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Yum, Y.-O., and Hara, K. (2!". Com#uter-mediated re$ationshi# de%e$o#ment& A

'ross-'u$tura$ 'om#arison. Journa$ o Com#uter-Mediated Communi'ation, ))()",

arti'$e *. htt#&++'m'.indiana.edu+%o$))+issue)+um.htm$

Com#uter-Mediated e$ationshi# /e%e$o#ment&

A Cross-Cu$tura$ Com#arison

Youn0-o1 Yum

Kansas State ni%ersit

Ka3ua Hara

Mei1ai ni%ersit

Abstra't

4his stud extends #rior s'ho$arshi# on the ro$e o se$-dis'$osure in re$ationshi#

de%e$o#ment on the Internet in three dierent 'u$tures& Korea, Ja#an, and the

nited States. 4he duration o the on$ine re$ationshi# 5as 'onsidered as 5e$$ as the

t5o t#i'a$ dimensions (i.e., breadth and de#th" o se$-dis'$osure. 4he resu$ts

su00est some 'ross-'u$tura$ dieren'es and simi$arities in the asso'iations bet5een


2/28

se$-dis'$osure and re$ationshi# 6ua$ities. 7or Ameri'ans, Ja#anese, and Koreans,

se$-dis'$osure 5as dire't$ asso'iated 5ith on$ine re$ationshi# de%e$o#ment.

Ho5e%er, the re$ationshi# bet5een se$-dis'$osure and trust 5as #ositi%e on$ or

Ameri'ans.

Introdu'tion

4he #o#u$arit o 'bers#a'e intera'tions and re$ationshi#s in the .S. and other

'ountries has in'reased dramati'a$$ in re'ent ears, and resear'h interest in this

area has in'reased a''ordin0$ (e.0., /ainton 8 A$or, 22". 4he Internet #ro%ides

another 'ontext and 'hanne$ or #eo#$e to meet 5ith stran0ers or the irst time,

initiate meanin0u$ and satisin0 'on%ersations, and bui$d stab$e, $on0-term

re$ationshi#s, simi$ar to a'e-to-a'e (747" intera'tions (9a$ther 8 :ur0oon, );;2".

4hrou0h re6uent and extensi%e %erba$ ex'han0e o so'ia$ inormation, #artners

intera'tin0 on the Internet ma a'ti%e$ en0a0e in se$-dis'$osure and 'ome to ee$

'$ose to and bond 5ith ea'h other. A''ordin0$, man #eo#$e re0u$ar$ use the

Internet to meet a s#e'ia$ someone or to maintain #ersona$ re$ationshi#s (e.0.,

an, );;!> Staord, K$ine, 8 /immi'1, );;;". Some CMC

resear'hers (e.0., :onebra1e, 22" be$ie%e that on$ine re$ationshi#s are a$read

re0arded as norma$ ex#erien'es.

/es#ite the a't that 'om#uter-mediated 'ommuni'ation (CMC" has be'ome a

'ommon too$ o 'ommuni'ation in industria$i3ed 'ountries, $itt$e is et 1no5n about

ho5 #eo#$e uti$i3e CMC as a re$ationa$ 'ommuni'ation 'hanne$ in dierent 'u$tures.

It is 5ide$ re'o0ni3ed that Internet a''ess and re6uen' o on$ine intera'tions in

East Asian 'ountries are 'om#arab$e to (i not hi0her than" in the .S. (Johnston,

2)> ?u Stout, 2)". A''ordin0 to Ma ();;=", most 'ross-'u$tura$ studies

'om#arin0 the 'ommuni'ation st$es o East Asians and @orth Ameri'ans ha%e

o'used on 747 intera'tions.

4he #resent stud addresses theoreti'a$ and #ra'ti'a$ 6uestions re0ardin0 CMC and

its im#a't on re$ationshi# de%e$o#ment amon0 #eo#$e in East Asia (Ja#an and SouthKorea" and the .S. 4he irst 6uestion 'on'erns the extent to 5hi'h theories o 747

'ommuni'ation and re$ationshi# de%e$o#ment are a##$i'ab$e to CMC settin0s in

these 'ountries. 7or exam#$e, so'ia$ #enetration theor (S :er0er, );BB". Yet, this assum#tion is #rimari$ based on obser%ations o 747


3/28

intera'tions. 9i$$ the assum#tions o so'ia$ #enetration theor ho$d in CMC in

dierent 'u$tures On$ one stud has in%esti0ated an internationa$ sam#$e to

address a simi$ar 6uestion (


4/28

inormation (de#th". esear'h has su00ested that 0reater se$-dis'$osure is $in1ed to

0reater emotiona$ in%o$%ement in datin0 re$ationshi#s (ubin, Hi$$, this is 'a$$ed the Fstran0er-on-the-train (or #$ane, et'."F #henomenon.

In this 'ontext, a #erson ma 'onide a 0reat dea$ o #ersona$, re%ea$in0 inormation5ithout intendin0 to be'ome '$ose to a tota$ stran0er 5hom he or she has ust met,

#resumab$ to un$oad bott$ed-u# emotions and maintain his or her o5n

#s'ho$o0i'a$ (and e%en #hsi'a$" hea$th (


5/28

dis'$osure in CMC as 'om#ared to 747 intera'tions, be'ause the #er'ei%e $itt$e or

no ris1 re$ated to se$-dis'$osure in CMC (e.0., no #hsi'a$ #resen'e, no

'ommitment". Ho5e%er, the East Asian students 5ere not #er'ei%ed b the @orth

Ameri'an students as se$-dis'$osin0 as mu'h as the East Asian students #er'ei%ed

themse$%es to be. Cu$ture is thus another a'tor that ma in$uen'e se$-dis'$osure,

and is the o'us o this stud.

Com#uter-Mediated Communi'ation

CMC is a 'ommon et uni6ue intera'tion settin0 that ma substitute or and+or

su##$ement 747 intera'tions. A''ordin0 to t3 (2", a##roximate$ B o

M/ders (users o mu$ti-user domains" re#orted the ormation o on$ine #ersona$

re$ationshi#s. In the same %ein, in a stud 5ith an internationa$ sam#$e (;) rom

the .S., Canada, and Austra$ia",


6/28

a00ressi%e and im#u$si%e beha%ior, as a resu$t o 5hi'h #eo#$e ma or0e e5er

so'ioemotiona$ bonds (Kim, 2".

A $a'1 o intera'tion histor and shared norms #oses another 'ha$$en0e to '$ose

re$ationshi# de%e$o#ment on$ine. CMC users tend to en0a0e in more %erba$

a00ression, ina##ro#riate se$-dis'$osure, and 'on$i't-indu'in0 beha%ior than do 747

intera'tion #artners (e.0., /ubro%s1, Kies$er, 8 Sethna, );;)> S#rou$$ 8 Kies$er,

);;)". 7or exam#$e, F$amin0F #oses a threat to on$ine re$ationshi# de%e$o#ment

(e.0., ?ea, OShea, 7un0, 8 S#ears, );;> 9itmer, );;*". 7$amin0 reers to abrasi%e

and im#u$si%e, or e%en abusi%e beha%ior, and is 'ommon in CMC. 9itmer ();;*"

maintains that $amin0 ma 1ee# 6ua$it on$ine 'ommuni'ation and re$ationa$

de%e$o#ment rom o''urrin0. S$ou1a ();;!" is a$so one o those 5ho %ie5 on$ine

re$ationshi#s as im#ersona$, Fsha$$o5,F i$$usor, and e%en Fdan0erous.F In a$$,

'onsiderin0 the un'ertaint re$ated to the $a'1 o #rere6uisites or re$ationshi#

de%e$o#ment mentioned abo%e (e.0., re6uent intera'tion and non%erba$ ae'tdis#$a", re$ationshi# de%e$o#ment 5ou$d a##ear to be a 'ha$$en0in0 tas1 or CMC

users.

4hese #essimisti' assum#tions about re$ationshi# de%e$o#ment in CMC, ho5e%er,

5ere subse6uent$ 6uestioned b ne5 theories and em#iri'a$ indin0s. 9a$ther and

his asso'iates (9a$ther 8 :ur0oon, );;2> 9a$ther, Anderson, 8


7/28

emoti'ons su'h as smi$es". 4he $in1 bet5een the use o #ara$an0ua0e and ma1in0

riends on$ine is modiied b the time s#ent on the Internet and the %erba$

ex#ression o re$ationa$ 'ontent. 4hereore, a sustained on$ine intera'tion shou$d be

ab$e to o%er'ome the absen'e o #hsi'a$ dis#$as o ae'tion and $ead to a '$ose,

meanin0u$ re$ationshi#.

t3s indin0s 'an be urther ex#$ained b so'ia$ ex'han0e theor and so'ia$

#enetration theor. 4hese theories are rather o#timisti' about re$ationshi#

de%e$o#ment %ia CMC and o'us on #ro'esses and re5ards asso'iated 5ith

ex'han0es o %erba$, text-based inormation (as o##osed to non%erba$ 'ues". 7or

exam#$e, so'ia$ ex'han0e theor #redi'ts that re5ards or #ositi%e out'omes

deri%in0 rom CMC are in'enti%es or ormin0 and maintainin0 re$ationshi#s (e.0.,

Ke$$e, );*;". 9a$ther 8 :ur0oon, );;2". In 0enera$, then, CMC ma be 'om#arab$e to 747

in terms o se$-dis'$osure. Yet, the im#$i'ations o se$-dis'$osure on on$ine

re$ationshi# de%e$o#ment remain untested.

CMC, Se$-/is'$osure, and e$ationshi# /e%e$o#ment

On'e the be'ome estab$ished, on$ine #ersona$ re$ationshi#s demonstrate the

same re$ationa$ dimensions and 6ua$ities as 747 re$ationshi#s& e.0., 0reater

interde#enden'e, #redi'tabi$it+understandin0, 'ode 'on%er0en'e, 'ommitment,

and on$ine and o$ine net5or1 sharin0+'on%er0en'e (e.0.,


8/28

dis#$aed hi0h 'ommitment to the on0oin0 on$ine re$ationshi# in 6uestion (


9/28

those 5ho do it in 747. As dis'ussed abo%e, #eo#$e se$-dis'$ose or a dierent

reason (e.0., $o5 ris1" in CMC as 'om#ared to 747. Ho5e%er, in Mas stud, the

#arti'i#ants 5ere East Asians and @orth Ameri'ans, and their re#orts 5ere based on

their #er'e#tions o inter'u$tura$ (%ersus intra'u$tura$" intera'tions in CMC.

4hereore, one mi0ht ima0ine that a'tors other than se$-dis'$osure 'ou$d ha%e

ae'ted their #er'e#tions o ris1 and 'ommitment in these intera'tions. One#ossibi$it is that in intra'u$tura$ CMC, the #artners are t#i'a$$ not as ar a#art

0eo0ra#hi'a$$ as in inter'u$tura$, internationa$ CMC. Su##ortin0 this reasonin0, in a

stud 5ith an intra'u$tura$ sam#$e, 9o$a1, Mit'he$$, and 7in1e$hor (22" ound that

about one-third o the #arti'i#ants indi'ated that their CMC #artners 5ere in the

%i'init, and more than t5o-thirds had o$ine 'onta't (e.0., #hone, 747". In another

stud, on$ine re$ationshi# #artners (5ho met on$ine" sho5ed em#ath or others and

enoed 0enuine re$ationshi#s in an intra'u$tura$ stud (M'Co5n, 7is'her,


10/28

indi%idua$isti' 'u$tures, 5hereas indire'tness and restraint in se$-dis'$osure (hi0h-

'ontext 'ommuni'ation st$e" are desirab$e in 'o$$e'ti%isti' 'u$tures (Dud1unst 8

@ishida, );B=". In short, indi%idua$ists tend to se$-dis'$ose more than do

'o$$e'ti%ists (D. M. Chen, );;!> 4in0-4oome, );;)". 4hereore, one mi0ht #redi't

that in some 'u$tures se$-dis'$osure is not as si0nii'ant a a'tor in re$ationshi#

de%e$o#ment as it 5ou$d be in other 'u$tures, at $east, in 747 'ommuni'ationsettin0s.

Contradi'tin0 this s#e'u$ation, re'ent $iterature on the asso'iations bet5een

#ositi%e 747 'ommuni'ation strate0ies and re$ationshi# de%e$o#ment su00ests that

the ee't o se$-dis'$osure on re$ationshi# 6ua$it is rather simi$ar a'ross 'u$tures.

Yum and Canar ();;*" ound that a$thou0h Korean romanti' #artners tend to

en0a0e in se$-dis'$osure (i.e., o#en and dire't 'ommuni'ation" $ess than do their

Ameri'an 'ounter#arts, both Koreans and Ameri'ans se$-#er'ei%ed de0rees o

se$-dis'$osure 5ere #ositi%e$ asso'iated 5ith the 6ua$it o re$ationshi# in terms o,e.0., $i1in0, trust, 'ommitment, and mutua$ in$uen'e. One shou$d note that the

#arti'i#ants in Yum and Canars ();;*" stud 5ere oun0 'o$$e0e students 5ho

had been edu'ated in demo'rati' and e0a$itarian be$ies and %a$ues. It a##ears that,

re0ard$ess o 'u$ture, oun0 #eo#$e ha%e simi$ar ex#e'tations about 'ommuni'ation

and the 6ua$it o '$ose re$ationshi#s the 'hoose to orm and 'ontinue.

4he amount o se$-dis'$osure in CMC ma a$so be simi$ar a'ross 'u$tures. One

stud s#e'ii'a$$ 'om#ared se$-dis'$osure in bu$$etin board sstems (::Ss"

bet5een East Asians and @orth Ameri'ans and ound that re0ard$ess o 'u$tura$membershi#, the amount o se$-dis'$osure 5as 0reater in CMC than in 747

'on%ersations (Kim 8 aa, );;), 'ited in Ma, );;=". Kim and aa s#e'u$ated that

in CMC, se$-dis'$osure is hi0h be'ause the #arti'i#ants ma #er'ei%e a re$ati%e

absen'e o 'u$tura$ 'onstraints and thus ee$ $ess need or inhibition or se$-

monitorin0 as in 747 intera'tions. Ho5e%er, Kim and aa did not o'us on the

s#e'ii's o se$-dis'$osure (e.0., 'ontext and 0oa$" or the #ur#ose o de%e$o#in0 or

maintainin0 a re$ationshi#.

In $i0ht o the e6ui%o'a$ indin0s in the extant 'ross-'u$tura$ 747 'ommuni'ation$iterature, and the $a'1 o 'ross-'u$tura$ resear'h on the asso'iation bet5een se$-

dis'$osure and re$ationshi# de%e$o#ment in CMC, the o$$o5in0 6uestion 5as

#osited&


11/28

)& /oes the ma0nitude o the asso'iation bet5een se$-dis'$osure and re$ationshi#

6ua$it in CMC %ar amon0 Ameri'ans, Ja#anese, and Koreans

Cu$ture and 4#es o On$ine e$ationshi#s


12/28

A tota$ o =) 'o$$e0e students in three dierent 'u$tures res#onded to a sur%e on

a %o$untar basis& )2= Ja#anese (G ma$es and B2 ema$es", ))2 .S. Ameri'ans (=;

ma$es, G2 ema$es", and )2 South Koreans (!2 ma$es, =) ema$es". ) indi%idua$s

did not indi'ate their 0ender identit, and G indi%idua$s 5ere homosexua$s> the5ere not in'$uded in the sam#$e. 4he #arti'i#ants in the stud 5ere enro$$ed in non-

CMC 'ourses in their res#e'ti%e 'ountries at the time o data 'o$$e'tion. Instru'tors

announ'ed the )-minute sur%e in '$ass and brie$ des'ribed its #ur#ose.

/e#endin0 on the 'ir'umstan'es, students 5ere instru'ted to do the sur%e durin0

the '$ass or at home, and return the 'om#$eted sur%e to the instru'tor next '$ass.

@o extra 'redit 5as oered. At the time o the distribution, the instru'tors made it

'$ear that the students #arti'i#ation 5as entire$ %o$untar. 2, 2.2 or .S. indi%idua$s>

and 2), .2= or Koreans.

On a%era0e, #arti'i#ants had been in%o$%ed in the on$ine re$ationshi# in 6uestion

or a##roximate$ t5o ears, six months (t5o ears, our months or Ja#anese, three

ears, one month or .S. Ameri'ans, and one ear, se%en months or Koreans". 4he

duration did not $u'tuate si0nii'ant$ a'ross the three 'u$tures (4ab$e )". 4he

a%era0e number o hours s#ent on the Internet did not %ar si0nii'ant$ a'ross

'u$tures (a##roximate$ one and one ha$ hours or Ja#anese, and t5o hours and 2

minutes or both Ameri'ans and Koreans".

Measures


13/28

4o assess on$ine se$-dis'$osure and re$ationshi# de%e$o#ment, the #resent stud

em#$oed se%era$ s'a$es 'onstru'ted in #re%ious Internet and 747 re$ationshi#

studies (e.0.,


14/28

/E


15/28

si0nii'ant$ re$ated to $o%e, $i1in0, 'ommitment, and 'ode 'han0e a'ross the board.

4hat is, re0ard$ess o 'u$tura$ membershi#, #eo#$e 5ho re#orted 0reater se$-

dis'$osure indi'ated 0reater $o%e, $i1in0, 'ommitment, and 5i$$in0ness to adust their

'ommuni'ation st$e to mat'h their #artners. ?i1in0 4rust ?o%e Inter


16/28

H2 #osited that CMC re$ationshi#s are more $i1e$ to be o##osite-sex riendshi#s

%ersus same-sex riendshi#s or o##osite-sex roman'e. 4his h#othesis 5as not

su##orted, su00estin0 that the most re6uent t#e o on$ine re$ationshi# 'annot be

0enera$i3ed and ma %ar rom sam#$e to sam#$e. 4he resu$ts, o%era$$, indi'ated

that a maorit o CMC users in the stud $abe$ed their on0oin0 on$ine re$ationshi#s

as same-sex riendshi#s (;", o$$o5ed b roman'e (2" and o##osite-sexriendshi# ()B". 4he rest 5ere identiied as a'6uaintan'es or other. /e#endin0 on

'u$ture, ho5e%er, the #ro#ortions o indi%idua$s in ea'h t#e o #ersona$ re$ationshi#

%aried 'onsiderab$. A %ast maorit o Ja#anese Internet users 5ere 'urrent$

in%o$%ed in same-sex riendshi#s (=!, %ersus = o Ameri'ans and )B o

Koreans". 4he se'ond $ar0est maorit o Ameri'ans 5as in%o$%ed in o##osite-sex

riendshi#s (2B", '$ose$ o$$o5ed b romanti' re$ationshi#s (2*". A number o

Koreans (B" 5ere in%o$%ed in a'6uaintan'e-on$ re$ationshi#s, 5hereas )* o

Koreans 5ere in o##osite-sex riendshi#s and )G in romanti' re$ationshi#s. More

Koreans (%ersus Ja#anese and Ameri'ans" bein0 in a'6uaintan'e re$ationshi#s ma

be re$ated to the shorter #eriod o re$ationshi# duration ().= ears, %ersus .) or

.S. and 2. or Ja#an" or the Koreans in the stud.

/is'ussion

4he indin0s rom the #resent stud su00est that there exist more simi$arities than

dieren'es bet5een 747 and CMC 5ith res#e't to the $in1 bet5een se$-dis'$osure

and re$ationshi# 6ua$it. As in 747, se$-dis'$osure is $in1ed to #ositi%e and desired

re$ationa$ 6ua$ities in CMC.


17/28

#hsi'a$$ distant is not uni6ue to CMC, but rather is 'ommon in an $on0-distan'e

re$ationshi#s (Staord 8 es1e, );;". :ased on a stud o #remarita$ $on0-distan'e

romanti' #artners, Staord and es1e re#orted that #artners 5ho are

0eo0ra#hi'a$$ se#arated tend to de%e$o# idea$isti' ima0es o the other due to

restri'ted 'ommuni'ation. 7uture studies need to identi 5hat strate0ies and

methods #eo#$e use to dete't #artners de'e#tion and ex'essi%e im#ressionmana0ement, and a$so de%e$o# 0enuine re$ationshi#s in CMC.

As in 747, #eo#$e meet and brea1 u# in CMC. On$ine #artners ma brea1 u# 5hen

the #er'ei%e that their re$ationshi# does not meet their idea$s or ex#e'tations. In

other 'ases, CMC-ori0inated re$ationshi#s are su''essu$ o$ine and $ead to $on0-

term 'ommitment. A''ordin0 to :a1er (22", as in re$ationshi#s ormed o$ine,

on$ine #artners bui$d intima' throu0h mutua$ and re6uent se$-dis'$osure o%er a

$on0 #eriod o time (beore meetin0 o$ine". In addition, :a1er stated that on$ine

re$ationshi#s ormed on the basis o 'ommon interests or simi$arities (e.0., meetin0a #artner in 'bers#a'e based on hobbies and interests" tend to $ast $on0er. O%era$$,

the more #o#u$ar on$ine re$ationshi#s be'ome, the more simi$ar the ex#e'tations

and #atterns o on$ine re$ationshi#s are $i1e$ to be'ome to those o o$ine

re$ationshi#s. On$ine is be'omin0 sim#$ another so'ia$ 'ontext in 5hi'h #eo#$e

meet their #ros#e'ti%e re$ationshi# #artners, as 5e$$ as ormin0, de%e$o#in0, endin0

re$ationshi#s, and startin0 o%er, sometimes 5ithout e%er ex#erien'in0 a'tua$

#hsi'a$ 'onta't.

A$thou0h se$-dis'$osure 5as #ositi%e$ asso'iated o%era$$ 5ith re$ationshi# 6ua$it,the #resent stud ound e%iden'e that 'u$ture ma modi the ro$e o se$-dis'$osure

in re$ationshi# de%e$o#ment. An im#ortant 'u$tura$ dieren'e 'on'erned the

asso'iation bet5een se$-dis'$osure and trust. A #ositi%e asso'iation o se$-

dis'$osure 5ith trust emer0ed on$ or Ameri'ans, 5hi'h is 'onsistent 5ith #re%ious

indin0s (


18/28

It is #ossib$e that the meanin0 o se$-dis'$osure ma %ar a'ross 'u$tures, as

su00ested b ?. Chen (2". Se$-dis'$osure ma ha%e a ne0ati%e 'onnotation or

East Asians (es#e'ia$$, in a'6uaintan'e re$ationshi#s". I one #artner re%ea$s too

mu'h about himse$ or herse$, the other ma ta1e it as ina##ro#riate or as an

indi'ator o in'om#eten'e. 7urthermore, in the 'ontext o on$ine re$ationshi#s,

Koreans and Ja#anese ma anti'i#ate strate0i' se$-dis'$osure in the orm o a'tua$(es#e'ia$$, #ositi%e, se$-#romotiona$" inormation ex'han0e and im#ression

mana0ement, at $east at the ear$ sta0es o re$ationshi# de%e$o#ment. In 'ross-

'u$tura$ 747 'ommuni'ation resear'h, it is 1no5n that a'e sa%in0 in #ersona$

intera'tions is a 0reater 'on'ern or 'o$$e'ti%ists than or indi%idua$ists (4in0-

4oome, );BB". Sti$$, this indin0 shou$d be ta1en 5ith 'aution and not be

0enera$i3ed to a 5ider #o#u$ation. 7uture studies 'ou$d in%esti0ate indi%idua$

%ariabi$it, or exam#$e, in the Korean sam#$e b identiin0 the ro$e o #ersona$it

traits o indi%idua$ #arti'i#ants on the be$ies and beha%iors asso'iated 5ith se$-

dis'$osure.

Another ex#$anation or the dis#arit in the im#$i'ations o se$-dis'$osure on

re$ationshi# 6ua$it mi0ht be re$ationshi#-s#e'ii', e.0., re$ationshi# $en0th,

re$ationshi# sta0e, and timin0. Considerin0 that the se$-identiied $en0th o the

on$ine re$ationshi# 5as the shortest or the Koreans, o$$o5ed b the Ja#anese, this

is a reasonab$e s#e'u$ation. It mi0ht be that Koreans in #arti'u$ar ud0ed their

#artners 'redibi$it harsh$ and ne0ati%e$, ee$in0 that the 5ere ex#osed to Ftoo

mu'h inormation, too soon.F e%e$ation o ones true ee$in0s and 5ea1nesses ma

be ex#e'ted to o''ur arther into the #ro'ess o re$ationshi# de%e$o#ment, or to be

done in a more im#$i'it manner or both Koreans and Ja#anese, as 'om#ared to

Ameri'ans.

Se$-dis'$osure sometimes in%o$%es re%ea$in0 ones %u$nerabi$ities and #re%ious

ai$in0s, 5hi'h ma indu'e the #artners ne0ati%e e%a$uation o the dis'$oser, redu'e

the $e%e$ o attra'tion, and thus de'rease the stabi$it o the re$ationshi#, es#e'ia$$

in the 'ontext o a brie intera'tion and '$ose to 3ero re$ationshi# histor (9a$ther,

);;=". that is,

dis'$osin0 inormation about onese$ too mu'h too soon on$ine ma be'ome a dea$

brea1er. 4his s#e'u$ation is indire't$ su##orted b the indin0s rom the #resent

stud that Koreans and Ja#anese e$t 'onsiderab$ $o5er de0rees o $o%e,

interde#enden'e, and 'ommitment in their on$ine re$ationshi#s than did Ameri'ans.

7uture studies need to identi the im#$i'ations o %arin0 de0rees o ne0ati%e and

#ositi%e se$-dis'$osure and t#es o to#i's on on$ine re$ationshi# 6ua$ities at s#e'ii'

sta0es o re$ationshi# de%e$o#ment (e.0., initiatin0, ex#erimentin0, intensiin0,

inte0ratin0, or bondin0, and 'asua$ or serious".


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It o$$o5s rom the %arin0 de0rees o asso'iation bet5een se$-dis'$osure and

re$ationshi# 6ua$it that so'ia$ #enetration theor and so'ia$ inormation #ro'essin0

theor ma be 'u$tura$$ s#e'ii'. Se$-dis'$osure in terms o breadth, de#th, and

re$ationshi# duration, in 0enera$, a##ears to re$e't the re$ationshi# de%e$o#ment#ro'ess o Ameri'ans more a''urate$ than that o East Asians. Cu$tura$

'on%er0en'e emer0ed on$ or $i1in0, $o%e, 'ommitment, and 'ode 'han0e.

Ho5e%er, a$thou0h both Ja#anese and Koreans are a$$e0ed$ hi0h in 'o$$e'ti%ism and

$o5 in indi%idua$ism, the asso'iations bet5een se$-dis'$osure and re$ationshi#

6ua$it did not sho5 an more simi$arities bet5een Ja#anese and Koreans than

bet5een Koreans (or Ja#anese" and Ameri'ans. Se$-dis'$osure 5as not si0nii'ant$

asso'iated 5ith trust and o$ine net5or1 'on%er0en'e amon0 Ja#anese, 5hereas

se$-dis'$osure 5as $in1ed to 0reater o$ine net5or1 'on%er0en'e or Koreans and

Ameri'ans. Se$-dis'$osure 5as si0nii'ant$ asso'iated 5ith on$ine net5or1

'on%er0en'e or Koreans but not or Ameri'ans and Ja#anese. 4hese indin0s

su00est that in 'u$tures deined b nationa$it and #robab$ $an0ua0e, #eo#$e ma

'onstru't 'u$tura$$ s#e'ii' norms and #atterns o on$ine intera'tions and

re$ationshi#s and 5i$$ 'ontinue to do so as the ro$e o the Internet e%o$%es and

ex#ands.

4he Korean #arti'i#ants in the #resent stud, re0ard$ess o on$ine or o$ine,

#reerred to introdu'e ne5 on$ine buddies to their existin0 so'ia$ net5or1s. 4his

indin0 ma be attributed to the duration and t#e o on$ine re$ationshi#s in 5hi'h

Koreans 5ere in%o$%ed and the reasons or on$ine intera'tion in the irst #$a'e. 4he

a%era0e $en0th o Korean on$ine re$ationshi#s 5as the shortest amon0 the three'u$tures. Man Koreans in the #resent stud identiied their on$ine re$ationshi#s as

non-intimate a'6uaintan'es and 'asua$$ introdu'ed their on$ine a'6uaintan'es to

their so'ia$ net5or1s. It mi0ht be the 'ase that Koreans 'onsider on$ine to be a

re$ationa$ intermediar or a #$a'e to irst 0et introdu'ed to someone to i0ure out

the #ossibi$it o subse6uent o$ine re$ationshi# ormation and de%e$o#ment. In a

mat'hma1in0 sta0e, ne0ati%e se$-dis'$osure is not ex#e'ted or desired, but se$-

#resentation is. O%era$$, re0ard$ess o 'u$ture, it a##ears that the $on0er the

intera'tion $asts, the more se$-dis'$osure is ex#e'ted, u# to a #oint. Sti$$, uture

studies need to 'onsider CMC and 747 simu$taneous$, or the #resent stud sho5ed

that Internet users in on$ine re$ationshi#s tend to #reer to ind a date or riends 747,ha%e more trust and 'omort in 747 intera'tions, and be more $i1e$ to eno and

1ee# 747 #artners, as o##osed to CMC.)

A$thou0h there is no 'onsensus amon0 #rior studies, a e5 studies (e.0., 9o$a1 et a$., 22" indi'ated that o##osite-sex riendshi# 5as the


20/28

most 'ommon orm o on$ine re$ationshi#. In the #resent stud, same-sex riendshi#

5as o%era$$ the most re6uent$ identiied re$ationshi# t#e. @o ob%ious ex#$anation

or the in'onsisten' is a%ai$ab$e or the moment. Ho5e%er, the #ro#ortion o #eo#$e

in%o$%ed in romanti' re$ationshi#s in the #resent studL5hi'h is 'onsistent in a$$

three 'u$turesL5as 'om#arab$e to #rior indin0s ( /er$e0a, 9instead, 9on0, 8 Hunter, );B!". Indi%idua$s ma %ar in the

s#e'ii' needs and #ur#oses the see1 to u$i$$ throu0h se$-dis'$osure in a

#arti'u$ar t#e o on$ine re$ationshi#. Considerin0 indi%idua$ dieren'e %ariab$es and

re$ationshi# t#e ma he$# ex#$ain dieren'es in s#e'ii' 'om#uter-mediated

re$ationshi# beha%iors.


21/28

7uture resear'h urther needs to 'onsider the #ro'ess o re$ationshi# de%e$o#ment

in re$ation to the $e%e$ o se$-dis'$osure o%er a sustained time s#an, 'om#are the

6ua$it o re$ationshi#s ormed on %ersus o the Internet, and i a##$i'ab$e, 'om#are

the dieren'es bet5een re$ationshi# 6ua$it durin0 the on$ine #hase and o$ine

#hase. It is a$so im#ortant to identi to 5hat extent a #arti'u$ar on$ine re$ationshi#,

amon0 mu$ti#$e simu$taneous on0oin0 re$ationshi#s, ae'ts the 6ua$it o otheron$ine and+or o$ine re$ationshi#s, 0i%en the 'on'erns re$ated to simu$taneous$

on0oin0 (i.e., extra-re$ationa$" re$ationshi#s (e.0., inide$it, ea$ous, and de'e#tion"

in both 747 and CMC settin0s. As on$ine re$ationshi#s be'ome more rea$, so do the

$e0a$ and emotiona$ ramii'ations o on$ine re$ationshi# beha%iors. In addition,

inter#ersona$ de'e#tion ma o''ur more oten on$ine than in 747. M'Kenna and

:ar0h (2" obser%ed that ones identit (or identities" ma be'ome rather $uid in

CMC due to a re$ati%e anonmit and a $a'1 o #hsi'a$ #resen'e, and he+she ma

modi his+her identit or 'reate a ne5, desirab$e one under the 'ir'umstan'es and

not rea$i3e its #s'ho$o0i'a$, re$ationa$, and $e0a$ 'onse6uen'es. 4his obser%ation

re6uires sstemati' in%esti0ation in the 'ontext o on$ine re$ationshi# ormation.

A'1no5$ed0ments


22/28

used the Internet to 'ommuni'ate 5ith riends, %ersus ) o Ameri'ans and = o

Ja#anese.

eeren'es

A$tman, I., 8 4a$or, /. ();*". So'ia$


23/28

:ru'1man, A. ();;2". Identit 5or1sho#& Emer0ent so'ia$ and #s'ho$o0i'a$

#henomena in text-based %irtua$ rea$it. n#ub$ished manus'ri#t. A%ai$ab$e b

mai$in0 a se$-addressed en%e$o#e to the author. Her address is 0i%en at

htt#&++555.''.0ate'h.edu+Pasb+#a#ers+o$d-#a#ers.htm$Qaddress

Canar, /. J., 8 Staord, ?. ();;2". e$ationa$ maintenan'e strate0ies and e6uit in

marria0e. Communi'ation Mono0ra#hs, !; (", 2G-2=*.

Canar, /. J., 8 Staord, ?. ();;G". Maintainin0 re$ationshi#s throu0h strate0i' and

routine intera'tion. In /. J. Canar 8 ?. Staord (Eds.", Communi'ation and

e$ationa$ Maintenan'e (##. -22". San /ie0o, CA& A'ademi'


24/28

Ke$$e, H. H. ();*;".


25/28

M'Co5n, J., 7is'her, /.,


26/28

S$ou1a, M. ();;!". 9ar o the 9or$ds& Cbers#a'e and the Hi0h-4e'h Assau$t on

ea$it. @e5 Yor1& :asi' :oo1s.

S#rou$$, ., 8 Kies$er, S. ();;)". Conne'tions& @e5 9as o 9or1in0 in the

@et5or1ed Or0ani3ation. Cambrid0e, MA& MI4


27/28

9a$ther, J. :., Anderson, J. 7., 8


28/28

Ka3ua Hara is a $e'turer at Mei1ai ni%ersit in Ja#an. He re'ei%ed his Masters

de0ree rom the /e#artment o S#ee'h at the ni%ersit o Ha5aii-Manoa in

Hono$u$u.

Address& 7a'u$t o ?an0ua0es and Cu$tures, Mei1ai ni%ersit, B A1emi, raasu,

Chiba 2*;-B!! Ja#an

2! Journa$ o Com#uter-Mediated Communi'ation

computer mediated

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