptions on p. 88.

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p. 90 KNOWLEDGE AND THE SEARCH FOR TRUTH

No book can ever be complete in its coverage of a large topic or be completely neutral in its treatment, even ifit were to adopt completeness or neutrality as its goals.

What is knowledgeWhat goes into the category of knowledge????

*****There is no such thing as knowledge lying around in the world waitingfor us to notice it, pick it up, and weigh and measure it. We createknowledge ourselves, through our four ways of knowingour senseperception, language, emotion, and reasoning. Then we use these sameways of knowing, in differing combinations and balances, to judge whether ornot certain statements are appropriately called knowledge.

We can classify knowledge in these ways:

1) Knowing through direct experience (knowing a friend, and knowing you hate spinach)2) Knowing how (to play soccer, to solve a math problem)3) Knowing that (a triangle has three sides, my bank account number is) (Knowing that must be anassertion presented as being true.)

Exercise to do with the class:Which ways of knowingperception, language, emotion and reasoningare most relevant to each of thecategories above?Do you consider wisdom to be a particular blend of these three categories, or another kind of knowledgeentirely?

CAS activities Read Emily Myles, Canada on CAS p. 95

p. 95 Our classification scheme revisited

1) Knowing through direct experience is personal and private and sometimes cannot be put into words.It is sort of raw material sometimes, but it can also lead to making connections with others. Youmay not be able to fully put into words how you feel when you draw, but others may still appreciateyour artistic gifts and identify or gain understanding from them. (The arts can help us share common,

private experiences.)

2) Knowing how/skill- can also be a private experience that no one but the doer can possess. Yet inskills there is a strong element of demonstration in learning, teaching and testing. They can be

publicly shared (and taught) and duplicated. They can be taught through demonstration and throughlanguage.

3) Knowing that/KNOWLEDGE CLAIM -- This is an assertion of certainty (a claim presented asbeing true) through language and since it is made public it can be examined.

Evaluating Knowledge Claims

On page 99 there is a great example of how you might critically evaluate knowledge claims (found, for

example, in newspapers, reports etc.) This may be helpful in you history studies as well as when you work on

your presentations and essays for ToK. Use the book for the complete version. (Also, page 114 is an

invaluable tool for assessing Knowledge Claims.)

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In brief here is a synopsis:

1) Look at the overall visual presentation for reasons to doubt or accept2) Is the writing style inclined to make you reject or accept the information3) Identify the knowledge claims4) Do you consider those making the knowledge claims to be reliable sources? (Why or why notHow

can you check their reliability???)5) Are you able to check the information given in this article? Why or why not?6) Is there evidence of stereotypes?7) Is it placed in the magazine/book/newspaper beside other information that may affect your

inclination to believe, reject or judge it in a different way?

8) What reactions do you find in yourself? What background do you bring to the article that mightinfluence your opinion of it?9) Does it matter if the article is true or not or if you believe it or not? (I think this is a great question.

For example, can peoples response to this article cause any positive or negative change in attitudeor action?)

p. 100 Knowledge claims: Tests for truth*

1) Coherence Test (Has to do with ThinkingDoes it fit with what I already know?) Coherencedemands harmonious fitting together of all the knowledge claims without contradictions. You testthe truth of the claim on the basis of what you already know. (I know that August averages around25 degrees Celsius so if someone tells me it is minus 20 I probably do not believe them.)

Questions concerning this Test: What are some problems with using a body of beliefs already held tojudge a new claim?Why is it possible for two people using this test to reach different conclusions?Sum up the strengths and limitations for this truth test.

2) Correspondence Test (Go and check!) This test does not just rely on thinking it demands that theclaim matches or corresponds to what is happening in the world. You either go or check yourself orcheck with observations others have reported. (Is there enough evidence to make the claimreliable?)

Questions concerning the Correspondence Test: What are some problems you can see withcorrespondence as a test for truth? Is it possible for two people using the correspondence test to reachdifferent conclusions? Sum up the strengths and limitations for this truth test.

3) Pragmatic Test (Does it work?) You evaluate the knowledge claim for whether or not it can beapplied effectively in practice and accept or reject it. We use this test in accepting assumptions: wemay not be able to prove that we exist to someone who doubts, but consider it useful to assume thatwe do. The pragmatic test gives a tentative, not an absolute truth, asking not for evidence but forwhat the practical consequences would be of accepting the knowledge claim.

Questions concerning the Pragmatic Test: What problems can you see with a society accepting whatworks for it, and calling it truth? Is it possible for two people using the pragmatic test to reach differentconclusions? Sum up the strengths and limitations for this truth test.

It may be difficult to decide which of these truth tests work best. Perhaps they can be used incombination, or useful depending on what we are examining. Some might wonder why we have truthtests at all because everyone can just believe in what is true for me. However, true for me is a

personal, subjective concept but to be meaningful one needs to consider a more general truthtruth forall.

Some suggestions to help deal with the problems of these truth tests:p. 103 Let us enlarge our circle of coherence beyond the particular individual to communities of knowersor ideally all people; let us consider pragmatically what works for all and cancel out the particularself-interest; let us establish criteria for our evidence for correspondence, and restrict its conclusions tothe physical world. (And perhaps we will have to modify our ideal goals a bit and accept plausibility and

probability as the achievable goals for most of our knowledge claims, laying aside the expectation offinding absolute, unmistakeable truth and certainty.)

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CertaintyNote: some people can be absolutely certain because of their belief but this is notepistemological certaintybut psychological certainty.

p. 104 JUSTIFCIATON good reasons for belief

If time, discuss exercise on page 105 applying truth tests and making conclusions

Kinds of Knowledge Claims:

Rational claims: These claims are steps in rational thinking, such as 1 +3 = 3 + 1. They are justified byreasoning, and tested for their consistency within a system by the coherence truth test. (May also include

definitions.)

Observational claims: These are statements about what we can observe with our sense perceptions.These kinds of claims are justified by observation, including observation extended by technology, andtested by further observation using the correspondence test. (Can go and check observeoftensciences use this.)

Value claims or value judgements: These claims evaluate on a scale not calibrated in measurable units.That is cold! (Are you talking about the water you are swimming in, an arctic winter day, or Plutostemperature?) You are beautiful! (Well, you can just imagine all the discrepancies here!) (Until a claimis put in observational terms, it is not fact but opinion.)

Metaphysical(beyond the physical) Claims: These are statements about the nature of reality outside

physical reality, such as claims about the nature of time, the soul, or God. These claims differ fromobservational claims in that they cannot be tested with sense perception. We cannot do the God lab! Likevalue judgements they have a large number of people agreeing or disagreeing with them, but their verynature cannot be proved true or false by our truth tests (Not if you are looking for True for Allinstead of just True for Me)

p. 108 JUSTIFICATIONS FOR BELIEF (IMPORTANT!!!)

Justification can be by:

1) ReasoningYou make the claim or accept the claim because it gives a conclusion you figured outlogically yourself or understood by following someone elses rational thinking. This reasoning gives you

justification for your belief and like the coherence test, you check by evaluating consistency and freedomfrom contradiction.2) Observation- You accept the claim because you have seen, heard /touched it. Your sense perception of theworld gives you a justification for the belief. Like the correspondence test you check this by observing. Theobservations of others, reported or recorded, are also a justification with the added complication that you areaccepting a report through language without first-hand observation.3) A reliable source- You accept the claim (through language) from an expert source which is consideredappropriately knowledgeable and trustworthy or through general consensus (a combination of sourcesagreeing with each otherhence passing the coherence test).4) Memory- You make the claim or accept the claim because you remember previous claims and their

justifications. (Sometimes with the passing of time your memory may be your only justification, and is onlyaccessible through you.)5) Emotions- You make the claim or accept the claim because you feel that it is right, even if you cannot putyour reasons into words easily. You may do this through intuition (a hunch that you cannot fully explain) orfaith (an acceptance without the demand for further justification).6) Revelation- You make the claim or accept the claim because a divine or supernatural power (i.e.: God)

showed himself to you or communicated with you. (This justification only applies to metaphysical beliefsand gives rise to further private justification in the form of sacred texts or books).

Read Intuition takes us beyond the limits p. 109

p. 110 Definition of Knowledge:

Knowledge is belief that is publicly justified and currently passes tests for truths.

Knowledge first is a sub-category of belief. It is a claim that you have accepted, regardless of your degree ofconfidence, emotional intensity, and sense of significance. I can say, I believe that the book is on the table

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or I believe that the meaning of life is to reduce suffering and both statements, widely unlike, are togetherin the same category of statements I have accepted psychologically.Knowledge is a belief that is truenot just true for me (or in other words, believed) but true for all.Already you are aware of some difficulties here: the truth tests are imperfect, and they do not work on all theclaims that we make. Perhaps it would be better to rephrase: knowledge is a belief that is held in areas wherethe truth tests work, and true as far as we can tell using them. It cannot, at least, have been proven false. Inlight of the over-simplicity of the true/false distinction, it may be that we should keep truth as an idealguiding concept and, in determining the difference between belief and knowledge, give more attention to theconcept that has gradation and degrees built right into it: justification.Knowledge is justified by methods that can be demonstrated to others such as reasoning and observation. Youhold a BELIEF for GOOD REASONSthe best reasons you can find. And knowledge has to be public so it

can go through truth testing and examination of justification. It does not include value judgements andmetaphysical claims for which the truth tests do not work and for which, arguably, justification cannot bedemonstrated publicly. * This definition does not reject values judgements or metaphysical claims it simplydoes not include them within the category of knowledge. (Indeed some beliefs that are most important to usin our lives are not, in this definition.)

Also Note: There are some difficulties in the truth teststhey are imperfect, they do not work on all claims.Our world is ambiguous and complex and concepts that are meaningful are not necessarily precise! (In otherwords, it aint always cut and dry!) However, we should never turn away from pursing knowledge.Complexity can be far more interesting than simplicity, and ourways of knowing, although imperfect, haveallowed us to develop amazing areas of knowledge.

*****IMPORTANT ASSESSMENT TOOL- USE PAGE 114 A GUIDE TO EVALUTING

KNOWLEDGE CLAIMS when doing your presentations and studying subjects such as history. (Thischart is REALLY good. It gets you to look at the source, the statements and yourself.) (SEE

PHOTOCOPY BELOW)

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p. 115 Persuasion and Propaganda

It is a challenge to keep thinking critically and actively evaluate claims so that we can accept those that persuade us for greasons and reject those who seek to persuade us without justification.

Sense Perception:

Read over Persuasion with maps p. 116 and do # 1 Persuasion with photographs. Answer this question: A photograph does notmake explicit statements that can be judged true or false. Can a photographic record, then, ever tell the truth?

Language: Communication is constantly affected by the four principles of representation (applied language, maps, photographs, astatistics) regardless of its goal.Here are some methods for persuasion in language:1.Repeated affirmation. (Repeating key points, catchy slogans, emotionally powerful words drumming them into the minds of taudience) Read Hitlers words p. 1172.Jargon- Jargon lifted out of context to impress.

3.Innuendo- indirect suggestion to imply something (i.e. faults in an opponent). In the recent Democratic race to be the nextPresidential hopeful Michelle Obama, the wife of one of the candidates said, Our view is that if you can't run your ownhouse, you certainly can't run the White House. (The insinuation here is that other candidates do not have secure, family lives.)4.Persuasive Metaphors- A candidate might liken his enemy to a disease and he is the healing doctor.

Emotion:

Here are some methods for persuasion using emotion (You may note that many of these are used in advertising):1.Appeal to pity- Embezzler crying in remorse.portrayed as a victim (Key decisions here should be resolved on the facts not thefeelings)2.Appeal to anxiety or fearDoesnt that public figure you are accusing handle your mortgage agreement? Do leaders of countrever secure their positions in part by focusing the attention of their people on a common enemy and exaggerating the threat?3.Appeal to belonging- We Serbians/Americans/Christians/Moslems/ women can no longer tolerate this affront to ourrights/dignity/religion/way of life. We must

4.Borrowed associations- Using celebrities or associating names/beautiful woman /a person in a white lab coat on tv..5.Misleading use of sources- Citing a particular person, publication or organization as a source can be irrelevant to that claim, or may be asked to accept only on that reputation. People are discredited or credited on soft information about their lives that deflectattention away from the actual issues. Also, a general comment such as scientists say may give no real source.

p. 122 Reasoning (This is a VERY condensed version of p. 122 to 126. You might want to read it in its entirety, when you

time.)

Here are some methods for persuasion using reasoning:1) Problematic premises--only when the premise can be identified can the essential question be asked: Is this trueThe dubious premise (possibly true, possibly false) and the implied premise (ambiguous in its meaning) can lead to the wrongconclusions. ReadRecognizing invisible assumptions of culture p. 123

2) Flawed generalizations --which are arguments based on ignorance, hasty generalizations or manipulation of statistics.Read persuasion with statistics p. 125.3) Slips on the grey scale-- Black and white thinking (over-simplificationour heroes, their villains), or only grey thinking (whichdenies or obscures any real differences), or truth the middle (Compromise is great, but can be applied erroneously when the truth ione side Between the claims 5 x 7 = 35 and 5 x 7 = 41 should we conclude that the correct answer is mid-point at 38?4)Flawed cause- a) Post hoc- You confuse a sequence of events in time with a casual cause (i.e.: You walk under a ladder and latthat day you break your leg.)

b) Confusion between correlation and cause-- In 2005 the percentage of students taking IB rose by 15% and so did the crime rate fyouth? Is there a correlation?

By being aware of persuasion and propaganda techniques you should be better equipped to recognize and deal with the differencebetween justified persuasion and the persuasion of propaganda.

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Read Persuading toward war P.128


AREAS OF KNOWLEDGE(Again as you read through these AoKs be sure to make note of their strengths and limitations.)

p. 132 Creation of knowledge doesnt just happen. Real people create it, individually or in groups,affected by the social context in which they live and the natural world which surrounds us all; thatcontext may provide a background influence or may become itself the subject of study. The workscreated are received and evaluated by members of their own knowledge community (their peers fromsimilar fields, as well as the general public). These communities will be involved in the judgement of theknowledge in various ways, to differing extents and in differing combinations.

(The next Section is VERY IMPORTANT. This may help you with some of your IB subjects as well

as your presentations and essays.)

p. 133 Knowledge starts with these knowledge issues:1) Knowledge creators- Who are they? What skill, knowledge, talent do they need/ What motivates,

supports or restricts them? What social conditions influence them? Do they share the same goals as

each other or their critics?2) Works of knowledgeWhat are the characteristics of a work in this area? What kinds of knowledge

claims are made? How are they justified? Is there a method that distinguishes the area? What testsdoes a work have to pass in order to be accepted as a work appropriate to the area? What internalformal features must the work have?

3) Knowledge communityIs there a community of peers? Who are the critics who evaluate the workfor its strengths, weaknesses, worth? Are they peers, experts, or experts in criticism? What is theattitude of the critics towards variability and change? What is the role of the general public in thecriticism? How much power does the knowledge community wield in determining which works ofknowledge are produced and which are not? (Also note: creators can be critics as well.)

4) Context of society-- How does the society (historical time, economic conditions, political climate,cultural worldview etc.) affect what knowledge is created and how it is judged. How does theknowledge affect its social context and contribute to the cultural and historical record?

5) Context of the natural world- To what extent does the natural world influence what is studied and towhat extent does the knowledge that is studied or created affect the natural world? Is the naturalworld the subject of study itself and what is the attitude towards it?

p. 134 Mathematics

Mathematics stands apart from other areas of knowledge, concerned only with its own internal workings.

Generally speaking, mathematics is the study of patterns and relationships between numbers and shapes.One question isis it invented or discovered, or a bit of both?

Pure math and applied mathematics are quite different. Pure math is really theoretical mathematicswhichincludes abstract fields such as algebra, analysis, geometry, number theory, and topology. These fields are notconcerned with the direct applications of their labour. Applied mathematics, focuses on developingmathematical tools to enable and enhance research in other areas of knowledge. Applied math includesnumerical analysis, scientific computing, mathematical physics, information theory, control theory, actuarialscience, and many others. (There is some fuzziness between these two types of math which you can readabout on page 136)

Mathematics as a language:Because it is symbolic and can be manipulated into meaningful statements, mathematics has manycharacteristics of language. It does not have the range of functions of language and needs to be taught

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through language, but as asymbolic system for abstract, rational thoughtit has features which make itsuperior to language.

1) It is precise ( 3 is always 3)2) It is compact Pythagorean theorem is c = a + b (Now try to put this in words!)3) It is completely abstract. It manipulates its statements solely with its own rules.4) In a way similar to deductive argument, mathematical statements can be manipulated in a step-by-

step fashion according to clearly defined rules, leading to new conclusions that were not readilyapparent.

(You can also apply these abstract ideas to the real world. When buying a fence you can use the formula c =a + b to determine the shortest distance between two points.)

For mathematics, this precise, compact, abstract, and transformable symbolic system provides the vocabularyand grammar which enable us to talk about abstract relationships such as symmetry, proportion, sequence,frequency and iteration. So mathematics provides a way of analysing not just patterns found in the world bythe sciences but also those created in the world by arts.

There are some neat art/music/literature activities to pair with math on page 138. (This could be helpful ifyou are doing an essay around how they affect each other, or if there are similarities etc.)

p.138 Creating an axiomatic, deductive system

For mathematics, assumptions known as axioms provide the foundation, and through the process of deductivereasoning, step by step over the centuries mathematics carefully erect a building.

Different mathematical fields such as geometry, algebra, set theory and number theory are axiomatic,

deductive systems. Each of these fields is based on a different set of axioms, but relies on the same

method to develop new knowledge. By using the axioms at the foundation as premises and applying valid

deductive reasoning to them, mathematicians obtainthrough a process called mathematical proof

new statements called theorems.

A critical knowledge issue is how can we know that the axioms on which mathematics is based, are true?Euclid who identified the first known set of axioms considered they were to be true, derived from experienceand requiring no proof!

No challenge came to Euclids system of plane geometry until the 19th century, and even then the challengewas not to its validity but to its truth. What if Euclids axioms, the very foundation of his system, were nottrueor were not the only possible truth?

The first four axioms of Euclid could be verified by drawing figures on the sand. The first required joiningtwo points with one, and only one, line segment; the second required imagining that this line segmentcontinues forever on the flat ground; the third required constructing a circle centred on a point. And the fourthrequired only that people compare right angles they could easily draw and conclude the angles werecongruent. But the fifth axiomknown as the parallel postulate we more problematic. How could anyoneensure that you and draw only one line through a point P that is parallel to a given line? Verifying the truth ofthat axiom would require someone to accompany the line forever, to ensure that it never intersects the firstline.

Despite theses quirks countless generations have benefited from the theorems proved by Euclid such as thesum of the angles of a triangle is 180 degrees.

In the early 1800s Carl Friedrich Gauss noticed geometry could be built without including Euclids 5thpostulate, and then later Nikolai Lobachevsky and Bernhard Riemann developed other non-Euclideangeometries. (Riemnan assumed that no parallel lines exist through P). Reimann's geometry happened on thesurface of a sphere instead of on an infinite plane surface like Euclids. On a surface of a sphere, more thanone line can be drawn between two points, and lines cannot be extended indefinitely. (Loy. J. 1998. Non-Euclidean Geometries.http://www.jimloy.com/geometry/parallel.htm (accessed 22 November 2006). Thesenon- Euclidean geometries consistent and validshook the very foundations of mathematics.

If the Euclidean geometry was true according to the correspondence truth test, accurately describing space,how could other consistent geometries be built using different axiomsgeometries that did not have any

bearing on reality? The answer to this changed the whole notion of mathematical truth.

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p. 140 Mathematical truth came to be understood as truth within a system: mathematical statements could be

true within the Euclidean system, or true within the Riemann system. The only truth test relevant was the

coherence test, or in other words the consistency of every other statementwithin is own axiomatic system.

Now we consider axioms to be not self-evident truths but to be the assumptions, premises, definitions, or

givens at the base of a mathematical system.

(Euclids geometry is more useful when building a house, and Riemann when flying an airplane.. and as ofyet Lobachevskys has no practical use.)

Note: Once a mathematician adopts any specific set of definitions and rules, however, he must play by themvery, very strictly.

p. 141 Mathematical proof: challenging and beautiful

In math knowledge is created by means of the characteristic method of justification of the proof. To create aproof, the mathematician takes as her premises the foundational axioms and all subsequent theorems andproofs based on them. Then, with a problem or conjecture in mind, she reasons toward a new conclusion,taking immense care to avoid error in any step. In manipulating ideas in the process of pure thinking, shecreates new knowledge. That new theorem, in turn, provides a base for further reasoning.

The elegant or beautiful proof is incisive and ingenious. It is economical in using as few steps as possible andholds a little jolt of surprise as ideas fall neatly into place.

Read on p. 142- 143 about Fermats last Theorem (FLT). The story of this proof illustrates manycharacteristics of mathematics as an area of knowledge. It shows something of its humanityits fascination,the challenge, the creativity, the aspiration, the disappointments and the sense of triumph. At the same time itreflects the more ordinary side of mathematicsthe level of care and detail demanded, the peer review and itsdifficulties when the work is new and complex, and the respect given to achievement that the lay public doesnot understand and for which there may be no apparent practical use.-----------------------Once a proof is satisfactorily proved, the proof is permanent in all places and all times, and the provenknowledge claim earns its place as yet another brick in the math knowledge house (regardless of time orculture).

p. 145 Critics (who are usually mathematicians themselves in other words peers of the knowledgecreators) applies critical thinking to a balanced examination of the justifications of the knowledge claims,seeking to appreciate both their strengths and limitations. At even a higher level are mathematicians whomay evaluate the entire area of knowledge, examining it for knowledge claims and their bases. Sometime

philosophers or meta-mathematicians are looking at such issues as the reliability of the foundations of themathematics and the nature of proof.

In the early 20th century a shocking conclusion was reached: that mathematical knowledge has flaws andlimitations, implying that mathematicians do not have an absolutely unshakable basis for their knowledgeclaims. One such flaw was in Bertrand Russells paradox Bertrand (and Alfred North Whitehead) had(using arithmetic) attempted to construct the real number system using mathematical sets as tools. In 1901they were disturbed to discover a contradiction regarding those sets which are, or are not, members ofthemselves. If the set is a set of chocolate bars, for example, the set is not a member of itself. However, if theset is a set of all those things that are not chocolate bars, then the set is a member of itself.

Russells paradox had implications for all mathematics: if mathematics had its own internal rules andexpected to be free from contradiction, then what claim does it have to knowledge if there is an inconsistencywithin it.

In 1932, Kurt Godel published his Incompleteness Theory which basically states that the dream of havingmathematics reach a state of completeness is impossible to achieve. There cannot be a guarantee, within any

axiomatic system, that the axioms adopted will not give rise to contradictions. There will always be, in any

formal system, statements that are not decidable within it. Thus, no axiomatic system can ever prove its own

consistency.

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(However, most mathematicians do not lose sleep over this. Pure math does not have to deal with theinconsistencies of the real world because it can exist in the world of pure thought.)


p. 148 The Natural Sciences, Human Sciences and History

As we move from mathematics to look at Natural science, human science and history consider thesequestions:

1) Pure mathematics is concerned only with the connection of abstract ideas. What, in comparison, isthe subject matter of these three areas of knowledge?

2) The only justification for knowledge claims in mathematics is reasoning and the only truth test iscoherence. What justifications and truth tests, in comparison, are used in these three areas?

Metaphysical or spiritual explanation:

Note, an atheist, a Buddhist, a Christian and a Muslim working together on the same research team may havethe same level of doubt or questioning regarding the knowledge claims of their field and the same skills of

investigation. Each knows the same thing. However, each may integrate that knowledge into a coherentwhole of her beliefs and understand the knowledge differently. (A scientific explanation would have nospiritual significance to an atheist but the Buddhist, for example, may relate the understanding of cause andeffect in the universe with his idea of Karma.)

Researchers may not differ in their knowledge but differ in the meaning they attribute to it and the place they

give it in their larger worldview. An examination of where we converge in our knowledge may be incomplete

without a complementary recognition of where we diverge in our understanding.

p. 152 The Natural Sciences

Science is not like mathematics because they do study the material world, and they are not a spiritual

worldview because they only study the material world.What science is after is to find those reoccurring patterns, the regularities of nature about which they cangeneralize. Scientists search for the regularities and recurrent relationships that exist within the physicalworld, both to describe and to explain.

Learning sciencedoes not often give the:moving picture in the process of the creation of science.Scientific knowledge is always changinglike a moving picture, not a still frame so unfortunately anytextbook will not remain current for long. In IB experimental science you are learning not only theinformation but the process of science, not only I know that but also I know how.

p. 155In science you learn about its methods of inquiry and its currently accepted information and theories. But thelimits of sciencethose grey regions of knowledge that hovers between what we think we know and whatwere sure we dont know are also explored by:

Experimental scientist: Usually designs experiments to measure something you are seeking.Theoretical scientist: Works mostly with mathematics, writing equations with pencil and paper or, morecommonly these days, performing complex mathematical calculations on computer. They analyze and try toexplain data.

Field scientist: Goes out and observes natural phenomena.Pure scientists: Tend to look at why (why does this happen like this?) andApplied scientists: Look at how (how can we do this more effectively or in a way that is less expensive)

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p. 156 Scientific method- (This book says that no fixed scientific method of a common sequence of stepsunites all of the kinds of natural scientists who work in very different ways on very different problems in verydifferent aspects of the natural world.) However, the broad approach outline in your IB science program still

prevailscombining background knowledge, creative conjecture, testing and finally publishing. Howevergenerated, the hypothesis must be tested and even if it fails it may provide new information.

Read p. 157 Interview with Dr. Patrick Decowski (very interestingtalks about how we only see 4% of the

total mass of the universe and also the role of imagination in science.)

Scientific Knowledge:

p. 158 The knowledge creators

Just as in math where Andrew Spry said, it is the patterns, the searching for them and the joy of discovering

them, that captivates me most. so do natural scientists search for patterns. But scientists are a diverse groupsome are collectors, classifiers, compulsive tidiers-up, explorers, artists and artisans. Often they also workin teams of different scientists (physicists, chemists, environmental scientists, and biologists etc.)

Some scientists spend years, even decades researching one aspect of something. It is exciting when (and if)they reach a new explanation for somethingas it puts a new nail in the large theoretical house of science.It is an A-AH! moment. More dramatic works achieve the kind of generalizations that the natural sciencesseek --the identification of regularities. Perhaps a scientist manages to identify a pattern in the specific, minorresults published by large numbers of scientists. A few of the research papers produced by scientists do

propose such generalizations called scientific laws.

p. 160 Scientific theoriesmajor scientific work

The best scientific theories have several characteristics: (Klemke, E,D., Hollinger R. and Kline, A.D. 1980. Introductionto Part 3, Theory and Observation. Introductory Readings in the Philosophy of Science. New York, Prometheus Books, pp. 142-143.)

They: 1) encompass scientific laws, which are deductible through them2) make existential or factual claims, such as electrons exist and have a charge of minus one3) refer to unobservable entities or properties that stand behind the measurements we make: forexample atoms, natural selection, the curvature of space4) are interrelated in such a way that they explain not only a particular law or phenomenon, butwhole ranges of each (diverse laws or phenomena can be explained within a common framework)5) provide an enormous predictive power

p. 161 Scientific Explanation: (If time: Do class activity on how scientific hypothesis, a scientific theory, a scientific model and a

scientific law is dealt with in your specific IB science course.)

Description and explanations may be seen as different kinds of patterns that scientists search for in nature.The description is the map: this is what it looks like. The explanation, though, involves something we do

not perceive through our senses but construct with our minds: cause.

P 163 (You can look at p. 162 if fractal patterns interest you)

Natural scientists do not make their observations randomly, but purposefully seek pattern where thepredominant theory suggests that it would be most fruitful to do so. In doing so, they have the advantage ofbeing able to research and communicate within a common conceptual framework of theories, models, lawsand vocabulary. However, they also have the disadvantage of being directed away form patterns notilluminated within the theoretical framework. (The theory of chaos could have been discovered long ago but

because a huge work on the dynamics of regular motion didnt lead in that direction it was not discovered.)

Scientists, too may need to change their direction when new information arises, which may be a bit difficult ifthey have been working for years perceiving things a certain way.

The chaos theory is interesting because through the power of the computer to compute long-termconsequences it showed that tiny differences can add up to affect the course of events in the future(sometimes called the butterfly effect). Unless we have perfectly precise knowledge of every influence in the

present, no matter how minute, our predictions become increasingly off the mark as we cast them father intothe future. Nevertheless, the computer technology that exposed the limits of prediction simultaneouslyrevealed patterns within the predictable.

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In addition, the chaos theory demonstrates graphically the idea ofpattern that recurs through many areas ofknowledgethrough mathematics in the patterns created rationally by the mind, in the sciences in the patternsfound in the world of sense perception and through the arts in the patterns created form all the raw material ofexperience. In each area of knowledge their practitioners are apt to have moments of pure admiration: Its

beautiful!p. 164 Natural Scientists, their work, and the world: Truth

For natural scientists they identify patterns not for their beautythough they may appreciate itbut for theirtruth.

For the scientist what kinds of evaluations do they use for their knowledge claims:

1) Correspondence test for truthThey must offer evidence in the form of replicable results. It isessential that every time something is measured, the same result be obtained.

How much evidence is enough evidence for declaring a statement of the natural science true?

As you will recognize from descriptions of how the sciences work, their statements are neverassuredly true forever, in the manner of mathematics. Indeed, by the very nature of scientific

generalization in inductive reasoning (see page 76), it is possible to refute statements falsify them

but not prove them true. Scientists work with probabilities and accept as true (for now) the

conclusions best supported by the evidence available at the time. They call thisprovisional truth.

2) The Coherence Test for truth demands that the statements we make be consistent with each other.The hope expressed by some natural scientists is that, with progress over time, the sciences will

eventually read a grand unified theory, as all scientific theories become merged into an overarchingexplanation that brings them all into harmony.

3) Pragmatic test for truth demands that the statements work in practical terms. In sciences weaccept certain assumptions without empirical proof, like axioms, because they happen to work. Forexample, we assume that nature is regular and understandable, and that the laws of physic wedevelop are applicable over the physical universe. Interestingly enough, for many years we assumedthat the scientific observer could stand outside the experiment and not affect it, but Heisenbergsuncertainty principle demolished that illusion. When we study the realm of the atomic andsubatomic, we affect our data by the very act of trying to measure it.

The axioms of science, despite their occasional failure serve us well. Is the explanation that worksnecessarily true in an absolute sense? NO. But at least for now, it works.

p. 167 The natural sciences and their critics:

Like mathematicians, natural scientists have had their moments of distress on realizing the imperfections inthe claims their areas might make to truth. Yet it is only if you expect to be perfect that you considerimperfection a failure.

Critics in the 20th century have given science a more realistic expectation of itself. These criticisms have

been various and looked at things such as:

1) the fallibility of sense perception, even when extended by technology and the fallibility of indirecttechnological observation.

2) The limits of inductive reasoning (how can we make accurate generalizations about all phenomena when

we only have access in study to some)

3) Human fallibility Fallibility in experimental methods, replicating flaws by others, or being influencedby their expectations

4) Bias that comes with through and observationscientists look where they expect to find and when theysee, interpret with the bias of previous knowledge

5) There are implications because of the uncertainty principle (shows the very act of observing can affectthe results) and the butterfly effect ( limit our ability to predict)

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There are also criticisms from pseudo-science that science is closed-minded. However, these are rarelythemselves criticisms using sufficient evidence. (To read more on pseudo-science read p. 168)(By the-wayit is great to consider many perspectives on things but many perspectives DOES NOT meanthat they are all equally correct.) Read The natural science and their social context-- an interview with

Dr. Maarten Jongsma p. 169-170)


p. 171 Human Sciences

Human scientists look for patterns in human society and individual human actions (to the extent that theirhuman subject matter will allow).

Human sciences have sometimes been described existing in a state of tension between generalizing andparticularizing perspectives. Some human scientists do seek highly regular patterns (for example, studyingperceptual characteristics common to all universal brains, or universal features that might structure all humansocieties). Others expect to make generalizations about most in a large group, or about the range of humanabilities and responses. Still others hold that individuals or societies can be understood only in terms of their

particular local conditions. Still others, and whole fields, such as cultural anthropology, argue that a

comparative method provides the greatest understanding of human beings: particular societies are bestunderstood within the context of the human range of possibilities.

Yet the very nature of the evidence in the human sciences increases the possibility of different theoriesco-existing, each with its area of applicability, each shedding light on different connections within a causalweb. Different broad theories, or different perspectives, give rise to a fuller understanding of societies, ormarket places, or the workings of the human mind.

In their studies, human scientists take a range of approaches, using all the ways of knowing. When observingthe human world---advance planning is essential.

p. 177 Some of the difficulties of studying humans and conducting experiments are that they are enmeshedin such an elaborate web of interconnected variables that it would be impossible to change one variable

while keeping the others the same. Another thing is human beings often object to the idea of having testsdone on them. (Lets tell the woman her dog died and see how she reacts.) You can see there is a sense ofethical responsibility one needs to use when researching on human beingsrespect for their rights andconcern for the effect of the investigation upon them.

Another concern is validity: does the experiment measure what it claims to measure? Researchers need to

agree on how to define psychological pressure, to decide what kind of pressure to apply to human beings(within ethical constraints), and to ensure that their operational definitions can be accurately communicated

to other scientists who wish to replicate or compare results. They would need to agree what they mean by

what happens to people under psychological pressure: which of several manifestations of responses to

psychological pressure will they measure, and how will they measure it or them?

Other problems: People arent identicalCant retest the same subjectsExpectations of examiner, subjects etc. may interfere with results etc. (see p. 178)

Inside methods

Unlike the natural sciences, the human sciences are not confined simply to observing and testing. Theseoutside methods are joined by inside methods of interviews, questionnaires, or polls. Language, used forthinking and communicating can become a research tool in interacting with the subject matter. (acomplicated bonus!)

Inside understanding involving emotional empathy may also be relevant in human science research but asit is variable from interaction to interaction, it would be nearly impossible to construct it into a method.

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When you use a questionnaire to research you have to be very careful in the interpretation of results.

Do exercise on bottom of page 179 and 180. Look at the fascinating graphs on page 181 that shows the

same results on two different school graphs which makes the information look EXTREMELY different.

p. 182 In capturing the essential features theories are both influenced by, and influence the social contextwithin which the area of knowledge is set. The beginnings of anthropology were influenced, for example, bythe assumptions of the 19 th century Europeans that they were civilized and that the peoples about whomthey were curious were primitive with all the connotations of values that go with these words. (Since thenanthropology has also coined the word ethnocentrism learning about other peoples and about its ownmethods of investigation and given understanding of its influence on what and how we know.) And on it

goes In economics, theories are not separable from the assumptions and values of a larger social context.The influence of our own age is possibly harder for us to see, thought some assumptions about essentialfeatures of explanations are currently forced to our attention.

The human sciences: whos in the centre?

The human sciences not only gain knowledge about human beings but also provide, in reflection, knowledgeabout how human beings gain knowledge.Thus, the human sciences have made a major contribution to our understanding of what is obvious to us,and the process by which it becomes so.

In our knowledge, we do look through lenses of our own grinding. It is not a fault that we do so; we cannotdo otherwise as human beings.

A huge part of education is to open up understanding of other ways of thinking in this way: Knowledge canlead to greater understanding of knowledge. (An advantage of being part of the Tok course is that it teachesyou to be internationally minded and to position you to see the whole regardless of which area ofknowledge you wish to pursue in the future.

Read Metaphors in areas of knowledge p. 185

p. 187 History

Like natural science and human science, history asks a lot of questions, tries to understand the causes ofthings, and likes to explain. Also, like them, it gives serious attention to evidence and interpretationandtends to be rather self-critical in drawing its conclusions.

Here are some questions to ask before we begin:In what ways do all areas of knowledge, not just history depend on records of the past?

The human sciences and history both aim to describe and explain human activities. What are the differencesbetween the kinds of descriptions and explanations that they give? What about a scientific report onsomething in the past (like a volcano eruption that wiped out a village?)

When we study history we have to again look at the reliability of sense perception, variability of reports, andthe four principles of representation (applied language, maps, photographs and statistics) as they form ourrecords. The reliability of sources, issues of identifying cause, methods of persuasion and propaganda, and thecomplexities of studying human beings all have to be examined.

Eye witness account p. 189 (May be a good lead into a presentation topic)

p. 189 Perspectives in history

Historians face a central challenge in the knowledge they give us: they cannot experiment or make repeatedobservations of the events they write about.Only records remain. To compound the challenges, much is lost from these records, destroyed over time.The historian is rather like someone trying to assemble a complex puzzle or make a pattern out of onlyscattered pieces.

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All historians are not trying to do the same puzzle. They research the past with certain interests or questionsin mind. (Note, all scientists are not researching EVERYTHING at once. There is a lot yet to be discovered inall AoKs!)

One of the ways historians contribute to knowledge is to find similar features between human experience inthe past and human experiences in the present to shed understanding on patterns in our lives.

We connect our present day to the history of the past, and as the present is ever-changing, so often is our viewof history.

In history, where variables cannot be controlled or tested, and where the subject matter is the past, the causal

links that historians make between there and here demand considerable interpretation. A work of historybecomes an argument for a particular interpretation, justified by evidence (with characteristics thatare different from that of the sciences).

Here are some knowledge issues to consider:

How do we know whether a particular history is telling us the truth? What truth tests are relevant, and howwould you apply them?

If there are historical interpretations of the past that are not only different in centre of interest but actuallyconflict, how can a critical reader determine which to believe? How can we deal with differing versions in away that gives us the best understanding of the past?

Read Latin American colonization: two perspectives skit P. 191

Below are Summary points from Knowing the past: interview with historian Charles Freeman p 191:

1) One of the most important attributes for the historian of any era is common sense. You mustunderstand what humans are and are not capable of and how the natural world conditions humanactivity. (It must be humanly possible, first and then you look for reliable evidence)

2) Science is often used to assist historians.3) Also, like literature, great historians convey the motivations of those who created the past and allow

us to empathize with them. This is, in essence, a literary skill and is essential if history is to becommunicated in an effective way.

4) We all have our beliefs and no historian achieves complete neutrality.5) Todays world is complex (both global and fragmented) and it will be surely hard for historians to

reflect the totalit

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