Computer Architecture

Lecture 1: Introduction

Piotr Bilski

Plan of the Lectures1. Introduction, history of the computers, Moore's Law2. Structure of the computer system. System bus. Orders'

cycle3. Logical systems. Computer's arithmetics4. Processor's instruction list5. Structure and work regime of the processor6. Control Unit7. Cache memory8. Internal and external memory9. Input/output devices10. Operating system support11. RISC processors12. Superscalar processors13. Parallel architectures14. IA-64 architecture

Points and Grades

Two tests during the semester: 50 points MAX

Two programming projects: 50 points MAX

26 pts – grade 3

31 pts – grade 3,5

36 pts – grade 4

41 pts – grade 4,5

46 pts – grade 5

ReferencesW. Stallings, “Computer Organization and Architecture. Designing and Performance. 7th Edition”, Prentice Hall, 2006.

A.J. van de Goor, “High Performance Computer Architecture,” Prentice-Hall, 1989.

B. Wilkinson, Computer architecture (2nd ed.); Prentice-Hall 1996.

Hennessy, J.L. Patterson, Computer architecture – a quantitative approach (3nd ed.); Morgan Kaufman 2005.

J. Silc, B. Robin, T. Ungerer, Processors architecture: from dataflow to superscalar and beyond; Springer-Verlag 1999.

Organization and Architecture of the Computer System

• Organization determines operational units and connections between them, which realize architecture

• Architecture describes attributes (characteristics) of the computer system, visible (accessible) for the programmer

Definition of the Computer

• Computer is, in general meaning, computing machine, used for processing of the information represented in the digital form or as the continuous signal

• What is the difference between the calculator and the computer?

Classification of the ComputersSize of the instruction set

RISC

CISC

Method of the data processing

Serial (scalar)

Parallel

Matrix

Vector

Multiprocessor

Application

Universal

Problem-oriented

Specialized

Breadth of the address bus

8-bit

16-bit

32-bit

64-bit

Functional Scheme of the Computer

Data storing module

Control module

Data processing module

Transfer data module

Environment

Data transmission

Data storageInternal processing of data

Data processing with transmission

Phases of the Computer Development

1. Computers based on the vacuum lamps (1946-1957)

2. Transistor-based computers (1958-1964)

3. SSI, MSI structure-based computers (1965-1971)

4. LSI structure-based computers (1972-1977)

5. VLSI structure-based computers (1978-??)

6. New architectures: molecular, quantum, optical, neurocomputers

Phases of the Processor Development (Intel)

1. 8-bit processors (8086-80188)

2. 16-bit processors (80286)

3. First 32-bit processors (80386)

4. 486 family (80486)

5. Pentium family (80586)

6. Pentium Pro family (80686)

7. Pentium IV family

8. 64-bit processors (Pentium IV Extreme)

9. Multicore processors (Dual Core, Core2Duo, Core2Quad, X2, X4, i7)

Pentium and PowerPC• PowerPC:

– Manufactured by IBM-Apple-Motorola

– The best RISC processor

– Models: 601, 603, 604, 620, G3, G4

– Currently installed in the network devices, printers (Kyocera) and consoles (PS3, Nintendo Wii)

• Pentium:– Manufactured by Intel– Classical superscalar

representative of the x86 architecture

– Pentium, Pentium II, Pentium Pro, Pentium IV, IA-64 (64-bit!)

ENIAC (J.P. Eckert, J.W. Maulchy - 1946)

• Considered (erroneously) as the first computer in the world

• Calculations in the decimal system (no memory)• Weight – 30 tons, 20 thousand of the vacuum

lamps inside, 5000 op/s, power required: 140 kW• Applications: calculations for the military (missiles

ballistics, viability to construct the hydrogen bomb)

Commercial Computers (since 1951)

701, 702 (IBM)UNIVAC I (Sperry-Rand Corporation)

Characteristics:

Central Processing Unit (CPU) based on the vacuum lamps

Operational memory based on the ferrite rings or electrostatic lamps

The First Microprocessor (1971)

• Developed in the Intel company, labelled as 4004 (author: Ted Hoff)

• Built from 2300 transistors

• Impemented operation of adding two 4-bit numbers

• 100 kHz clock

The First General Purpose Processor (1974)

• Signature: 8080• 8-bit processor• Clock speed: 2 MHz• 6000 of transistors in the circuit• 64 kB of addressable memory

Apple II Computer (1977)

• The first one to present the colour graphics

• Open architecture (easy to expand)

• MOS 6502 processor (1MHz to 3 MHz)

• RAM memory 4KB, max. 64 KB

• WOZ Integer Basic operating system

IBM PC/XT Computer (1983)

• Intel 8088 processor (4,77 MHz), later (in the turbo mode) to 14 MHz

• RAM memory – max. 640 kB

• 8-bit ISA bus• Later replaced by

IBM PC/AT and IBM PC/XT/286

Moore’s Law (1965)

„Economically optimal number of the transistors in the integrated chip will be doubled every 18 months”

Gordon Moore (born in 1929, San Francisco, California), PhD in physics in 1954 r. One of the founders of the Intel corporation in 1968 r.

„Computational power of the microprocessors will be doubled every 18 months, assuming constant production cost”

Moore's Law (cont.)

• Original drawing from Moore's paper (1965)

Moore’s Law (cont.)

„If the car technology in 1971 was accelerating in the same pace as microelectronics, today we would travel from San Francisco to New York within 13 seconds”

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100

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Increase of the Integration Scale in Time

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P PRO P II

P III

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Performance Gap

• Efficiency advancement of processors and memory was not uniform

• Frequencies of the processor clock are much greater than these of memory

• Numerous methods of compensating for this gap are applied:– Increasing of the memory clock– Increasing of the cache memory size– Modifying the sequence of the instructions

execution flow

Illustration of the Performance Gap

Problem of the physical limitations

• Size of transistors cannot be decreased indefinitely!

• A significant problem is the heat emission (cooling issue!)

• Processor core has a crucial influence on the calculations efficiency and emitted heat

Comparison of Single- and Multicore Architectures

Single core Multiprocessor Multicore

cache

cache

cache

cache

Turing Machine (1937)

• The first theoretical model of the computer• Was used to design the Colossus computer• Symbols are read from the tape, result of the

calculations is also stored on the tape

10 B 2 F 6 ?

Head control

tape

head

Work Regime of the Turing Machine

• Control unit is the processor, moving over the tape and performing write/read operations

• Control unit's action depends on the symbol read from the tape and state of the control unit

• Instruction of the Turing machine:

(S0, qi, Sz, qj, L/P)

Operational part of the instructionIdentification part of the instruction

von Neumann Architecture (1945)

• Universal uniprocessor architecture, the base for the modern computers

• First practical realization: IAS computer (1952)• Functional structure:

– Central Processing Unit (CPU) consisting of the Arithmetical-Logical Unit (ALU) and Control Unit (CU)

– Main memory used to store data and instructions

– Input/output modules

Organization of the von Neumann Machine

main memory

I/O devices

CPU

Computational part of the CPU

Control part of the CPU

MBR

AC

MAR

PC IRCU

ALU

Internal bus

System bus