Chemicals of Life

Virtually all chemicals of life are _________________.

Compounds that contain carbon are called

_________________, and the chemistry of carbon compounds is called _________________

Organic Chemistry

-ane (single bond)

-ene (double bond)

-yne (triple bond)

The organic chemicals important to life include ___________________

_________________

Cells use these for structure, energy, __________________________________.

Carbon can:

 - form up to _________________with other atoms

 - attach to each other to form   _________________

__________________________________

Other elements such as _________________

_________________ may attach to the carbon

backbone to form reactive clusters of atoms called

_________________

This leads to an almost infinite number of possibilities.

Various atoms always form the same

_________________ with adjacent atoms -(_________________).

Functional Groups

Ether linkage

Ester

R

Phosphodiester

-

R

R

peptide linkage R R protein (polypeptide)

sulfhydrylamino acid - cystiene

+

A

B

C

D

E

1. Carbohydrates

- essential for all life- nearly all come from ______________________________

- Almost all energy comes from the ______________________ _______________________________________

- Made of _____________, in a ratio of _____________- The term _____________ and the suffix _____________both

 refer to _____________.

    

Classified into 3 groups:

a. Monosaccharides

The simplest carbs are the _______________or

_______________.

_______________contain a single chain of carbon

atoms to which _______________are attached.

Monosaccharides may be distinguished by the _______________

______________________________and the number of atoms in their

carbon backbone.

A sugar with five carbons is called a _______________, one with six carbons, a

_______________. The two simplest monosaccharides are _______________ (a

triose with a ketone group) and _______________ (a triose with an aldehyde group)

Molecules with the same _______________but with a different

structure are called_______________.

___________________________________________________

________________________are isomers.

Isomers possess different ______________________________.

Monosaccharides with ___________________________molecules in the dry state.

However, when dissolved in water, these ____________________ ___________________________________

There is a _____________________________________at carbon 1 will

end up below the plane of the ring.

If so, the resulting molecule is called __________________.

If the hydroxyl group at carbon 1 ends ______________________of the

ring, then _________________is formed.

http://www.biotopics.co.uk/JmolApplet/alphabetajglucose2.html

In the abbreviated formula for glucose, ______________are omitted

and constituent groups are ____________________________the

plane of the ring.

α-Galactoseα-fructoseα - glucose

β-Galactose β-fructoseβ - glucose

b. Oligosaccharides

Oligosaccharides are sugars containing ______________

______________attached to one another by covalent bonds

called ____________________________

These bonds form by ____________________________

H

β-galactose

+

1-3, and 1-6 linkages are also common in carbohydrate chains.

Polysaccharides (_________________________) are polymers.

Polymers are ____________________________________called

monomers.

Monosaccharides are the _______________________________.

Composed __________________________________________

_________________________ joined by _____________

linkages.

c. Polysaccharides

linkages.

Can be ___________________, or ____________.

2 functions in living cells: __________________and

________________________.

__________________________are examples of storage polysaccharides

_________________________are structural

polysaccharides.

Plant Starch

Plants produce more ______________________.

________________is a mixture of two different

polysaccharides, ___________________ _____________________

Amylose

_______________ is a straight chain polymer of ___________with

_________________________________.

___________ is a branched-chain α-glucose polymer with

____________________________________________ at the

branch points.

Polysaccharides are _____________ but because of

their size, they _____________ _____________ in water

Plants store insoluble starch in _____________ _____________ _____________

Some plants store large amounts in specialized structures _____________ _____________

_____________

________________ use starch as an energy source.

Animals possess ___________ that

_______________________ and

________________ into glucose

molecules.

Glycogen

Hydrolysis is the process where a ___________________

___________________________holding subunits together. The water molecule _______________________________________ ______________________________________________

Excess glucose molecules in ___________ are linked ________________, an energy storage molecule.

________________________________________in structure with α1–4 main chain linkages and α1–6 branch-point linkages, but there are ____________________________

Stored in small amounts in _________________________.

Is hydrolyzed into _______________________________________.

Only lasts about ___________if not replenished.Only lasts about ___________if not replenished.

Cellulose

Cellulose, the _____________________________(majority of plant

cell walls).

Most abundant ___________________________________.

Cellulose is a straight-chain _________________________held

together ____________________________________

Hydroxyl groups at _________________________in β-glucose cause

every other monomer to be ________________________ for the

glycosidic linkage to form.

Cellulose molecules are neither ________________________

This allows many hydrogen bonds, _______________________

___________________________________________________

Cellulose microfibrils _______________________________.

Responsible for wood, paper, and cotton

Digestive enzymes in humans are ________________________the linkages between _______________________________in cellulose.

Certain animals, such as __________, contain ____________ and

protists in their digestive tracts that produce enzymes that break the ___________________________in cellulose.

This allows the animal to digest the _________________________and other vegetable matter.

The hard ___________________and of _________________,

and the cell wall of many ___________, is made of chitin,

Chitin is a polymer of ___________________________,

Chitin

Chitin is the second most abundant organic material found in nature.

Chitin’s physical and chemical properties make it useful in medical

applications, where a tough, yet biodegradable, material is required.

2. Lipids

Lipids are ___________________________

Composed of ________________________________

They contain fewer ________________and more

________________than do carbohydrates.

Lipids are ________________but soluble in other

________________ substances.

Some consist of long ________________, others consist of several ________________.

Organisms use lipids for ________________________________ ________________________________

Lipids can be divided into four families: 1. ________________

 2. ________________ 3. ________________ 4. ________________

A gram of fat stores about ________________of energy

per gram. (9 kilocalories or 9 Calories)

Carbs and proteins ________________

(4 kilocalories or 4 Calories)

One ________________ (cal) is equal to ___________.

One ________________ (Cal) is equal to __________

The most common fats in plants and animals are the

________________________________).

They contain ________________attached to a single

molecule of ________________

1. Fats / Oils

oleic acid(b)

linolenic acid

(c)

Triglycerides form through ________________called

________________. (________________of glycerol and the

________________of a fatty acid).

Saturated Fats

 - ________________

 - composed only ________________

 - many ________________attractions

 - ________________at room   temperature.

Unsaturated Fats

 - ________________

 - composed of ________________________________

 - ________________ van der Waals attractions

 - ________________at room   temperature.

The membranes of cells are mostly composed of

________________________________

All phospholipids begin as

________________________________

2. Phospholipids

Phospholipids are

composed of a

________________ ________________

________________

________________

shortform notation called a wireframe, or Kekule structure

The phosphate group is

________________

Fatty acids are

________________

When added to water,

phospholipids

________________________

Cell membranes separate ________________

________________________________

Membranes also surround many ________________

A double layer of phospholipids or a

________________________________ forms.

Fluid Mosaic Model

Our current knowledge of the cell membrane proposes:

- ________________________________

- proteins are ________________________________

 and are ________________throughout it.

- lipids may _____________________________ places

- ________________ (regulate movement)

- contain a wide assortment ________________- contain a wide assortment ________________

- Proteins are used for ________________

________________________________- Embedded proteins are called

________________membrane proteins. (most are

________________ proteins)

- ________________ membrane proteins are found on

the ___________ and held by _____________ forces.

Cell membranes contain ________________which

transport substances against an ________________

Membranes also have ________________that form channels through which ________________ pass. http://www.bio.davidson.edu/people/macampbell/111/memb-swf/membranes.swf

You must visit and complete the tutorial:

There are 2 other types of membrane lipids: 2. _________________ (small amounts)

 3. ________________- type of sterol   (steroid alcohol)

Sterols/Steroids are ____________________containing four

fused _________________________ and several different ________________________.

Cholesterol: - gives ____________________   rigidity.

 - precursor of ____________________ - is very common in ________________ - involved in formation of

____________and ______________

Waxes are lipids ______________ ______________ linked to

______________ ______________.

They are ______________ ______________

Used as a ______________ ______________ ______________.

Birds secrete a ______________ ______________ _____________

4. Waxes

Bees construct ______________

Proteins are ______________ folded into specific ______________ shapes.

A protein’s ______________ determine its ______________.

3. Proteins

An ______________

There are ______________

commonly found in living organisms

and, therefore, ______________ ______________

Amino acids are ______________ -

both ______________ and

______________ functional groups.

Amino acids may be ______________

______________ depending on the

side chains.

Proline's side chain ______________ ______________ with its own amino group.

Amino acids are connected together through

________________________to form a polymer called a

______________ (______________).

Amino acids are joined by ______________. They are formed by

a ______________.

Amino acids are only added to ______________ of a growing

chain ______________

This type of functional group linkage is called an

______________.______________.

Your body can construct ______________ if required.

You must eat ______________. They are ______________

______________ ______________ ______________

______________ ______________ ______________.

Protein ______________ can only be understood in

terms of ______________!

Proteins consist of ______________ that have twisted and

coiled into a ______________.

The final shape, or ______________, of the polymer is

______________ ______________ of amino acids it

contains.contains.

Protein Structure

Proteins have up to 4 levels of structure.

1. Primary structure

- is the ________________________(residue) in a polypeptide chain.

Primary structure is determined by the ___________

______________________________.

The final conformation of a protein is _____________

_____________________________________

Changing one amino acid _______________________________ (loss of function).(loss of function).

A ____________________________causes sickle cell anemia

Sickle-cell occurs when the ______, ________________ is replaced by

_______ . ____________________,

causing haemoglobin to collapse in

on itself occasionally.

2. Secondary Structure

As the peptide grows, it __________________________.

In certain regions______________________________formhydrogen bonds.

These H-bonds, can cause __________________________

____________________________________

When two parts of the polypeptide

chain lie _________ to one

another we get _______________.

Again this is a result of _________

_________________

3. Tertiary Structure

Caused by strong ________________________________between the polypeptide and its environment.

Polar R groups are attracted to ___________________________________.

Hydrophobic groups are forced to _________________________________.

____________________________________________________, all contribute to tertiary structure.

When the ______________________________come close, a ______________________________(-S-S-)

may form.

Disulfide bridges are __________________________ ______________________

4. Quaternary Structure

___________________________________________form a

functional protein.

Hemoglobin is composed of 2 identical α-chains and two identical β-

chains.

___________________________________________factors help determine the final shape of the protein.

________________________________________, or other factors all play a role.

If a protein is placed in different environmental conditions, it may change its shape in a process called _____________________

4. Nucleic Acids

Nucleic acids serve as _______________________for all proteins.

2 Types:

 _______________________________

________________________________

DNA stores ___________________________.

Different kinds of

_______________________________synthesis.

(hereditary molecule in some viruses)

Nucleic acids are polymers of nucleotides

Nucleotides are composed of 3 parts:

Nitrogenous

1

There are 2 types of nitrogenous base:

 _____________________________

_________________

Nucleotides join to form ________________________.

Phosphodiester bonds

form between the ______

____________________

____________________

____________________

____________________________________form

the backbone of DNA and RNA.RNA contains _________________________

RNA molecules coil into a __________________________.

DNA has nucleotides containing the ____________________

DNA molecules are also helical in structure, but they are

composed of _____________________________________.

The two strands in DNA are held together by ___________________________ _______________________________________________________________

Base pairing occurs between _____________________and between _______ _______________________________________________

Each strand of the DNA molecule has a _________________________

___________________________________________________________

The two strands are said to run

_______________.

Every nucleotide pair is composed of a

___________________ ___________________ ___________________

Nucleotides are not only used in the construction of DNA and RNA.

The nucleotide _______________________________(ATP)

Nucleotide derivatives:

 - _________________________________________  (NAD+)

 - __________________________________________(FAD)