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Page 1: Compendium of Biomedical Instrumentationdownload.e-bookshelf.de/download/0013/4085/18/L-G...190 Incubator, Anaerobic 849 191 Incubator, BOD 852 192 Incubator, CO 2 854 193 Incubator,
Page 2: Compendium of Biomedical Instrumentationdownload.e-bookshelf.de/download/0013/4085/18/L-G...190 Incubator, Anaerobic 849 191 Incubator, BOD 852 192 Incubator, CO 2 854 193 Incubator,
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Compendium of Biomedical Instrumentation

Page 4: Compendium of Biomedical Instrumentationdownload.e-bookshelf.de/download/0013/4085/18/L-G...190 Incubator, Anaerobic 849 191 Incubator, BOD 852 192 Incubator, CO 2 854 193 Incubator,
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Compendium of Biomedical Instrumentation

Volume 1

Raghbir Singh KhandpurFormer Head, Medical Instruments DivisionCSIR‐Central Scientific Instruments OrganizationChandigarh, India

Founder Director, Centre for Electronics Design and Technology(Now Centre for Development of Advanced Computing)Mohali, India

Former Director General, Centre for Electronics Design and Technology of IndiaMinistry of Electronics & Information TechnologyGovt. of India, New Delhi, India

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Compendium of Biomedical Instrumentation

Volume 2

Raghbir Singh KhandpurFormer Head, Medical Instruments DivisionCSIR‐Central Scientific Instruments OrganizationChandigarh, India

Founder Director, Centre for Electronics Design and Technology(Now Centre for Development of Advanced Computing)Mohali, India

Former Director General, Centre for Electronics Design and Technology of IndiaMinistry of Electronics & Information TechnologyGovt. of India, New Delhi, India

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Compendium of Biomedical Instrumentation

Volume 3

Raghbir Singh KhandpurFormer Head, Medical Instruments DivisionCSIR‐Central Scientific Instruments OrganizationChandigarh, India

Founder Director, Centre for Electronics Design and Technology(Now Centre for Development of Advanced Computing)Mohali, India

Former Director General, Centre for Electronics Design and Technology of IndiaMinistry of Electronics & Information TechnologyGovt. of India, New Delhi, India

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This edition first published 2020© 2020 John Wiley & Sons Ltd

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.

The right of Raghbir Singh Khandpur to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with law.

Registered OfficesJohn Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USAJohn Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK

Editorial OfficeThe Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK

For details of our global editorial offices, customer services, and more information about Wiley products visit us at www.wiley.com.

Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats and by print‐on‐demand. Some content that appears in standard print versions of this book may not be available in other formats.

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of WarrantyIn view of ongoing research, equipment modifications, changes in governmental regulations, and the constant flow of information relating to the use of experimental reagents, equipment, and devices, the reader is urged to review and evaluate the information provided in the package insert or instructions for each chemical, piece of equipment, reagent, or device for, among other things, any changes in the instructions or indication of usage and for added warnings and precautions. While the publisher and authors have used their best efforts in preparing this work, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and specifically disclaim all warranties; including without limitation any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives, written sales materials or promotional statements for this work. The fact that an organization, website, or product is referred to in this work as a citation and/or potential source of further information does not mean that the publisher and authors endorse the information or services the organization, website, or product may provide or recommendations it may make. This work is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a specialist where appropriate. Further, readers should be aware that websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read. Neither the publisher nor authors shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.

Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data Applied for

HB ISBN: 9781119288121

Cover Design: WileyCover Image: © Martin Barraud/Getty Images

Set in 10/12pt WarnockPro by SPi Global, Chennai, India

Printed and bound by CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

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v

Contents

Preface xix

Volume 1

1 Accelerometer 1

2 Air Bubble Detector 8

3 Alcohol Analyser 11

4 Ambulatory Blood Pressure Monitor 17

5 Ambulatory Cardiac Monitor 20

6 Ambulatory Glucose Monitor 28

7 Ambulatory Sleep Monitor 33

8 Amino Acid Analyser 37

9 Anaesthesia Machine 42

10 Anaesthesia Depth Monitor 50

11 Anorectal Manometry 55

12 Antibiotic Susceptibility Analyser 60

13 Aortic Balloon Pump 64

14 Apnoea Monitor 68

15 Argon Plasma Coagulator 73

16 Arrhythmia Monitor 77

17 Arthroscope 85

18 Atomic Absorption Spectrometer 88

19 Atomic Emission Spectrometer, Flame 94

20 Atomic Emission Spectroscopy: Microwave Plasma 98

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Contentsvi

21 Audiometer: Diagnostic 101

22 Audiometer: Evoked Response 106

23 Audiometer: Impedance (Tympanometry) 110

24 Audiometer: Pure Tone 113

25 Audiometer: Screening 116

26 Audiometer: Speech 118

27 Audiometric Calibrator 121

28 Autotransfusion Unit, Blood 126

29 Balance, Electronic 129

30 Ballistocardiograph 134

31 Bilirubinometer 138

32 Biosafety Cabinet 141

33 Bioelectrodes: ECG Electrodes 145

34 Bioelectrodes: EEG Electrodes 150

35 Bioelectrodes: EMG Electrodes 153

36 Biofeedback Instrumentation 158

37 Biotelemetry: ECG (Single Channel) 165

38 Biotelemetry: Multichannel 172

39 Bladder Volume Measuring System: Ultrasonic 177

40 Blood Cell Processor (Apheresis System) 181

41 Blood Flow Detector: Ultrasonic Doppler 184

42 Blood Gas Analyser 187

43 Blood Gas Monitor: Transcutaneous 194

44 Blood Glucose Meter 200

45 Blood Grouping Machine 204

46 Blood Pressure Measurement (Invasive Method) 208

47 Blood Pressure Measurement (Noninvasive Methods) 215

48 Blood Recovery System 222

49 Blood Rheometer 226

50 Blood Time–Temperature Indicator 229

51 Blood Viscometer 232

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Contents vii

52 Blood Warmer 237

53 Body Fat Analyser 241

54 Bone Cutting Machine 245

55 Bone Density Measurement: Dual Energy X-ray Technique 246

56 Bone Density Measurement: Ultrasound Method 249

57 Bone Healing Stimulator: External 253

58 Bone Growth Stimulator: Implantable 259

59 Bone Healing Stimulator: Ultrasound 261

60 Brachytherapy: Intravascular 264

61 Brachytherapy Machine 267

62 Breast Biopsy System 273

63 Breast Pump 277

64 Bronchoscope 279

65 Cabinet: Warming 285

66 Camera: Spot Film 287

67 Capnograph 289

68 Carbon Monoxide Analyser 295

69 Cardiac Monitor: Bedside 300

70 Cardiac Output Meter: Fick Method 307

71 Cardiac Output Monitor: Indicator Dilution Method 311

72 Cardiac Output Method: Oesophageal Doppler 316

73 Cardiac Output Monitor: Pulse Contour Method 319

74 Cardiac Output Meter: Thermodilution Technique 323

75 Cardiotocograph 327

76 Central Gas System 335

77 Centrifugal Analyser: Automated 341

78 Centrifuge: Blood Bank 343

79 Centrifuge: Cell Washing 347

80 Centrifuge: Haematocrit 350

81 Centrifuge, Laboratory 353

82 Microcentrifuge 357

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Contentsviii

83 Centrifuge, Refrigerated 359

84 Centrifuge, Ultra (High Speed) 361

85 Cervical Cancer Screening System, Automated 366

86 Chloride Meter 369

87 Clinical Chemistry Analyser, Dry 373

88 Clinical Chemistry Analyser, Random Access 377

89 Clinical Chemistry Analyser, Semi‐automated 380

90 Coagulation Analyser 383

91 Coagulation Time Machine, Activated 388

92 Cobalt‐60 Machine for Radiotherapy 391

93 Cochlear Prostheses 397

94 Colonoscope 400

95 Colony Counter, Automated 405

96 Colorimeter, Photoelectric 408

97 Colposcope 416

98 Compression Machine, Intermittent Pneumatic 419

99 Computed Tomography 422

100 Computed Tomography, Single Photon 434

101 Continuous Flow Analyser: Automated 441

102 Continuous Passive Motion Machine (CPMM) 447

103 Continuous Positive Airway Pressure Machine 451

104 Crash Cart: Resuscitation 454

105 Critical Care Analyser 458

106 Cryostat 464

107 Cryosurgical Unit 469

108 Cryotherapy Machine 473

109 Cutaneous Blood Flow Monitor: Laser Doppler 475

110 CyberKnife 479

111 Cystoscope 484

112 Cytometer: Flow 488

113 Cytometer: Imaging 492

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Contents ix

114 Defibrillator: External 497

115 Defibrillator: External Automated 503

116 Defibrillator: Implantable Cardioverter 507

117 Defibrillator: Pacemaker Analyser/ECG simulator 513

118 Dental Amalgamator 518

119 Dental Casting Machine 519

120 Dental Furnace 523

121 Dental Sandblaster 527

122 Differential Counter, Automated 530

123 Digital Subtraction Angiography Machine 535

124 DNA Sequencer 539

125 Dynamometer Exercise System 544

126 Echocardiograph 548

127 Electrical Safety Analyser 555

128 Electrocardiograph 563

129 Electroconvulsive Therapy Machine 571

130 Electroencephalograph 575

131 Electrogastrograph 580

132 Electrolyte Analyser 584

133 Electromyograph 589

134 Electronystagmograph 595

135 Electrooculograph 600

136 Electrophoresis Apparatus 604

137 Electrophoresis, Capillary 610

138 Electroretinograph 615

139 Electrosurgical Machine 620

140 Electrosurgical Tester/Analyser 629

141 Endoscope 635

142 Endoscopic Cyclophotocoagulator 640

143 Endoscopy Capsule (Radio Pill) 644

144 ENT Treatment Unit 647

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Contentsx

145 Enteral Feeding Pump 650

146 Ergometer, Bicycle 653

147 Ethylene Oxide Analyser 656

148 Event Recorder: Cardiac 659

149 Exercise Stress Testing System 662

Volume 2

150 Flame Photometer 669

151 Flow Injection Based Analyser 674

152 Fluorometer 677

153 Foetal Heart Detector, Ultrasonic 682

154 Foetal Vacuum Extractor 687

155 Freezer, Blood Plasma 690

156 Freezer, Ultra‐Low Temperature 694

157 Functional Electrical Stimulator 697

158 Fundus Camera 702

159 Gait Analyser 706

160 Gamma Camera 710

161 Gamma Counter 717

162 Gamma Knife 720

163 Gas Chromatograph 725

164 Haematology Analyser 732

165 Haematology Analyser, Handheld 739

166 Haemodialysis Machine 742

167 Haemoglobin Meter 749

168 Headlight, Operating 752

169 Hearing Aid 755

170 Hearing Aid Analyser 759

171 Hearing Screening Device, Neonatal 763

172 Heart–Lung Machine 766

173 Heart Rate Monitor 772

174 Heart Valve, Prosthetic 775

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Contents xi

175 Heat and Cold Therapy Device 783

176 Haemodynamic Monitor 787

177 High Performance Liquid Chromatograph 792

178 Hollow Fibre Dialyser 797

179 Hospital Beds 800

180 Humidifier, Home 806

181 Humidifier, Respiratory Gas 809

182 Hyperbaric Oxygenation Chamber 812

183 Hyperthermia System 817

184 Hyperthermia, Systemic 823

185 Hyperthermia, Ultrasonic 826

186 Immunoassay Analyser 831

187 Impedance Cardiograph 836

188 Impedance Spectroscopy 840

189 Incinerator, Hospital 843

190 Incubator, Anaerobic 849

191 Incubator, BOD 852

192 Incubator, CO2 854

193 Incubator, Infant 859

194 Incubator, Microbiological 862

195 Incubator, Neonatal 866

196 Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometer (ICP‐OES) 869

197 Infusion Pump Analyser 874

198 Infusion Pump, Patient Controlled Analgesia 879

199 Infusion Pump, Syringe 882

200 Infusion Pump, Volumetric 885

201 Injector, Power 888

202 Insufflator 891

203 Insulin Pump 894

204 Intracranial Pressure Monitor 899

205 Ion-Selective Analyser 903

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Contentsxii

206 Keratometer 909

207 Lactate Analyser 913

208 Laparoscope 916

209 Laryngoscope 921

210 Laser, Argon Photocoagulator 924

211 Laser, Carbon Dioxide 928

212 Laser, Diode 931

213 Laser, Excimer (Ophthalmic) 935

214 Laser, Holmium:YAG Lithotriptor 939

215 Laser, Navigating, Photocoagulator 942

216 Laser, Nd:YAG 946

217 Laser, PASCAL (Pattern Scanning Laser) 948

218 Laser, Thulium:YAG 952

219 Left Ventricular Assist Device 955

220 Lensometer 960

221 Light, Surgical 964

222 Line Isolation Monitor 968

223 Linear Accelerator Machine 971

224 Lithotripter, Extracorporeal 976

225 Lithotripter, Intracorporeal 981

226 Lyophilizer 985

227 Magnetic Resonance Imaging System 991

228 Mammography 999

229 Manikin 1006

230 Mass Spectrometer, Inductively Coupled Plasma 1009

231 Mercury Analyser 1015

232 Microbial Detection Systems 1019

233 Microbioreactor 1021

234 Microelectrodes 1025

235 Microplate Strip Washer 1031

236 Microscope 1035

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Contents xiii

237 Microscope, Atomic Force 1039

238 Microscope, Bright Field 1043

239 Microscope, Confocal 1047

240 Microscope, Dark Field 1052

241 Microscope, Dissecting 1056

242 Microscope, Fluorescence 1060

243 Microscope, Inverted 1065

244 Microscope, Near‐Field Scanning Optical 1068

245 Microscope, Operating/Surgical 1072

246 Microscope, Phase Contrast 1076

247 Microscope, Polarizing 1080

248 Microscope, Scanning Electron 1084

249 Microscope, Scanning Tunnelling 1091

250 Microscope, Transmission Electron 1096

251 Microtome 1102

252 Microtome, Cryostat 1107

253 Microtome, Laser 1110

254 Microtome, Ultra 1113

255 Microwave Diathermy Machine 1115

256 Nebulizer, Pneumatic/Jet 1119

257 Nebulizer, Ultrasonic 1122

258 Neonatal Monitoring System 1124

259 Nephelometer 1129

260 Neurological Monitor 1132

261 Neutron Activation Analyser 1136

262 Nitrogen/Protein Analyser 1140

263 Nitrous Oxide Analyser 1143

264 Oesophagoscope/Gastroscope 1145

265 Oesophagus Manometry 1150

266 Ophthalmoscope, Direct 1156

267 Ophthalmoscope, Indirect 1158

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Contentsxiv

268 Optical Tweezers 1161

269 Osmometer 1165

270 Otoacoustic Emission Testing System 1168

271 Otoscope 1172

272 Oxygen Analyser 1175

Volume 3

273 Pacemaker, Cardiac External 1185

274 Pacemakers, Implantable 1190

275 Pacemakers, Rate Responsive 1194

276 Pacemaker Function Analyser 1198

277 Paraffin Dispenser 1201

278 Particle Counter 1204

279 Patient Monitoring System, Central 1210

280 Patient Warmer 1214

281 Peak Flowmeter 1217

282 Pedometer 1220

283 Peritoneal Dialysis Machine 1225

284 Personal Cascade Impactor 1228

285 pH Meter 1232

286 Phacoemulsification Machine 1240

287 Phonocardiograph 1244

288 Phototherapy Unit 1249

289 Picture Archiving and Communication Systems 1252

290 Plasma Thawing Equipment 1258

291 Platelet Aggregation Analyser 1260

292 Platelet Agitator 1264

293 Platelet Counter 1266

294 Plethysmograph 1269

295 Pneumotachometers 1275

296 Point-of-Care Analyser 1278

297 Positron Emission Tomography 1283

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Contents xv

298 Proton Beam Radiotherapy Machine 1288

299 Pulmonary Function Analyser 1294

300 Pulse Oximeter 1299

301 Radiant Warmer, Neonatal 1303

302 Radiation Dosimeter 1307

303 Radiation Dosimeter, Electronic Personal 1310

304 Radiation Dosimeter, Geiger–Muller Counter 1314

305 Radiation Dosimeter, Ionization Chamber 1318

306 Radiation Dosimeter, Optically Stimulated Luminescence 1321

307 Radiographic Dosimeter, Photographic Film 1323

308 Radiation Dosimeter, Radiochromic Film 1325

309 Radiation Dosimeter, Scintillation Counter 1327

310 Radiation Dosimeter, Thermoluminescent 1331

311 Radiation Therapy Simulator 1335

312 Radiation Therapy CT Simulator 1339

313 Radiofrequency Ablation Machine 1343

314 Radiography Machine, Analog 1348

315 Radiography Machine, Digital 1355

316 Radiography/Fluoroscopy 1360

317 Radiography, Mobile Machine 1364

318 Radiographic Unit, Dental 1370

319 Radioimmunoassay Analyser 1374

320 Radiology Information System 1377

321 Radiotherapy, Intraoperative Therapy Machine 1383

322 Radiotherapy Treatment Planning System 1388

323 Refractor, Auto 1392

324 Refrigerator, Blood Bank 1396

325 Refrigerator, Blood Bank, Ice‐Lined 1401

326 Refrigerator, Blood Bank, Solar‐Powered 1403

327 Renal Transplant Perfusion Machine 1405

328 Respiration Rate Monitor 1408

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Contentsxvi

329 Robotic Surgery System 1415

330 Scale, Infant 1421

331 Scale, Patient 1423

332 Scintillation Counter 1426

333 Scintillation Counter, Liquid 1429

334 Short‐Wave Diathermy Machine 1433

335 Simulator, ECG 1438

336 Simulator, Multiparameter 1441

337 Skin Temperature‐Measuring Devices 1445

338 Slit Lamp 1450

339 Spectrofluorometer 1454

340 Spectrometer, Gamma 1459

341 Spectrometer, NMR 1462

342 Spectrophotometer, Infrared 1468

343 Spectrophotometer (UV–Visible) 1478

344 Sphygmomanometer 1487

345 Spirometer 1491

346 Stem Cell Separator, Automated 1498

347 Sterilizer, Dry heat 1503

348 Sterilizer, Gas 1506

349 Sterilizer, Plasma 1510

350 Sterilizer, Radiation 1514

351 Sterilizer, Steam 1518

352 Stethoscope 1522

353 Stethoscope, Electronic 1525

354 Stimulator, Bladder 1529

355 Stimulator, Deep Brain 1534

356 Stimulator, Peripheral Nerve 1538

357 Stimulator, Peripheral Nerve (Regional Anaesthesia) 1541

358 Stimulator, Phrenic Nerve 1545

359 Stimulator, Spinal Cord 1547

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Contents xvii

360 Stimulator, Vagus Nerve 1552

361 Suction Apparatus 1556

362 Suction Pump, Surgical 1559

363 Surgical Dermatome 1562

364 Tablet Counter 1563

365 Temperature Data Logger, Blood Bank 1567

366 Thermocycler (PCR Machine) 1570

367 Thermography, Infrared Camera 1574

368 Thoracic Aspirator 1580

369 Thyroid Uptake System 1583

370 Tissue Processor 1586

371 Tonometer, Arterial 1589

372 Tonometer, Ophthalmic 1593

373 Traction Unit 1597

374 Transcranial Blood Flow Doppler Machine 1599

375 Transcutaneous Electrical Nerve Stimulator 1607

376 Transcranial Magnetic Stimulator 1611

377 Ultrasonic Cleaner 1615

378 Ultrasonic Dental Scaler 1620

379 Ultrasonic Imaging System 1624

380 Ultrasonic Surgical Machine, Harmonic 1630

381 Ultrasonic Therapy Unit 1634

382 Ultrasound Thrombolysis System 1637

383 Urine Chemistry Analyser 1641

384 Urodynamic Measurements 1645

385 Uroflowmeter 1648

386 Uterine Aspirator 1652

387 Ventilator, Anaesthesia 1654

388 Ventilator, Continuous 1659

389 Ventilator, High Frequency 1662

390 Ventilator, ICU 1667

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Contentsxviii

391 Ventilator, Lung 1672

392 Ventilator, Neonatal 1677

393 Ventilator, Transport 1680

394 Ventilator Tester 1685

395 Videoconferencing System (Telemedicine) 1688

396 Vital Signs Monitor 1694

397 Vitrectomy Machine 1701

398 Water Bath 1705

399 Wavefront Measurement Device 1707

400 X‐ray Film Processor 1711

Index 1715

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xix

Biomedical instruments and devices today occupy an important place in the delivery of healthcare at all levels of medical facilities from primary healthcare to tertiary‐level facilities. The range of these instruments and devices is spectacular and variety baffling. It is difficult to imagine a medical speciality where some kind of instruments are not required and used. They are employed for clinical diagnosis through measurement of physical parameters, laboratory analytical techniques, and various imaging modalities. On the other hand, therapeutic devices have altered the way the diseases are treated. Advanced research in the unknown realms of functioning of various physiological phenomena of living beings is becoming possible with MEMS and computer‐based instruments. The availability of a bewildering array of such instrumental techniques in clinical practice and a large variety of commercially available equipment have presented a great challenge before all those who are responsible for managing these technologies by way of their usage, operation, and maintenance and those engaged in advancing measurement techniques through research and development. The book is designed mainly for the active workers involved in hands‐on functions rather than peers in their respective fields.

The publication is a compilation of 400 instruments and devices arranged alphabetically. Effort has been made to cover almost the entire range of important and most popular instruments used for diagnosis, imaging, analysis, and therapy. Each instrument description covers four aspects: (i) purpose of the instrument, (ii) principle of operation covering physics, engineering and electronics, and data processing, (iii) brief specifications, and (iv) major applications. No attempt has been made to include historical developments of a particular instrument or device, as most state‐of‐the‐art instruments have been given a place in the publication. However, some instruments based on older‐generation technologies have been included for legacy purposes as they are still in use in some medical facilities. It has also been tried to include generic specifications as much as possible.

The motivation of the work arose from interactions with various biomedical instrumentation engineers particularly those who join in healthcare facilities after receiving their undergraduate degrees and get involved in managing medical technology, including rendering of advice on procurement of new instruments and gadgets. It falls on them to first understand the working principle of the instrument proposed to be procured and also to have an appreciation of the salient specifications. The service engineers are expected to broadly know as to what the instrument contains inside and the clinical engineer can help the clinician to adopt better measurement techniques.

Preface

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Prefacexx

I would like to acknowledge with thanks the contribution of various persons and agencies who have helped me to complete the work. First of all , I wish to thank McGraw‐Hill Education (India) Private Limited, New Delhi, for their permission to use a few lines here and there from my two books published earlier by them, namely, Handbook of Biomedical Instrumentation and Handbook of Analytical Instruments. I have tried to include commercial instruments from almost all important players in the field. All of them have shown tremendous cooperation in supplying high resolution images of their instruments along with associated information. Most of them have authenticated the accuracy of the text material and made useful suggestions for the improvement of the text. While it is not possible to individually name and acknowledge their contribution here, the assistance of each one of them has been acknowledged along with the respective instrument image under different chapters.

I am thankful to my wife Ramesh Khandpur who has always been a source of encour-agement and strength in supporting my writing endeavours. I am sure my children Vimal, Gurdial, and Popila and grandchildren Ravleen, Harsheen, Manmeet, Ashna, and Gurtej will feel elated when they see this publication. Thanks are due to Gurdial and Sumit Khandpur for their timely help in preparing the response to the initial copyedit-ing work. The interest shown by Balwinder and Jaswinder in the project is gratefully acknowledged.

I would also like to place on record my deep appreciation of M/s John Wiley & Sons, UK, particularly Mr Steven Fassioms, Mr Hari Sridharan, Ms Hannah Lee, and Ms Anita Yadav of the Delhi office for their constant support during the preparation and production of this book.

Dr R S Khandpur

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Compendium of Biomedical Instrumentation, Volume 1, First Edition. Raghbir Singh Khandpur.© 2020 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2020 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

1

1

Purpose

Accelerometers are widely used as sensors for wearable medical devices to measure and assess physical activity (PA) in clinical/laboratory settings or free‐living environments. They are, however, mostly employed for ambulatory monitoring for continuously meas-uring long‐term activities of subjects in a free‐living environment. From the recorded activity data, it is possible to identify daily movements that are associated with an indi-vidual’s functional status and also to detect adverse activity, such as falls, through signal analysis and appropriate algorithm. In addition, energy expenditure is the most com-monly found application of the accelerometers.

Principle

Any bodily movement produced by skeletal muscles that results in an energy expendi-ture can be regarded as PA. Various techniques and devices have been used to measure physical activities that employ wearable or body‐fixed motion sensors. These include gadgets ranging from simple switches, pedometers, goniometers, actometers, acceler-ometers, and gyroscopes. The measurement of physical activity employing accelero-meters is the most preferred technique because the acceleration is proportional to external force and, as a consequence, can reflect intensity and frequency of human movement. Also, it is easy to obtain velocity and displacement information by integrat-ing accelerometer data with respect to time. The accelerometers are also designed to respond to gravity, thereby providing tilt sensing with respect to reference planes when accelerometers rotate with objects on which they are mounted. The resulting inclination data from accelerometers help to classify body postures or orientations, thus providing sufficient information for measuring physical activity and a range of human routine activities.

Accelerometers are sensors that are designed to measure the acceleration of an object in motion along reference axes. These sensors are basically force sensors that sense linear acceleration along one or several directions, or angular motion about one or sev-eral axes. The former is called an accelerometer, while the latter is referred to as gyro-scope. The principle on which an accelerometer operates is based on a mechanical sensing element that consists of a proof mass or seismic mass attached to a mechanical

Accelerometer

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suspension system with respect to a reference frame. Inertial force due to acceleration or gravity causes deflection of the proof mass according to Newton’s second law. The acceleration is measured electrically based on the physical changes in displacement of the proof mass with respect to the reference frame. The most common type of sensors used to measure acceleration are based on the principle of piezoresistivity, piezoelec-tricity, or differential capacitive measurement.

Piezoresistive Accelerometers

Piezoresistive accelerometers, also termed as strain gauge accelerometers, operate by measuring the change in electrical resistance of a piezoresistive element when mechani-cal stress is applied to it. Figure 1.1 shows the principle of piezoresistive accelerometer. The sensing element consists of a cantilever beam and its proof mass is determined by bulk micromachining. The acceleration causes the motion of the proof mass that can be detected by piezoresistors in the cantilever beam and proof mass. The piezoresistors are placed as two arms of a Wheatstone bridge that produces a voltage proportional to the applied acceleration.

In practice, a piezoresistive accelerometer is structurally quite stable. This is because it is composed of a silicon chip formed by the semiconductor production technology. An electrical bridge is formed by piezoresistors representing a mass and a beam which are fabricated on a silicon chip. The electrical bridge so formed by such piezoresistive resistors generates electrical signals that are proportional to the applied acceleration. The piezoresistive accelerometers can measure constant acceleration with respect to gravity as they are responsive to DC voltage. The piezoresistive accelerometers are sim-ple and low cost but have lower level of the output signals and suffer from the tempera-ture‐sensitive drift. Though they have a limited high frequency response, they are preferred in high shock applications.

Piezoelectric Accelerometers

This type of sensor is based on the piezoelectric effect. When certain types of crystals are compressed by application of some force, charges of opposite polarity accumulate on opposite sides of the crystal. Figure 1.2 shows a simplified schematic of a piezoelec-tric accelerometer. The accelerometer uses an internal piezoelectric element that is coupled with a proof mass to form an accelerometer system. Here, the sensing element

MassHousing

Bondingpad

Amplifier

Base plate

Mass plate

Beam

PiezoresistorFigure 1.1 Principle of piezoresistive accelerometer.

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Accelerometer 3

bends due to applied acceleration, which causes a displacement of the proof mass, that results in an output voltage proportional to the applied acceleration. The accelerometer is a charge‐sensitive device in which an instantaneous change in stress on the piezoelec-tric element produces a voltage at the accelerometer’s output terminals that is propor-tional to the applied acceleration. Piezoelectric or charge mode accelerometers require an external amplifier or built‐in charge converter to amplify the generated charge, lower the output impedance for compatibility with measurement devices, and minimize sus-ceptibility to external noise sources and crosstalk. These devices are usually integrated circuit piezoelectric (ICP) sensors.

A piezoelectric accelerometer’s sensitivity is specified in picocoulombs per gram (pC/g). Typical sensitivities are in the range of 0.5–1000 pC/g. Piezoelectric accelerom-eters only respond to AC phenomenon such as vibration or shock, rather than DC phe-nomenon such as the acceleration of gravity. The accelerometers can be applied to measure acceleration levels ranging from 4 g to greater than 100 g. The useful measure-ment range of a given system is often limited by its signal conditioning and measure-ment system.

Differential Capacitive Accelerometers

The displacement of the proof mass due to acceleration can also be identified by meas-uring changes in capacitance. Capacitive sensing accelerometers produce a voltage dependent on the distance between two planar surfaces or plates. One or both of these ‘plates’ are charged with an electrical current. When there is a change in the gap between the plates due to application of force, it changes the capacitance of the system, which can be easily measured in terms of voltage. There are several advantages of using capaci-tive accelerometers which include larger bandwidth, low power dissipation, faster response to motion, high accuracy and stability in operation. They are also less prone to noise and variation with temperature. Differential capacitive accelerometers are also responsive to static forces.

Figure 1.3 illustrates the working of the differential capacitive accelerometers. The sensing element of the accelerometer consists of two fixed plates attached to the sub-strate and a suspended plate. When the unit moves in the direction as shown in the diagram, the displacement of the suspended plate with respect to the two fixed plates changes, resulting in a change in capacitance of C1 and C2. An increase in C1 will result

Acceleration

Output

Ampli�er:need current excitation

Preloadbolt

Solid base

Piezoelectricmaterial

Seismic mass

Figure 1.2 Cross section of a piezoelectric accelerometer.

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in a decrease in C2 and vice versa which can be sensed as a voltage signal. A simplified circuit diagram of the signal conditioner of the differential capacitance circuit is shown in Figure 1.4. The signal from the sensor is processed to obtain a filtered and amplified linear output. Due to the small capacitances involved and in order to reduce noise and thermal drift and increase the resolution, a differential capacitance system is employed.

Microelectromechanical Sensors (MEMS)-based Accelerometers

Most of the modern accelerometers are based on microelectromechanical sensors (MEMS). All the above‐mentioned technologies for converting acceleration to an elec-trical signal, namely, piezoelectric, piezoresistive, and capacitive change, can be used in the construction of MEMS‐based sensors. However, the preferred technology is capaci-tive sensing MEMS as it offers long‐term stability with high sensitivity. For this reason, capacitance‐based MEMS are used in some of the most demanding applications. These sensors are available in one‐, two‐, or three‐axis versions. Multiple axis measurements can also be grouped into a single monitor, allowing capturing of movement in multiple planes. Figure 1.5 shows the functions of an MEMS inertial sensors to detect and meas-ure tilt, shock, rotation, vibration, or any other types of motion.

MEMS are silicon‐based micromachined sensors, which have on‐chip integration for measurements such as acceleration and vibration. The chip includes the sensor and the signal conditioning circuitry and consequently require only a few external components. Some chips also have built‐in analog‐to‐digital converter to convert the analog output of the signal conditioner to a digital format facilitating direct display on an LCD. They include adequate memory to record physical activity over 21‐day periods.

Motion

Fixed plate 1

Fixed plate 2

C1

C2 Suspendedplate

Figure 1.3 Principle of differential capacitance‐based accelerometer.

Capacitanceto voltageconverter

Gain/offset/�lter stage

0.5–4.5 VOutput signal

Capacitanceto voltageconverter

Differentialampli�er

C1

C2–

Figure 1.4 Circuit diagram for signal conditioning of differential capacitance‐based accelerometer.

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Accelerometer 5

The MEMS chip comprises springs, masses, and motion‐sensing components. These sensors are fabricated using the standard IC processing technology commonly employed in wafer fabrication facilities. The sensor with a 3D structure, which allows free move-ment in all directions, is designed by using layers of oxide and polysilicon, IC photoli-thography, and selective etching techniques. The sensor is of differential capacitor type in which the plates on the wafer can be driven 180° out of phase. Any movement of the mass on application of force unbalances the capacitor and results in a square wave out-put whose amplitude is proportional to the acceleration.

Figure 1.6 shows the layout of various components of MEMS capacitance change‐based accelerometer on the chip. The digital accelerometers give output in the form of a variable frequency square wave, the method being known as pulse‐width modulation (PWM). A pulse width‐modulated accelerometer takes readings at a fixed rate, typi-cally, say, at 1000 Hz. The value of the acceleration is proportional to the pulse width or duty cycle of the PWM signal. A demodulator in each axis rectifies the signal and deter-mines the direction of acceleration. This output is given to a modulator that filters the analog signal and converts it to a duty cycle output. A microcontroller can be used to measure acceleration by timing both the duty cycle and the period of each axis. The duty cycle output would be 50% at a 0 g acceleration. A typical commercial MEMS‐based accelerometer chip is available from M/s Safron Collibrys, Switzerland, which is shown in Figure 1.7.

Figure 1.7 Typical MEMS‐based accelerometer chip.

Acceleration

VibrationMEMSsensors

Rotation

Tilt Shock

Figure 1.5 Various functions of an MEMS‐based sensor.

Torsion bar

Moving capacitor plate

Fixed capacitor plate

Support

Substrate

Figure 1.6 Layout of various components on an MEMS capacitance change‐based accelerometer.

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Control logic

MultiplexerCurrent-to-

voltageconverter

Ampli�er Analog-to-digitalconverter

Display

X-axistransducer

Y-axistransducer

Z-axistransducer

Figure 1.8 Block diagram of a three‐axis accelerometer circuit including in‐built A/D converter of MMA7660FC integrated chip from M/s Freescale.