computer mca

8/16/2019 Computer mca

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Computer Organization and Architecture

Study Material for MS-07/MCA/204

Directorate of Ditance !ducation

"uru #am$heh%ar &ni'erity of Science ()echnology* +iar

Study Material ,repared $y a.ee' #ha ( ,reeti hard%a.

Copyright * a.ee' #ha ( ,reeti hard%a.

,u$lihed $y !1cel oo* A-43* araina* ,hae 5* e% Delhi-660 02

,u$lihed $y Anurag #ain for !1cel oo* A-43* araina* ,hae 5* e% Delhi-660 02

and printed $y him at !1cel ,rinter*

C-208* araina* ,hae 5* e% Delhi - 660 02

CO)!)S

&nit 6 ,rinciple of Computer Deign 3

696 5ntroduction

692 Soft%are

69: +ard%are

694 Soft%are-+ard%are 5nteraction ;ayer in Computer Architecture

693 Operating Sytem

698 Application Soft%are

697 Central ,roceing &nit

69 Machine ;anguage 5ntruction

69< Addreing Mode

6960 5ntruction Cycle

6966 !1ecution Cycle =5ntruction !1ecution>

6962 Summary

696: ?ey%ord

6964 e'ie% @uetion

6963 urther eading


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&nit 2 Control &nit and Microprogramming 23

296 5ntroduction

292 Control &nit

29: aic Control &nit Operation

294 Data ,ath and Control ,ath Deign

293 Microprogramming

298 +ard%ired Control &nit

297 O'er'ie% of 5SC/C5SC

29 Comple1 5ntruction Set Computer =C5SC>

29< ,ipelining ,roceing

2960 Supercalar ,roceor

2966 Summary

2962 ?ey%ord

296: e'ie% @uetion

2964 urther eading

&nit : Memory Organization 86

:96 5ntroduction

:92 Memory ytem

:9: Storage )echnologie

:94 Memory Array Organization

:93 Memory Management

:98 Memory +ierarchy

:97 Memory 5nterlea'ing

:9 Birtual Memory

:9< 5O Algorithm

:960 ;& Algorithm


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:966 Cache Memory

:962 Summary

:96: ?ey%ord

:964 e'ie% @uetion

:963 urther eading

&nit 4 5nput-Output De'ice and Characteritic

494 u 5nterface

493 5olated Beru Memory-mapped 5/O

498 Data )ranfer )echniue

497 5nterrupt-5nitiated 5/O

49 Communication $et%een the C,& and the Channel

49< 5/O 5nterrupt

4960 ,erformance !'aluation - enchmar

4966 ),C-+

4962 ),C-

496: ),C-

4964 Summary

4963 ?ey%ord

4968 e'ie% @uetion

4967 urther eading

6

&nit 6

,rinciple of Computer Deign


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;earning O$.ecti'e

After completion of thi unit* you hould $e a$le to E

F decri$e oft%are and hard%are interaction layer in computer architecture

F Decri$e central proceing unit

F Decri$e 'ariou machine language intruction

F Decri$e 'ariou addreing mode

F Decri$e 'ariou intruction type and 5ntruction cycle

5ntroduction

Copy from page-62* S5)-:06* ,)&

Soft%are

Soft%are* or program ena$le a computer to perform peciGc ta* a

oppoed to the phyical component of the ytem =hard%are>9 )hi

include application oft%areuch a a %ord proceor* %hich ena$le a

uer to perform a ta* and ytem oft%areuch a an operating ytem*

%hich ena$le other oft%are to run properly* $y interfacing %ith

hard%are and %ith other oft%are or cutom oft%are made to uer

peciGcation9

)ype of Soft%are

,ractical computer ytem di'ide oft%are into three ma.or claeE

ytem oft%are* programming oft%areand application oft%are* although

the ditinction i ar$itrary* and often $lurred9

F Sytem oft%arehelp run the computer hard%areand computer ytem9 5t

include operating ytem* de'ice dri'er* diagnotic tool* er'er* %indo%ing

ytem* utilitieand more9 )he purpoe of ytem oft%are i to inulate the

application programmer a much a poi$le from the detail of the particular

computer comple1 $eing ued* epecially memory and other hard%are feature*


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and uch acceory de'ice a communication* printer* reader* diplay*

ey$oard* etc9

F ,rogramming oft%areuually pro'ide tool to ait a programmerin %riting

computer programand oft%are uing diHerent programming languagein a

more con'enient %ay9 )he tool include te1t editor* compiler* interpreter*

2

liner* de$ugger* and o on9 An 5ntegrated de'elopment en'ironment=5D!>

merge thoe tool into a oft%are $undle* and a programmer may not need to

type multiple commandfor compiling* interpreter* de$ugging* tracing* and etc9*

$ecaue the 5D! uually ha an ad'anced graphical uer interface*or "&59

F Application oft%areallo% end uer to accomplih one or more peciGc

=noncomputer related> ta9 )ypical application include indutrial automation*

$uine oft%are* educational oft%are* medical oft%are* data$ae* and

computer game9 uinee are pro$a$ly the $igget uer of application

oft%are* $ut almot e'ery Geld of human acti'ity no% ue ome form of

application oft%are9 5t i ued to automate all ort of function9

Operation

Computer oft%are ha to $e IloadedI into the computerJ torage=uch

a a hard dri'e* memory* or AM>9 Once the oft%are i loaded* the

computer i a$le to e1ecute the oft%are9 Computer operate $y e1ecuting

the computer program9 )hi in'ol'e paing intructionfrom the

application oft%are* through the ytem oft%are* to the hard%are%hich

ultimately recei'e the intruction a machine code9 !ach intruction

caue the computer to carry out an operation -- mo'ing data* carrying

out a computation* or altering the control Ko% of intruction9

Data mo'ement i typically from one place in memory to another9

Sometime it in'ol'e mo'ing data $et%een memory and regiter %hich


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ena$le high-peed data acce in the C,&9 Mo'ing data* epecially large

amount of it* can $e cotly9 So* thi i ometime a'oided $y uing

IpointerI to data intead9 Computation include imple operation uch

a incrementing the 'alue of a 'aria$le data element9 More comple1

computation may in'ol'e many operation and data element together9

5ntruction may $e performed euentially* conditionally* or

iterati'ely9 Seuential intruction are thoe operation that are

performed one after another9 Conditional intruction are performed uch

that diHerent et of intruction e1ecute depending on the 'alue=> of

ome data9 5n ome language thi i no%n a an IifI tatement9

5terati'e intruction are performed repetiti'ely and may depend on ome

data 'alue9 )hi i ometime called a Iloop9I Often* one intruction

may IcallI another et of intruction that are deGned in omeother

program or module9 hen more than one computer proceor i ued*

intruction may $e e1ecuted imultaneouly9

A imple e1ample of the %ay oft%are operate i %hat happen %hen a

uer elect an entry uch a ICopyI from a menu9 5n thi cae*a

conditional intruction i e1ecuted to copy te1t from data in a

JdocumentJ area reiding in memory* perhap to an intermediate torage

:

area no%n a a Jclip$oardJ data area9 5f a diHerent menu entry uch a

I,ateI i choen* the oft%are may e1ecute the intruction tocopy the

te1t from the clip$oard data area to a peciGc location in theame or

another document in memory9

Depending on the application* e'en the e1ample a$o'e could $ecome

complicated9 )he Geld of oft%are engineering endea'or to manage the


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comple1ity of ho% oft%are operate9 )hi i epecially true for

oft%are that operate in the conte1t of a large or po%erful computer

ytem9

Currently* almot the only limitation on the ue of computer oft%are

in application i the ingenuity of the deigner/programmer9

Coneuently* large area of acti'itie =uch a playing grand mater

le'el che> formerly aumed to $e incapa$le of oft%are imulation are

no% routinely programmed9 )he only area that ha o far pro'ed

reaona$ly ecure from oft%are imulation i the realm of human artL

epecially* pleaing muic and literature9

?ind of oft%are $y operationE computer program a e1ecuta$le* ource

code or cript* conGguration9

+ard%are

Computer hard%arei the phyical part of a computer* including the

digital circuitry* a ditinguihed from the computer oft%are that

e1ecute %ithin the hard%are9 )he hard%are of a computer i infreuently

changed* in comparion %ith oft%are and data* %hich are IoftIin the

ene that they are readily created* modiGed or eraed on the computer9

irm%are i a pecial type of oft%are that rarely* if e'er* need to $e

changed and o i tored on hard%are de'ice uch a read-only memory

=OM> %here it i not readily changed =and i therefore IGrmI rather

than .ut IoftI>9

Mot computer hard%are i not een $y normal uer9 5t i in em$edded

ytem in automo$ile* micro%a'e o'en* electrocardiograph machine*

compact dic player* and other de'ice9 ,eronal computer* the

computer hard%are familiar to mot people* form only a mall minority of


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computer =a$out 092 of all ne% computer produced in 200:>9

,eronal computer hard%are

A typical pc conit of a cae or chai in detop or to%er hape and

the follo%ing partE

4

)ypical Mother$oard found in a computer

F Mother$oard or ytem $oard %ith lot for e1panion card and holding part

o Central proceing unit =C,&>

Computer fan - ued to cool do%n the C,&

o andom Acce Memory =AM> - for program e1ecution and hort term

data torage* o the computer doe not ha'e to tae the time to acce the

hard dri'e to Gnd the Gle=> it reuire9 More AM %ill normally

contri$ute to a fater ,C9 AM i almot al%ay remo'a$le a it it in

lot in the mother$oard* attached %ith mall clip9 )he AM lot are

normally located ne1t to the C,& ocet9

o aic 5nput-Output Sytem =5OS> or !1teni$le irm%are 5nterface =!5>

in ome ne%er computer

o ue

F ,o%er upply - a cae that hold a tranformer* 'oltage control* and =uually> a

cooling fan

F Storage controller of 5D!* SA)A* SCS5 or other type* that control hard di*

Koppy di* CD-OM and other dri'eN the controller it directly on the

mother$oard =on-$oard> or on e1panion card

F Bideo diplay controller that produce the output for the computer diplay9 )hi

%ill either $e $uilt into the mother$oard or attached in it o%n eparate lot =,C5*

,C5-! or A",>* reuiring a "raphic Card9


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F Computer $u controller =parallel* erial* &S* ireire> to connect the

computer to e1ternal peripheral de'ice uch a printer or canner

F Some type of a remo'a$le media %riterE

o CD - the mot common type of remo'a$le media* cheap $ut fragile9

CD-OM Dri'e

CD riter

o DBD

DBD-OM Dri'e

DBD riter

DBD-AM Dri'e

o loppy di

o ip dri'e

o &S Kah dri'e A?A a ,en Dri'e

o )ape dri'e - mainly for $acup and long-term torage

F 5nternal torage - eep data inide the computer for later ue9

o +ard di - for medium-term torage of data9

o Di array controller

F Sound card - tranlate ignal from the ytem $oard into analog 'oltage le'el*

and ha terminal to plug in peaer9

3

F et%oring - to connect the computer to the 5nternet and/or other computer

o Modem - for dial-up connection

o et%or card - for DS;/Ca$le internet* and/or connecting to other

computer9

F Other peripheral

5n addition* hard%are can include e1ternal component of a computer


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ytem9 )he follo%ing are either tandard or 'ery common9

F 5nput de'ice

o )e1t input de'ice

?ey$oard

o ,ointing de'ice

Moue

)rac$all

o "aming de'ice

#oytic

"ame pad

"ame controller

o 5mage* Bideo input de'ice

5mage canner

e$cam

o Audio input de'ice

Microphone

F Output de'ice

o 5mage* Bideo output de'ice

,rinterE ,eripheral de'ice that produce a hard copy9 =5n.et* ;aer>

MonitorE De'ice that tae ignal and diplay them9 =C)*

;CD>

o Audio output de'ice

SpeaerE A de'ice that con'ert analog audio ignal into the

eui'alent air 'i$ration in order to mae audi$le ound9

+eadetE A de'ice imilar in functionality to that of a regular

telephone handet $ut i %orn on the head to eep the hand free9


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Student-Acti'ity

69 hat i computer Soft%areP

29 hat i computer +ard%areP

:9 ;it 'ariou 5nput and Output de'ice9

49 Decri$e 'ariou Audio Output de'ice9

39 hat i the function of AM

8

Soft%are-+ard%are 5nteraction layer in Computer

Architecture

5n computer engineering* computer architecturei the conceptual deign

and fundamental operational tructure of a computer ytem9 5t i a

$lueprint and functional decription of reuirement =epecially peed

and interconnection> and deign implementation for the 'ariou part

of a computer L focuing largely on the %ay $y %hich the central

proceing unit =C,&> perform internally and accee addree in

memory9

5t may alo $e deGned a the cience and art of electing and

interconnecting hard%are component to create computer that meet

functional* performance and cot goal9

IArchitectureI therefore typically refer to the G1ed internal

tructure of the C,& =i9e9 electronic %itche to repreent logic gate>

to perform logical operation* and may alo include the $uilt-in

interface =i9e9 opcode> $y %hich hard%are reource =i9e9 C,&*memory*

and alo mother$oard* peripheral> may $e ued $y the oft%are9

5t i freuently confued %ith computer organization9 ut computer

architecture i the a$tractimage of a computing ytem that i een $y


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a machine language =or aem$ly language> programmer* includingthe

intruction et* memory addre mode* proceor regiter* andaddre

and data formatN %herea the computer organization i a lo%er le'el*

more concrete* decription of the ytem that in'ol'e ho% the

contituent part of the ytem are interconnected and ho% they

interoperate in order to implement the architectural peciGcation9

7

ig E A typical 'iion of a computer architecture a a erie of

a$traction layerE hard%are* Grm%are* aem$ler* ernel* operating

ytem and application

A$traction ;ayer

An a$traction layer=or a$traction le'el> i a %ay of hiding the

implementation detail of a particular et of functionality9 ,erhap the

mot %ell no%n oft%are model %hich ue layer of a$tractionare the

OS5 7 ;ayer model for computer protocol* Open"; graphic dra%ing

li$rary* and the $yte tream 5/O model originated $y &ni1 and adopted $y

MSDOS* ;inu1* and mot other modern operating ytem9

5n computer cience* an a$traction le'el i a generalization of a model

or algorithm* a%ay from any peciGc implementation9 )hee

generalization arie from $road imilaritie that are $et encapulated

$y model that e1pre imilaritie preent in 'ariou peciGc

implementation9 )he impliGcation pro'ided $y a good a$traction layer

allo% for eay reue $y ditilling a ueful concept or metaphor o that

ituation %here it may $e accurately applied can $e uicly recognized9

A good a$traction %ill generalize that %hich can $e made a$tractN

%hile allo%ing peciGcity %here the a$traction $rea do%n and it


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ucceful application reuire cutomization to each uniue reuirement

or pro$lem9

irm%are

5n computing* Grm%arei oft%are that i em$edded in a hard%are

de'ice9 5t i often pro'ided on Kah OM or a a $inary imageGle

that can $e uploaded onto e1iting hard%are $y a uer9 irm%arei

deGned aE

F the computer program in a read-only memory =OM> integrated circuit =a

hard%are part num$er or other conGguration identiGer i uually ued to repreent

the oft%are>N

F the eraa$le programma$le read-only memory =!,OM> chip* %hoe program

may $e modiGed $y pecial e1ternal hard%are* $ut not $y Qa general purpoeR

application program9

F the electrically eraa$le programma$le read-only memory =!!,OM> chip*

%hoe program may $e modiGed $y pecial electrical e1ternal hard%are =not the

uual optical light>* $ut not $y Qa general purpoeR application program9

Aem$ler

An aem$ly language program i tranlated into the target computerJ

machine code $y a utility program called an aem$ler9)ypically a

modern aem$ler create o$.ect code $y tranlating aem$ly

intruction mnemonic into opcode* and $y reol'ing ym$olic name for

memory location and other entitie9 )he ue of ym$olic reference i a

ey feature of aem$ler* a'ing tediou calculation and manual

addre update after program modiGcation9

?ernel


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5n computing* the ernel i the central component of mot computer

operating ytem =OS>9 5t reponi$ilitie include managing the

ytemJ reource and the communication $et%een hard%are and oft%are

component9 A a $aic component of an operating ytem* a ernel

pro'ide the lo%et-le'el a$traction layer for the reource

=epecially memory* proceor and 5/O de'ice> that application mut

control to perform their function9 5t typically mae thee facilitie

a'aila$le to application procee through inter-proce communication

mechanim and ytem call9

)hee ta are done diHerently $y diHerent ernel* depending on

their deign and implementation9 hile monolithic ernel %ill try to

achie'e thee goal $y e1ecuting all the code in the ame addre pace

to increae the performance of the ytem* micro ernel run mot of

their er'ice in uer pace* aiming to impro'e maintaina$ilityand

<

modularity of the code $ae9 A range of poi$ilitie e1it $et%een

thee t%o e1treme9

ig E A ernel connect the application oft%are to the hard%are of a

computer9

Operating Sytem

An operating ytem=OS> i a computer program that manage the

hard%are and oft%are reource of a computer9 At the foundation of all

ytem oft%are* an operating ytem perform $aic ta uch a

controlling and allocating memory* prioritizing ytem reuet*

controlling input and output de'ice* facilitating net%oring* and

managing Gle9 5t alo may pro'ide a graphical uer interface for


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higher le'el function9 5t form a platform for other oft%are9

Application Soft%are

Application oft%arei a u$cla of computer oft%are that employ

the capa$ilitie of a computer directly to a ta that the uer%ihe

to perform9 )hi hould $e contrated %ith ytem oft%are %hich i

in'ol'ed in integrating a computerJ 'ariou capa$ilitie* $ut typically

doe not directly apply them in the performance of ta that $eneGt

the uer9 5n thi conte1t the term application refer to $oth the

application oft%areand it implementation9

Central ,roceing &nit

Copy introduction from page-88* S5)-:06* ,)&

60

Student Acti'ity

69 Decri$e 'ariou oft%are-hard%are interaction

layer in computer hard%are9

29 DeGne C,&9 Decri$e it 'ariou part9

Machine ;anguage 5ntruction

A computer e1ecute machine language program mechanically --

that i %ithout undertanding them or thining a$out them --

imply $ecaue of the %ay it i phyically put together9 )hi

i not an eay concept9 A computer i a machine $uilt of

million of tiny %itche called tranitor* %hich ha'e the

property that they can $e %ired together in uch a %ay that an

output from one %itch can turn another %itch on or oH9 A a

computer compute* thee %itche turn each other on or oH in

a pattern determined $oth $y the %ay they are %ired together


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and $y the program that the computer i e1ecuting9

Machine language intruction are e1preed a $inary num$er9

A $inary num$er i made up of .ut t%o poi$le digit* zero

and one9 So* a machine language intruction i .ut a euence

of zero and one9 !ach particular euence encode ome

particular intruction9 )he data that the computer manipulate

i alo encoded a $inary num$er9 A computer can %or directly

%ith $inary num$er $ecaue %itche can readily repreent uch

num$erE )urn the %itch on to repreent a oneN turn it oH to

repreent a zero9 Machine language intruction are tored in

memory a pattern of %itche turned on or oH9 hen a machine

language intruction i loaded into the C,&* all that happen

i that certain %itche are turned on or oH in the pattern

that encode that particular intruction9 )he C,& i $uilt to

repond to thi pattern $y e1ecuting the intruction it

encodeN it doe thi imply $ecaue of the %ay all the other

%itche in the C,& are %ired together9

Addreing Mode

Copy from page-88 to page-8


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input-output intruction9

Only three $it of the intruction are ued for the operation code9 5t

may eem that the computer i retricted to a ma1imum of eight ditinct

operation9 Since regiter reference and input output intruction ue

the remaining 62 $it a part of the total num$er of intruction choen

for the $aic computer i eual to 239

Data Mo'ement 5ntructionE

Aem$ly ;anguage

5ntructionE

!1ampleE MeaningE

Machine ;anguage

5ntructionE

;OAD Q!"R QM!MR

S)O! QM!MR Q!"R

MOB! Q!"6R Q!"2R

;OAD 2 6:

S)O! :

MOB! 2 0

2 MQ6:R

MQR :

2 0

6 000 0006 0

MMMMM

6 000 0060 0

MMMMM

6 006 0006 0000


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Arithmetic and ;ogic 5ntructionE

5ntructionE !1ampleE MeaningE

Machine ;anguage

5ntructionE

ADD Q!"6R Q!"2R

Q!":R

S& Q!"6R Q!"2R

Q!":R

AD Q!"6R Q!"2R

Q!":R

O Q!"6R Q!"2R

Q!":R

ADD : 2

6

S& : 6

0

AD 0 :

6

O 2 2

:

: 2 T 6

: 6 - 0

0 : ( 6

2 2 U :

6 060 0006 00


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6 060 0060 00

6 060 0066 00

6 060 0600 00

ranching 5ntructionE

62


Machine ;anguage

5ntructionE

AC+ QM!MR

!O QM!MR

!" QM!MR

AC+ 60

!O 2

!" 7

,C 60

,C 2 5 A;& !S&;)

5S !O

,C 7 5 A;& !S&;)

5S !"A)5B!

0 000 0006 000 MMMMM

0 000 0060 000 MMMMM

0 000 0066 000 MMMMM


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Other 5ntructionE


Machine ;anguage

5ntructionE

O,

+A;)

O,

+A;)

Do nothing9

+alt the machine9

0000 0000 0000 0000

6666 6666 6666 6666

Student Acti'ity

69 +o% %ill you e1pre machine le'el intructionP

29 +o% doe the computer control recognize the type of intructionP

:9 Decri$e 'ariou type of machine le'el intruction9

49 Decri$e the addreing mode of computer intruction9

5ntruction Set Selection

Copy from page-:0* MCA-204* "#&

=hile deigning VV99 upto 4 point* $efore timing and control>

5ntruction on a 5SC architecture are tructured in a ytematic %ay9 )hey can $e

categorized into A;& operation* memory operation* and control operation9 A;&

operation al%ay %or on regiter* and e'ery regiter from the regiter et can $e

addreed $y e'ery A;& operation9 Memory operation mo'e 'alue $et%een the

regiter

et and memory9 )hi tructure mae intruction election relati'ely eay* and the

#a'a


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data type map 6E6 to the intruction architecture9

)he optimal election of intruction i more comple1 on 18 than it i on Alpha for

the

follo%ing reaonE

F DiHerent addreing modeEecaue a lot of operation e1it in diHerent

addreing mode* unlie a 5SC proceor* the correct ind of intruction need

to $e choen in order to a'oid any additional intruction for mo'ing 'alue9 or

e1ample if the 'alue for an addition operation are in a memory and in a regiter

6:

the intruction election algorithm al%aypic an add intruction that add a

memory and a regiter location9

F ;imited et of regiter per intructionEhen picing the ne1t intruction* the

code generator al%ay chec in %hich regiter the current 'alue are in and

chooe the intruction appropriately9 5f the current regiter allocation doenJt Gt

to the intruction at all* 'alue need to $e mo'ed9 )hi cheme could $e impro'ed

%ith more glo$al analyi* $ut at the e1pene of a larger compile-time cot9

F !Wcient 84-$it operationE)he #a'a $ytecode contain 84-$it integer and

Koating-point operation that the 18 platform need to upport9 or each of thee

$ytecode operation the num$er of temporary regiter and the amount of memory

accee need to $e minimized9 or e1ample* the follo%ing code i one poi$le

implementation of the add=84-$it integer addition> $ytecode intruction9

F mo' 010=ep*6>*ea1

F add 01=ep*6>*ea1

F mo' 014=ep*6>*ec1

F adc 0160=ep*6>*ec1

)iming and control

Copy from page-:0* MCA-204* "#&


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5ntruction Cycle

Copy from page-8:-84* 5ntruction Cycle* MCA-:06* ,)&

!1ecution Cycle

Copy from page-30 to 34* =5ntruction !1ecution>* S5)-:06* ,)&

Student Acti'ity

69 DeGne an intruction cycle9 Decri$e it 'ariou part9

29 hile deigning the intruction et of a computer* %hat are the important thing

to

$e ept in mindP hen i a et of intruction aid to $e completeP

:9 Decri$e the e1ecution cycle of an intruction9

Summary

F Our computer ytem conit of oft%are and hard%are9 Soft%are* or program

ena$le a computer to perform peciGc ta* a oppoed to the phyical

component of the ytem =hard%are>9

F Computer hard%arei the phyical part of a computer* including the digital

circuitry* a ditinguihed from the computer oft%are that e1ecute %ithin the

hard%are9

F Computer architecturei deGned a the cience and art of electing and

interconnecting hard%are component to create computer that meet functional*

performance and cot goal9

F Acomputer architecture i conidered a a erie of a$traction layerE hard%are*

Grm%are* aem$ler* ernel* operating ytem and application

F =copy ummary from page-::* MCA-204* "#&>

64

F A program ha a euence of intruction %hich get e1ecuted through a cycle *

called intruction cycle9 )he $aic part of and intruction cycle include fetch*

decode* read the eHecti'e addre from memory and e1ecute9


23/469

?ey%ord

Copy the follo%ing from page-::* MCA-204* "#&

F 5ntruction code

F Computer regiter

F Sytem $u

F !1ternal $u

F 5nput/Output

F 5nterrupt

Copy the follo%ing from page-8


24/469

&nit-2

Control &nit and Microprogramming

;earning O$.ecti'e


F decri$e control unit

F decri$e data path and control path deign

F decri$e microprogramming

F comparing microprogramming and hard%ired control

F comparing 5SC and C5SC architecture

F Decri$e pipelining in C,& Deign

F Decri$e upercalar proceor

5ntroduction

Copy from page-9 aically* there

i one control unit* $ecaue t%o control unit may caue conKict9 )he

control unit of a imple C,& perform the !)C+ / D!COD! / !X!C&)! /

5)!AC? 'on eumann euence9

igure 296EA general control unit9

)o decri$e ho% the C,& %or %e may decri$e %hat ignal the control

unit iue and %hen9 Clearly thee intruction are more complicated

than thoe that the control unit recei'e a input9 )hu the control

unit mut tore the intruction %ithin itelf* perhap uing amemory


25/469

or perhap in the form of a complicated net%or9

68

5n either cae* let u decri$e %hat the control unit doe in term of a

program =for eae of undertanding> called the micro-program* coniting

naturally of micro-intruction9 ;et the micro-program $e tored in a

micro-memory9

igure 292EMicro-architectural 'ie% of the control unit9

)he control unit may not $e micro-programmed* ho%e'er %e can till ue

micro-intruction to indicate %hat the control unit i doing9 5n thi

cae %e tae a logical 'ie% of the control unit9 )he poi$le

intruction are dictated $y the architecture of the C,&9 DiHerent

architecture allo% for diHerent intruction and thi i a ma.or

concept to conider %hen e1amining C,& deign and operation9 eare not

intereted in deign in thi u$.ect* $ut %e concentrate on operation9

aic control unit operation

You hould recall that the $aic operation of the C,& i decri$ed $y

the !)C+ / D!COD! / !X!C&)! / 5)!AC? euence9 )he control unit i

ued to implement thi euence uing a micro-program9 Of the follo%ing

regiter* the Grt t%o are a normally only a'aila$le to the control

unit9

F 5ntruction egiter* E Store the num$er that repreent the machine

intruction the Control &nit i to e1ecute9 =note that thi i not the microintruction>

67

F ,rogram Counter* E Store the num$er that repreent the addre of the ne1t

intruction to e1ecute =found in memory>9

F "eneral ,urpoe egiterE !1ample are * * * * * to tore


26/469

intermediate reult of e1ecution9

Conider the e1ample of a a ho%n in ig9 =29:>9 )he control

unit i not ho%n9

igure 29:E,D, micro-architecture9

Modern computer are more comple1* $ut the operation i eentially the ame9

irt

conider the micro-program e1ecuted $y the Control &nit to pro'ide the !)C+E

69

29

:9

6

ote the Grt line may $e %ritten * $ut

in thi cae the path i inferred from the diagram9 )he econd line intruct the

memory

u$-ytem to retrie'e the content of the memory at addre gi'en $y * the

content i put into 9 )he third line doe t%o thing at the ame time* mo'e the

into the for D!COD5" and !X!C&)5" plu it intruct the to

increae $y 6* o a to point to the ne1tintruction for e1ecution9 )hi increment

intruction i a'aila$le for ome regiter lie the 9 )he A;& doe not ha'e to $e

ued in thi cae9 Conider ome more mall e1ample of micro-program %hich ue

the

,D, micro-architecture9

!1amplezero into the regiterE

69

!1amplethe content of the to the and put the reult in the

9

69


27/469

29

!1amplethe t%oJ complement of 9

69

29

6<

!1amplethe to o$tain the ne1t intruction9

69

29

here i pre'iouly deGned9

unction of Control &nit

Copy from page-:8* =third para after Ggure>

)he function of a Control unit in a digital ytem VVV upto page -:7* Student

acti'ity-6* MCA-204* "#&

Data path and control path deign

A tored program computer conit of a proceing unitand an attached memory

ytem9

Command that intruct the proceor to perform certain operation are placed inthe

memory along %ith the data item to $e operated on9 )he proceing unit conit

of

data-pathand control9 )he data-path contain regiterto hold data and functional

unit*

uch a arithmetic logic unit and hifter* to operate on data9 )he control unit i

little

more than a Gnite tate machine that euence through it tate to

=6>fetch the ne1t intruction from memory*

=2>decode the intruction to interpret it meaning* and

=:>e1ecute the intruction $y mo'ing and/or operating on data in the regiter and

functional unit of the data-path9


28/469

)he critical deign iue for a data-path are ho% to I%ireI the 'ariou component

together to minimize hard%are comple1ity and the num$er of control tate to

complete a

typical operation9 or control* the iue i ho% to organize the relati'ely comple1

Iintruction interpretationI Gnite tate machine9

Microprogramming

Copy from page-602 to page-666* upto tudent acti'ity* MCA-:06* ,)&

5SC B9 C5SC

Copy o'er'ie% of 5SC/C5SC from page-666

educed 5ntruction Set Computer =5SC>

Copy ection 49:* page-:* MCA-204* "#&

5SC Characteritic

Copy from page-662* MCA-:06* ,)&

20

5SC Deign ,hiloophy

Copy ection-794* page-80 to 82* upto tudent acti'ity-2* MCA-204* "#&

Comple1 5ntruction Set Computer =C5SC>

C5SC* %hich tand for Comple1 5ntruction Set Computer* i a philoophy for

deigning chip

that are eay to program and %hich mae eWcient ue of memory9 !ach intruction

in a C5SC

intruction et might perform a erie of operationinide the proceor9 )hi

reduce the num$er

of intruction reuired to implement a gi'en program* and allo% the programmerto learn a mall

$ut Ke1i$le et of intruction9

Since the earliet machine %ere programmed in aem$ly language and memory

%a lo% and


29/469

e1peni'e* the C5SC philoophy made ene* and %a commonly implemented in

uch large

computer a the ,D,-66 and the D!Cytem 60 and 20 machine9

Mot common microproceor deign --- including the 5ntel=> 018 and Motorola

8? erie ---

alo follo% the C5SC philoophy9

)he ad'antage of C5SC

At the time of their initial de'elopment* C5SC machine ued a'aila$le technologie

to optimize

computer performance9

Microprogramming i a eay a aem$ly language to implement* and much le

e1peni'e than

hard%iring a control unit9

)he eae of microcoding ne% intruction allo%ed deigner to mae C5SC machine

up%ardly

compati$leE a ne% computer could run the ame program a earlier computer

$ecaue the ne%

computer %ould contain a uperet of the intruction of the earlier computer9

A each intruction $ecame more capa$le* fe%er intruction could $e ued to

implement a gi'en

ta9 )hi made more eWcient ue ofthe relati'ely lo% main memory9

ecaue microprogram intruction et can $e %ritten to match the contruct of

high-le'el

language* the compiler doe not ha'e to $e a complicated9

)he diad'antage of C5SC

Still* deigner oon realized that the C5SC philoophy had it o%n pro$lem*

includingE

!arlier generation of a proceor family generally %ere contained a a u$et in

e'ery ne%

'erion --- o intruction et ( chip hard%are $ecome more comple1 %ith each

generation of


30/469

computer9

So that a many intruction a poi$le could $e tored in memory %ith the leat

poi$le

%ated pace* indi'idual intruction could $e of almot any length---thi mean

that diHerent

intruction %ill tae diHerent amount of cloc time to e1ecute* lo%ing do%n the

o'erall

performance of the machine9

Many pecialized intruction arenJt ued freuently enough to .utify their

e1itence ---

appro1imately 20 of the a'aila$le intruction are ued in a typical program9

C5SC intruction typically et the condition code a a ide eHect of the intruction9

ot only

doe etting the condition code tae time* $ut programmer ha'e to remem$er to

e1amine the

condition code $it $efore a u$euent intruction change them9

A C5SC Microproceor-the Motorola MC8000

Copy from page-82 to 87* upto tudent acti'ity-4* MCA-204* "#&

)+! ridge from C5SC to 5SC

Copy from page-80* upto tudent acti'ity-6* MCA-204* "#&

26

,ipelining in C,& Deign

Copy ection-892* page-30 to page-3:* $efore tudent acti'ity-6* MCA-204* "#&

A )ypical ,ipeline

Conider the tep neceary to do a generic operationE

F etch opcode9

F Decode opcode and =in parallel> prefetch a poi$le diplacement or contant

operand =or $oth>

F Compute comple1 addreing mode =e9g9* Qe$1T1111R>* if applica$le9


31/469

F etch the ource 'alue from memory =if a memory operand> and the detination

regiter 'alue =if applica$le>9

F Compute the reult9

F Store reult into detination regiter9

Auming youJre %illing to pay for ome e1tra ilicon* you can $uild a little

IminiproceorI to handle each of the a$o'e tep9 )he organization %ould loo

omething lie

igure 2939

igure 293 A ,ipelined 5mplementation of 5ntruction !1ecution

ote ho% %eJ'e com$ined ome tage from the pre'iou ection9 or e1ample* in

tage

four of igure 293 the C,& fetche the ource and detination operand in the ame

tep9

You can do thi $y putting multiple data path inide the C,& =e9g9* from the

regiter to

22

the A;&> and enuring that no t%o operand e'er compete for imultaneou ue of

the

data $u =i9e9* no memory-to-memory operation>9

5f you deign a eparate piece of hard%are for each tage in the pipeline a$o'e*

almot all

thee tep can tae place in parallel9 Of coure* you cannot fetch and decode the

opcode

for more than one intruction at the ame time* $ut you can fetch one opcode %hile

decoding the pre'iou intruction9 5f you ha'e an n-tage pipeline* you %ill uually

ha'e

n intruction e1ecuting concurrently9

igure 298 5ntruction !1ecution in a ,ipeline

igure 298 ho% pipelining in operatoin9 )6* )2* ):* etc9* repreent conecuti'e

IticI


32/469

of the ytem cloc9 At ))6 the C,& fetche the opcode $yte for the Grt

intruction9

At ))2* the C,& $egin decoding the opcode for the Grt intruction9 5n parallel* it

fetche a $loc of $yte from the prefetch ueue in the e'ent the intruction ha an

operand9 Since the Grt intruction no longer need the opcode fetching circuitry*

the

C,& intruct it to fetch the opcode of the econd intruction in parallel %ith the

decoding of the Grt intruction9 ote there i a minor conKict here9 )he C,& i

attempting to fetch the ne1t $yte from the prefetch ueue for ue a an operand* at

the

ame time it i fetching operand data from the prefetch ueue for ue a an opcode9

+o%

can it do $oth at onceP YouJll ee the olution in a fe% moment9

At )): the C,& compute an operand addre for the Grt intruction* if any9 )he

C,&

doe nothing on the Grt intruction if it doe not ue an addreing mode reuiring

uch

computation9 During ):* the C,& alo decode the opcode of the econd intruction

and

fetche any neceary operand9 inally the C,& alo fetche the opcode for the third

intruction9 ith each ad'ancing tic of the cloc* another tep in the e1ecution of

each

intruction in the pipeline complete* and the C,& fetche yet another intruction

from

memory9

2:

)hi proce continue until at ))8 the C,& complete the e1ecution of the Grt

intruction* compute the reult for the econd* etc9* and* Gnally* fetche the opcode

for

the i1th intruction in the pipeline9 )he important thing to ee i that after ))3

the C,&


33/469

complete an intruction on e'ery cloc cycle9 Once the C,& Gll the pipeline* it

complete one intruction on each cycle9 ote that thi i true e'en if there are

comple1

addreing mode to $e computed* memory operand to fetch* or other operation

%hich

ue cycle on a non-pipelined proceor9 All you need to do i add more tage to

the

pipeline* and you can till eHecti'ely proce each intruction in one cloc cycle9

A $it earlier you a% a mall conKict in the pipeline organization9 At ))2* for

e1ample*

the C,& i attempting to prefetch a $loc of $yte for an operand and at the ame

time it

i trying to fetch the ne1t opcode $yte9 &ntil the C,& decode the Grt intruction it

doenJt no% ho% many operand the intruction reuire nor doe it no% their

length9

+o%e'er* the C,& need to no% thi information to determine the length of the

intruction o it no% %hat $yte to fetch a the opcode of the ne1t intruction9 So

ho%

can the pipeline fetch an intruction opcode in parallel %ith an addre operandP

One olution i to diallo% thi9 5f an intruction a an addre or contant operand*

%e

imply delay the tart of the ne1t intruction =thi i no%n a a hazarda you hall

oon

ee>9 &nfortunately* many intruction ha'e thee additional operand* o thi

approach

%ill ha'e a u$tantial negati'e impact on the e1ecution peed of the C,&9

)he econd olution i to thro% =a lot> more hard%are at the pro$lem9 Operand and

contant ize uually come in one* t%o* and four-$yte length9 )herefore* if %e

actually

fetch three $yte from memory* at oHet one* three* and G'e* $eyond the current

opcode


34/469

%e are decoding* %e no% that one of thee $yte %ill pro$a$ly contain the opcode

of the

ne1t intruction9 Once %e are through decoding the current intruction %e no%

ho% long

it %ill $e and* therefore* %e no% the oHet of the ne1t opcode9 e can ue a imple

data

elector circuit to chooe %hich of the three opcode $yte %e %ant to ue9

5n actual practice* %e ha'e to elect the ne1t opcode $yte from more than three

candidate

$ecaue 018 intruction tae many diHerentlength9 or e1ample* an intruction

that

mo'e a :2-$it contant to a memory location can $e ten or more $yte long9 Andthere

are intruction length for nearly e'ery 'alue $et%een one and Gfteen $yte9 Alo*

ome

opcode on the 018 are longer than one $yte* o the C,& may ha'e to fetch

multiple

$yte in order to properly decode the current intruction9 e'erthele* $y thro%ing

more

hard%are at the pro$lem %e can decode the current opcode at the ame time %eJre

fetching the ne1t9

Stall in a ,ipeline

&nfortunately* the cenario preented in the pre'iou ection i a little too

implitic9

)here are t%o dra%$ac to that imple pipelineE $u contention among intruction

and

non-euential program e1ecution9 oth pro$lem may increae the a'eragee1ecution

time of the intruction in the pipeline9

24


35/469

u contention occur %hene'er an intruction need to acce ome item in

memory9 or

e1ample* if a Imo'= reg* mem>NI intruction need to tore data in memory and a

Imo'=

mem* reg>NI intruction i reading data from memory* contention for the addre

and data

$u may de'elop ince the C,& %ill $e trying toimultaneouly fetch data and %rite

data

in memory9

One implitic %ay to handle $u contention i through a pipeline tall9 )he C,&*

%hen

faced %ith contention for the $u* gi'e priority to the intruction furthet along inthe

pipeline9 )he C,& upend fetching opcode until the current intruction fetche

=or

tore> it operand9 )hi caue the ne% intruction in the pipeline to tae t%o

cycle to

e1ecute rather than one =ee igure 297>9

igure 297 A ,ipeline Stall

)hi e1ample i $ut one cae of $u contention9 )here are many other9 or

e1ample* a

noted earlier* fetching intruction operand reuire acce to the prefetch ueue at

the

ame time the C,& need to fetch an opcode9 "i'en the imple cheme a$o'e* itJ

unliely that mot intruction %ould e1ecute at one cloc per intruction =C,5>9

ortunately* the intelligent ue of a cache ytem can eliminate many pipeline tall

lie

the one dicued a$o'e9 )he ne1t ection on caching %ill decri$e ho% thi i

done9

+o%e'er* it i not al%ay poi$le* e'en %ith a cache* to a'oid talling the pipeline9

hat


36/469

you cannot G1 in hard%are* you can tae care of %ith oft%are9 5f you a'oid uing

memory* you can reduce $u contention and your program %ill e1ecute fater9

;ie%ie*

uing horter intruction alo reduce $u contention and the poi$ility of a

pipeline

tall9

23

hat happen %hen an intruction modiGethe !5, regiterP )hi* of coure* implie

that

the ne1t et of intruction to e1ecute do not immediately follo% the intruction that

modiGe !5,9 y the time the intruction

# ;a$elN

complete e1ecution =auming the zero Kag i clear o the $ranch i taen>* %eJ'e

already tarted G'e other intruction and %eJre only one cloc cycle a%ay from the

completion of the Grt of thee9 O$'iouly* the C,& mut not e1ecute thoe

intruction

or it %ill compute improper reult9

)he only reaona$le olution i to Kuhthe entire pipeline and $egin fetchingopcode

ane%9 +o%e'er* doing o caue a e'ere e1ecution time penalty9 5t %ill tae i1

cloc

cycle =the length of the pipeline in our e1ample> $efore the ne1t intruction

complete

e1ecution9 Clearly* you hould a'oid the ue oGntruction %hich interrupt the

euential

e1ecution of a program9 )hi alo ho% another pro$lem - pipeline length9 )he

longer

the pipeline i* the more you can accomplih per cycle in the ytem9 +o%e'er*

lengthening a pipeline may lo% a program if it .ump around uite a $it9

&nfortunately*


37/469

you cannot control the num$er of tage in the pipeline9 You can* ho%e'er* control

the

num$er of tranfer intruction %hich appear in your program9 O$'iouly you

hould

eep thee to a minimum in a pipelined ytem9

Student Acti'ity

Copy tudent acti'ity from page-3:* MCA-204* "#&

39 Decri$e 'ariou tall of pipelining9

Supercalar proceor

Supercalar i a term coined in the late 6


38/469

80 on%ard9 +o%e'er* true upercalar proceor are a conceptthat i

uniue to microproceor-$aed ytem9

)he Grt de'elopmental tep i to o$er'e that a reource gre% in

a'aila$ility* high-performance computer ytem =%e are really taling

a$out the mot po%erful machine of their day - Control Data 8800 and

7800* Cray-6* top-of-the-range 5M mainframe> tarted to acuire

dedicated hard%are to e1ecute diHerent type of intruction9 So for

e1ample there may $e eparate e1ecution unit =!X> for Koatingpoint

and integer operation9 See Gg 29669

ig929669 Multiple !1ecution &nit

Once intruction had $een decoded* they %ould $e ent to the

appropriate e1ecution unit9 5n general* Koating point operation are

more comple1 than integer one =though integer multiply/di'ide can alo

$e time conuming>* and an , unit %ould $e $roen do%n into further

pipeline tage9 Suppoe %e ha'e an , operation follo%ed $y aninteger

one9 Our $aic pipeline %ould imply halt e1ecution until the ,

operation had e1ited the !X phae* eHecti'ely talling the pipeline

$ecaue the , !X tage tae e'eral cycle9 +o%e'er* there ino real

need to Qal%ayR do that9 e could allo% the follo%ing integer operation

to enter the 5nteger !X unit9 Since integer operation typically tae

uite a $it le time than , one* thi mean that the integerreult

may %ell $e a'aila$le $eforethe , one that preceededit in program

27

order9 )hi i no%n a out-of-order completion* and $ring potential

performance $eneGt a %ell a $ig pro$lem* a %e %ill ee9

A further tep %ould $e to o$er'e that no% %e ha'e admitted the


39/469

poi$ility of at leat partially e1ecuting intruction out ofprogram

order* %e ha'e a potential mechanim for reducing the impact ofdata

dependencie =i9e9 pipeline talling>9 5ntead of .ut lea'ing a

pipeline idle %hile %e are %aiting for a dependency to reol'e*%e could

pic other* later intruction and e1ecute them intead9 e ha'e mo'ed

from a ituation* %ith the imple pipeline* %here intruction are

tatically cheduledor ordered* $y the compiler* to one %here they may

$e dynamically cheduled$y the hard%are9 =Actually* the ituation i a

$it more comple1 than thi and %e %ill return to it $elo%9>

Supercalar Concept

A reource continued to gro%* yet more e1ecution unit could $e made

a'aila$le9 hat i more* thee %ould often $e duplicateE there might $e

t%o integer unit* and t%o , unit* and perhap other =for e1ample* to

handle memory accee>9 )o .utify the e1itence of uch a large num$er

of e1ecution unit* it may no longer uWcient to imply attempt to

fetch and decode a ingle intruction at a time9 5t i neceary to alo

attempt to fetch* decode and %rite $ac multiple intruction a %ell -

ee Gg 29

2

ig929629 aic Supercalar Structure

ote ho%e'er that it i notthe cae that %e %ould typically $e a$le to

fetch* decode etc9 a many intruction a there are e1ecution unit -

for e1ample* in Gg 2962 mot of the pipeline can handle three

intruction* $ut there are G'e e1ecution unit9

e can a ourel'eE ho% many intruction can %e proGta$ly attempt to

e1ecute in parallelP ;ie le ophiticated pipelined machine* there


40/469

eem to $e limit on the num$er of intruction that can eHecti'ely $e

e1ecuted in parallel* $efore peed-up ad'antage $ecome mall -typically* $et%een

2 and 9 All current upercalar machine lie %ithin

thi $and =for e1ample* ,8-deri'ed proceor and the ,entium 4ha'e

three parallel pipeline>9 +o%e'er* techniue are $eing looedat - and

ome %orer are optimitic - that mayincreae thi dramatically9 5t

ha to $e aid though that other %orer are 'ery peimitic9 A

proceor that attempt to e1ecute nintruction imultaneouly i aid

to $e of degree n* or n-%ay9 Of coure* a upercalar proceor %ill $e

pipelined a %ellE for e1ample* a ,entium : ha 64 pipeline tage9 a

%ell a $eing degree :9 otice that a ey %ord i JattemptJE there i

2<

no guarantee that a upercalar proceor %ill ucceed in e1ecuting a

many intruction a i* in principle* poi$le9

efore proceeding* %e %ill deGne ome ueful terminology and concept9

)he ey pro$lem %e ha'e to ol'e %hen $uilding upercalar machine

concern the 'ariou data dependencie* reource conKict* and $ranche

=epecially conditional one>9 +o%e'er* not all phae of intruction

e1ecution are eually aHected9 or e1ample* %e can happily fetch and

decode intruction regardle of any dependencie9 !'en though%e may

$e fetching/decoding the %rongintruction* doing o %ill not aHect

the tate of a program9 +o%e'er* other phae are more critical9

F Scheduing- thi refer to the proce of deciding in %hat order to e1ecute

intruction9 )he choice are tatic* %hen the hard%are ha no control* and

dynamic* %hen the hard%are i permitted to re-order intruction to at leat ome

degree9

F 5ue- thi i eentially %hen %e fetch operandfor an intruction9 efore %e do


41/469

thi* %e mut $e ure that they are either actually a'aila$le =that i* they ha'e

already $een computed and tored - eitherin their Gnal detination or at leat

ome%here %e can acce them> or %e at leat no% %here they %ill $e a'aila$le

in the future9 5n practice* reource contraint can alo top intruction iue9 5n

our imple G'e-tage pipeline* the iue phae occur %hen intruction lea'e the

decode tage and enter the e1ecute tage9 5ntruction iue i generally in program

order9

F !1ecution- once iued* intruction can $e e1ecuted once all their operand are

actually a'aila$le9 !1ecution may in program order =in-order e1ecution> or out of

program order =out-of-order e1ecution>* depending on the machine9

F Speculation and Committal- $ecaue %e are predicting the outcome of $ranche

=and may$e other thing>* %e do not necearily no% for ure that %hen %e

e1ecute an intruction %e %ill actually end up uing the reult9 )hi proce i

no%n a peculation9 Once %e for ure an intruction i going to $e e1ecuted

then it i committed* or enter the committal phae9 )he ne1t tage i to tore the

reult9

F rite ac- ultimately %e mut tore intruction reult in their Gnal

detination9 =Actually* it i poi$le to notdo thi in all cae - for e1ample* if a

reult actually repreent a temporary* intermediate 'alue that %ill $e oon

o'er%ritten9 +o%e'er* a %e %ill ee* thi raie a%%ard uetion %hen dealing

%ith e1ception* o in general all reult are tored9> )hi phae i no%n a %rite

$acand $efore proceeding %e mut $e ure that =a> the intruction %ill actually

$e committed* and =$> the detination i free to $e o'er%ritten - that i* no other

intruction i %aiting to ue it current 'alue a a ource operand9 ote in ome

machine* =a> doe not necearily hold - they are prepared to %rite uncommitted

reult and then J$ac outJ of them later on9 +o%e'er* %e %ill not deal %ith uch


42/469

machine in thi module9 5t i relati'ely eay to eta$lih =$> %hen the detination

:0

i a regiter* $ut diWcult %hen it i a memory %ord $ecaue of the poi$ility of

pointer creating aliae9

F etirement or Completion- Gnally* an intruction Gnihe and lea'e the

pipeline9 )ypically thi happen immediately after %rite $ac and %e ay the

intruction i completedor retired9

ClaiGcation

e can di'ided upercalar proceor into a num$er of clae of

'arying comple1ity9

F Static Supercalar- thee proceor iue and e1ecute intruction in program

order9 So for e1ample* in a degree 2 machine* it i poi$le to iue and t%o

intruction imultaneoulyE gi'en intruction i6and i2* %e may chooe to iue

$oth* or only i6=depending on the preence of hazard>9 e may not.ut iue i29

)o complicate and confue matter* $ecaue the hard%are ha a choice =al$eit

limited> a$out iuing intruction* %e ay that intruction iuei dynamic9

+o%e'er* the actual e1ecution of intruction i in-order %e ay that cheduling i

tatic9

F Dynamic Supercalar- thee machine permit out-of-order program e1ecution*

$ut they generally till iueintruction in program order9 ecaue %e can

potentially re-order e1ecution* %e no% ay cheduling i dynamic9

F Dynamic %ith Speculation- thee machine add the a$ility to peculate $eyond

$ranche9

Supercalar Operation- !1ecuting 5ntruction in

,arallel

ith the pipelined architecture %e could achie'e* at $et* e1ecution time of one

C,5


43/469

=cloc per intruction>9 5 it poi$le to e1ecute intruction fater than thiP At Grt

glance you might thin* IOf coure not* %e can do at mot one operation per cloc

cycle9

So there i no %ay %e can e1ecute more than one intruction per cloc cycle9I ?eep

in

mind ho%e'er* that a ingle intruction i not a ingle operation9 5n the e1ample

preented earlier each intruction ha taen $et%een i1 and eight operation to

complete9

y adding e'en or eight eparate unit to the C,&* %e could eHecti'ely e1ecute

thee

eight operation in one cloc cycle* yielding one C,59 5f %e add more hard%are and

e1ecute* ay* 68 operation at once* can %e achie'e 093 C,5P )he an%er i a

ualiGed

Iye9I A C,& including thi additional hard%are i a upercalar C,& and can

e1ecute

more than one intruction during a ingle cloc cycle9 )he 018 family $egan

upporting upercalar e1ecution %ith the introduction of the ,entium proceor9

A upercalar C,& ha* eentially* e'eral e1ecution unit =ee igure 2962>9 5f it

encounter t%o or more intruction in the intruction tream =i9e9* the prefetch

ueue>

%hich can e1ecute independently* it %ill do o9

:6

igure 2962 A C,& that Support Supercalar Operation

)here are a couple of ad'antage to going upercalar9 Suppoe you ha'e the

follo%ing

intruction in the intruction treamE

mo'= 6000* ea1 >N

mo'= 2000* e$1 >N

5f there are no other pro$lem or hazard in the urrounding code* and all i1 $yte

for


44/469

thee t%o intruction are currently in the prefetch ueue* there i no reaon %hy

the C,&

cannot fetch and e1ecute $oth intruction in parallel9 All it tae i e1tra ilicon on

the

C,& chip to implement t%o e1ecution unit9

eide peeding up independent intruction* a upercalar C,& can alo peed up

program euence that ha'e hazard9 One limitation of upercalar C,& i that

once a

hazard occur* the oHending intruction %ill completely tall the pipeline9 !'ery

intruction %hich follo% %ill alo ha'e to %ait for the C,& to ynchronize the

e1ecution

of the intruction9 ith a upercalar C,&* ho%e'er* intruction follo%ing the

hazard

may continue e1ecution through the pipeline a long a they donJt ha'e hazard of

their

o%n9 )hi alle'iate =though doe not eliminate> ome of the need for careful

intruction

cheduling9

:2

A an aem$ly language programmer* the %ay you %rite oft%are for a upercalar

C,&

can dramatically aHect it performance9 irt and foremot i that rule youJre

pro$a$ly

ic of $y no%E ue hort intruction9 )he horter your intruction are* the more

intruction the C,& can fetch in a ingle operation and* therefore* the more liely

the

C,& %ill e1ecute fater than one C,59 Mot upercalar C,& do not completely

duplicate the e1ecution unit9 )here might $e multiple A;&* Koating point unit* etc9

)hi mean that certain intruction euence can e1ecute 'ery uicly %hile other

%onJt9 You ha'e to tudy the e1act compoition of your C,& to decide %hich

intruction


45/469

euence produce the $et performance9

Out of Order !1ecution

5n a tandard upercalar C,& it i the programmerJ =or compilerJ> reponi$ility to

chedule =arrange> the intruction to a'oid hazard and pipeline tall9 ancierC,& can

actually remo'e ome of thi $urden and impro'e performance $y automatically

recheduling intruction %hile the program e1ecute9 )o undertand ho% thi i

poi$le*

conider the follo%ing intruction euenceE

mo'= SomeBar* e$1 >N

mo'= Qe$1R* ea1 >N

mo'= 2000* ec1 >N

A data hazard e1it $et%een the Grt and econd intruction a$o'e9 )he econd

intruction mut delay until the Grt intruction complete e1ecution9 )hi

introduce a

pipeline tall and increae the running time of the program9 )ypically* the tall

aHect

e'ery intruction that follo%9 +o%e'er* note that the third intructionJ e1ecutiondoe

not depend on the reult from either of the Grt t%o intruction9 )herefore* there i

no

reaon to tall the e1ecution of the Imo'= 2000* ec1 >NI intruction9 5t may continue

e1ecuting %hile the econd intruction %ait for the Grt to complete9 )hi

techniue*

appearing in later mem$er of the ,entium line* i called Iout of order e1ecutionI

$ecaue

the C,& complete the e1ecution of ome intruction prior to the e1ecution of

pre'iou

intruction appearing in the code tream9

Clearly* the C,& may only e1ecute intruction out of euence if doing o produce


46/469

e1actly the ame reult a in-order e1ecution9 hile there a lot of little technical

iue

that mae thi pro$lem a little more diWcult than it eem* %ith enough engineering

eHort it i uite poi$le to implement thi feature9

Although you might thin that thi e1tra eHort i not %orth it =%hy not mae it the

programmerJ or compilerJ reponi$ility to chedule the intruction> there are

ome

ituation %here out of order e1ecution %illimpro'e performance that tatic

cheduling

could not handle9

::

egiter enaming

One pro$lem that hamper the eHecti'ene of upercalar operation on the 018

C,&

i the 018J limited num$er of general purpoe regiter9 Suppoe* for e1ample*

that the

C,& had four diHerent pipeline and* therefore* %a capa$le of e1ecuting four

intruction imultaneouly9 Actually achie'ing four intruction per cloc cycle

%ould

$e 'ery diWcult $ecaue mot intruction =that can e1ecute imultaneouly %ith

other

intruction> operate on t%o regiter operand9 or four intruction to e1ecute

concurrently* youJd need four eparate detination regiter and four ource

regiter =and

the t%o et of regiter mut $e di.oint* thati* a detination regiter for one

intruction

cannot $e the ource of another>9 C,& that ha'e lot of regiter can handle thi

ta

uite eaily* $ut the limited regiter et ofthe 018 mae thi diWcult9

ortunately*

there i a %ay to alle'iate part of the pro$lemE through regiter renaming9


47/469

egiter renaming i a neay %ay to gi'e a C,& more regiter than it actually ha9

,rogrammer %ill not ha'e direct acce to thee e1tra regiter* $ut the C,& can

ue

thee additional regiter to pre'ent hazard in certain cae9 or e1ample* conider

the

follo%ing hort intruction euenceE

mo'= 0* ea1 >N

mo'= ea1* i >N

mo'= 30* ea1 >N

mo'= ea1* . >N

Clearly a data hazard e1it $et%een the Grt and econd intruction and* lie%ie*a data

hazard e1it $et%een the third and fourth intruction in thi euence9 Out of

order

e1ecution in a upercalar C,& %ould normally allo% the Grt and third intruction

to

e1ecute concurrently and then the econd and fourth intruction could alo

e1ecute

concurrently9 +o%e'er* a data hazard* of ort* alo e1it $et%een the Grt and

third

intruction ince they ue the ame regiter9 )he programmer could ha'e eaily

ol'ed

thi pro$lem $y uing a diHerent regiter =ay!X> for the third and fourth

intruction9

+o%e'er* letJ aume that the programmer %a una$le to do thi $ecaue the

other

regiter are all holding important 'alue9 5 thi euence doomed to e1ecuting in

four

cycle on a upercalar C,& that hould only reuire t%oP

One ad'anced tric a C,& can employ i to create a $an of regiter for each of the


48/469

general purpoe regiter on the C,&9 )hat i* rather than ha'ing a ingle !AX

regiter*

the C,& could upport an array of !AX regiterN letJ call thee regiter !AXQ0R*

!AXQ6R* !AXQ2R* etc9 Similarly* you could ha'e an array of each of the regiter* o

%e

could alo ha'e !XQ0R99!XQnR* !CXQ0R99!CXQnR* etc9 o% the intruction et doe

not

gi'e the programmer the a$ility to elect one ofthee peciGc regiter array

element for

a gi'en intruction* $ut the C,& can automatically chooe a diHerent regiter array

:4

element if doing o %ould not change the o'erall computation and doing o could

peed

up the e1ecution of the program9 or e1ample* conider the follo%ing euence

=%ith

regiter array element automatically choen $y the C,&>E

mo'= 0* ea1Q0R >N

mo'= ea1Q0R* i >N

mo'= 30* ea1Q6R >N

mo'= ea1Q6R* . >N

Since !AXQ0R and !AXQ6R are diHerent regiter* the C,& can e1ecute the Grt and

third

intruction concurrently9 ;ie%ie* the C,& can e1ecute the econd and fourth

intruction concurrently9

)he code a$o'e pro'ide an e1ample of regiter renaming9 Dynamically* the C,&

automatically elect one of e'eral diHerent element from a regiter array in order

to

pre'ent data hazard9 Although thi i a imple e1ample* and diHerent C,&

implement


49/469

regiter renaming in many diHerent %ay* thi e1ample doe demontrate ho% the

C,&

can impro'e performance in certain intance through the ue of thi techniue9

Bery ;ong 5ntruction ord Architecture =B;5>

Supercalar operation attempt to chedule* in hard%are* the e1ecution of multiple

intruction imultaneouly9 Another techniue that 5ntel i uing in their 5A-84

architecture i the ue of 'ery long intruction %ord* or B;59 5n a B;5 computer

ytem* the C,& fetche a large $loc of $yte =46 in the cae of the 5A-84 5tanium

C,&>

and decode and e1ecute thi $loc all at once9 )hi $loc of $yte uually contain

t%o

or more intruction =three in the cae of the 5A-84>9 B;5 computing reuire the

programmer or compiler to properly chedule the intruction in each $loc =o

there are

no hazard or other conKict>* $ut if properly cheduled* the C,& can e1ecute three

or

more intruction per cloc cycle9

)he 5ntel 5A-84 Architecture i not the only computer ytem to employ a B;5

architecture9 )ranmetaJ Cruoe proceor family alo ue a B;5 architecture9

)he

Cruoe proceor i diHerent than the 5A-84 architecture inofar a it doe not

upport

nati'e e1ecution of 5A-:2 intruction9 5ntead* the Cruoe proceor dynamically

tranlate 018 intruction to CruoeJ B;5 intruction9 )hi Icode morphingI

technology reult in code running a$out 30 lo%er than nati'e code* though the

Cruoe

proceor ha other ad'antage9

:3

e %ill not conider B;5 computing any further ince the 5A-:2 architecture doe

not


50/469

upport it9 ut eep thi architectural ad'ance in mind if you mo'e to%ard the 5A-

84

family or the Cruoe family9

Student Acti'ity

69 hat are upercalar proceorP

29 Decri$e 'ariou type of upercalar proceor9

:9 hat are the pro$lem aociated %ith upercalar proceorP

Summary

Copy ection 398 from page-4* MCA-204* "#&

Copy Grt t%o point of ummary from page-37* MCA-204*"#&

?ey%ord

Copy from page-4-4


51/469

F undertand memory hierarchy and interlea'ing

F decri$e cache and 'irtual memory

F decri$e 'ariou architectural aid to implement cache and 'irtual memory9

5ntroduction

Copy from page-64* MCA-:06* ,)&

Storage )echnologie

Copy from page-6:2-6:: =upto Student Acti'ity>

Memory Array Organization

A typical 018 proceor addree a ma1imum of 2

n

diHerent memory

location* %here ni the num$er of $it on the addre $u* a 018

proceor ha'e 20* 24* :2* and :8 $it addre $ue =%ith 84 $it on the

%ay>9

Of coure* the Grt uetion you hould a i* Ihat e1actly i a memory

locationPI )he 018 upport $yte addrea$le memory9 )herefore* the

$aic memory unit i a $yte9 So %ith 20* 24* :2* and :8 addre line* the

018 proceor can addre one mega$yte* 68 mega$yte* four

giga$yte* and 84 giga$yte of memory* repecti'ely9

)hin of memory a a linear array of $yte9 )he addre of the Grt $yte i

zero and the addre of the lat $yte i 2

n

-69 or an 0 %ith a 20 $it

addre $u* the follo%ing peudo-,acal array declaration i a good


52/469

appro1imation of memoryE

MemoryE array Q099604373R of $yteN

)o e1ecute the eui'alent of the ,acal tatement IMemory Q623R E 0NI

the C,& place the 'alue zero on the data $u* the addre 623 on the

addre $u* and aert the %rite line =ince the C,& i %riting data to

memory>* ee igure 6929

:7

igure 692 Memory rite Operation

)o e1ecute the eui'alent of IC,& E Memory Q623RNI the C,& place the

addre 623 on the addre $u* aert the read line =ince the C,& i

reading data from memory>* and then read the reulting data from the

data $u =ee igure 69:>9

igure 69: Memory ead Operation

:

)he a$o'e dicuion applie only %hen acceing a ingle $yte in

memory9 So %hat happen %hen the proceor accee a %ord or a dou$le

%ordP Since memory conit of an array of $yte* ho% can %e poi$ly

deal %ith 'alue larger than eight $itP

DiHerent computer ytem ha'e diHerent olution to thi pro$lem9 )he

018 family deal %ith thi pro$lem $y toring the ;9O9 $yte of a %ord at

the addre peciGed and the +9O9 $yte at the ne1t location9 )herefore* a

%ord conume t%o conecuti'e memory addree =a you %ould e1pect*

ince a %ord conit of t%o $yte>9 Similarly* a dou$le %ord conume

four conecuti'e memory location9 )he addre for the dou$le %ord i the

addre of it ;9O9 $yte9 )he remaining three $yte follo% thi ;9O9 $yte*

%ith the +9O9 $yte appearing at the addre of the dou$le %ord plu three


53/469

=ee igure 694>9 yte* %ord* and dou$le %ord may $egin at any 'alid

addre in memory9 e %ill oon ee* ho%e'er* that tarting larger o$.ect

at an ar$itrary addre i not a good idea9

:<

igure 694 yte* ord* and Dord Storage in Memory

ote that it i uite poi$le for $yte* %ord* and dou$le %ord 'alue to

o'erlap in memory9 or e1ample* in igure 694 you could ha'e a %ord

'aria$le $eginning at addre 6


54/469

40

&nit-4

5nput-Output De'ice and Characteritic

;earning O$.ecti'e


F decri$e input-output proceing

F decri$e $u interface

F decri$e 5/O 5nterrupt channel

F Decri$e performance e'aluation-S,!C-MA?S

F Decri$e 'ariou $enchmar of tranaction proceing

5ntroduction

Copy from page-667 to 66 =5ntroduction and 5/O and their $rief decription>* MCA-

:06*

,)&

5nput-Output ,roceing

Copy from page-66 =5/O ,roceing>* MCA-:06* ,)&

5nput-Output ,roceor

Copy from page-6:< to page-644 =upto Ggure-392:>* MCA-:06* ,)&

u 5nterface

Copy from page-66 =u 5nterface> to Student Acti'ity* ,age-62


55/469

69 hat i an 5nterruptP

29 hat i the purpoe of ha'ing a channelP

:9 )he C,& and the channel are uually in a mater-la'e relationhip9 !1plain9

49 !1plain the C,& 5/O intruction e1ecuted $y the C,&9

39 =Copy uetion-6 to 3 of tudent acti'ity* page-644* MCA-:06* ,)&>

,erformance !'aluation- enchmar

copy from ection-6092 to ection-6094* page-664 to 66* MCA-204* "#&

46

Student Acti'ity

69 Decri$e the follo%ing E

=a> Spec-Mar

=$> ),C-+

=c> ),C-

=d> ),C-

Summary

Copy from page-643* Summary =copy para 6*2 and 4 only>* ,age-643* MCA-:06* ,)&

Copy from page-66* ummary* MCA-204* "#&

?ey%ord

Copy ey%ord from page-643* =Delete DMS>* MCA-:06* ,)&

Copy ey%ord from page-66* MCA-204* "#&

e'ie% @uetion

Copy @-6*2*:*3*8*7 from page-643-648* MCA-:06* ,)&

Copy @-6to3 from page-66-66


56/469

6

5)OD&C)5O )O

+&MA !SO&C! MAA"!M!)

;!A5" O#!C)5B!S

After completion of thi unit* you hould $e a$le toE

z DeGne +M* peronnel management and +D9

z Outline the o$.ecti'e and importance of +M9

z Dicu the impact of technological change on +M9

z !1amine the role of + manager in a changing economic cenario9

z )race the implication of %orforce di'erity in +M9

z 5dentify the component of internal en'ironment and their impact on +M9

&5) S)&C)&!

696 5ntroduction

692 )he Challenge of +uman eource Management

69: Miconception a$out +uman eource Management

694 O$.ecti'e of +M

693 5mportance of +M

698 Sytem Approach to +M

697 )he Changing ole of + Management

69 +M in 5ndia

69< +uman eource Management in ,ractice in 5ndia

6960 5mpediment to the ,rogre of ,/+M in 5ndia

6966 Meaure to Speed up the "ro%th of ,/+M in 5ndia

6962 5ntroduction to +M )rend in a Dynamic !n'ironment

696: )echnological Change

6964 )otal @uality Management =)@M>


57/469

6963 eengineering or ,rocee

6968 le1i$le Manufacturing Sytem

6967 !conomic Challenge

696 orforce Di'erity

696< 5nternal !n'ironment

6920 Managing Di'erity

6926 Summary

6922 ?ey%ord

692: e'ie% @uetion

6924 urther eading

+uman eource

Management

696 5)OD&C)5O

One of the important dutie of the modern manager i to get thing done through

people9 +e ha

to $ring employee into contact %ith the organiation in uch a %ay that the

o$.ecti'e of $oth

group are achie'ed9 +e mut $e intereted in the people* the %or and the

achie'ement of

aigned o$.ecti'e9 )o $e eHecti'e* he mut $alance hi concern for people and

%or9 5n other

%ord* he mut no% ho% to utilie human a %ell a non-human reource %hile

tranlating

goal into action9 5t i in managing human aet that the manager[ capa$ilitie are

teted fully*

$ecaueE

)a$le 696E ,eople are DiHerent \


58/469

z +uman reource are heterogeneou9 )hey conit of many diHerent indi'idual*

each

of %hom ha a uniue peronality* a com$ination of diHerent emotional repone

to

diHerent timuli and diHerent 'alue* attitude* moti'e and mode of thought9

z +uman $eing $eha'e in %idely diHering and complicated %ay9 )heir reaction to

promie* praie or criticim* for e1ample* can $e uite diHerent9 5t i 'ery diWcult

to

predict their $eha'iour epecially in an organiation %here they %or in group9

)heir

$eha'iour i neither conitent nor readily predicta$le9

z Modern employee are $etter educated* poe greater ill* ha'e more

ophiticated

technology a'aila$le for their ue and en.oy higher tandard of li'ing than pre'iou

generation9

z A human $eing himelf determine %hat he contri$ute9 5f he i moti'ated* he %ill

%or

for an organiation more eWciently and eHecti'ely9

So* it mut $e recognied $y the manager that indi'idual* not organiation* create

e1cellence9

ecogniing the importance of the human element in the production proce* ,

Drucer had

remared that ]man* of all the reource a'aila$le to man* can gro% and de'elop^9

)he pro$lem of

eta$lihing the right climate to ma1imie employee moti'ation and commitment i

till %ith u9

692 )+! C+A;;!"! O +&MA !SO&C!

MAA"!M!)

)he mot igniGcant reource of any organiation i often aid to $e it people9 Such

claim


59/469

appear in organiation[ annual report and miion tatement9 Of coure* an

organiation i

nothing $ut a group of people %hoe acti'itie ha'e $een planned and coordinated

to meet

organiational o$.ecti'e9 An organiation that e1it to produce good and er'ice

ha a good

chance to ur'i'e and proper if it conit of the ight ,eople9)hi i true for all

organiation9

5n a imilar fahion* people need organiation9 )he 'at ma.ority of people mut

%or to upport

themel'e and their familie9 ut people %or for many reaon other than

economic ecurity9

or e1ample* many alo %or to eep $uy and feel ueful* to create and achie'e

omething9 )hey

%ant to gain recognition and achie'e tatu or to tet and tretch their capa$ilitie9

)o meet thee

multifariou need* people and organiation .oin force9 &nfortunately* thi union

eldom

approache perfection9 Organiation encounter e'eral o$tacle in meeting their

goal and in

a imilar %ay all employee report ome pro$lem in their attempt to $e

producti'e and eWcient

in their .o$ and to feel atiGed in their %or li'e9 )he challenge of human

reource management

i to minimie thee o$tacle and pro$lem9

o1 696E ,eronnel Director are e% Corporate +eroe

)he name of the game in $uine today i peronnel 9 9 9 9 You can[t hope to ho% a

good

Gnancial or operating report unle your peronnel relation are in order and 5 don[t

care %hat

ind of a company you are running9 A chief e1ecuti'e i nothing %ithout hi people9

You got


60/469

to ha'e the right one in the right .o$ for them and you got to $e ure employee

at e'ery

le'el are $eing paid fairly and $eing gi'en opportunitie for promotion9 You can[t

fool them

and any chief e1ecuti'e %ho trie i going to hurt himelf and hi company9

L +er$ert ! Meyer* ortune* e$9 6 through eHecti'e and

eWcient ue

of reource9 !Wcient mean that it mut ue the minimum amount of reource

needed to

produce reult9 !Hecti'e mean producing right thing through right %ay9 )he

reultant

producti'ity =ratio of output to input> gain o$tained through + eHort ena$le

manager to

reduce cot* a'e carce reource* enhance proGt and oHer $etter pay* $eneGt

and %oring

condition to employee9

Meaning

+uman eource Management i a proce of $ringing people and organiationtogether o

that the goal of each are met9 5t i that part of the management proce %hich i

concerned %ith

the management of human reource in an organiation9 5t trie to ecure the $et

from people $y


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%inning their %holehearted cooperation9 5n hort* it may $e deGned a the art of

procuring*

de'eloping and maintaining competent %orforce to achie'e the goal of an

organiation in an

eHecti'e and eWcient manner9

According to 5n'ance'ich and "luec* +M i concerned %ith the mot eHecti'e ue

of people

to achie'e organiational and indi'idual goal9 5t i a %ay of managing people at

%or* o that

they gi'e their $et to the organiation9 5t ha the follo%ing featureE

a9 ,er'ai'e forceE+M i per'ai'e in nature9 5t i preent in all enterprie9 5t

permeate all

le'el of management in an organiation9

$9 Action orientedE+M focue attention on action* rather than on record eeping*

%ritten

procedure or rule9 )he pro$lem of employee at %or are ol'ed through rational

policie9

c9 5ndi'idually orientedE5t trie to help employee de'elop their potential fully9 5t

encourage

them to gi'e out their $et to the organiation9 5t moti'ate employee through a

ytematic

proce of recruitment* election* training and de'elopment coupled %ith fair %age

policie9

d9 ,eople orientedE+M i all a$out people at %or* $oth a indi'idual and group9

5t trie

to put people on aigned .o$ in order to produce good reult9 )he reultant gain

are

ued to re%ard people and moti'ate them to%ard further impro'ement in

producti'ity9

e9 De'elopment orientedE+M intend to de'elop the full potential of employee9

)he


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re%ard tructure i tuned to the need of employee9 )raining i oHered to harpen

and

impro'e their ill9 !mployee are rotated on 'ariou .o$ o that they gain

e1perience and

e1poure9 !'ery attempt i made to ue their talent fully in the er'ice of

organiational

goal9

f9 5ntegrating mechanimE+M trie to $uild and maintain cordial relation $et%een

people

%oring at 'ariou le'el in the organiation9 5n hort* it trie to integrate human

aet in

the $et poi$le manner in the er'ice of an organiation9

g9 Compreheni'e functionE+M i* to ome e1tent* concerned %ith any

organiational

deciion %hich ha an impact on the* %orforce or the potential %orforce

=ernardin*

p963>9 )he term _%orforce[ igniGe people %oring at 'ariou le'el* including

%orer*

uper'ior* middle and top manager9 5t i concerned %ith managing people at

%or9 5t

co'er all type of peronnel9 ,eronnel %or may tae diHerent hape and form

at each

le'el in the organiational hierarchy $ut the $aic o$.ecti'e of achie'ing

organiational

eHecti'ene through eHecti'e and eWcient utiliation of human reource* remain

the

ame9 ]5t i $aically a method of de'eloping potentialitie of employee o that

they get

ma1imum atifaction out of their %or and gi'e their $et eHort to the

organiation^9

=,igor and Myer>


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