complete illustrated guide to working with woodcomplete illustrated guide to working with wood

Harvesting and Drying Lumber

Buying and Storing Wood

Building for Wood Movement

Machining and Bending Wood

Smoothing and Finishing Wood

ANDY RAE

Working with

WoodTauntons COMPLETE ILLUSTRATED Guide to

AN D Y RA E

C

Tauntons COMPLETE ILLUSTRATED Guide to

Working with Wood

About Your Safety: Working with wood is inherently dangerous. Using hand or power toolsimproperly or ignoring safety practices can lead to permanent injury or even death. Dont try toperform operations you learn about here (or elsewhere) unless youre certain they are safe foryou. If something about an operation doesnt feel right, dont do it. Look for another way. Wewant you to enjoy the craft, so please keep safety foremost in your mind whenever youre in the shop.

Text 2005 by Andy RaePhotographs 2005 by The Taunton Press, Inc.Illustrations 2005 by The Taunton Press, Inc.

All rights reserved.

The Taunton Press, Inc., 63 South Main Street, PO Box 5506, Newtown, CT 06470-5506e-mail: [email protected]

EDITOR: Paul AnthonyDESIGN: Lori WendinLAYOUT: Cathy Cassidy

ILLUSTRATOR: Mario Ferro, except where noted

PHOTOGRAPHER: Andy Rae, except photos on p. 189 (bottom right), p. 190, and p. 191 by Tom Begnal, courtesy Fine Woodworking, The Taunton Press, Inc.; photos on p. 193 and p. 196 by Matthew Teague, courtesy Fine Woodworking, The Taunton Press, Inc.

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA:Rae, Andy.

Taunton's complete illustrated guide to working with wood / Andy Rae.p. cm.

ISBN 1-56158-683-81. Woodwork. 2. Wood. I. Taunton Press. II. Title.TT180.R34 2005684'.08--dc22

2004019362

Printed in Italy10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

The following manufacturers/names appearing in Tauntons Complete Illustrated Guide to Working with Wood are trademarks:Shade-Dri, Biesemeyer, Waterlox

Pp

It takes many people to help one become familiar with the intricacies of

wood. In truth, my greatest knowledge of woodworking comes from our

woodworking forebears, who deserve thanks from all of us. However,

I also wish to thank all the woodworkers Ive known in my career who

helped me understand the material a little better by letting me into their

shops to see how they work it. Their names are many, but they know who

they are. Their lessons and friendships are priceless.

Special mention goes to my editor, Paul Anthony, who helped as usual

to keep my feet firmly planted on the ground. Not only is Paul an ace

editor, but he is a woodworker and published writer in his own right.

What author could ask for a more qualified collaborator? Also, thanks to

my in-house editor, Jennifer Renjilian Morris, editorial assistant Jenny

Peters, and executive editor Helen Albert, who all pulled tight when the

rigging got slack.

Once again, I am in debt to my family for their support and love.

Thanks to them, the home fires burn warm and bright.

Acknowledgments

Contents

6 Softwoods and Hardwoods

4 WoodsStructure

P A R T O N E Understanding Wood 2

14 DistinctivewoodProperties

11 Identifying a Species

21 Tricks forIdentifyingWood

7 UnderstandingWoodMovement

23 UnderstandingGrainOrientation

10 Reaction Wood

SECTION 1 The Properties of Wood 4

SECTION 2 Identifying Wood 11

54 Drying Lumber

40 Rough-MillingLumber

35 HarvestingTrees

62 Buying Lumber

SECTION 4 Drying Lumber 48

SECTION 5 Buying Lumber 58

SECTION 3 Cutting Your Own Wood 26

P A R T T W O Finding and Storing Wood 24

MANTESHWERTypewritten Textebooksdownloadrace.blogspot.in

88 Letting WoodMove

87 ReadingMoisture

SECTION 7 Dealing with Wood Movement 78

106 Testing Your Joints

108 CommonJoints

104 Designing a Joint

SECTION 8 Choosing Joints 104

P A R T T H R E E Designing with Wood 76

73 Parts Storage71 Handling Sheet Goods

SECTION 6 Storing Lumber 65

131 Drawing Full-Scale

132 Appearance and Strength

SECTION 9 Selecting Your Material 123

171 Getting Clean Cuts

SECTION 11 Working Difficult Wood 162

173 MakingRepairs

180 FlatteningVeneer

156 SizingPlywood

158 CuttingShapes

160 CuttingVeneer

147 Milling Solid Wood

SECTION 10 Dimensioning Wood 142

P A R T F O U R Cutting Wood 140

MANTESHWERTypewritten Textebooksdownloadrace.blogspot.in

198 Kerf-Bending 202 Bent Lamination

206 Steam-Bending

197 GreenBending

SECTION 12 Bending Wood 184

P A R T F I V E Bending Wood 182

228 SandingWood

234 Making Repairs

235 Preparing for a Finish

225 Planing and Scraping

SECTION 13 Smoothing and Preparing Wood 214

P A R T S I X Smoothing, Gluing, and Finishing 212

Sources 272

Appendix 273

Index 277

244 Clamping Up 248 Gluing Veneer

254 RemovingGlue

243 Gluing OilyWood

SECTION 14 Gluing and Clamping Wood 236

264 SmoothingBetweenCoats

265 Applying aFinish

271 Smoothingthe Finish

262 ColoringWood

SECTION 15 Finishing Wood 255

Identifying Wood, Page 11The Properties of Wood, Page 4

This book is about wood, the stuff woodworkers

work. To thoroughly understand the material, we need

to start at the source: trees. Understanding trees and

their nature can help us become much more intimate

with our material and can provide a broader understanding of how

to work it. This first part of the book aims to give you a basic grounding

in the properties of wood, from its botanical structure and classification

to its identifying characteristics as milled lumber. Becoming familiar

with these basic aspects of wood will provide you with essential building

blocks for creating a solid foundation for all your future woodworking.

UnderstandingWood

PART ONE

SECTION 1

4

The Propertiesof Wood

As an organism, wood is composed of avariety of cell types that perform a range oftasks, including transporting water, provid-ing mechanical strength, and helping thetree withstand natural stresses during its lifespan. Woods structure is determined by thetype, size, shape, and arrangement of thesecells. Of importance to us as woodworkersis that most of these cells are arranged lon-gitudinally in the tree (see the right draw-ing on facing page).

This longitudinal orientation gives riseto what woodworkers refer to as graindirection, or the direction in which thepredominant fibers of wood are arrayed.However, due to the variation in cell typeand orientation, a trees internal structure isanything but homogeneous. This lack ofuniformity explains why the characteristicsof wood vary between speciesand quiteoften within the same species. For example,its common for two boards from the same section of a log to have drastically differentqualities, and for wood in general tobehave in unexpected ways. Learning more

The structure and living systemof a tree provide clues as to thenature of its wood and whether it isa softwood or hardwood. They also help usunderstand why wood moves after it hasbeen dried, which is a perennial problem forwoodworkers embarking on the quest tomake fine furniture. Understanding thesekey properties of wood can minimize theguesswork encountered by beginning andexperienced woodworkers alike.

Woods StructureUnderstanding the cellular structure ofwood provides a firm foundation for dealingwith its appearance, behavior, and oftenidiosyncratic working characteristics.

Trees gain their sustenance from theroots. Water and nutrients rise from theground to the branches and leaves, produc-ing sap for new cell growth. All this actionsurrounds the heartwood in the core of thetree, which is composed of cells that nolonger play a direct part in sap production(see the left drawing on facing page).

SECTION 1

The cross-sectional face of a board con-sists of the cut ends of longitudinal cells.This face is essentially end grain and is thehardest surface on a board. Thanks to itstoughness, it makes an excellent surface forchopping blocks or other high-wear areas(see the photo on p. 6).

A radial surface displays a series ofstraight growth rings, or lines.

about trees and the way we cut them willbetter prepare us for those unpredictablemoments.

When a piece of wood is cut from a tree, there are three faces, or planes, thatpresent themselves to us (see the drawingon p. 6). Knowing which way a board was oriented in the tree and the differencebetween each face allows us to describe the grain in a given board. This provides a big advantage when were choosingboards.

The Properties of Wood 5

Crown

Trunk

Root system

Outer bark

Inner (living) bark

Cambium

Sapwood

HeartwoodWater and nutrients move upward through sapwood from the roots.

Sap travels down through inner bark to build new cells.

ANATOMY OF A TREE

This section from an angiosperm (hardwood) shows a variety of cell types found in a tree.

The majority of cells are oriented longitudinally in the tree.

CELL FORMATION IN WOOD

See Growth Rings on p. 15.

SECTION 1

This uniform pattern makes the radialface an excellent candidate for splitting into straight sections, such as when youremaking splints or other straight-grainedparts, since the split fibers will follow thegrain lines. The straight lines can also beused as a visual element when you want auniform look in your work.

The tangential face typically has morewidely spaced rings arranged in an unevenpattern and usually reveals a wilder andmore asymmetrical grain pattern, comparedto the radial surface. Like the straight lineson a radial face, the irregular grain patternon a tangential surface can be used as a visual design feature but with a less organ-ized and more organic effect.

Softwoods and HardwoodsThe terms softwood and hardwood areused to denote the taxonomic division thatseparates species. Surprisingly, the two termshave little to do with the actual hardness ofthe wood. By definition, hardwood treeshave broad leaves and are deciduous, mean-ing they lose their leaves at the end of thegrowing season (see the left photo on facingpage). Hardwoods are angiosperms, produc-ing seeds from pollinated flowers. Oaks,maples, birches, and fruit trees are examplesof hardwood trees.

Softwood trees are conifers (evergreens)with scalelike foliage or needles that do notdrop after the growing season (see the rightphoto on facing page). Softwoods are gym-nosperms, meaning they reproduce by meansof cones rather than flowers. Examples ofsoftwoods include the pines, spruces, firs,and hemlocks.

The Properties of Wood6

Center of tree (pith)

Annual growth ring

Outside of tree

Cross-sectional surface(end grain)

Tangential surfaceRadial

surface

THE THREE PLANES OF WOOD

The authorarranged the graindirection on hisminiature hickorychopping block sothe hard end grainfaces up to resistsharp knives.

SECTION 1

Understanding Wood MovementTo make furniture successfully, its importantto understand two simple but essential facts.The first is that wood moves. This meansthat it takes in and releases moisture in itscells and swells or shrinks accordingly. Thisswelling and shrinking may be barely notice-able or it may be quite substantial, depend-ing on the type of wood and the amount ofhumidity in the air.

For furniture, hardwoods reign over thesoftwoods. The range of hardwood species isgreater, giving us a wider variety of woods tochoose from. Overall, their characteristicsare better suited to furniture making thanthose of softwoods. However, please dontoverlook the softwoods as viable furniturewoods. As an old friend and master crafts-man once remarked, Pine is a great wood.Its softness challenges you to make tight,crisp joints.


With its broad spread of thick, tapering branches sporting large leaves, thismature oak is typical of many hardwood trees. At the end of the growing sea-son, all the leaves drop to the ground.

This white pine exhibits thefamiliar shape of many soft-wood trees. It has numerousbristlelike needles and pro-duces pinecones on its long,straight branches. An ever-green, it wont drop its foliage,but instead grows new needlescontinually.

SECTION 1

left drawing above). Typically, extreme warp-ing happens during the initial drying stagewhen the wood is shrinking rapidly. Butsmall degrees of warp continue long afterthe wood is dry and can be a constant sourceof grief to a woodworker.

Although you cant stop wood movement,you can limit it to some degree. The wayyour wood is cutplainsawn, riftsawn, orquartersawnhas a big impact on movement.

Due to its varying grain patterns, a plain-sawn board will undergo unpredictable

The second fact is that nothing can stopthis movement.

Wood swells and shrinks across its widthbut not appreciably along its length. Thatsbecause the basic cell structure of wood con-sists of a series of fibers packed together inlongitudinal fashion, similar to a bundle ofstraws (see the right drawing above). Asthey absorb or release moisture, the tubeschange in diameter, resulting in expansion orcontraction across the total width of thebundle or, in our case, a board.

One of the worst aspects of movement iswarp, the result of boards expanding or con-tracting in uneven patterns, deforming fromtheir original sawn or milled shape (see the


BowCrook

Cup Twist

TYPES OF WARP

The main cell structure of wood consists of vesselssimilar to a bundle of strawsthat swell or shrink in diameter when exposed to varying degrees of humidity. The result is wood that expands or contracts across its width but not appreciably along its length.

At equilibrium High humidity Low humidity

WOODS RESPONSE TO MOISTURE

See Understanding Grain Orientationon p. 23 for information.

SECTION 1

parts from expanding or shrinking excessive-ly, its important to work in a shop environ-ment where the relative humidity (RH) isnttoo high or too low.

movement. Quartersawn wood is your bestbet when you need the most dimensionallystable material, since any movement occursmore evenly across its annular rings withmuch less chance of warp.

Another way to control wood movementis to design and build your furniture to allowthis movement to take place. For example,you can fit a wide panel to float inside a narrow framea typical scenario in frame-and-panel construction. The wider, moremovement-prone panel can then expand orcontract freely without pushing or pulling onthe frame. Gluing or otherwise fixing thepanel to the frame will sooner or later resultin failure by either breaking the frame jointsor splitting the panel, as shown in the draw-ing at right.

To further control wood movement, workwith dry or seasoned wood. This refers to material thats been properly dried fromits green, fresh-cut state to a suitable mois-ture content.

With material thats been dried to thecorrect moisture content, youll minimize the amount of movement and make it more predictable.

Another important consideration is theambient moisture content of the air sur-rounding your wood and, ultimately, yourfurniture. To prevent the various furniture


Swelling breaks joints.

Panel is glued in groove in frame members.

Shrinking cracks panel.

PANEL GLUED TO FRAME

See Dealing with Wood Movementon p. 78 for information.

See What Is Dry Wood? on p. 48.

See Controlling Your Shops Climateon p. 78 for information.

SECTION 1

Reaction wood can be found in all speciesand results from abnormal stress in a treedue to its growing conditions. Storms, highwinds, growth on the side of a hill, or com-petition for sunlight can all contribute toreaction wood in a tree. The best examplesare trees growing on a severe slope wheregravity forces a curve in their trunks, oroceanside trees on which prevailing windshelp to form grotesquely shaped trunks andbranches. A noticeable bow in the trunkindicates reaction wood in the area of thecurve (see the photo below).

Your best bet is to learn to identify reac-tion wood and avoid using it. Telltale signsinclude abnormally curved or spiraling logsor boards, an off-center pith in the trunk,or a furry or woolly surface on a board. Thistype of wood is in compression or tensionand will always move in unpredictable ways, making it difficult to machine, sand,or finish.

Finally, a good finish with multiple coatscan limit a boards movement. But no finishwill stop this movement entirely because thefinishes we use in woodworking are notimpermeable to moisture transfer. On amicroscopic level, the wood still breathesand will respond by expanding or contract-ing as moisture finds its way through thefinish and into the cells and pores of thewood. However, following a proven finishingregimen will help greatly in controlling theamount of wood movement in your furniture.

Reaction WoodAll wood retains a certain amount of inter-nal stress, but certain woods have it in abun-dance. Youll sometimes encounter theseoverly stressed woods when ripping a plankon the table saw, as the separated woodstarts to either close in on the saw blade or curve away from it, pinching the blade inthe process.


Constant winds bearing against oceansidetrees result in gnarled and twisted trunksand branchesall wood thats full of internal stress.

The authors shop isa safe haven forwood, with insulatedfloors, walls, andceilings, plus win-dows and doorsthat seal out theweather. A dehu-midifier under thebench draws excesswater from the airto keep stock at astable moisturecontent.

See Finishing Wood on p. 255.

SECTION 2

Identifying Wood

11

sidered logging your own wood. There aremany good books on the subject that pro-vide detailed information on specific species.(See Sources, p. 272.) But fair warning: Thejob is part science and part art. Even sea-soned arborists and loggers are fooled nowand then by certain trees. However, thereare some basic techniques you can use tospot a species in the wild.

One approach is to study how trees lookwhen bare, typically in the dead of winter orin early spring when the buds are beginningto form (see the drawing on p. 12). Onceyou begin learning the shapes of trees, youllfind that your eye quickly becomes trainedto detect signature characteristics of eachspecies.

Try taking a walk in the woods in winterwhen the leaves are down. Not only willindividual trees be easier to spot, but theentire forest opens up to the eye, offeringclues as to the variety of trees that live there.

Woodworkers should know asmuch as possible about wood.Its very valuable to know howto spot different species of living trees, howour wood is cut from the tree, the variousworking characteristics of different woods,and some of the techniques for identifyingspecific types of wood. All this informationaids in selecting the right wood for projects.

Precise wood identification relies in largepart on the characteristics of wood cellsrevealed under a microscope, making thiswork better left for qualified professionalswith the right tools and years of training.Thankfully, most woodworkers can learn toidentify species quite successfully by famil-iarizing themselves with some of the morecommon characteristics of wood.

Identifying SpeciesLearning to identify a particular species ofliving tree can be helpful if youve ever con-

SECTION 2

TREES IN WINTER

20 ft.

SUGAR MAPLEDrawn at 128 yrs. old

WHITE OAK Drawn at 180 yrs. old

BURR OAKDrawn at 145 yrs. old

BLACK WALNUTDrawn at 60 yrs. old

SYCAMOREDrawn at 40 yrs. old

JAPANESE WHITE PINEDrawn at 45 yrs. old

SHAGBARK HICKORYDrawn at 75 yrs. old

RIVER BIRCHDrawn at 46 yrs. old

40 ft.

60 ft.

20 ft.

40 ft.

60 ft.

20 ft.

40 ft.

60 ft.

YELLOW POPLARDrawn at 44 yrs. old

Tree drawings by Anthony Tyznick, courtesy of the Morton Aboretum

Identifying Wood12

SECTION 2

Important characteristics to look for includethe direction and shape of branches, the tex-ture and color of a trees bark, and the over-all shape of the tree (see photos above and at right).

During the growing season, leaves providea good way to identify various species (seethe top photo on p. 14). However, it takes atrained eye and years of study to becomefamiliar with a great variety of species.

A trees flower, bud, or fruit is also a goodindicator of its species. In the spring, youcan easily look up to see buds forming on

Identifying Wood 13

When trees are bare, you can spot severalspecies in the woods by observing distin-guishing characteristics normally not visible in the growing season.

The smooth, skinlike barkmarks this as a eucalyptus tree.

Deep fissures in the trunk ofthis cedar are distinctive to thespecies.

The multiplebranches thatsweep upward andoutward on thisancient oak tree areeasily seen whenthe tree is bare ofleaves.

SECTION 2

branches. Later in the year, look to theground under a tree for fallen nuts (see thephoto below).

Distinctive Wood PropertiesOnce you become familiar with trees, look-ing at the boards that come from them willreveal a seemingly endless variety of quali-ties. All woods have specific characteristicsthat can help us choose one particularspecies over another. The more familiar youbecome with these defining properties, thebetter your chances for selecting the bestwood for your projects. Many of these char-acteristics are visual, such as a boards coloror figure. As you gain a deeper appreciationof these characteristics, youll be able to con-fidently add new woods to your inventory,seeking out those that appeal to you.

Sapwood versus HeartwoodGenerally, woodworkers prefer to use heart-wood over sapwood. Heartwood is found inthe heart, or center, of the tree and usuallyhas a darker and more interesting color thanthe surrounding sapwood, which is found onthe trees perimeter (see the top left photoon facing page). Sapwood is typically whiteor creamy-yellow in color. Using sapwood ina piece of furniture is often distracting whenuniformity is the goal, although many wood-workers intentionally leave the sapwoodband as a strong visual statement. For out-door work, its best to avoid sapwood sincethis area of the tree is more prone to fungi,insect attack, and rot.

Identifying Wood14

The classic shapeand pointed ends of these leavesidentify the tree as a red oak.

Acorns at the baseof this tree signifythat an oak standsabove.

See Decay Resistance on p. 20.

SECTION 2

Rings that are thick and spaced far apartare a sign that the tree grew quickly. Tighter,more closely spaced rings are found on slow-growth wood. Generally, slower-grown woodis more appealing to woodworkers becausethe tighter ring arrangement provides morestrength and stability than lumber from fast-grown trees. However, there are exceptions;the fast-grown wood of certain pines andother woods is denser than the slowergrowth from the same species, and thusharder and more suited to specific taskswhere strength is important.

Part of the growing cycle of a treeincludes the faster-grown earlywood, whichforms in the spring when most growth takes place. Later, the process slows downand the tree forms a band of latewood,

Growth RingsThe circular rings on the end of a log reflecta trees history (see the top right photo).Each ring is the result of one years growthand is termed a growth ring or annular ring. Pay attention to growth rings as youlook at the ends of individual boards. Theylltell you a lot about how and in what condi-tions the tree grew and what to expect from the boards as you transform them intofurniture parts.

Identifying Wood 15

Sapwood is quite distinctive in somespecies, such as in the striking creamy-white band at the rim of this downed redwood.

The lower stretcher on furniture makerRobbie Stapless cherry crib sports a bright band of sapwooda nice designdetail that complements the lighter ashspindles above.

Each year of thetrees growth is dis-played as a singlering in this crosssection of ash.

SECTION 2

Another characteristic of these differingdensities is that each area absorbs stains andother finishes at a different rate. The softerearlywood soaks up much more finish thanthe latewood, which can result in blotching.This is why its usually a good idea to use awood conditioner on most softwoods beforeapplying a finish.

Pores and TexturePores are the result of cuts made through theends or transverse sections of cell vessels.Occurring only in hardwoods, pores may belarge and distinct, such as those in red oak(see the photo on facing page), or they maybe barely visible under magnification, suchas those in hard maple. Hardwoods are clas-sified as ring-porous, diffuse-porous, orsemi-ring-porous.

Ring-porous woods, like oak, ash, and elmhave large pores concentrated in the earlywoodarea of the growth ring. This arrangement cre-ates uneven grain and a tendency to split moreeasily along these weaker areas. These woodsare said to be coarse-textured, and you canusually discern the rough surface by eye orwith the palm of your hand. Ring-porouswood is often desirable when pieces need to besplit, or riven, along the grain to make strongchair spindles, for example. On the other hand,the large pores can create finish problems. Ifyou desire a smooth finish on a ring-porouswood, youll have to fill the pores before top-coating. There is also a tendency for bleed-back due to the larger open pores, becausepools of finish can gather in them, spreadingout onto the finished surface before drying.

which completes the growing cycle (see thedrawing below).

In many woods, especially the softwoods,the difference between earlywood and late-wood is quite distinct. Typically, youll noticea marked difference in density, with the late-wood being much harder than the earlywood.Southern yellow pine or redwood are goodexamples, where the more abundant early-wood is softer and wears away more quickly.You can sometimes feel this with your handon the surface of a board. Youll certainlynotice it if you sand a board carelessly,because the abrasive cuts into the softer earlywood faster than the latewood, creatingan undulating surface instead of a smooth,flat area. The trick here is to learn how tosand correctly.

Identifying Wood16

Growth ring

Inner bark

Outer bark

Earlywood

Latewood

Latewood usually appears as a darker band within growth ring.

EARLYWOOD AND LATEWOOD

See Smoothing and Preparing Woodon p. 214.

SECTION 2

Semi-ring-porous woods (also known assemi-diffuse-porous) fall in a class some-where between the previous two types.Overall, these woods contain large pores distributed evenly throughout the growthring, although they sometimes get smallertoward the latewood. They are semi-coarsein texture, with black walnut and its slightlycoarser cousin butternut being two goodexamples. Like ring-porous woods, thesewoods need pore-filling before finishing, andtheir overall uniformity makes them poorcandidates for riven parts.

GrainGrain is one of those woodworking termsused to describe just about anything that hasto do with the fibers in a piece of wood. Forour purposes, its important to know thatgrain refers to the arrangement of woodfibers in a board, which includes the direc-tion in which the predominant fibers runand their overall surface pattern.

ColorThe specific colors of different woods arehelpful in wood identificationand vital for choosing the right palette of colors foryour furniture.

Certain woods stand out more than oth-ers, such as Brazilian rosewood, prized for itsrich pinkish-purple hues, contrasted bysplashes of bright orange demarcated by fineblack lines. Pink ivory is a startling pink

Diffuse-porous woods tend to havesmaller pores that are more evenly distrib-uted throughout the early and late growthareas. These fine-textured woods, whichinclude maple, poplar, and cherry, have auniform appearance with a surface thatscompact and dense. This allows you to applystains and other finishes more evenly.However, some diffuse-porous woods suchas mahogany and birch have relatively largepores, although in the same uniformarrangement. These types of diffuse-porouswoods accept stains evenly, but youll need tofill the pores during finishing to achieve aglass-smooth surface.

Identifying Wood 17

Ring-porous woods display distinctivegrain patterns, such as the elongated poreson the tangential surface of this piece ofred oak.

See Understanding Grain Orientationon p. 23 for information.

See Wood Species on p. 273.

SECTION 2

ture of certain species, while others resultfrom abnormal growth and extractives in thewood. For example, the dark streaks and thinlines in spalted wood are the result of theinitial stages of decaya process that is thenhalted through kiln drying or heat.

Most figured wood can be exploited byjudicious sawing of the log. Generally, thebest figuring results from quartersawing,in which the growth rings are oriented at 90 degrees to the boards face.

However, some figure displays best on theplainsawn face, and other types of figureappear no matter which way the wood is cut,such as in burled wood. Although figuregenerally occurs in specific woods, almostany wood can display some of these unusualgrain patterns on occasion. The terms usedto describe specific types of figure and thewoods most commonly associated with them are listed in the chart shown on thefacing page.

ResinResin canals, also called pitch pockets, arefound only in softwoods, most typically inthe pines. These are tubular passages thatexude pitch, a sticky resin. Resin canalsmost often occur in or near the latewoodzone of the growth rings and show up onmilled surfaces as long gashes that seep agooey mess. Knots are another area whereresin sometimes accumulates. While resin is used commercially for such products asturpentine and rosin, its a pain for wood-workers because it can ooze out of a board

color, while purpleheart (amaranth) is a rich,royal purple. Gabon ebony is jet black. Thecolors are endless.

Although specific woods can be charac-terized by color, this is by no means a uni-form rule. For example, the heartwood ofpoplar is generally a medium-green colorwith a band of creamy-white sapwood, butsometimes youll come across boards withswaths of deep purples, browns, and blacks.Keep in mind that oxidation and exposure tolight will alter the color of any wood, typi-cally changing it from a light shade to adarker hue. However, some woods hold theircolor longer than others. For example, pauamarillo is a vibrant canary yellow that canretain its color for years. In contrast, padaukan almost blood-red woodusually turns adull red or brown within days of milling.

Figured WoodThe vast world of figure in wood providesone of the great joys of working our material.Instead of perfunctorily turning off-the-rackboards into furniture parts, you have theoption of composing parts from premiumboards that display fantastic figure. Studyingfigure in woods and then using it selectivelyin your work can really pump up the lookand feel of your furniture.

In general terms, figure refers to the char-acteristic grain markings on the surface ofwood. But the term figured wood has a moredefinitive meaning. It describes wood withvery distinctive patterns, usually resultingfrom the arrangement of its grain. There arenumerous types of figured wood and veneersthat are beautiful to behold and offer a wayto add great distinction to our furniture.Some come from the normal growth struc-

Identifying Wood18

See Understanding Grain Orientationon p. 23.

SECTION 2

Identifying Wood 19

Figured Woods

TERM COMMONLY SEEN IN OCCASIONALLY SEEN IN

Walnut, mahogany, Swirl cherry, maple Rosewood, olive

Cherry, mahogany,Curly Maple, makore, anigre sycamore, walnut, oak, teak

Fiddleback Maple, makore, anigre Sycamore, cherry, mahogany

Birds-eye Maple Cherry, white pine

Quilted Maple, mahogany, sapele Myrtle, maobi

Crotch Mahogany, walnut Cherry, maple, oak

Peanut Shell Tamo ash Bubinga

Ribbon stripe Mahogany, bubinga

Amboyna, mahoganyBees wing Satinwood eucalyptus

Ray fleck Oak, lacewood Sycamore, beech

Redwood, elm, amboyna,Burl camphor, walnut, madrone Oak, imbuya, ash

Pommele Sapele, bubinga, makore

Spalted Maple, sycamore, beech Cherry, poplar

SECTION 2

to turn up their noses at these woods. Onthe other hand, sassafras has a sweet, tangyscent that invites hand-planing of the woodjust to catch a whiff of its perfume.

Density and HardnessDensity is the measure of a woods relativeweight, while hardness describes the com-pressive strength of its surface. These twoqualities are interrelated, and we typicallyrefer to both physical properties whendescribing the strength of a particular wood.In general terms, the heavier a piece ofwood, the stronger its compressive strength,or its ability to withstand force on its sur-face. This makes very hard woods great for flooring and other high-impact areas,whereas softer, less-dense woods are a betterchoice when lighter weight is paramountand strength is less important, such as for ceiling trim or other parts that wont suffer abuse.

Decay ResistanceWhen wood is left outdoors exposed to theelements, it eventually rots. The leadingcause of decay in wood is fungi, whichmakes its home in material that is exposedto moisture. However, some woods are lesssusceptible to decay. This makes choosingdurable woods for outdoor projects a neces-sity. While most woods will rot quicklysome in less than a yearthere are severalhardy species that can last generations, evenwithout a protective finish. The chart on the facing page lists a selection of highly rot-resistant woods suitable for outdoorwork, along with their relative strengths andweaknesses.

long after a finish is applied. It also has anasty habit of showing up under paint orother film finishes. Kiln-drying wood usuallyfixes the resin so it doesnt leak onto thesurface, and a few coats of shellac will sufficeto seal any existing pitch areas in your work(see the photo above). Usually the most real-istic approach is to cut around this defectwhen possible.

OdorMost woods have a unique odor, and a feware distinctive enough that you can spotthem easily with a sniff. All woods smellstrongest when green or freshly cut. Butmany have a strong bouquet even after thewood has been dried. The aroma of drywood is emitted particularly during sawing.The spicy scent of Spanish cedar, a tradi-tional wood for lining humidors, is unmis-takable, as is the odor of yellow cedar. Oakand walnut both have their own characteris-tic and quite pungent aromas, which arestrong enough to cause some woodworkers

Identifying Wood20

Applying one or two coats of shellac is anexcellent way to seal in resin and prevent itfrom bleeding out of knots.

SECTION 2

Tricks for Identifying WoodOnce lumber has been cut and dried, identi-fying its specific species can be a challenge.Scientific investigations with a microscope areusually out of the realm of the average wood-worker, but there are several seat-of-the-pantsmethods for identifying particular woods.

Many of the woods we come across haveaged in dusty old barns or have been sittingon shelves, oxidizing for years. Consequently,theyre dark and often dirty. To find out if thewood in question is a treasure, give it a goodwiping with a stiff brush to remove debrisand then scrape or slice the surface with apocketknife until you expose fresh wood.The color below is almost always lighter andbrighter and often indicative of the species.

Identifying Wood 21

Outdoor Woods

Black locust Very rot-resistant; wide boards rare; typically used for posts in fences and buildings; predrill for fasteners

Osage orange Very rot-resistant; wide boards rare; extremely dense and hard; predrill for fasteners

Teak Expensive, heavy; turns silver over time; extremely durable, stable, and strong; holds fasteners well; retains smooth surface

Mahogany (genuine) Expensive; moderately heavy; silvers over time; retains smooth surface (Avoid Philippine mahogany, a type of lauan)

Jarah Relatively expensive; very hard, but surprisingly easy to work; glues well; deep reddish color with striking black lines; fades to gray if left unfinished

White oak Relatively expensive; moderately hard; stained by iron hardware outdoors; weathers coarsely and ray flecks on quartersawn lumber can separate over time

Bald cypress Limited availability; lightweight, but strong; glues well; blackens with striking tanhighlights over time; prebore for fasteners to prevent splitting

Redwood Soft and lightweight; works well but requires beefed-up joinery for strong connections; turns silver over time

Yellow cedar Extremely durable; soft, but somewhat stronger than redwood; sweet, spicy scent, traditionally used by native Americans for totem poles and other outdoor carvings

Cutting just below the surface of this dirty old board reveals thelovely pink hue of cherry.

SECTION 2

One trick is to test the wood for hardnesswith your fingernail. You can easily tell thedifference between hard and soft maple withthis test. Or you can check whether youredealing with walnut or its much softer look-alike, butternuttwo woods that fool evenseasoned woodworkers (see the top photo at left).

The odor of certain woods is quite dis-tinctive, so it pays to familiarize yourself withthe various scents, which are particularlydetectable if the suspect wood is green ormoistened. To enhance the scent of drywood, I usually wet it with a dash of waterbefore sniffing.

Another method for identifying certainspecies is to check for tyloses, a naturalmaterial unique to some hardwoods. Thisstuff blocks the pores of certain woods, suchas chestnut and ash, and is most prominentin white oak and black locust. Determiningthe presence of tyloses is one way to discernwhite oak from red oak. Try blowing intothe end grain of a split, or riven, sample heldin a bowl of water. If you can blow bubbles,the sample is likely to be red oak. If youcant, the pores are blocked, and youre prob-ably holding white oak (see the bottomphoto at left).

If youre really stumped, try sending asample to a lab. Thats right; you can mail asample of the wood in question to one ofseveral identification services, usually for asmall fee. In the case of the USDA ForestService, the testing is free. (See Sources,p. 272.) Most services require only a smallsample that you can pop in an envelope. Besure to include as much information as pos-sible about the wood, such as its area of ori-gin and any common names connected to it.

Identifying Wood22

Wetting a piece ofwood will boost itsaroma so your nosecan detect its signa-ture smell.

The relative soft-ness of two similarwoods can be testedby indenting themwith a fingernail.Butternut (below)accepts an impres-sion while the harder walnut(above) resistsmarking.

To differentiatebetween the oaks,have some funblowing through asplit sample of thewood. Bubbles indi-cate red oak, whichlacks the pore-blocking tylosesfound in white oak.

SECTION 2

expansion and contraction occur in a rela-tively even manner over the width of thematerial. Riftsawn wood runs a close secondin terms of stability, while plainsawn boardswill often cup or twist wildly due to changesin the direction of the grain.

So why not use quartered wood all thetime? Well, first of all, its more expensivebecause quartersawing a log produces lessyield, so mills charge more per board foot.Secondly, the tangential face of a quarteredor rift-cut board will display straight grainlines as opposed to the cathedral grain pat-tern found on plainsawn boards, as shown in the photo above. The choice of straightversus cathedral grain is solely a matter ofpersonal style. Most woodworkers combineall three types in their work.

Understanding Grain OrientationThe way a board is sawn from a log deter-mines its grain orientation. There are threetypes of grain orientation youll encounter ina sawn board: plainsawn (also called flat-sawn), riftsawn (also called riftcut), andquartersawn. Each term denotes how theannular growth rings are oriented in a board.Knowing the grain orientation of a specificboard is important because it will help youpredict how the wood will behave duringcutting, how it will react to moisture andfinishes, and how it will look in a piece offurniture. The easiest way to determine thegrain orientation is to look at a boards endgrain, as shown in the drawing above.

In terms of wood movement, a quarter-sawn board is the most stable because

Identifying Wood 23

PlainsawnGrowth rings curve up or down tangential to boards face.

RiftsawnGrowth rings angle roughly 45 degrees to boards face.

QuartersawnGrowth rings lie at 90 degrees to boards face.

GRAIN ORIENTATION IN BOARDS

From left to right:plainsawn, riftsawn,and quartersawnoak boards, eachdisplaying its distinctive grainpattern on the tangential face ofthe board.

Buying Lumber, Page 58

Drying Lumber, Page 48Cutting Your Own Wood,

Page 26

Storing Lumber, Page 65

The quest for wood can be fun, exciting, and at

times frustrating. As woodworkers, we wantand should

expectthe very best for our money. Its worth taking

the time to find good sources for wood, and you may

even want to fell and mill your own timber. When youre buying wood,

its a good idea to become familiar with lumberyard parlance to avoid

some of the pitfalls common in purchasing milled stock. Once youve

acquired lumber, youll want to keep it in good condition by monitoring

its moisture content and storing it in a manner that ensures its quality

for years to come. In this part of the book, well look at all these aspects

of acquiring and storing material so youll never run short of the

best stuff.

Finding and Storing Wood

PART TWO

SECTION 3 OVERVIEW

26

Cutting YourOwn Wood

Felling a Tree (p. 35)

Cutting Trunks intoLogs (p. 37)

Planting a Tree (p. 39)

Shaping a Log byHand (p. 40)

Milling with aChainsaw Mill (p. 42)

Milling with aCircular Sawmill (p. 44)

Milling with a Band Mill (p. 46)

Harvesting Trees Rough-MillingLumber

ture. You only get this satisfaction if youmill your own wood.

Its easy to get a bit cavalier about theenvironment when youre harvesting yourown wood, especially after youve gained someexperience. Part of responsible harvestingincludes replacing what you take by replen-ishing the forest or your own small lot withsaplings for future generations.

Also, dont forget that felling trees andmilling your own logs are inherently dan-gerous. Please keep safety uppermost inyour mind when tackling this kind of work.

Sizing Up a TreeHow tall is that tree? If youre thinkingabout milling your own wood, this can bevaluable information for estimating howmany boards a particular tree might hold.Or you might simply want to get betteracquainted with trees and their variousheights. Thankfully, theres a low-tech wayto gauge the rough height of a tree. Theonly tools youll need are your thumbanda partner to serve as a gauge.

If possible, stand in a clearing 100 yardsto 200 yards from the tree in question, andhave your pal stand at the very base of the

NOTHING BEATS the pleasure of har-vesting and milling your ownwood. The money you save is a bigbenefit, and if you have a woodlot on yourproperty you have the opportunity to man-age it in a responsible mannersomethingthe big timber companies often overlook.Youre also in direct control of your wood,from choosing the best cuts and matchingsequential boards to becoming intimatelyacquainted with your material through thesweat of your own labor. But the biggestthrill is to turn a log into a piece of furni-

See Show Your Support of Trees on p. 28.

SECTION 3 OVERVIEW

tree. Here, my friend Lindsay Carroll wearsa light-colored shirt to increase her visibility(see the bottom left photo). Raise yourthumb up to eye level, as woodworker HansDoellgast does here, and move your hand inor away from your body until your thumbjust blocks the view of your cohort fromhead to toe. At this point, the width of yourthumb equals the height of the personstanding at the tree.

Without moving the relative position ofyour hand to your body, walk your thumbup the tree. Move it in successive steps tothe top of the tree without overlapping, andcount the number of moves it takes to reachthe top. To calculate the height of the tree,simply multiply the height of your partnerby the number of thumb moves you made.

Cutting Your Own Wood 27

Stand a couple of hundredyards from the tree, with yourhelper standing at the base ofthe trunk.

Raise your thumb toeye level, and moveit in or away fromyou until its widthblocks the view ofyour helper.

Walk your thumbup the tree until you reach the top,counting the number of movesyou make.

SECTION 3 OVERVIEW

Harvesting WoodTaking a tree from the forest is a big job andan even bigger responsibility. The act offelling a tree poses serious, life-threateningdangers due to the immense weightinvolved. Furthermore, moving and handlingone of these behemoths after it hits theground involves some special techniques andequipment. Equally significant is the factthat youre taking a trees life. I feel itsimportant to give the deed due respect. Areverent attitude makes you careful and cau-tious and ensures that you dont approachthe task lightly. In the end, the boards youreap will have much more impact on yourfurniture making than store-bought boards.

To fell a tree, youll need either a chain-saw or a hefty ax and a good felling saw.While chainsaws are fast and efficient, thehand-tool approach is safer and quieter. Andwith practice, it can be just as quick. Eitherway, its essential that your tools are sharpfor good cuts.

Cutting Your Own Wood28

Sawyer Mike Peters inspects a pile of logsthat are ready for sawing into planks.

As a woodworker, you can help theenvironment by putting back what you

take out. Consider planting a tree (see

Planting a Tree, p. 39) or getting

involved with any number of govern-

mental and grass-roots organizations

around the world that support the

growth and survival of our forests.

Consult your local library to find a

group in your neck of the woods,

check with area colleges and univer-

sities, or see Sources, p. 272.

SHOW YOURSUPPORT OF TREES

See Keep It Sharp on p. 30.

SECTION 3 OVERVIEW

please dont become another statistic. Takeyour time, and consider gaining some expe-rience by helping an expert before tacklingyour own felling project.

Before you jump into the job of felling atree, take a few moments to understand thesequence of cuts (see the drawing above).Countless people have lost their lives due toa lack of knowledge or a careless approach;


Fall side

Direction of cut

1 ft. to 2 ft. above ground

1. Begin on the fall side of the tree, using an axe or chainsaw to make a downward-sloping cut, starting at least 1 ft. above the ground.

4. Make a cut straight across the back side, using a crosscut saw or chainsaw. Start the cut level with or just above the notchs center line. Keep sawing until the tree starts to fall.

Direction of cut

2. Next, make an upward-sloping cut, splitting out the waste and forming a V-notch.

Fall face of tree

Equilateral triangle, with notch 1/2 to 2/3 through trunk.

3. Continue upward and downward cuts until the notch is 1/2 to 2/3 through the trunk.

TREE CUTS

SECTION 3 OVERVIEW

For boards with a minimum of defects,sawyers like to grade saw, which involvesturning the log during the sawing sequenceso the best face is always the next cut, mini-mizing defects such as knots, checks, discol-orations, and other natural flaws. This is thestandard approach in the timber businessbecause it yields the highest-grade boards,and big wood manufacturers want clear,

Cutting LogsWhether you buy your logs or harvest them yourself, sawing them into boards is acrucial step on the road to making furniture.There are three methods for cutting, andeach approach has a big impact on the typeof board youll get (see the drawing on fac-ing page).


Saw blades, axes, and other edge tools should bekept sharp for tree work. The coarse material of a

tree, especially its dirt-laden bark, will dull tools

quickly. The best sharpening regimen is to stop and

sharpen when you sense the tool is cutting with diffi-

culty, or if you have to use more force. Use a file on

saw blades, stroking all the teeth with the same num-

ber of passes, and following the profile of the teeth.

To touch up an ax edge, you can use the same file.

Hold the tool firmly against your body and stroke

one side by moving the file away from the cutting

edge. Then flip the tool over and stroke in the oppo-

site direction until the edge is sharp.

KEEP IT SHARP

SECTION 3 OVERVIEW

board in the center of the log, which con-tains the pith and must be cut away. Buttaking the time to work with and aroundthese so-called defects can make your furni-ture more distinctive than the run-of-the-mill stuff cranked out in the factories.

The last approach, quartersawing, is themost wasteful of the three sawing methodsin terms of yield, since it results in a lot ofscrap and several narrow boards too small foruse in furniture. Its difficult to find anyonein the industry sawing in this manner today.However, its worth finding a small milloperator in your area whos willing to takethe time to cut wood this way, since you getall the benefits of quartersawn wood.

defect-free stock. However, it produces rela-tively narrow stock and doesnt necessarilygive furniture makers the best wood.

Live sawing, also called through andthrough sawing, is something that the bigmills tend to avoid. This approach yieldswide boards (not particularly desirable to bigfurniture companies) that are full of naturaldefects. But for small-shop woodworkers,live-sawn boards can be real gems. You getmatched boards (if you keep them insequence as they come off the log), and theplanks are as wide as the tree is round. Withsequenced wood, you can match color andincorporate interesting grain patterns in yourwork. Another boon is the huge size of theboards. Working with wide planks lets youbuild solid-panel tables and cabinets, whichmany furniture-makers consider more beau-tiful and appealing than glued-up panelsfrom narrower boards. Yes, there are imper-fections to be dealt with, such as the dog


Grade SawingRotate log before each cut to orient toward face that yields highest-grade board.

Live SawingMake a series of parallel cuts, sawing to center of log and then rotating log 180 degrees to saw second half. Dog board contains pith and is usually waste.

QuartersawingSaw log into four quarters, andthen saw each quarter radially.

Dog board

CUTTING CHOICES

See Working Difficult Wood on p. 162.

See Understanding Grain Orientationon p. 23.

SECTION 3 OVERVIEW

millonly the chainsaw mill is trulyportable. The other two types are mobile,meaning you can move them to the site, butit will involve trailering the unit with a vehi-cle. It may also require a helper or two.

The least expensive setup is a chainsawmill, and its a good option for the beginner.A chainsaw mill employs one or two chain-saws and a simple metal carriage that guidesthe saw along the log. A key feature is achain thats designed for rip-cutting ratherthan crosscutting. Some models can be usedquite effectively by one person. Cuts are pre-dictable but slow, and the saw kerf made bya chainsaw is the widest made by any of thesmall lumber mills, creating the most waste.However, a big advantage is the ability to cutbig logs, since you can equip the mill with along bar for ripping really wide boards. Thisis a nice system that works well, sets up easily,and gives you a good feel for cutting yourown wood without a heavy investment.

A second choice is the circular sawmill,which costs more and requires trailering tothe site. The particular mill shown in the topphoto on the facing page is lightweight andcan be set up and operated by one person.Cuts are relatively fast and produce slightlyless waste than a chainsaw. The downside isthat these mills tend to be limited in termsof cutting width, making them best suitedfor milling dimensioned lumber (2x4s, etc.)and not furniture-grade wood.

The third option is to go with a bandsawmill. This is the most expensive system ofthe three for small-scale milling and, like thecircular mill, must be towed behind a vehiclefor on-site work. Its sheer size and weightalso means youll need a helper. However,

What Type of Mill Should You Buy?Sawing your own logs into lumber is a greatway to get wood at a fraction of the costyoud pay a sawyer or lumber dealer. The jobcan be done with axes and adzes, but a smalllumber mill is a more expedient choice.Todays mills can go right to where the treehas been downed, saving you the complexityof transporting whole logs, as opposed tolumber. Of the three basic mills available tothe small-shop woodworkerthe chainsawmill, the circular sawmill, and the bandsaw


A chainsaw mill is easy to set upand use and letsyou tackle really big logs.

SECTION 3 OVERVIEW


A bandsaw mill like the one shown above can be trans-ported to the job site. Set up under cover (right), thisband mill can saw wood all day at great speed.

A circular sawmillcuts a lot of rela-tively narrow woodin a hurry and canbe operated by one person.

SECTION 3 OVERVIEW

the band mill cuts very fast, leaves littlewaste, and can be equipped with a hydraulicdog system that lets you reposition and holda log automatically during cutting. Fancierversions have on-board computers that youcan use to dial in the cuts instead of using atape measure or ruler.

One sneaky item to watch for when youremilling wood is metal buried in a log.Foreign objects like spikes and steel pins arequite common in some trees, such as shadetrees growing around a house or marker treesin a farmers field. Both might have seenduty as fence posts or other convenient nail-ing spots. Steel or iron will destroy a chainor blade, and the iron itself will stain wood.To find iron deep within a log, it pays toinvest in a metal detector so you can locateand pry out foreign objects before milling.


Iron left in greenwood will causedeep staining, suchas the dark streakson this walnut plank.

A handheld metal detector is a good investment if youre thinkingabout milling your own wood.

The bane ofsawyers, big steelnails will knock off teeth anddestroy blades.

HARVESTING TREES

Felling a TreeBefore felling a tree, its important to assess theweight of its upper branches and the lean of thetree to judge where it is likely to fall (A). Thengather your tools to begin cutting. Here, wood-wright Roy Underhill uses an ax and handsaw forfelling, but the same basic sequence can beapplied when youre using a faster-cutting (butlouder and dirtier) chainsaw.

Start by making a downward cut on the fall sideof the tree, about 1 ft. to 2 ft. above the ground(B). Then make an upward cut that meets thefirst to form a V-notch (C). Alternate betweenupward and downward cuts to deepen and widenthe notch. Good ax work involves splitting wood,which is much easier on the arms and faster thansevering the fibers. With the right technique, youshould see large chunks fly from the cut (D). Aimto make a notch an equilateral triangle thatsabout as wide as it is deep. When the notchreaches one-half to two-thirds back into the tree,youre ready for the back cut (E).

(Continued on p. 36.)


A

C

E

D

BWARNING Before making any

cuts, clear an escape path 45 degreesaway from the fall of the tree in case of an emergency.

!

HARVESTING TREES

Begin the back cut with a crosscut saw or chain-saw, sawing straight across the face directlyopposite the notch cut, and level with or slightlyabove the middle of the notch (F). As you sawdeeper into the trunk, keep your ears tuned toany creaking sounds from the tree, and remem-ber to eyeball the treetop every few strokes tonote any sway. These are signs that the tree isready to fall. Once the tree starts to go, pull thesaw from the cut (G). Then run from the tree atroughly a 45-degree angle from its fall line. Aboveall, never run directly behind the tree, as the buttend may kick back swiftly and without warning(H). If youve made the right sequence of cuts,the stump should show a narrow hinge ofwood between the notch and back cuts, withvery few fibers pulled from the stump (I).


F

H I

G

HARVESTING TREES

Cutting Trunks into LogsHandling logs is a challenge because of theimmense weight involved, especially when thewood is green and full of sap. However, with afew specialized logging tools, a little woodsmansavvy, and perhaps a helper, it can be accom-plished without too much sweat.

When trees fall, they typically hang up on groundcover or other trees, such as the poplar shownhere (A). The first order of business, then, is toreduce the trunk to manageable lengths that canbe moved to a safe spot for subsequent sawinginto logs. Pick an area where the trunk clears theground, and use a two-man crosscut saw tomake a saw cut from below, about one-quarter ofthe way through (B). Then cut from the top untilthe saw passes through (C). The undercut pre-vents the saw from binding and allows a cleancut without tearing the fibers (D).

[VARIATION] For a one-person approach,try using an old-fashioned FoldingSawing Machine, as it was called in the1800s. A hook at one end of the devicegrabs the trunk, and downward pressurefrom a spring keeps the saw in the woodwhile you push and pull the blade via along lever.

(Continued on p. 38.)


A B

C D

VARIATION

HARVESTING TREES

Once youve cut the tree into sections, youllwant to move them to level ground for sawinginto smaller logs that can be taken from the for-est. Plan on cutting your wood into 10-ft. sectionsor less, which gives you decent lengths withouttaxing your back or the vehicle you use to trans-port the logs. To move the logs into position, usea cant hook, which uses a hooked spike and along handle for leverage (E).

Position the log so the bulk of it lies as much aspossible on the ground. By slipping a scrap ofwood or bark under the cutline, you can give thetrunk more firm support and protect the bladefrom dirt as you saw through. As before, use atwo-man crosscut saw to cut through the log. Thelead man steers the blade and makes the cut onthe pull stroke. The helper follows the lead, andthen pulls the blade back for the return stroke (F).If the blade starts to bind, tap a wedge into thetop of the kerf to keep the sawcut open so youcan cut all the way through (G).


E

F

G

HARVESTING TREES


Planting a TreePlanting a young sapling can be done swiftly withthe right tool. Using a specialized digging spadecalled a dibble or dibble bar (A, B), an experi-enced forester can plant as many as 1,000 treesin a single day. Start by digging up a shoot, suchas this white ash taken from a garden (C). Becareful not to damage the plants roots while digging and planting, especially the centraltaproot (D).

Begin a hole for the sapling by piercing the fulllength of the dibble straight into the ground, andthen wiggling it back and forth (E). When the holeis about 6 in. wide, take hold of the sapling andpush its roots into the hole until the uppermostroots are slightly below the ground (F). Now plantthe spade full depth a few inches in front of thesapling and lever the tool forward to push the dirttoward the shoot (G, H). Finish up by tamping theloose dirt with a foot (I). Theres no need to waterunless the area is experiencing drought. Totalplanting time: about 30 seconds.

A

D

G

H

I

E F

B C

ROUGH-MILLING LUMBER

Shaping a Log by HandBefore machines, woodworkers used hand toolsexclusively to mill and shape wood. Hewing logsinto beams was one of these tasks, and it is stilla viable method for producing big timbers today.The method is simpler than you might think.

Begin by positioning a fresh log on a pair of short log sections to raise it off the ground. Cut V-notches into the sections to help stabilize the log.Then clamp the log to each section by using anax head to pound in a pair of pinch dogs, alsocalled log staples (A).

Using a plumb bob and chalk, strike two parallellines on one end of the log to mark the desiredwidth of the beam (B). Transfer the marks ontothe face of the log with a chalkline by snappingthe line onto the bark (C), then remove the barkat each line with a drawknife (D). With the barkgone, use the chalkline again to snap hewinglines onto the more-visible white wood (E).


A B

C D

E


To remove the bulk of wood on one face, employa two-step process. Standing atop the trunk, usea felling ax to make a series of V-shaped notchesalong the log, just shy of your layout lines (F).Then swing the ax along the trunk and betweenthe notches to split off large chunks (G).

Next, use the same ax to make a series of kerfsin the face of the log to the depth of your line(H). Stand astride the work and use a broadax torefine the surface, making slicing cuts by liftingthe ax and letting it fall so that its weight does allthe work for you (I). Finish one side by rotatingthe log so the flat surface faces up, and againworking on top, use an adze to smooth the face.Swing the tool toward you and between yourlegs, taking a thin shaving with each pass (J).Repeat the hewing process on the opposite face,then square off those faces to produce a four-sided beam.


WARNING To avoid injury, wearsturdy work boots and always keep thecutting path of the adze between yourlegs, never to the side.

!

F

H

J

I

G


Milling with a Chainsaw MillA chainsaw mill provides one of the simplestways to get acquainted with milling your ownwood. The system is very easy to transport andcan often be used alone. Keep in mind that thekerf left by the chain is about 12-in. wide, whichwastes a fair amount of wood. But with a chainmill, you have the option to saw really wideboards by equipping the mill with a long bara big plus.

Since this log is too wide for his mill, chairmakerDon Weber starts by lopping off excess areaswith a chainsaw (A). Then he uses a cant hook toposition the log so the desired cutting surfacefaces up. Wedge the log underneath if necessaryto keep it stable (B).

Square up the ends of the log as best you canwith the chainsaw (C). Then attach an end boardat one or both ends with lag screws, using a pairof levels to align the top of each board across thelog, and level with the highest point along thelogs length (D). Next, use a level to strike a levelline across the center of the log through the pith(E). This becomes your reference line for layingout the first cut. Also, if you cut directly into thisline later, youll minimize unstable pith in theboards adjacent to the center.

Lay a homemade beam over the log and ontoyour end boards (F). The beam must be sturdyand straight, so its best to make it from 2x mate-rial attached to a length of angle iron along eachedge. Referencing the line you drew earlier on theend of the log, adjust the mill for the first cut bylowering or raising the mill bars (G). This first cutis a waste, or slabbing, cut to remove sapwoodand define a flat surface for the first board, somake sure to adjust the mill with this in mind. Becareful not to make this cut too shallow or youllcut into the end boards that hold up the beam.


A

C

E F

G

D

B


Once youve adjusted the mill, start the saw andpush it through the wood to make the initial slab-bing cut (H). As you push, concentrate on keep-ing the mill flat on the surface of the beam. Onceyouve established the cut, drive a couple ofwedges into the kerf to prevent the sawn piecefrom collapsing onto the bar (I). When the cut isalmost complete, drive a few more wedges intothe kerf near the end of the log, and then pushthe mill through to finish the cut (J).

After removing the slab piece, adjust the depth of cut to the desired thickness of the plank youwish to mill (K). Now make your second cut similar to the first, but this time youll be cutting aplank of even thickness (L). Remove the firstplank from the log (M), and continue adjustingthe depth of cut and cutting through the log fromthe top surface down, milling individual planksuntil you reach the bottom slab section.


WARNING Mechanized millsgenerate a lot of noise and dust. Alwaysprotect your eyes and ears with safetyeyewear and hearing protectors.

!

H

J

L M

K

I


Milling with a Circular SawmillA circular sawmill can be set up and operated byone person. Here, woodworking instructor LisaPieropan sets up a mill by wheeling the saw car-riage inside the beams of the saws frame, aneasy task for one person (A). Working with a logthats already been sawn on one face by a bandmill, she squats down and sights the beams par-allel to the top of the log (B). The same tech-nique works with an unsawn whole log; you sim-ply sight along its top edge. A crank at each endof the frame lets you adjust the beams up ordown as necessary (C).

Before sawing, dial in the desired thickness andwidth by setting the stops at the front of the sawcarriage (D). Make the first cut with the bladeparallel with and to one side of the log, pushingthe carriage into the work (E). With the carriage


A

B

C

D

E


at the far end of the log, release the carriage lock,rotate the blade 90 degrees (F), and pull the sawback through the work to complete the first cut(G). This first slabbing cut removes waste fromthe edge of the log and creates a straight edgefor the first board (H).

Rotate the saw back to parallel, and push the car-riage into the log to slab, or thickness, the firstboard (I). Again, rotate the blade to 90 degreesand pull the saw back to complete the cut (J).The finished board has two straight and parallelsides, and the log is ready for the next board-cutting sequence (K).


F

H I

J K

G


Milling with a Band MillThis bandsaw mill is set up under cover to keepthe wood and sawyers Michael Talbot and ForrestEdens in the shade and out of inclement weath-er (A). The mill uses a flexible metal blade, orband, that travels around two wheels on the sawcarriage. The thin blade has aggressive, hook-shaped teeth that cut through logs very quicklywith minimal waste (B).

Here, cherry logs are the milling order of the day.Cutting begins when the sawyers slice a logdown its center. With this particular mill, the logis dogged to the platform and remains stationarywhile the saw carriage moves along the cut (C).After the first cut, the saw operator sets a row of metal dogs to hold the face parallel, or at 90 degrees, to the blade, depending on thedesired cut. The sawyer then measures the widthof the log in order to raise or lower the blade formaximum yield (D). Once this is set, the operatorsaws the half-log into two quarter-logs (E).


A

C

E

D

B


With a quarter-log in place, board milling begins.The operator adjusts the blade for the thicknessof the cut, measuring from the bottom of the log.The saw carriage begins its movement throughthe log from the near, or operators, side of themill (F). At the end of the cut, the blade exits andthe log drops down onto the sawn board (G).

A helper shifts the log and pulls the sawn boardfrom the platform (H). Immediately after sawing,its important to stack the boards onto a stickeredpile (I).

With a band mill, the sawn surface displays aseries of straight sawmarks perpendicular to theedge of the plank (J).


G

I

H

J

F

See Stickering a Pile on p. 54.

SECTION 4 OVERVIEW

48

Drying Lumber

Stickering a Pile(p. 54)

Wrapping a Stack (p. 56)

Monitoring a Kiln (p. 57)

Drying Lumber

What Is Dry Wood?Drying, or seasoning, wood correctly is thekey to using it for furniture construction.The drying process takes place eitherthrough air-drying or through a combina-tion of air- and kiln-drying, as Ill explainshortly. The basic approach involves the ini-tial removal of all the free water in the greenwood, which is liquid and moisture trappedinside the cells. Following that, the wood isfurther dried by removing a portion of thebound waterthe moisture that saturatesthe walls of the cells.

Its important to understand that as thebound water evaporates, the wood starts toshrink. This is why your drying scheduleshould give the wood enough time to shrinkslowly. Otherwise, unequal stresses in thewood will lead to warping and cracking.However, drying too slowly will invite fun-gal attack on the surface of the wood.Therefore, its necessary to carefully monitorthe moisture content of the wood as it dries.

The moisture content (MC) of wood isdefined as the ratio of the weight of waterin a given piece of wood to the weight ofthat piece of wood when its completely dry(known as oven-dry weight). This ratio isexpressed as a percentage.

Knowing the MC of your wood is criticalbecause not all wood is dried to the sameextent. For furniture making, wood should

A ll living trees contain sap,which is mostly water, or moisture.When we mill a tree into lumber,we have to reduce this moisture content inthe wood before turning our boards intofurniture. The technique for drying wood isquite an art. It requires drying our materialfast enough so it wont mold or rot, yet notso fast that it stresses the wood, whichresults in checking, splitting, and all sorts ofother nasty traits.

In this section, well learn about the cor-rect moisture content for our materialandsome of the pitfalls of wood thats too wetor too dry. Well also look at how wood isdried, and how to choose an appropriatemethod for drying your own boards toensure that youre always working with premium wood.

See Reading Moisture in Wood on p. 81.

SECTION 4 OVERVIEW

your beautiful log will become scrap. Youcan use ordinary house paint or a productmade specifically for the purpose: a wax sus-pended in a water-based emulsion. Using apaintbrush, make sure to apply a thick coatto both ends of the log.

be in a range between 6 percent and 8 per-cent MC. In contrast, construction-gradelumber used for building houses is usuallykiln-dried to 12 percent to 14 percentMCtoo wet for our purposes.

Its important to realize that wood ishygroscopicthat is, it always expands andcontracts in relation to the amount of mois-ture in its environment. Fortunately, thismovement isnt arbitrary; wood does eventu-ally reach a state of equilibrium with itsenvironment. This simply means that, at agiven level of relative humidity, the wood nolonger takes on or releases water. At thispoint, the amount of water in the wood isreferred to as its equilibrium moisture con-tent (EMC). The EMC of wood will begreater when the weather is humid and lessin the dry season.

Sealing Fresh WoodAs weve seen, part of the process of dryingwood involves slowing down the rate atwhich water escapes the cells, but not slow-ing it down so much as to promote fungalattack. And the place to begin is with wholelogs right after theyre felled. Start by check-ing the bark. If its sound, its okay to leave iton the log. However, be sure to remove anyloose bark because it will invite fungi to takeup residence and start the decay process.

The nextand probably most importantstep is to seal the end grain of the log.Again, do this immediately after felling.Sealing this area is important because thesevered ends of the cell cavities release mois-ture much more quickly than the long-grainfibers, and fast water removal results inchecking as the wood dries out too quickly.If you wait or ignore this step altogether,

Drying Lumber 49

As soon as youve cut your logs, thoroughly cover them withpaint or wax on their ends to retard checking.

SECTION 4 OVERVIEW

Drying TechniquesThe hobbyist and small-shop woodworkerwho is drying his or her own wood shouldfirst let it air-dry, even if it will ultimately bekiln-dried as the final step. Initial air-dryingis more economical and gives the wood timeto relax while losing much of its free water.Although large commercial kiln operatorswill stack freshly cut material in their kilns,chances are youd have some serious prob-lems if you tried this approach yourself. Itslikely that checking and interior splits wouldturn your prized stock into a firewood pile.So even if youre thinking of using a kiln fordrying, you should become familiar with theair-drying process.

First stack all your wood in piles so aircan get around it (see the drawing on facingpage). Once the wood has dried to around20 percent MC, you have two options: Put itinto a kiln or leave it to dry further. Most ofthe commercial wood we use is kiln-dried. If

Drying Lumber50

Stacks of wood dryin the air undercover at theNakashima work-shops in New Hope,Pennsylvania.

Sawyer Mike Petersuses a shippingcontainer for a kiln,operating it 24 hoursa day.

SECTION 4 OVERVIEW

the interior, or core. You can spot a case-hardened board at the mill by looking forsmall, isolated checks on the face of a board.In the shop, youve got case-hardened woodif you rip a board in half and see cuppingacross the inside face. Sometimes a boardwill cup to the outside, a reverse situation ofcase-hardening. Serious case-hardening canresult in honeycombing, where the stressesin the core create small tears, or checks, inthe center of the wood, typically in dense,thick woods. Youll want to avoid materialwith any of these traits.

Another potential benefit of air-dryinglumber is the preservation of its color.Woods like walnut have richer, more vibranthues when left to dry outdoors. However,

done correctly, the operation yields wonder-fully stable, uniform stock in a relativelyshort time. While kiln-drying has theadvantage of speeding up the drying process,air-drying has its own benefits.

Air-DryingThe biggest advantage of air-drying wood isthe utter simplicity of the process. Withsome careful preparation, all you need is aflat area in which to store your stock and alittle time. Another plus is that wood driedby air alone is free of some of the stressesthat kiln-drying often imparts. One suchunpleasant characteristic is case-hardening,in which the outside, or shell, of a board has been dried too quickly, creating stress in

Drying Lumber 51

B ild t k f l th f l b

Weight holds roofing in place

Protect stack from direct sun and rain with corrugated roofing or exterior-grade plywood.

Cover supports with plastic sheeting to protect stack from ground moisture.

Space 4x4s 16 in. apart on level, well-drained ground.

Position stickers directly over foundation supports to provide air passage between layers.

Wrap stack with landscaping cloth or similar material to protect from sunlight, rain, and harsh wind.

MAKING A DRYING STACK

Not uncommon with kiln-dried wood, cup-ping on the inside face of these resawnboards indicates case-hardening, a condi-tion caused by improper drying.

SECTION 4 OVERVIEW

quite, ready for working, without clutteringup your shop. Eventually, though, youll haveto bring your stickered stash inside an envi-ronmentally controlled (heated) building likeyour home or shop to get it down to 6 per-cent to 8 percent MC.

Once your wood has dried to within thisrange, youll want to continue monitoring itwith a moisture meter to see that it remainswithin the range or has reached equilibriumwith its new environment (EMC).

In general, it takes about a month forwood to reach this desired state and accli-mate to indoor conditions.

Kiln DryingOverall, drying wood in a kiln is much fasterthan air-drying and allows you to work thewood much sooner. In general, you shouldair-dry your stock for six months to a yearbefore putting it into a kiln. When loadingthe kiln, stack the lumber in much the same

the reverse is sometimes the case, as withpear, which takes on a deeper tone whendried inside a kiln with moisture and heat.Its worth experimenting with drying differ-ent woods both ways to see which approachworks best for you.

A general rule of thumb for air-dryingwood is to wait one year for every inch ofthickness. However, this depends on climateand species. Softer, lower-density woodssuch as pine or poplar generally dry morequickly than denser species such as oak orrosewood. Still, many woodworkers use thisrule as a guideline for drying. Therefore, ifyou have a stack of 8/4 (2-in.-thick) wood,you might have to wait as long as two yearsbefore its dry enough to bring indoors.

Outdoors, wood will typically only dry to about 20 percent MC, depending on theclimate and species. Bringing it into anenclosed but unheated building like a barnor shed can lower the moisture to around 12 percent MC. This intermediate step isoften a matter of convenience and allowsyou to store wood thats almost, but not

Drying Lumber52

Isolated splits deepwithin wood resultfrom severe case-hardening. Calledhoneycombing,the defect is difficultto see withoutopening up a board.

See Reading Moisture in Wood on p. 81.

SECTION 4 OVERVIEW

(see the drawing above). Commercial kilnsuse an electronic controller that records themoisture content in the kiln, but a handheldmoisture meter will suffice and allows you tokeep tabs on the condition of sample boards.

Kiln-drying schedules vary, depending onthe species and thickness, but one to twomonths is not uncommon for bringing wooddown to around 7 percent MC. Afterremoving lumber from the kiln, remember tostore it in the shop for a few weeks beforeworking it so it can attain equilibrium withyour shops ambient humidity.

manner that you stacked it outdoors, keep-ing it stickered so air can flow freely aroundthe boards.

The working components of a kiln arevery simple, and many woodworkers maketheir own from salvaged and otherwise for-aged parts. The kiln will need to be insulatedon the inside and impervious to the weather.Shipping containers make excellent kilnboxes, or you can construct a container fromsheets of plywood insulated with rigid foam.Inside, a fan circulates the moist air while alarge dehumidifieroften coupled with aheating unitpulls moisture from the pile

Drying Lumber 53

Install vents to release moist air.

Make end or side panel removable for loading and unloading lumber.

Insulate walls and ceiling.

Dehumidifier or heat source lowers relative humidity.

Fan circulates air to promote drying.

Make baffle from plywood sheet to force circulating air to return through stickered stack.

Provide drain from dehumidifier to outside.

INSIDE A KILN

DRYING LUMBER

Stickering a PileProper stacking of freshly cut boards is vital forkeeping your wood flat and ensuring that it driesin the correct manner. Its best to pick levelground thats shielded from prevailing winds anddirect sunlight. A dry spot under some trees usu-ally does the trick.

Here, sawyer Mike Peters begins laying out astack by placing a pair of 10-ft.-long 4x4s on theground. He uses a level and short 4x4s on top ofthe beams to level them with each other, usingshims under the beams where necessary (A).Next, Peters positions a series of short 4x4sacross the ground beams, spacing them every 16 in. on center and making a center mark onboth ends of each crossbeam (B, C).

When stickering like this, begin stacking the firstlayer by placing your wood across the cross-beams, with the outermost board flush with theends of the beams (D). As you stack, butt eachboard up to its neighbor. Subsequent drying andshrinking ensures that there will be an adequategap between boards for a good flow of air (E).When you get to the opposite side, measure thewidth of the stack at each end to ensure that itseven. This is critical to a making a stable stack,especially with the first layer (F).

For the second layer and all subsequent layers,place stickers across the previous layer anddirectly over the center marks you made earlier(G). Use only fully dried wood for your stickers(kiln-dried is best), making them 34 in. to 1 in.square, and be sure to choose a mild speciessuch as poplar or maple that wont leach extrac-tives and other stains into your pile and discolor it.

Drying Lumber54

A

C

G

E F

D

B

DRYING LUMBER

[VARIATION] Instead of using woodstickers, you can buy a commercial plasticvariety. The plastic tubes have concavesurfaces that reduce contact area with thewood, and the material itself helps elimi-nate sticker stain.

Build the second layer as you did the first, keep-ing the boards together with their ends flush (H).Its best to work with the same lengths of boardswhen possible, but if you have shorts, make sure to place them so theyre supported by thestickers and are as even as possible with at leastone outside edge. As before, make sure the last board in the layer is even with the edge ofthe stack (I).

[VARIATION] To speed up making a stack, Peters designed and built an L-shaped metal enclosure that lets himsticker his wood right off the mill. Hebutts boards into the corner, whichensures that the stack stays even, andthen he moves the pile with a forklift to a suitable drying spot.

Continue building layers until you reach an appro-priate height. Generally, its best to keep yourstacks under 8 ft. tall so theyre stable and easyto access. To protect the pile from rain and sun,youll need a roof of some sort. Sheet-metal roof-ing works well as long as it extends past the pilea few inches and is weighed down with concreteblocks or stumps of wood. Peters uses his trac-tor to lift a prefabricated roof made from sheetmetal screwed to an old pallet to cap off a fin-ished stack (J).

Drying Lumber 55

VARIATION H

I

J

VARIATION

DRYING LUMBER

Wrapping a StackA properly stacked and stickered pile will standfor years. And with a roof on top it will dry with-out taking on or releasing excessive moisture.But in really humid or dry climates, adding fabricaround the pile will minimize the effect of thesun, rain, and wind, ensuring that your wooddries more evenly.

One option is to use regular landscaping cloth,which lasts a couple of seasons before breakingdown. Starting at one corner of the stack, screwone end of the cloth to the top of the pile underthe roof, either into one of your boards or into theroof structure (A). Then walk the cloth around thesides of the pile, securing it at every corner withmore screws. To avoid damaging the fabric, make sure the cloth doesnt rub against theboards (B). When youre done, the materialshould be well secured at the corners and hangloosely at each side (C).

[VARIATION] For the best protection ofyour stacks, you can use a material calledShade-Dri, one of several productsmade expressly for this purpose. This special material shields the sides of yourpile from sunlight, rain, and strong winds,while its open-weave construction allowsair to pass through for good ventilation.Although more expensive than landscap-ing cloth, the material is designed to with-stand years of weather.

Drying Lumber56

A

C

B

VARIATION

DRYING LUMBER

Monitoring a KilnA variety of structures and containers can be outfitted to serve as kilns. But whatever the type of kiln, it must be faithfully monitored dur-ing the drying process. Here, instructor ChrisFeddersohn opens up Palomar Colleges kiln,which is made from a converted shipping con-tainer (A). Inside is a stickered pile of wood,along with plywood baffles that direct airflowaround and through the stack (B). An overheadfan circulates the air (C), while a dehumidifierdraws moisture from the stack and moves it outside (D).

An electronic box mounted inside the kiln butaccessible through a door on the outside lets you monitor the time, temperature, and moisturelevels (E). Its important to check on the dryingconditions frequently until the moisture contentreaches the desired level.

Drying Lumber 57

A

C

E

D

B

SECTION 5 OVERVIEW

58

Buying Lumber

Picking LumberyardWood (p. 62)

Buying Lumber

various lumber terms used in the trade andthe grading systems for classifying the qual-ity of the wood you buy. Once youre armedwith this information and know a few tricksfor selecting good wood and avoiding thebad, youll be able to buy wood from theyard with confidence.

Understanding Lumber TermsLumber terminology can appear complexand mysterious to the beginner, but its notdifficult to grasp if you familiarize yourselfwith a few basic terms and some generallumber-making rules.

When wood is sold at the mill or lum-beryard, its measured in board feet. Thisinvolves using a simple formula that allowslumberyards and merchants to calculateamounts of wood in spite of the fact thatlumber isnt uniform in size. The formula isbased on one board foot equaling a piece ofroughsawn wood 1 in. thick by 12 in. wideby 12 in. long, or its cubic equivalent.

To find the total board feet of a givenboard, you multiply (in inches) thickness bywidth by length, then divide by 144. Forexample, to calculate the number of boardfeet in a roughsawn board measuring 112 in.thick by 634 in. wide by 8 ft. long, the for-mula is as follows:

1.5 x 6.75 x 96 144 = 6.75 bd. ft.Get to know this formula well, since

youll use it to calculate the total board feetyou need when purchasing lumber.

Buying wood is a never-endingprocess. I consider it part of thechallenge and fun of woodworking.There are many sources for your material,and it pays to investigate them all. Oneavenue to consider is acquiring green woodand drying it yourself or taking it to a quali-fied drying facility.

However, most of us will opt for payinghard cash at the lumberyard for our stock.To ensure that you get what you pay for, itsa good idea to become familiar with stan-dard lumber nomenclature, including the

See Drying Lumber on p. 48.

SECTION 5 OVERVIEW

each quarter representing 14 in. of thickness(see the chart below). For

complete illustrated guide to working with woodcomplete illustrated guide to working with wood

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